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Jga18Km7KKE2Pmqb | Western Civilization II | Chapter 1.3 Causation and Interpretation in History
Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Describe causation as it is used in the study of history
- Identify the levels of causation
- Analyze the role of interpretation in producing an accurate historical record
The study of history has always been about more than giving a recounting of past events. It is about remembering our shared past, making human connections that traverse centuries, and helping us know more about ourselves. Once we know how to muster as many facts as we can, we must consider the next step—understanding causation. Causation is the reason behind events; understanding it is the way historians get at the heart of the matter. The powerful and public forces that change society and government are also present when individuals make choices about their lives. What, then, are the forces that shape history, that shift it one way or another, that move people to change on both an individual and a societal level?
All of us see these historical causes through the lens of our own experiences, circumstances, and value systems. Historians, particularly those trained in recent times, work to eliminate as much bias as they can, but we cannot wholly disconnect ourselves from our environment and beliefs. Bias can even sometimes act as a positive force, allowing us to look at the past in new ways. For example, historians in the 1960s and 1970s began to question their discipline’s traditional focus on elites and sought out new sources that highlight the lives of more ordinary people. Driven by a bias in favor of the counterculture and politics of the era, they wanted to know more about what all people experienced.
Levels of Causation
In their quest for the why of an event, historians look at both the immediate and the long-term circumstances of that event. Not all causes are equally significant; we need to rank them in importance. Let us begin with a thought exercise. At this moment in your history, you are reading this textbook. Why? Perhaps you would say, “Because the instructor told me to, and it will be on the test.” Certainly that is a valid reason. But if you think a bit more deeply, you might also say, “I want to do well in my education so I can be successful.” And at an even deeper level, “Society tells me that education is necessary to realize my full potential, find fulfillment, and participate in the community.”
Think of all the other things that caused you to be here at this moment. There are no wrong answers; just explore the levels of causation behind your reading right now. Now rank them in order of importance. Which causes had the most influence on you, and which were more remote? The primary cause is the most immediate. It is the spark. The secondary cause is once removed. The tertiary cause offers a broader context.
To reach a true understanding of why you are reading your text, you need to know yourself well, understand the connection between education and career, and assess how social factors, such as the value employers place on education, influence your decision-making. The more aspects of causation historians can find, the closer they can get to the true nature of the event.
Let’s try another example, this one from history. Why did the United States enter World War II in 1941? In this case, the immediate cause was Japan’s attack on the U.S. naval base at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii, but hostilities had been brewing for some time. The president of the United States, Franklin D. Roosevelt, had been looking for ways to help the British fend off a potential German invasion, and Japan and the United States had long-standing issues over the use of power in the Pacific (Figure 1.12).
Here is one more example. In 1453, Mehmed II laid siege to the city of Constantinople. Why? Mehmed II was the leader of the Ottoman Empire, the sultan. He had been badly treated by his father, and when he ascended the throne, he felt he had something to prove. The Ottomans had tried several times to take Constantinople because it lay at the crossroads of many civilizations. Conquest had long been a reliable mechanism for bringing new people and wealth into the Ottoman Empire and for keeping its economy prosperous. All these factors played a role in the siege undertaken by Mehmed II. Can you order them by importance? This is the point where historians usually disagree, even about events for which most of the facts are clear. A historian who believes powerful leaders are the most influential factor driving events would rank Mehmed’s personal goals first (Figure 1.13). Base your ranking on the strongest arguments you can make.
There can be more than three causes to any event, of course, and because human choice always plays a role, we sometimes cannot separate events on the big stage from the smallest of personal moments in history. The context of the Ottoman Empire’s continuous expansion set the scene in this example, and Mehmed II’s desire to prove his ability was the spark.
Before moving on, try one more example on your own. Pick a moment in history with which you are familiar and follow the same process.
Interpretation in History
Hand in hand with bringing causation to light is discovering what informed the choices people made in the past. What makes people act as they do? For much of history, we found the answer in the actions of elites—tsars, sultans, kings, and queens. The first historians largely concerned themselves with the study of wars and rulers, in accordance with the great man theory of history that credits leaders and heroes with triggering history’s pivotal events. Although these historians gave some attention to historical detail, there was also an equal measure of bravado, exaggeration, and political spin in their work. This seemed reasonable in a world where the king’s choice became everyone’s choice and where sources rarely spoke about anyone other than noble lords and ladies. That this type of history remained the norm for so long was also a function of who was writing it.
In the West, Thomas Carlyle, a nineteenth-century Scottish historian, considered the study of the lives of “big men” enough to understand all of history. Higher education was the privilege of only the rich; it must have seemed quite natural to believe that only the elites could move history. These ideas began to change, however, if slowly. In the early nineteenth century, a new school of thought called Romanticism emerged. The Romantics believed there was greatness in everyday life. Even a small flower was worthy of a poem, and the plight of a lowly squire was as important as the worries of the great lord of the manor, for both were essential actors in the human experience. The advent of Romantic art, poetry, music, and novels paved the way for a broad reexamination of what was worth knowing and studying. Writing a little later, in 1860, the Russian novelist Leo Tolstoy argued that there is more to history than the actions of one person. In his novel War and Peace, he contended that the “general mass of men” who participate in history are the ones who truly cause events.
DUELING VOICES
Great Men, or Everyone?
In an 1840 lecture on heroes, Thomas Carlyle coined the term “Great Men” to describe the kind of history he considered worthy, the study of elite men in positions of power. In his novel War and Peace, the Russian novelist Leo Tolstoy argued that there is far more to history than the actions of one person. In the following excerpts, consider the viewpoint of each writer.
As I take it, Universal History, the history of what man has accomplished in this world, is at bottom the History of the Great Men who have worked here. They were the leaders of men, these great ones; the modellers, patterns, and in a wide sense creators, of whatsoever the general mass of men contrived to do or to attain; all things that we see standing accomplished in the world are properly the outer material result, the practical realization and embodiment, of Thoughts that dwelt in the Great Men sent into the world: the soul of the whole world’s history, it may justly be considered, were the history of these. [. . .]
We cannot look, however imperfectly, upon a great man, without gaining something by him. He is the living light-fountain, which it is good and pleasant to be near. The light which enlightens, which has enlightened the darkness of the world; and this not as a kindled lamp only, but rather as a natural luminary shining by the gift of Heaven; a flowing light-fountain, as I say, of native original insight, of manhood and heroic nobleness;—in whose radiance all souls feel that it is well with them.
—Thomas Carlyle, “Lecture on Heroes”
In historical events (where the actions of men are the subject of observation) the first and most primitive approximation to present itself was the will of the gods and, after that, the will of those who stood in the most prominent position—the heroes of history. But we need only penetrate to the essence of any historic event—which lies in the activity of the general mass of men who take part in it—to be convinced that the will of the historic hero does not control the actions of the mass but is itself continually controlled. It may seem to be a matter of indifference whether we understand the meaning of historical events this way or that; yet there is the same difference between a man who says that the people of the West moved on the East because Napoleon wished it and a man who says that this happened because it had to happen, as there is between those who declared that the earth was stationary and that the planets moved round it and those who admitted that they did not know what upheld the earth, but knew there were laws directing its movement and that of the other planets. There is, and can be, no cause of an historical event except the one cause of all causes. But there are laws directing events, and some of these laws are known to us while we are conscious of others we cannot comprehend. The discovery of these laws is only possible when we have quite abandoned the attempt to find the cause in the will of some one man, just as the discovery of the laws of the motion of the planets was possible only when men abandoned the conception of the fixity of the earth.
—Leo Tolstoy, War and Peace
- Which kind of history do you prefer, the “great man” kind or what we might call the “everyone” kind? Why?
- Whose argument is more convincing, Carlyle’s or Tolstoy’s? Why?
While on one hand historians began to look at people of the lower classes as more integral to the human story, history as a discipline became dominated by the same set of colonial powers that were conquering much of the globe in the nineteenth century. Therefore, two divergent streams of thought were operating simultaneously, and the picture of history both expanded in terms of class and contracted in terms of diversity. One of the early European schools of thought was progressive history, which viewed history as a straight line to a specific destination. Historians with this “progressive” view believed societies were becoming more democratic over time and that the advance of republican governments was inevitable. Their perspective might also be considered a form of teleological history, which proposes that history is moving to a particular end, a culmination of the human experience. Progressive historians believed in the betterment of people and of society, so long as it occurred on a European model. Progress looked only one way: the Western way. Consider what Chinua Achebe (quoted in Chinua Achebe on the Value of Indigenous History) would have said about European democracy and republicanism.
In the twentieth century, particularly after World War I, the idea of inevitable human progress seemed laughable. People grew more willing to question the authority of elites because these leaders were of little help once war began. Historians became more interested in the irrational aspects of the human condition, the psychology behind people’s choices. This is one reason for the rise of contemporary intellectual history, which looks at the ideas that drive people to make certain choices and focuses on philosophical questions and the history of human thought.
The counterculture of the 1960s in the West deepened people’s desire to challenge existing norms, such as the lack of rights for women and for racial minorities. The field of social history, guided by the concept that history is made by all people and not just elites, became much more important during this period (Figure 1.13). In this context, young historians and sociologists began to develop new ideas. In their 1966 book The Social Construction of Reality, for example, sociologists Peter Berger and Thomas Luckmann argued that our belief systems are informed by social constructs, ideas that have been created and accepted by the people in a society, such as the concepts of class distinction and gender. Social constructs influence the ways people think and behave.
To understand history, you must understand the social construction of reality, which is the way people define roles and perceive themselves within a social context. Consider our earlier thought exercise. You believe education is important. Why? Who has said that to you in the past? How did you come to believe it? In other words, what is your social construction of education, and where did it come from?
Social constructs exist everywhere and inform many decisions we make, often on a subconscious level. For example, consider the following questions:
1. What do you buy a five-year-old girl for her birthday? What do you buy for a boy the same age? What influenced your decision?
2. What would you wear to a job interview? What would you wear to a party? Why?
3. Why?
In addition to examining reality as socially constructed, twentieth-century historians made interpretations through the lenses of Marxism, which considers history to be driven by class struggle, women’s history (now usually referred to in the context of gender history), which sees history as driven by power differences between men and women, and postcolonialism, which focuses on the history of places formerly occupied by colonial powers. In the process we call revisionism, each additional lens revised the great man story of history, adding new key players and viewpoints.
Let us look at one more example. How would each school of historical thought approach the story of colonial Latin America between the Spanish conquest that began in 1493 and the independence movements of the 1820s? The progressive historian might explore the growth of democratic legal systems or people’s increased interest in republican forms of government. The intellectual historian might consider the Indigenous literature and philosophy of the period. The social historian would look at what conquered people ate, how they worked, and what they looked for in marriage partners. A Marxist historian would examine unfair labor practices and moments of class conflict like rebellion or riot. The gender historian would focus on the role that social constructs of gender played in the lives of people in the past. And the postcolonialist would highlight why aspects of colonialism, such as racism and poverty, remain influential after independence. All these interpretative elements help us weave a more complete picture of the past.
The variety of interpretations open to historians also helps us put in the final piece, which is the practice of historical empathy, the ability to meet the past on its own terms and without judgment or the imposition of our own modern-day attitudes. To fully embrace the study of the past, the student of history must be able to set aside the assumptions of the modern era. Everyone has a set of biases, generated by the people who influence our lives and the experiences that shape who we become. Historians must spend the time necessary to investigate these biases and understand how they affect their interpretations. It is not the historian’s job to pass judgment on the past, but to present it as clearly as possible and to preserve that clarity for future generations. This may mean reflecting impartially on historical positions, attitudes, or decisions we might find abhorrent as viewed from today’s world. However, the more strands of history we can investigate and bring together, the more accurate the picture will be. And there is still much work to be done. For example, recent and ongoing research into LGBTQ+ studies, Indigenous studies, and the history of the Global South will continue to sharpen our image of the past.
The bottom line is that interpretation plays a central role in the field of history. And changes in our interpretation increase the number of ways we can get a clearer picture of those who lived before us. The danger lies in using only one lens. Yes, historians choose some causes as more important than others, but only after considering all the information available.
the most immediate reason an event occurred
the view that it is enough to study the deeds and impact of important leaders to paint an accurate picture of the past
a school of thought that views history as a straight line to a specific and more democratic destination
the history of ideas, which looks at the philosophies that drive people to make certain choices
a field of history that looks at all classes and categories of people, not just elites
ideas such as class and gender created and accepted by the people in a society that influence the way they think and behave
the process of altering our interpretation of historical events by adding new elements and perspectives
the ability to see the past on its own terms, without judgment or the imposition of our own modern-day attitudes | 3,937 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://louis.pressbooks.pub/westernciv2/chapter/1-3-causation-and-interpretation-in-history/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:16936 | https://louis.pressbooks.pub/westernciv2/chapter/1-3-causation-and-interpretation-in-history/ |
P1FkkBsT--5YruG9 | OER by Discipline Guide: University of Ottawa (Version 1.0 - June 2021) | 6 History
History (HIS)
Canadian History: Pre-Confederation
John Douglas Belshaw (Thompson Rivers University)
2015
Licence: CC BY 4.0
Canadian History: Pre-Confederation is a survey text that introduces undergraduate students to important themes in North American history to 1867. It provides room for Aboriginal and European agendas and narratives, explores the connections between the territory that coalesces into the shape of modern Canada and the larger continent and world in which it operates, and engages with emergent issues in the field. The material is pursued in a largely chronological manner to the early 19th century, at which point social, economic, and political change are dissected.
Formats: Pressbooks WebBook, EPUB, PDF, MOBI, and more
Includes: Exercises, key terms, glossary, section-by-section key points, and instructor videos (under Additional Resources)
Reviews: eCampusOntario Open Library – Open Textbook Library – BCcampus
Suggested for:
HIS 1101 The Making of Canada
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John Douglas Belshaw (Thompson Rivers University)
2016
Licence: CC BY 4.0
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Formats: Pressbooks WebBook, EPUB, PDF, MOBI, and more
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Reviews: BCcampus
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2018
Licence: CC BY-NC-SA 4.0
This book is an open-access collection of primary and secondary sources for Canadian history. It is suitable for use at both the secondary and post-secondary levels. Open History Seminar: Canadian History brings together open resources for learning about Canadian history from the earliest times to the present. Chapters include both historical documents and secondary interpretations on a range of topics. With this book, students have access to digitized copies of original historical documents and high-quality secondary source research materials. They will learn how to critically analyze historical documents, deconstruct historical arguments, and engage with historical scholarship.
Format: Pressbooks WebBook
Includes: Documents and discussion questions
Reviews: At the end of each chapter
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HIS 1101 The Making of Canada
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2019
Licence: CC BY-SA 4.0
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2020
Licence: CC BY 4.0
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2018
Licence: CC BY 4.0
Rethinking the ways global history is envisioned and conceptualized in diverse countries such as China, Japan, Mexico or Spain, this collection considers how global issues are connected with our local and national communities. It examines how the discipline had evolved in various historiographies, from Anglo Saxon to southern European, and its emergence in Asia with the rapid development of the Chinese economy motivation to legitimate the current uniqueness of the history and economy of the nation. It contributes to the revitalization of the field of global history in Chinese historiography, which have been dominated by national narratives and promotes a debate to open new venues in which important features such as scholarly mobility, diversity and internationalization are firmly rooted, putting aside national specificities. Dealing with new approaches on the use of empirical data by framing the proper questions and hypotheses and connecting western and eastern sources, this text opens a new forum of discussion on how global history has penetrated in western and eastern historiographies, moving the pivotal axis of analysis from national perspectives to open new venues of global history (Description from publisher Palgrave Macmillan)
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2016
Licence: CC BY-SA 4.0
World History: Cultures, States, and Societies to 1500 is a peer-reviewed textbook that offers a comprehensive introduction to the history of humankind from prehistory to 1500. It covers such cultures, states, and societies as Ancient Mesopotamia, Ancient Israel, Dynastic Egypt, India’s Classical Age, the Dynasties of China, Archaic Greece, the Roman Empire, Islam, Medieval Africa, the Americas, and the Khanates of Central Asia.
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Formats: Pressbooks WebBooks, EPUB, PDF, and MOBI
Includes: Discussion questions
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HIS 1110 Introduction to Global History
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Last updated: February 2020 (2nd edition)
Licence: CC BY-NC-SA 4.0
Volume 1 covers introductory concepts in western civilization, from the origins of civilization in Mesopotamia c. 8,000 BCE through the early Middle Ages in Europe c. 1,000 CE. Topics include Mesopotamia, Egypt, Persia, Greece, Rome, the Islamic caliphates, and the early European Middle Ages.
Formats: Google doc (can be saved as a PDF)
Includes: Maps and illustrations
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2013
Licence: CC BY-SA 4.0
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Formats: PDF
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2019
Licence: CC BY-SA 4.0
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Reviews: Open Textbook Library – Stanford University Press (under Reviews tab)
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Edited by Joseph L. Locke (University of Houston-Victoria) and Ben Wright (University of Texas at Dallas)
2019
Licence: CC BY-SA 4.0
The American Yawp is a free, online, collaboratively built American history textbook. Over 300 historians joined together to create the book they wanted for their own students—an accessible, synthetic narrative that reflects the best of recent historical scholarship and provides a jumping-off point for discussions in the U.S. history classroom and beyond.
Formats: Online and PDF
Includes: Primary source reader, discussion questions, key terms, and quizzes
Reviews: Open Textbook Library – Stanford University Press (under Reviews tab)
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2015
Licence: CC BY 4.0
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Alam Payind and Melinda McClimans (Ohio State University)
2017
Licence: CC BY-SA 4.0
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Formats: Pressbooks WebBook and PDF
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Erik Ringmar (Ibn Haldun University, Turkey)
2019
Licence: CC BY 4.0
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Inludes: Timelines, short dictionary, and review questions
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Sarah Schneewind (University of California, San Diego)
2020
Licence: CC BY-NC 4.0
This open-access textbook arose out of a course at the University of California, San Diego, called HILD 10: East Asia: The Great Tradition. The course covers what have become two Chinas, Japan, and two Koreas from roughly 1200 BC to about AD 1200. As we say every Fall in HILD 10: “2400 years, three countries, ten weeks, no problem.” The book does not stand alone: the teacher should assign primary and secondary sources, study questions, dates to be memorized, etc. The maps mostly use the same template to enable students to compare them one to the next.
Format: PDF
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HIS 2177 History of East Asia from Antiquity to 1600 | 3,399 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/uottawaoerdiscipline/chapter/history/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:24790 | https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/uottawaoerdiscipline/chapter/history/ |
BHSB6hiXr3YeZEMy | 8.22: Assignment- Create Macro for Car Loan Spreadsheet | 8.22: Assignment- Create Macro for Car Loan Spreadsheet
In this assignment, we will record a macro and run it to modify a spreadsheet of car loan data received on a weekly basis. After recording a macro for the first week, run the macro on a new set of data for week two.
To complete this assignment, download the car loan file here . Follow the directions, then submit your assignment. If you get stuck on a step, review this module and ask your classmates for help in the discussion forum.
- Open the workbook and save the new Module 8 assignment file to the Rowan folder on your desktop as BA132_LastName_CarLoans.xlsx, replacing “LastName” with your own last name. (Example: BA132_Hywater_Memo) It is a good idea to save your work periodically.
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Scenario:
Each week you receive a worksheet filled with car loan data. To make it easier to analyze on a weekly, record a macro and change the worksheet look, calculate the monthly loan payment amount and identify which loans are leases. (Hint: Read through all the instructions first and practice going through the steps before starting the macro recording.)
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Record Macro:
Open the spreadsheet and from the View tab or the Developer tab start a macro recording. Name the macro whatever you would like, add a short-cut key (optional), and write a description for it.
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Once the recording is started walk through these steps, then stop the recording.
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Change the title row to any color, change the font color if needed, and bold the titles.
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Change all the currency columns to a currency format (this includes the PV, Annual Income, Total Payment).
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Change the Interest Rate column to a percentage (%).
- Add in a new column to the right of the Interest Rate column and call it PMT.
- Financial Function: In the new column use the PMT function and calculate the monthly payment amount for the first loan. (Remember the rate needs to be divided by 12 to get the monthly payment and place a minus sign before the PV cell (-B2) if you don’t want the negative red numbers.)
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Autofill the rest of the column with the formula to discover each loan’s monthly payment amount.
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Add filters to column titles and sort the monthly payment amount from the highest to the lowest.
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Use conditional formatting in the ‘Ownership Type’ column to highlight all car leases in red.
- Select the entire table and autofit the columns to be wide enough to fit all the data
- Stop the macro recording.
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Once the recording is started walk through these steps, then stop the recording.
- Select ‘Week 2’ worksheet tab containing a new week of information. (Note: Make a copy of this tab first in case you need to redo the Macro. Remember once a Macro is run there is no going back with ‘Undo Typing’ option.)
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Run the new macro and watch the new information change almost instantly.
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Save your work by selecting Save As and choose Excel Macro-Enabled Workbook.
- Submit the document in your course online.
Contributors and Attributions
CC licensed content, Original
- Assignment: Create Macro for Car Loan Spreadsheet. Authored by : Sherri Pendleton. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution | 718 | common-pile/libretexts_filtered | https://biz.libretexts.org/Courses/Lumen_Learning/Book%3A_Computer_Applications_for_Managers_(Lumen)/08%3A_Microsoft_Excel_Advanced_Skills/8.22%3A_Assignment-_Create_Macro_for_Car_Loan_Spreadsheet | libretexts | libretexts-0000.json.gz:49340 | https://biz.libretexts.org/Courses/Lumen_Learning/Book%3A_Computer_Applications_for_Managers_(Lumen)/08%3A_Microsoft_Excel_Advanced_Skills/8.22%3A_Assignment-_Create_Macro_for_Car_Loan_Spreadsheet |
2oosu6LF-Hu_jqIk | 2.1.2: Diversity and Culture | 2.1.2: Diversity and Culture
Culture
Culture is a set of behaviors, beliefs, values, attitudes, and goals shared by a group of people. Our culture is a powerful part of what makes us who we are and how we live. Groups of people such as families, friends, religious groups, and organizations all share a culture. Rules in a culture can be expressed by spoken and unspoken ways, such as whether direct eye contact or shaking of hands is considered to be appropriate. Many characteristics make up cultures and most people belong to numerous cultures. Race, spiritual/religious beliefs, national origin (the country the person comes from), sexual orientation, and age make up various cultures. People often identify themselves or define who they are based on their cultures.It is important to remember that we often belong to a number of cultures, and one aspect of our culture does not solely define us. It is also important to remember that one culture is not better than another. Health care workers need to try to understand what cultures a patient belongs to and what customs within those cultures the person believes or practices. This helps them to better understand where their patient is coming from and to better take care of them.
Race versus Culture
Race is not the same as culture. Race is a classification of people based on physical attributes, geographic ancestry (where a person came from originally), and inherited characteristics. In the United States, for example, some races are: White American, African American, Native American and Alaska Native, Asian American, and Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander. Some people may identify as being multi–racial, meaning they have more than one race. We often identify ourselves as being a part of a particular race, but this is not the only aspect of who we are. It is important to be careful to not judge people by their race, or what you think their race is. This is called racism. Racism is a belief that one racial group is better than another racial group, or that one member of a race is the same as all other members of that race. Racism results in prejudice against a particular race.
Ethnocentrism, Diversity, & Stereotypes
In working with others, we must be careful of ethnocentrism. Ethnocentrism is thinking that your culture and beliefs are superior to, or better than another person’s. All of our cultures are equally important. No one culture is better than another. The various cultures bring diversity to our world. Diversity means including and respecting different types of cultures. We must also be careful of stereotypes. Stereotypes are when you believe that all people within a group are the same based on what you know about one individual within a group. Stereotypes can be about any characteristic of a person such as their looks, sexual orientation, weight, or behavior. We often learn stereotypes from the media and from our families as we are growing up. For example, until recently it was believed that all women should stay at home to cook, clean, and care for their children. As a result, people may have stereotypes about women, such as, “All women are good cooks”, or “Women should be secretaries and men bosses.” Stereotypes are very harmful to people. They can make us feel misunderstood and not respected. It is important to become aware of the stereotypes you have about others so that you do make a patient feel that they are not respected or valued.
| Statement | Example of |
|---|---|
| 1. “Men should not show their emotions by crying in front of others.” | A. Ethnocentrism |
| 2. “Everyone who comes to the United States should learn to speak English.” | B. Stereotype |
| 3. “I identify myself as a Native American. This is my ______.” | C. Culture |
| 4. “I am Italian. This is my________” | D. Race |
| 5. “The agency I work for hires people of all genders, races, ages, and cultures.” | E. Racism |
| 6. “The agency I work for will only hire Caucasians.” | F. Diversity |
Solution
1). B
2). A
3). D
4). C
5). F
6). E
Feedback :
1. A stereotype is the belief that all members of a group are the same. We often develop stereotypes from our family and the media. Believing that men should not cry is a stereotype.
2. Ethnocentricism is the belief that our own culture is better or superior to other cultures. The statement, “Everyone who comes to the United States should learn to speak English” suggests that living in the United States and speaking English is better than living in other countries or speaking other languages.
3. Race is a classification of people based on physical attributes, geographic ancestry (where a person came from originally), and inherited characteristics. Identifying as Native American is a type of race.
4. Culture is a set of behaviors, beliefs, values, attitudes, and goals shared by a group of people. A person may identify themselves as belonging to many cultures. Identifying as Italian indicates belonging to a specific cultural group.
5. Diversity means including and respecting different types of cultures. An agency who hires people of all genders, races, religions, and cultures demonstrates that they value differences.
6. Racism is a belief that one racial group is better than another racial group, or that one member of a race is the same as all other members of that race. If an agency only hires members of one particular race they are discriminating against others races. Racism results in prejudice against a particular race.
Self-Awareness
Take a moment to think about what makes up your culture. What groups do you consider to be important to you? What roles do you play in your life? Are you a mother, father, daughter, or grandson? Do you have religious or spiritual beliefs that you practice? Do you have traditions and rituals in your family that are important to you? How do you identify yourself? What groups do you belong to? Do you have hobbies, clubs, organizations, or a profession to which you belong to and identify with?
It has helped to shape your beliefs, values, and attitudes. You bring your culture to work with you. It influences how you understand and care for your patients. It is important to engage in self–reflection in order to better understand how you see yourself. The more you understand your own beliefs, the better able you will be to understand and appreciate the beliefs of others and to care for patients if you pursue a career as a Home Health Aide/Personal Care Aide.
This activity will help you gain a better understanding of the different ways you identify yourself. Begin by drawing a large circle in the center of a piece of paper. Then, draw lines from that center circle. Draw smaller circles at the end of each of those lines. In the center circle, write the role, identity, or culture that is most important to you and by which defines who you are. For example, it might be your name, gender, race, ethnic heritage, religion, profession, a role in your life that is crucial to your identity, or any other aspect of your identity that is the center to who you are. In each of the smaller circles, write down all the other roles or cultures to which you belong, or other aspects of your life that help identify who you are. The smaller circles may have words that describe your identity such as mother, daughter, health care aide/personal care aide, student, musician, writer, Irish, African, Catholic, Muslim, etc. The possibilities are endless.
After you complete your circles, take a moment to think about what each of the identities means to you.How do they shape how you view the world? Do you think that others could have stereotypes about any of the aspects of your identity? If so, what would this mean to you? How would you go about challenging those stereotypes to help the other person understand who you really are? Then, think about other people you may know. What do you think would be in their circles? Do you have stereotypes of any of other roles, cultures, and important aspects of other people’s identities?
This activity will help you to understand how diverse your own beliefs, customs, and roles are. It will help you to see how various roles are important in your life and how others may view your own differences. This will help you to become more understanding of the uniqueness of each patient with whom you may work if you choose to pursue a career as a Home Health Aide/Personal Care Aide.
Cultural Awareness & Cultural Competence
Cultural awareness means how aware you are about the values and beliefs of other cultures. It is also means how much you appreciate the various aspects of the different cultures. Becoming culturally aware is a lifelong journey. It is nearly impossible to know all the customs and beliefs of every culture in the world. What is important for health care workers is to strive to learn as much as they can about the variety of cultures in our world. For each patient that they work with, they should ask them to tell them about their cultural beliefs and practices. In this way, they will always be learning about all the different cultures, and working to better understand and care for their patient!
Cultural competence goes along with cultural awareness. Cultural competence means the ability to incorporate cultural awareness into the health care practice. It means understanding and respecting a patient’s cultural beliefs and working with them in a way to demonstrate that you respect and honor these beliefs. For example, if a patient likes to pray before eating meals, and the Home Health Aide/Personal Care Aide provides and supports their prayer prior to their meals, they are practicing in a culturally competent manner. The more aware they become of different cultures, and the more they learn to appreciate differences, the more culturally competent they will become.
Directions: Fill in the blank with the correct term that matches the description
1. This term means providing healthcare in a way that demonstrates you understand, honor, and respect your patient’s cultural beliefs _______________________________.
2. This term means learning about the values, beliefs, and practices cultures that are different than your own ______________________________.
Solution
a. Cultural competence
b. Cultural awareness
Feedback :
1. Cultural competence means the ability to incorporate cultural awareness into the health care practice. Doing so demonstrates understanding, honor, and respect for a patient’s cultural beliefs.
2. Cultural awareness means how aware you are about the values and beliefs of other cultures and how much you appreciate the various aspects of the different | 2,343 | common-pile/libretexts_filtered | https://med.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Allied_Health/Foundations_for_Assisting_in_Home_Care_(McLain_O'Hara-Leslie_and_Wade)/02%3A_Working_Effectively_with_Home_Care_Clients/2.01%3A_Unit_A-_Human_Needs_Culture_and_Diversity/2.1.02%3A_Diversity_and_Culture | libretexts | libretexts-0000.json.gz:11965 | https://med.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Allied_Health/Foundations_for_Assisting_in_Home_Care_(McLain_O'Hara-Leslie_and_Wade)/02%3A_Working_Effectively_with_Home_Care_Clients/2.01%3A_Unit_A-_Human_Needs_Culture_and_Diversity/2.1.02%3A_Diversity_and_Culture |
l86NtprbMe15K7Pr | 8.6.2: Lightning | 8.6.2: Lightning
One of the most spectacular displays of nature is lightning. Lightning is a massive discharge of electricity in response to a charge differential. The actual cause of lightning is not completely understood, though its propagation is quite well established. What we do know is that lightning occurs in clouds that are located above the freezing level and are precipitating.
For lightning to occur, there must be a charge differential within a thunderstorm, or between a thunderstorm and the ground or another cloud. Studies have shown that a charge transfer occurs across thin films of water present on ice crystals and hailstones when they collide. Solids (e.g. ice, hailstones, graupel) are often coated with an extremely thin film of liquid-water a few molecules thick. The molecules are weakly bound to the solid portion beneath even at temperatures below freezing. When an ice crystal and hailstone collide in a cloud, some of the liquid-water molecules from the hailstone move to the ice. During this process there is a net transfer of positive charges from the hailstone to the ice and negative charges from the ice crystal to the hailstone. The heavier hailstones fall to the base of the cloud while the lighter ice crystals are suspended at higher altitudes creating the charge separation with mostly negative charges near the base and positive charges aloft.
The accumulation of negative charges at the base of the cloud repel the negative charges on objects at the Earth's surface. Thus below the thunderstorm the Earth's surface attains a net positive charge. When the difference in charge is great enough lighting is discharged. The whole process takes a mere fraction of a second and appears to occur from the cloud toward the ground. Actually, the discharge takes place in a series of steps. First, a stream of electrons flow toward the ground in a series of discrete steps called a step-leader that creates a branching ionized channel. When the stepped leader comes within 100 meters of the ground a positively charged return stroke surges upward. An ionized channel a few centimeters in diameter connects the Earth to the cloud along which electrons flow and illuminate the channel. After the initial electrical discharge, dart leaders of electrons follow the same conducting paths to the ground. Return strokes again meet the dart leaders and the path is illuminated once again. The entire lightning sequence takes less than two tenths of a second and can emit 100 million volts. The massive discharge rapidly heats the air sending a shockwave through the atmosphere we hear as thunder .
Video : Formation of cloud-to-ground lightning. (Source: Michael Ritter) | 569 | common-pile/libretexts_filtered | https://geo.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Geography_(Physical)/The_Physical_Environment_(Ritter)/08%3A_Weather_Systems/8.06%3A_Severe_Weather/8.6.02%3A_Lightning | libretexts | libretexts-0000.json.gz:33298 | https://geo.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Geography_(Physical)/The_Physical_Environment_(Ritter)/08%3A_Weather_Systems/8.06%3A_Severe_Weather/8.6.02%3A_Lightning |
evVHCUdbN0CsM4Tm | 6: The Number Line | 6: The Number Line
This chapter is from the Support Course for Elementary Statistics by Larry Green from Lake Tahoe Community College.
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- 6.1: Distance between Two Points on a Number Line
- The number line is the main visual base in statistics and we often want to look at two points on the number line and determine the distance between them. This is used to find the base of a rectangle or another figure that lies above the number line. By the end of this section, you will be able to determine the distance between any two points on a number line that comes from a statistics application.
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- 6.2: Plotting Points and Intervals on the Number Line
- The number line is of fundamental importance and is used repeatedly in statistics. It is a tool to visualize all of the possible outcomes of a study and to organize the results of the study. Often a diagram is placed above the number line to provide us with a picture of the results. By the end of this section, you will be able to plot points and intervals on a number line and use these plots to understand the possible outcomes and actual outcomes of studies.
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- 6.3: Represent an Inequality as an Interval on a Number Line
- Inequalities come up frequently in statistics and it is often helpful to plot the inequality on the number line in order to visualize the inequality. This helps both for inequalities that involve real numbers and for inequalities that refer to just integer values. As an extension of this idea, we often want to look at the complement of an inequality, that is all numbers that make the inequality false. In this section we will look at examples that accomplish this task.
Thumbnail: Demonstration the addition on the line number. (CC BY 3.0 unported; Stephan Kulla ). | 413 | common-pile/libretexts_filtered | https://stats.libretexts.org/Courses/Fullerton_College/Math_121%3A__Support_for_Introductory_Probability_and_Statistics/06%3A_The_Number_Line | libretexts | libretexts-0000.json.gz:22110 | https://stats.libretexts.org/Courses/Fullerton_College/Math_121%3A__Support_for_Introductory_Probability_and_Statistics/06%3A_The_Number_Line |
MGj2SfPzebU9btg8 | Public documents, relating to the New-York canals, which are to connect the western and northern lakes, with the Atlantic Ocean; with an introduction. Printed under the direction of the New-York Corresponding Association, for the promotion of internal improvements. | At a meeting of the New-York Corresponding Association for the promotion of Internals Improvements. Resolved, that Charles G. Haines, the Corresponding Secretary of this Society, collect and publish, in a durable form, the Public Documents, relating to the New- York Canals, and that he prepare a suitable Introduction for the same
BE IT REMEMBERED, that on the twentieth day of September, in the forfy-sixth #^**#;* year of the Independence of the United States of America, William A. ^L.S.iSMercein, of the said District, has deposited in this Office, the title of <^^j~{;4jwj;^ a Book, the right whereof he claims as proprietor, in the words following to wit :
In conformity to the Act of the Congress of the United States, entitled, "An Act for the encouragement of Learning, by securing the copies of Maps, Charts, and Books, to the authors and proprietors of such copies, during the time therein mentioned." And also to an Act, entitled " An Act, supplementary to an Act, «;ntitled an Act for the encouragement of Learning, by securing tb*. copies of Maps, Charts, and Books, to the authors and proprietors of such copies, during the times therein mentioned, and extending the benefits thereof to the arts of designing, engraving, and etching, historical and other prints-"
CHESTNUT HILL, MA 021 67
The commencement, progress, and completion of the New-York canals, will hereafter constitute a subject of deep and anxious inquiry. These vast and magnificent undertakings will be contemplated by future generations, among those monuments of public policy, that mark the genius of an age, and distinguish the spirit, enterprise, and capacity of a powerful people. Nothing concerning them should be left to conjecture. When the facilities to perpetuate the memory of all important details, are so numerous as they are at present, neglect would deserve reproach.
It is a lasting censure on the age of Louis XIV, illustrious as it was for great writers, and when men of letters and genius condescended to give the intrigues of his courtezans, and to describe the manners and munificence of his court, that the most authentic history of the canal of Languedoc, which unites the two seas, was written in 1800, and that even this work is destitute of many important details connected with its subject. As to the canals of China, intersecting each other, over the face of that immense empire, and opening communications between the greatest cities in the world, nothing is known of them which can essentially facilitate the enterprise of other nations in similar works; and we have no public documents that inform us of the beginning, advancement, and completion of the canals of Russia, uniting the Caspian and the Baltic, and other waters of magnitude, although the story of minor and unimportant events, in the civil history of the north, has reached us in a circumstantial form. As
IV INTRODUCTION.
to the histories of ancient improvements, for the extension of commerce, and the encouragement of agriculture, manufactures and the arts, they are lost in the oblivion of a thousand ages, while the solemnities of a feast, and the consecration of an idol, are embellished by the taste of the historian, emblazoned in the orations of the statesman, or breathed in the glovv^ing numbers of epic song.
Public documents, like those now submitted in their present form, are the best sources of history. They come forth under the sanction of government. Their basis is facts. The principles and details which they exhibit are settled with caution, scrutiny, and with every advantage which pertains to investigation. Although the papers here published in a comprehensive and durable shape, will be followed by some others of a similar nature before the New-York canals are entirely completed; yet the elements of these works, the causes and reasons which induced their Undertaking, and the poHcy upon which they rest, are here exhibited. The future reports of the commissioners can be added to the present volume. They will only illustrate what has already been laid down. The collection of facts now embodied, will afford light and data to other states and other countries:— they are facts too, which would ere long be scattered and lost, or only be preserved in the departments of state, and be procured with difficulty by the statesman, the political economist, the philosopher, and the historian.
But we are influenced by another consideration. When a single state in the American confederacy, undertakes and is successfully accomphshing the grandest works of the kind that ever appeared in the policy of nations ; when a single member of
the union possesses resources and physical energies, sufficient to unite the Atlantic ocean, and the lakes of the north and the west, by more than 400 miles of canal navigation,every thing connected with imp«'Ovements'of such magnitude becomes interesting. Admiration is created, not only on our own, but on the other continent. During the last two years, repeated applications from different sections of the United States, as well as orders from Europe, have been made to the chief magistrate of New- York, and to other official characters, for every document concerning our canals, and oftentimes without success. These requests will continue to be made by distinguished individuals, scattered from London to Madrid, and from Madrid to Paris, Vienna, and St. Petersburgh. The means of rendering them effectual will now be furnished.
We shall adduce another reason for the present publication. We wish to encourage aud sustain, as far as possible, a spirit for internal improvements vitally essential to the growth, power, and happiness of the American nation. We consider the great western canal but a portion of that grand chain of inland navigation, that is one day to r^der the United States an island, and present a line of towns^ villages, and marts of trade and exchange, from NewYork to New-Orleans, from New-Orleans to Philadelphia ; from the mouth of the Hudson to those of the Mississippi and the Delaware. The manifest blessings of this undertaking, will never be fully realized, until the waters of the great lakes descend to the east and to the west through the Hudson and Mississippi: until these two rivers become the arms of that vast body of water included in the basins of our inland seas. That spirit of enterprise, and that bold
forecast which struck out the plan of uniting lake Erie with the Atlantic ocean, and that firmness of political conduct, that overawed weak minds, and has carried forward the work to the present stage of its execution, must be found beyond the Alleghany mountains, before we shall see the great undertaking consummated in all its consequences. How long will our western brethren slumber ! Their moral and physical strength is sufficient to annihilate obstacles of of every description. There are statesmen and financiers— there are civil engineers and labourers — there is nothing wanting but resolution and perseverance.
It is unnecessary, in this introduction, to dwell with any minuteness on those facts w^hich appear in the reports that follow. Practical men will find them a fertile source of the most useful information. The whole length of canal-line, when lake Erie and lake Champlain are united to the Hudson, will be 414 miles, the Erie canal making 353, and the Northern canal 61 miles. The expenses of both are estimated at $5,371,814— the sum of $4,57 1,8 13, being appropriated to the Western, and $800,000 to the Northern canal. Their width at the surface is 40 feet, and at the bottom, 28 feet. The length of a lock is 90 feet, and the width 14 feet. Boats of 100 tons burthen will be able to navigate on their waters.
The advantages to be derived from the Western and Northern canals, by the State of New-York, and by the nation at large will here command our attention. Our view cannot be perfect. In estimating the benefits of those immense public works, that will change the internal relations of a great country, and create a new era in the history of her trade, agriculture and manufactures, much must be left for time and experience to reveal : but even their partial
the execution of what remains to be done.
Before we proceed further, we shall look at some of the remote consequences of the Western canal. The internal communications and the inland trade^ which it will promote, naturally press upon our reflection. Let us admit the work to be completed, and then look at the waters, and rivers which could be connected with it, from the mouth of the Hudson to the mouth of the Mississippi. By the Northern canal, which will form a junction with the Western canal at the mouth of the Mohawk, we acquire a communication with lake Champlain and its tributary streams. Passing on further to the west, on the right or northern side of the canal-line, we find lake Oneida and the Oswego river, through which there can be a direct and easy connexion with lake Ontario. There is already a lateral canal to Onondaga lake. Commencing at the banks of the Hudson, and passing along the left or southerly side of the canal-line, we find the Skeneatalas, Owasco, Cayuga, Seneca, and Canandaigua lakes, lying in a direction from north to south, forming nearly right angles with the canal-line, and in fact serving for so many lateral canals themselves. There is already a steam-boat niavigation on the Cayuga lake, a project for a canal between Canandaigua and the canal-line, and by means of the Seneca, the canal will be united with the Susquehannah and the Delaware rivers, and of course to the Delaware and Chesapeake bays. By the Genesee river, an internal navigation of 40 miles will be secured, and several advantages may be derived by a junction with the Tonnawanta creek.
great valley of the Mississippi. The first point of communication with those western waters, that pour into the Mississippi river, is at the sources of the Alleghany, which unites with the Monongahela at Pittsburgh, and forms the Ohio. About sixteen miles of canal would join the Western canal and French creek, a branch of the Alleghany ; and there could be another communication through Chetough lake. By these improvements, we might have a direct connexion between New- York and Pittsburgh, the grand depot of the western states.
Extending our views beyond the head waters of the Ohio, at Pittsburgh, other means and sources of connexion with the Western canal present themselves The first junction might be between the Cayahoga that runs into lake Erie, and the Muskingum, which passes into the Ohio, about 170 miles below Pittsburgh. Six miles of canal would create their union. Further west, the Sandusky and Sciota rivers could be joined. They have their head waters in the same marsh or swamp ; the former discharging itself into lake Erie, the latter into the Ohio river, below the mouth of the Muskingum. Following the lake, shore, we soon find that another channel of internal trade might be opened, by means of the Miami which swells the waters of the Ohio, and the Miami of lake Erie; they have their rise on the same level. The sources of the Maume of lake Erie, and the head waters of the Wabasb, a noble stream, would intermingle with very little labour. Between lake Erie and lake Michigan, a navigation would be easy and practicable, by uniting the Huron or Raisin of lake Erie, with streams that run into the former lake. The St. Joseph's and the Raisin are contiguous in their head waters. Pursuing our course to the southerly
end, or head of lake Michigan, we find new facilities to internal trade, opening upon our view. There are four ways of connecting this lake, and of course, the Western canal, with the Illinois river, which pours its grand current into the bosom of the Mississippi, a few miles above the mouth of the Missouri? near the scite of St. Louis. First, it could be effected by joining a branch of the Chicago river, which empties into lake Michigan, and a branch of the river Plein, running in a direction from the northwest, which approaches within ten and a half miles of the lake, and then turning to the south-west, blends its waters with the Theakiki, 50 miles from the Illinois. These waters approximate within two miles of each other, and when swelled by heavy falls of rain, actually unite, so that boats of eight and ten tons burden, pass and repass from the lakes to the Mississippi, through this natural route. Secondly, it could be effected by opening a channel from a point on lake Michigan, south of the Chicago, to enter the plain below lake Du Page. Thirdly, by uniting lake Michigan with the Theakiki, above its junction with the Plein. And lastly, by joining the Theakiki and the St. Joseph of the lake, by which the French enjoyed a partial navigation, when the Canadas were an appendage to their empire. These several facilities have been recently pointed out, in a very clear and interesting report to the secretary of war. After recommending, in convincing terms, that the national government immediately unite lake Michigan and Illinois, by some of the above routes, it concludes thus : " To conclude, the route by the Chicago, as followed by the French, since the discovery of the Illinois, presents, at one season of the year, an uninterrupted water communication in boats
of six to eight to ten tons, between the Mississippi and the Michigan lake, at another season, a portage of two miles ; at another, a portage of seven miles from the head of the Plein to the arm of the lake ; at another, a portage of fifty miles, from the mouth of the Plein to the lake, over which, there is a wellbeaten waggon road, and boats and their loads are drawn by oxen and vehicles kept for that purpose, by the French settlers at Chicago."* Thus we perceive, that after the great Western canal is completed, the labour that would not cost New-York the effort of a single month, would open a driect, safe, and cheap communication between our commercial emporium and New-Orleans. We should pursue the waters of the Hudson, the line of the canal, the waters of lake Erie to the mouth of the Raisin on the Huron, and from thence into lake Michigan by the St. Joseph, or some other stream to the Chicago., and through the Plein to the Illinois and the Mississippi.
But we have neglected to mention one grand work,~ a work worthy of the patriotic, enterprising and enlightened state, which will, we trust, ere long commence it ; and one, which will cover its projectors and patrons, with that fame and honour that fall to the lot of great and liberal minds, when toiling in splendid enterprises for the happiness of commonwealths and nations. We refer to the Ohio canal, which is to connect lake Erie with the Ohio river. An allusion to it was omitted in the proper geographical place, because we cherish a wish to dwell on it with details that would have broken the rapid view in which we indulged. The Ohio canal will only
stand second to our own. It will in fact be the second grand Western canal, and must cause the lakes and the Atlantic to mingle their waters in a southern latitude. On the 20th of January, 1820, his excellency Governor Brown, laid before the general assembly of the State of Ohio, a clear, luminous, and convincing view of this stupendous work — an extension of the Erie canal into the very heart of the western world. Where it is to commence and terminate, is not yet definitely settled. It will be perceived by the message referred to, that several very eligible routes offer themselves, and that no country can be more favourable for artificial navigation than the rich and beautiful region between lake Erie and the Ohio. Its surface is so level on the dividing line of the waters which pass into the lake on one hand, and the river on the other, that the inclination seems almost insufiHcie'nt to decide their course. In contemplation of this canal, the ground has been examined, and its practicability fully ascertained and established. Its length will be 200 miles, and its expense is estimated at ;g2,400,000. The following calculation has been made as to the lockage : from lake Erie to the summit-level, is 318 feet; from the summit-level to the Ohio, 433 feet^ making in the whole, 7.51 feet *
This magnificent undertaking, which is to carry a canal across the whole State of Ohio, is suitable to the character of this powerful and growing member of the confederacy. She is destined to sustain an elevated rank in the union. The fertility of her soil, the enterprise and industry of her people, the healthy temperature of her climate, the great waters that wash her boundaries, and the numerous streams
which traverse her interior, and the intelligence and talents which she combines, united to an energetic republican spirit, mark her out as a state capable of supporting a course of civil policy, equally distin» g'uished for its boldness, wisdom, and success. A canal of 200 miles in length, may, at first sight,appear of a magnitude incompatible with a state so young ; but a community already consisting of six hundred thotiT sand people, and which, in a few years, will exhibit over a million, of a cast of mind and of a physical vigour, capable of founding, rearing, and defending an empire, will not be easily baffled in a design calculated to produce vast wealth and power, and give to agriculture, manufactures, and commerce, a sudden spring, and a lasting prosperity.
The State of Ohio has resources adequate to open this canal. Suppose that all other fiscal resorts fail^ and that she follows the example of New-York, and pledges her faith and credit for loans : two considerations remove any thing appalling in this expedif.nt. The money would be expended among her own citizens, to reward their labour and enterprise, create a home market for no inconsiderable portion of her domestic produce; correct the vicious character of her circulating medium, and retain in the state, what might be borrowed for its service. The only money that would necessarily travel out, would be the interest, provided creditors were sought in distant sections of the nation. In the second place, it would redeem itself in a few years, by the tolls from the immense trade which must pass through it, saying nothing of the millions that would be saved by a reduction in the price of transportation. A reference to the pecuniary advantages of our own canal, which we shall soon adduce, will cast some light on this
point. Will the State of Ohio, shrink from this grand plan so ably brought forward by a chief magistrate, competent to lead the wny in its vigorous and successful execution? Let her remember what NewYork has already accomplished, and the obstacles that are rapidly falling before her. Let her recollect the early difficulties that frowned upon her labours, and the strong and invincible arm which swept them aside, and then fix her eyes upon her own resources. We shall conclude this subject in the words of Governor Brown. "It would too far transcend the limits of the inquiry addressed to me, by the house of representatives, to attempt an exposition of instances in which the prosperity of the state would be advanced, by persevering, with a steady eye, to this grand branch of political economy. I cannot expect that they would fail to be sufficiently perceived and admitted ; nor can I presume it necessary to appeal to your feelings of duty and patriotism, by presenting in alluring colours the prospect of a rapid increase, of the grandeur and prosperity of the State of Ohio, that would be derived from the adoption and pursuit of a policy, for which such grand resources seem to be placed within your reach."*
Let the statesmen of any nation on the globe, behold this picture. No matter whether he has contemplated the capital and enterprise of England, the patient industry of Holland, the genius and intrinsic strength of France, or the extended face of the Russian empire ; he must admit that the beneficent hand of the Creator has never spread out a country with grander characteristics, or with greater facili-
ties to trade and inland exchange, than the one whose destinies are embraced in the range of views, in which we have indulged — a country capable of sustaining a population of a hundred millions.
The future advantages of the New-York canals will now fall under consideration. We will commence by turning our attention to the Western canal, and first enumerate its probable benefits to the State of New-York; secondly, its commercial advantages to the nation ; and thirdly, its importance to the future security of the American union.
The advantages to be derived from the Western canal to the State of New-York, may be considered in a twofold view. First, we will attempt their enumeration upon the supposition that no canals are to be made, to extend the benefits of the Western canal, and to be connected with it, beyond the boundaries of our own state ; and secondly we will make some remarks in reference to its connection with the Ohio canal, and the canal which might be opened between lake Michigan and the Mississippi through the Illinois.
Debt and credit constitute the first and most ordinary standard by which all great experiments are tested. They are the most simple and the most tangible. We will, therefore, as a primary step, make an estimate of the revenue to be annnully received into our state treasury from the Erie canal. Some years ago it was calculated that 1 ,000,000 of tons were annually transported between New- York and Albany, including the passage each way. Upon a reference to the Custom-house books of the New- York district, it appears that 2000 vessels are employed in the North River trade. Say each vessel carries forty-five tons as an average ratio, and we then have a transportation of 90,000 tons at every passage which they per-
form. If a vessel, as a general rule, makes a passage to and from New-York in fourteen days, for seven months in the year, we should find an annual transportation of 1,260,000 tons between these two cities. Admit the Erie canal to be finished, and this trade between New-York and Albany, to be between NewYork and Buffalo; what would be the annual revenue derived from the State by the Erie canal ? Its length is to be 353 miles ; the transportation, according to the data of the canal commissioners, is to be $S 53 per ton; the toll $5, and the actual expenses of conveyance $3 53. The toll then, on 1,260,000 tons would give an annual revenue of $6,300,000, nearly $2,000,000 more than the whole expenses of the canal. But we will renounce this estimate as far too high. We indeed know that many of the 2000 vessels taken into our estimate, do not navigate the whole distance between New- York and Albany, they navigate between New-York and intermediate points. Letiis relinquish 260,000 tons, and say that 1,000,000 pass between New-York and Albany, and suppose this to pass between New- York and Buffalo ; a toll of $5 per ton, would give us an annual revenue of $5,000,000. But rejecting this as extravagant, and taking half the number of tons, then we derive a re-^ venue of $2,500,000 annually. Deducting all contingent expenses, and all the disbursements for repairs, and there would be a yearly income of $2,000,000. We will assume another data, to which we think n© mind, however timid, can refuse assent. Let us admit the number of tons freighted between New-York and Albany to be 450,000 tons. It was this aggregate ten or fifteen years ago. Extending this trade between New-York and Buffalo, and the state revenue fi-omlhe Western canal would be $2,250,000 annual-
ly ; more than three times as much as it takes to sustain the whole civil lists of the twenty-one united states. Half the trade that passed through the Hudson mixny years since would give p, 125,000 annually? and thus the canal would pay for itself in less than five years, after deducting all incidental expenses for repairs and other charges. But when the destinies of the western country are duly considered, and the internal fertility and riches of our own state are duly appreciated, it is no visionary calculation to say that 1,000,000 of tons will pass through the Western canal, in the course of a few years. We must consider the export as well as the import trade. The exports will always exceed the imports, since the produce of the country beyond Albany, will consist of heavy articles. The salt and gypsum, however, with which we shall in a great measure supply the valley of the Mississippi, above the falls of Louisville, will prove a considerable qualification to this position. Let us say that 700,000 tons at a future day will pass from Buffalo to Albany, and 300,000 from Albany to Buffalo ; leaving out of view the great quantities of produce and merchandise that will be landed along the banks of the canal, and pass off on the great roads or lateral canals connected with it in the state of NewYork, and then we have the transportation of 1,000,000 of tons, and a revenue of g; 1,000,000 annually. And it will be clearly demonstrated, as we trust and hope, before this article closes, that the city of NewYork must command the trade of all that vast portion of country that lies along the borders of, lakes Erie, Michigan, Huron, Superior, and the trade of the valley of the Mississippi as far south as the falls of the Ohio.
million of tons be annually transported in the Western canal, each way, but a portion of the distance, 180 miles, at a cent per ton per mile, which would fall below the rate of toll fixed by the canal commissioners ; here would be a state revenue of $ 1,800,000. Deducting $300,000 for repairs, agents, overseers and other contingencies, and $1,500,000 would remain. In assuming these data, a respect is cherished for the incredulity of popular opinion. We are aware that many will denounce them as fictitious and fanciful ; but there are many existing circumstances, which even with the most skeptical will justify our estimates. The great difficulty is, we cannot fully appreciate the extent and value of that transportation which must take place between the Atlantic seaboard, through the Hudson and the Western canal, and the wide ranges of western population ; but we must recollect, that in 1818, not less than $ 1 8,2.50,000 worth of merchandise was transported in waggons from Philadelphia to Pittsburgh; and that the expense of conveyance was $750,000. During the years 1817, 1818, and 1819, the expenses of transportation to Pittsburgh, amounted to $1,560,000 each year ; making $4,680,000 for the transportation of merchandise, distributed from a single depot in the western country in three years. This was land transportation, and therefore very expensive ; yet when we consider, that in twenty years the population of the western country will be nearly threefold, and that we do not here take into consideration the produce sent to the seaboard from the western interior, which is as ten to one in weight, our calculation of 1,000,000 of tons passing annually through the Western canal loses its aspect of fiction and romance. We must remember, that when our canals are com-
pleted, land transportation to the western regions, will almost totally cease, and then our artificial channel of commerce will be the grand thoroughfare. A few simple facts will fully corroborate this assertion.
Pittsburgh is the first great depot for the western country, as we pass from the northern and middle states, west. We have seen, that during three years, the transportation of merchandise to this place, amounted to nearly ^5,000, 000. The former rate of transportation across the mountains, was $120, but from improvement in the roads and other causes, it may be set down at the present time, at $70 per ton. By way of the Western canal, we may consider the average expense of transportation from New- York to Pittsburgh, by the village of Erie, and the head waters of the Ohio, at $35 per ton. With a good road from lake Erie to Pittsburgh, it would be reduced to ^28 ; by the first method of conveyance, making a saving of ^245,000 in ten thousand tons, and by the latter, $336,000 in the same quantity. The effect of such a disparity in the course of trade, requires no illustration : New-York would take the place of Philadelphia and Baltimore as a source of supply.
We will now take several local points, where trade and exchange will centre in the western country, and show the great revolution which the Western canal will create in the rate of transportation.
There is a portion of the state of Pennsylvania west of the Alleghany mountains, and north of Pittsburgh, comprising about 8000 square miles, which now receives its supplies of merchandise, from Philadelphia and Baltimore, through Pittsburgh. The Western canal would create a difference of at least $62 per ton, in goods transported to this section of country.
There is another tract of country in the north-east part of the state of Ohio, including about 8000 square miles. The average rate of transportation may be estimated at ^90 per ton to this region, at present. By waj of the western canal it will be $20, making a difference of ^70 in each ton.
Taking a country comprising about 8000 square miles, extending within 40 miles of the Ohio river, its average expenses of conveyance may be put at $93 per ton. Considering Sandusky as the place of depot for this section of territory, and including the charges of land carriage from Sandusky to the various places of consumption, and the canal would produce a saving of at least $i2 on a ton ; and even taking the country along the shores of the Ohio, or contiguous to it, and taking into view a land transportation from lake Erie to any position within the limits of this section, and the saving would not materially differ from ^30 per ton.
The north-east part of the state of Ohio, embraces about 16,000 square miles. This region will soon contain a dense population. Conveyance of merchandise to the central parts of this section, by way of Pittsburgh, may be calculated at ^1 14 per ton. On the completion of the Western canal, Sandusky may be rendered the place of mercantile deposit, and the rate of transportation be lowered to ^24 creating a difference of ^90 per ton. These calculations made on the different places here enumerated, will apply in a greater or less degree, to those parts of Kentucky and Virginia, whose population resort to the Ohio river, as a medium of conveyance.
Passing into the state of Illinois, we shall find the results of the Western canal still more palpable and surprising. If Fort Harrison be considered a depot.
we may estimate the rate of transportation for this section of country, at gl30 per ton, by way of the Ohio river, from Philadelphia, or by the same route from New-Orleans. On the completion of the canal, and the construction of a road from the southern extremity of lake Michigan^ a dilFerence of $50 or $60 per ton will be effected in the expenses of convey, ance. But as a considerable part of the state of Indiana lies nearer the lakes than the section that would be supplied from fort Harrison, the average difference would be still greater.*
The fertile state of Illinois will be. still more directly affected in her trade and supplies by the Western canal, than any other region of country already mentioned; and the commercial relations which must exist between IN ew-York and St. Louis, will be hereafter alluded to.
Under these considerations, it seems difficult to diminish the magnitude which we have attached to the trade that must pass through the Western canal— the revenue which we have supposed it will produce, — or the accuracy of our calculations, as to the changes that will be wrought in the sources of mercantile supply and exchange to Ohio, part of Kentucky, Indiana, Illinois, Missouri, and the whole territory around the lakes. In addition to the merchandise that must be conveyed into the western states, our salt, gypsum, and hydraulic cement, will command an extensive sale. These articles are heavy, and will make an important addition to our revenue. But we have only here spoken of the trade from east to west. Through what channels are the agricultural products, and raw materials for manufactures, of
these wide-spread oad fertile dominions to be transported ? They must find their way to the ocean, after domestic consumption is supphed. But three outlets present themselves, — the St. Lawrence,the Mississippi and the Hudson. The St. Lawrence will not he able to maintain anything like a competition with the Hudson and the Mississippi: this export trade must therefore be divided between New-Orleans and NewYork, The states of the west will necessarily seek that trade which is founded on reciprocity; and if New-York is the importing emporium, she will naturally prove the mart that must command the exports. The western traders and agriculturists will not be inclined to transport their wheat, flour, corn, butter, cheese, beef, pork, pot and pearl ashes, hemp, flax and wool, to New-Orleans, and look to New-York for their merchandise. Besides, New-York with the Hudson and Western canal, with her superior capi= tal, her healthy climate, her extensive shipping inte= rest, and her constant intercourse and correspondence with the whole commercial world, will ever offer a superior market to any other place on the American continent. Have we not a right then, to infer, that a trade beyond the grasp of present calculation, wdll pass through the grand Western canal, and afford a revenue to the state of New- York that must prove an inexhaustible source of wealth and power .^^ Is iae transit duty on 1,000,000 of tons a wild and chimerical estimate ? Let those who an. swer in the affirmative, recall the days to their memory, when the Western canal itself was denounced as the temporary auxiliary of ambition, as the captivating vision of romance and folly.
tion, but of still more importance than the revenue which has been pointed out — we mean the saving of expense in transportation. It is laid down by a judicious writer on inland navigation,* that one horse by means of a canal, will perform the labour of thirty horses by land, and that one man, by this method of conveyance, can do more work than three men and eighteen horses, in transporting by land. On the turnpike roads, four and sometimes five horses are requisite to transport three tons ; on the Western canal, one horse can draw 25 tons, and thus perform the work of 40 horses. New- York will ever be one of the first agricultural states. Independent of her common agricultural resources, her salt, gypsum, lime-cernent, and iron, will create a great and expensive transportation. The price for conveying a ton from Albany to Buffalo, will now average from ^85 to 100. The canal commissioners in their early reports, allowed ^100. Ninety dollars per ton, would be a fair general estimate. By the canal, a ton can be transported from Albany to Buffalo, for $8 53, making a clear gain of ;^ 8 1 47 on each ton. Taking a point on any part of the canal-line, and this proportion will bear. If instead of transporting produce and merchandise, the whole distance between Albany and Buffalo, they are transported but half the distance, the gain is over ^40 per ton. We have recently examined an interesting and convincing report on the subject of a communication, between Canandaigua lake and the canal-line, by which the difference between land and water carriage is powerfully elucidated. This report presents the calculation, that a ton could be carried the whole length of the
lateral canal for sixty cents, whereas, by land, it costs %2 60. The lateral canal itself will cost ^60,000. It is expected, that 18,000 tons will be conveyed through it annually, and the annual saving in the cost of transportation will amount to more than $30,000, — a strong and striking fact to illustrate the advantages of our larger works. If we should carry on the Western and Northern canals, an aggregate quantity equal to 300,000 tons from Albany to Buffalo, the yearly difference in the expenses of land and water conveyance, would be g24,44 1,000; on 500,000 tons, it would be $40,735,000; on one million of tons, it would be ^81,470,000. On the transportation of one hundred thousand tons alone, between Albany and Buffalo, it would be ^8,100,000. Should we take the calculation of the canal commissioners, and say that ^91 47 will be saved on each ton carried the whole way between Albany and Buffalo, then the saving annually, allowing a million of tons to be transported, would be $95,470,000. The advantages here adduced, would affect the country west of Buffalo, and at a distance from the lake shore, still more materially, because they are compelled to pass over the whole distance of the Western canal by land, at the present moment, and pay more for land freightage. Thus do internal improvements, like our own canals, not only prevent great delays and uncertainties in the carrying of produce and merchandise, but convert a great capital, employed inland transportation, to other productive purposes. The labour of men and horses, the money invested in waggons and horses, the sums paid for the subsistence of men and horses, the charges incurred in repairing vehicles of conveyance, and other necessary objects, are transferred to other ends, and go to increase the productive industry of the whole community.
There are two other views that occur here. That the Ohio canal, which is to connect lake Erie with the Ohio river will be ere long commenced and completed, cannot be doubted when we consider the resources that can be applied to the undertaking. Admit this work to be finished, what results will it produce to the state of New-York ? It will produce a diversion of an immense trade from New-Orleans to the mouth of the Hudson. No reflecting writer, and liberal minded statesman, can wish to realize the gratification of his local partialities, to the detriment of any section of our common country. Our union is safety, peace, arid gloryl Whatever views of state aggrandizement maybe cherished, let us adopt the words of the ancient civilian, de sacris autem hac sit una sententia^ ut conserventur. Yet, where bold and majestic discriminations have been drawn by the hand of nature, and where it is from the force of physical as well as moral necessity, that mighty changes should be wrought, by the application of enterprise, foresight, and capital, no charge of impropriety can be incurred, by dwelling on their tendency, or anticipating their effects. Not only would the Ohio canal give us the trade of the state of Ohio, but half the products of the rich and fertile state of Kentucky would be sent to market through the Hudson, and supplies of merchandise be obtained in return.
The importance of such a commerce can be in some degree appreciated, when we remember the tobacco, the flour, the hemp, and other articles of export from the latter state. In 1818 it was supposed that the single article of tobacco amounted to 25,000 hogsheads; and in 1819, it was calculated that between 40,000 and 50,000 tons of produce passed the falls of Louisville for New-Orleans. Had the Ohio
and New-York canals been completed, and the interest of the exporters been consulted, the whole o^ this produce would have passed to the city of NewYork with a saving to the owners of between $300,000, or ^400,000. But as this position may be rejected as fallacious, we will adduce the following calculations, which have been once adopted by the public journals and gazettes of the west, to contrast the frequent results of conveyance to New-York and to New-Orleans.
Here is a difference of seven dollars per ton, besides the loss of twenty -five days, and the sacrifice of the interest on the capital invested in the transportation, in the shape of produce, which may be rated at what it ultimately gives the owner on its final sale. The above result in favour of New-York, rests upon these reasons: corn, flour, pork, tobacco, and seve» ral other products, of the western country, above the
falls at Louisville, which now reach New-Orleans,pay as much for transportation as they are intrinsically worth when embarked upon the Ohio, for the place of destination. The capital of New-Orleans is disproportionate to the quantity of produce landed there. The consumption of the place is trifling, and the tonnage will not compare with that of New-York, which in this respect, stands alone second to London, among the commercial cities of the globe. The markets of New-Orleans are fluctuating, and the humidity of the place, often proves severally detrimental to the produce which is stored. From the diseases of the climate, capitalists who are able to transact business in large commercial places, are not inclined to establish themselves in this city. Hence many of the most enterprising merchants go there to create fortunes, and have not adequate means to be punctual and maintain that credit which is found in old mercantile cities. When a cargo descends the western rivers to New-Orleans, it is either sold, stored, or freighted. If vended, the character and profits of the sale depend on the state of the market, whose demands are limited and uncertain, when compared with those of New- York, from the disparity in capital, exports, consumption, and the opportunities of knowing the state of foreign markets. If stored, we have noticed the exposure to which it is liable. Its being freighted depends on the number of vessels in port, which is often incompetent to the requisitions of the exporter. Cargoes are frequently exported coastwise from New-Orleans to some part on our eastern seaboard, and then re-exported to foreign countries, after the delays, hazards, and expenses of a coastwise voyage, the expenses and delay of unloading and re-loading, and the charges of storage. It is
scarcely here necessary to contrast the harbours of New- York, and her southern rival. The reasons now adduced, would be submitted with more delicacy had they not been sanctioned by one of the most distinguished statesman of the western states. Should the produce which now passes the falls of the Ohio, ever find a market in New- York, consequences of great magnitude must be realized by our own state, as well as those interested in the branch of trade which we would secure. In 100,000 tons the difference in transportation cret^ted by the Western and * Ohio canals, at seven dollars per ton, would be $700,000. If 200,000 tons should be diverted from the falls of the Ohio to the river Hudson, g; 1,400,000 would be saved by the agriculturists and planters of Kentucky and Ohio. We would qualify our remarks on this part of the subject by expressing a conviction that New-Orleans is destined to be one of the greatest commercial cities of this or any other coun= try. She commands a greatest interior — she is the natural key to the richest and most extensive inland region of any mercantile capital in the world : and yet we apprehend, that she cannot sustain a parallel with New- York when physical and moral advantages are candidly weighed and contrasted.
The contemplated canal between lake Michigan and the head waters of the Illinois river, would create another powerful current of trade towards the state of New-York, which now passes down the Mississippi. All the remarks relating to the different advantages of New-York, and New-Orleans, will apply as well to the territory on the borders of the Missouri river, as to that above the falls of Louisville provided the transportation from St. Louis to New- York should be cheaper than the conveyance from St. Louis to New-Orleans. On the opening of the Western canal,
and a communication with the Mississippi, through the lakes, it will he cheaper for the people of Missouri to resort to New- York than to New-Orleans, notwithstanding the employment of steam-hoats in the trade with the latter. The return voyage must always he long, tedious and expensive, and require a large investment of capital, the interest of which,must be added to the rate of expenses in transporting produce and merchandise. The voyages up the whole length of the Mississippi, with any thing but steamboats, must be attended with a delay and with disbursements discouraging to the prosperity of the western trade ; and even with steam-boats, formidable draw-backs on profit will ever present themselves. One fact deserves to be mentioned here : since the establishment of steam-boat lines on the Mississippi, large quantities of merchandise have constantly passed through Pittsburgh to St. Louis. In 1820, no loss than 1500 tons were sent to the country beyond the Mississippi through these towns — a circumstance that shows if the Western canal was finished, and the Illinois and the lakes united, New-York would sustain a direct trade with the Missouri in preference to NewOrleans. The lead mines of Missouri would then become ten times more important than they are at present, although 3,000,000 of pounds are now manufactured and distributed into various quarters of the union, by way of New-Orleans.
her own intrinsic resources.
But few countries of the same extent, excel this state in the richness, extent, and variety of internal resources. Her local position is grand and commanding. On one side the ocean washes her coast, <©» the other? her frontiers are embraced by the great
lakes. Her climate is healthy, her soil is fertile, her mineral treasures are nuinerous and valuable ; her products, from her contiguity to the ocean, will ever command a ready and profitable market, and her people are industrious, enterprising, and capable of converting every natural advantage to the most profitable purposes. The Western canal will immediately augmeut the profits of her agricultural labour. Why IS an acre of land in the vicinity of London^ worth more than an acre of land of equal fertility in the county of Cornwall ? It is intrinsically Tvorth no more; artificial causes have created the difference. All that is obtained from one is immediately converted to cash; all that is acquired from the other, is sold subject to a deduction of all the expenses of transportation from Cornwall to the British metropolis. Why is a bushel of grain worth more in New- York than in Illinois? It is neither better in flavour or quality of any kind; but the former is covered with many heavy charges before it is placed by the side of the quantity already in the market. In proportion, therefore, as the Western canal places our farms nearer the grand market to which the cultivators of the soil send their productions ; in proportion as all expenses, and of course all drawbacks upon agricultural profit are diminished, its interests are directly cherished, A ton of flour in the county of Niagara, will be worth ^81 47 more to the owner, when the canal is finished than it is now, because the expenses of conveying it to market will be diminished to that extent. There will ever be a standard value of agricultural products in market; — -that is, the commodities brought from St. Louis will command the same price as those that are brought from Ontario county, provided their quality be the same. The favourable competition of the New -York agriculturist
is sufficiently perceptible by this simple fact. NewYork will still be the most profitable market for the western states; yet her own productions with a far less formidable drawback froai transportation, will command the same price as the products from the shores of the Erie, the Ohio, the Illinois, the Huron and the Superior. Agriculture depends upon consumption, and neither foreign nor domestic consumption will be diminished by lessening the charges, and increasing the facilities of traiisportation to market. Under these circumstances, the tendency of the Western canal upon our agricultural improvement and prosperity is evident and striking. It will create a new era in the history of this fundamental science. Our canals and our Board of agriculture will produce the most astonishing results in the course of a few years, and distance all calculation. It is not pretended that New-York for many ages is to bear any thing like a comparison with England, containing many millions of population, commanding a greater capital than any other nation in the world, and filled with all those creative agencies, that ingenuity and wealth can apply to the cultivation of the soil — yet England and Wales, but little larger than the state of New-York, show us what can be done oa a theatre of a given extent. They have far more waste and barren lands that our own state; yet from agriculture alone Great Britain derives an annual income of £210,817,624.
It is not intended, in this place, to agitate the question relating to domestic manufactures, which has divided the opinions of the nation, and occupied the attention of its highest councils ; yet it will be conceded by the opposers as well as the advocates of a system of protecting duties, that sound principles of
public policy demand that manufactures to a certain extent should be cherished in the United States. New-York has the raw materials for extensive and profitable establishments. Her iron alone is worthy of consideration,and the legislature of the state hasmade liberal advances to encourage those who have embarked in its manufacture. New-York could feed more sheep than the kingdom of Great Britain whose wool is estimated to be worth more annually than ^20,000,000 when in its raw state. It is thought, that the ingredients of our hydraulic cement, might be used for the manufacture of a superior kind of ware. Water could be taken from the canal with ease and used for the most extensive labour-saving machinery. As the union of the Erie and the Hudson will increase population, extend the divisions of labour, render industry more productive, and call forth the faculties of the whole community; as it will reduce the transportaion of raw as well as manufactured materials^i and promote inland exchange, it must have a direct influence in producing the cultivation of those domestic manufactures that lessen our impolitic reliance on the skill and ingenuity of foreign workmen, and subserve the wants of people like our own. "In countries," says Mr. Philips, " which hav€ the advantage of canals, old manufactories are rendered more flourishing, and new ones established from day to day, in situations where, before the land was of but little value and thinly inhabited. Do the materials of a manufacture lie dispersed ? canals unite them, and at the same time supply the persons employed in it, with every necessarj^ at the cheapest rate."*
source of great wealth by our canal navigation. The western country is an immense grazing region, and will demand a great quantity of salt. After we pass the boundaries of our own state, it is supplied chiefly from the Conemaugh w6rks in Pennsylvania, the works on the great Kanhaway in Virginia, and from those of Kentucky and Illinois. The price of this article must bear a proportion to the strength or saline qualities of .the water from which it is manufactured, and the charges of transportation. The Conemaugh salt is sold at Pittsburgh for $7 bO per barrel. The Kanhaway salt which is of an inferior quality, cannot be afforded at less than ^6 per barrel. The Kentucky salt is not sold for much less than ^7 per barrel to the surrounding country. The Illinois salt is estimated at $4: per barrel, at the works. The NewYork salt can be vended to a profit, at the Salina works at $2 per barrel, and when the Western canal is opened to lake Erie, it can be sold at Pittsburgh for ^5 31 per barrel, and for $5 50 at Louisville. We could furnish salt for the whole valley of the Mississippi at a much cheaper rate than it is now obtained possessing qualities too, of the most superior kind. Our means for manufacturing it are in exhaustible. No water in the United States is equal to that at Salina, and probably none in the world, if we except certain waters in Poland. A single gallon will sometimes afford twenty- six ounces of salt. Notwithstanding the present extent of land transportation, from the Onondaga lake, to the various mercantile depots west of Buffalo, traders from the state of Ohio,^and other quarters of the western states, have been in the habit of resorting to the Onondago springs for their supplies, for two or three years past, and from 20,0,)0 to 30,000 bushels have passed on the
INTRODUCTION XXXlll
waters of lake Erie to the places of consumption. Previous to our commercial restrictions, we imported between three and four millions of bushels of salt annually into the United States. We may now consume 5,000,000 — 3,000,000 of bushels of which we import. We could easily manufacture 2,000,000 of bushels in this state. This quantity with the present state duty of 12i cents on the bushel, would give an annual revenue of ^300,000. Such is the value of the salt works at Salina, that during the year 1619, an association of individuals, who could have commanded a credit of several millions, offered to complete the Western canal in a given time, if the state government would lease them these works for 50 years — the salt to be vended at marketable prices. We shall see a new extensive, and unchanging market opened for this article of merchandise when the union is effected between Salina and the western lakes, and between Salina and the Hudson and lake Champlain. We already derive a revenue of sixty or seventy thousand dollars from the state duty collected on the salt at the place of manufacture.
Our lake fisheries are not sufficiently valued. They will yet be ranked among the greatest resources of the state. The white fish and the lake herring are taken in great abundance, and afford a cheap and delicious food. Many thousand barrels are caught and salted down every year by the inhabitants along the lake shore. Nor is this all — the lake fish is already an article of exportation from the state. We have sent 16,000 barrels during a single year into the states of Pennsylvania andOhio,estimated to be worth ^40,000. An hundred thousand barrels could be taken and prepared for the markets of the interior, and sent to the falls of Louisville or the banks of the Missouri.
As the facilities of conveyance for heavy materials are increased, these fisheries will prosper and be numbered among our primary sources of wealth.
No extensive coal mines have yet been discovered in this state; but at Pittsburgh and on Rocky river, this mineral is found in great abundance. When the country is properly explored, no doubt remains in the minds of competent judges, of its being obtained within our own borders. But suppose we find it necessary to resort to Pittsburgh for a supply : when the canal is finished, it will be much cheaper to import our fuel from the head of the Ohio, than from Liverpool. The fuel consumed annually in the city of New-York, is equal to 2,400,000 bushels of coal, A difference of ten cents on the bushel, would save to our metropolis, ^240,000 per year. Should this valuable mineral be found in our soil, to any great extent, the gain by the canal in this item would be important. The article of fuel will be rendered scarce as the country becomes populous and tillage is extended. All our western towns and villages, from lake Erie to Albany, would consume coal in preference to wood, could it be purchased at a low rate. It may not be improper to mention here, that the timber and lumber of the western district will find a ready market by means of the canal.
Gypsum is an article of the first importance to our agricultural prosperity. Hitherto, it has been imported, to a great extent into the United States Our mines on the canal-line are inexhaustible. The bed discovered in Onondago county by the excavation of the canal, is 40 feet deep. We can afford it for a less price than it is imported, to all the states south of New England, and even to some parts of this section of the union. Its quality is unsurpassed in purity.
, We have yet scarcely spoken of the Northern canal. Ten years ago this work would have been thought gigantic, and startled the timidity and apprehensions of those who are accustomed to contem-* plate our capacity and strength as a people, through a false medium. Human strength is never known until tested. The compass of national power is proved when the hour of trial arrives. The calculations which are settled by an ordinary standard become the subject of subsequent scorn and ridicule. Since beyond the expectation of thousands, we have found the state of New-York competent to make a canal of more than 350 miles, we think nothing of one that runs the distance of 60. Yet the canal of the north is a great work of itself, and will be great in its consequences. It connects lake Champlain to the Hudson and thus to the Atlantic. It opens a market for the lumber which is found in great abundance on its borders, as well as on the shores of lake George — lessens the transportation to and from the north — gives us the trade of Vermont, especially on the western side of the Green mountains, and opens a direct passage to those marble quarries on the shores of lake Champlain, that will supply New- York, Philadelphia, and our southern cities with important materials in the ornamental part of building. On the other hand, our salt and gypsum can be exchanged with the farmers of Vermont for their beef, butter, cheese, and other products. It will divert a considerable branch of trade from Montreal to New- York, now carried on between a portion of Vermont and the former place, and in time of war, afford a channel of communication of the utmost importance. The two great advantages, however, of this work, will be the facilities which it must afford to the lumber trade of
the north, and to the distribution of our salt and plaister. In point of revenue, it will produce enough to pay the interest of the money expended in its execution, and forma sinking fund that will extinguish the principal itself in the course of a few years, and then afford a permanent income to the state government.
These are some of the advantages of the NewYork canals, that must fall to our own state. What character they will impart to our civil policy, and what new relations they will produce in its future compass, is not for any one to say, destitute of prescience. They will place in the hands of our state government, the means of fostering and executing new and noble plans for the advancement of our prosperity, and of enabling New-York to sustain a parallel with any free state of the same extent and population that ever had existence. We have taken a view of the canal revenues. If money be the sinews of war its judicious and munificent application, also has the power of rendering peace illustrious and memorable. Why do we refer to the reign of the Antonines when they guided the fortunes of the Roman empire, and to that of Henry IV^ and Louis XIV of France, as glorious periods in the annals of mankind ? Not for the fields that were contested, or for the triumphal columns that were raised; but for the cultivation of those arts and sciences that produce refinement, that multiply the blessings, the comforts, and the charms of civilization, that reveal the powers and faculties of a state, in every department of genius, enterprise and industry. Liberal disbursements on the part of government are requisite to produce these results. Agriculture ^ is the grand source of national wealth, and there is no sci-
ence that makes a greater return for patronage. Our Board of agriculture, holding a supervision over more than fifty country associations, which combine the talents, wealth and respectability of the state furnishes an evidence of what even a limited appropriation of money, is capable of effecting. Could the legislature set apart a permanent fund, from w^hich three hundred thousand dollars could be annually drawn for the next few years, to create patent farms, institute public lectures, to apply all the branches oi' natural science that can improve the cultivation of the soil by the light w hich they afford, and to perfect the breed of domestic animals by experiment and by correspondence with different foreign countries, as well as to distribute premiums after the manner now practised ; we should see New- York a model for her sisters of the confederacy, and a model for distant countries and distant ages. The prosperity of the mechanic arts, depends on the aggregate of inventive genius in a community, united to industry. Much indeed has been accomplished within the few last years for the extension of labour-saving machinery ; but the field of discovery is still boundless. Strong stimulants are however demanded to secure those acquisitions of skill, that are not produced by motives of pecuniary gain, in the ordinary course of things. Napoleon showed the sense of a great ruler, when he appealed to the ingenuity of all nations by offering rewards for improvements in the manufacture of useful articles. Letters patent, and the security and sacredness of copj-rights, are founded on the same policy. Could the government of this state offer premiums to the amount of one hundred thousand dollars annually, in prizes, for the most expeditious and profitable method of manufacturing hemp,
flax, wool, cotton and other materials, and also, for the most advantageous method of manufacturing the different metals, and converting wood into utensils of husbandry and of domestic use, and pursue the same line of policy in all the different branches of the useful arts, a new era would ensue in the history of labour-saving machinery. When we speak of literature in this place, it is not expected that the legislature of the state, will be able to produce an Augustine age; but with the distribution of three hundred thousand dollars annually, united to our present school fund, a system of elementary instruction could be established that would not permit a child from Montauk point to the falls of Niagara to grow up in ignorance. Education would be universally diffused, and a spectacle be presented to the philanthropist and the statesman, in which they would see the future prevalence of mild and humane principles of government and the prospective security of civil freedom — for in early habits and in early instruction we perceive the stability of that political fabric, that was reared in darkness and trouble, by those great patriots,who have dropped their mantles upon their descendents. As for seminaries of learning and learned institutions, the state could do much. New professorships and new requisitions could be introduced in the one, and the means of making extensive and useful publications be given to the other. New roads and new canals could be opened, our citizens be relieved from all public burdens, and our public debts be extinguished. In fact, all that revenue, and its application could do, might be effected, for the prosperity and glory of the state. These observations may be deemed visionary now : we ask but the lapse of twenty years to find their full corroboration.
The New-York canals may now be considered Hn a national point of view. Great Britain keeps 3, steady eye on her north American possessions, and especially on the Canadas, which contain more square miles than five of our most populous states. She hopes to see in their growth and prosperity, a powerful restraint upon our commercial power. The Erie canal will enable us to supplant the Canadas in that extensive participation of the western and northwestern trade, which they have heretofore commanded, and which, in the progress of another generation, would form an important drawback on our national welfare. It will be seen by one of the reports of the canal commissioners, found in the sequel, that even if there was a canal cut round the falls of Niagara by the British government it would be less expensive to take produce to New-York through the medium of the Western canal, from thp mouth of lake Erie, than from any point on the Niagara river to the city of Montreal. The facilities of returning from the respective places to the lake country, will bear no comparison. The Hudson and the canal will afford a navigation that cannot be equalled by the St. Lawrence, with its rapids, dangers, and obstructions. Besides, the St. Lawrence is closed by the intensities of climate, about seven months in the year. The harbour of New-York is open at all seasons, and the Hudson and the canals will be navigable two and perhaps three months longer than the St. Lawrence, and lead to a more extensive market.
In a country possessing a frontier like the United States, — a frontier which extends along the ocean fifteen hundred miles, and along a chain of lakes seventeen hundred, and when too, this lake frontier presents a line of strong fortifications in the hands of a
jealous, vigilant, and powerful rival; every thing \yhich increases the means of defence, is essential to our national interests. On the side of the ocean, we have nothing to fear. Our naval strength and prowess are sufficient pledges of safety ; the resources of defensive war are always at hand. On the side of the lakes, there is more difficulty, under present circumstances. Every munition of war must be carried from the seaboard, or places in its vicinity at an enormous cost. Had the Western canal been completed previous to the late war with England, we should have saved to the nation more than sufficient to defray the expenses of connecting the Hudson with lake Erie, lake Erie with the Ohio, the Michigan with the Illinois, the Delaware and Chesapeak bays, and the Delaware and the Rariton. Pieces of ordnance were purchased for ^000 art the foundaries, or at the military stores, and cost the government in some instances, $2000 when delivered on the frontiers. A barrel of porkjor beef, often costthe government $126, and other articles of consumption, were purchased at a rate equally extravagant. The charges of transportation went far to swell the war debt to ^1^0,000,000 and upwards. Every thing requisite for defence can hereafter pass on our canals. In this point of view, they will prove a wall of defence, — an arsenal furnishing the weapons of effectual war, should it hereafter ensue. When Mr. Gallatin made his report on roads and canals in 1807, he dwelt much on the necessity as a military safeguard. When the debate took place, on the floor of congress in 1818, as to the constitutional powers of congress to appropriate money for opening internal improvements, even those politicians who narrowed down the constitution in their arguments, until some of its grandest
ends and purposes were contravened, admitted, that roads and canals were requisite to the nation in a military sense, and therefore, might be opened and constructed. Mr. Calhoun, the present secretary of war, whose views of national policy have always been liberal and enlightened, has more than once urged upon the general government, the necessity of new communications with our frontier settlements. We may in fact say, that New-York, in connecting the Hudson with the Northern and Western lakes, has directly strengthened the protecting arm of the nation.
Heretofore, the sale of public lands has been considered of importance to the general government. Their settlement how^evcT-, is of much more consequence than their mere purchase. It would prove a serious detriment to the United States, if men of large capital, should barely hold the fee of immense tracts of territory in the western states, like the barons in feudal times, and keep them uncultivated, or lease them out to tenants. " We want population," were the constant words of Patrick Henry, when speaking of our wild lands. Whatever disperses the shades of the wilderness, and plants the monuments of civilization and industry; whatever tends to fill our regions with a bold, hardy, and enterprising population, also increases national strength and augments the products of labour. At present, the charges of transportation prove a serious discouragement to settlements in the new states, beyond Ohio. Emigrants can indeed live on the borders of the lakes and on the banks of the western rivers with little difficulty ; but they live, and that is all. The products of their labour, beyond consumption, are of little value without amarket, or the means of reaching a ?narket,
seaboard.
When the Western canal was commenced, much difficulty was experienced in obtaining civil engineers. The defect was soon remedied by the versatile ingenuity of our countrymen. For accuracy, despatch, and science, we can now present a corps of engineers equal to any in the world. Applications for aid, in the line of their profession, have been made to our canal commissioners, from different states. The canal line is now one of the most excellent schools that could be divised, to accomplish men for this pursuit. The work of canal-making has but just commenced in the United States. The proficiency which has been made in our own undertaking may be viewed as an acquisition to the union at large.
There are many other considerations worthy of mentioning. New-York, by her canals, has awakened a noble spirit of enterprise and emulation in other states, and convinced them of their latent strength. Pennsylvania, Virginia, Ohio, and the Carolinas, are following her example. The promotion of civilization among the Indian tribes; a greater participation in the fur trade of the north-west; the encouragement to manufacture sugar from the maple ; the extension of our knowledge in geology, and mineralogy, by the constant excavation along the canal-line, are among the useful results to be anticipated. The Onondaga gypsum, and the lime-cement, were accidentally discovered in the prosecution of our labours.
But paramount to all other considerations, is the influence to be anticipated from the Western canal in giving strength and durability to our national confederacy. All individual attachments, all views of state aggrandizement should be subservient and secondary, to an unceasing anxiety for the stability of our union. Every thing dear and sacred is involved in the perpetuity of our compact. We possess a government different from all others that ever existed. It defies analogy in its relations, its checks, and its balances. We have twenty-one distinct constitutions, embracing different climates, different habits, different interests, and in some respects, different sentiments. Our national existence depends on their reconciliation. Whatever will amalgamate and assimilate them ; whatever will harmonize and blend our sympathies, views and thoughts, is deserving of the deepest attention. What will prove the most effectual means of promoting these ends ? Constant communications between the different sections of the union and the annihilation of all local barriers. We must bring the north, and the south, and the east, and the west, nearer each other, by the attractions of interest. This will destroy asperities, soften contrasts of character, and create those moral ligaments which will grow strong through time, and the occurrence of events. New ties, new attachments, and new similitudes, should act, and re-act, and pervade a nation which God has made great, and which man, under his protecting arm, can make greater. As we look from the lakes to Florida, and from the sea shore to the Missouri, we behold the seat of an empire, which nothing but internal discord can arrest in its natural course to grand and eventual fortunes. The West ern canal will unite the two most populous and powerful sections of the nation, and form one of the strongest safeguards of the union, that either state or national policy is capable of devising. The AUegha-
ny mountains will no longer form a national line of division. The people of the Atlantic and the people of the western states will be connected by interest, by habit, and by constant intercourse. These reflections recall the parting words of Washington to his country : " The east, in an unrestrained intercourse with the west, already finds, and in the progressive improvements of interior communications, by land and water, will more and more find, a valuable vent for the commodities which it brings from abroad, or manufactures at home. The west derives from the east, supplies requisite to its growth and comfort, — and, what is perhaps of still greater consequence, it must of necessity owe the secure enjoyment of indispensable outlets for its productions, to the weight, influence, and the future maritime strength of the Atlantic side of the union, directed by an indissoluble community of interests, as on© nation."*
No nation ever existed that was so well calculated to reveal and multiply national resources, as the United States. The nature of our political institutions, the equal distribution of property among our people, the intelligence and industry that are every where perceptible, the emulation that exists, and the sacredness of property, are important auxiliaries to public rulers. In a monarchy, not only are many of these aids wanting, but much depends on the character of the ruler who fills the throne. The measures of his government may be wise, strong, and enlightened, or, they may be narrow, feeble, and shortsighted. Great conceptions may break out, and elevated hopes be inspired; but caprice, death or revolution, may arrest
the most auspicious projects. Charlemagne, who seems to have lived too soon for the age in which he flourished, had formed extensive plans to improve the interior of his empire; Henry IV of France, aided by the lofty genius of Sully, had contemplated the improvement of France, by magnificent public works, to impart celerity and extension to trade, manufactures, and internal intercourse; Charles XII, cherished views that might have increased the power and wealth of Sweden ; and Napoleon adopted a plan to open forty new canals within the limits of his empire. These projects were consigned to the tomb of greatness, when their authors ceased to hold the sceptre of power. But a representative system, like our own, is a moral being, whose temper, propensities, and policy, may wear the character of uniformity for centuries. Great designs move on, in their execution, with the existence of the repubhc itself Master spirits arise, one after another, to awake, to inspire, and to guide ; and their talents become public property. Their labours are the labours of the commonwealth. These principles are breathed in the essence of our government.
The policy of this country is twofold — there is the policy of the general government, and that of the state governments. While the general government exercises a superintending power over the confederacy, and can appropriate disbursements for public works, the different states have their own internal measures. Would they but unite their efforts for the next twenty years, the face of the union would be completely changed. If the national government should execute such works as the junction of Chesapeak and Delaware bays, and the union of the Dela-
ware and the Rariton rivers,* and leave the different states to make other improvements within the compass of their respective means, we should be enabled in peace and in war to maintain an inland trade unequalled by any nation in existence, with the exception of China, and in time, even surpass her. We Gould commence a voyage at the mouth of the Hudson, pass through the Western canal into the great lakes, through these to the Mississippi by the Chicago and the Illinois, and from thence to our ports on the Yellow stone, eighteen hundred miles above St. Louis; thence descending to the Mississippi, we could fall down with her current to New-Orleans, pass from this emporium through inland channels, along the Florida frontier, and across its deep peninsula to Savannah ; from thence along the coast, by a chain of communications, through the waters of the Delaware and Chesapeak bays, to the Delaware river, and by that and the Rariton, again enter the spacious bosom of our own harbour, — performing a circuit of more than seven thousand miles. Such limits, when filled with population, will recall to mind, the boundaries of the Roman empire, when, in the enthusiastic language of the historian, it was " confounded with the globe of the earth ;" — when its length exteaded from the Western ocean to the Euphrates, and its breadth, from the wall of Antoninus, and the regions of Dacia, to mount Atlas and the sources of the Nile.
* It is to be regretted, that our national energie- . ave i een much shackled by technical scruples in relation to the constitutional power of making appropriations in congress, for openiiag roads and canals. The case of the Cumberland road, is, however, conclusive. If money can be appropriated in one case, it surely may be in another for objects of a similar nature.
It might here be expected, that we should give some historical sketch that would show the merits of those public men who have been instrumental in the origin and prosecution of our canal policy. It is unnecessary. Already the eye of history is upon them. Men and their acts will be connected. Columbus discovered a new world : who can extinguish the lustre of his name ? Washington led our armies to victory, Franklin drew the lightning from heavenFulton applied the power of steam to navigation — and fame is faithful to their memories. It will not be less so to the statesmen, who leave behind them those evidences of wisdom, which may be contemplated to the last verge of eternity, with wonder and delight : siquidem gloria est illustris ac pervagata muU torum efmagnorumvel in suos, vel ijipatriam, vel in omns genus hominum fama meritorum.
We live at a period the most eventful in the annals of time. The reign of Napoleon, the reign of George III, and the reign of Alexander of Russia, present the policy of nations on a broader scale, than any other space in the occurrence of six thousand years: and yei^ where is there a work of their hands which will compare in grandeur and utility with the great Western canal ? Let it be told in history, thafin fifty years after the declaration of American independence, the state of New-York,commenced and finished the first work of the age BY UNITING THE WESTERN AND NORTHERN LAKES WITH THE ATLANTIC OCEAN ! ! !
[After the foregoing was put to press, the following remarks were handed to Mr. Haines, by a highly respectable gentleman, with a request that he would give them an insertion in this place. The facts communicated can be placed beyond controversy, by an appeal to Governor Clinton, Judge Piatt, Thomas Eddy, Esq. Eind Gen. John Swartwout.]
As every thing thai relates to the rise and progress of the Grand canal will be interesting to the public, and may be more so to our posterity, the writer of this communication submits the following remark to Mr. Haines, relating to facts that came within his own knowledge.
The Western Inland Lock Navigation Company, incorporated in 1792, confined their views to the improvement of the navigation of the Mohawk river, the Oneida lake, and Seneca river, as far as the Seneca lake ; and to effect this, they engaged in their service, William Weston Esq. an eminent canal engineer, from England. — In 1795, the directors of the company appointed their president, General Schuyler and Thomas Eddy, Esq. to explore and examine the country as far west as the Seneca lake, and to be accompanied by their engineer, William Weston. After performing this, they made a favourable report as to the practicability of considerable improvements being made in the navigation, by means of connecting those waters. — The funds of the company, however, did not permit their doing more than making improvements on the Mohawk river and Wood creek. In this posture, the subject remained till 1808, at which period, Joshua Forman, Esq. a member of the legislature from Onondaga, made a motion in the assembly for a survey to be made under the direction of the surveyor general of the county, between
lake Erie and Hudson river, in order to ascertain the practicability of connecting the ^^everal waters, Sgc. The resolution moved by Mr. Forraan was adopted, and resulted in nothing being done.
In March, 18J0, Thomas Eddj vras at Albany, and being extremely desirous that the great work of improving our interoal navigation should be undertaken, he caited one evening on his friend Jonas Piatt, Esq. who was then a member of the senate, and suggested to him the propriety of appointing commissioners to examine and explore the western country, in order to ascertain the practicability of connecting, by canal navigation, the great lakes with the Hudson river. After some discussion, it was agreed that the effort should be made, and a joint resolution be offered to both houses drafted by general Piatt. It was then agreed that they would next morning call on Dewitt Clinton, and hand it to him for his perusal, in hopes that the proposed measure would meet his countenance and support. The next morning, Messrs. Piatt and Eddy, met Mr. Clinton at the senate chamber, and handed him the draft of the aforementioned resolution ; on reading it, Mr Clinton expressed his warm approbation of the measure, and declared himself much interested in its success. At this moment, the senate was formed, when Mr. Piatt offered the resolution, which was seconded by Mr. Clinton, and passed unanimously.— The following is a copy of the same : —
from Hudson river to lake Ontario and lake Erie, be improved and completed on a scale commensurate to the great advantages derived from the accomplishment of that important object : And whereas, it is doubtful whether the resources of the Western Inland Lock Navigation Company are adequate to such improvements:
Therefore resolved, that if the honourable the assembly consent herein, that Governeur Morris, Stephen Van Rensselaer, Dewitt Clinton, Simeon Dewitt, William North, Thomas Eddy, and Peter B. Porter, be and they are hereby appointed commissioners for exploring the whole route, examining the present condition of the said navigation, and considering what further improvements ought to be made therein; and that they be authorized to direct and procure such surveys as to them shall appear necessary and proper in relation to these objects ; and that they report thereon to the legislature, at their next session, presenting a full view of the subjects referred to them, with their estimates and opinions thereon.
And whereas, numerous inhabitants of the countries of Oneida, Madison, Onondaga, have by their petitions, represented that by reason of the spring freshets, the Oneida lake is usually raised so high as to inundate large tracts of land adjacent thereto, which are thereby rendered unfit for cultivation, and highly injurious to the health of the neighbouring inhabitants; and that the said evils may be easily remedied by removing a bar and deepening the channel at the outlet of the said lake.
Therefore resolved, (if the honourable the assembly concur herein) that the commissioners abovenamed be, and they are hereby directed to examine the subject of the said petitions, and to report to the
legislature their opinion as to the practicability, the expense, and the effect of removing the bar, and deepening the channel at the outlet of said lake. By order,
S. VisscHER, Clerk.
In the summer of 1810, the above-named commissioners explored and examined the whole route from the Hudson to lake Erie, and at the session of the legislature following, presented their first report. In 1811, several surveys were made, and in that year, Robert R. Livingston, and Robert Fulton, were added to the commission, and a second report was presented to the legislature. An act was passed in 1812, authorizing the commissioners to borrow on the credit of the state, 1^5,000,000 in order to prosecute the canal. This part of the act was repealed in 1814.
In 1815, many of our citizens entertained great doubts of the practicability of the proposed undertaking, and many highly respectable men seriously apprehended that the resources of the state were entirely incompetent to secure its completion. Besides the existence of these difficulties, the measure was opposed with great warmth on party grounds.
In the autumn of 1816^ Judge Piatt was in the city of New- York, holding court, and a consultation took place betweenhim,Dewitt Clinton, and Thomas Eddy. It was evident to them, that the public mind appeared gloomy and discouraged.respecting the project of executing the proposed canal. The gentleman mentioned convened,however, and determined to make one more effort to revive the subject, and to bring it again before the legislature. With this view, they inserted an advertisement in the newspapers, requesting a meeting ©f the citizens, at the City Hotel, in order to take in-
to consideration the propriety of an application to the legislature, in favour of prosecuting the canal. This meeting was large and respectable. William Bayard was the chairman, and the business was opened by judge Piatt, followed by Dewitt Clinton, John Svvartwout, and others, — D. W. Clinton, I Swartwout, and Thomas Eddy were appointed a committee, to prepare a memorial to the legislature, — This memorial was drafted by Mr. Clinton, and drawn in so masterly a style, and embraced so lucid and comprehensive a view of the immense advantages that would be produced to the state by the completion of the canal, that copies were sent throughout the state were eagerly signed by thousands, and carried full conviction to every mind. The project immediately became popular, and it was the means of rousing the legislature, and produced the several successive laws in prosecuting this great work. A system of finance was drawn by De Witt Clinton which with some trifling alterations, was adopted by the legislature, and is now in successful operation.
THE Ccmmissionen- appointed by joint resolutions of the honovrahle Senate and Asiiemhiy of the State of JS^ewYork, of the i3th and I 'Jh March, liJJ.O, to explore the route of en inland navtgaion from Hudson"^ s River to Lake Ontario and Lake Erie., beg leave to
REPORT,
TnAr tbej have examined th-a country as critically as time and circumstatices would permit, and caused surveys tobe made for nheir better information.
Tiiey he^ leave to observe, on the present navigation of the Mohawk river, Wood Creek, Oneida Lake, and the Oswego river, which extend from Schenectady to lake Ontario^ (saving only a portage at the Fails,within twelve rai'es of Oswego^) that experience has long since exploded in E'urope the idea of using the beds of rivers for internal navigation, where canals are practicable. The reasoning on that subject applies with greater force, in America. For in the navigation of rivers, reliance must be had principally on the labour of men ; whereas, alor.g canals, the force employed is generally that of horses. But the labour of men is dearer, and the subsistence of horses cheaper in America than in Europe. Experience, moreover, has, in this country, declared against foilowingthe course of rivers, more decidedly than in tiie old world; for there, notwithstanding the excellence of the highways, transportation is perforraed(between Rouen and ?c".^^Sjfori'7stance)in bcvits drawn up the river : but alosjg Ihe Mohawk, though the road from Schenectady to Utica is hr from being good, it is frequently preferred to the river.
By the aid of canals, a scood navigation (for boats) can unquestionably be aiada from Scheriectady to the Falls in the Oswego rirer, twelve miles south of lake Ontario. From Schenectady to the Hudson,
and from the Falls just mentioned, to the lake Ontario, a boat navigation is also practicable ; but whether it be advisable, may deserve consideration.
A preliminary point to decide, is, whether by this route, vessels can be taken across, of size and form, to navigate, with advantage, lake Ontario and Hudson's river ; such, for instance, as sloops and schooners of fifty or sixty tons.
The commissioners believe this to be impracticable, from the want of water at the summit level. Whether a sufficient supply even for boats can be obtained in a dry season, should the whole trade of the great lakes be turned that way, is a matter worthy of consideration.
Admitting, however, that the boat navigation were completed to the Falls, in Oswego river, and a sufficient supply of water secured, it remains to inquire whether it would be prudent to expend what may be needful on the navigation between those Falls and the lake.
It will be seen by the report of the surveyor hereunto annexed, that in this distance there is a descent of little less than one hundred feet, and that the circumstances are peculiarly unfavourable ; so much so, that an intelligent practical man (Mr. Weston) formerly pronounced it impossible. That word, however, when used on occasions of this sort, must be understood as standing in relation to the means which can prudently be applied to the end.
In examining the amount of expenditure which prudence may justify, it is to be noted, that if the same boat which arrives at the upper end of the Falls, could, after reaching Oswego, proceed on her voyage, it might be worth while to calculate whether the saving of time and expense in lading and unlading, would bear any rational proportion to the cost of completing that navigation ; but that is not the case, and therefore it would be more advisable, if the communication be deemed of sufficient importance, to construct a rail-way.
This, according to the estimate of an intelligent and experienced man, (Mr. Latrobe,) annexed to Mr. Secretary Gallatin's report on canals and roads, would cost about 10,000 dollars per mile; and by the aid of it, one horse could transport eight tons, supposing the angle of ascent not to exceed one degree.
But an angle of one degree will ascend in a mile upwards of ninety-two feet, or nearly as much as the difference of level in the whole twelve miles. If, then, two dollars be allowed for a horse, wagon, and driver's wages, (with such return load as he can procure for his profit,)and ten cents be allowed for the use of the rail- way, and if it be supposed that only five tons be taken, instead of eight, the cost will be for each ton, the twelve miles, forty-two cents,or three and a half cents per mile ; at which rate, one hundred and forty miles (a greater distance than between Oswego and Lewiston, along lake Ontario) would come to four dollars, ninety cents, being thirtyfive cents less than the freight now paid.
A question, however, of more importance presents itself Admitting that it were easy to complete a boat navigation from Rome to lake Ontario, and more difficult and expensive (in comparison) to effect a canal navigation to lake Erie, would it not be advisable to descend into lake Ontario, rather than encounter the difficulty and expense of the other course .?
The commissioners believe it would not ; and without relying, as they might, for support of their opinion, on the comparative expense of transportation, (a topic which will find a better place elsewhere,) it is sufficient to say, here, that articles for exportation, when once afloat on lake Ontario, will, generally speaking, go to Montreal, unless our British neighbours are blind to their own interest; a charge which ought not lightly to be made against a commercial nation.
high as to the head of the rap^ids in the river St. Lawrence. The desce^it from thence to Montreal is less than the ascent from Oswego to Some. 5t is true that the lakeODtario is estimated at one hundred and ninety six feet above tide water, and the Rome level only one hundred riod eighty-four feet above the lake : but there is a considerable descent in the river St. Lawrence, in a distri.fee of about seventy miles, to the lower end of the present sloop navigation, through which the current is sometimes strong. There is also a considerable descent from Montreal, in a distance,of about thirty miles to tide water in the lake St. Peter's. Perhaps it will be found that an average allowance of three inches per mile, (in the whole, upwards of twenty feet) is not two much, and that the river at Montreal is not one hundred and seventy feet below the upper surface of the Gallot's rapids. In the distance of one hundred miles between these places, there are forty of still water, viz. about thirty in lake St. Francis, between the foot of Long Saat and the head of the Coteau du Lac rapid, and upwards of ten in the lake of the Two Mountains, between the foot of the cascade at the cedars, and the La Chine rapid.
Thus there will remain but sixty miles of canal, with an average fall of thirty-four inches per mile. The land decends proportionately to the water, so that there can be but little deep cutting; the soil is easy to dig; there are no streams or ravines of any consequence to cross ; and there is an inexhaustible supply of pure water, which never varies much in its height, for any canal whatever.
Under circumstances so propitious, it is probable that a good sloop navigation from above the gallots, to Montreal, would cost less than a good boat navigation from Oswego to Ftome. The extent of this last, deducting the Oneida lake, is fifty-six miles; the fall is on an average near forty inches per mile ; the supply of water is doubtful, and in twelve miles of the distance, obstacles almost insurmountable present themselves.
These are facts to which it would be in vain for the citizens of the United States to shut their eyes. The eyes of a rich enterprising commercial rival are open ; and when it is considered that (if the means of easy export be supplied to the inhabitants who may settle near the great lakes) that country will, in no distant period, furnish a more abundant stock of commodities for foreign trade, than is now sent from all the atlantic ports of the union — it would be absurd to doubt, whether, in the competition for that commerce, our neighbours will employ the means in their power. Nor must it be forgotten, that the revenue which, under present circumstances, is raised from commerce, and which no probable change will reduce below an ad valorum duty of ten per cent, cannot but operate in favour of our rivals. True it is, that as far as regards the pecuniary benefit of those who may settle along the lakes, the route by which their products are sent abroad, and their supplies of foreign articles introduced, must be to them a matter of little consequence. But the political connexion which would probably result from a commercial connexion, certainly deserves the consideration of intelligent men.
The commissioners have no doubt, that obstructions at the mouth of Oneida Lake may be removed, so as to lower the surface of that lake from eighteen inches to two feet, at no great expense, and with little, if any, injury to the navigation. But they have not been able to satisfy themselves that the lands contemplated in the petitions which the joint resolutions refer to, would be in any wise affected by operations at the mouth of Oneida Lake. According to the information they have obtained, these lands are inundated by the waters of Butternut, Limestone, Chitenengo, and Canaserago Creeks, obstructed before their enterance into the lake.
In respect to an inland navigation direct from Lake Erie to Hudson's River, the Commissioners beg leave to refer for information to the annexed reports and
maps of Mr. James Geddes, employed at their request by the surveyor-general From these it is evident that such navigation is practicable. Whether the route he sketched out will hereafter be pursued ; whether a better may not be found — and other questions subordinate to these, can only be resolved at a future time, when an intelligent man, regularly bred to this busiijess, shall, under the direction of those on whom the public may think proper to devolve the superintendence, have made a more extensive and careful scrutiny than the time and means of the commissioners would permit. They conceive, however, that it may not be improper to say a few words on the topography of the country, which may be divided into three parts, nearly equal.
The Mohawk River, as is well known, runs in a deep ravine, and there is, generally speaking, along its banks, a vale of rich soil. In different places, however, spurs from the neighbouring hills project themselves to the edge of the river. On the north side, fall in sundry small streams, and two (the east and west Canada Creeks) which are large and copious, especially the latter. They are both rapid, and run in deep ravines. On the right side, also, there are several tributary streams. The most considerable of these is the Schoharie, which, rising among the Catskill mountains, has scooped out, with its impetuous waters, a wide and deep ravine.
The stream next in importance, coming in from the south, is the Oriskany, which is especially valuable, because it enters the river not far from the summit level at Rome, and may, perhaps, become useful as a feeder. This forms the first, eastern, or river division, in which navigation, though defective, already exists. In this division, with proper management, there will be no defect of water for a boat canal, unless, perhaps, in very dry seasons, at the summit level.
darque Lake. In it lie four lakes, the Otisko, Skeneateles, Owasco, and Canandarque, higher than any canal which may be extended from Lake Erie to the Hudson, and furnishing a copious supply of Avater. Of the two largest lakes, the Seneca, increased by a stream from Crooked Lake, lies nearly on the same level with Rome, but the Cayuga much lower.
In this division the turnpike road crosses high hills, but they all terminate not far north of it, leaving a large deep valley, upwards of eighty miles long, from east to west, and about twenty wide from north-west to south-east. If, indeed, the Cayuga lake, embosomed in a ravine which opens to the north on the valley, be considered as part of it, the breadth will be fifty miles. In this valley lie the Onondaga, Cross, and Oneida Lakes. It is bounded on the north, by a dividing ridge of land, which stretches from near the Gerundegat bay, eastwardly, to the neighbourhood of Rome, where it joins the dividing ridge north of the Mohawk, between the waters of the St. Lawrence and those of the Hudson.
The third, western, or dry division, extends from the western boundary of the lake Division to lake Erie. In this, although the Genesee river runs through it, a want of water is already felt, and will daily become more sensible, as the country is cleared. The Genesee river, itself, is a torrent, which, however copious, or even superabundant it may be in the spring, is in the autumn almost dry. This tract of country, especially after passing the Flats of the Genesee, may, with little violence to the propriety of language, be called a plain : and here it may be proper to notice a peculiarity in the shape of the northern, and much of the western part of the state, which distinguishes it widely from the country lying south-east of the mountains.
■ * The word plains might lead into error. It is therefore proper to state, that hills are scattered about, which vary the surface to the eye. But on examination, it will be found that, generally speaking, their bases are all on the same extended plain.
zontal. These, and the streams by which they are watered, have a similar, and, as it were, a simultaneous descent. Thus the rivers are but a k,ind of lakes, lying in plains, and communicating by talis and rapids with each other. These gradations have some* times a small rise, immediately before descent; at other times, in ascending from one, we come immediately to the other. In no case is the peculiarity of shape more worthy of remark, than at the cataract of Niagara. In coming from lake Erie, where the sight cannot reach over the expanded surface, proceeding along the level bank of the Niagara river, to the head of the rapids immediately above the Falls, and thence pursuing a northern course, the traveller ascends but thirty-eight feet before he descends three hundred and forty-five to the plain in which lake Ontario is stretched out, from east to west, upwards of one hundred and sixty miles. The surface of lake Erie is three hundred and twenty-nine feet above that of lake Ontario, which being taken from the whole descent just mentioned, leaves for the rise of land between those two great reservoirs, but sixteen feet.
This rise, and others similar to it, are called by the inhabitants, the ridge, the ledge, the slope,' and the hill. A more proper general appellation, perhaps, IS, the steep, though occasionally, by the elevation each way, it becomes truly a ridge, or from the horizontal strata of stone, as truly a ledge. In some places the descent is by a gentle slope ; in others, more precipitous, and in some, almost perpendicular. Two of these extend eastward from the shore of Niagara river nearly parallel to, and distant from each other about fourteen miles. The higher, or southern steep, commences at Black Rock, where the river issues from lake Erie. The northern commences at the Falls, and after an eastern course of fifty or sixty niiles, bends towards, and approaches the southern, after which they both take a southern direction for thirty miles, but return again on the east side of
the Genesee : or to speak more correctly, that river, after breaking through them by successive falls of sixty and ninety feet, thirty miles south of the high road, in the township of Leicester, runs in a ravine to the northern part of that township; when the steeps again diverge, the southern stretching eastwardly to the west side of Seneca lake, and then southerly, to the high grounds from whence flow the waters of the Tioga ; while the other keeps an eastern direction, to the hills from whose southern declivities flow the Chenango and Unadilla. There is another steep still more north, which branches out from that last mentioned, near the eighteen mile run, (a stream whose mouth is at that distance from that of the Niagara river,) and diverging northward, is for some distance in its eastern progress indistinct. It extends, however, to the lower Falls of the Genesee, and is there crossed by that river, as also beyond it by streams, which fall into the Gerundegut bay; after which it becomes properly a ridge, and extends beyond the falls of Oswego river, as has been already mentioned. Of these three steeps, ledges, or ridges, the most southern is distinguished by limestone mixed with flint. The middle, by the same stone mixed with shells, and the most northern, by freestone and slate. Over the southern steep, west of the Genesee, fall Ellicot's brook and the Tanewanto, (which enter Niagara river by the same mouth opposite toGrand Island,) also Allen's brook, which makes at its passage the Buttermilk Falls, and runs to the Genesee. Over the middle steep, in the same division, falls the Oak-orchard brook, which enters lake Ontario, about thirty miles east of Niagara river. The lower Falls of this brook, as well as those of the Genesee, are over the northern steep.
The Canesus, the Hemlock, the Honeyoyo, the Canandarque, and the Crooked lakes, lie south of the southern steep. The Seneca, the Owasco, the Skeneateles, and Otisco lakes, lie south of the middle steep.
and Cross lakes.
The Tonawanta falls over the southern steep twentyfive feet, and passing the village of the same name, runs in a level valley of brown clay upwards of twenty miles to its mouth in Niagara river.
From the Tonawanta village, north-eastward, in less than five miles, (chiefly through a swamp) the Oakorchard brook receives the waters of the swamp, and falls, as has been already mentioned, into lake Ontario. The Tonawanta brook, three feet higher than the swamp, is separated from it by ground, whose elevation is not more than five feet ; the distance is short of a mile, and the soil being clay, it will be easy (hj turning its waters into Oak orchard brook) to convert the Tonawanta from its mouth, upwards, into a canal. It has above eleven miles from its mouth, a depth of twelve, feet, interrupted, nevertheless, by five bars, or shallows, composed of round stones, buried in clay. During this space, the breadth is in general forty yards, though in the narrowest part not more than thirty. The first shallow, about three miles from the mouth, is called Miller's Ford, and is not above twelve yards wide ; the next, about a mile beyond it, called Houses Shallow, extends east and west nearly one hundred and twenty yards, the depth of water from two and an half to three feet. Two miles further up, is Christman's Rapid. This extends east and west near two hundred and fifty yards, with a depth of from fifteen to eighteen inches : at this rapid, the fall is three inches, except when a westerly wind brir^gs up the water of lake Erie. The breadth of the Tonawanta is here forty-eight yards, and no where below it less than forty.
The next bar, about a mile from the last, is called "Van ^lyke's Shallow; it extends forty-two yards, the depL- ii tii'o shortest place twenty inches, but in general from two to three feet. The fifth and last bar, at eleven miles from the mouth of the creek, extends
To convert this water-course into a canal twelve feet deep, during the whole distance of eleven miles, will require, at most, an excavation of eighty thousand cubic yards. The surface here is four inches higher than at the mouth, which is five feet lower than the surface of lake Erie. At about five miles and a quarter north from this place, in the middle steep, is the source of one branch of the eighteen mile brook, at a distance of about ten miles from lake Ontario, and about three hundred feet above its surface; consequently, near thirty feet below the surface of lake Erie. The greatest elevation of ground between them is twenty-one feet above that surface ; it is, however, on an average, for the space of three miles, twenty feet, and the remaining two miles and a quarter, about seven feet.
For a more particular knowledge of the ground, reference must be had to the profile made by Mr. Geddes, and which is hereunto annexed. It is self-evident, that the cost of excavation per cubic yard, must depend on the substance in which the excavation is made ; it must depend, also, on some other circumstances. In deep cutting, for instance, not only must there be wide cutting,to prevent the earth from falling in, but there will be, generally speaking, more labour, and consequently more expense in moving the earth after it is dug. It may become, therefore, in many cases, more advisable to pierce the earth by a tunnel, than to take down the top of a hill.
In the present instance, by means of wooden railways, which may be constructed from the surrounding forests for temporary purposes at a trifling expense, the materials may, when dug, be made, as it were, to transport themselves along by gentle declivities, to fill that part of the ravine through which the canal is to pass.
of water, it is found necessary to guard with scrupulous care, and, not unfrequently, at enormous expense, against those floods, which, pouring a torrent into a canal, and tearing down its banks, might at once destroy the navigation and inundate the country.
Moreover, it is found, that canals depending on rivers, frequently, like the rivers themselves, want water in the season when it is most necessary. Indeed, to suppose the quantity of water In a river, when turned into a canal, will remain the same, would lead to serious disappointment. Much must be allowed for evaporation, and, notwithstanding the utmost care, more will filter through the sides and bottom of a canal, than those of a river, which are generally saturated.
Thus, then, two prominent evils present themselves in feeding from rivers, viz. In spring, they pour in too much water, and can afford none in autumn, when it is most wanted. There is still another evil, which, though not so imminent, becomes eventually of serious moment. When the country shall be cultivated, streams swoln by showers will bring down, mixed with their waters, a proportion of mud, and that, in the stillness of a level canal, will subside, and choke it up. It is also to be noted, by those who shall construct canals in this country, that the true character of a river cannot now be known. Large tracts, (for instance, west of the Genesee,) which appear as swamps, and through which causeways of logs are laid for roads, will become dry fields, when no longer shaded (as at present) by forests impervious to the sun.
In the progress of industry, swamps (the present reservoirs of permanent springs that burst out on a lower surface) will be drained, whereby many of those springs will be dried. Of such as remain, a part will be used to irrigate inclined plains.
Moreover, in every place tolerably convenient, ponds will be collected for mills and other machinery, from whose surface, as well as from that of the soil, the sun will exhale an ample tribute of vapour.
Thus the summer supply of rivers will be in part destroyed, and in part consumed, whereby their present autumnal penury must be still farther enhanced. But in the spring the careful husbandman and miller will open every ditch and sluice to get rid of that water, which, though at other times a kind friend and faithful servant, is then a dangerous enemy and imperious master. Of course, much of what is now withheld for many days, will then be suddenly poured out. The torrents must therefore rage with greater fury hereafter than thej do in the present day.
Considerations like these, while they cast a shade over many contemplated enterprises, give by contrast a glowing hue to that which we have now to consider. The canal from lake Erie to the Hudson, may be fed by pure water from lakes, provided mounds and aqueducts be made over intervening valleys, or the canal be carried round them. In every case the attending circumstances must decide.
In general, also, it is only after a more accute examination of the ground by a skilful engineer, well practised in such business, that the best mode can be adopted for the species of navigation which may be ultimately determined on, viz. Whether for vessels which navigate Hudson's river and lake Erie, or for barges of from twenty to sixty tons.
If the passage were only of a few miles, the propriety of bringing vessels of eight feet draught of water across (if practicable) would be readily admitted. But it may well be questioned, whether, to save the expense of lading and unlading at each end of a canal three hundred miles long, the expense of cutting two yards deeper than would otherwise be necessary, ought to be encountered.
It has generally been assumed, and perhaps too lightly admitted.that canals should be made on a perfiectlevel. This axiom would not be questioned, if the transportation, each way, were of equal burden ; if the distance or the frequency of good feeding streams were such as easily and constantly to supply, without
danger of excess, the incessant waste of water by absorption, leakage, and evaporatioli, and if the waters to be connected, were on the same level. But in a case like the present, rational doubts may be entertained. The difference of level being upwards of five hundred feet, all the descent which can prudently be obtained by an inclined plain, is so much saved in the expense of lockage; and, in all human probability, the transportation, for centuries to come, will be of so much greater burden from the interior country, than back from the sea, that a current from the lake is more to be desired than avoided, more especially as it v/ill in some degree counteract the effect of frost. That inexhaustible stream of limpid water which flows out of lake Erie, with little variation of height to endanger the canal, is a strong temptation to use it exclusively, until auxiliary supplies can be drawn from other reservoirs equally pure. Nor is it improper in this case to remark, that it is impossible there should ever be a considerable variation in the surface of Niagara river, at the mouth of the Tanawanta. No supposable fall of rain or melting of snow, even if both were to take place at the same time, in the country which surrounds the great lakes, could raise, in any considerable degree, their extended surface. Indeed, we know, from experience, that a greater difference of elevation at the mouth of lake Erie is occasioned by a change of wind, than by any variation of the seasons. Admitting, however, a considerable rise of water, no matter from what cause, at the source of Niagara river, it cannot suddenly, from the narrowness and shoalness of the channel, produce a correspondent rise at the foot of the Black Rock rapid; and the elevation there must, in the nature of things, exceed that which is occasioned by it fifteen miles lower down ; more especially as the river, including the two channels round Grand Island, has, for the greater part of the way, nearly three times the breadth which it has above. If, however, it were only a deep bay, the water pressed forward by the
wind, would be piled up to a considerable height ; but instead of that, the river here, with a breadth fully double to what it has at Black-Rock, precipitates itseitover the first ledge in its headlong course to the cataract : so that an increase of height is instantly counteracted by the increased rapidity with which it rolls over the rock.
In all events, it would be advisable to use this water exclusively for a great part of the way, even if the country afforded other resources ; and to this ejQfect, there must be some descent in the canal. What the precise amount of that should be, in every mile, the commissioners presume not to say. They do not pretend to sufficient knowledge on the subject, and with all proper deference, refer it to a practical engineer.
Nevertheless, like other men possessed of common discernment,they perceive not only that the quantity of water which runs in a given time, must be proportionate to the rapidity with which, and the aperture through which it passes ; but also that the rapidity itself will depend not merely on the declivity, but also on the mass ; because, in a deep and wide channel, the friction must be less than in one that is narrow and shoal. It will depend also on another circumstance, whose effect (that single cause remaining the same) will vary, according to such of the preceding circumstances as may be connected with it. Admitting, for instance, a stream to be deep and wide in descending an inclined plain, its velocity will be accelerated. But if the inclination be not great, and the channel shoal and narrow, the friction may so counteract the descent as to retard the velocity.
From these considerations it is evident, that the sum of descent must depend primarily on the quantity of water required. This, in navigation ascending and descending by locks, must be greater than when carried along the plain. It must also be greater in a loose, than in a stiff soil. Moreover, the quantum of descent required, must, after the needful supply of
water is ascertained, depend on the length, the width, the depth, and finally on the course of the canal, whether direct or serpentine. And here the same common sense presents another important consideration. The amount of rapidity which may with safety be hazarded, will depend on the texture of the substance through which the current passes. No navigable velocity can injure a rock of granite ; but a gentle current will sweep off the substance of bog meadow. In like manner, banks which resist when the course is direct, may be. eaten away, and the current itself be retarded, if propelled along a tortuous course.
The commissioners cannot, therefore, too often repeat, that their report must be accepted as suggestions proceeding from a superficial view, and not as conclusions founded on sufficient and scientific investigation. After this preliminary caution, they assume hypothetically that a canal were run in such manner, as that the average descent were six inches in every mile. Whence, taking the surface of lake Erie as the standard level, they have in gross the following results :
the Genesee at an elevation of twenty-six feet above its surface. But unless the canal be lowered down to that river, the expense of an aqueduct cannot be avoided ; because, from the upper falls, which are too high, there is little descent to the lower falls ; and if, from jny cause, it be advisable to cross it by an aqueduct, the addition of a foot in height will not much increase the expense : indeed, considering the swell of the river in freshes, an elevation short of twenty feet would scarcely leave sufficient space under the arch.
The next difficulty will be in crossing the mouth of Seneca Lake by an aqueduct eighty-three feet high. But this also, if a convenient place can be found, will not be important, because a moderate aperture will suffice to void the equable stream from that lake.
The third difficulty is at the mouth of Cayuga, where the elevation is one hundred and thirty feet. Even ^his might be encountered without any unusual hardihood, if the hills approached each other. But the valley to be crossed is not much, if any thing, short of a mile ; and to erect a mound of that length and of the sufficient height and breadth, is an herculean labour. Whether it will be performed, must depend on the arm that undertakes this task, respecting which, a few words may find their proper place hereafter.
Supposing, however, that difficulty to be surmounted, it is believed that none will remain which cannot be, in a considerable degree, avoided by bending occasionally to the southward, and returning round the northern points of the hills, till the canal is brought opposite to Rome. Its elevation there above the Mohawk, will be forty-seven feet, or less, by one foot for every two miles that it may be lengthened. The general face of the country here, leaves no room to doubt that convenient ground can be discovered south of Rome, at an elevation of forty feet above the Mohawk. How far it may be practicable be-
must be decided by actual survey.
The elevation, if not in other respects injurious, will be useful in passes that might otherwise necessitate a descent to the Mohawk. Thus, at the Little Falls at that river, the canal, at an elevation of eighty feet above its upper surface, may, it is believed, be brought through or round the hill at no enormous expense. The still greater elevation of one hundred and fifty feet at the Schoharie, will permit of a considerable bend to find some narrow gorge, and finally an elevation of seventy feet above the height of ground between Schenectady and Albany, will enable the engineer to choose, for the course of his canal and the position of his locks, the most suitable soil and convenient situations. In a word, if, on due examination, any thing of this sort should be found practicable, instead of depriving the country of water, every drop of which is needed by its inhabitants, they will gain a great addition from the canal ; and as to the navigation, singly considered, there can be no doubt but it must in that way be superior to a waving course ascending and decending by locks. For, not to mention the expense of constructing and keeping them in repair, the time spent and tolls paid in passing them, must considerably enhance the freight of goods. But if there be no lockage, and the toll be no more than is needful to keep the canal in repair, it will amount to so little, as not to merit notice in a calculation of freight. Rejecting it, therefore, and allowing two horses and three men to take a boat of fifty tons burden, twenty miles a day, which is certainly within bounds, and putting the whole expense at five dollars on the lading, downward, (leaving the return load as profit,) or, which is equivalent, reducing the distance one^half, we have fifty tons transported ten miles for five dollars, being one cent per ton pep mile. To speak, then, in round numbers, it will cost three dollars to bring a ton from Lake Erie to Hudson's river, being little more than
one half of what is now paid for freight on Lake Ontario, between Oswego and Lewiston. Without entering into calculations (which every person can easily make for himself) to enumerate the bulky articles which will derive value from such facility of transportation, it may be proper in this place to recur again to the commercial competition with our British neighbours.
A tolerable good navigation up and down the St. Lawrence, already exists ; but the cheapest rate at which transportation has been performed within the last ten years between Kingston and Montreal, according to the best information the commissioners have been able to obtain, is one dollar per hundred, ascending, and half as much descending the river. But admitting the freight could be so reduced as to be on a level with that between Albany and NewYork ; admitting, also, that the transportation across Lake Ontario could be performed as cheaply as through the proposed canal, and even admitting that the risk on that lake, and, of course, the premium of insurance, were nothing, still it would follow, that transportation from the head of Lake Ontario to Montreal, would cost as much as from the mouth of Tonewanto to New-York, leaving a preference to the latter of the cost of land carried from Chippeway to Queenstown. Moreover, nature has given (other things being equal) a decided preference to the port of New-York. There are, generally speaking, six weeks of navigation from Albany, in the spring, before vessels can with safety leave Montreal to descend the River St. Lawrence, and as many more in the autumn, after the mouth of that river closed.
The navigation from New-York is seldom obstructed ; so that produce deposited there, can be sent to market during five months, in which, at Montreal, it lies a dead weight on the hands of the owner. This circumstance is of especial importance in regard to wheat and flower, which can be sent from New-York so as to be sold in the south of Europe, before those
articles can be brought from the Baltic, or gathered in the country : whereas, if shipped from Montreal in the month of May, they cannot reach Spain or Portugal until after supplies are received from Dantzic, and but a short time before the harvest, which is early in July.
Thus, it is evident that the canal will, if properly effected, turn to the United States the commerce of the upper lakes. Moreover, a side cut, of five or six miles, would, by means of locks, connect it with Lake Ontario, in the harbour of the Genesee; and in like manner, a connexion would be established with the Seneca and Cayuga Lakes, from the heads of which, the short portage by good roads to Newtown and Owego, opens a communication through the Susquehannah to the Chesepeake. Nor is it improbable, that by running up on the west side of the Cayuga, means may be found to establish water communication with the Susquehannah; from the great bend of which, a good and short road may be made to the Delaware.
Thus a variety of markets may be opened to stimulate and reward the industry of those who are now, or may be hereafter settled along the great lakes, whose shores, exclusive of Lake Superior, are upwards of two thousand miles, surrounded at convenient distance by more than fiftymillion acres of land.
To the question. What will the proposed canal cost ? it is not possible to answer with any thing like precision. Indeed, preliminary points are to be adjusted ; and of these, the first is, whether it is to be made for sloops or barges. The expense of the former will be, it is believed, at least double that of the latter. Another question, whether it is to be carried along an inclined plane, or by a line ascending and descending, must be decided by a comparison of the expense and of the utility each way. In general, however, it may be satisfactory to the honourable the senate and assembly, to receive the information which the commissioners feel no hesitation in giving ;
that, as far as they have been able to extend their inquiry, there is no part of the civihzed world, in which an object of such great magnitude can be compassed at so small an expense. Generally speaking, the course is through a tract of country, the excavation whereof will be easy, and there is at certain convenient distances from the spots where it may be wanted, a sufficiency of freestone as well as of limestone, with a superabundance of fuel. The subsistence of men, also, and of cattle, will be abundant and cheap. The wages of the former are, as is well known, high ; but measures may certainly be devised to obtain the labour for so great a public work more cheaply than is practicable in private operations on a small scale. But the commissioners beg leave to observe, that no supposable expense can bear an undue proportion to the value of the work. Thus, were it (by giving a loose to fancy) extended to fifty millions of dollars, even that enormous sum does not exceed half the value of what, in all human probability, and at no distant period, will annually be carried along the canal. The more proper question, perhaps, is, in what time can it be effected ; for if an annual sum be appropriated, and secured on a solid fund, it will be effected in time, and the greater the sum, the shorter will be the period.
The Commissioners have no doubt but that good bargains for the public may be made with those through whose land the canal shall pass ; and they have great pleasure in stating, that generous offers have already been made, by many proprietors, the acceptance of which must necessarily be deferred to the moment when the business assuming a more substantial form, shall be committed to superintendents duly authorized to treat. Enough has been said to show that no accurate estimate of the expense can as yet be made. To give some general notion, however, it may be assumed that, in common cases, labourers ought to dig and remove, to a reasonable distance, eight cubic yards per day. The excava-
tion may therefore be set at the eighth of a dollar per cubic yard. An average breadth of fifteen yards, and depth of one yard, which, by means of the mound on each side, will be sufficient for four and a half to five feet of water, giving for each yard in length fifteen cubic yards, may therefore be taken at two dollars, and the mile at 3520 dollars : but allowing for the obstructions of trees and roots, not less than 4000 dollars. This gives for three hundred miles, one million two hundred thousand dollars. The excavation needful to bring a column of water fifteen yards wide, and two yards deep, with sufficient descent from the Tonewanto, through the middle steep, will, at the same rate, cost two hundred and fifty thousand dollars. Thus, to speak in round numbers, the canal, alone, might cost a million and a half, drawn through a favourable soil, lying conveniently, without the opposition of rocks or other impediments. Many of these, however, must be expected, and will, perhaps, double that sum. Another great expense is that of locks and aqueducts. It is said that the former will cost at the rate of one thousand dollars per foot of ascent for a vessel of fifty tons. This is believed to be a low estimate. At any rate, in a canal like the present, there must be a double set; one for the ascending, and one for the descending navigation. Even then it is to be feared there will be much of embarrassment and delay. Thus, the lockage being taken at two thousand dollars per foot, for three hundred and forty feet of descent and ascent, between Lake Erie and Rome, will cost six hundred and eighty thousand dollars, should that waving course be deemed advisable. From Rome to Hudson's river, a descent of three hundred and eighty feet, will call for an addition of seven hundred and sixty thousand dollars.
If, then, the locks be put at a million and a half, it is the lowest rate which can prudently be supposed. It would indeed be safer to set them at two millions. There will still remain for aqueducts, embankments and mounds, a considerable expenditure, which can-
not at present be ascertained. To estimate the expense of aqueducts, it may be advisable to put the cubic yard of masonry at two dollars, and consider the aqueduct as a solid mass. It is true, that not more, perhaps, than one-third of the materials required for a solid mass will be used ; but the workmanship on those materials will be much more costly. Many of the stones must be hewn, and many clamped together with iron. Moreover, the expense, when such buildings are raised to a great height, is proportionately greater than when nearer the earth. An aqueduct over the Genesee may perhaps be one hundred and fifty yards long. But to avoid mistakes, it will be more advisable to suppose two hundred. The height above-mentioned is twenty-six feet. But, as well to obviate mistakes, as for convenience of calculation, it may be taken as ten yards, and in order to preserve the full breadth of the canal, the aqueduct liiay be considered as twenty yards wide. Thus we have a result of forty thousand cubic yards of masonry, which, at two dollars, will require an expenditure of eighty thousand dollars. A remark which will not escape the most cursory observer, is, that a single set of locks to ascend and descend five and twenty feet, will cost fifty thousand dollars, at the lowest estimation ; and on the system of level canals, the descent in this case is sixty -five feet. Excepting the Genesee, no considerable aqueduct will be needful ; because the streams from the lakes being equable, small arches may be turned over them, and the canal be carried along a mound of earth. The expense of such mound must depend on the convenience of obtaining materials. Where hills of sufficient elevation in the neighbourhood give the advantage of running along wooden rail-ways, or where the transportation may be by boats, along the canal itself, a mound will cost but little, compared to that which is raised solely by the labour of men and cattle. All estimates, therefore, which are not founded on exact local knowledge, must be vague and uncertain.
Assuming, however, as a basis, the price of one dollar for eight cubic yards ; to estimate the expense of a mound over the Cayuga lake, one hundred and thirty feet high, and sixty feet wide, on the top, with an inclination of five and forty degrees, in the descent of the side, we have at the base one hundred and ninety feet, giving a mean width of one hundred and twenty -five ; which, multiplied by the height one hundred and thirty, is sixteen thousand two hundred and fifty feet, or in round numbers, one thousand eight hundred square yards. These, at the eighth of a dollar each cubic yard, will cost for every yard of the mound in length, two hundred and twenty-five dollars. Allowing, therefore, two thousand yards instead of a mile, so as to compensate for the expense of an arch two hundred feet long, with a span of fifty feet over the stream, and for other contingencies, the whole cost might be four hundred and fifty thousand dollars, perhaps half a million.
Under the impression resulting from these observations, it is believed that one million of dollars woiald provide for every thing of this sort, so as to bring the canal to a reservoir near Hudson's river, without locks, for four millions of dollars: a descent there, of from three to four hundred feet by locks, would cost, perhaps, another million ; or if it should be deemed more advisable to transport by rail-ways, the water used for machinery would probably yield a rent sufficient to keep the canal in repair.
But hitherto, this navigation has been contemplated no further than to the mouth of Tonewanta, in Niagara river. From thence to Lake Erie, is ten miles, and the* last mile, at the Black Rock rapid, is said to have, through part of a fall which is, on the whole, four feet, a rapidity of near seven miles an hour ; so that vessels descending below it, may wait a whole season for wind sufficiently strong to get up.
This obstacle, though great, doe^ not appear insurmountable. Perhaps two wharves, similar to those which surround our cities, made impervious to the water, and sunk parallel to each other during the
distance of one mile, with two pair of gates similar to those of dry docks, placed so as that the upper one being shut, there shall be 'still water from below ; and that the lower one shut, will make still water above, may fully answer the end. The cost, where wood and stone are so abundant, cannot be great ; and as wood is not liable to rot under water, nor exposed in fresh water to the ravages of worms, the work may be sufficiently durable. On the whole, it is conceived that the expense of this national work may be five million of dollars ; a sum which does not, it is presumed, exceed five per cent, of the value of the commodities which, in less than a century, it will annually transport, should it be now commenced, so as duly to encourage population around the upper lakes.
The commissioners'hope they shall be excused, if, in this place, they advert to a question more important, perhaps, than any other. By whom shall the needful expense be supported ?
They take the liberty of entering their feeble protest against a grant to private persons or companies. Too great a national interest is at stake. It must not become the subject of a job, or a fund for speculation. Among many other objections, there is one insuperable : That it would defeat the contemplated cheapness of transportation. It should always on occasions of this sort be recollected, that the reasons adduced for grants to individuals in Europe apply inversely here. Few of our fellow citizens have more money than they want, and of the many who want, few find facility in obtaining it. But the public can readily, at a fair interest, command any reasonable sum. Moreover, such large expenditures can be more economically made under public authority, than by the care and vigilance of any company.
It remains therefore to determine, whether this canal should be at the cost of this state or%f the Union. If the state were not bound by the federal band with her sister states, she might fairly ask compensation
from those who own the soil along the great lakes for the permission to cut this canal at their expense ; or her statesmen might deem it still more advisable, to make the canal at her own expense, and take for the use of it, a transit duty ; raising or lowering the impost, as circumstances might direct for her own advantage. This might be the better course if the state stood alone. But fortunately for the peace and happiness of all, this is not the case ; we are connected by a bond, which if the prayers of good men are favourably heard, will be indissoluble. It becomes proper, therefore, to resort for the solution of the present question, to principles of distributive justice. That which presents itself, is the trite adage that those who participate in the benefit, should contribute to the expense.
The commissioners presume not to go one step farther. The offers of individuals, already alluded to, show their conviction of that equity by which the state is called on for her share. The wisdom as well as justice of the national legislature, will, no doubt, lead to the exercise on their part of prudent munificenGCL; but the proportion, the conditions, the compact in sliort, must be the result of treaty. Whether the honourable the senate and assembly will take steps towards a negotiation, and what these steps may be, it is in their wisdom to determine.
Report of the Commissioners^ appointed by an act of the Legislature of the State of JVew-York, entitled^ '''•An Act to provide for the Improvement of the Internal Navigation of the State,'''' passed April Sth, 1811, for the consideration of all matters relating to the said inland navigation.
That, in obedience to the directions of the said act, they made application to Congress, and to the Legislatures of the several states and territories, copies of which are annexed in the papers marked No. 1 , and No. 2. They conceived it proper also, to address the President of the United States, on the subject of their appointment, and annex a copy of their letter to him, No. 3.
Moreover, considering the magnitude of the object, they deemed it advisable to depute two of their members to the general government, with their letter to the President, and application to the Senate and House of Representatives. A copy of the report made by that deputation, on the 24th of last month, is also annexed, marked No. 4. It appears from this report, that although it be uncertain whether the national government will do any thing, it is certain they will do nothing from which immediate aid can be derived. The deputation found itself obliged, by prudential considerations, not only to blend the navigation between Lake Erie and Hudson's river with objects, some of which are subservient to local interest, but to refrain from asking an advance or even an appropriation of money. The utmost they hoped to obtain was a grant of land ; a grant so limited as not to take effect until after the canal should be completed, at the expense of New- York.
It might have been expected that so moderate a request, coupled with the offer that no toll should be taken, would have been immediately granted.
The motives which led to doubt and delay, are unknown to the commissioners ; and their profound respect for those to whom is committed the conduct of our national affairs, forbids them to hazard a conjecture. But if the offer had been, or should be accepted, still the canal is to be made by the state. So that if the bounty of Congress had granted the entreated boon, it would have been merely the purchase, at less than its cost, of a most valuable object; by paying for it a tract of unsaleable land.
The commissioners, in their first report, took the liberty to express the opinion, that an offer of the canal should be made to the national government; and they saw, with pleasure and with pride, that the Legislature (concurring in this opinion) adopted the most honourable measures for inducing the United States to acquire it. But, the offer made and not accepted, the state is at liberty to consult and pursue the maxims of policy. These seem imperatively to demand that the canal be made by her, and for her own account, as soon as circumstances will permit. It is believed that a revenue may be derived from it, far exceeding the interest of what it will cost ; and it seems just that those of our citizens who have no immediate interest in the work, should find retribution for their share of the cost (if any) in a revenue which will lessen their future contributions. Whether this subject be considered with a view to commerce and finance, or on the more extensive scale of policy, there would be a want of wisdom, and almost of piety, not to employ for public advantage those means which Divine Providence has placed so completely within our power.
tatives should be requested to support any laudable attempt made to the Congress of the United States, soliciting the aid of the general government in relation to the canal navigation between Hudson's river and the great lakes.
On the 4th of November the Legislature of NewJersej say, " Although we feel a deep interest in promoting every attempt to open a communication, by means of canal navigation, between the great lakes and the navigable rivers running through the Atlantic states ; and are fully sensible that such communication would tend to enrich,consolidate, and strengthen the Union; yet as we have, not sufficient within this state, already projected, and deemed of the first importance to our immediate prosperity, it would not be advisable at present, to lend assistance to improvements in other states. And although we anticipate with pleasure, judging from the enlightened policy hitherto pursued in extending public improvements by our national government.that the time is not far distant, vrhen, from the rapidly increasing wealth of our country, the vast plans of extending canal navigation will be carried into effect, so as to form a chain of communications from the waters of the Hudson river to the great lakes,and from the lakes to the Mississippi : Yet, as that period has not arrived, we see nothing to warrant us in giving instructions to our representatives in Congress, as to the measures they shall pursue, when this subject shall come before them."
The Legislature of Connecticut, at a general assembly held at New-Haven, on the second Thursday of G&tober, resolved, that it was inexpedient to take any measures on the application of the commissioners appointed by the State of New-York, for opening a communication by means of a canal navigation between the great Lakes and Hudson's river. The reasons assigned by the committee on w^hose report the resolution was made, were, that the state could not supply money, and (having elected able men to assist in the councils of the nation) confided national
interests to the unbiassed judgment of those whose duty it was to attend to them, and whose means of information are such as to enable them to perform that duty in the best manner.
The Legislature of Vermont, on the 30th and 31st of October, expressed the opinion that the object was well worthy of consideration; but conceiving the period when they received the communication to be too late to decide on a subject of such importance, they postponed the further consideration to their next session.
On the 29th and 30th of January, the Legislature of Massachusetts, with the impartial and dignified wisdom of conscious greatness, resolved unanimously, that the Senators of that commonwealth should be instructed, and their representatives requested, to use their influence for promoting, by all reasonable encouragement, (in such mode as Congress in their wisdom might direct,) the opening of a communication, by means of a canal naWgation, between the great lakes and Hudson's river : regard being had to the special benefit which would accrue to the State of New-York from the accomplishment of that project.
The Legislature of Ohio, also, have, as will be perceived by the message of his excellency the Governor, fully approved of the plan.
The commissioners have moreover received a paper, signed Reuben Attwater, acting governor of Michigan, A. B. Woodward, J. Witharell, and countersigned, Jos. Watson, secretary, which is of the following purport : — " Whereas the commissioners of internal navigation in the State of New-York have addressed to the Governor and Judges of the Territory of Michigan, certain communications relative to a canal in the State of New- York, which being considered, resolved unanimously, that in the opinion of the undersigned, the canal contemplated by the commissioners of internal navigation in the State of Ne\T-York, from Black Rock to Rome, would not be
SO desirable as a canal round the cataract of Niagara, and another by the falls of the Oswego. Passed the tenth day of January, one thousand eight hundred and twelve."
. The commissioners have too much respect for these gentlemen to suppose they would have given this opinion without information and consideration. Wherefore, they must infer that the information received was not founded in fact ; or that, not having habitually turned their attention to objects of this sort, they are not so well qualified to judge, as the consciousness of intelligence respecting matters more familiar to their minds may have led them to suppose. The commissioners, previous to their former report, viewed the country, caused surveys to be made, obtained all the information in their power, listened to the reasons on either side with impartial attention ; and although they have not the vanity to oppose their judgment to that of professional men, persist in believing that the conclusions they drew were not unfounded. They feel so much the more confidence in their opinion, as it accords with that of Mr. Weston, whose abilities as an engineer (in this particular department) are unquestioned. To that gentleman, their report was transmitted by one of his friends ; and in reply (after treating of the means to obtain sufl[icient water at the summit level of Rome) he says. Supposing your fears on this subject to be removed, you have no further obstacles to encounter in your progress westward, until you arrive at Oswego falls. From thence to Oswego is the great work. 1 know not whether I ever declared that it w^as impossible to conduct a canal by this route. I should rather think it was the technical term unpracticable ; of course restricted in the sense mentioned in the report; and under those limitations, I still deem it so; and such I am persuaded it will be declared by every practical professional man. But supposing your wishes accomplished, the question then occurs, w'ould the trade of the lakes be directed into this
channel, from its natural one down the St. Lawrence, On the superior facilities afforded by this river, for the transportation of produce, I perfectly agree with the commissioners, having traversed it twice between Kingston and Montreal, and each time viewed it very attentively. I can therefore assert with confidence, that I know of no existing navigation, of such extent, which can be rendered perfect at so small an expense. However, should your noble plan, of uniting lake Erie with the Hudson, be carried into effect, you have to fear no rivalry. The commerce of the enormous extent of country bordering on the upper lakes, is yours for ever; and to such an incalculable amount, as would baffle all conjecture to conceive."
If the Michigan gentlemen were alone in their opinion, it might be useless to say any thing, seeing there is little probability that any contribution will be required from them. But there are, it is said, men of influential character who preach the same doctrine. To this effect they assume, what remains to be proved, not only that lock navigation by the falls of Oswego and cataract of Niagara is practicable, but that it is both cheaper * nd better than a canal direct from the Niagara to the Hudson river. On the practicability it would be superfluous to add a remark; for those who believe they can, from a cursory view, or no view at all,' judge better than such men as Mr. Weston, after critical examination of the ground, will hardly expect to obtain the confidence of others, however great their reliance on themselves. Nevertheless, these gentlemen are entreated seriously to consider whether it be prudent, or even honest, to hazard misleading those who think well of them, and thereby involving the state in great and fruitless expense. And this must be the consequence of undertaking the work they recommend. That the cost will be great, is certified by all who possess competent judgment and information. That it will be fruitless, may be proved by facts visi-
ble to every one, who chooses to open his eyes. In the Gazettes of this city are advertised the rates at vrhich goods will be carried from the ports of lake Ontario, to Ogdensburgh, and thence to Montreal. The first are lower than have heretofore prevailed between Lewistown and Oswego. The second are fifty-five cents in scows, and eighty-eight cents in boats for a barrel of flour. But to ascend Oswego river by locks, and then, after crossing Oneida lake, to ascend Wood creek in boats, which, for a great part of the way, must be rowed by men, would, it is believed, cost not less than fifty cents per barrel; because, if three men bring up thirty barrels in five days, at fifty cents per barrel, they would earn only one dollar per day each; allowing for toll nothing, for delay while waiting for freight, nothing, for wear and tear of the boat, nothing, and nothing for the return empty, if no freight should offer.
Thus it seems probable that produce could not be taken from Oswego to Rome, for less than from Ogdensburgh to Montreal; so that the communication which professional men, after due examination, consider as impracticable, unless at an enormous expense, wholly disproportionate to the object, but which some gentlemen assume, without examination, to be very simple, would, if completed, be of no avail. Instead of drawing to us the trade of our neighbours, it would turn much of our trade to them. Farmers who cannot send their produce by land, from beyond Geneva to Albany, must carry it to one of the few bad harbours on lake Ontario, thence to wait the arrival of schooners from Ogdensburgh. But, it is certain, even if a commerce with those vast regions which surround the great lakes, be put out of the question, that the inhabitants of our western countries must be greatly benefited by a navigable canal, dug at a distance from lake Ontario. Let the mind be turned to a tract of country, fifty miles wide, and stretched out east and west on the south side of that lake. It cannot be denied that, if
good harbours were abundant on its shores, and if the adjacent country offered good roads, the average distance of land carriage must be at least twentj-five miles. But, inasmuch as the harbours are few, it must be sixty or seventy from many parts of the tract. Under these circumstances, let it be supposed that a canal should be run east and west through the middle. As that would be accessible in every part, it is evident that the extreme distance of land carriage would be less than the mean distance at present. The conclusion is so clear, that to say more would not show proper respect to the wisdom of the Legislature. There is another part of the subject, however, which stands in close connexion with what has just been advanced, and which, coming in support of Mr. Weston's opinion on the effect of the canal in securing to this state the commerce of the western world, it would be unjust to withhold.
The commissioners pray leave, then, to revert to, and develope the basis of a calculation stated in their first report. Two horses can, in still-water, draw a boat laden with fifty tons at the rate of two miles and a half in an hour; wherefore the progress in eight hours will be twenty miles. — This, then, is the smallest distance which can reasonably be expected in one day. Now, as three men will be required to manage and steer a boat, the daily allowance of five dollars may be made for men and horses, being one dollar each; and that is surely enough. But a further allowance must be made for use of the boat, profit of the owner, and time unavoidably lost. It may be well to appropriate to these objects all the return freight, and charge the whole expense, to and fro, on what may be called the export cargo. This will, of course, double the amount, and bring it to ten dollars for twenty miles, or fifty cents per mile. Wherefore the extent of what it can cost to transport fifty tons one mile, on a canal, being fifty cents, the rate is one cent per ton per mile. To this, perhaps, it will be objected, that experience in this state does by no
means justify SO low an estimate. But there is no such experience, for there is no canal navigation in the state: and the commissioners have ah-eady, in their first report, stated the objections to following rivers, creeks, brooks, and torrents, by the main strength of men, instead of drawing boats by horses along the tranquil surface of a canal.
Let it be supposed that the windings of a canal will so far exceed those of the present road, as that the length from lake Erie to Hudson's river shall be three hundred and fifty miles; consequently, that the transportation of a ton will cost three hundred and fifty cents. To this let two hundred and fifty more be added, for toll, the amount will then be six hundred cents per ton ; and taking ten barrels of flour to a ton, the transportation of each barrel will cost sixty cents. If to this, twenty cents be added for freight to New-York, the total will be but eighty cents, from the port of discharge on lake Erie, to the commercial emporium of New-York, and the risk of this route is so trifling as not to merit notice. By the advertisement already alluded to, it appears that the lowest price of freight (and for part of the way in hazardous craft) is ninety-three cents per barrel of flour, from Lewistown to Montreal. Instead of adding for insurance, let something be taken away, and let it be supposed, that hereafter, both freight and insurance shall cost but ninety cents, even then, nine barrels of flour will be taken from above the falls of Niagara to New-York, for the same price that eight can be taken now from below those falls to Montreal. The expense of passing from lake Erie to lake Ontario must be added. And here, let it be asked, what kind of locks are those which gentlemen project round the cataract of Niagara. Every expense which may be needful to facilitate the navigation through the rapid at Black Rock must be encountered, in the one case as in the other. But when alarge vessel, from lake Erie, shall have brought her cargo to within a small distance of the cataract, it would be ridiculous to put it on
board of small boats merely to descend by locks, to lake Ontario, and then put it again onboard of large vessels to cross that lake. It would be equally ridiculous to attempt the transportation, on either lake, in small boats. The locks, then to be of use, must be such as will take up and let down vessels which navigate the lakes. These then are the locks which the state is desired to make,in the expectation thatafter a vessel from the upper lakes shall have descended into Ontario,she will stop at the difficult and dangerous port of Oswego, instead of going on easily and safely to Ogdensburgh. The inventors and abettors of this project may have the best and most patriotic intentions, but their scheme, if carried into effect, would increase (by the resources of New-York) the wealth of Canada and the power of Great-Britain. Before this subject be dismissed, it may not be improper to compare the expense of transportation on a canal with that on a turnpike road. The cost of carriage from Albany to Utica, by land, is seventy-five cents per hundred, or fifteen dollars per ton. Were the distance one hundred miles, (which it is not,) one-fifth of it, or twenty miles, would cost three dollars, and forty miles would cost six. The proposed canal will, then, to every useful purpose, produce the same effect as if lake Erie were brought within forty miles of Hudson's river. In other words, the great lakes, those inland seas, admitting of a navigation with vessels of the largest burden, and girt by shores exceeding two thousand miles, would be connected with the Atlantic by a portage of only forty miles. The country between Hudson's river and lake Erie, within twenty miles of the canal, a country whose natural advantages are not surpassed by any other of equal extent on the globe, would, thus, be virtually condensed within a space whose medium distance from the tide waters of the ocean would be but thirty miles. Hence, the most important consequences to the prosperity of our country would be produced. Among these, as an item worth millions, may be
reckoned the saving of those articles which would otherwise not be produced, or would be suffered to perish from the impracticability or bringing them to market.
It is impossible to ascertain, and is difficult to imagine, how much toll would be collected. The amount of transportation might be estimated by subjecting probabilities to calculation. But, like our advance in numbers and wealth, calculation outruns fancy. Things which twenty years ago a man would have been laughed at for believing, we now see. At that time, the most ardent mind, proceeding on established facts by the unerring rules of arithmetic, was obliged to drop the pen at results which imagination could not embrace. Under circumstances of this sort, there can be no doubt that those microcosmic minds which, habitually occupied in the consideration of what is little, are incapable of discerning what is great, and who already stigmatize the proposed canal as a romantic scheme ; will, not unsparingly, distribute the epithets, absurd, ridiculous, chimerical, on the estimate of what it may produce. The commissioners must,nevertheless,have the hardihood to brave the sneers and sarcasms of men, who, with too much pride to study, and too much wit to think, undervalue what they do not understand, and condemn what they cannot comprehend.
Wise legislators will examine and reason upon facts. Viewing the extent and fertility of the country with which this canal is to open a communication, it is not extravagant to suppose that, when settled, its produce will equal the present export of the atlantic states ; because it contains more land, and that land of a superior quality.
Those who contemplate the rapid increase of population, especially in that quarter, must be convinced the period is not remote when those regions will be cultivated. Indeed they already embrace an extensive tract, which has been subdued by the arm of industry. The amount of articles trans-
ported on the canal which will be consumed at home, must, if circumstances should preserve, here, the proportions usual in similar cases, exceed that part of them which is sent abroad. Nevertheless, without extending our view to the commerce of other ports, it is sufficient to take the simple facts, that upwards of 250,000 tons of shipping belong to this state, and the value of domestic produce exported is upwards of ten million of dollars. Now 250,000 tons of goods, at forty dollars per ton, make up that sum ; and grain at 40 dollars per ton will not average less than one dollar per bushel. Many of the exported articles are unquestionably more valuable, but some are less valuable than grain. Is it thenan extravagance to suppose, that the present export of domestic produce is not far short of 250,000 tons ; and that it will be doubled by means of the canal. But lest this assumption should be a ground of cavil, let every article of domestic consumption be added. Will it then appear improbable that, twenty years hence, the canal should annually bring down 250,000 tons ? It has already been assumed, that a toll of 250 cents per ton should be taken, which, on boats going and returning, will give five dollars per ton, and yield, therefore, one million two hundred and fifty thousand dollars. If this sumbe too great, let one-fifth be struck off for expenses and diminution of toll on bulky articles of little value. A million remains. Is that million too much, take away four hundred thousand ; still there will remain six hundred thousand dollars ; the interest at six per cent, of ten million. Should the canal, therefore, cost even that large sum, it will soon pay the interest, and very soon afterwards, by natural and necessary increase, discharge the principal. Standing on such facts, is it extravagant to believe that New- York may look forward to the receipt (at no distant period) of one million dollars net revenue from this canal. The life of an individual is short. The time is not distant when those who make this report will have passed away. But no term is fixed to the existence
of a state; and the first wish of a patriot's heart is that his own may be immortal. But whatever limit may have been assigned to the duration of New-York, by those eternal decrees which established the heavens and the earth, it is hardly to be expected that she will be blotted from the list of political societies before the effects here stated shall have been sensibly felt. And even when, by the flow of that perpetual stream which bears all human institutions away, our constitution shall be dissolved and our laws be lost, still the descendants of our children's children will remain. The same mountains w^ill stand, the same rivers run. New moral combinations will be formed on the old physical foundations, and the extended line of remote posterity, after a lapse of two thousand years, and the ravage of repeated revolutions, when the records of history shall have been obliterated, and the tongue of tradition have converted (as in China) the shadowy remembrance of ancient events into childish tales of miracle, this national work shall remain. It shall bear testimony to the genius, the learning,the industry, and intelligence of the present age.
The commissioners will not, as they might, dwell on the advantages which the commerce of the state must derive from opening a scene so vast to its incessant activity. Neither will they hint at the political influence which must result from holding a key to the commerce of our western world. This subject, too delicate for discussion, is appropriate to the high consideration of legislative intelligence, and should not, by subordinate agents, be approached but with prudential respect.
The commissioners beg leave to advert to a question which comes more properly within their sphere. What will this canal cost ? An important question, but one to which they cannot give a satisfactory answer. They have taken pains to extend investigation, increased the number of surveys, and accumulated the knowledge of facts. In proportion to the
information acquired is their conviction, that the plan is practicable, and that the probable expense, compared with the advantage, is moderate, very moderate ; for they persist in believing that it may be accomplished for five or six million of dollars. But they have neither the needful information on vv^hich to calculate, nor have they the professional ability. Mr. Weston, an engineer of great and acknowledged talents and experience, who has already been employed in that capacity ,both in this state and in Pennsylvania, (in the letter, a part of which has already been cited) says,
" From the perspicuous topographical description, and neat plan and profile of the route of the contemplated canal, I entertain little doubt of the practicability of the measure. Perhaps this is the only question which the legislature should be particularly anxious to have resolved. The expense, be it what it may, is no object when compared with the incalculable benefit ; though doubtless it will deserve attention that the money granted be wisely and economically expended. As the survey already made is only what is technically called a running level, much allowance ought to be made with respect to elegibility of the route, and amount of descent. Indeed, to determine the proper line of canal will require the utmost skill of the professional engineer. Its due performance is of vital importance. A small mistake therein, from whatever cause arising, may occasion the needless waste of thousands. Too much care cannot be taken, in the first instance, in exploring the country in every practicable direction, that the final decision may be founded on the result of a comparison of the different routes, as combining shortness of distance with cheapness of execution. The extraordinary regularity in the third or western division, induces me to concur, without hesitation, in the plan recommiended by the commissioners, of cutting the canal with a uniform descent, in preference to the usual mode of carrying it on a level. It is true that
the latter custom has, almost invariably, been adopted in Europe, but the inducements thereto have generally been the scanty supply of water on the respective summits, the shortness of the different levels, and the tolerably equal amount of tonnage conveyed in opposite directions. None of these circumstances occur in the instance before us, for the supply of water, as is justly observed, is pure and inexhaustible. The length of line from the mouth of the Tonewanta to Cayuga river, is upwards of one hundred and twenty miles ; an extent of canal without lockage, unequalled by any now in existence ; and the chief amount of tonnage will be always downwards. For these reasons I strongly recommend the adoption of the plan."
Without taking up those hypothetical suggestions, which present themselves on such an occasion, to one whose experience of difficulties, whose knowledge of means, and whose intellectual resources lead to the notice of things which escape common observation, it is evident that the commissioners would be unpardonably presumptuous should they pretend to accuracy of calculation, before sufficient materials are collected to decide the judgment of a professional man, such as Mr. Weston. In speaking of what they hazarded in their first report, he says, 'the allowance of twelve and a half cents per yard, for common cutting, is ample, but the estimate of the average quantity of earth to be excavated, is underrated.' He thinks, too, that the obstructions arising from trees and roots, are greater than was apprehended. The estimate of one thousand dollars per foot, for lockage, is, he says, sufficient, but two dollars per cubic yard, for such masonry as would be required for aqueducts, is too low ; and he says, that the expense of double locks, though great, will not, as was supposed, be inceased in a twofold ratio. The commissioners perceived that an error had been made in their first report, respecting the cost of an embankment over the outlet of the Cayuga lake; but
there is no need of correcting it ; because, from the surveys of last season, it appears that the ground between that and the Seneca lake, is too low for so high a level. Unless, therefore, a more favourable route can be discovered, the course by an inclined plane cannot be pursued throughout, and it may become necessary to descend eighty or ninety feet, so as to cross the outlet of the Cayuga by an embankment of moderate height. In this case, the communication from lake Erie will consist — 1st. Of an inclined plane to the Seneca outlet: 2d. Of a descent by locks to a lower line : 3d. Of a level canal as far east as the face of the country may indicate : 4th. Of an elevation at the end of it, by locks to the Rome summit : 5th. Of a level canal from thence to where descent may become needful: And 6th. Of an inclined plane from that place to a basin near the Hudson river. In the course of so vast a work, which must depend on the nature of the soil, it may sometimes be cheaper to obtain that which is good,by extending the distance, than to cure natural defects on a more direct course. It may, in some cases, also be advisable to avoid deep cutting, by a circuit, and in others, to cut deep for a shorter line. It is evident that the commissioners cannot make a correct estimate. It is nevertheless their duty to present the best which their information and abilities will permit, taking care that their allowance be rather too high than too low. They assume, then, that the distance may, for the reasons assigned, be lengthened to three hundred and fifty, instead of three hundred miles ; or that, to avoid the additional distance and expense, equivalent to it may be encountered. They moreover take the quantity to be excavated, at twice what was mentioned in their first report,viz. at thirty cubic yards, instead of fifteen, and (to embrace the various contingencies which may occur) assume the cost of digging at near twenty cents per cubic yard, instead of twelve and an half, which Mr. Weston (who founds his opinion on experience acquired by conducting such works, in this country) considers as amply sufficient for common
cutting. This will give ten thousand dollars for every mile ; a smaller sum than has been expended by private companies in the United States on some turnpike roads ; but fully sufficient, it is believed, to cover any expense which can attend that part of the business.
Thus the cutting of the canal would cost three millions and an half. A descent, by double locks, of eighty or ninety feet, and the consequent ascent to regain a proper level, may be put, in round numbers, at half a million more. — Together, four millions. The embankment over the Cayuga outlet, with the needful culverts, may cost three or four hundred thousand, but say half a million, and set the excavation at the Tonewanta at three hundred thousand ; the aqueduct over the Genesee, with many smaller aqueducts and culverts, at two hundred thousand ; making another million : to which one more may be added, for works at Black Rock rapid, a basin near the Hudson ; and those contingencies which necessarily attend an undertaking of such magnitude ; in the whole, six million dollars. The Commissioners may be mistaken, but they have no reason to believe it will cost so much.
They hasten to the examination of two other points. Has the state sufficient resources ? Ought the business to be undertaken now, or postponed to a future day ? On the resources of the state they would speak with caution, did the sum bear an important proportion to her wealth. But it is almost a contradiction in terms to suppose that an expenditure of five or six million, in ten or a dozen years, can be a serious consideration to a million men enjoying one of the richest soils and finest climates under heaven. When, in addition to these leading facts, it is considered that there is scarcely a spot on the globe which possesses such advantages for commerce, and that the number of inhabitants doubles in twenty years ; the facility of encountering the object proposed by immediate taxation, is one of those
evident propositions which argument may rather obscure than elucidate. If the facility of bearing such a trifling weight required it, proof the most full and complete might be found in every gazette. It will not be pretended that the national revenue (raised by indirect tax on the consumption of less than six million of souls) was oppressive, though it exceeded twelve million of dollars. No man has been galled by, none has felt that burden, which amounts (nevertheless) to two dollars a head. The share paid by this state, therefore, supposing our average consumption to be the same as that of our neighbours, is two million ; four times what would be required to make, in ten or a dozen years, the projected canal. Or let the subject be examined in another point of view. The increase of wealth, in this state, has been (and for evident reasons must be) much more rapid than the increase of inhabitants. The value of property is at least quadrupled in the period during which population is doubled. The present amount of property has been estimated at five hundred million. JPerhaps it is more. But should it be much less, time will soon bring it up to, and immediately push it beyond that sum ; which may therefore be taken as the standard. Of consequence, it follows, that an annual tax of half a million would be but onetenth per cent, on the value of real and personal estate. Take the matter again in another point of view, and, admitting that the rich pay the portion of tax that would fall on the poor in a distribution by poll, which (let the tax be laid as it may) must happen, the average contribution will be that of a family in medium circumstances. Wherefore, as a population of one million embraces two hundred thousand families, the average contribution, to raise a revenue of five hundred thousand dollars, would be five dollars from two families. Half of that, or two hundred and fifty cents, is then the sum which the head of a family in easy circumstances would be called to pay, if money were raised by direct tax to car-
r J on the work. In that case, there can be no doubt that a wise Legislature would open sources from which adequate revenue could be drawn, not only without injury, but even with the advantage to the community. But of this there is no necessity. The credit of the state is sufficient. And if a calculation were made on principles of compound interest, it would appear that the sum to be expended, with interest, until the canal shall yield sufficient revenue, will not exceed what that income would discharge in a reasonable time. If therefore the Legislature say, let it be done — it will be done.
But shall they say so now ? Shall it be done now, or shall it be postponed to a future day } Those who wish to postpone are respectfully asked, whether they suppose time will render the matter easier? Will it alter the shape of the country } Will the land to be used for the canal cost less when it shall be planted as an orchard, tilled as a garden, or covered by a house, than in its present condition ? Will timber and lime be cheaper when wood, now worth nothing, shall have grown dear ? Is it certain that the state of public affairs will be as favourable then as now.'* Will not a fertile imagination invent as good reasons for postponement then as now? And to what day shall it be postponed ? Must it be to the day when a Legislature shall have that patriotism which the idea of postponement presupposes the present Legislature to want? The commissioners reply with pain to arguments which imply insult. Who is there so base as not to repel the charge of selfishness ? what man so cold as not to feel the dignified desire of immortalizing his name, by contributing to a monument of national magnificence, unequalled by any thing on earth ?
A state, in its corporate capacity, is an invisible, intellectual existence. If that to which we belong could be reduced to personal identification, could it become an individual, or (that being impossible) could we suppose an individual to be owner of the
state, what should we think of his understanding did he hesitate to double the value of his property, and increase his revenue threefold, without labour, without expense ! Yet such is the present case, unless it can be called an expense to run in debt for an object which will pay both principal and interest before the debt falls due. Or suppose this individual to be an infant, would his guardians do their duty, should they let slip the golden opportunity so to promote the interest of their ward? But the Legislature is guardian of the state.
The foregoing reflections lead to one of the duties enjoined on the commissioners. They were directed to apply to the proprietors of land through which the canal may be carried, for cessions to the people of this state. Such applications have been made, and they have no doubt that the proprietors will contribute in just measure. Some grants would have been already made, but for difficulties in the form originally proposed, and from a desire that they should be proportionate to the tracts the grantors respectively hold.
The commissioners have also,in execution of the duties imposed by the act, endeavoured to ascertain whether loans for the object of it can be obtained on the credit of this state. They find that, notwithstanding the scarcity of money consequent on the war which has so long raged in and ravaged Europe, a loan of five million dollars can be obtained, there, on the credit of the state, for a term of ten or fifteen years, at an annual interest of six per cent.
The commissioners have inquired the terms on which the western inland lock navigation company will surrender their rights. They ask one hundred and ninety thousand dollars for the shares held by them, exclusive of three hundred and fifty shares held by the state. This being thought too much, they were urged to confine their demand within such moderate bounds as might be acceptable. Copy of their reply, of the 13th February, is in the paper marked No. 5, hereunto annexed.
The commissioners have, in obedience to the directions of the act, sought for, and will employ a capable engineer as soon as a suitable character can be procured. None but a man of the first rate talents, tried integrity, and approved experience, can be relied on for that previous investigation which is indispensable. In the mean time, they have employed surveyors to continue their search of the best probable route.
It was not within the circle of their duty to ascertain the conveniences presented by nature for an internal navigation northward ; wherefore, although there can be no doubt that an examination of the country ,with that view, might be useful, they forebore the attempt. In that quarter lies a large and fertile territory, peculiarly our own — moreover, it will be seen by the bill annexed to the report of the deputation sent to Washington, that a communication, by means of a canal, between Lake Champlain and Hudson's river, is one of those things which are deemed of national importance. It would certainly tend to preserve brotherly affection in the great American family ; and the reciprocal advantages which it would procure to New-York and Vermont, would strengthen the bands of our union with the eastern states, so conducive to our mutual prosperity.
That by a law, of which they have taken the liberty to transmit an exemplified copy to the President, they are, among other things, directed to make application to the Congress of the United States for their co-operation and aid in making a canal navigation between the great lakes and Hudson's river ; which, in the opinion of the Legislature of NewYork, will encourage agriculture, promote commerce and manufactures, facilitate a free and general intercourse between different parts of the United States, tend to the aggrandizement and prosperity of the country, and consolidate and strengthen the Union.
To these powerful incentives, we feel it a duty to add our conviction, that, in a fiscal point of view, this object is not unworthy of public regard, seeing, that by a good navigation from the lakes to the ocean, and by that alone, the speedy sale of, and payment for many million acres of the public lands, can be effected.
We might add other considerations; but as doubts may, in the course of the business, arise, and explanations be required, we have deemed it advisable to depute two of our members, Gouverneur Morris and De Witt Clinton, to be the bearers of this application
By a law of the state of New-York, of which we do ourselves the honour to enclose to your Excellency an exemplified copy, we are directed to apply to the Congress of the United States, or to the Legislature of any State or Territory, to co-operate and aid'in opening a communication, by means of a canal navigation, between the great lakes and Hudson's river.
The good sense of the state, over which you, sir, preside, will readily perceive the benefit which must result from such navigation. But whatever may be the peculiar advantages which locality may give to particular parts of the United States, we feel a conviction, that the general advantage to the whole nation is of such preponderating influence, as to render the present object of principal, if not exclusive, concern to the national legislature.
The state of New-York is not ignorant of the special benefit which she might secure to herself by holding in her own hands the best communication between the territory around the lakes and the Atlantic ocean ; neither is she so devoid of enterprise or resource, as not to open that abundant source of influence and revenue.
But she is disposed rather to grant, than withhold accommodation, and not only to enter into every reasonable stipulation, but to give the aid of her
secution of the business, may be found needful.
There are two modes, Sir, by which your state may contribute to this great work ; by pecuniary appropriations, and by that influence in the councils of the Union, to which she is entitled. The former mode will certainly not be unacceptable. Whether the money granted, shall be in the form of a gift or a loan, will, of course, depend on the ulterior consideration, whether the canal is for ever to be free, or whether, being made at the expense of New-York, it shall be subject to such transit duties as, from a regard to her special interest or convenience, she may, from time to time, think proper to impose. In the former case the bounty of your state will be patriotically offered and frankly received. Loans may, in both cases, be useful.
But what appears to us most suitable to the occasion, and which, therefore, we most earnestly solicit, is, the exercise of your state influence in the public councils of our country, to provide for the whole expense of this canal ; which, to use the pertinent expressions of the law under which we act, will encourage agriculture, promote commerce and manufactures, facilitate a free and general intercourse between different parts of the United States, tend to the aggrandizement and prosperity of the country, and consolidate and strengthen the Union.
We take the liberty to request that your Excellency will have the goodness to communicate this application to the legislature of your state, and give it that aid which it may, in your opinion, deserve. With perfect respect,
The enclosed exemplification of a statute, passed the eighth of last April, will show that we are empowered to make application, on behalf of the State of New- York, to the Congress of the United States, on the subject of a canal between the great lakes and Hudson's river.
An object of such general concern seems to be within the scope of that information which is to be communicated to the National Legislature by the President of the United States ; and, therefore, we deem it our duty to place it in your hands.
We do not assign reasons in its support, because they will not escape your penetration ; neither do we solicit your patronage, because we rely on your patriotism. It is submitted to your consideration in the most simple form, and we have charged two of our members, Gouverneur Morris and De Witt Clinton, to give you, Sir, in presenting this letter, the personal assurance of that respect, with which
Your Committee^ appointed to attend at the Seat of the General Government^ for the purpose of forwardino- the Memorial respecting the projected Canal, beg leave to
Legislature of Pennsylvania.
On the twenty-first of December, they waited on the President of the United States, and found him, although he expressed himself to be an enthusiast as to the advantage of interior navigation, by means of canals, embarrassed by scruples derived from his interpretation of the constitution. At the close of their visit, however, he was in a better disposition, which is evidenced by his message to Congress, of the twenty-third of Depember, a copy whereof is annexed.
On the twenty-fourth they attended at the treasury office, and found the Secretary desirous of performing this, and other works of a similar nature, conformably to the plan which he had reported at the preceding session.
He was of opinion that, under present circumstances, pecuniary aid would not be given; but that sufficient grants of land might be now made without inconvenience to the fiscal concerns of the Union. And these grants be afterwards redeemed by cash, when the treasury should be in a more prosperous condition.
Your committee found an idea prevailing with some, and zealously inculcated on others, that it would be wise so to amend the constitution, as expressly to authorize the general government to incorporate banks and make roads and canals without consent of the states.
This suggestion arose, they believe, from a desire to resuscitate the national bank; it being presumable that gentlemen who had declared the old charter to have been unconstitutional, could not be prevailed on to grant a new one. It appeared, therefore, to your committee, that the proposed amendment being intended to get clear of difficulty respecting the bank, other objects were introduced rather as a convenient cover than as needful concomitants.
the proposed amendment, so far as regards roads and canals, appeared to your committee worse than useless; because the power to apply national treasure to such objects, with consent of the respective states, is unquestionable, and so far as relates to roads, has been sanctioned by frequent usage. On the subject of banks and roads, nevertheless, they did not find themselves called on to express their sentiments, but felt a duty to declare, on all proper occasions, a decided opinion that the states would not consent to vest in the national government a power to cut up their territory, for the purpose of digging canals.
Your committee found another idea operating with baleful effect, though seldom and cautiously expressed. The population and resources of the State of New-York, furnish no pleasant reflections to men, whose minds are imbued with state jealousy; and although the proposed canal must not only be of the highest importance to the western states, as well as to the states of Pennsylvania and Maryland, and greatly promote the prosperity of the whole Union, it was obvious that an opinion of its superior benefit to this state was sedulously inculcated. An opinion, which there is reason to fear, will have but too much influence in every consideration of this subject.
Although the President's message, above-mentioned, together with the petition of the board of commissioners, was immediately referred to a large committee; it was not until after a lapse of sixteen days (viz. on the eighth of January) that your committee was summoned to attend.
Mark&t)f reluctance were perceptible, but in the close of the conference, a disposition to consider the subject more fully and more favourably prevailed : still, however, it was evident that the object of this state would not be separately attended to.
Your committee were desired to prepare a general system; and they had already learned in the course of their conversations with individuals, that unless something was done for many of the states,
sentatives could not be obtained.
After the meeting just mentioned, your committed proceeded to the Treasury office, conferred with the Secretary, and conformably to his ideas, fixed on a tract of land, to be appropriated to the objects in contemplation. In the evening of the tenth, they again met the committee of Congress, and submitted to their consideration the draft of a bill, embracing the principal object contained in the Secretary's report, already referred to, of vrhich bill a copy is annexed.
On the fifteenth of January, the committee of Congress determined to report in favour of canals, and appointed a sub-committee to prepare that report. Thus the main difficulties seemed to be surmounted, and there was good ground to believe,that,if the report should be brought speedily before the House of Representatives, the assent of a majority would be obtained. But the sub-committee, for reasons which, though unknown, are presumed to have been weighty, delayed the report, notwithstanding the solicitations of one of your committee, who remained until the twenty-sixth, in the hope of being able to prevail on them to accelerate their movements, and not to adopt every amendment which might be proposed, in order to conciliate the opinion of the proposer; a dangerous course,which frequently loads a reasonable system with so much objectionable matter, as finally to sink it. Moreover, it was feared that the object might be lost by delay; for there might be some who, though they would not hazard reputation by voting against it, would gladly avail themselves of pretexts to postpone a decision till the session should be brought to a close.
Your committee have learnt, by letters from Washington, that the report of the sub-committee, after being convassed in the general committee, received but four out of thirteen votes, and that another sub=
committee was thereupon appointed, to state the reasons why it is thought improper for Congress to act upon the subject of canals this session. Your committee will not attempt to imagine the motives for so great a change of conduct, if not of sentiment, in the gentlemen who composed the general committee. The board will judge on the face of facts above stated.
The importance of the object to the United States, is too manifest to admit of question, and the offer of New-York too fair to admit of cavil. The reason assigned for withholding, not only an immediate advance, but even an eventual appropriation, viz : That the resources of the country may be required to support a war, although more plausible than solid, may be admitted as sufficient with many well-meaning men.
But this reason does not apply to a conditional grant of land, which shall not take effect until the canal shall be completed. Such grant will not, it is presumed, be expressly denied, and the reasons to be assigned why it cannot be made now, will speak for themselves.
Your committee have learnt that some speak slightly of the canal, as a project too vast; while others are so weak as to question the ability of the state to bear the expense, as if an expense of five or even ten million of dollars, payable in twenty years, would be a serious, much less oppressive effort for a million of men. Others again, who have too much understanding to doubt the resources of the state, and too much prudence to expose themselves to ridicule, by expressing such doubt triumphantly, declare, that her Legislature has not the spirit and intelligence to draw out and apply her resources to that great object.
These men console themselves with a hope that the envied state of New-York will continue a supplicant for the favour and a dependant on the generosity of the Union, instead of making a manly and dignified appeal to her own power.
United States.
I communicate to Congress, copies of an act of the Legislature of New-York, relating to a candl from the great lakes to Hudson's river. In making the communication, 1 consult the respect due to that state, in whose behalf the commissioners appointed by the act, have placed it in my hands for the purpose.
The utility of canal navigation is universally admitted. It is not less certain, that scarcely any country offers more extensive opportunities, for that branch of improvements, than the United States ; and none, perhaps, inducements equally persuasive, to make the most of them. The particular undertaking contemplated by the state of New- York, which marks an honourable spirit of enterprise, and comprises objects of national, as well as more limited importance, will recall the attention of Congress to the signal advantages to be derived to the United States, from a general system of internal communication and conveyance ; and suggest to their consideration whatever steps may be proper on their part, towards its introduction and accomplishment. As some of those advantages have an intimate connexion with arrangehients and exertions for the general security, it is a period calling for these that the merits of such a system will be seen in the strongest lights.
Washington, December 23d, 1812.
WHEREAS it is expedient to open inland navigation as soon as circumstances will permit, the various communications which may be effected by the rivers, sounds, bays, and lakes of the United States, between
the Northern and Southern, the Eastern and Western parts of their territory, and especially a communication along the sea coast, from Boston or Barnstable bay, to Naraganset or Buzzard bay, from Raritonriver to Chesapeake bay,and from Chesapeake bay to Albemarle sound ; also, a communication from Lake Champlain to Hudson's river, from Lake Erie to Hudson's river, the Susquehannah, the Muskingum and the Wabash, from Lake Michigan to the Illinois, from the Susqjuehannah to the Schuylkill and the Delaware, from the Roanoke above its great falls, to the Chowan or Mehevrin, from the Tennessee to the Tombigbee, from the Cooper river and Black river to the Santee, and from the Savannah to the Tennessee ; also, to construct locks around the falls of the Ohio, and to emeliorate the navigation of the Potomac, above the falls.
Be it therefore enacted^ 8^c. That the lands, hitherto unappropriated, in the Michigan territory, and that part of the Indiana territory lying north of the fortieth degree of latitude, be and they hereby are appropriated to the said several objects, and to such others of the same or a similar kind, as the wisdom of Congress may hereafter designate.
II. j^nd be it further enacted, That one million acres of land, part of the tracts above mentioned, shall vest in and belong to the state of Massachusetts, so soon as a canal navigable for vessels drawing six feet water, shall be opened between the Boston and Naraganset bays, or between the Barnstable and Buzzard bays, on condition nevertheless, that no tax, toll, or impost, shall be levied or taken for the passage of such vessels on the same canal, other than what may be needful to pay the annual expense of superintending and keeping the same in repair.
III. j^nd be it further enacted, That five hundred thousand acres of land, part of the tracts above mentioned, shall vest in and belong to the state of New-Jersey, so soon as a canal, navigable for vessels drawing six feet water, shall be opened between the Rariton and
Delaware rivers, on condition, nevertheless, that no tax, toll, or impost, shall be levied or taken for the passage of such vessels on the same canal, other than what may be needful to pay the annual expense of superintending and keeping the same in repair.
IV. And be it further enacted^ That four hundred thousand acres of land, part of the tracts above mentioned, shall vest in and belong to the state of Delaware, so soon as a canal, navigable for vessels drawing six feet water, shall be opened between the Delaware river and Chesapeake bay, on condition, nevertheless, that not more than twenty cents per ton shall be levied or taken for the passage of vessels on the same canal.
V. And be it further enacted, That two hundred thousand acres of land, part of the tracts above mentioned, shall vest in and belong to the state of Virginia, so soon as a canal, navigable for vessels drawing six feet water, shall be opened between the Chesapeake bay and Albemarle sound, on condition, nevertheless, that no tax, toll, or impost, shall be levied or taken for the passage of such vessels on the same canal, other than what may be needful to pay the annual expense of superintending and keeping the same in repair.
VI. And be it further enacted^ That four hundred thousand acres of land, part of the tracts above mentioned, shall vest in and belong to the state of New York, so soon as a canal, navigable for flat-bottomed boats of twenty tons burthen, shall be opened between Lake Champlain and the tide waters of Hudson's river, on condition, nevertheless, that no tax, toll, or impost, shall be levied or taken for the passage of such boats on the same canal, other than what may be needful to pay the annual expense of superintending and keeping the same in repair.
VII. And be it further enacted, That four million acres of land, part ©f the tracts above mentioned, shall vest in and belong to the said state of New- York, so soon as a canal shall be opened from lake Erie to Hudson's river, not less than sixty-three feet wide on
the top, forty five feet wide at the bottom, and five feet deep, (and, if practicable, along an inclined plane, descending not more than six inches in a mile,) to Hudson's river, or a bason vv^ithin four miles thereof: on condition, nevertheless, that no tax, toll, or impost, shall be levied or taken for the passage of boats not exceeding sixty feet long, eighteen feet wide or drawing more than three feet of water on the same canal, other than such as may be needful to pay the annual expense of superintending and keeping the same in repair.
VIII. j^nd be it further enacted, That one hundred thousand acres of land, part of the tracts above mentioned, shall vest in and belong to the state of Pennsylvania, so soon as a canal, navigable for boats of ten tons, shall be opened between the lake Erie and the Susquehannah river.
IX. jlnd be it further enacted. That one hundred thousand acres of land, part of the tracts above mentioned, shall vest in and belong to the state of Ohio, so soon as a canal navigable for boats often tons, shall be opened between the lake Erie and the Muskingum; and that one hundred thousand acres of land, also part of the tracts above mentioned, shall vest in, and belong to the said state of Ohio, so soon as a canal navigable for boats often tons, shall be opened from the lake Erie to the Wabash ; on condition, nevertheless, that no tax, toll, or impost, shall be levied or taken for the passage of such boats on the said canals, or either of them, other than what may be needful to pay the annual expense of superintending and keeping them in repair respectively.
X. And be it further enacted, That one hundred thousand acres of land, part of the tracts above mentioned, shall vest in and belong to the state of New-York, so soon as a canal, navigable for boats of ten tons, shall be opened from the lake Michigan to the Illinois river ; on condition, nevertheless, that no tax, toll, or impost, shall be levied or taken for the passage of such boats on the same canal, other than
superintending and keeping the same in repair.
XI. And be it further enacted^ That eight hundred thousand acres of land, part of the tracts above mentioned, shall vest in and belong to the state of Pennsylvania, so soon as a canal, navigable for boats of ten tons, shall be opened from the Susquehannah to the Schuylkill, and from the Schuylkill, to the Delaware.
^ll.And belt further enacted, That three hundred thousand acres of land, part of the tracts above mentioned, shall vest in, and belong to the state of North Carolina, so soon as a canal, navigable for boats of ten tons, shall be opened from above the great falls of the Roanoke river, to the Chowan or Mehevrin rivers ; on condition, nevertheless, that no tax, toll, or impost, shall be levied or taken for the passage of such boats on the same canal, other than what maybe needful to pay the annual expense of superintending and keeping the same in repair.
XIII. And be it further enacted. That two hundred thousand acres of land, part of the tracts above mentioned, shall vest in, and belong to the state of Tennessee, so soon as a canal, navigable for boats of ten tons, shall be opened from the Tennessee river to the Tombigbee river.
XIV. And be it further enacted, That two hundred thousand acres of land, part of the tracts above mentioned, shall vest in and belong to the state of South-Carolina,so soon as a canal,navigable for boats of ten tons, shall be opened from the Cooper river and the Black river to the Santee.
XV. And be it further enacted, That one million acres of land, part of the tracts above mentioned, shall vest in and belong to the state of Georgia, so soon as a canal, navigable for boats of ten tons, shall be opened from the Tennessee to the Savannah river; on condition, nevertheless, that no tax, toll, or impost, shall be levied or taken for the passage of such boats ixi the same canal, other than what may be needful to
ing the same in repair.
XVI. Jind be it further enacted^ That three hundred thousand acres of land, part of the tracts above mentioned, shall vest in and belong to the state of Kentucky, so soon as proper locks shall be constructed to take round the falls of the Ohio, vessels of tons ; on condition, nevertheless, that no tax, toll, or impost, shall be levied or taken for such vessels passing through the said locks, other than what may be needful to pay the annual expense of superintending and keeping the same in repair.
XVII. And be it further enacted. That two hundred thousand acres of land, part of the tracts above mentioned shall be and the same are hereby granted to the company incorporated by the states of Maryland and Virgima,for improving the navigation of the Potomac, to be applied by the said company in ameliorating the said navigation.
XVIII. And be it further enacted. That none of the said land shall be sold or disposed of for a price less than two dollars per acre ; neither shall any settlement be made thereon until the Indian title shall be regularly and fairly extinguished. But the said several tracts may be severally and respectively pledged as a security for loans, the amount whereof, shall be employed for the purposes respectively designated.
XIX. And be it further enacted, That the public faith be, and the same hereby is pledged for the redemption of the capital of loans made equivalent to the lands, (at the rate of two dollars per acre,) granted in the second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh, ninth, tenth, twelfth, fifteenth and sixteenth sections of this statute, at the end of twenty years from the period when such several loans shall have been made. Provided, that the money borrowed, shall have been justly applied to the objects respectively specified, and that the tracts so granted, shall be respectively retroceded to the United States. It is, nevertheless,
to be understood, and is hereby declared and enacted, that if the state to which any such cession is hereby made, shall, within ten years, declare the intention to accept the grant of land finally, and relinquish the pledge of public faith hereby given, such grant shall be final, and the pledge of faith .shall be void.
XX. And he it further enacted^ That the President of the U. S. for the time being, shall, on due application to him made, designate, from time to time, by metes and bounds, the several tracts contemplated by the provisions of this statute, and which are not herein designated; and the acceptance of any state or any grant, shall be considered as an agreement to the condition which is hereby annexed to such grant.
XXI. Arid be it further enacted^ That a tract containing four million, five hundred thousand acres, in a parrallelogram, extending from east to west, across the north end of the Indiana territory, shall be, and hereby is appropriated to the conditional grants herein before made to the state of New-York, which parrallelogram shall be divided, by meridian lines into three several tracts, of which the eastern tract, containing four hundred thousand acres, shall apply to the object specified in the sixth section ; the middle tract, containing four million acres, shall apply to the object specified in the seventh section : and the western tract, containing one hundred thousand acres, shall apply to the object specified in the tenth section of this statute.
Copy of a letter dated 1 3th Feb''y,l8l2,From Robert Boivne, To the committee appointed to confer ivith the Western Inland Lock JYavigation Company
the Western Inland Lock Navigation Company ; and they have directed me to say, that they cannot, in justice to the stockholders, deviate from the terms before communicated to the commisssioners. The company was originally formed in consequence of an act of incorporation, not asked for by themselves. The Legislature conceived, very justly, that it vv^ould promote the general interest of the state, if an improvement should be made in the Mohav^^k river, and encouraged the citizens to unite in the undertaking. It may very truly be observed, that most of the stockholders subscribed more from patriotic, than from pecuniary motives, and the result has been, that the state has been greatly benefitted and the stockholders have received no advantage.
, The moneys expended, amount to near 450,000 dollars, and less than half that sum is now only demanded. This sacrifice is made on account of the sincere desire the directors feel in promoting a further and more extensive improvement of the Western Inland Navigation, and they presume the commissioners w^ill be satisfied that their present demand is just and reasonable.
Report of the Commissioners, appointed by the Legislature ofJ^ew- York, to provide for the Internal Improvement of the State. — In Jtssembly March 8, ]8I4.
That in compliance with their official duty, having made the fullest enquiries a-^-d investigations in their power, they have appointed an engineer to trace out the course, and estimate the expense of the proposed
canal ; as, also, to superintend such portion of the whole line as may be approved of by the Legislature, He would have probably have arrived before the present hour, had impediments to an intercourse with Great Britain been removed.
They sought a proper character in that country, preferably to any other, because from its extensive interior communication by canals, railways, and other expedients, they expect that a more intimate knowledge of useful facts can be obtained there than elsewhere ; and because an Englishman speaking the same language, and habituated to the same usages and manners, will more easily acquire information among us, and be less liable to imposition.
On the arrival of the engineer, the commissioners will immediately direct such surveys to be made as may be necessary, in order to ascertain the exact line of the canal from lake Erie to the Hudson; and when this work is completed, the estimates of the engineer shall, as soon as possible, be laid before the Legislature, who will then be able to form such a decision as will best promote the prosperity of the state.
The commissioners have, in the mean time, caused further investigations to be made, and would not have suspended the surveys, as they did, during the last summer, but for military operations which are not favourable to internal improvement. They -have, however, the satisfaction to state, that every examination tends to show, not only the practicability, but the facility of this enterprise ; so far as the term facility can reasonably be applied to a work of such magnitude. They add with much pleasure, that it will not be difficult to extend this communication to the fertile vales watered by the Susquehannah and its wide spreading branches. Hence, they presume,that the public spirit which has always characterized Pennsylvania, will, at a proper time, induce her to co-operate. It may, indeed, be objected, that, to facilitate the intercourse of a commercial rival, may
be of more comparative loss, than positive advantage. But far be such jealousies from the councils of NewYork. Marked by nature for greatness, and strong in the consciousness of intrinsic strength,she will always feel that nobjeness of soul which rather accelerate than retard her neighbour's prosperity.
The commissioners cannot quit this branch of the subject, without stepping a little out of the road in which they ought strictly to walk, for the purpose of expressing their belief, that the communication long since contemplated, between Lake Champlain and Hudson's River, may easily be effected ; and, thus, another of those great avenues be opened, which Providence has so well prepared, that little more is left for the state, than merely to will the possession of wealth and power.
The commissioners have, also, conformably to the powers conferred on them, applied for and obtained grants of land, a schedule whereof is annexed to this report. It would be improper not to acknowledge the liberality of the grantors ; but it would be doing injustice to their intelligence, should it be doubted, that a prudent regard to their own interest had its proper share in their determinations. The clearsighted perception of mankind, respecting matters which affect their property, opened to their view the benefits which they must derive from this extensive inland communication. They, as a part, see and feel what the states as a whole, must acquire by it; and the solidity of their opinion is the less to be questioned, as the light, in coming to their mental vision, ha& neither been intercepted by the opacity of dull conception, nor refracted by passing through mediums of misrepresentation.
The value of these lands will increase by every year of approaching settlement, and every avenue of amended access, whether by improving old roads or making new ones. We may, therefore, calculate, that in the course of twenty or thirty years, the proceeds of these lands will reimburse to the state no
small portion of the expense it may incur by completing the whole line of the proposed canal ; and here we must remind gentlemen, of what has frequently occurred to their own reflection, that although twenty or thirty years be a large portion of individual existence, they form but a short period of national duration.
The commissioners have also performed the duty of attempting a loan in Europe, conformably to the terms and within the limits prescribed. They have reason to believe, that their efforts would have been crowned with success, had not the declaration of war been nearly simultaneous with the grant of authority to make a loan. The attempt having failed, no farther measures have been adopted in relation to this object.
The commissioners havingthus rapidly recited facts which it is their duty to communicate, would be wanting to the public interest, did they not notice attempts to excite opposition to the work committed to their charge. They have examined in their preceding reports the reasons advanced by its opposers, and would endeavour to answer other reasons, if any such ihey could hear of In the face of incontrovertible facts the supposed superiority of what is called the natural communication, by Lake Ontario, has been strongly insisted on, and of late the prodigious advantage of carrying on the internal trade of America, through seaports of the ^t. Lawrence, was ostentatiously displayed to prove, that a canal through the Western District of New-York is an idle project.
These gentlemen could not indeed deny, that there is some risk in navigating the Lake, and some difficulty in descending the river ; but neither the risk nor the difficulty, nor both combined, are considered as serious obstacles. To men of such sanguine ternper, it is useless to observe, that this communication would be much more expensive than the one contemplated, and that it is closed from November to May
by the rigid laws of Nature ; but what are the laws of Nature to gentlemen enamoured with their own conceptions. Disdaining to consider the actual state of things ; whenever map-makers trace a stream, they find a military and commercial highway. Should there be a want of Avater, it is supplied by their depth of intellect; should the surface be covered with ice, it is thawed by their warmth of imagination. To contend with such men is no easy task, for they make facts as they go along, and reasons they disclaim ; insisting, that whatsoever they think proper to approve of is sublime ; whatsoever they think proper to dislike is absurd. From these decrees, pronounced with an air of censorial gravity and the contemptuous smile of superior intelligence, they admit of no appeal. Far from imitating them, the commissioners will not have the hardihood to question their sagacity, neither will they, after industriously applying the share of common sense allotted to them by the Divine Goodness, to the object of their appointment, pretend, even on that subject, to vie with gentlemen, whose privilege it is to understand, and whose prerogative to decide, according to the inverse proportion of their know-^ ledge. With all due deference, nevertheless, to such ethereal minds, they are constrained by stubborn habit, to adhere to the opinion of intelligent professional men. And here the commissioners beg leave to remark, that they are much misunderstood, when it is supposed that they recommend, exclusively^ a canal descending according to the level of the country, like an inclined plane. On the contrary, their project embraces the system of locks as well as the other, and their opinion is, that the operation must be regulated by the nature of the country, taking into view the diminution of expense and the shortening of distance. And they beg leave to call to the recollection of the Legislature, the decided opinion of Mr. William Weston, one of the most eminent civil engineers in Europe, who was formerly employed by the Inland Lock Navigation Company of this gtate?
and who is perfectly acquainted with the country. In a letter to one of the commissioners, he says, " Should your nohle^ but stupenduovs plan of uniting Lake Erie with the Hudson, be carried into efFect,you have to fear no rivalry. The commerce of the immense extent of country, bordering on the upper lakes, is your's for ever, and to such an incalculable amount as would baffle all conjecture to conceive. Its execution would confer immortal honour on the projectors and supporters, and would in its eventual consequences, render New-York the greatest commercial emporium in the world, with perhaps the exception, at some distant day, of New-Orleans, or some other depot at the mouth of the majestic Mississippi. From your perspicuous topographical description, and neat plan and profile of the route of the contemplated catal, I entertain little doubt of the practicability of the measure. Perhaps this is the only question which the Legislature should be particularly anxious to have resolved. The expense., be 2V what it may, is no object when compared with the incalculable benefits arising therefrom, though,doubtless, it will deserve attention, that the money granted liberally be wisely and economically expended."
SCHEDULE
Of cessions of lands agreed to be made to the people of this state, as a free ^ift for promoting the execution of canal navigation from lake Erie to the Hudson.
Hornby, 3,500
Robert Troup, Esq. agent for the heirs of Sir William Pulteney, will make a large grant in behalf of the heirs, as soon as his powers as agent of that estate, which have ceased by the death of his constituent, shall be renewed.
fected, copies will be transmitted to the legislature.
[ As this memorial was thefoundation of the statute of 1816, which constituted the present Board of Canal Commissioners, and established on a firm basis, the present system, it has been deemed advisable to republish it. Governor Clinton was the author of this memorial.]
The memorial of the subscribers, in favour of a Canal Navigation between the great western lakes and the tide-waters of the Hudson, most respectfully represents :
That they approach the Legislature with a solicitude proportioned to the importance of this great undertaking, and with a confidence founded on the enlightened public spirit ofthe constituted authorities. If, in presenting the various considerations which have induced them to make this appeal, they should occupy more time than is usual on common occasions, they must standjustifiedby the importance of the object. Connected as it is with the essential interest of our country, and calculated in its commencement to
reflect honour on the state, and in its completion, to exalt it to an elevation of unparallelled prosperity ; your memorialists are fully persuaded, that centuries may pass away before a subject is again presented so worthy of all your attention, and so deserving of all your patronage and support.
The improvement of the means of intercourse between different parts of the same country, has always been considered the first duty and the most noble employment of government. If it be important that the inhabitants of the same country should be bound together by a community of interests, and a reciprocation of benefits ; that agriculture should find a sale for its productions ; manufactures a vent for their fabrics ; and commerce a market for its commodities ; it is your incumbent duty, to open, facilitate, and improve internal navigation. The pre-eminent advantages of canals have been established by the unerring test of experience. They unite cheapness, celerity, certainty, and safety, in the transportation of commodities. It is calculated that the expense of transporting on a canal, amounts to one cent a ton per mile, or one dollar a ton for one hundred miles ; while the usual cost by land conveyance, is one dollar and sixty cents per hundred weight or thirty-two dollars a ton for the same distance. The celerity and certainty of this mode of transportation are evident. A loaded boat can be towed by one or two horses, at the rate of thirty miles a day. Hence, the seller or buyer can calculate with sufficient precision on his sales or purchases, the period of their arrival, the amount of their avails, and the extent of their value. A vessel on a canal is, independent of winds, tides, and currents, and is not exposed to the delays attending conveyances by land : and with regard to safety, there can be no competition. The injuries to which comimodities are exposed when transported by land, and the dangers to which they are liable when conveyed by natural waters, are rarely experienced on canals. In the latter
way, comparatively speaking, no waste is incurred, no risk is encountered, and no insurance is required. Hence, it follows, that canals operate upon the general interests of society, in the same way that machines for saving labour do in manufactures ; they enable the farmer, the mechanic, and the merchant, to convey their commodities to market, and to receive a return at least thirty times cheaper than by roads. As to all the purposes of beneficial communication, they diminish the distance between places, and therefore encourage the cultivation of the most extensive and remote parts of the country. They create new sources of internal trade, and augment the old channels,- for, the more cheap the transportation, the more expanded will be its operation, and the greater the mass of the products of the country for sale, the greater will be the commercial exchange of returning merchandise, and the greater the encouragement to manufacturers, by the increased economy and comfort of living, together with the cheapness and abundance of raw materials ; and Canals are consequently advantageous to towns and villages, by destroying the monopoly of the adjacent country, and advantageous to the whole country ; for though some rival commodities may be introduced into the old markets, yet many new markets will be opened by increasing population, enlarging old and erecting new towns, augmenting individual and aggregate wealth, and extending foreign commerce.
The prosperity of ancient Egypt, and China, may in a great degree be attributed to their inland navigation. With little foreign commerce, the former of those countries, by these means attained, and the latter possesses, a population and opulence in proportion to their extent, unequalled in any other. And England and Holland, the most commercial nations of modern times, deprived of their canaJs, would lose the most prolific sources of their prosperity and greatness. Inland navigation is in fact to the same community what exterior navigation is to
the great family of mankind. As the ocean connects the nations of the earth, by the ties of commerce, and the benefits of communication, so do lakes, rivers, and canals operate upon the inhabitants of the same country : and it has been well observed, that " were we to make the supposition of two states, the one having all its cities, towns, and villages upon navigable rivers and canals, and having an easy communication with each other; the other possessing the common conveyance of land carriage, and supposing both states to be equal as to soil, climate, and industry , commodities and manufactures in the former state might be furnished thirty per cent, cheaper than in the latter : or in other words, the first state would be a third richer, and more affluent than the other" The general arguments in favour of inland navigation, apply with peculiar force to the United States, and most emphatically to this state. A geographical view of the country, will at once demonstrate the unexampled prosperity that will arise from our cultivating the advantages which Nature has dispensed with so liberal a hand. A great chain of mountains passes through the United States, and divides them into eastern and western America. In various places, rivers break through those mountains, and are finally discharged into the ocean. To the west, there is a collection of inland lakes exceeding in its aggregate extent, some of the most celebrated seas of the old world. Atlantic America, on account of the priority of its settlement, its vicinity to the ocean, and its favourable position for commerce, has many advantages. The western country, however, has a decided superiority in the fertility of its soil, the benignity of its climate, and the extent of its territory. To connect these great sections by inland navigation, to unite our Mediterranean seas with the ocean, is evidently an object of the first importance to the general prosperity Nature has effected this in some measure; the St. Lawrence emanates from the lakes, and discharges itself into the ocean in a foreign terri •
tory. Some of the streams which flow into the Mississippi, originate near the great lakes, and pass round the chain of mountains. Some of the waters of this state which pass into lake Ontario, approach the Mohawk; but our Hudson has decided advantages. It affords a tide navigation for vessels of 80 tons to Albany and Troy, 160 miles above New-York, and this peculiarity distinguishes it from all the other bays and rivers in the United States, viz.
The tide in no other ascends higher than the Granite Ridge, or within thirty miles of the Blue Ridge, or eastern chain of mountains. In the Hudson it breaks through the Blue Ridge, and ascends above the eastern termination of the Catskill, or great western chain ; and there are no interposing mountains to prevent a communication between it and the great western lakes.
The importance of the Hudson River to the old settled parts of the state, may be observed in the immense wealth which is daily borne on its waters, in the flourishing villages and cities on its banks, and in the opulence and prosperity of all the country connected with it, either remotely or immediately. It may also be readily conceived, if we only suppose that by some awful physical calamity, some overwhelming convulsion of Nature, this great river was exhausted of its waters : where then would be the abundance of our markets, the prosperity of our farmers, the wealth of our merchants ? Our villages would become deserted ; our flourishing cities would be converted into masses of mouldering ruins, and this state would be precipitated into poverty and insignificance. If a river or natural canal, navigable about 170 miles, has been productive of such signal benefits, what blessings might not be expected, if it were extended 300 miles through the most fertile country in the universe, and united with the great seas of the west! The contemplated canal would be this extension, and viewed in reference only to the productions and
consumptions of the state, would perhaps convey more riches on its waters, than any other canal in the world. Connected with the Hudson, it might be considered as a navigable stream that extends 45^ miles through a fruitful country, embracing a great population, and abounding with all the productions of industry : if we were to suppose all the rivers and canals in England and Wales, combined into one, and discharged into the ocean at a great city, after passing through the heart of that country, then we can form a distinct idea of the importance of the projected canal; but it indeed comprehends within its influence a greater extent of territory, which will in time embrace a greater population. If this work be so important, when we confine our views to this state alone, how unspeakably beneficial must it appear, when we extend our contemplations to the great lakes, and the country affiliated with them ! Waters extending two thousand miles from the beginning of the canal, and a country containing more territory than all Great Britain and Ireland, and at least as much as France.
While we do not pretend that all the trade of our western world, will centre in any given place, (nor indeed would it be desirable if it were practicable, because we sincerely wish the prosperity of all the states,) yet we contend that our natural advantages are so transcendant, that it is in our power to obtain the greater part, and put successful competition at defiance. As all the other communications are impeded by mountains ; the only formidable rivals of New-York, for this great prize, are New-Orleans and Montreal, the former relying on the Mississippi, and the latter on the St. Lawrence.
outlet of Lake Erie.
The inducements for preferring one market to another, involve a variety of considerations : the principal are the cheapness and facility of transportation,
and the goodness of the market. If a cultivator or manufacturer can convey his commodities with the same ease and expedition to^New-York, and obtain a higher price for them than at Montreal or New-Orleans, and at the same time supply himself at a cheaper rate with such articles as he may want in return, he will undoubtedly prefer New-i ork. It ought also to be distinctly understood, that a difference in price may be equalized by a difference in the expense of conveyance, and that the vicinity of the market is at all times a consideration of great importance.
From Buffalo, at or near the supposed commencement of the canal, it is 450 miles to the city of NewYorif, and from that city to the ocean, 20 miles. From, Buffalo to Montreal 350 miles ; from Montreal to the Chops of the St. Lawrence, 450. From Buffalo to New-Orleans by the great Lakes, and the Illinois river, 2,250 miles ; from New-Orleans to the Gulf of Mexico 100. Hence, the distance from Buffalo to the ocean by the way of New-York, is 470 miles ; by Montreal 800 : and by New-Orleans 2,350.
As the upper lakes have no important outlet but into Lake Erie, we are warranted in saying, that all their trade must be auxiliary to its trade, and that a favourable communication by water from Buffalo, will render New- York the great depot and warehouse of the western world.
In order, however, to obviate all objections that may be raised against the place of comparison, let us take three other positions, C-^zm^o, near the southwest, and of Lake Michigan, and a creek of that name, which some times communicates with the Illinois, the nearest river from the lakes to the Mississippi: Detroit^ on the river of that name, between lakes St. Clair and Erie ; and Pittsburgh^ at the confluence of the Alleghany and Monongahela^rivers, forming the head of the Ohio, and communicating with Le Beuf by water, which is distant fifteen miles from Lake Erie.
York, is about 1,200 miles. To the mouth of the Mississippi, by New-Orleans, near 1,600 miles, and to the mouth of the St. Lawrence, by Montreal, near 1,600 miles.
The distance from Detroit to the ocean by NewYork, is near 700 miles. From Detroit to the ocean by Montreal, is 1,050 miles. From Detroit to the ocean, pursuing the nearest route by Cleveland, and down the Muskingum, 2,400 miles. The distance from Pittsburgh to the ocean, by Le Beuf, Lake Buffalo, and New-York, is 700 miles. The same to the ocean by Buffalo and Montreal, 1,050 miles. The same to the ocean by the Ohio and Mississippi, 2,150 miles.
These different comparative views show that NewYork has,in every instance, a decided advantage over her great rivals. In other essential respects the scale preponderates equally in her favour. Supposing a perfect equality of advantages as to the navigation of the lakes, yet from Buffalo, as the point of departure, there is no comparison of benefits. From that place the voyager to Montreal has to encounter the inconveniences of a portage at the cataract of Niagara, to load and unload at least three times, to brave the tempests of Lake Ontario and the rapids of the St. Lawrence.
In like manner the voyager to New-Orleans, has a portage between the Chicago and Illinois, an inconvenient navigation on the latter stream, besides the well-known obstacles and hazards of the Mississippi. And until the invention of Steam-Boats, an ascending navigation was considered almost impracticable. This inconvenience is, howei<§r, still forcibly experienced on that river, as well as on the St. Lawrence between Montreal and Lake Ontario.
The navigation from Lake Erie to Albany, can be completed in ten days with perfect sefetyon the canal; and from Albany to New-York, there is the best sloop navigation in the world.
be conveyed on the intended canal, for three dollars, and from Albany to New- York, according to the present prices of sloop transportation, for $2-^-^-^, and the return cargoes would be the same.
We have not sufficient data upon which to predicate very accurate estimates with regard to Montreal and New-Orleans ; but we have no hesitation in saying, that the descending conveyance to the former, would be four times the expense, and to the latter, at least ten times, and that the cost of the ascendingtransportation would be greatly enhanced.
It has been stated by several of the most respectable citizens of Ohio, that the present expense of transportation by water from the city of New-York to Sandusky, including the carrying places, is ;^4 tW P^r hundred, and allowing it to cost two dollars per hundred for transportation to Clinton, the geographical centre of the state, the whole expense would be $6y^-^\, which is only fifty cents more than the transportation from Philadelphia to Pittsburgh, and at least ^2-p5^%- less than the transportation by land and water from these places, and that, in their opinion, New-York is the natural emporium of that trade, and that the whole commercial intercourse of the western country north of the Ohio, will be secured to her by the contemplated canal.
In addition to this, it may be stated, that the St. Lawrence is generally locked up by ice seven months in the year, during which time produce lies a dead weight on the hands of the owner ; that the navigation from New-York to the ocean, is at all times easy, and seldom obstructed by ice, and that the passage from the Balize to New-Orleans is tedious ; that perhaps oKe out of five of the western boatmen who descend the Mississippi, become victims to disease; and that many important articles of western production are injured or destroyed by the climate. New- York is, therefore, placed in a happy medium between the insalubrious heat of the Mississippi, and the severe eold of the St. Lawrence. She has also pre-eminent
advantages, as to the goodness and extensiveness of her market. All the productions of the soil, and the fabrics of art, can command an adequate price, and foreign commodities can generally be procured at a lower rate. The trade of the Mississippi is already in the hands of her merchants,and although accidental and transient causes may have concurred to give Montreal an ascendency in some points, yet the superiority of New-York is founded in nature, and if improved by the wisdom of government, must always soar above competition.
Granting, however, that the rivals of New-York will command a considerable portion of the western trade, yet it must be obvious, from these united considerations, that she will engross more than sufficient to render her the greatest commercial city in the world. The whole line of canal will exhibit boats loaded with flour, pork, beef, pot and pearl ashes, flaxseed, wheat, barley, corn, hemp, wool, flax, iron, lead, copper, salt, gypsum, coal, tar, fur, peltry, ginseng, bees-wax, cheese, butter, lard, staves, lumber, and the other valuable productions of our country ; and also, with merchandise from all parts of the world. Great manufacturing establishments will spring up; agriculture will establish its granaries, and commerce its warehouses in all directions. Villages, towns, and cities, will line the banks of the canal, and the shores of the Hudson from Erie to New-York. ' The wilderness and the solitary place will become glad, and the desert will rejoice and blossom as the rose.'
While it is universally admitted that there ought to be a water communication between the great lakes and the tide-waters of the Hudson, a contrariety of opinion (greatly to be deplored, as tending to injure the whole undertaking) has arisen with respect to the route that ought to be adopted. It is contended on the one side, that the canal should commence in the vicinity of the outlet of Lake Erie, and be carried in the most eligible direction across the country to the head-waters of the Mohawk river at Rome : from
whence it should be continued along the valley of the Mohawk to the Hudson. It is, on the other side, insisted, that it should be cut round the cataract of Niagara ; that Lake Ontario should be navigated to the mouth of the Oswego river ; that the navigation of that river, and Wood Creek, should be improved and pursued until the junction of the latter with the Mohawk at Rome. As to the expediency of a canal from Rome to the Hudson, there is no discrepance of opinion : the route from Rome to the great Lakes constitutes the subject t)f controversy.
If both plans were presented to the Legislature, as worthy of patronage, and if the advocates of the route by Lake Ontario did not insist that their schemes should be exclusive, and of course, that its adoption should prove fatal to the other project, this question would not exhibit so serious an aspect. If two roads are made, that which is most accommodating will be preferred ; but if only one is established, whether convenient or inconvenient to individuals, beneficial or detrimental to the public, it must necessarily be used. We are so fully persuaded of the superiority of the Erie Canal, that although we should greatly regret so useless an expenditure of public money as making a canal round the cataract of Niagara, yet we should not apprehend any danger from the competition of Montreal, if the former were established.
An invincible argument in favour of the Erie canal, is, that it would diffuse the blessings of internal navigation over the most fertile and populous parts of the state, and supply the whole community with salt, gypsum, and in all probability coal. Whereas, the Ontario route would accommodate but an inconsiderable part of our territory, and instead of being a great highway, leading directly to the object, it would be a circuitous by-road, inconvenient in all essential respects.
The most serious objection against the Ontario route, is, that it will inevitably enrich the territory of a foreign power, at the expense of the United States. If
a canal is cut round the falls of Niagara, and no countervailing nor counteracting system is adopted in relation to lake Erie, the commerce of the west is lost to us for ever. When a vessel once descends into Ontario, she will pursue the course ordained by Nature. The British government are fully aware of this, and are now taking the most active measures to facilitate the passage down the St. Lawrence.
It is not to be concealed, that a great portion of the productions of our western country are now transported to Montreal, even with alHhe inconveniences attending the navigation down the Seneca and Oswego rivers ; but if this route is improved in the way proposed, and the other not opened, the consequences will be most prejudicial. A barrel of flour is now transported from Cayuga lake toJMontreal for ^lyVV* and it cannot be conveyed to Albany for less than ^2y5_o_. This simple fact speaks a volume of admonitory instruction.
But taking it for granted, that the Ontario route will bring the commerce of the west to New-York, yet the other ought to be preferred, on account of the superior facilities it affords.
In the first place, it is nearer. The distance from Buffalo to Rome, is less than 200 miles in the course of the intended canal : by lake Ontario and Oswego, it is 232.
2. A loaded boat could pass from Buffalo to Rome by the Erie route, in less than seven days, and with entire safety. By the Ontario route, it will be perfectly uncertain, and not a little hazardous. After leaving the Niagara river, it would have to pass an inland sea to the extent of 127 miles, as boisterous and as dangerous as the Atlantic. And besides a navigation of at least twenty miles over another lake, it would have to ascend two difficult streams for 55 miles ; no calculation could then be made, either on the certainty or safety of this complicated and inconvenient navigation.
would have to unload her cargo, and when this cargo arrived at Albany by the Erie canal, it would be shifted on board of a river sloop, in order to be transported to New- York. From the time of the first loading on the great lakes, to the last unloading at the storehouses in New- York, there would be three loadings and three unloadings on this route.
But when a lake vessel arrived with a view of passing the canal of Niagara, she would be obliged to shift her lading for that purpose, for it would be almost impracticable to use lake vessels on the Niagara river, on account of the difficulty of the ascending navigation. At Lewiston, or some other place on the Niagara, another change of the cargo on board of a lake vessel for Ontario would be necessary : at Oswego another, and at Albany another ; so that on this route, there would be five loadings and five unloadings, before the commodities were stored in New-York.
This difference is an object of great consequence, and presents the most powerful objections against the Ontario route ; for to the delay we must add the accumulated expense of these changes of the cargo, the storage, the waste and damage, especially bytheft, (where the chances of depredation are increased by the merchandise passing through a multitude of hands) and the additional lake vessels, boats and men that will be required, thereby increasing in this respect alone, the cost two thirds above that attending the other course. And in general it may be observed, that the difference between a single and double freight forms an immense saving. Goods are brought from Europe for twenty cents per cubic foot ; whereas the price from Philadelphia to Baltimore, is equal to ten cents. This shews how far articles once embarked, are conveyed with a very small addition of freight, and if such is the difference between a single and a a double freight, how much greater must it be in the case under consideration !
feet, as stated in Mr. Secretary Gallatin's report on canals, it will require at least 45 locks for a navigation round the cataract. Whether it would be practicable to accommodate all the vessels which the population and opulence of future times will create in those waters, with a passage through so many locks accumulated within a short distance, is a question well worthy of serious consideration. At all events, the demurrage must be frequent, vexatious, and expensive.
When we consider the immense expense which would attend the canal proposed on the Niagara river; a canal requiring so many locks, and passing through such- difficult ground; when we view the Oswego river from its outlet at Oswego to its origin in Oneida Lake, encumbered with dangerous rapids and falls, and flowing through a country almost impervious to canal operations ; and when we contemplate the numerous embarrassments which are combined with the improvement of Wood Greek, we are prepared to believe that the expense of this route will not greatly fall short of the other.
It is however alleged, that it is not prac ticable to make this canal ; and that if practicable, the expense will be enormous, and will far transcend the faculties of the state.
Lake Erie is elevated 541 feet above the tide waters at Troy. The only higher ground between it and the Hudson is but a few miles from the Lake : and this difficulty can be easily surmounted by deep cutting; of course no tunnel will be required. The rivers which cross the line of the canal, can be easily passed by aqueducts ; on every summit level, plenty of water can be obtained; whenever there is a great rise or descent, locks can be erected, and the whole line will not require more than sixty two ; perhaps there is not an equal extent of country in the world, which presents fewer obstacles to the establishment of a canal. The liberality of Nature has created the great ducts and arteries, and the in-
genuity of art can easily provide the connecting veins. The general physiognomy of the country is champaign, and exhibits abundance of water: a gentle rising from the Hudson to the lake ; a soil vi^ell adapted for such operations : no impassible hills, and no insurmountable waters. As to distance, it is not to be considered in relation to practicability. If a canal can be made for fifty miles, it can be made for three hundred, provided there is no essential variance in the face of the country ; the only difference will be that in the latter case, it will take more time, and consume more money.
But this opinion does not rest for its support upon mere speculation. Canals have been successfully cut through more embarrassing ground, in various parts of the United States ; and even in part of the intended route from Schenectady to Rome, locks have been erected at the Little Falls, and at other places ; and short canals have been made, and all these operations have taken place in the most difficult parts of the whole course of the contemplated Erie navigation. Mr. William Weston, one of the most celebrated civil engineers in Europe, who has superintended canals in this state and Pennsylvania, and who is perfectly well acquainted with the country, has thus expressed his opinion on this subject : " Should your noble but stupenduous plan of uniting Lake Erie with the Hudson, be carried into effect, you have to fear no rivalry. The commerce of the immense extent of country, bordering on the upper lakes, is yours for ever, and to such an incalculable amount as would baffle all conjecture to conceive. Its execution would confer immortal honour on the projectors and supporters, and would in its eventual consequences, render New- York the greatest commercial emporium in the world, with perhaps the exception at some distant day of New-Orleans, or some other depot at the mouth of the majestic Mississippi. From your perspicuous topographical description and neat plan and profile of the route of the contemplated canal,
With regard to the expense of this work, different estimates will be formed. The commissioners appointed for that purpose, were of opinion that it would not cost more than five millions of dollars. On this subject we must be guided by the light which experince affords in analogous cases.
The canal of Languedoc, or canal of the two seas in France, connects the Mediterranean and the Atlantic, and is 180 miles in length : it has 114 locks and sluices, and a tunnel 720 feet long. The breadth of the canal is 141 feet, and its depth six feet: it was begun in 1666, and finished in 1681, and cost £540,000 sterling, or £3,000 sterling a mile.
The Holstien canal, begun in 1777, and finished i-n 1785, extends about fifty miles: is 100 fieet wide at the top, and 54 at the bottom, and not less than ten feet deep in any part. Ships drawing nine feet four inches water, pass through it from the German ocean, in the vicinity of Tonningen, into the Baltic. From two to three thousand ships have passed in one year. The expense of the whole work was a little more than a million and a half of dollars, which would be at the rate of 30,000 dollars a mile for this ship navigation.
The extreme length of the canal from the Forth to the Clyde in Scotland is 35 miles. It rises and falls 160 feet by means of 39 locks. Vessels pass drawing eight feet water, having 19 feet beam, and 73 feet length. The cost is calculated at £200,000 sterling, which is at the rate of about 23,000 dollars a mile. But this was a canal for ships drawing eight feet of water, with an extraordinary rise for its length, and having more than one lock for every mile.
But in the estimation of the cost of these canals, unquestionably the price of the land over which they pass is included, and this is enormous. The land alone for one canal of 16 miles, is said to have cost £90,000 sterling. With us this would be but small.
If we look at the history of the English canals, we shall see how many objects of great expense are connected with them, with which we should have nothing to do, and that most of them have encountered and surmounted obstacles which we should not meet with. For instance, the Grand Junction canal passes more than once the great ridge which divides the waters of England ; ours will pass over a country w^hich in comparison is champaign.
But it is said that the price of labour in our country is so much above what it is in England, that we must add greatly to the cost of her canals in estimating the expense of ours. But that is certainly a false conclusion, for not only must the price of the land and the adventitious objects which have been before referred to, be deducted from the cost of the foreign canals, but we must consider that there will be almost as great a difference in our favour in the cost of materials and brute labour, as there is in favour of England as to human labour,and it is well krbwn that so much human labour is not now required on canals as formerly. Machines for facilitating excavation have been invented and used with great success.
Mr. Gallatin's report on canals contains several estimates of the cost of contemplated ones. From Weymouth to Taunton,in Massachusetts, the expense of a canal of 26 miles, with a lockage of 260 feet, is set down at 1,250,000 dollars. From Brunswick to Trenton, 28 miles, with a lockage of 100 feet, 800,000
dollars. From Chistiana to Elk, 22 miles with a lockage of 148 feet, 750,000 dollars. From Elizabeth rier to Pasquotank, 22 miles, with a lockage of 40 feet, 250,000 dollars. These estimates thus vary from 48,000 to less than 12,000 dollars a mile, and furnish the medium of about 31,000 dollars a mile. But it must be observed that they are for small distances,are calculated to surmount particular obstacles, and contemplate an extraordinary number of locks, and that they do not therefore furnish proper data from which to form correct conclusions,with respect to the probable cost of an extensive canal, sometimes running over a great number of miles upon a level without any expense for lockage, or any other expense than the mere earth work.
Mr.Weston,before mentioned,estimated the expense of a canal from the tide waters at Troy to lake Ontario, a distance of 100 miles, (exclusive of Lake Oneida,) going round the Cohoes, and embracing 55 locks of eight feet lift each, at 2,200,000 dollars, a little more than 13,000 dollars a mile.
formation than mere estimates.
In the appendix to Mr. Gallatin's report, it is stated by Mr. Joshua Gilpin, that " by actual measurement, and the sums paid on the feeder, it was found that one mile on the Delaware and Chesapeake canal, the most difficult of all others, from its being nearly altogether formed through hard rocky ground, cost 13,000 dollars, and one other mile perfectly level, and without particular impediments, cost 2,300 dollars; from hence, the general average would be reduced to 7,650 dollars per mile."
The Middlesex canal, in Massachusetts, runs over twenty-eight miles of ground, presenting obstacles much greater than can be expected on the route we purpose. This canal cost 478,000 dollars, which is about 17,000 dollars a mile. It contains 22 locks of solid masonry and excellent workmanship, and to accomplish this work, it was necessary to dig in some places to the depth of 20 feet, to cut through ledges
of rocks, to fill some valleys and morasses, and to throw several aqueducts across the intervening rivers. One of these across the river Shawshine is 280 feet long, and 22 feet above the river. From the Tonewanta Creek, to the Seneca
From thence to the Hudson river, is a fall of 380
The whole rise and fall, - - - 625 feet. This will require 62 locks of ten feet lift each. The expense of such locks as experimentally proved in several instances in this state would be about 620,000 dollars.
We have seen that on the Middlesex canal, there are 22 locks for 28 miles, which is a lock for somewhat more than every mile, whereas, 62 locks for 300 miles is but about one lock for every five miles ; and the lockage of the Middlesex canal, would alone cost 220,000 dollars. It would, therefore, appear to be an allowance perhaps too liberal, to consider the cost of it as a fair criterion of the expense of canals in general in this country,and of this in particular. Reservoirs and tunnels, are the most expensive part of the operation, and none will be necessary in our whole route. The expense of the whole earth work of excavating a mile of canal on level ground fifty feet wide and five feet deep, at 1 8 cents per cubic yard,and allowing for the cost of forming and trimming the banks, puddling, &c. will not exceed 4000 dollars per mile, and the only considerable aqueduct on the whole line, will be over the Genesee river.
From a deliberate consideration of these different estimates and actual expenditures, we are fully persuaded that this great work will not cost more than 20,000 dollars a mile, or six millions of dollars in the whole ; but willing to make every possible allowance, and even conceding that it will cost double that sum, yet still we contend that there is nothing which ought to retard its execution. This canal can-
haps of 10 or 15 years.
The money will not be wanted at once. The expenditure, in order to be beneficial, ought not to exceed .')00,000 dollars a year, and the work may be accomplished in two ways ; either by companies, incorporated for particular sections of the route, or by the state. If the first is resorted to, pecuniary sacrifices will still be necessary on the part of the public, and great care ought to be taken to guard against the high tolls, which will certainly injure, if not ruin the whole enterprise.
If the state shall see fit to achieve this great work, there can be no difficulty in providing funds. Stock can be created and sold at an advanced price. The ways and means of paying the interest will be only required. After the first year, supposing an annual expenditure of 500,000 dollars, thirty thousand dollars must be raised to pay an interest of six per cent ; after the second year 60,000, and so on. At this rate interest they will regularly increase with beneficial appropriation, and will be so little in amount that it may be raised in many shapes without being burdensome to the community. In all human probability, the augmented revenue proceeding from the public salt works, and the increased price of the state lands, in consequence of this undertaking, will more than extinguish the interest of the debt contracted for that purpose. We should also take into view, the land already subscribed by individuals for this work, amounting to 106,632 acres. These donations, together with those which may be confidently anticipated, will exceed in value a milHon of dollars, and it will be at all times in the power of the state to raise a revenue from the imposition of transit duties, which may be so light as scarcely to be felt, and yet the income may be so great as in a short time to extinguish the debt, and this might take effect on the completion of every important section of the work.
US in opinion, that the general prosperity is intimately and essentially involved in its prosecution, we are fully persuaded that now is the proper time for its commencement. Delays, are the refuge of weak minds, and to procrastinate on this occasion is to show a culpable inattention to the bounties of Nature ; a total insensibility to the blessings of Providence, and an inexcusable neglect of the interests of society. If it were intended to advance the views of individduals, or to foment the divisions of party; if it promoted the interests of a few, at the expense of the prosperity of the many ; if its benefits were limited as to place, or fugitive as to duration, then indeed it might be received with cold indifference, or treated with stern neglect ; but the overflowing blessing from this great fountain of public good and national abundance, will be as extensive as our country, and as durable as time.
The considerations which now demand an immediate, and an undivided attention to this great object, are so obvious, so various, and so weighty, that we shall only attempt to glance at some of the most prominent.
In the first place, it must be evident, that no period could be adopted in which the work can be prosecuted with less expense. Every day augments the value of the land through which the canal will pass ; and when we consider the surplus hands which have been recently dismissed from the army into the walks of private industry, and the facility with which an addition can be procured to the mass of our active labour, in consequence of the convulsions of Europe, it must be obvious that this is now the time to make those indispensable acquisitions.
2. The longer this work is delayed, the greater will be the difficulty in surmounting the interests that will rise up in opposition to it. Expedients on a contracted scale have already been adopted for the facilitation of intercourse. Turnpikes, locks, and short canals, have been resorted to, and in consequence of those
establishments, villages have been laid out, and towns have been contemplated. To prevent injurious specculation, to avert violent opposition, and to exhibit dignified impartiality and paternal affection to your fellow citizens, it is proper that they should be notified at once of your intentions.
3. The experience of the late war has impressed every thinking man in the community, with the importance of this communication. The expenses of transportation frequently exceeded the original value of the article, and at all times operated with injurious pressure upon the finances of the nation. The money thus lost for the want of this communication would have perhaps defrayed more than one half of its expense.
4. Events which are daily occurring on our frontiers, demonstrate the necessity of this work. Is it of importance that our honourable merchants should not be robbed of their legitimate profits; that the public revenues should not be seriously impaired by dishonest smuggling, and that the commerce of our cities should not be supplanted by the mercantile establishments of foreign countries ? then it is essential that this sovereign remedy for maladies so destructive and ruinous, should be applied. It is with inconceivable regret we record the well known fact, that merchandise from Montreal has been sold to an alarming extent on our borders for 15 per cent, below the New-York prices.
5. A measure of this kind wiU have a benign tendency in raising the value of the national domains, in expediting the sale, and enabling the payment Our national debt may thus, in a short time, be extinguished. Our taxes of course will be diminished, and a considerable portion of revenue may then be expended in great public improvements ; in encouraging the arts and sciences ; in patronising the operations of industry; in fostering the inventions of genius, and in defusing the blessings of knowledge.
tertained of a dismemberment of the Union by collisions between the north and the south, it is to be apprehended that the most imminent danger lies in another direction, and that a line of separation may be eventually drawn between the atlantic and the western states, unless they are cemented by a com^ mon, an ever acting and a powerful interest. The commerce of the ocean, and the trade of the lakes, passing through one channel, supplying the wants, increasing the wealth, and reciprocating the benefits of each great section of the empire, will form an imperishable cement of connexion, and an indissoluble bond of union. New-York is both atlantic and western, and the only state in which this union of interest can be formed and perpetuated, and in which this great centripetal power can be energetically applied. Standing on this exalted eminence, with power to prevent a train of the most extensive and afflicting calamities that ever visited the world, (for such a train will inevitably follow a dissolution of the Union,) she will justly be considered an enemy to the human race, if she does not exert for this purpose the high faculties which the Almighty has put into her hands.
Lastly. It may be confidently asserted, that this canal, as to the extent of its route, as to the countries which it connects, and as to the consequences which it will produce, is without a parallel in the history of mankind. The union of the Baltic and the Euxine ; of the Red Sea and the Mediterranean ; of the Euxine and the Caspian, and of the Mediterranean and the Atlantic, has been projected or executed by the chiefs of powerful monarchies, and the splendour of the design has always attracted the admiration of the world. It remains for a free state to create a new era in history, and to erect a work more stupendous, more magnificent, and more beneficial^ than has hitherto been achieved by the human race. Character is as important to nations as to individuals, and the glory of a republic, founded on the promotion of the general good, is the common property of all its citizens.
We have thus discharged with frankness and plainness, and with every sentiment of respect, a great duty to ourselves, to our fellow citizens, and to posterity, in presenting this subject to the fathers of the commonwealth. And may that Almighty Being, in whose hands are the destinies of states and nations, enlighten your councils and invigorate your exertions in favour of the best interests of our beloved country.
During the late war, it was impracticable to carry on any further operations to forward the objects of their appointment, by pursuing the surveys and levels heretofore commenced with a view to ascertain the most desirable route for the proposed canal from Lake Erie, to the tide-waters of the Hudson River.
Referring therefore to their former reports,respecting the practicability of effecting this important object, they will briefly add, that their opinions have been confirmed by reflection and additional inquiries on the subject. And particularly so far as respects the cost, they are satisfied that it will not exceed the calculation they have already submitted. It now remains for the legislature to provide means to enable the commissioners to engage a competent professional engineer to examine minutely the whole of the ground, and decide on the most expedient route. Experience in similar operations in Europe, has shown that an error in regard to this may cause the useless expenditure of vast sums of money. The surveys and levels which the commissioners have caused to be taken, will have anticipated what an engineer would direct as an indispensable, preparatory work, and will put information into his hands which will enable him at once to take such a view of the field of operation, as to save much time and expense.
therefore consider as essential to economy, since they will, with but little time employed in traversing the ground, by the person to whom the work will be intrusted, enable him to fix on the precise route, on which the best judgment, with the best information, would finally determine, with less danger of error, than if he were left to enter on his business, an entire stranger to the facilities or difficulties which the country presents. To select a suitable person to perform this most important part of the work, will require the utmost caution and deliberation. The same causes which suspended the duties of the commissioners, have been the principal obstacles to the selection and employment of a capable engineer. There are few persons of this description in Europe, and there is every inducement for preferring our own countrymen, if the requisite scientific and practical knowledge can be formed.
From the number and the respectability of the applications now before the legislature in favour of an immediate commencement and vigorous prosecution of this great national work, it is evident that the immense advantages which would result from its completion, are duly appreciated by our fellow citizensf and itonly remains for the legislature to sanction,by their approval,an undertaking which combines in one object the hoaour, interest, and political eminence of the state.
In a time of peace like the present, the commissioners have the most undoubted assurance, that a loan on the credit of the state can be obtained for a million of dollars, with which to commence the work, and for as much more thereafter as may be required, at a rate of interest at or under six per cent. Perhaps, however, better means may be devised ; and they beg leave to remind the legislature, that the lands already offered to them by private individuals near whose property the canal will pass,are very valuable, and that further similar donations may be seasonably expected. If it should be judged expedient to
make that part of the canal first, which is best calculated to yield an immediate and most profitable return for the expense, the Commissioners are of opinion that the route from Rome to the Seneca river will be the most elegible; and would moreover have the most immediate tendency to divert the trade from passing down the Oswego river to lake Ontario and Montreal : to permit which would be improvidently to abandon to a foreign and rival nation, commercial advantages which ages may not enable us to reclaim. The difficulty of diverting the fixed currents of trade is obvious and well known; and the importance of the policy of directing that of the western section of the state to the Hudson, is equally evident : and the commissioners conceive that the present moment, while this section of the state is yet comparatively in its infancy, is most favourable for forming and establishing such connexions between the lakes and our atlantic waters, as will effectually disappoint the views of our rivals, and promote the honour and advantage of the state.
While the commissioners cannot express, in terms sufficiently emphatic, their ideas of the incalculable benefits which will arise from a canal navigation between the great western lakes and the tide waters of the Hudson, they fully appreciate the advantages of connecting the waters of Champlain and the Hudson. And they most respectfully represent to the legislature the expediency of adopting such preliminary measures as may be necessary for the accomplishment of this important object.
or THE
THE Commissioners constituted by the act, entitled ^^ j9n act to provide for the improvement of the internal naviga,tion of this State,''"' passed this llth April, 1816, most respectfully present the following Report to the Legislature, being " a plain and comprehensive Report of their proceedings,'''' as required by the said act.
1st. To devise and adopt such measures as shall be requisite to facilitate and effect a communication, by canals and locks, between lake Erie, and the navigable waters of Hudson's river, and also between lake Champlain and the said navigable waters.
2d. To examine and explore the country, for the purpose of determining the most eligible routes for the contemplated canals ; to cause surveys and levels to be taken, and maps, field books, and draughts to be made, and to adopt and recommend proper plans for the construction and formation of the said canals, and of the locks, dams, embankments, tunnels, and aqueducts; and to cause all necessary plans, models, and draughts thereof to be executed.
above operations.
4 th. To ascertain whether to any, and to what amount, and upon what terms, loans of money can be procured, on the credit of the state, for the above purposes — and,
5th. To apply for donations ©f land or money, in aid of those undertakings, to the United States, to states interested, to corporate bodies, and to individuals.
board, they conceived it best to effect, if practicable, the objects of the legislature, in the course of the seasons. — With this view, they agreed to appoint three engineers for the Erie, and one for the Champlain canal ; each engineer to be assisted by a surveyor and a competent number of hands. The Erie canal was divided into three great sections, and one engineer assigned to each ; the western section extending from Lake Erie to the Seneca river ; the middle section from the said river to Rome ; and the eastern section from Rome to the Hudson. In the course of their investigations, they found it expedient to appoint a fourth engineer, to explore and survey the country from Buffalo to the east line of the Holland purchase, on the south side of the mountain ridge, it being represented that this route might be preferable to that on the north side.
The best artificial navigation in the United States being the Middlesex canal, in Massachusetts, two of the commissioners, accompanied by two of the engineers, proceeded to examine it, in order to obtain practical information on the subject.
Another meeting of the commissioners was held at Utica, on the 15th day of July : after which, three of them explored, in person, the principal and most important parts of the route of the western canal, and superintended and directed the general operations of the engineers. And in the course of the season, two of those commissioners attended, in like manner, to the northern canal, while their colleagues continued to devote their attendance to the concerns of the other.
The dimensions of the western or Erie canal and locks, ought, in the opinion of the commissioners, to be as follows, viz. — width on the water surface, forty feet: at the bottom, twenty-eight feet, and depth of water, four feet ; the length of a lock, ninety feet, and its width, twelve feet in the clear. Vessels carrying one hundred tons, may navigate a canal of this size : and all the lumber produced in the country, and required for market, may be transported upon it.
The route of the canal, as explored has been carefully designated by bench marks,level pegs, and other fixtures; and in obedience to special instructions, given by the commissioners, shafts have been sunk into the earth in various places, to ascertain its nature, with a view to a just estimation of the labour required, and of the expense to be incurred ; and great pains have been taken to collect all the facts which might be requisite to elucidate the facilities in favour, and the impediments in the way, of this great undertaking.
From their own examination, the commissioners determined that it would be expedient to connect the west end of the great canal with the waters of Lake Erie, through the mouth of Buffalo creek. In adopting this determination, they were influenced by the following considerations : It is important to have, at that end, a safe harbour, capable, without much expense, of sufficient enlargement for the accommodation of all boats and vessek, that a very extensive trade may hereafter require to enter and exchange their lading there. The waters of Lake Erie are higher, at the mouth of the Buffalo, than they are at Bird island, or any point further down the Niagara; and every inch gained in elevation will produce a large saving in the expense of excavation, throughout the Lake Erie level.
That section of the route which extends from Buffalo to the east line of the Holland purchase, and lying south of the mountain ridge, as before described, was explored by William Peacock, Esq. as engineer, under the superintendence of Joseph Ellicott, Esq. one of the commissioners^ who had been previously requested, by a vote of the board, to afford such superintendence. In the details of this section, reference is made to Mr. Ellicott's report to the president of the board, and to the field notes, draughts, maps, and remarks of the said engineer, all of which are herewith presented.
creek, marked F, on the map, and extending two miles to the southern extremity of Black Rock, mark» ed G, the line of the canal passes over a marsh, of which more than two feet of the surface consists of light muck resting upon a strong bed of clay, suitable for brick. The average depth of cutting, for this distance, will be nearly ten feet. To perform it will require the excavation of 33,350 cords of earth, which is estimated at ^ 112 1-2, and would cost $ 37,581
From G to E, on the map is a mile, and includes the margin of Niagara river, at Black Rock. The rock here is composed of limestone, mixed, in the upper stratum, with flint ; and as the average depth of cutting will be five feet, there must be excavated 49,960 perches of stone. At 62 V2 cents per perch, this would cost $ 30,600
It is believed, however, that by erecting a wall near the river, and puddling it for the lower bank, the canal may be made, for this mile, af an expense not exceeding half of the above estimate.
From the letter E, at Black Rock ferry, to L, at the Tonewanta creek, the line of the canal continues along the margin of Niagara river, the distance being thirteen miles. A part of this distance will be completed, by moving earth enough to form the lower bank of the canal only ; nevertheless, to cover the expense of making culverts and small embank"Tiients, at several creeks which cross the canal line, the average depth of excavation is calculated at five feet. This calculation will require the removal of 80,600 cords of earth, which, at one dollar, would amount to $ 80,600
At L. it is proposed to erect a dam, across the creek of sufficient height to raise the waters thereof to the level of Lake Erie. This height would be four feet deep and sixty-eight hundredths ; and the expense of the dam is estimated at $ 8,500
depth of water for seventeen miles up the Tonewanta, to R. Both banks of this creek are bold ; a towing path might be made on either for ^600 per mile, and would therefore cost for the whole distance ^10,200. Thus might the canal be completed, for seventeen miles, by using the bed of this creek, of the expense of $18,700
In most cases, experience is decidedly against making use of the channels of natural streams, on any part of the route of canal navigation. These streams are so apt to produce injury to the artificial works with which they are connected, by freshets in the spring, with a strong and muddy current, by want of water in the fall, and the sudden changes to which they are liable at all seasons, that they should be avoided, except as feeders, almost when it is practicable. But always to these remarks the Tonewanta affords an exception. After the dam is built near its mouth, that part of it which it is intended to use, will have much more the character of a quiet narrow bay, or an artificial canal, than of a natural stream ,- and to give it still more of this character, provision might be made, with very little expense, at the point where its waters are first subservient to the canal, to turn all its superfluous freshets and floods down the Oak Orchard creek, into lake Ontario.
At R, on the Tonewanta, thirty-three miles from the west end of the canal, the Lake Erie level terminates. From this place to C, on the summit level between Lake Erie and the Genesee river, is twelve miles. In this distance locks must be constructed for a rise of seventy-four feet and eighty hundredths. It would probably be expedien^to divide this rise equally between ten locks, in which case the lift of each would be seven feet and forty-eight hundredths. Of these locks three might be placed at R, four at C, and the remaining three at some convenient place or
places between. The expense of them would not exceed ;S 100,000. Between R, and C, the country is remarkably even. The average quantity of earth to be excavated in each mile of this part of the route, is estimated at 3,786 cords ; which, as the plough and scraper might be almost exclusively u^ed, would not cost more than sixty-two and a half cents per cord. At this rate, twelve miles, the distance between R, and C, would cost $ 28,275
The length of the summit level, from C, to B, is seventeen miles, ; and it passes over a country so very level, that an average depth of four feet of excavation is all that will be required. To effect this, the removal of 5,550 cords of earth per mile, will be necessary, and such removal may be performed for seventy-five cents per cord, amounting, for seventeen miles, to $ 64,387
From D, on the Tonewanta creek, to C, on the west end of the summit level, it is intended to construct a feeder sixteen feet wide and four feet deep. The length of this feeder will be four miles and sixty chains, and 2,640 cords of earth per mile must be removed in order to complete it; at seventy-five cents per cord, this would cost $ 9,443
From the end of the canal, at Buffalo, to B, at the east end of the summit level, west of the Genesee river, is sixty-two miles. In his report relating to this section, Mr. Ellicott observes, that in the preceding estimates of expense little has been left to conjecture. The aggregate amount of these estimates is $379,523. To which he adds; for grubbing and clearing ; for conducting Bigelow's and Spring creeks into the summit level, near its east end, and for pay of engineer, and officers to superintend the execution of the work, ^70,477
It wdl be observed, that if the canal takes the direction here indicated, it will be raised seventy-four ieet and eighty-hundredths above the level of lake
Erie, in which case recourse must be had to other reservoirs for its supply of water. Common prudence demands, that upon this subject every doubt should be removed, before this route is definitively adopted. Mr.Ellicott has had the sources of this supply guaged with great care, during the driest part of the last season, which has been more remarkable for severe drought than any ever before experienced in that part of the state.
Independently of waters deemed sufficient to repair the waste occasioned by evaporation and soakage, these sources consist of ten streams naturally flowing, or capable of being conducted into the summit level. When these streams were guaged, they afforded in the aggregate 253,435 cubic feet of water per hour, which would fill six hundred and seventythree locks every day, and provide for the passage of 1,209,600 tons during eight months, in boats of thirty tons burden. Besides, the raising of one of the canal banks to the necessary height for a towing path, on the summit level, would produce the flooding of more than a thousand acres of land, which as a reservoir, together with the hourly discharge of the streams above-mentioned, would be abundantly sufficient for all the wants of this level.
From the east end of this level, down the valley of Black creek, and along the west banks of the Genesee river, to the point where the route explored north of the mountain ridge passes that river, the face of the country has not been scientifically examined. It is well known, however, to present no serious impediments to the construction of a canal; and its facilities are thought to be such, that if the difficulties occurring on the summit level do not prevent, the canal should certainly take this direction. The length of this unexamined section would be about thirty miles ; and it would require locks for a fall of one hundred and thirty-nine feet and eighty hundredths. The expense of these locks might be estimated at jg; 150,000
Genesee river, in this direction, 780,000
' At a point eleven miles up the Tonewanta creek, from its mouth, that section of the route assigned to James Geddes, Esquire, as engineer, commences, and extends eastward to the Seneca river. In the details of this section, reference is made to the minutes, maps, profiles and draughts of the said engineer, herewith presented.
Pursuing this route, the canal never rises above the lake Erie level. It would, therefore, derive its waters, until it descends to the Genesee level, and as much further as may be necessary, from that neverfailing reservoir.
of the route, on this section.
I From the place of its commencement, at the distance of five miles and sixty-four chains, this route reaches the brow of the mountain ridge. For the first forty-four chains of this distance, it falls in the channel of a small stream, and twenty-two chains the channel of that stream is sufficiently wide and deep for the canal. But a towing path on its margin would cost %1 50 per chain, $165
To give the other twenty-two chains the average width and depth of the canal, 2438 cubic yards of earth must be excavated, at eighteen cents ; this would cost $440
Add for towing path, at the same rate as above, 165 The expense of the next thirty chains, as a little deep cutting is to be encountered in it, is estimated at $ 30 ] 8. At this place, seventy-four chains northerly from the Tonewanta creek, commences the deep cutting,, which continues four miles and seventy chains to the brow of the ridge above-mentioned, and there terminates the lake Erie level, in this direction.
sented on the whole route, great pains have been taken to avoid all impracticable data of calculation relating to it, and, at the same time, to give to the work such dimensions and construction as may be required, with the greatest attainable economy. Throughout this deep cutting, the calculations embrace a width of water on the surface of the canal of twenty-seven feet ; a bank from the bottom to an elevation of five feet on each side, of such a slope as that twelve inches rise will give a base of eighteen inches ; a recess at this elevation, in one bank of two feet, and in the other of one ; and an ascent of both banks from these recesses, to the natural surface of the earth, at an angle of forty-five degrees with the horizon. The earth here consists of a stiff brown clay,which in the banks of the Tonewanta, stands fifteen feet high at a steeper slope than the one above proposed for the canal banks above the water. Of the recesses, the least is for a berm, the largest for a towing path, to be completed in a manner described below.
In order to conform to these calculations, the first sixty-one chains of this deep cutting, which rises from fourteen to seventeen feet above the bottom of the canal, would require the excavation of 68,106 cubic yards ; but as there flows through this distance a brook, which has scooped out a channel averaging three feet deep by thirty feet wide, there may be deducted 13,380 cubic yards from the number above stated, leaving to be actually excavated 54,726,which at twenty-five cents, will cost $ 13,681
For the next forty chains and twenty links, the depth of cutting will average eighteen feet, and making for this distance a deduction, on account of the channel of the brook, at nearly the same rate as above the number of yards to be excavated will be 60,000, which at twenty seven cents, wil] cost $ 1 6,200
For the next forty-eight chains and eighty links, the average depth is nineteen feet seventy-five hundredths; number of yards to be excavated 97,442; which at twenty-eight cents, will cost ^ 26,983
For the next two hundred and forty chains, the ave age depth is twenty-five feet ; number of yards to be excavated 687,866, at thirty-one cents, will cost $213,238
The medium expense of excavating a cubic yard of earthy in this deep cutting, has been adopted from an estimate of the expense of such excavation to four different depths below the surface, viz : to 6 1-4 feet to 12 1-2 feet, to 18 3-4 feet and to twenty-five feet ; and the medium expense of such excavation to the first depth is estimated at 16 cents ; to the second at 28 cents ; to the third at 36 cents ; to the fourth at 46 cents which makes in the whole 124 cents ; divide the aggregate of these sums by 4 and the medium is 31, which is the rate per yard adopted, for the most part, in the above calculations ; and where it is not to avoid fractions, a rate somewhat higher has been adopted.
In effecting this excavation, it is proposed to use the machine described in page eighty two of a publication entitled " A treatise on Internal Navigation," &c. To the above items of expense, therefore, add, for making the machine, keeping it in repair, and moving it as may be wanted, ^2,500
To construct a towing path through this deep cutting, it will be necessary to erect a dry stone wall, on the side of the largest recess Above mentioned, three and a half miles long. This wall should be thirty inches thick at the bottom, twenty four at the top, and six feet high. Let it be laid two feet below the water, to prevent injury by frost, and four feet above with a suitable battering ; fill up the space between it and the recess, and then the wall : the recess and the space between them filled up, will form a towing path six feet wide. Such a wall would consume 10,080 perches of stone, after they are laid up. They may be laid up at eighty-seven and an half cents per perch, amounting to $8,820
of moving them to the line of the wall, which, estimated at two dollars per cord, and making an allowance for waste of more than twenty -five per cent, would amount to ^5040
For one mile and thirty chains of this deep cutting, no expense of erecting a wall to support the towing path is estimated. By sinking shafts,where the ground is dry, and sounding it with a pole where it is not, in various places, from the brow of the precipice southerly, it is found, that a rock of limestone must be excavated for that distance, lying at from one to ten feet below the surface. But the number of cubic yards to be excavated in this rock will be so much diminished by making the banks perpendicular, that after allowing a recess in one of them for a towing path six feet wide, and calculating the expense of such excavation at seventy-two cents per yard, which it is believed will be warranted by the data afforded in the two letters from Mr. Porter and the Messrs. Browns, subjoined to this report, the extra expense of this one mile and thirty chains will be $ 25,000
At the end of this deep cutting the line of the canal descends i)6 feet to the level of Genesee river; and this descent is calculated to be effected by 8 locks, of which the whole expense is estimated at ^73,586 The remainder of the route, on this map, is 51 chains, which exhibits an uneven surface, requiring, however, no considerable embankment or deep cutting, but in some places rugged with stone. The expense of it is estimated at ^5,610
Many bridges will be required across this canal, but they need not be expensive. Make two stone abutments 22 feet apart; let 6 feet between them serve for a towing path, leaving 16 feet in width of water ; let string pieces be laid, from one of these abutments to the other, in sufficient numbers and size to support a flooring 20 feet wide ; make this flooring of plank ; over the whole place a suitable ^ railing ; and the average expense of such bridges will not exceed poo.
Much of the route of the canal will pass thuough woods, or land newly cleared. Considerable expense in grubbing and clearing, will therefore be incurred.— This expense will be estimated at j^lOOO per mile.
Map No. 2, includes 7 miles and 34 chains. From the beginning of the route on this map easterly, the extra expenses only will be estimated, in the first place, and afterwards the expense of excavatioii common to every mile, will be added.
The next difficulty occurs in 34 chains of side-lying ground, of which the declivity is such, that a base line of 22 feet gives a perpendicular line of ten and an half feet. Here it is proposed to erect two dry stone walls to support the two banks of the canal. If these walls are 15 feet high, they may be placed so far apart as to give a width of water on the surface of the canal exceeding 30 feet, and aflbrd all needful support to the banks. Make them 3 feet thick, and they will consume 7480 cubic yards of stone. Stone of the best quality, and in great abundance, are to be found at the east end of the proposed walls, and it is believed that they may be moved and laid up, at ^1 40 per yard, $ 10,472
There are three other embankments to be made,, in this map, which may be estimated at the price of the last, in the aggregate, $ 8,310
Between E and D. the slope of the hills is such as to require some extra expense ; and between W and V the ground is stony and uneven. Both of these places are estimated at the sum of $ 6,000
Map No. 3, includes 6 miles and 1 1 chains. The deep cuttings, on this map, are very inconsiderable ; they are estimated, in all, at $ 2,200
The contents of the embankment required over the east branch of Eighteen mile creek, is 10,984 cubic yards, at near 20 cents, $ 2,00 Johnson's creek will require another embankment of 5,700 cubic yards, $ 912 But in addition to these sums the expense of large culverts must be incurred at both of these streams. In the bed of each of them lie strata of red sandstone, which may be taken up in pieces large enough to cover water-ways of sufficient size to discharge their floods. — The length of the water-way at Eighteen mile creek, after due allowance for wing-walls, must be 90 feet; at Johnson's creek it must be 100 feet. Pouble this length of wall, in order to make it on bo ides of the water-way, make it 3 feet thick, and raise it 8 feet high, and then cover the walls and the space of 4 feet between them, with the sandstone above-mentioned ; 3 feet deep, and the solid contents of stone work required will be 600 perches. For this stone work, when complete, as the best of stone lie very handy, the expense need not exceed g 1 12 1-2 per perch, in all ^675
Map No. 4, includes 6 miles and 71 chains. At F is a valley, where an embankment is required, which with deep cutting between D and C, and the embankment at C, will cost gl2,400
At Oak orciiard creek, an aqueduct will be necessary, 200 feet in length ; and it may be constructed of stone abutments and piers supporting a wooden superstructure, to be replaced hereafter, perhaps, by one of stone or iron. The bottom of the creek, consisting of rock is 28^ feet below the contemplated surface of water in the canal. Good stone are here on the spot, and two piers between the abutments, may be so placed, as with them to afibrd three spaces of 50 feet by 23, for the passage of the water below. This is the creek into which it is thought expedient to bring the upper floods of the Tonewanta : And when it is considered that its bed is smooth, rocky, and of considerable declivity, with a perpendicular fall, two chains below, of 25 feet, the provision for a water passage will probably be domed adequate. The better to support the wooden part of this aqueduct, with the least possible diminution of the water-way, braces might be introduced, with one end resting in the stone work of the abutments and piers, and the other end mortised into the string pieces sretching across the spaces between. The expense of this aqueduct is estimated at $ 10,000 The deep cutting, at the east end of it, requiring the moving of 9,256 cubic yards, consisting partly of sandstone, would cost, at 40 cents, P,700
The embankment at the west end is estimated at 1,144 For uneven places, west of Oak Orchard creek, not heretofore enumerated, and from X to the east end of the map, ^3,000
Map No. 5, includes 6 miles and 73 chains. At Fish creek an embankment is required to contain 5,364 cubic yards, which, as it is low, and there is sufficient deep cutting at both ends to supply the materials for making it, is estimated at 15 cents, $804
At Clark's brook another embankment is necessary, to contain 10,814 cubic yards, at 20 cents, Jg2,160 There are three places on this map of steep side-lying ground, of which the whole length is near a mile, and will require an extra expense of ^4,000
Aggregate of extras on this map, p 8,001
Map No. 6, includes 6 miles and 68 chains. At the west end of this map Otter creek crosses the line of the canal in a valley 51 feet below the level. To pass this valley an embankment is required of 48,024 cubic yards. This may be made from the deep cuttings on both sides of the valley- but as part of the earth must be brought some distance, it would not be safe to estimate the expense of raising this embankment at less than 25 cents, 12,006 This creek requires a culvert, with walls 180 feet long, which would consume, if properly constructed, 502 perches of stone. These stones may be transported more than two miles, and may be estimated, when laid into the walls, at $2, 50 per perch, 1,255 From L east, for a mile and a quarter, the extra expense amounts to ^2,500 Near G must be laid out, in deep cutting, embankment, and removing sandstone, ^2,200 The culvert at the west branch of Sandy creek, 200 5 small culverts, . 500
Map No 7, includes 7 miles and 58 chains. About a mile south of the west end of this map lies Jefferson lake, which is very deep, and covers fifty acres of land. From Genesee river west, the same level continues more than 60 miles. To prevent a current
either from this river, at one end, or the waters of lake Erie, at the other end of so long a level, and to supply all the waste of evaporation and soakage, it is desirable that a feeder be introduced as near the middle of it as practicable. The outlet of Jefferson lake might be converted into such a feeder, without expense, and would amply supply the necessary water.
This last
extends 26 chains, but lies through a black ash swamp, with a clay bottom, and a hill of gravel. The average depth of cutting will be small, and the quantity of earth to be removed here and at A, will in the aggregate be 22,739 cubic yards, at 29 cents, ^4,548 East of S is a hill to cut through, requiring the removal of 12,653 cul^c yards, more difficult than the last, at 24 cents, ^3,036
At Sandy Creek, the highest embankment that occurs in the whole route will be necessary. From the bed of the creek to the top water line of the canal, is 70 feet ; but this embankment will be short, and at the west end of it lies a hill of gravelly clay, as convenient as possible to furnish the necessary earth. The number of cubic yards required to raise this embankment, is 73,222, which added to 5,525, the number necessary to pass the canal over a valley west of the hill above-mentioned, make an aggregate of 78,747, estimated at eighteen cents, ^14,174
Here are large quantities of excellent stone to construct the culvert necessary for the passage of the creek. The width of so high an embankment, is inevitably great, at the bottom, requiring for a culvert a proportionate length of wall.
These walls here must be 240 feet long. To complete them would consume 758 perches of stone, of which the expense, when laid in the wall, is estimated at $1 37 1-2 per perch, in all ^1,042
Map No. 8, includes 6 miles and 18 chains Several small deep cuttings and embankments upon it, are estimated, in the aggregate, at $6,000
cessary.
At the first place, the greatest depth of excavation is 15 feet ; at the other places, 10 feet. These excavations are estimated at 30 cents per yard, $1 1,391 At Salmon creek, the embankment of 9,216 at O, 5,858
At L, the surface of the earth rises 18 feet above the bottom of the canal, and will require the excavation of 7,589 cubic yards. This earth is easy to move, at 30 cents, $2,276
Rush brook runs through a valley 26 feet too low, and more than two chains wide. Here must be an embankment of 6,000 cubic yards, at 20 cents, Si ,200 Stone tire not to be found near this place, and a culvert of suitable size will cost $480 For steep side-lying ground near the east end of this map, $1,500 3 culverts, 300
Map No. 11, includes 4 miles and 49 chains, w^est of the Genesee river, and 1 mile and 55 chains more easterly, inclusive of the river ; in all, 6 miles and 24 chains. Between K and I an embankment is necessary, to be 6 feet high, for near 1000 feet in length. It must contain 6222 yards, at 20 cents,$ 1,244 At G, on the north side of Fort brook, the line of the canal is crossed by a ridge, on which a lateral cut may easily be made to carry navigation within half a mile of the harbour at the mouth of the Genesee river. Fort brook runs in a ravine, which will require an embankment of 6000 yards, and which, including the necessary culvert, and the deep cutting at G, are estimated at $1,600
It is proposed to pass the Genesee river, by a dam ten feet high, with a bridge some distance above it, for a towing path. The place of passing is a few chains south of the village of Rochester. The width of the river here, when low, is near 130 yards ; when raised by the dam, it will spread over the west bank to a width of more than 400 yards. The current is rapid and shallow, in consequence of a considerable declivity in its rocky bottom. Half a mile below this place, the Messrs. Browns have built a dam across the river, eighteen inches high, and secured it im-
The distance in the direction south of the ridge is supposed to be 92 miles. The vyhole expense from Buffalo to the point, eleven miles up the Tonewanta, including a proportionate part of the allowance for grubbing, superintendence, &.c. as estimated on Mr. Peacock's section, is ^205,877. The whole expense, from that point to the Genesee river, as estimated on Mr. Gedde's section, is as follows : Whole expense of excavation, for 6 miles and 42 chains, g 401,271
Total amount of extras thence to Genesee R. 224,378 Expense of each mile after all extras are calculated, for 65 miles 48 1-2 chains, at g 2250, (for which allowance see a subsequent part of the Report)
moveably to the rock below, by large iron bolts, for less than one dollar per foot, in length. Guided by this experience, it is calculated that a dam of the necessary strength, 440 yards long, may be built here for $ 8,150
Such a dam, 1 0 feet high, would set the water back three miles, and while it would drown but little land, would render the river navigable, with boats, for more than 30 miles above. The top of it would serve as a waste wier, or tumbling bay, to discharge the floods of the river; for which purpose, as well as re = tarding the current so much as to give safety to the boats towed across the river, its great length would be an eminent advantage. The bridge for a towing path should be permanent, not floating, like the one over Concord river, on the Middlesex canal ; but it might be light, and with so good a foundation to build on notwithstanding the necessity of security against the current and floodwood of the spring freshets, it is estimated at $ 1 0,000
On each side of the Genesee river, a lock of three feet lift must be placed, to prevent the floods from extending themselves into the canal east and west, in such a manner as to endanger its banks and fill it with sediment. These locks are estimated at ^12,000
small part of the distance, the excavation must be ten feet deep ; for the rest, less. The number of cubic yards to be moved here, is 47,055, estimated at 17 cents, $8000
the west end of this map, after continuing upon one level for almost seventy miles, the line of the canal falls 49 feet. Here six locks will be necessary, estimated at ^60,000
Map No. 13, includes 6 miles and 51i chains. There are two small ridges at T and R, which will require the excavation of 5000 cubic yards, at 20 cents, ^1000. At A an excavation is necessary, 157 yards long at the bottom, and 20 feet deep from its summit. The number of cubic yards to be moved, is 13,000, at 30 cents, $3,900
The next place of difficulty in the Irondequot valley, where an embankment is required to be 20 chains long on the top, and from the lowest part of the valley, 65 feet high. On the east side of this valley rises a steep hill, consisting of sand and loam, 50 feet above the level of the canal. This hill will furnish, in the most convenient situation, all the earth required for the embankment ; and to remove this earth, temporary wooden rail-ways might be used with great advantage. To make this embankment 34 feet wide at the top, and 229 at the bottom, it would consume 147,000 cubic yards, which, considering the facilities above-mentioned, are estimated at 20 cents, ^29,400
At the base of this embankment must be made a wa^ ter-way with walls of stone. If wing-walls be made 15 feet high, at the ends of this water-way, its length will not exceed 184 feet. Calculate three walls of that length each, three feet thick and ten feet high, and their solid contents will be 129 cords. To this add, for wing-walls, and to cover the water-way, 71 cords, and for waste at the rate of 25 per cent. 50 cords more, and the whole quantity of stone required, will be 250 cords. This may be delivered on the spot for $5 per cord, ^1,250. Laying it into the wall at 87i cents per perch, ^1,144. A little east of O, must be a small embankment, to support which, and the natural ridge on which the canal runs for three and an half chains eastward, stone walls, twelve feet high, will be necessary on both sides, ^687
Map No. 14, includes 6 miles and 26 chains. This map presents a deep cutting 3 miles long, running through a black ash swamp, of which the upper surface is light muck resting upon a hard clay. The depth of excavation will in no place exceed 4 feet ; and it is thought that the extra expense required here will not be more than equal to the removing from the bottom of the canal, two and a half feet in depth, of this excavation. Let this bottom be eighteen feet wide, and with the requisite slope of the banks, there must be removed, in this distance, 31,827 cubic yards, estimated at 38 cents, $8,911 For other small expenses on this map, 960
Map No. 15, includes 6 miles and 65 chains. Near the west end of this map, a feeder may be introduced into the canal from Mud creek.. And if this feeder should ever prove deficient, a correct examination has ascertained that this deficiency may be amply supplied by one from the outlet of Canandaigua lake, introduced at the same place. The feeder from Mud creek must be 43 chains long, and if it is 20 feet wide and 3 feet deep, it will require the excavation of 6,307 cubic yards, at 12^ cents, $788 Several small excavations and embankments are estimated, in the aggregate, $5,140 At Red creek, for culverts, 600 A feeder from the same creek, a mile long, and excavated 3 feet wide and three feet deep, is estimated at $500. On this map are 4 locks, by which the line of the canal falls 33 feet — expense of these locks, $40,000
conveniently introduced, from Sherman's mill-pond in Mud creek. This feeder must be 20 chains long ; and if it be calculated 4 feet in width, and the same in depth, it will require the excavation of 782 cubic yards of earth, at 15 cents, ^117
For a small embankment of Clark's creek, 1 00 A mile east of this brook commences a piece of deep cutting, 36 chains long, very favourably situated for disposing of the excavated earth. The depth of excavation nowhere exceeds 7 1-2 feet, and the number of cubic yards to be removed is 19,100, at 12 ^ cents, $ 2,387
and the hill west of H, are estimated at g 2, 1 74
At Battey's brook, which is a permanent stream, a feeder may be brought into the canal by a cut 27 chains long. If this feeder is 6 feet wide, and 4 feet deep, it will require the excavation of 1,584 cubic yards, at 15 cents, $ 238
The hill west of H, and the one west of 1, are composed of sand, and lie on the margin of Mud creek. To pass through them, the excavation of 24,750 cubic yards is necessary, at 15 cents, ^3,700 To secure a passage for the creek here, add 600 East of IIP is a shallow embankment required of 17 chains in length. The number of cubic yards to be moved, 6,540, at 20 cents, $ 1,308 To obviate the difficulty presented by side-lying ground between this embankment and K, is allowed $ 1,000, West of K, a piece of excavation is neces-
saiy, of which the greatest depth is 16 feet. The earth here consists of sand and a yellow slate gravel, and there are 26,410 cubic yards of it to remove, estimated at twenty-five cents, f, 6,602
Adjoining this lock on the east, an embankment of 5,330 cubic yards is required, at 18 cents, ^960 Near the east end of this map occurs a place of deep cutting, 52 chains in length, through a swamp, which nowhere rises more than three feet above the surface of the water in the canal. It will require the excavation of 12,520 cubic yards, at 15 cents, $1,878
At the distance of two and an half miles further east, must be placed another lock of 6 feet lift, $7,000 Small embankments and excavations from the west end of the map to the last lock above-mentioned, $ 3,700 Adjoining the lock on the east, an embankment over a small brook, to contain 6,800 cubic yards, is required, at 18 cents, $1,224 Between this embankment and P, for little inequalities of surface, in the aggregate, $2,000 At P, an embankment over a black ash swamp, 630 From the east lock above-mentioned to the end of this map, a distance of near four miles, some provision must be made against the highest floods of the Canandaigua outlet, with which Mud creek intersects at the village of Lyons. This provision is intended to be made, by giving to the south bank of the canal an additional elevation of two feet, which will require a proportionate increase of width at its
base. This enlargement of the south bank will require for every yard run of its continuance, an extra embankment of 9 cubic yards, amounting, in four miles, at 15 cents per cubic yard, to $9,504
Map No. 19, includes 6 miles and 60 chains. From the east end of it to the east side of the Seneca river, where the section of Mr. Geddes terminates, is two miles and 6 chains, which are hot laid down on a map, because they pass over a level marsh, where there is no difficulty in choosing the route. The first 3 miles and 76 chains of this map run on a side hill of a gentle slope, presenting few difficulties. For this distance, the whole expense of excavating the canal, and forming its banks, may be estimated at ^5,500 per mile, in all, 21,725
At the end of this side-hill, commences the Cayuga marsh, over which the canal is to be conducted, for 4 miles and 60 chains. When the waters of Seneca river are low, the surface of this marsh is about 3 feet above them ; when they are highest, in the spring floods, it is near 2 feet below them. x\t the west end of the marsh, the level of the canal is 9 feet higher than the surface of Seneca river, in low water. To secure a convenient passage over this marsh at all times, it is proposed to place a lock of 4| feet lift at its west end, estimated at ^6,000
From this lock, eastward, there must be an embankment sufficient to preserve the water in the canal 18 inches above the general level of the marsh. An excavation 40 feet wide, and 2| feet deep, would furnish earth enough for these banks, calculating them to be raised 2 feet above the top-water line of the canal, in order to guard against floods. But the spongy nature of this earth renders it indispensable, that in both banks great precaution should be used
to prevent leakage. At the Montezuma salt works^ a canal has been dug through a part of this same marsh, which was there found to rest upon a bed of dark blue clay. Let a partition of pile plank, then extending the whole length of the marsh, be driven through each of the banks. If these plank are 7 feet long, and driven into the earth 2 feet 9 inches below the bottom of the canal, they will stand 3 inches above the upper surface of the water within the banks. And this,it is presumed, would constitute an adequate precaution against leakage. Constructed in this way, the expense of one chain in length, of both banks, is estimated as follows :
At the east end of the marsh must be placed another lock, of 4^ feet lift, to let the boats which may navigate the canal, fall down to the level of Seneca river when its waters are lowest ; estimated at $6,000
In high water the gates of this lock would stand open, offering no delay A bridge, 10 chains long, across the Seneca river, is all that remains to connect this section with that which includes the route between this river and Rome. For all the purposes of a towing path, this bridge may be built as follows : At intervals of 16^ feet across the river, drive down a pair of large oak piles; connect each pair of these piles by framing on their top a piece of timber 10 feet long; stretch across these pieces of timber, from one pair of piles to another, 4 string peices 12 inches by 4, and cover them with a flooring of 2 inch oak plank. The expense of such a bridge would be —
It cannot fail to be remarked, from the foregoing details, that the sources on which reliance is placed, for feeding the canal, in this section, are permanent and most abundant ; and that the country over which it runs, exhibits a singular regularity of surface. The route of the canal, as explored, pursues one level for 69 miles and 51 1-2 chains, and another for 20 miles and 40 chains. So uniformly is the declivity to the north, that from the foot of the mountain ridge, to the entrance of Mud-creek valley, a distance of more than 90 miles, no stream crosses the canal except in that direction, and there is not a single mile in which the north bank of the canal will not be the lowest.
On this section, which is in general very free from porous earth, there are, including embankments, 8 1-2 miles, in parts of which, puddling may be required. — Little experience, in relation to the expense of this operation, has been afforded in this country ; but it is presumed, from that little, that the whole expense of puddling in these 8 1-2 miles, will not exceed ^30,000
The entire expense of this section is g 1,550,985
The estimate of $2,250 per mile, above adopted, for excavation, after all the extras have been calculated, is founded upon a consideration of the number of cubic yards to be excavated in a variety of different slopes, and in level land. A base of 40 feet, giving a perpendicular of 2,28 feet, it is believed comes nearer than any other, to indicating the general slope of this section. — In land lying on this slope, the average dimensions of the canal, would require an excavation, of which a cross section would contain 74,17 superficial feet; and a similar section of the banks would contain 62,12 superficial feet; and in this case, the quantity of excavation necessary in a mile, would be about 14,500 cubic yards. To this quantity, has been added almost a fourth part,
making 1 8,000 cubic yards, which, estimated at 1 2 1-2 cents, an ample price, considering that all the rough places are previously made smooth, and the whole line reduced to the minimum depth of cutting, amount to the ^2,250.
The Seneca river, at low water, is 1 94 feet lower than Lake Erie ; and to provide for this descent, 25 locks, besides the two guard locks at Genesee river, are located on the canal line. The lift of some of these locks is small, owing to the unusual evenness of the country. At places where there are embankments and deep cuttings, of which the dimensions are not particularly stated, the calculations have been such as to give a width of water, in the surface of the canal, never less than 27 feet. From the end of this section, eastward, to Rome, there is a rise, in the line of the canal, of 48 i feet; thence the line descends to the Hudson.
The middle section of the canal extends from Rome to the Seneca river, and is about 77 miles in length. It was surveyed and laid out by Benjamin Wright,Esq. who acted as the engineer. Its route is accurately delineated in the maps, profiles, and minutes, herewith presented.
As a great part of the route of this section lies through low lands, where the timber is very heavy, with large roots, the estimate for grubbing and clearing is at the rate of ^l,.0OO per mile. This is supposed to be too high, as machines have been invented and successfully applied, for this purpose, which greatly facilitate labour and diminish expense.
This section begins at Rome at the point marked A on the map. the red line designating the route, by courses and distances accurately measured.
\y a hard gravelly clay bottom, at 1^ or 2 feet be low the surface. Part of the swamp is miry trom 8 to 10 feet below the surface. The probability is, that owing to the surface being so near a level, no puddling will be necessary. Upon the whole, this mile is good for a canal, and will not require more than an average of 4 feet excavation — it may be estimated thus :
Mile 3d, Passes over clay and gravel, intersected with some spots of low ground, where there is one foot of black mud, and under that, hard gravel and clay. — In this distance, a lock of 6 feet descent will be necessary. The land, where this lock is to be located, will afford an excellent foundation for a lock, and the ground descends so fast as to make it easy of excavation, and to bring the level of the lock chamber, within a few rods, upon the surface. An aqueduct will also be necessary over Wood creek, of the length of 40 or 20 feet, which must be made of wood, or cast iron, laid upon stone piers, as there is not sufficient space below for a regular turned arch of masonry to admit the waters to pass. — An embankment of 510 cubic yards will be essential. After passing Wood creek, the ground is clay or gravel, and varies very little from the level to the end of the mile. The expertse is for excavation of 21,000 cubic yards, at 12 ^ cents, ^2,625
Mile ith, Passes over clayey and gravelly land, with some small undulations. There are 2 spots below the level, and a ravine with a small brook also below the level. Three culverts may be necessary — 2,200 cubic yards of embankment, and 4,000 of extra excavation, in consequence of cutting off some small points of ridges. —
Mile 5th^ Passes over ground which is gravelly ,mixedwith small flat stones, and its surface is undulating. There are 4 or 5 places where the land is too low, and 4 points of ridges, where it is from 2 to 6 feet too high. They are all short, and may be avoided by a serpentine course. The ridges consist of gravel, and the valleys of clay. The water in Stoney creek is 14 feet below the level, and here must be an embankment 14 chains long, and O^feet high. Two culverts, of 7^ feet diameter, will be requisite for the passage of the waters of that creek.
Mile 6th, Passes over the same kind of ground as the last. There is an irregular summit between Stoney creek and a small brook in this mile : and some deep cuttings are required to gain a good course. The brook is 8 feet below the level ; from it to the termination of the mile, the ground is very near the level, and descends gently to the north. Expense for embankment 1,700 cubic yards, at 20 cents, 340 For 1 culvert, 100
Mile 7th, Passes over grayelly and sandy soil; good for a canal. An embankment 12 chains long, and averaging 5 feet deep, will be required. The one half of it may be saved by a diverging course. In the remainder of the mile is a small stream, which does not require a culvert, and no extra excavation is necessary. Expense for embankment of 9,200 cubic yards, at 20 cents, 1,840
Mile 8th, Passes over gravel, with some mixture of clay and sand strata. There is a ravine made by a brook, up which a line passes for 7 or 8 chains. The water in the brook, where it turns north, and leaves the line of the canal, is 5 feet below the bottom ofthe canal, and may be admitted intoitwithoutinjury. Expense for embankment of 1,000 cubic yards, at 20 cents, %220
Mile 9fh, Is good for a canal, although it passes over swampy ground for a considerable part of the whole distance. In the swamp there is only one foot of mud, and the substratum is clay, or clay and gravel mixed. There is a point of a ridge near the commencement of this mile, which is 4 feet above the level ; and there is one small stream, which forms no regular bed, but collects the waters of low grounds lying south of the line. It dries up in summer, and may be admitted into the canal without injury. Expense for excavation of 24,100 cubic yards, at 12i cents, $3,012
Mile 1 0/^, In the first part, passes over the swampy grounds before mentioned ; and there are one or two islets or spots of hard land in the swamp, over which the line passes, which may be easily avoided, if necessary. This hard land is stones mixed with clay. Drum creek, which is 3f feet below the level, may be admitted into the canal Avithout injury, as it is a short and sluggish stream, and of course will not introduce much earth. There are some scattering undulations of sand, but the land is generally clay and gravel. Expense for dam across Drum creek, $ 300 For excavation of 2 1 ,(300 c.yds. at 1 2 ^ c. 2,700
.MeYe 11 M, Passes over some points of ridges from two to four feet above the level, which may be avoided by a winding course. They are however narrow.
and composed of gravel and loam. After passing them, the line runs over excellent ground declining gradually and uniformly to the north west. The soil is loamy and well adapted for a canal. The extra excavation will be J l,l20 cubic yards. Expense for excavation of 37,520 cubic yards, at 12|- cents, $4,690 Grubbing, &c. $1,500
Mile 1 2th^ At the beginning, passes over a point of land four feet above the level, which may be avoided by bending a little to the north ; thence it proceeds over loamy land, good for a canal, and declines to the north west. The line here passes over two brooks, which will not require culverts, if it is desirable to take them into the canal. The westerly brook will require some embankment. There is a little ridge west of the brook, that might be shunned, but the deep cutting would produce sufficient earth to make the embankment. The general declivity of this mile is from one to three degrees. Expense for excavation of 27,000 c. yards, at 12^ cents, $3,375 For culvert, 100
Mile 1 ^th^ Continues on loamy gravelly soil like the last, with the desired level and the favourable declivity, ki the distance of 25 or 30 chains on the line, the ground rises gradually to one and a half feet above the level, and continues so for ten chains, when it gradually declines to the required level and then below it. There are two dead swampy streams, where embankments will be necessary, and where culverts will probably be wanted. A few strata of sand on this mile ; and for the last part the ground is swampy and very flat. The embankments will be 1,800 cubic yards. The water stands on the surface of the ground, which retains it. Expense for embankment of 1 ,800 c. >
Mile lith, Begins in swampy grounds, the timber hemlock, and the surface covered with moss. At 15 chains distance, there is a small brook requiring a culvert 3^ feet below the level, and also an embankment 1 50 feet long, of the average height of six feet. After passing the brook, the ground is li^ feet too low for 10 or 12 chains to another brook, laying only 3i feet below the level. Soon after leaving the last brook, the land rises to three feet above the level, and lays in ridges crossing the line at right angles. This elevation continues for fourteen or fifteen chains, when the line fails to the level, and soon after too low by 1 3 feet in a ravine, where the top length of the required embankment will be 7 chs. and 80 Iks. After passing this ravine, the line may be continued straight, or by making a bend, a part of the embankment may be saved. The straight course is to be preferred.
Mile 15M, Requires, in order to cross the Oneida creek, an embankment of 50,600 cubic yards, and an aqueduct of 100 feet in length. After crossing the creek, the course is straight and good, the ground being in some places a little too high. Near the end of this mile is a place where water runs most of the year, where a culvert will be required and an embankment of 3 chains long, averaging 3 1-2 feet high. In this swampy ground, the soil is sandy. Expense for embankment of 50,600 c. yards, at 20 cents, $10,12»
For aqueduct of wood over Oneida creek, 5,000 another embankment of 1,200 c. yds. 2,400 excavation of 17,400 c. yds. at 12 1-2 c. 2,175 1 culvert, 100
Mile 16/^, Passes over a very flat country, and the soil is sandy loam with some gravel on the riges, interspersed by narrow glades of ash timbered land, which has from 1 to 2 feet of black mud, and then hard clay. The general face of the country declines a little to the north-west : 1,500 cubic yards of excavation will be required. Expense for excavation of 21,600 cubic yards, at 15 cents, ^3,240
Mile llth^ Passes over ground like the last for thirty chains, when the bottom land along the Cowaslon creek commences. An embankment of 1 4,000 cubic yards, to keep the level, will be required here. This embankment may be avoided by passing through a cedar swamp. The first course is, perhaps, the best. Expense for embankment of 14,000 cubic yards, at twenty cents, ^2,800
length, may be introduced from the Oneida creek.
This feeder may be made navigable, as a lateral canal, to Oneida Castleton, a village at Oneida castle owned by the state. In all probability no water from Oneida creek will be wanted for the canal, but considering that the state land at the village and in its vicinity wijl be trebled in value by this lateral canal,
it will be an object to make it on that account only. The whole of the Cowaslon creek may be thrown into the same feeder. Making the feeder 24 feet wide on the top and twelve feet at the bottom, with a depth of four feet, would cost, for excavation of 42,224 cubic yards, $7,603
is not properly chargeable to the canal.
Mile I8tk, Is all in low swampy ground, with one or two feet of black mud upon a hard clayey and gravelly soil. The whole has a little descent northwest,and there are two small streams,which arise from springs, and run without forming beds much below the surface. They may be admitted into the canal without injury. Expense for excavation of 2 1,500 cubic yards, at 20 cents, ;g4,300
Mile 19th, Passes below a Btep or ridge. The land is clay and gravel, descending gently to the north, and is as good as nature could form it for a canal. Expense for excavation of 26,000 cubic yards, at twelve and an half cents, $3,250
Mile 2Qth, Passes upon ground similar to the last for nearly half the distance. At the Canastota creek the water is six and a quarter feet below the top water line of the canal. The best way to dispose of this small creek, is to erect a dam of six and a quarter feet high, and pass the canal through the pond. This will only overflow two or three acres, and two mill dams, about half a mile distant, will receive almost all
the alluvion. After crossing the creek, the land is gravelly, and for ten chains is, on an average, two feet too high. The rest is excellent for a canal, descending gradually from two to three degrees north. If the Canastota creek is carried under the canal by deepening its bed, 3,050 cubic yards of embankment will be required ; if a dam is adopted, the expense will not be considerable. Expense for excavation of 21,540 cubic yards, at 12 |^ cents, ^2,692 For a dam across Canastota creek, 900
Mile 2l5^, Is all excellent for a canal, the ground being gravel, clay, or loam, with a descent of 2 or 3 degrees north, and requiring no excavation or embankment. Expense for excavation of 20,000 cubic yards, at 12 ^ cents, g2,500
Mile 22c?, Passes through a cedar swamp, which has hard bottom under 2 feet of black mud. The surface is rather below the level, but there is a general declivity of from 1 to 2 degrees north ; it is, therefore, easy to gain, if desired, a higher surface. There are 4 small runs of water on this mile, none of them requiring culverts but one. At the latter end of this mile, the line ascends the summit of a ridge 1 6 i feet above the level. This is run over to keep a good course, and will require an extra excavation of 5,840 cubic yards. An embankment adjoining eastward will require a small part of this earth,' and if a bend be made northerly to avoid this point of a hill, it will increase the embankment. Perhaps it will be best to cut off only a part of the point of the hill, and thereby save one half of the extra excavation. Expense for excavation of 35,800 cubic yards, at 15 ceqts, 5,370
J^/e 23c?, Passes over excellent land for a canal, which consists of clay and loam, and descends gradually to the north from 2 to 3 degrees. Expense for excavation of 26,000 c. yds. at 12^ cts $3,250 For 1 culvert, 100
Mile 2ith, For the first part, passes over clay and loam exactly on the required level. The best course is to pass over the mill pond in the Canasaraga creek ; and this will require an embankment of 7,500 cubic yards, and an aqueduct of wood or cast iron, 40 feet Jong. A feeder, if necessary, can easily be obtained from this creek. Expense for embankment of 7,500 cubic yards, at 20 cents, $1,500
Mile 25thf Is all excellent, with a descent north, and soil of loam or gravel. Expense for excavation of 26,000 cubic yards, at 12icents, $3,250 For grubbing, &c. 1,500
Mile 26th^ Passes over clay and gravel. In some places there are rough loose stones, which may be useful, and in one place the ground is from 11-2 feet to 3 inches above the level. Expense for excavation of 30,500 cubic yards, at 15 cents, $4,575 For grubbing, &c. 1,500
Mile 27th, Is excellent for a canal, from the beginning to the Chitteningo creek, over which it passes. — Some of the ground consists of clay, and some of the rich black mould, or bottom of the creek, which is very nearly on the level wished. The creek may be passed by making a dam 4 feet 3 inches high, and this would form a pond of the proper level, and very little land would be overflown. All the water of this creek may be taken out, for the canal, at a designated point, without injuring any hydraulic establishments.
As the line advances to a small spring brook, an embankment will be required. For the residue of the mile, the line passes over land excellent for a canal, and descending gradually to the north east. Expense for excavation of 20,000 cubic yards, at 12 1-2 cents, $ 2,500
Mile 28^^, Shortly after its commencement, passes a run of water, which may be admitted into the canal without injury. The ground to the vicinity of Beaverdam creek is loam and gravel, with a gradual declination, and is as good as can be desired. This creek is 1,171 feet below the level of the canal, which renders a considerable embankment necessary, and the estimate is formed upon that presumption, although a less expensive route may probably be adopted. This creek may be used as a feeder. It affords onefourth as much water as the Chitteningo, and rises from springs. Expense for embankment of 20,000 cubic yards, at 20 cents, $4,000
Mile 29/A, Is as conveniently formed for a canal as may be, with a descent north of from two to five degrees, and a soil of black and chocolate loam. Expense for excavation of 26,010 cubic yards, at 12 1-2 cents, 523,250
Mile 30th, Is excellent, and passes only one stream of water, which is two and an half feet below the top water-line of the canal, and which must be admitted into it. This can be done without injury, as there is a mill-dam building a few rods above this place, where all the alluvion will be deposited, and the
Mile 31 st, Passes over excellent ground, except a small elevation three and an half feet above the level. Expense for excavation of 27,000 cubic yards,at 121-2 cents, $3,375
Mile 32c/, Is also excellent, except an elevation, the highest point of which is fourteen and three-fourths feet above the top water-line, and which will require an extra excavation of 23,500 cubic yards. Expense for extra excavation of 23,500 cubic yards, which may be partially saved by lengthening the canal, at twenty cents, $4,700
Mile 33d, Is excellent until it reaches the valley of the outlet of the little lakes, where an embankment is required. Here a reservoir might be made at little expense. Expense for embankment of 15,000 cubic yards, at 20 cents, $3,000
Mile 34cth, Is all excellent for a canal, running along at the foot of a hill ; the ground descending three degrees generally, and well adapted for excavation. Expense for excavation of 20,000 cubic yards, at 12^ cents, $2,500
Mile 35th, Passes over a low place requiring a small embankment. In another place the ground is full of springs, which may be all admitted into the
canal. In one place the line runs on a steep sidehill, requiring some additional work. The residue of the mile is excellent. Expense for excavation of 20,000 cuhic yards, at 12 1- cents, $2,500
Mile 36/A, Commences with the steep bank mentioned in the last, after which the ground assumes a more regular and easy slope, and is good for a canal until it reaches Lime-stone creek,which will require an embankment four and an half feet high and fifteen chains long. The water of the creek is 4.89 feet below the top water-line. By deepening the bed of the creek and doubling its width, the water may be made to pass under a wooden or cast iron aqueduct. After crossing the creek, the ground is excellent to the end of the mile. Expense for embankment of 8,300 cubic yards, at 20 cents, p,660
Mile 37ih, Commences by cutting off the point of a hill. It then crosses a swamp for 32 chains, which is two feet too low. The swamp appears very soft, is covered with cedar and pine, and a stake may be driven down ten feet. No serious difficulty is apprehended in carrying the canal over it, but the embankment will be more than it appears, owing to the sinking of the mud of the swamp. There are three spring brooks in it, which may, be made to fill a canal dug two feet in the present swamp, and that would enable dirt-boats to pass from hill to hill, for the purpose of taking earth to make this embankment, as easy as it could be carted on. After passing this swamp, there is no obstacle to the end of the mile, the ground descending north from three to four degrees. Some springs come out of the hill on or about
Mile 3Sth, Passes over excellent ground, at the foot of a hill, until it reaches the low ground adjoining Butternut creek, which will require an embankment and an aqueduct. Water may be obtained by a feeder from this creek, of the length of three-fourths of a mile.
Mile 39th, Is over excellent loamy soil, with a north descent of from one to three degrees, and one spring brook which may be admitted into the canal without injury. Expense for excavation of 20,000 cubic yards, at 12^ cents, ^2,500
Mile 4:1st, Is excellent fot a canal, the soil being loamy and gravelly, with a descent of from one to two degrees northerly. Several copious springs of water come out of the hill on the left, above the canal, which may be admitted into it without injury. The hill on the left is 200 feet high, and steep. Expenso for excavation of 26,000 c.yds. at 12i cts. $3,250 For grubbing, &c. 1,500
hard land. The swamp is eight inches below the level on an average, and is an open bog with no bottom of hard stuff within ten feet. After gaining the hard land, the ground is gravelly and good to the end of the mile. Expense for excavation of 26,000 cubic yards, at 20 cents, ;^ 5,200
Mile 436/, Is gravelly, except a short distance of cedar swamp, with moss bottom, but in fact hard and good ground. A small spring brook may be admitted into the canal without injury. Expense for excavation of 26,000 cubic yards, at 15 cents, ^3,900 For grubbing, &c. 1,500
Mile 44th, Requires two locks, there being a descent of nineteen feet; an aqueduct over the Onondago creek, two culverts, and considerable embankments, which will cost twenty-five cents per cubic yard, owing to the difficulty of obtaining earth. Expense for excavation of 12,000 c. yds, 12^ cts. $1,500 For embankment of 31,600 c. yds. at 25 cts. 7,900 2 culverts, 300
Mile 45?^, Is occupied by the Salina plains,and is all too low, the ground hard and gravelly except along Harbour creek, which is a cedar swamp. Four culverts will be necessary, and an embankment of 1 30, 500 c. yards, at 25 cents per yard, and an aqueduct over the creek. Expense for 4 culverts, $ 450 For embankment, 32,625
Mtle 4:6th, Although excellent for a canal, with a loamy soil, will require considerable embankments, besides culverts and excavation. It is supposed that the route here may be more advantageously arranged. Expense for embankment of 19,510 cubic yards, at 20 cents, $3,902
Mile Mth, Descends gently to the north, and contains a rich black gravelly loam, is excellent for a canal, except a ravine, which will require an embankment. Expense for embankment of 1 450 cubic yards, at twenty cents, $290
Mile iSth, Passes over smooth good land for a canal, with a gradual descent of fjom one to two degrees north, until it approaches the swamp of Mill brook. Here the land is nearly level, and there is one foot of mud, but gravel and clay below. There are several small spring brooks in the swamp, which may be received into the canal. Mill brook is 4,96 feet below the water line of the canal. A dam one hundred feet long must be raised across this creek, four feet ten inches high ; very little embankment is wanted. Expense for excavation of 26,000 cubic yards, at twelve and a half cents, $ 3,250
a piece of low clay ground, the lowest of which is 2.84 feet below the level, but rises gradually to it each way. The nature of the soil, and the very little extra earth wanted, to make the banks, warrant a belief, that nothing need be added to the expense, in order to make a canal across it. Near to the Nine mile creek, the line rises so as to be 2.89 feet above the banks, and the water of the creek is 4 feet deep on an average, and 11.82 feet below the top water line. This is a mill pond, and the water may be settled four feet by carrying the dam 10 or 12 rods up the stream, so as to be above the canal. If an aqueduct of wood or cast iron is constructed, there will be no necessity of altering the dam. The 8 feet below the bottom of the canal will make the elevation of the aqueduct sufficient, as the water never rises more than 4 or 5 feet in the greatest freshets. This aqueduct will be 200 feet long. After passing the creek, the bank is 3^ feet above the level, but the ground soon descends to the level. The earth is loamy and easy of excavation. Farther on, there are two small ravines, in which there is no water, but embanking, and perhaps, culverts or cast iron pipes of 6 inches diameter, ought here to be placed, in order to drain off the waters that may collect above the canal. A feeder may be easily made to bring the waters of the creek into the canal, which will, at the same time, serve as a branch canal, and without any lock will carry navigation up to a very large quarry of excellent gypsum. Expense,
Mile 52d, Presents excellent ground for a canal, which is loam, and descends easterly. There are 4 small and short ravines, requiring 3 culverts, of which two may be cast iron pipes of 6 inches diameter. The other ought to of be three feet diameter.
Mile 53d, Passes over excellent land, a mixture of clay and loam, lying with a descent of from 1 to 2 degrees north. There is a small run of water, where an embankment of 4 feet high will be wanted, and probably a culvert, or cast iron pipe. Expense For embankment of 2500 c. yds. at 20 cts. ;g!509 1 culvert, 100
gi5,350
Mile 54:th, Requires some culverts and extra excavation. A part of the line passes along the edge of a brook, where there is a steep bank a little too high, and at the foot of it a flat 4 or 5 feet too low, and this edge of the bank must give the earth to make the bank below sufficiently elevated. Expense, For 3 culverts, ;S300
Mile 55th, Commences at the beginning of a deep cutting, through a marl meadow swamp. The soil is all soft and must be removed by manual labour, and the work must be so managed as to drain the lands as it proceeds. As the ground is all swamp and very bad, the excavation is set down at 50 cents per cubic yard. Expense,
Mile 58/A, Passes over a very flat piece of ground, requiring a little extra excavation at the east end. — Hand's brook and Camp's brook will both fall into the canal on this mile ; and it is not easy to find a method to dispose of the water of the former, while the canal is digging. For this purpose it will perhaps be necessary to create for it a new channel. Expense For excavation of 28,500 c. y. at 15 cts- ^4,27 5 extra labour to divert Hand'sbrook, ] ,500 grubbing, &c. 1,500
Mile 60th, Is excellent, except a little low ground, which will require small embankments near Carpenter's brook, and at another place. A dam must be erected across the brook 150 feet long. As the water in the brook is 6.08 feet below the level, a dam of 6 feet high will make the water in the pond on a level with the canal. Expense,
Mile 6lst, Passes over a summit between Carpenter's brook and the Skaneatelas outlet. The swamp is from 1 to 3 feet, composed of a soft mossy spongy substance and then a gravelly clay. Expense, For excavation of 29,000 c.y. at 18 cts. $5200 grubbing, &;c, 1500
Mile 62</, Passes over very suitable ground for a canal, with the exception of the point of a hill, until it arrives at the low land, which extends to Skaneatelas outlet. Expense,
Mile 63d, Requires a very small embankment where it begins. Thence to the Skaneatelas outlet is all flat bottom land. The water of the stream is rapid, and the surface is 5.66 feet below the level. A dam raised to that height w^ould do no injury, as it v/ould not overflow 1^ acres of land, and there is no mill below this point to the junction of the outlet with Seneca river. A little embankment on the west side of the outlet will be necessary , or perhaps a dam 200 feet long, for the water to waste over, would be advisable. The remaining embankment is so sinall as to require Mttle or no estimate of expense. At the latter end of the mile, the ground is very favourable (with the exception of a small piece requiring extra excavation) and declines from 1 to 2 degrees northerly. There is a brook only 1.50 feet below the level of the top water line, which will require a culvert, or perhaps it may be admitted into the canal without injury, if a small dam is made across it 2 or
3 chains above, to deposit alluvion in case of freshets.— Taking the waters of this brook will not injure farms below, as they are lost in swamp. Expense,
Mile 6ith, Is all excellent for a canal ; the ground descends northerly. The excavation is easy,, the soil being loamy. A point of a hill, of which the summit is nine and a half feet above the level, must be cut through ; and there is a low place at the west end, requiring some earth to straighten the course. Expense for embankment and extra excavation, ;^800
Mile 65th, Is equally excellent, except a small point of land 5.75 feet above the level, where the line is rather circuitous, in order to avoid a cedar swamp. Expense for excavation of 27,000 cubic yards, at 12 1-2 cents, ^3,375
Mile 66th, Passes over the points of several elevations, which rise from two to six feet above the level, and may be avoided by a very crooked course. They are all easy to excavate, and will require no deep cutting exceeding six feet, and generally, on each side of them, the ground will require a little raising. Expense for extra excavation of 3,700 cubic yards, at twenty cents, $740
from one to two degrees, and is^ rich black loam. A culvert and a little embankment will be necessary. The line runs over some*ground a little above the level. At one place runs a small stream, which may be let in without injury. Expense for excavation of 27,000 cubic yards,^ at 12^, ^3,375
Mile 68th, Begins a little east of Bread creek. On the flat or bottom land, made by the creek, there are some places three feet below the level '(where water runs in very great freshets) which may be rendered good with little expense ; and perhaps a small culvert may be necessary here. Bread creek is only 4.85 feet below the top water line. This is a rapid stream, and the best plan to cross it is to erect a dam. The alluvion of the creek might be kept out of the canal by erecting stop gates, on each side of the pond, which would oblige the water to pass over the dam ; or, in addition to this, waste gates may be so fixed in the dam as to draw from the bottom of the canal, and the water thus discharged would carry off all the alluvial matter through these waste gates. After crossing this creek, the ground is excellent, with a gentle declination to the north, till near the end of the mile, where a culvert may be wanted. Expense,
Mile 69th, Descends from one to two degrees northerly, and is all excellent for a canal. One small culvert will be necessary. Expense, For excavation of 26,000 c. y. at 12i c. ^3,250 1 culvert, 100
Mile HOth, Commences near Spring brook, which is 4.97 feet below the level. A dam of that height would give the water in the pond the requisite level. Some raising of the banks is necessary near the creek, as the flat land along it lies about two feet below the top water line. Between Cold spring and Tyler's brook, the ground is above the level, in one place, near four feet, declining each way. The deep cutting here is no serious objection to a straight course. Expense, For extra excavation of 11,400 cubic yards, at fifteen cents, ^1,710
Mile 7 1st, Is good for a canal. Some little extra excavation will be necessary at the east end. Near the west end, the ground is too steep, where, in some places, the descent is six or eight degrees. The Tyler's brook is a small stream, only 1.50 feet below the bottom of the canal, into which it may be brought. If, however, this produces too much alluvial matter, it may be conveyed over the canal. Expense,
Mile 72c?, Passes on good ground for some distance, until an embankment becomes necessary to pass the flats of the Owasco outlet. This creek is twelve and an half feet below the top water line of the canal, and will require an aqueduct 150 feet long. After gaining the high land, which is very steep, with a sharp ridge 1 1 feet above the level, the line falls very soon below the level, and then rises again above it. It soon descends again ; after which the route is good, until it becomes necessary to make a lock and descend eight feet. Thence to the end, good ; but requiring a little embankment. Expense,
Mile 73d, Is crooked and uneven. Four culverts will be required for the streams rising in the hills south of the canal, and some points of hills must be cut off to straighten the course. Expense, For excavation of 32,000 c. y. at 12|- c. ^4,000 4 culverts, 400
JUile 74M, Descends to the north-west, and is all good. There is one point three feet too high, which may be easily avoided by a bend. Two culverts are required. Expense,
Mile 7 5th, Is very good for a canal to Crane brook, where there is ground from 2 to 3 feet too low. In this brook, the water is 8.13 feet below the top water line. This stream dries up in summer, and therefore would not yield water when wanted. It rises high in freshets, and ought to pass under the canal. The bed of the creek may be doubled in width, and by that means, with deepening the channel a little, a passage may be found for the floods. Some extra excavation will be necessary, in order to avoid a swamp. Expense, For embankment of 16,000 cubic yards, at twenty cents, ^3,200
junction with Crane brook. On this mile a lock of nine feet descent must be made, for which the ground is very favourable, and will require but little excavation* From the Jock to the end of the mile, the ground is low and apparently swampy. It consists of clay, and an embankment may be easily made, as there is no part more than three and an half feet below the top of the canal. Some points of hills must be cut off to straighten the route, and three culverts are required. Expense, For embankment of 18,500 cubic yards, at twenty cents, P,700
Mile 11th, Begins in clayey ground, three feet too low. After passing this, two points of land (the easterly one coming in from the south, and the other from the north) four or five feet above the level, of a loamy soil, must be cut off The valley of a brook, which must be crossed, will render an embankment and a culvert essential. Expense,
by Mr. Geddes.
The exuberant supply of water for the canal, in this section, must be at once perceived from an inspection of the topographical map. At its commencement, the waters of the Mohawk river will be used, and they can be increased to any extent, by introducing a feeder from Fish creek. Independently of numerous small brooks, the canal can derive as much water as can be desired from the Oneida, the Cowaslon, the Canasara-
ga, the Chitteningo, the Black, the Limestone, the Butternut, the Onondaga, the Nine-mile, the Skaneateles, the Bread, the Cold-spring, the Owasco, and the Crane creeks ; some of which are the outlets of lakes, and others originate from perennial springs in high lands, and will never be affected by the clearing of the country. The adaptation of the grounds of this section, for a canal, is peculiar and extraordinary. After proceeding two miles and fourteen chains, it will be necessary to descend 6 feet ; after which, the line of the canal proceeds 41 1-2 miles on one level. A descent of 19 feet then takes place, from the foot of which another level extends 30 miles. For the remainder of the distance to the Seneca river, there are three departures from the level — one of 8, one of 9, and one of 6 1-2 feet. Thus the w^hole extent of this section, occupying 77 miles, will require but 6 locks.
In many places inexhaustible beds of gypsum exist, which can, by means of this canal, be conveyed cheaper to the great agricultural counties of the state, than it can be procured by importation. And nothing is more easy than, by a short lateral canal of 1 1-2 miles in length, to form a communication between Salina and the great canal, thus furnishing fuel to the works, and salt to the whole country. A level has been carried from that of the canal, at the foot of the two locks near Onondaga creek, which would require no greater depth of excavation than 4 feet, in any place, and no embankment, culvert, or lock.
A connexion by locks can easily be made with the Onondaga lake. And if it is thought adviseable, a canal uniting the great canal with the Oneida lake, can be effected. The level of the canal is 51 feet above the Oneida lake, and the expense of this lateral communication may be estimated as follows : Three miles of canal, at an average cost of excavation, including every thing, of ^5,000 per mile, ^15,000 Lockage of 51 feet, 51,000
The estimates, per mile, herein before stated, excluding the above estimate for a lateral canal to Oneida lake, and also the expense of a feeder from Oneida creek, in the aggregate, amount to g609,696
There are other expenses to be added. The line of the canal passes over 46 roads, where bridges will be required, and these are estimated at ^500 a piece, (probably too much,) p3,000
2 locks, of 2 feet lift each, at Skaneateles, ^ to prevent water from rushing into the i „ „^ canal in freshets. It is not certain that [ ' these will be necessary, J
The five per cent, for contingencies is borrowed from the European mode of forming estimates ; and the charge of $1,000 per mile for engineers, superintendence, &c. is too liberal.
The eastern section of the canal extends from Rome to the Hudson river ; and Charles C. Broadhead, Esq. was employed as engineer, to act upon that part of it which lies between Rome and Schoharie creek, He has accordingly levelled over and explored the route, within these limits ; and in the following details thereof, reference is had to his minutes, maps, and profiles, herewith presented :
Beginning, then, at a stone placed by Mr. Wright, in the south west bank of the Rome canal, standing 45.100 of a foot above the level of the water, (being the point marked A, on Mr. Wright's map,) and proceeding down the Mohawk river along the south shore thereof, the route is described and estimated as follows :
Mile 1st, Passes, for 36 chains, over rich bottom lands, then 16 chains of alder swamp. The residue is gravel and loam, descending to the north. The Little Oneida creek crosses the line in the swamp, with its bed 2.59 feet below the level. An embankment, in the swamp, will be required, of 16 chains long, and from 1 to 4 1-2 feet high, with a culvert to pass the water of the creek. Expense,
Mile 2d, Passes over 60 chains of gravel, mixed with clay, the rest sandy. The line for 20 chains runs near the edge of a swamp. A small run of water crosses the line, where a culvert will be necessary. Expense, For excavation of 26,700 c. y. at 12^ c. ^3,337
Mile 3d, Passes over gravel, clay, and loam, with some places stony, and descending to the north, in some places steep. Ibe line maybe so varied, in this mile, as to avoid extra digging, by lengthening it. Expense, For excavation of 52,120 c. y. at 18 c. $9,381 1 culvert, 100
Mile ith, Passes over flat stony land, consisting of loam and clay for the first 20 chains. The residue is loam and sand, descending northerly. The line for the greatest part of this mile, runs at the foot of a hill, near the edge of a swamp, and 16 chains of it lies through woods. Expense,
Mile 5th, Passes over land of a description similar to the last, except that 64 chains lies through wood land. There are two small runs of water, which may be admitted into the canal without injury, or if passed under, they will require 2 culverts. Expense, For excavation of 34,190 c. y. at 14 cts. $4,786 2 culverts, 200
edge of a swamp and the foot of a hill. There are, in this mile, 56 chains of woodland, and a fine quarry of building stone contiguous to the line. There are two streams which require culverts. Expense, For excavation of 38,110 c. j. at 14 cts. ^4,339 2 culverts, 200
Mile 7th, Passes for the first 24 chains, along a steep side hill ; the residue of the mile descends gently to the north. The earth is generally sand and clay, with some stone. It is easy to excavate. There is one small stream, and a fine quarry of building stone. Expense, For excavation of 2 1,960 c. y. at 12^ c.S2,745 2 culverts, 200
Mile Sth, Passes generally over sand and loam, of which the surface is pretty even. In this mile the Oriskany creek crosses the line, where an embankment, 15 chains long, and from 4 to 13 feet high, will be necessary. The bed of the creek is 11 feet below the level, and a canal, from a woollen manufactory, which crosses the line here, is 5.30 feet below the level. A culvert will be wanted for the little canal, and large waterways for the creek ; but these will be provided for in the estimate of an aqueduct, by which the creek and canal will best be passed. By throwing a dam across the Oriskany 5 feet high, at a point 46 chains above the line, the water may be brought, in a feeder, into the canal, as represented on the map. Expense, For aqueduct over creek and canal, $15000 excavation of 20,500 c. y. at 12^ c. 2,575 embankment near the 48th station, of
2,640 c. yards, at 20 cents, 528
feeder 46 ch. long, requiring the excavation of 12,130 c. y. at 15 cents, 1,719 For embankment on feeder, of 2,810 c. y.
Mile 9thi Passes generally over a soil composed of sand and loam, easy to excavate. The route passes over the side of the Oriskany hill, which is in some places very steep, and which has at its foot a miry cedar and tamarack swamp. A ravine must be crossed where it is one chain and fifty links wide, and 6^ feet deep. — This will require an embankment and small culvert. — By a route bending to the north, the deepjcutting might be avoided. Expense,
Mile lOth, Passes over earth easy to be excavated, but considerably uneven. Three small streams, requiring 2 culverts cross the line. These streams rise in a sandy hill, considerably above the level, and in freshets bring down much sand in their waters. But if it should be thought advisable, they may be let into the canal, by a side cut, with very little expense, and without injury. Expense,
Miles llth 8{ 12/A,Are described together. The first part of the 11th mile passes over level ground, and near the edge of the bank above the bottom land. Here two routes have been explored for a short distance, (see map.) If the north route is adopted, which is probably the best, an embankment of 45 chains long, and from 7 to 8 feet high, will be necessary, with a culvert sufiicient to pass the waters of the Sadaqueda creek, which is 50 links wide. The bed of this creek is 11^^ feet below the level. Near the east end of the 12th mile, is a ravine, requiring an embankment of 4 chains long, and from 4 to 13|^feet high, under which must be a culvert to pass a small stream. If the south route should be adopted, less embankment will be necessary, but deep cutting will be incurred ; besides, it is probably more difficult to cross the mill ca-
nal, than the stream below, and the old bed of the stream must be crossed in either case. Expense of Mile 1 1 th^ For embankment of 28,000 cubic yards, at 25 cents, ;8i7,000
Mile 13th, Passes over loam, of which the excavation is very easy. It descends gradually to the north. Two culverts will be required. Expense, excavation of 26,800 c. y. at 20 cts $3,350 2 culverts, 250
Mile 14th, Passes over earth easy to excavate, and it descends gently to the north. At Nail creek an embankment will be required, of 8 chains in length on the top, and 6 chains long on the bottom. The bed of the creek is 14^ feet below the level ; it is also 30 links wide. Here must be a culvert. If the north route of the canal is adopted, (see 11th mile,) an embankment on the last part of this mile will be required, of 20 chains long, and from 5 to 8 feet high, and this embankment extends into the next mile. If the south route is adopted, there will be required from 3 to 4 feet extra deep cutting for 34 chains. Expense,
Mile 15th, On the north route, will require from its commencement, an embankment from 5 to 20 feet high, and 44 chains long, including Ballou's creek and ravine, where a culvert will be wanted, larger than common, as the creek is 50 links wide, and Ip.rge enough in the spring to carry a grist-mill, though nearly dry in the
summer. On the south route, there would be required about 60 chains of extra deep cutting, and an embankment over Ballou's creek and ravine, of four chains and 50 links in length, and from 12 to 15 feet deep, including the culvert. Expense, For excavation of 85,000 c.y. at 12 1-2 c. ^10,625 embankment of 6,300 do. at 20 c. 1,260 aqueduct over Ballou's creek, 500
Mile 16M, Passes over a gravelly loam, descending to the north. An embankment is necessary 2 chains long, and 14 1-2 feet high, with a small culvert under it Expense,
Mile 17 th, Passes over land like the last. Clark's creek and ravine cross the line, where an embankment will be wanted, 4 chains 50 links long on the top, and 3 chains 50 links at the bottom, and 13 1-2 feet high, including a culvert. This creek rises high in the spring, and its bed is 30 links wide. Another embankment is necessary on this mile, to be 3 chains 50 links long on the top, and 2 chains 50 links at the bottom, and 6 1-2 feet high, including a small culvert. Expense, For embankment of 14,560 c. y. at 20 cts. ^2,912 excavation of 35,200 c. y. at 15 c. 4,280 aqueduct over Clark's creek, 500
Mile ISth, Passes over sand, gravel, and loam. Several creeks, runs, and ravines, cross ^he line, requiring embankments and culverts, as follows : 1st ravine, 2 chains 50 links long on the top, and 50 links less on the bottom. It is 11 1-2 feet deep, and requires a culvert. The 2d ravine is 1 chain 50 links long on the top, and 1 chain on the bottom, and 17 1-2 feet deep. The 3d is 2 chains 25 links long on the top, 1 chain and 25 links on the bottom, and 1 If feet deep. The 4th is J erguson's creek, 25 links wide, and 6f feet below
the level, and may be made still lower 4 or 5 feet This creek rises in a hill, and in a wet season swells much over its banks. Here a small embankment will be required, of from 1 to 2^ feet high, and 8 chains long Another ravine and run cross the canal west of Ferguson's creek, of 2 chains 25 links across on the top, 1 chain 25 links on the bottom, and 6i feet deep, where an embankment will be necessary. Expense, For excavation of 55,120 c. y. at 15 c. ^8,268 embankment of 14,615 c. y. at 10 c. 2,923
Mile 1 9M, Passes over land easy to excavate, but includes 6 small creeks and ravines, where so many embankments and culverts will be required. Expense, For excavation of 23,500 c. y. at 121- c. ^12,937 embankment of 18,926 c. y. at 20 c. 3,787
Mile 20th, Passes generally along a pretty steep side hill, the soil being of sand and loam. Dederick's creek crosses the line, and requires an embankment 2 chains long, and Hi feet deep, where a culvert is necessary. There are besides this creek, four small runs, requiring 3 culverts. Expense,
Mile 21st, Passes over ground easy to excavate, and generally on a side hill. The surface is here uneven, requiring several small embankments and culverts, Expense,
Mile 22c?, Passes over uneven land, easy to excavate, in which, beside smaller ones, there is a ravine requiring an embankment 6 chains long, and from 12 to 16 feet deep. Expense,
Mile 23d, Passes over land which is, in some places, wet and stony, but generally consists of sand, loam, and gravel. Here is a brook, 30 links v*^ide, running in a ravine, which requires an embankment 3 chains long and 16 i- feet high. Expense, For excavation of 51,500 c. y. at 15 ets. ^8,725 embankment, 9,170 do. at 20 1,834
Mile 2ith, Passes over 1 6 chains of bottom land, and the rest stony and gravelly. Here are several ravines and runs of water, of which the principal one is Meyer's creek, which in time of high water is a mad stream overflowing the flats. There are, however, in this mile, no difficulties which may not easily be overcome with small embankments, suitable culverts, and an aqueduct over Meyer's creek. Expense,
Mile 25//i, Passes for the most part, over a flat, filled with round stones ; for the rest, along the side of a hill, consisting of sand, gravel, and loam. There is here a ravine 4 chains and 80 links long on the top, 4 chains on the bottom, and 10 feet deep. There will also be required an "embankment over Dy gert's creek, 7 chains and 40 links long, and 9 feet high. This creek is 20 links wide, and must have a culvert. Expense, For embankment of 17,320 c. y. at 20 c. $2,474 excavation of 29,500 do. at 121^ do. 3,b75 3 culverts, 750
Mile 26th^ For the first 56 chains, passes over land descending gradually to the north, of which the earth is gravel and loam. The residue is rich bottom land.—-
For 42 chains of this mile, embankments are necessary, of which the largest is required at Steel's creek, which lies 13^ feet below the level. This creek requires a passage at least 30 links wide, being at times swollen and rapid. The greatest part of the embankment in this mile might be avoided by a more southerly route, but in that case the high point of a hill must be cut through. Expense,
For excavation of 4,780 c. y. at 12|- cents ;g937 embankment of 42,500 c. y. at 25 cents 10,525 1 culvert and aqueduct over Steel's )
Mile llthi For one-third of the way, runs over a steep side hill ; the residue descends gradually to the north. An embankment of 16 chains long, and from 4 to 13 feet high, will be required over a low piece of ground which cannot be avoided. Expense, For embankment of 19, 700 c. y. at 20 c. ^3,940 excavation of 18,500 c.y. at 12 1-2 c. 2,312 aqueduct, 500
Mile 2Sth, For about 48 chains, runs along a ridge of round stones ; for the rest it runs over flat land. An embankment, 4 chains long, and from 4 to 13 feet high, is required in crossing Fulmer's creek, where a small aqueduct is necessary. Expense, For embankment of 3,600 c. y. at 20 cts. ^720 excavation of 20,000 c. y. at 12 1-2 c. 2,500 aqueduct 2,500
Mile 29th, For about 14 chains, runs along land which has a gentle slope to the north. The next 32 ch. runs along the foot of a steep hill, called the dug-way, where a rough stone wall will probably be necessary on both sides of the canal ; on the north side, to support the bank of the canal, and on the south side, to prevent the hill from falling into it. The residue of the mile passes over bottom land, overflowed in the spring and fall, where an embankment and a wall, of from 3 to 14 feet
high, and 40 chains long, will be wanted, on the north side of the canal, to protect it against the floods of the Mohawk. Within 20 or 30 rods are plenty of good building stone. Expense,
Mile 30th^ For about 50 chains, runs between the foot of a steep hill and the river, over gravel and hard earth, difficult to excavate. The residue of the soil is loam and sand. An embankment will be required of 26 ch. long, and from 3 to J 6 feet high, to pass a ravine, where a small culvert will be necessary. Expense, For embankment of 49,650 c. y. at 15 c. ^7,464 excavation of 24,000 do. at 12^ do. 3,000
Mile 3lst, Passes over gravelly loam and bottom land. Here is considerable deep cutting, and the line might be varied so as to avoid it in part, but in that case it would pass through a burying ground. Expense, For excavation of 65,100 c. y. at 15 c. ^9,766 culvert, 100
Mile 32t/, For 60 chains passes over a gravelly loam, and for the residue, over limestone, oi which a part is solid rock. A small embankment will be necessary on this mile. Expense,
Mile 33c?, For about twelve chains, continues over the limestone ridge mentioned above. The rest of this mile consists of uneven gravel and loam, interspersed with stone. Three culverts will be required, and a considerable embankment. Expense,
Mile 3ith^ For the most part, passes over land which is gravelly, and in some places hard and stony. A brook, on which there is a grist-mill, crosses the line. This brook may be conducted into the canal with little expense. Expense, For excavating rock and earth, 34,000 )
Miles 36, 37, and 38. These three miles includes the route of the canal at the Little Falls, and are described together; — 57 chains of the 3bth mile pass along the foot of Fall hill to A, on a piece of ground about one chain wide between the hill and the bottomland. This part is gravelly, with some loose stone, and solid rock, and has an uneven surface, with the appearance of having fallen from the hill. Near the house of Col. Bellinger, a small stream crosses the line, and here the deep cutting may be partly shunned by passing north of his house. From A to B, is a ravine 14 chains 50 links long, in which there is a fall of 46 feet, requiring to be descended by jfive locks. The banks of the ra vine consist of rock, and rise from 4 to 40 feet, leaving a width between them, from 50 to 100 links. At B, the line runs on the beach of the Mohawk, and Httle or no excavation will be necessary from A, at the upper
end of the ravine, to the island in the river. From B, to the head of this island, it is proposed to build a dam of sufficient height to exclude the waters of the Mohawk from running on the south side of the island, the island itself, and the north bank of the ravine between A and B, being, at present, higher than such a dam would require to be. From B to C, which is opposite to the lower en^ of the island, at a place where the canal line enters another ravine, is about 24 chains. At C, the water is six feet deep, with a bottom of rock. Just below the upper entrance of the ravine atC, it is proposed to build another dam, 20 feet high, and extending from the lower end of the island across to the south shore of the river. Such a dam would set the water back to the foot of the locks at B, with a depth all the way between, sufficient for the canal. From C to D, a distance of 28 chains, the ravine last above-mentioned extends, and is separated from the Mohawk on the north by a rough irregular bank of rock and earth, which seems to have been thrown from the precipice on the south, with such violence as to be separated from it at the bottom, for the space of from 4 to 6 rods, which forms the width of the ravine. There are here two places where a passage for the canal must be exca vated through granite rock. The first of these places extends from the bank of the river eastward, and is 4 chains long, and at the highest point, 6 1-2 feet above the level. The second is 5 chains 50 links long, and at the highest point, 13.47 feet above the level. From D to E. is 57 chains, over which the line runs along the foot of Fall hill, where the width of ground between a mountain of rock, on one side, and the bank of the river, on the other, is not more than from 50 to 100 Iks. For the north bank of the canal, throughout this distance, it will be necessary to build a substantial stone wall, and to line it, on the inside, with a considerable quantity of tight or well puddled earth. Here must also be a lock with a descent of 6.85 feet. From E to the end of the 38th mile, the hne passes over rich bottom land, which is not overflowed by the river, but which requires three culverts. Expense,
For excavation of 40,600 c.y. at 22i c. ^5,750 do. of rock for canal and locks, in all 97,500 c. y. at 75 cents, 73,125
Mile 39/^, Passes over land easy to excavate, lying between the bottom land and a hill. Expense, For excavation of 29,496 c. y. at 121- cts. $3,687
Mile 40th, Passes over some loam, some clay, and some loose round stone, in general not quite so easy to excavate as the last, and requiring one culvert. Expense,
Mile 41st, Passes for the most part over bottom land easy to excavate. The Nowendaga creek, of which the bottom is dark limestone, crosses the line in this mile. This creek is 50 links wide between its banks, and may be conducted over the canal, as it lies much above the level near the route. The deep cutting cannot be avoided. Expense,
Mile 42J, Runs generally along the foot of the high ground, and at the edge of the bottom land. In some places it is stony, and the bottom land in this mile is low and swampy. Two culverts will be required. — The deep cutting may be avoided by crooking a little to the north. Expense,
Mile 43d, Will require an embankment 12 cli. long, and from 4 to 6 feet high. The earth is chiefly gravel and loam. There is a piece of deep cutting which cannot be avoided. Over the \ow ground, a stone vt^all, 20 chains long, and from 6 to 10 feet high, to support one of the banks of the canal, will be wanted. Expense, For embankment of 6,600 c. y, at 20 cts.$ 1,320 excavation of 40,100 c. y. at 14 cts. 5,614 stone wall, 1,600
Mile 4:4th^ Passes over gravel and loam, generally full of round stones. In some places it is wet and boggy, but with a hard bottom. Two small embankments are necessary. There is here a small stream which may be received into the canal. Expense, For embankment of 13,600 cubic yards, at twenty cents, ^2,720
g6,170
Mile 4:bth, Passes over ground descending gently to the north ; in some places stony, and in others boggy, not hard to excavate. Some embankment and a culvert will be necessary. Expense, For embankment of 2,640 c.y. at 20 cts. ^528 excavation of 20,800 do. at 15 do. 4,020
Mile 4:6th, Passes over ground which will answer to the description of the last mile, except that two runs of water cross the line, requiring each a culvert. Expense, For excavation of 30,000 c. y. at 15 cts. ^4,500
Mile 4.7th, Passes over land generally descending to the north, with its surface gravelly and stony. Here Mill brook, a small rapid stream, crosses the line. Expense,
Mile 48?it, Passes over land generally descending gently to the north, but of which, 16 chains has a steep descent, and consists of clay. Several small streams cross the line, requiring embankments and culverts. Expense,
Mile 4.9ih, Passes from the end of the last mile to A, over steep side-lying ground, consisting of gravel and clay. The residue of the mile runs along the beach of the river, at the foot of an almost perpendicular hill, consisting of rock and blue clay, full of springs. Here will be required a stone wall, on both sides of the ca? nal,for 40 chains. Expense,
Mile 5lst, Runs, for 66 chains, at the foot of a hill, where the line may be varied so as to require but little extra excavation. Three embankments will be required, of which the largest must be 14 chains long, and from 7 to 10 feet high, and 3 culverts will be required. Expense,
Mile 52</, Runs from its commencement, 32 chains over bottom land, where an embankment, 5 feet high, will be required. In this distance, the Esquago creek crosses the line. This stream is 2 chains 30 links wide between its banks, and 12ifeet below the level, and one of the most violent creeks on the whole section, requiring an aqueduct. Expense, For embankment over the Esquago flats, of 39,600 cubic yards, at 25 cents, ^9,960
Mile 53d, Passes along the edge of a hill of gravel, chiefly easy to excavate. Two small runs cross the line here, which may be admitted into the canal without expense. One culvert will be necessary. Expense, For excavation of 23,150 c. y. at 12^ c. ^2,893 1 culvert, " 100
Mile 54:th, Passes over soil like the last. The Kaateskill crosses the line in this mile. It takes its rise in the hills south, and is a violent stream in freshets, bringing down large quantities of gravel and sand. It lies too high to pass under the canal, and must therefore be crossed by making a dam high enough to raise the water to the level. The superfluous waters of this stream can be discharged from the canal by suitable waste gates. Expense,
. Mile 55th, Passes generally along the foot of a ridge of lime stone, good for building. The Canajoharry creek crosses in this mile, on a bed 8i feet below the level, and may be sunk down to 14 feet below the level, by clearing out the stream for 1 5 chains below the line.
This is a mad stream, sometimes overflowing its banks, in consequence of being obstructed by ice lodged on the island lying 10 chains below the line. Over this stream,which is 1 chain 60 links wide between its banks, there must be an aqueduct, and an embankment 8 ch. long, and from 1|^ to Sf feet high. Expense, For excavation of rock and earth, 22,800 cubic yards, at 40 cents, A 120
Mile 51th^ Passes for 45 chains along a side hill, of which 20 chains are very steep. The earth is clay and gravel. Here will be required, on both sides of the canal, a dry stone wall, one to keep the hill from slipping into the canal, and the other to support the north bank, and protect it against the Mohawk. One culvert will be necessary to pass a stream which lies 5|- feet below the level. Expense,
Mile 5Sth, Passes generally over ground descending gently to the north, and consisting of gravel and sand, with considerable quantities of stone in some places. — The deep cutting may be avoided by bending the line to the north. The Plattikill crosses the line of this mile, and is a mad stream, 1 ch. 60 links wide within its banks. It brings down in the spring of the year flood wood and gravel. There is a saw mill on it 4 chains above the line. This stream may be passed by a dam with suitable waste gates, without injuring the mill site. Expense,
Mile 60th, Passes for 50 chains, on a strip of land about one chain wide, at the foot of a precipitous and rocky hill, called the Nose. The place of elevated ground, between the hill and the river, appears to have been formed by the successive falling of fragments from the precipice. Here it will be necessary to erect a stone wall 30 chains long: — 20 chains of this mile pass along a steep side-hill, and near the edge of a swamp. The soil is a gravelly loam, and some embankment will be necessary. Expense,
iS 10,560
Mile 6lst, Generally runs winding round the foot of a stony ridge, to near the end of the mile, along the edge of a swamp, The earth consists of gravel, sand, and stone, difficult to excavate. At a place called the Little Nose, deep cutting will be required, through granite rock, for a stretch of 8 chains, and from two to 19 feet deep. An embankment of 40 chains long, and from 2 to 7 feet high, will be necessary near the beginning of the mile ; and a small stream 6f feet below the level will require a culvert. Expense, For embankment, culvert, and stone wall, to pass Little Nose, $4,500
g J 8,636
Mile 62c?, is partly occupied by the Little Nose described in the last mile. The greatest part of this distance the line runs over fine bottom land, near the edge of hard land on a ridge. But here passes the Wassenhaw creek, which is twenty links wide, and where an embankment 13 chains long, and from 7 to 9 feet high, and a stone wall and dam, will be necessary. Expense, For stone wall and dam, $5,690
cult to excavate. Expense,
For excavation of 25,160 cubic yards, at 15 cts. $3,774 Mile 64/A, Passes, for the first 20 chains, over bottom lands, where an embankment 16 chains long will be wanted, of from 1 to 8 feet high. Here crosses Printup's creek, which now runs in a channel 30 links wide, and 9f feet below the level, but which has uniformly scooped out a channel, now dry and abandoned, to the depth of 8f feet below the leveL The deep cutting cannot be avoided. It consists of gravel and loose stone. Expense,
Mile 65th, Runs along and at the foot of a steep side hill of gravelly loam, except 1 6 chains, which consists of lime-stone, of which a small part, where a ridge puts down to the river, will have to be excavated. West of this ridge, an embankment 16 chains long, and from 4 to 7i feet high, will be required on the north side of the canal. The stone here is good for building, and easily obtained. Expense,
Mile Q6th, Runs on the margin of a steep side hill, near the edge of the flat. The hill is mostly loose slate and gravel, mixed in places with other stone. Two small runs of water cross the line. Expense, For excavation of 31,500 c. y. at 18 cts. ^5,670
Mile 67th, Runs over land which resembles the last, except that there is a greater proportion of sand, loam, and gravel, making it easier to excavate. Expense, For excavation of 35,150 c. y. at 15 cts. ^5,272
Mile 70th, Passes, for the most part, along and at the foot of a steep side hill. Here two creeks cross the line, Aurey's kill, and Ishes' kill, over the first of which an embankment will be necessary of 1 6 chains in length, and from 8 to 14 feet high: over the other is required another embankment 14 chains long, and from 2 to J3-L feet high. The north bank of the canal between these creeks must be supported by a stone wall. The deep cutting may be avoided by bending to the north. Expense,
Mile 7\st, and 27 chains. This distance runs along ^nd at the foot of a steep hill, of which the earth is gravel, sand, and clay, easy to excavate. Expense,
The details of the line explored by Mr. Broadhead terminate on the west side of the Schoharie creek, 71 miles and 27 chains from Rome. In the course of this distance, the line of the canal falls precisely ' 32.85 feet. To accommodate this fall, 16 locks are placed at various distances, pointed out on the map, where the ground is favourable, and the materials for making them easily to be obtained. The expense of lockage is estimated at ^1,250 per foot lift, $166,062 .00
At the Little Falls, and several short distances in the highest embankments, and where the line passes over small round stone, puddling will probably be necessary; but the route, in general, lies over land in which there is no danger of leakage. To cover the expenses of this item, an allowance is made of $20,000
The quantity of water which may be introduced into the canal, on this section, is such, as to leave no solicitude on that subject* And no calculation of the expense of feeders from the Mohawk is made, because, at several places were dams and walls are to be erected against that river, its waters may be admitted into the canal, without additional expense.
evenness of its surface, that, from three miles above the Little Falls of the Mohawk, westward for 240 miles, the route will not require the excavation of a single yard of any kind of rock.
Mr.Brodhead's level approaches the Schoharie creek, on its west side, at an elevation of about 22 feet above its surface. There are two modes of crossing this creek, either of which might be adopted. A dam may be made across the creek at A, (on Mr. Brodhead's map) which shall raise the water 10 feet, when the canal may be let down, by a lock, into the pond, which this dam will create, and a floating bridge may be stretched across it for a towing path. But is believed, from the examinations and levels heretofore made between this creek and the Hudson river, that it would be the better mode to cross the creek on the aqueduct bridge, in order to keep up the line of the level, with a view of passing the more easily two slaty ridges four or five miles below Schenectady, near Alexander's mills. — ► Should this plan be adopted, the bed of the creek, which is about 400 feet wide, should be increased to a width of 700 feet, so as to give the water an unobstructed passage under the aqueduct. This aqueduct may be composed of wood, supported by two abutments and sixteen piers of stone, each of which piers would occupy about 10 feet of the width of the stream.
The commissioners have not been able to procure a level and survey to be made from the Schoharie creek to the Hudson. They had in their employ, four engineers on other parts of the line of the western canal, and one on the northern, neither of whom had time to level and survey that part of the line above-mentioned ; nor could they find a sixth engineer, who would undertake to finish the Mohawk route. But although they are prevented from submitting to the Legislature a report of this part of the line, with all that minuteness of detail which is exhibited in relation to other parts, yet they possess information, which, for all general purposes, is equally satisfactory. This part of the line was formerly examined by Mr. Weston, an English engi-
fleer, and pronounced to be practicable without a very serious expense. It has also been heretofore twice levelled and surveyed, by Mr. Benjamin Wright, in various ways, with the same result. The commissioners, therefore, confidently state, that the navigation may be continued from the Schoharie creek to the Hudson by a canal along the valley of the Mohawk.
From the examinations of Mr. Weston and Mr. Wright, above-mentioned, as well as from the personal knowledge of the commissioners, it is believed that the canal, from the aqueduct last mentioned, ought to be continued down along the south side of the Mohawk to Lansing's mills, which are situated a short distance above the Cohoes. From this point the canal may leave the Mohawk, and be directed towards the Hudson, which it will approach opposite to the village of Lansingburgh, and it may thence be continued along the valley of the Hudson, at a proper distance from its margin, until it reaches the city of Albany, where it is to be connected with the river.
This location of the canal will afford to the village of Waterford an opportunity of enjoying its benefits, by the construction of a side cut, to be connected with the main canal above the Cohoes, The village of Lansingburgh and the city of Troy, may also, by lateral canals participate in its advantages; and thus, the cities of Albany and Troy, and the villages of Lansinburgh and Waterford, may be placed on grounds of fair competition, not less advantageous to the growth of those cities and villages, than beneficial to the general interests of trade, and the prosperity of the state.
This route, from Schoharie creek to the city of Albany, will comprehend a distance of 42 miles. It is proposed to give the canal on this route a fall of one inch in a mile. The whole descent in this route will be 286 feet.
The aggregate amount is, g 1 , 1 06,087
There are certain items of expense applicable to all the sections of the canal, and not heretofore enumerated, of which the amount cannot be very precisely calculated. The items alluded to, here follow, with such estimates as, it is believed, will not be found unreasonable, to wit :
But if the route south of the mountain ridge, in the country west of the Genesee river, is adopted, in preference to the northern route, then deducting ;^300,925
145ifeet higher than Rome.
The average expense, per mile, of this canal, according to the foregoing estimates, taking the north route beyond the Genesee river, is a little more than $13,800
With respect to that part of their duty, whichrelates to loans on the credit of the state, the commissioners have to state, that at an early day they addressed a letter on this subject to William Bayard, of the City of New-York, and that he has taken measures to ascertain whether a loan can be procured in Europe,
but hasnotyet had time to learn whether his measures have been successful. The Commissioners entertain no doubt but that as much money can be obtained in this country, as may be required for the canal, on the credit of the state, at an interest of 6 per cent, by the creation of a funded debt, and that ample funds may be appropriated for the payment of the interest, and the gradual extinguishment of the debt without the imposition of taxes.
The commissioners have also attended to that requisition of the act respecting subscriptions and donations. They have applied to the United States, and to the states of Vermont, Kentucky, and Ohio, as having a common interest with New- York in the contemplated canals, and where they feel persuaded that a favourable disposition exists. The letter to the members of Congress from this state will show the view which the Commissioners have taken of the fund contemplated by Congress for internal improvements. But if no extraneous aid should be afforded, it will at all times be in the power of this state to levy high transit duties on the articles transported to and from those states and the territories of the United States, and thereby secure, eventually, a greater fund than can possibly arise from any present contributions from those quarters. It is to be hoped, however, that the necessity of this measure may be superseded by a cordial and liberal cooperation. But it cannot reasonably be expected, that the efforts of one state are solely and gratuitously to produce an expensive andsutpendous work,intimately identified with the interests of many, and directly or indirectly connected with the prosperity of all.
The commissioners appointed agents to receive subscriptions in this state, and they also prepared and distributed forms of cessions of land and donations in money : one form relates to gratuitous grants of land for the ground through which the canal will pass, and the other is a contribution to the fund for making it. Agents have also been appointed in Vermont and Ohio for the same purpose.
There is reason to believe, from the cessions alreadj made, and the favourable dispositions manifested, on this occasion, thatthe land occupied by the canal will generally speaking, be granted gratuitously. Some donations in land have been made, and more are expected. And many circumstances concur in promising that a munificent spirit will be evinced as soon as the state undertakes this great project.
The Commissioners have thus, agreeably to the duties required of them, confined themselves to a plain statement of facts, and it is not their intention to deviate from the prescribed course. Their investigations have shown the physical facility of this great internal communication, and a little attention to the resources of the state will demonstrate its financial practicability. And they may be permitted to remark, that unless it is established the greater part of the trade, which does not descend the Mississippi, from all those vast and fertile regions west of the Seneca lake, will be lost to the United States.
POSTSCRIPT.
Mr. Ellicott, one of the Commissioners, not being able to attend the meeting of the board, was not consulted on the details of this Report ; but he approves its general principles.
The engineer employed on the northern canal, not having yet completed his returns, the Commissioners will make it the subject of another communication, with which they will connect their application to Congress and to some of the states — their correspondence—? and various other documents, connected with their duties, not herewith presented.
or Champlain Canal.
The advantages which will result from the connexion of Lake Erie with the navigable waters of the Hudson by means of a canal, have been so frequently elucidated, and are indeed so obvious to every one who possesses a correct geographical knowledge of the west, that it has been deemed unnecessary to enumerate them. But, presuming that the benefits to be derived from a similar communication with Lake Champlain, are not fully understood, or duly appreciated, the commissioners ask the indulgence of briefly pointing out a few of the most prominent of these benefits.
That part of this state which is contiguous to Lakes George and Champlain, abounds in wood, timber, masts, spars, and lumber of all kinds, which, transported by the Northern Canal, would find a profitable sale along the Hudson and in the City of New- York, instead of being driven, as much of those articles have heretofore been, to a precarious market, by a long and hazardous navigation to Quebec.
Some idea may be formed of the immense quantity of lumber which would be conveyed on the contemplated canal, from the following statement, made on the best authority, and which embraces only that small section of the northern part of this state, from whence the transportation is carried on to the City of New-York, or to intermediate markets.
Within that tract of country, embracing the borders of Lake George, and the timber land north and west of the great falls in Luzerne, there are annually made, and transported to the south, two millions of boards and plank : one million feet of square timber, consisting of oak, white and yellow pine, beside dock logs scantling and other timber to a great amount.
A considerable portion of the northern part of this state is rough and mountainous, anij in a great measure, unfit for agricultural improvements. These broken
tracts are covered with native forests, which, by the contemplated canal, would furnish vast supplies of wood and lumber for many years ; and thus the great and increasing population which occupies the margin of the Hudson, would be supplied with boards, plank, timber, fencing materials, and even fuel, with less expense, than from any other quarter ; while, at the same time, the lands to the north, considerable tracts of which belong to the people of this state, would be greatly increased in value.
The mountains in the vicinity of Lakes George and Champlain, produce a variety of minerals, among which are found, in inexhaustible quantities, the richest of iron ores. Several forges are in operation in the counties of Washington, Warren, Essex, and Clinton, the number of which may be indefinitely increased : and the iron which they produce is very little, if at all, inferior in quality to the best iron manufactured in the United States : nor can it be doubted, that, after the completion of the contemplated canals, the middle and western part of this state would be furnished with this necessary article on more advantageous terms than it can at present be procured.
The inhabitants of a large tract of country on both sides of Lake champlain, embracing a considerable j>ortion of the State of Vermont, would find, by the northern canal, a permanent market in the City of NewYork, or at intermediate places, for their pot and pearl ashes, and also for all their surplus agricultural productions, from whence they would also be cheaply supplied with all the necessary articles of forcing growth.
The iron of the northern part of this slate, which at present is unwrought in the mine, and the fiue marble of Vermont, which now lies useless in the quarry, would be converted to useful and ornamental purposes in the west, in exchange for salt and gypsum ; and thus the large sums which are annually sent abroad for the purchase of iron, of salt, and of gypsum, would be retained amoPiic our citizens, and added to the permanent wealth of the state.
In short the connexion of Lake Champlain, with the Hudson, by means of a canal, would greatly enhance the value of the northern lands; it would save vast sums in the price of transportation; it would open new and increasing sources of wealth ; it would divert from the province of Lower Canada, and turn to the south, the profits of the trade of Lake Champlain; and, by imparting activity and enterprise to agricultural, commercial, and mechanical pursuits, it would add to our industry and resources, and thereby augment the substantial wealth and prosperity of the state
The examination and levels for this canal, have been made under the direction of the commissioners, by Col. Lewis Garin, and the line for the same has been marked out upon the maps herewith presented. There are two places of departure from the Hudson, in order to connect that river with Lake Champlain, each of which affords a very favourable route, in point of soil, to be excavated, and of materials for the artificial works. One of these routes by commencing at the mouth of Fort Edward creek, and pursuing the valley of that creek to the summit level, and then following the ravine of Wood-creek, win reach Whitehall, in the distance of twenty-two miles. This route was formerly deemed most eligible by a board of commissioners, composed of General Schuyler and others. It is, however, supposed by the engineer, that the other route may be preferable, which commences about six miles further down the river, near the mouth of Moses's kill, and which by the natural channel of this kill, and of Dead-creek, joined to a short length of artificial canal, forms the summit level from whence it proceeds — partly by the natural channel of Wood-creek, and partly by artificial cuts, which greatly shorten the distanceto Whitehall. The length of this route, is twenty-eight miles, and it passes over a soil, which is, in general, remarkably favourable, consisting principally of vegetable mould, loam and clay. At the northern termina-. tion of the canal, a few yards of limestone excavation will be necessary ; this, however, is not deemed an un-
favourable circumstance, as the stone are of such a quahtj as will be useful in the construction of locks, and it may be remarked that the materials for the construction of the locks between Lake Champlain and the Hudson can be procured with little difficulty.
Between the Hudson and Lake Champlain, nine locks will be necessary, viz. three at the Hudson, of 7,779 feet lift each, by which the summit-level will be attained, and by a deep cutting the greatest depth of which will be 12,465 feet, and the length of which, is about two miles ; the summit-level will be extended fifteen miles, and will terminate about one mile south of Fort Ann. At this place two locks will be necessary of 6,217 feet lift each. Between this point and Whitehall, two locks, the first of 8,223 feet lift, and the next of 9,243 feet lift, are to be made. At Whitehall, the canal is to be connected with Lake Champlain by two locks of 8,550 feet lift each. — About fifteen miles of this route will need no excavation, as the canal for that distance, will occupy the natural channels of Moses' kill. Dead creek and Wood creek. In order to turn off as much as possible the superfluous waters of freshets, and to ensure at all times a sufficiency of water on the summit-level it is proposed to erect a dam across Half-way brook of eighteen feet in height, half a mile above the mouth of said brook, and by a natural ravine, leading to the south, to direct so much of the water of said brook, to the summit level, and from thence by several waste-wiers into the Hudson, as may be necessary for the convenience of tt^e canal.
The water in the canal, is not to be less than thirty feet wide at the surface, twenty feet at the bottom, and three feet deep, and the locks to be seventy-five feet long and ten feet wide in the clear.
By the mode of calculation heretofore adopted by the commissioners, the whole expense between Lake Champlain and the Hudson, at the mouth of Moses' kill, will not exceed two hundred and fifty thousand dollars.
From the mouth of Moses' kill, it is proposed to improve the channel of the Hudson, for the purposes of navigation as far south as the village of Stillwater at the —
head of Stillwater falls. This may be effected in the following manner. By erecting a dam of three feet in height across the Hudson, at the head of fort Miller falls, the river above as far as fort Edward, would at all times afford a sufficiency of water for boats drawing three feet. To overcome the descent of fort Miller falls, a side cut or artificial canal of about one mile in length, and with two locks of 10,320 feet lift each, will be necessary. — These works, including the dam, locks, excavation, towing path, and all other expenses, may be estimated at fifty thousand dollars.
Two and a half miles below the south end of this canal, at the head of Saratoga falls, a dam three feet in height, is to be made across the river, and a side cut round the falls, similar to the above, of about one mile in length, with two locks, of 6,198 feet lift each. It is believed that all the artificial works at this place may be constructed for thirty -five thousand dollars.
Thirteen miles below this place, at the head of Stillwater falls, another dam of three feet in height, will in like manner ensure a good boat navigation up to the Saratoga falls.
The cost of this dam, the construction of a towingpath, with several bridges, the purchase of Schuyler's mill, which it is supposed will be necessary, together with all the other expenses of this section, are estimated at fifty thousand dollars.
From the village of Stillwater at a point above the dam last mentioned, it is proposed to cut an artificiati canal to the village ot Waterford, where it is to be connected with the Hudson. This canal will be supplied with water, from the river at its upper end. Its length will be nearly twelve miles, and the whole descent, is 76,464 feet; which will require eight locks. The excavation of this canal for some distance near the upper end, will be considerably expensive, asit passes through a slate rock : the middle and lower parts, however, are very favourable.
Whether the canal from Lake Champlain enters the Hudson at Fort Edward creek, or at Moses' kill, is not very material in the estimate of expense ; and the commissioners wish to be explicitly understood, that they consider this question as still open, and as one which will require mature deliberation. It is ascertained that both routes are equally practicable.
The termination of the northern canal, in the Hudson, at Waterford, will afford the cities of Albany and Troy, and the villages of Lansingburgh and Waterford, a full participation of its benefits ; and its approximation to the great western canal, will open the most beneficial channels of communication, between every great section of the country, and furnish every facility, for promoting the activity and enlarging the sphere of inland trade, which constitutes one of the principal elements of national opulence, prosperity, and greatness. And before the lapse of half a century, those who succeed us will witness, in the consolidation of those cities and villages into one great city, a union of interests and sympathies, which will totally dissipate the apprehensions and jealousies that may now exist. All which is respectfully submitted.
APPLICATION TO CONGRESS.
To the honourable the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States in Congress^ the representation of the Commissioners of the State of Mew-York^ in behalf of the said State, respectfully showeth —
That the Legislature of the said state, in April last, passed an act to provide for the improvement of their internal navigation, of vt^hich act we may take the liberty of transmitting herewith a copy. In this, it will be seen that a board of commissioaers is constituted, and that, among other duties enjoined upon them, they are required to make application to the government of the United States, for cessions, grants or donations of lands or money, for the purpose of aiding in opening a communication, by means of canals, between the navigable waters of Hudson's river and Lake Erie, and the said navigable waters and Lake Champlain. To fulfil this requisition, then, is the object of this address.
Next to the establishment and security of the right to self-government, we flatter ourselves that no subject requiring legislative interference, can be found more interesting than the one which we are charged to lay before your honourable body. And we venture to solicit your favourable consideration of it, in full confidence that an enlightened public spirit may justly give to it such a measure of patronage as cannot fail to produce signal benefits to the nation.
The benefits to be acquired by the United States, from the construction of these canals, will most obviously and immediately affect their pecuniary and political interests. iMore remotely, indeed, they will exert a favourable influence upon every object embraced within the scope of an enlightened and paternal policy. If we consider the extent and fertility of our territory northwest of the Ohio; the large proportion of it, which yet remains unsold ; the disposition and the ability which
oiir eastern fellow-citizens possess to purchase and improve it, v/e cannot be insensible of the great pecuniary advantage which would result from opening to them a safe, easy, and economical passage into that territory. Every dollar saved to them, in the expenses of removing thither, would operate to enhance the value of the public lands, and, at the same time, to hasten their settlement: and, it is obvious, that a canal from the Hudson to lake Erie would save a very large portion of these expenses. The number of persons to be affected by this consideration, cannot be accurately stated. It certainly would not be small. We are well assured, that in the course of ofie year, since the war, more than twelve thousand new settlers, almost exclusively from the east, have established themselves within the limits of this state west of the Genesee river.
Whatever adds to the value of all that land produces, must increase the value of land itself To a country, which depends upon a distant market for the sale of its surplus productions, it is of great importance to afford every possible facility of transportation ; for all that is taken from the expense of transportation is added to the value of the articles transported : and by cheapening the rate of carriage, many articles are rendered valuable, which would otherwise be worthless.
Moreover, if habit or the necessary accommodation of life, require that such a country should consume foreign goods to the amount of all its surplus productions, it is evident that the landholder there enjoys a twofold benefit in every increased facility of transportation. Perhaps the whole of the country between the great lakes, the Mississippi, and the Ohio,(certainly the greater part of it,) would derive from the completion of our principal canal greater advantages for distant communication than any country, so far inland, h^s hitherto enjoyed, and incomparably greater than that country can ever derive from any other means. Regarded, then, merely as a measure of pecuniary wisdom, we trust your honourable body will make such an appropriation in favour of it as will ensure its accomplishment.
But considerations of a political nature seem to us most urgently to recommend* the construction of these canals. The great influence exercised over the western Indians, even in our own territory, by the subjects of a foreign government, we have always had numerous reasons to wish destroyed. This influence depends, materially, upon establishments erected for the promotion of the fur trade. Any measure that would open, between one of our sea-ports and the region where furs are collected, a road in all respects preferable to any other, besides drawing to our own citizens a profitable commerce, would tend, eventually, to the subversion of that influence, and, in the mean time, oflfer to us important facilities for controlling it.
The trade carried on between our country and the Canadian provinces is already considerable, and is rapidly growing. The fruits of the earth from the southern shores of Erie and Ontario, and from the borders of Champlain, find their way to the ports of our northern neighbours cheaper than they can to any, which offers a market, of our own, and are there exchanged for the various commodities of foreign countries. This trade is, indeed, profitable to many of our citizens who engage in it, but it is much more so to the British. Subject to their control, they direct it to the advancement of all their public interests : and it is no mean instrument of that advancement. It is evidently the vital spirit of their internal navigation, which it cannot fail to exalt into a consequence that may hereafter greatly affect us. Would not the prosecution of our projects to complete effect, result, immediately, in giving to the citizens of the United States the entire profits of this trade, and to government, all the security and inflnence connected with a thipkjy settled frontier, and a most decided superiority of shipping on the lakes ?
Nothing can be more certain, than that the continuance of our union is essential to our freedom. The means of this continuance are to be found only in the strength of our common interests. Whatever extends and conso-
lidates these interests, then must be of distinguished importance to government: and can any thing be imagined more efficaciously conducive to these objects, than opening to distant sections of our country the means of easy and profitable intercourse ? Virtuous and enlightened men among us, have long delighted themselves with looking forward to the period, when a canal communication between the Hudson and lake Erie would afford, to half the United States, more ample means of promoting every social interest, than have heretofore, in any country, been furnished by the accomplishment of any human enterprise.
The advantages of canals were not entirely unknown to ancient governments. Among them, the wisest and most powerful executed works of this kind, in every direction, through their territories, for the purposes of agriculture, commerce, and war. The vestiges of many of these are still discoverable, and they are doubtless to be reckoned among the most impressive memorials that remain of ancient greatness. When we recollect the instrumentality which canals have formerly exhibited in collecting the blessings of wealth, strength, and a crowded population for every country through which they passed, and see those very countries, by the neglect and ruin of them, reduced to their original barrenness, can we suppress a conviction of their immense utility ? But, it is not alone from history, and the faint traces of them which have survived the lapse of many centuries, that the advantages of these improvements are to be known. There are proofs more conclusive. Our own times furnish them. In contemplating the present state of Europe, it is impossible not to be struck with the number and extent of her canals. And we perceive that they abound most in those countries where the wants of the social state and the means of power, have been most diligently explored, and are most profoundly understood. We see them there enabling extensive empires to hold in speedy administration, to every public object, all the resources of their remote
sections; and, at the same time, increasing those resources prodigiously by the economical exchanges of which they are the occasion. Experience is always a safe guide. It is especially to be trusted when it has been acquired in the midst of difficulties and dangers, and has been sanctioned by the wisdom of different nations. If, then, in the pressing exigencies of recent events, when every power of national defence and annoyance has been exerted, when all the capacities of men, as individuals, and in political combinations, have been remarkably evolved, we observe, in that quarter of the globe, a perpetually growing attention to the subject of canals, is it not expedient, is it not wise for us, to engage in making them.^ No country is more susceptible of all their benefits than ours : none of larger extent presents fewer impediments to their construction. They constitute improvements peculiarly fit for a repablic. They contribute equally to the safety and opulence of the people, and the reputation and resources of the government, They are equally desirable in reference to the employments of peace, and the operations of war. In whatever light they are viewed, they seem to combine the substantial glories of the most splendid and permanent utility.
But if the execution of those of which we are the advocates, be impracticable, or would involve an expense disproportionate to their value, they can have no claim upon the favour of the national legislature. On these topics we entertain no doubts. The minute examination which has been made this season, under our superintendence, of all the lands which these canals will traverse, has convinced us, that an expenditure not exceeding ten millions of dollars would be sufficient to perfect them. Shall they remain unattempted ? ~ The state of New-York is not unaware of her interests, nor disinclined to prosecute them ; but where those of the general government are united with her's, and seem to be paramount, she deems it her duty to ask for their assistance. Wherefore, io her behalf, we solicit your honourable body to make such an appropriation, in
lands or money, to aid in the construction of these canals, as you, in your wisdom, may think reasonable and just. By order, and in behalf of the said commissioners, at a meeting held in Albany, on the 10th of November, 181 ?>
By an act of the legislature of the state of NewYork, passed at last session, a board of commissioners was constituted for the purpose of ascertaining the practicability of connecting, by a canal, the navigable waters of the Hudson river with Lake Erie. As the organ of that board, and in compliance with the requisitions of said act, I beg leave, through you, to solicit the attention of the honourable the legislature of the state of Ohio, to this interesting subject.
A careful examination, by competent engineers, of the route of the contemplated canal, fully authorizes the belief that it can be made at an expense, which, although considerable, will be vastly overbalanced by the utility of the object. A facility in the transportation to market of the abundant productions of the west, — a rapid and easy interchange of commodities of foreign and domestic growth — an increasing activity in commercial and agricultural pursuits, and a consequent enhancement in the value of lands, are some of the most obvious benefits to be realized from a communication between the great lakes and the Atlantic, by means of a navigable canal.
Nor can it be disputed, that from the local situation of the state of Ohio, the luxuriance of her soil, her growing wealth and increasing population, she will be among the first to enjoy these advantages.
As the citizens of the state of Ohio, in common with those of the state of New-York, will enjoy the benefits of this improvement in the means of internal communication, it seems to be the dictate of justice, that,
pense.
The legislature of the state, distinguished for patriotism and liberality, are thereforere spectfuUy invited to partake with New-York, in the lasting advantages and immortal honour resulting from the accomplishment of an object so important.
His Excellency the Governor of Ohio.
The foregoing letter was communicated by the governor, to the senate and house of representatives of the state of Ohio, as follows :
" I communicate to you copies of a letter from De Witt Clinton, Esq. president of the board of canal commissioners, in the state of New-York. That state contemplates making a canal which will connect the navigable waters of the Hudson river with Lake Erie.
The advantages of such a water communication to the state of Ohio generally, and in a particular manner to the northern part of it, are so manifest, that I am persuaded you will not hesitate to give the subject that careful examination, its great importance requires.
I recommend to your consideration the propriety of using such means as you may deem proper, to ascertain the practicability and expense of tiie contemplated canal. Should the information obtained on these points be satisfactory, it will become the duty of the people of Ohio to give all the aid in their power towards effecting an object, in which they are so deeply interested."
On the subject of this communication, a joint committee of both houses of the legislature of the state of Ohio was appointed, who made the following report ;
The joint Committee to whom was referred the Communi' cation of his Excellency the Governor of the eleventh ult. together with the accompanying Letter from the Honourable De Witt Clinton^ on the subject of the contemplated Canal fromLahe Eree to the Hudson River^ have had the same under consideration, and now submit the following Report : —
From a view of the subject submitted to their consideration, your committee are fully impressed with the belief, that the making of a Canal from the Hudson river to Lake Erie, is an object of the first importance to this state, and the United States in general, both in a commercial and in a political point of view. The facility which it will afford to the exportation of the surplus produce of our luxuriant soil, and the consequent encouragement of agricultural and commercial enterprise, are effects too obvious to pass unnoticed, and of too much importance to be neglected ; as affording a safe, easy, and expeditious mean of a mutual interchange of commodities between different sections of our common country, highly advantageous to all, as increasing the commercial connexion, friendly intercourse, and ties of interest, and by these means strengthening the bonds of union between remote parts of the nation. The contemplated Canal presents advantages vastly superior to those resulting from any work of the kind accomplished by the industry of man in any age or country.
From a geographical view of the state of Ohio, extending for a great distance on its northern frontier along the extensive navigable waters of the St, Lawrence, presenting all the advantages of a northern market, and washed on the eastern and southern boundaries by one of the great branches of the Mississippi, affording an easy access to a southern market, and a facility in obtaining the various productions of the south ; connecting the northern with the southern, and the western with the Atlantic States : considering its happy climate and the luxuriant fertility of its soil, intergected by navigable rivers, and unbroken by moun-
tains, we are struck with its natural advantages, which, if improved by an enlightened and liberal policy, will render the situation of Ohio inferior to that of no state in the Union, or country in the world.— Among these improvements, the contemplated Canal is unquestionably of the first importance. Sensible that a work of such magnitude cannot be effected without the united and vigorous exertions of those interested ; and fully impressed with the belief that the greatest advantages will result to the United States generally, and particularly to the state of Ohio, as well as the state of NewYork, from the completion of the contemplated canal ; your committee are clearly of opinion, that true policy, as well as justice, require the state of Ohio to lend its aid to the accomplishment of a work of such incalculable utility :
We are at the same time sensible that the funds of this state will not permit us to aid in the undertaking in that proportion which might be expected from the relative population of the state.
Your committee have had no accurate means of ascertaining the probable expense of the proposed Canal; but from the best information they have been able to obtain, they are induced to believe that the work is not only practicable, but can be accomplished at an expense within the reach of those interested ; and from the enterprising spirit and enlightened policy of the state of New- York, they feel little hesitation in believing that it will be undertaken.
Your committee are at present unable to point out or recommend any particular method of aiding in the proposed work, not being in possession of any information relative to the system or plan which may be adopted by the state of New- York, for effecting the object.
the following resolutions.
Resolved^ by the General Assembly of the State of Ohio^ That this state will aid, as far as its resources will justify, in making the contemplated Canal from Lake Erie
to the Hudson river, in such manner as may be deemed most adviseable, when the plan or system which may be adopted by the state of New-Yorkfor the accomphshment of that work, may be known ; and that His Excellency the Governor, be requested to open a correspondence with the Honourable De Witt Clinton, or such other persons as he may think necessary ; and take such other means as he may deem adviseable, in order to ascertain the practicability and probable expense of making said Canal ; the probable time when the same will be commenced ; the plan which may be adopted to carry it into effect, and such other information as he may deem important or useful, and communicate the same to the General Assembly at their next session.
Resolved^ That His Excellency the Governor, be requested to transmit a copy of the foregoing Report and Resolution, to the Executive of the state of NewYork, and to the Honourable De Witt Clinton, president of the Board of Commissioners for the Canal from Lake Erie to Hudson's river.
Secretary of State.
This report was enclosed to the President of the Board of Commissioners, by His Excellency the Governor of that State, in the following letter.
of Ohio, as you will perceive, by the resolutions, which I have the honour now to enclose to you. Any information which you may deem proper to communicate^ in addition to that requested by the first resolution, will be thankfully received and laid before the legislature of Ohio, at their next session.
De Win Clinton, Esquire.
Applications, similar to the one herein before contained to Ohio, have been made, by the commissioners, to the states of Vermont and Kentucky, from whom no answers have hitherto been received.
dlesex canal, near Boston, in the state of Massachusetts.
The following information, respecting the Middlesex canal, was obtained in May last, by two of the Commissioners, who visited and carefully examined that canal, throughout its whole extent, aqd committed to writing, on the spot, the result of their own observations, as well as the answers to all their inquiries, which were obligingly given, by the very intelligent agent (Mr. Sullivan) of the canal company.
The canal is 27 miles long, and connects the tidewater, in Boston harbour at Charlestown, with the Merrinjack river. The water in the canal is 30 feet wide at its surface, 20 feet at its bottom, and 3 feet deep. The Concord or Sudbury river crosses the line of the canal on the summit-level, 22 miles from Charlestown, and .5 miles from the junction of the canal with the Merrimack, and wholly supplies it with water for locking, down each way from the summit-level. From tide-water to the summit-level is an ascent of 104 feet, and from thence to the Merrimack a descent of 3 2 feet. There a re, in all, 20 locks of different lifts, of which the highest is 12 feet. These locks are 75 feet long in the clear, 10 feet wide at the bottom, and 11 feet at the top.
Boats for the transportation of merchandise and produce carry 14 tons, and are drawn bj one horse 3 miles an hour. Packet-boats pass the whole length in 5 hours coming down, and 7 hours going up. To each boat there are three men; two, however, are sufficient to manage the boat on the canal, the other being wanted only on the Merrimack river. From the summit-level, down the canal, there is a current which exceeds in no place half a mile per hour there being a fall or descent in the canal of one inch per mile. The expense of transporting a ton the whole length of the canal is $3 50, of which sum gl 70 is toll, and g!l 80 is freight.
Across the canal, there are 50 bridges, made by the canal company ; they consist of 2 stone abutments (one on each side of the canal) 20 feet apart : from one of these abutments to the other, are laid sills or stringpieces of wood, covered with plank, and of sufficient height for the towing horses to pass under. The tbwiiig-path under the bridges occupies 6 or 7 feet.
Two miles from the lower end of the canal, Mystick river, a turnpike road, and the canal, run a little distance parallel with each other, the road being between the canal and river. Here is affi^rded a good opportunity of comparing the relative advantages of these three modes of conveyance.
Heavier boats than those above-mentioned, are used on the canal for transporting fire-wood, lumber, &c.; they are shaped like a scow, are 75 feet long, 9|- feet wide, and carry 25 tons of wood.
The towing-path is generally 8 feet wide, so that horses and oxen may easily pass each other. On the opposite side of the canal, where a towing-path is not wanted, the upper surface of the bank or embankment is five feet wide, and this is found to be sufficient.- A branch-canal, or side-cut is made to connect the main canal with Mystick river, near Medford ; this is owned by a separate company, and is principally used for transporting timber to Medford for ship-building.
canal.— When the canal was begun, the price of labour by the month was $8. The canal was opened foruse^ in 1804, though not completed in 1808, when Mr. Sullivan took charge of it. Some repairs and new constructions have been made every year since. In assesments upon the proprietors, there has been laid out on the canal ^528,000, and about ^50,000 more, derived from tolls, has been expended in buildings, wharves, &;c. At Medford is a swivel bridge, which is found to be very inconvenient. The principal articles transported on the canal are wood, timber, lumber of all kinds, pot and pearl ashes, rye, oats, provisions, and building stone from the Merrimack to Boston. Last year 12,000 cords of wood were transported down the canal, and there are more tons of timber in rafts,brought down, than of wood.
More than one half of the whole length of th^ canal is more or less embanked or raised above the natural surface of the ground. Above Medford is an aqueduct across the Mystick river, of which the abutments are J 00 feet apart, and between them are three stone piers, each 8 feet thick, for supporting the aqueduct. The tide flows up the Mystick river above this place. The surface of the water in the aqueduct, is 10 feet above the surface of the water in the river below, at high water. This aqueduct consists of a kind of trough made of timber and plank, which has stood 16 years, but is beginning to decay. The timber is framed together in the usual way of carpenter's work, by tenants and mortises, and strengthened by braces. As tenants soon rot, and give way, it might have been made on a better and more durable construction, with knees and bolts, in the manner of ship-building. At the upper end of the aqueduct, is a lock of 12 feet lift.
Mr. Weston, an English engineer, took the levels of the whole length of the line of tliis canal, part of the way on two routes. He estimated the expense of making it at 100,000/. sterling. The company went on to make the canal, without any further aid from any European engineer, and found Mr. Weston'' s levels to be correct.
Over Syms' river is an aqueduct, of which the abutments are 120 feet apart, with three intervening piers. The water in the aqueduct, is 30 feet higher than the water in the stream below. These aqueducts all afford convenient waste-weirs. When the water is not drawn off from the canal at the commencement of winter, the expansion of its freezing, spreads and injures the timbers of the aqueducts; wherefore, it is the practice, just before the winter sets in, to draw off about one third of the water.
Half a mile above the last mentioned aqueduct, is deep cutting, 40 rods in length, through loose sand and gravel. In the deepest part of the excavation,is 20 feet below the natural surface of the earth ; and the part excavated, is here, from 90 to 100 feet in width at the top. The earth was chiefly carried away in wheelbarrows, some in carts, to an embankment just above, on the right side. Half a mile higher up, the earth is very porous, and on the right side, the water leaks out through or under an embankment: this might have been prevented, by putting 2 or 3 feet of water-tight stuff in the bottom of the canal.
>^ Near this place are two water-gates, by which the water of the canal is drawn off in the spring for the purpose of clearing out the earth, stones, &c. which fall into it, and injure the navigation. The expense of this, is perhaps $500 a year.
Mr. Sullivan states, that he has had a steam-boat on the Merrimack river for the purpose of towing boats ; he found, that a man by a rope could easily hold a boat in tow, immediately astern of the steam-boat, which it would require a horse, on the bank of the river, to tow with the same velocity: such, in his opinion, is the great diminution of the resistance of the water, to the head of a boat, which is drawn in the wake of another boat.
For some weeks in the spring, the canal leaks much more than it does the remainder of the season : this is because the banks had been recently swelled and loosened by the action of the frost. Three men with a
path in order.
The lands within six miles of the canal on each side, have increased one-third in price; while land in the country, generally retains its former value. In the state of New-Hampshire, through which the Merrimack flows, timber is now worth from 1 to 3 dollars per ton standing; before the canal was made, it was worth nothing; so that in the article of timber alone, that state is sup^ posed to have been benefited to the amount of at least 5,000,000 of dollars. The wood-land there, has risen in price, since the opening of the canal, from $2 per acre, to ^6, ;S8, and glO per acre.
In Woburn, a pretty high embankment, which was miade in the winter, across a marsh, sunk down in the spring, at the breaking uppf the frost, so that its top was just level with the natural earth: another embankment was then raised upon it. Near this place, the canal, by a deep cutting of 25 feet, passes through a hill. An embankment at Maple meadow, in the town of Wilmington, is near 80 rods long, and 25 feet high, to the top of the towing-path. At a place called the sinking meadow, in the above-named town, an embankment is made across a marsh of about 30 rods in extent. When this embankment was commenced, it was found that the dirt and stuff carried on, to form the embankment, kept gradually sinking into the marsh; when measures were taken to ascertain how much it would sink : the labourers continued to carry on stuff which gradually went down, until the whole embankment sunk to the depth of 60 feet ! The great expense of making this embankment across the marsh, might have been foreseen, and prevented. The depth and softness of the marsh, might have been ascertained by sounding it with an iron rod, and by conducting the canal circuitously around its margin, a solid foundation might have been secured.
By the act of incorporation, the Legislature authorized the company to occupy, 5 rods of land in width on one side of the centre of the canal, and 3 rods on the
other. If the owners of the land did not apply for pay within a year, it was deemed a donation. In the statement of monies expended, before made, are included, the costs of several law-suits, the building of boats, of offices, the purchase of 70 acres of land, and the erection of mills at Billerica. The land and mills cost $10,000. There is no income derived from hiring out water privileges, for hydraulic operations. The cannal receives its whole supply of water, from the Concord river; and if any were let out for hydraulic purposes, a current would be created, the inconveniencies of which, would probably more than counterbalance all the advantages of income.
Either through design or accident, logs, stumps and sticks were in some places left in the banks, when the canal was made ; and these, having now become rotten, leave unsound places, through which the water escapes. A great part of the canal was made by contractors, in small parts or jobs, and where two jobs of embankment met each other, the workmen did not, in some cases, take the precaution to prevent the stones, as they threw on the stuff, from rolling down together, from each end of the separate job, and thereby forming a loose porous and leaky place in the embankment.
The aqueduct over the Shawsheen river is, between % the abutments, 140 feet. The water in it is, 35 feet higher, than the surface of the river below. This aqueduct has been made 20 years ; it is, like the other aqueducts on this canal, made of wood, and is so much decayed, as to require temporary props, to support it. — There are three piers between the abutments, and, between the outside pier and the abutment on each side, there is a kind of Wooden pier. On the inside, or river side of both the abutments, and on both sides of the piers at suitable distances, large horizontal timbers are embedded, which serve to support the lower ends of the aqueduct braces : when these timbers become rotten, the stone work will probably fall down. From each end of this aqueduct, to the distance of 500 feet, is an embankment nearly 35 feet high.
During the war, the timber used to repair the Consti" tution frigate, was brought, down the canal to Boston^ and that used to build the Independence, seventy-four, except the live oak, was procured through the same channel, as also were many of the masts and spars, &c. which were furnished at Boston, to our vessels of war. Without the canal, this part of the country could not have supplied these necessary articles.
In approaching the Concord river, the canal passes through half a mile of deep-cutting, 800 feet of which is excavated by blasting through a hard granite rock. — In some places, this blasting was carried 7 feet into the rock, and from 14 to 20 feet wide. The deep-cutting for this half mile, is from 12 to 20 feet.
Across the Concord river, a few rods below the line of the canal, a dam of 150 feet long, and 8 feet high is made. This creates a pond, out of which, through the deep-cutting last mentioned, the water flows and supplies the canal, 22 miles to Charlestown at the tide-water. From the other side of the pond, the water flows through the canal 5 miles to the Merrimack river. The water which supplies the 22 miles of the canal, passes through a horizontal apeture of 6 feet by 1 , with a head of 2 feet water, above the upper side of the apeture. The towing-path, is carried across the pond, by means of a floating bridge, a part of which is occasionally drawn up, to let the logs, timber and drift-wood, which collect above pass through. There are two waste gates in the dam, by which the height of the water in the pond can, in some measure, be regulated.
In Chelmsford, within 60 rods of the Merrimack, is an aqueduct, of which the abutments are 1 10 feet apart, and there are ten wooden piers to support it. The water in the aqueduct, is, 16 feet higher than the stream below. Between this aqueduct and the Merrimack, is a fall of 32 feet, and 3 locks of durable stone masonry, in tarres mortar. Where the canal joins the Merrimack, a basin is excavated, 10 or 12 feet below the natural surface of the earth, and 5 feet below the surface of the river, at low water. The extent of the ,basin is about
200 feet on the shore of the river, and half that distance on a line at right angles with the shore, being nearly semi-circular. There are in all 7 aqueducts on the canal, but those not mentioned above are very inconsiderable : there are also s.everal culverts.-r-Grass grows in the bottom of the canal, and obstructs the passage of the water in autumn to such a degree, that at the lower end of the canal, 22 miles from its source, the water is sometimes 9 inches lower than it otherwise would be. To remedy this inconvenience a man is employed who wades along the canal and mows off the grass under water with a scythe. During the winter season, while the canal was not used, the muskrats would sometimes burrow into and endanger the breaking of the banks ; in consequence of which the company had offered a bounty of 50 cents for every one that should be destroyed within a certain distance of the canal. This bounty had caused their destruction to such an extent that very little apprehension was entertained of their doing injury.
It was the original design of the company to employ three officers on the canal, viz. a superintendent, a treasurer and clerk ; but that project has been abandoned, and those three officers are now united in Mr. Sullivan. His compensation is a salary of ;^1500 a year, besides 5 per cent, on all the tolls or receipts, which are warranted not to fall short of ;S 20,000 per annum.
The receipts of the company from the canal are rapidly increasing. The income in 1808, was $7000, in 1809, gi9000, in 1810, g 14,000, in 1811, g! 17,000, last year $25,000, and this year (1816) it will, undoubtedly, exceed $30,000.
Isoicit your attention to the donations of lands heretofore promised by the Holland Land Company, but which was not consummated, on account of the late war, which rendered it almost impracticable for the state to embark in an undertaking of such magnitude and expanse, at that time.
The commissioners arc anxious to know,. with all convenient speed, whether you will renew the grant, and add to it the lands through which the canal will pass, and which may be necessary for the operation, on condition that the canal shall be completed within twenty years. The lands of course will not be taxed.
Your prompt answer will oblige the board of commissioners, who are required by law to make a report to the legislature, on the subject of the canal, some time in the beginning of February ; and I have only to add, that the whole route has been surveyed, that the practicability and comparative cheapness of the canal, has been satisfactorily ascertained, and that a liberal spirit manifested by the great landed proprietors, on this occasion, may have a benign effect in promoting this great object.
I have had the honour of receiving your letter of the 4th instant, on the subject of the renewal of the donation of lands, heretofore made, by the Holland Land Company, for promoting the execution of canal navigation, from Lake Erie to the Hudson river, but which, in consequence of a postponement of this great undertaking, has reverted to the company.
I am not prepared to give a definite reply to your inquiry. I mUst content myself, for the present, to assure you, that the disposition of the Holland Land Company, to aid so important a work, remains unaltered. The only question has been, the best manner in which they can give elFect to their wish of contributing towards effecting it. With this view, I have some time since consulted Jos. Ellicott, Esq. (the company's agent at Batavia,) on this subject, and flatter myself with having it in my power, shortly, to offer to the board of canal commissioners, the Holland Land Company's donation, in lands, on such terms as, I trust, will be perfectly satisfactory to the gentlemen commissioners, and furnish a further proof of the sincere disposition of my constituents, to aid undertakings of public utility.
Agreeably to the promise conveyed by my respects of the 9th. ult. I have now the honour of waiting on you with the Holland Land Company's offer of contributing to the making of a canal navigation from the east end of Lake Erie to the Hudson river.
After mature reflection and consultation with Mr. Ellicott, on the most proper means of giving effect to the Holland Land Company's disposition of aiding a public undertaking of such magnitude, and promising such important advantages to your patriotic state, I have come to the determination of renewing, on the same terms, the offer heretofore made and accepted by the gentlemen commissioners in 1814, but which, in consequence of the late war, was not consummated. I have been led to this selection by the conviction that I shall have the
happiness of reconciling the liberal views of my constituents, with the most sanguine expectati6ns of your board. The acceptation in 1H14, of this grant, forms the ground of this conviction. I have now the pleasure to repeat my offer of conveying to the state of NewYork, two tracts of land situate in the county of Cattaraugus and state ofNew-York, containing upwards of one hundred thousand acres of land, on condition that the canal shall be completed within twenty years; that the land shall not be taxed during that period, and in case of failure, that it shall revert to the company, or the state remain accountable for any part sold or disposed of For the particulars of the terms and conditions, on which the grant was heretofore made, and is now renewed, I beg your reference to the enclosed copy of the proposed act to be passed by the legislature, and of the conveyance then executed by the Holland Land Company, but since annulled. In case any lots in the two tracts should have been sold, they must of course be excepted ; but I believe no such sale has taken place. As a further proof that the best wishes of my constituents for the success of this stupendous work, have not been weakened by the lapse of time, since the first offer reverted, I feel myself authorized to add to that grant the ground actually the property of the Holland Land Company, through which the canal shall pass, with sufficient tow-paths along its sides, the breadth of which grant, however, not to exceed four rods. This additional grant 1 offer oh condition that the canal company shall make, within the time limited for the completion of the canal, a good and safe harbour for vessels navigating Lake Erie, at or near the mouth of Buffalo creek. To this condition, I am persuaded no objection will be made. It is so intimately connected with the free and full use of the canal, that it really forms a most important part of it. That a safe and commodious harbour at the east end of Lake Erie, is at present much wanted, and would be an object of vast importance to the trade which passes through that inland sea, by offering security to their vessels, and
facilities for the loading and unloading of them, is a truth known to every one acquainted with that part of your state. It appears to me equally evident, that the benefits resulting from the canal navigation, must in a good measure depend on its connexion with the navigation both above and below it, and that it necessarily becomes an object of the last importance, to afford every possible facility for the transfer of the cargoes of the canal boats to the vessels navigating the waters above and below them. Were I not fearful of trespassing on your valuable time, much more might be added in support of this measure ; but it certainly has not escaped the clearer penetration of the gentlemen commissioners, and I ought . to apologize for saying so much on a subject, the utility ofwhich appears so evident.
I am ready to confirm the foregoing, in the same manner as was done in 1814: I will convey the lands and site for the canal, on the conditions above stated, to the people of the State of New-York. The deed to remain as an escrow in the hands of T. L. Ogden, Esq. of New-York, to become absolute on the passage of the proposed act by the legislature, provided it be passed within one year from the date of the deed.
I flatter myself with ihe hope of having fully met the wishes of your board, and of having afforded them and the State of New-York, another unequivocal proof, that my constitiients feel the liveliest interest in the welfare of your state, and that they are not the last in offering their mite in contributing to its prosperity. I have the honour to be.
The Commissioners of canals, for this State, have seen, with great pleasure, the outlines of a plan for appropriating a considerable fund to the internal improvement of the country ; and they take the liberty of respectfully presenting to you some considerations connected with this subject, which have an important bearing on the public prosperity.
the monies.
It appears to the Commissioners, that there ought to be no hesitation, with regard to the ratio. The population of each state, will be a feir and unexceptionable standard. In this case, the state would be entitled to about ^85,000 annually. The interests of Ohio being identified with ours, in relation to the Erie canal, and those of Vermont, with regard to the Champlain canal, it is reasonable to suppose, that the contributions from those quarters, arising from the same source,and applied to the same objects, would augment the annual divi= dend, received by the state, to ^140,000.
If it be admitted, as it undoubtedly ought to be, that the Erie canal will not cost more than six millions of dollars, and the Champlain canal a million, the greatest interest paid for the money borrowed would not exceed $420,000 annually ; but as the whole sum would not be wanted at once, it is obvious that the allotment to this state would form an accumulating fund, which with other resources amply within our power, would enable us to execute these great works without imposing any taxes.
With regard to the second point for consideration, the commissioners are of opinion, that it would be a wise arrangement to confide the expenditure of the money to the state government, on condition that it be applied to the canals in question.
trust, that on the presumption that these works will be undertaken, none of you will be hostile to the appropriation of an adequate revenue, which will promote the object, without any inconvenience to your constituents.
Dear Sir,
In answer to your inquiries concerning the canal made for my mills in Phelpstown, I can state, that it is 260 rods long, 40 feet wide on the surface, and 30 feet at the bottom, with a depth of water of from 4 to 5 feet. It runs through good intervale land; and 160 rods of it be new, was grubbed and cleared, and dug by the job, for $2 50 a rod. About one half of this 160 rods lay along an old water-course, which in many places was only to be made wider and deeper. The other half was to be dug from 1 i to 3^ feet deep. For the distance of 30 rods, it was dug li feet deep ; and the earth here was, for the first foot in depth, a good soil, such as is common in intervales; for the next 2 feet, it inclined to clay, below which, there was a clean gravel. Much of the above excavation was done for a dollar a rod. Where it was deepest, the land was level, and after grubbing and clearing, smooth ; so that the plough and scraper alone were used in moving it. Having attend personal)^' to the progress of the job-work above-mentioned, and carefully calculated the expense of it at the time, I was then satisfied, as 1 am now, that the whole cost of excavation where it was deepest, including grubbing and clearing, did not exceed ^.5 for a rod. A rod included about 75 cubic yards. The cost of each yard, therefore was little short of 7 cents. It (should be remembered, that this work was done in
What, in your opinion, would be the expense of excavating a canal, 30 feet wide and 5 feet deep, for one mile, through the common limestone rock, lying between Lake Erie and Genesee river ?
In reply to these inquiries I would answer: The kind of rock is horizontal strata or layers of limestone, of from 6 to 24 inches thick. The horizontal joints, between these layers, are so open, that there is very little difficulty in separating the layers. These layers are separated by perpendicular cracks, dividing them into irregular and unequal slabs, of from 1 to 6 or 8 feet square. These slabs are so sound as to blast well, and are very pure limestone, so that an auger, suitably tempered, will not batter, but will last until the friction on the stone wears it out.
The length of my canal is 20 rods, its width 1\ feet, on an average, its depth in the rock, five feet, besides one foot of earth on the top of the rock.
being the depth required, viz. five feet, and one-fourth part of the width required, viz. 7^ feet, it follows that four times as much rock would require to be removed from a canal 30 feet wide, and 5 feet deep, as from one of the size of mine ; in that proportion, then, it would cost $32,000 per mile. It is however, my opinion, that one of 30 feet wide, would by no means cost in the same proportion, for the following reasons:
First, because in first making an opening, the rocks are all bound together in such a manner, that it is difficult to remove any single stone or rock, without blasting ; and at least one half of the blasts have little or no effect. Whereas, after an opening is made, the rock being separated both by horizontal and perpendicular joints, many of them may be removed without breaking, either by hand or by the aid of cattle , and those too large to be removed whole may he broken by a sledge or with a single blast.
Secondly, the width of the canal will enable you to remove very large rocks, by the aid of oxen, much easier than they could be hoisted by a windlass, which was the way most of mine were done, as its width made it difficult to remove them with oxen. Many of those which I was obliged to blast, to enable me to handle them, might have been removed by oxen, could I have used them. From these reasons 1 have no doubt, that a canal through the same kind of rock, which mine passes, (and it is the same as that which prevails generally between Lake Erie and Genesee river,) of 30 feet wide and 5 feet deep, might be made for double what one of the size of mine would cost, viz. it might be made for $16,000 per mile.
Your letter, of September last, requesting information respecting the cost of making a canal, at the Falls on Genesee river, which we were then engaged in, to supply our mills, factory, &c. was duly received. We should have noticed the contents of that letter immediately, but did not complete the work until late in the fall, so that we could not ascertain the cost accurately ur^til now. We have given below a statement of the different items, in the expense of making the canal, that you may see the nature of the cost, in effecting works of this kind.
uses, were removed at considerable distance and piled : that opening the bank and constructing guard gates for two miles ; also the fragments unfit for use in building, have been removed to fill up and make a street on the bank, the expense of all, which is included in this estimate. We do not hesitate to say, in our opinion, a canal of 30 feet wide and 5^ feet deep, may be worked through any limestone quarry known in this country, for jg; 16,000 per mile.
FRANCIS BROWN.
Extract of a letter from the Hon. Joshua Forman^ first Judge of Onondaga county^ dated at Onondaga, 20th JVovember, 1816, and addressed to the President of the board of Commissioners.
" You request vAe to give yon a statement of the canal I have dug for mills near this place. I cannot give you the exact length or total cost of them, but the data I can furnish you, will enable you to calculate what it would produce per mile. The first was the one passing the Turnpike in Onondaga Hollow ; which was let to be dug nearly half a mile in length, 24 feet wide at top, and 18 feet at bottom, and an average of 4 feet deep, at the rate of 50 cents per cord of 128 cubic feet of excavation. This was run through a meadow free of roots, the soil clay, with some bars of gravel crossing the canal at bottom. The second was at Selina, which was about 40 feet wide at top and 30 feet at bottom, averaging 4 feet deep through uncleared land, and the soil a hard gravel, at seventy-five cents the cord.
The last was about 60 rods, 18 feet at bottom and about 3i feet deep, through an alluvial soil, which, after digging down 2 feet, proved full of logs and quicksand, for a foot or more above a hard gravel. This was let at 50 cents the cord, but the contractor complained of the unexpected difficulty, and had a reasonable allow-
anee made him of about 12^ cents per cord. As to the other two, the first did not make more than ordinarywages, but the same man took the second, and made money in it."
Copy of a hetter to one of the Commissioners^ from Col. Mynderse, who lives at the Seneca Falls, and ivho is lar.gely interested in the improvement of the navigation of the Seneca river, now partly completed, in that place and its vicinity-
Your favour, of the 17th ult. requesting an account of the improvements making in the navigation of the Seneca river, at this place, came duly to hand, and would have been early noticed but for the absence of Mr. Lewis, the engineer and contractor, and Major DeZeng, who has had the occasional superintendence of the work. These gentlemen being alone able to furnish the information required, with accuracy, I sent them immediately, on receipt of your letter, a transcript of its contents, desiring them to send me an answer ; but, not hearing from them, I proceed to give you such information as I possess on the subject. I regret that it is not in my power to be more particular and correct.
There are nine chamber locks and three guard locks, contemplated to be erected, in the whole distance, to wit, one chamber lock of about 2 feet lift, immediately at the outlet of the Seneca lake ; two chamber locks at the foot of the canal at Scawyas, of about 9 feet lift each ; one chamber lock at the little Scawyas rapid, of about 4 feet lift ; two chamber locks at the Seneca Falls, of 8^ feet lift each ; one lock at the same place, of about 9i feet lift ; one other lock, at the same place, of 8i feet lift, and one chamber lock, at the foot of the Seneca Falls rapid, of about 5 feet lift. There is one guard lock at the entrance of the canal at Scawyas; one at the entrance of th6 upper canal of the Seneca Falls, and one at the entrance of the fourth canal, at the same place.
Of these, three are completed, one guard and two chamber locks, at Scawyas. and the chamber lock at Little Scawyas. One guard lock is completed, at the Seneca Falls, and two chamber locks at the same place are nearly completed, and the site of another is excavated, and the materials for it, are on the ground, prepared to be laid up early in the spring. Some progress has also been made towards the three remaining locks.
The materials with which these locks are constructed are stone ; the inner face of the walls are of hewn stone neatly joined and well incorporated with the body of the walls, which are laid up with common lime-stone found on the spot, in good lime-mortar and grout.
The walls of the locks are six feet in thickness, and supported with substantial embankments on the outside. I am not possessed of data on which to found an accurate estimate of the cost of each particular lock.
1st. A canal at Scawyas, on the Waterloo side of the river. This canal is about 250 rods in length. The expense of making it is estimated at about. ;^3000
digging this canal.
2d. A canal, at commencing at the dam, near the head of the Seneca Falls rapid. This canal is 36 rods in length, and is conducted along a lime-stone ledge. One of its embankments is altogether artificial : It is faced on both sides with stone, to prevent wear by the fall of rains or otherwise. Extraordinary expense was incurred in making this canal, owing to the stony nature of the soil. The cost was about $900.
4th. A canal, together with a low dam of about 150 feet long across the river, is about 1 02 rods in length, and cost including the said dam about $1200
5th. This canal, which will be about 40 rods in length, must for about one half of its length be cut to a considerable depth into a slate rock. Nothing has yet been done to it. It will cost at least $ 1000
6th. This canal will be about 120 rods long, but from the favourable nature of the ground it may be easily made. It cannot cost, to exceed j^lOOO
The canals are to contain at all times three feet of water, and are to be 24 feet wide at the bottom, and not less than 30 feet on the surface of the water.
There are three dams thrown across the river, of from 3 to 4 feet in height, constructed of stone and timber. Each cost about ^400. The principal dam is at the head of the Seneca rapids — is about 200 feet in length, 10 feet high and 10 feet thick at the base, diminishing towards the top to 3 feet. This dam is built of stone in a neat and substantial manner, and gravelled on the upper side. It cost, I understand, ^1800.
The Seneca lock navigation company are bound to erect two bridges over the canals, where they intersect pubic roads. One of these is completed. It is built with stone abutments, and covered with square timber and plank. It is supposed to have cost ^150.
and will probably cost the same sum.
The extent of navigation improved by these locks and canals, from the Seneca lake to the lower lock, at the foot of the Seneca rapids is about 12 miles. The aggregate amount of locking is about 64 feet. The length of artificial canalling will be about 550 rods. The bed of the river is used where its depth of water is sufficient, and where no natural obstructions exist.
The locks are 70 feet in length, in the clear between the gates, and 1 2 feet in width, and are capable of passing a barge of 20 tons burden.
The stone with which the inner walls of the locks are faced are obtained, at considerable expense, from a quarry near the head of the Seneca lake, about 50 miles distant.
Mr. Lewis, the engineer, although very able and competent to such works, possessed no practical knowledge of the subject when he commenced operations here : Much expense was consequently incurred which might and would have been avoided had he had more experience. I feel confident, that the whole work might now, with the experience we have acquired, be done for |45,000
I may yet receive a communication, on this subject, from Mr. Lewis. If so, and it should contain any thing useful to you, I will do myself the honour to transmit it to you.
Myron Holley, Esq.
Copy of a Letter J to the President of the Board of Commissioners., from John L. Sullivan, Esquire., who has personally examined the most celebrated canals in England, France, and Holland; has had the charge of constructing several short cckals, with locks, dams, Sfc. around falls, in the JMerrimach river, and has for eight years been su^ perintendent of the Middlesex Canal, in Massachusetts.
In compliance with your request in behalf of the board of commissioners, 1 have given all the attention in my power at this time, to the report on the proposed canal, and shall with pleasure proceed to state my impression of the estimates in general, premising, however, that without seeing the ground, it would be presumption to offer a decisive opinion on the expense. It is therefore with the utmost deference to the engineers, and other gentlemen who have assisted in making them, that I shall express mine, from a comparis?"^ of the description of the route with works of this nature, with which I am intimately acquainted.
In comparison with the Middlesex canal, the description given of the country is peculiarly favourable ; in the proportion I should think of three to one. That is for the whole distance, the Middlesex canal per mile is three times as difficult or expensive, as to the work to be done by excavation and embankment, as the New-York state canal will be. And none of the heavy jobs will compare with what has been often done in Europe. In making the comparison, it will be recollected, that the dimensions of the canal are as 4 to 7 ; the mean width and depth of Middlesex being 25 by 4 , your canal, 3o by 5.
The estimates have been made from the best sources of information in the country, and from experiments; I conclude, therefore, that the easy-work can be done accordingly, but it would cost much more in our part of the country, if executed without the aid of laboursaving machinery, as wages now are.
The embankments will, I believe, generally cost three times as much as excavation ; and it is obvious to remark, that where they are extensive, the earth to form them must be carried the whole distance ; and the quantity of earth required will very much exceed in square yards at the place whence it is taken, the measurement of the bank. No doubt the Board have attended to these and other local circumstances : but in the estimate the difference does not appear to be sufficient.
The wasfe-wiers, safty gatcs^ and other constructions to control the streams, feeders, &c. not expressly contained in the estimates, ought not I think to have been assigned to the 5 per cent, added for contingencies, because that allowance is to be made as well on them as on other objects of expenditure.
The allowance of 10,000 dollars per lock appears to me to be ample. The cost of the aqueducts depends on so many local circumstances, that I can only say it seems to me very probable that the estimate for them is|high enough;|constructed of stone piers, and the trunks of wood ; but much will depend on the previous prepa-
In some instances the digging of the eastern route is represented as partly light and partly difficult. Where the pick axe is to be used, the digging will cost double what it will where it may be done by the shovel alone : or, if the light loam or sand may be excavated for 12 to 20 cents, hard gravel and clay should be estimated, in my opinion, from 30 to 50 cents per yard.
The middle and western sections appear to be on the whole high enough. The eastern to Schoharie crosses so many streams, and there being some difficult digging, and considerable wall required to sustain the banks of the canal and adjacent high grounds, that I doubt if the estimate has sufficiently considered all these circumstances: but it does not appear to be on the whole a more difficult route than that of the Middlesex in proportion to its distance ; I say this, however, with deference to the gentlemen of the board who have seen both.
But, on the whole, as the country is so generally favourable, as labour-saving machines can be used, and as there will probably be no land or damages to pay for, the estimate appears to be high enough.
in making a comparison with the Middlesex canal, having no minutes with me, I can only do it from recollection. The accounts, while this canal was in the process of construction, were not kept so as to admit of our knowing what any particular piece of work cost, analysis of it, therefore, will be wholly from judgment, formed from my knowledge of the ground, and some experience in other places.
The Middlesex canal is 27 miles in length; its depth is intended to carry at least 3 feet of water. The banks, where formed, are meant to be one foot above the water. The width generally 30 feet on the surface, and on the bottom 20 feet. In carrying the work on, it was found necessary to purchase some estates, the whole of which was not essential to the canal. The lands were generally paid for, where most valuable. There was
some considerable expense attending litigations, and perhaps some mistakes, which are not likely to happen in the proposed work. The whole expense in assessments has been 520,000 dollars ; not including the application of income for several years past, in renovating and completing it, and the buildings, wharves, &c. necessary to the business. As neither of these objects of expenditure apply to the present question, I shall leave them out, and also deduct 50,000 dollars as havimg been applied to the other works leading to the principal canaL
feet in length, say,
3d lock. (All the locks except those at Chelmsford, consist of walls to sustain the banks of the lock pit,
The frame of the locks were of
yellow pine, then considered as durable as white oak ; and as expensive. The gates were of oak The length of the wood work
10 Bridges, 1
1 Aqueduct ] 10 feet in length, surface of water, 10 feet above the tide, standing on 3 piers, 2 abutments.
470,000
To reduce this comparison to the par of the most favourable representation of the proposed canal, the following deductions should be made — Lands and extras, $75,400
which deducted from 470,000, leaves 275,000
Amount brought over, being cost of Middlesex canal divested of its peculiarities, — equal to $ 1 0,500 per mile, 275,000
Allowance for increased sjxe of the trunk being as 7 to 4— supposing 1-20 the distance to be embankment ; leaving 330 miles, at ^2,812 additional, is ^8(927,960
gS7,427,960
And to this is to be added the superiority of work. But, it being concealed that the ground is on the whole more favourable, this may be too high — especially as the Middlesex was not excavated by machines ; but labour at that time was low. Common men had from ^8 to ^10 per month.
p The works to extend the navigation from the junction of the canal with the Merrimack, up that river to Concord, New-Hampshire, cost as follows, viz.— ^
Wicasee lock and canal, thus described. — A rapid for half a mile between an island and the western shore, is crossed with a dam of stone and timber, 200 yards ; this raises the water above about a foot, which saved digging on the other side of the island, where the lock is placed. This side afforded a passage for high water, six rods wide. From the lock to its entrance is 1000 feet. This place was encumbered with masses of rock of every size, and with earth, estimated at 4000 square yards. The lock is placed in the middle of the stream; its side-walls are 100 feet in length, connected with the shore by wing-walls, each about 50 feet. The wingwalls are faced with plank driven into the bottom, and extended into the shores. The walls having no supportj
were necessarily thick, to sustain the pressure of the lock, and the shock of the freshets. They are 1 2 feet high, and average 8 feet thick ; contain 1200 perch. The stone was split out large, and drawn i a mile, loaded for the most part on to a boat with a crane and windlass, and thence laid. The foundation was difficult, the bottom was encumbered with stones, the water from 2 to 7 feet deep, and not being clear, the work of deepening, filling up, and laying the walls under water, was done by feeling, diving, &c.
tween the middle of July and November.
Cromwell's lock is similar, with 120 rods of dam extending to the head of the rapid. It contains about 600 perch of stone, brought from the distance of a mile. Whole expense about g8,000 ,
on, and much iron was used.
Amoskeig canal is the greatest work of the kind on this navigation. The fall around which it is carried is one mile in length, and the perpendicular measurement 45 feet. 2000 feet is excavated. The rest of stone and dams. The whole expense is uncertain ; but the part which was rebuilt the last season, may serve the purpose of comparison in some measure, viz. three locks connected together, each 100 feet in length, from 10 to 1 1 feet wide, lift each 8 feet. The walls of one side without embankment, the other with. The contents of these walls being 8 feet average outside, and 5 ieet
swered anew.
The stone were split, carted half a mile, loaded on to boats, brought down six miles, unloaded on a platform, loaded on to trucks, brought three hundred feet to the locks, unloaded on a stage, then worked into the walls.
The drought of last season, impeded the boating considerably The locks are of white oak timber, and white pine plank, the whole of the best workmanship of the kind.
dollars.
Hookseld Cawa/ consists of two locks, two basins, and a guard gate and stone dam. The stone was got out and boated over the river. There was considerable excavation, (including the purchase of a mill-seat.) The whole expense has been 15,000 dollars.
Bow Canal is a work of uncommon difficulty and variety. The perpendicular fall is 25 feet. Near its upper entrance, a dam is thrown across the river, which is here 200 yards wide. The guard gates are supported by stone abutments, 14 feet high. One half of the first 300 feet was ledge 6 feet deep, and 20 feet wide, say 1 400 perch.
The next 300 feet was made by an embankment supported by a wall 12 feet high, 6 feet at bottom, and 4 at top,standing in the river, containing about 800 perch.
The next 250 feet is carried through a hill or ledge of rock, of a slaty kind, but hard enough to be blasted, 12 feet wide and 16 deep, containing about 2000 perch of excavation, 1900 yards.
The next 300 feet is excavated in gravel, on the slope of a hill, sustained on one side by a wall 8 feet high, 4 at bottom and 2 at top, battering back more than usual.
containing about 2000 perch. The lower lock is set 4 feet below the low water mark. It was necessary to keep the pit clear bj bailing and pumping. From the locks a low water channel was made The stone were drawn from a quarter to half a mile, after being split. This work, including the purchase of 5 acres of land, cost 21,000 dollars. '
acceptable to the board.
It is found to have been bad economy on the Middlesex canal, to have constructed any thing of perishable materials. Had all the locks been laid in cement, and constructed in the best manner, the property would have yielded dividends of income, and sustained its prospective value to a higher degree than at present.
The canal will be interrupted for three weeks, the ensuing summer, to put up a new aqueduct over Shawshine river. Other similar interruptions may be expected, whenever the other aqueducts and locks must be rebuilt. If the winter season is taken for the work, it will be more difficult and more expensive.
Probably for 50 per cent additional for the aqueducts, they may be made of iron. Were it double, I should still deem it the best economy.
If this communication, which is very hasty and imperfect, can be of any use to the board, I shall have much pleasure in the reflection of having contributed, in any degree, to the great object of their attention. With the highest respect,
The joint committee, to whom was referred the report of the commissioners constituted by the act to provide for the improvement of the internal navigation
of this state, wishing to avail themselves of the oppoi^tiinitj now offered, request the commissioners (though the information required does nor form a part of their official duties) to assist them in completing such a system of finance as will meet the contemplated improvements, and best subserve the pubhc interest, with the least possible burthen upon the people. I am sir,
The canal commissioners had the honour of receiving your letter, of the 8th instant, requesting theit opinion, on the best plans of ways and means for making the Erie and Champlain canals.
It will require considerable time to prepare and digest a complete, judicious, and well organized system of finance, for those important objects. And perhaps the session is so far advanced, that the legislature will not be able to bestow that attention on it, which their duty inculcates, and which the public interests demand.
But the commissioners have no hesitation ic stating, that these important communications can be opened without any direct tax ; that the resources of the state are abundantly ample ; and that a preliminary arrangement may be made, which will answer every desirable purpose.
Notwithstanding the perfect conviction of the commissioners, that these canals can be made without any serious inconvenience to the financial operations of the state, yet they are persuaded, that it is due to the counsels of prudence, to bring the solidity of their opinions to the touchstone of experiment, before the whole system is undertaken.
chasing the interest of the Western Inland Lock Navi-gation Company; for commencing and completing a canal navigation between Rome and the Seneca river, and between lake Champlain and the Hudson river at a convenient point below Baker's falls.
If the middle section of the western canal is made before the rights of the Western Inland Lock Navigation Company are purchased, it may induce the latter, in consequence of the increased value of their property, to rise in their demands. And if the state, after a fair trial of the experiment, shall only complete the canals now proposed, and proceed no further in the whole work, yet these partial operations will open valuable and important communications, and be greatly beneficial to the community.
The commissioners being of opinion, that those designated objects can be accomplished, in two or three years, and at an expense not exceeding one million and a half of dollars, would respectfully recommend, that a board of commissioners, to be denominated the commissioners of the fund for internal improvements, be constituted ; that it consist of the comptroller, the secretary, the attorney general, the surveyor general, and the treasurer ; and that the powers and duties of the said board shall embrace the following objects :
1st. To borrow on the credit of the state a sum not exceeding a million and a half of dollars by the creation of funded debt, with interest at six per cent, payable semi-annually, and the principal, reimbursable in twenty years, or at any time before, in the option of the state.
2d. The said commissioners shall keep an account of all monies received for the said fund, which monies shall be kept in the treasury of the state, and shall pay over from time to time, such monies as shall be required for the execution of the powers committed to them, by the commissioners constituted by the act to provide for the improvement of the internal navigation of this state.
measures for that purpose.
4th, The annual application of 60,000 dollars of the monies arising from auction duties, and the whole of the monies which the state may derive from the sale of unappropriated lands, shall be pledged for the payment of the said debt and the interest thereof, and shall be received, by the said commissioners^ and applied to that purpose. And they shall have power to apply any unappropriated money, in the Treasury, to make good any deficiency or suspension, in the payment of the said funds, or to borrow on the faith of the state any monies that may be necessary, to be reimbursed from the said funds when the same shall be received.
5th. The said commissioners shall, at the opening of the next session of the legislature, report a plan of finance, for the execution of the whole of the said canals and also of a sinking fund, for the extinguishment of the debt.
1st. In a free government, where the people compose the sovereign authority, it is chimerical to contemplate the execution of a stupendous plan of internal navigation, without the adoption of a wise and economical system, which shall conciliate the affections, and secure the favourable opinion of those who are the source of all legitimate power. To attempt to raise by taxation the whole sum as it will be required, will impose a burthen on the people which wiil be destructive of the project.
2d. The annual revenue of the state is now upwards of 924,000 dollars, and its ordinary expenses about 547,000 dollars, leaving a surplus of near 400,000 dollars, applicable to extraordinary demands on the treasury, and to the extinguishment of the state debt. The auction duties, for the last year, amounted to about 160,000 dollars. Sixty thousand dollars of this fund may be therefore appropriated annually to the payment of
interest as before stated, without interfering with any other claims, and without any inconvenience to the treasury. It will be also recollected that the direct tax of the United States, which last year drew from our treasury $365,620 38, has ceased to operate.
3d. The appropriations before mentioned from the duties on auctions, and the partial avails of the sale of public lands, will be at least equivalent to an immediate grant of one and a half million of dollars. On a supposition that the western canal will cost five, and the northern, one million of dollars, the commissioners of the fund for internal improvement, will, besides devising a sinking fund, have only to recommend a plan for raising 270,000 dollars annually, being the interest of 4,500,000 dollars. For this purpose, the following, among many other subjects, may be indicated : and it must be explicitly understood, that as only an annual revenue of 90,000 dollars will be required, until the canals from Rome to the Seneca river, and from Lake Champlain to the Hudson, below Baker's falls, are finished, it will not be necessary to use the funds now appropriated, until the happening of those events, and that they will be of course in a state of rapid accumulation.
The whole of the unappropriated lands of the state, considering the value of several villages, and of the Indian reservations, and the quantity on hand, may be safely estimated at two millions of dollars. If the whole were sold on the usual credit, the annual interest would bring 120,000 dollars.
nually.
The income from the salt springs, will be next year about ^10,000. It is believed, that this sum may be augmented, without the least inconvenience to the community, to ^40,000.
There are some places, which will be benefitted in an extraordinary degree, by the canals. An annual assessment, say of $50,000 on them, would not be felt,
and would be reasonable ; and it might be continued until the.present grants of lotteries shall be satisfied, when that sum might be raised by substituting lotteries. The donations already made, and which may be reasonably expected, will probably amount to a million of dollars in value.
The revenue, originating from the few sources here pointed out, will be amply sufficient to meet the whole sum required, which is 360,000 dollars annually, or the interest of ,0,000,000.
It is admitted that the whole of this property cannot at once, be rendered productive; but it must also be conceded, that it can be rendered so, contemporaneously, at least, with the exigencies that will require it.
As soon as the canals, or any important section of them are completed, a great revenue will accrue to the state, which will speedily extinguish the whole debt; and this will arise in tw o ways.
1st. From the artificial mill sites, and the infinite variety of hydrauhc uses, to which the surplus waters may be applied, but these privileges ought never to be sold in perpetuity, but leased, and kept under the control of the state , so that no individual can gain an interest in them, that may become prejudicial to the public.
2d. From the imposition of light tolls or transit duties, on vessels and cargoes descending the canals, to be increased on those ascending.
The late Mr. Fulton, from data furnished by the custom-house, calculated that 400,000 tons of freight are annually carried on the Hudson. And from a comparison between the country trading on that river, with
the territory embraced by the western canal, he estimated that there would be annually transported on the latter, one million tons of commodities. He further was of opinion that the cost of transportation on the canal from Buffalo to Albany would be three dollars and fifty-three cents a ton, and from Albany to NewYork, two dollars and fifty cents a ton. A toll of fifty cents a barrel, or twenty-five cents a hundred on merchandise, would amount on a ton to five dollars, making eleven dollars and three cents for the expense of carrying a ton on the whole route, or one dollar and ten cents for a barrel of flour, which would be by no means burthensome or oppressive, when we consider,
2d. That the toll now paid, for a barrel of flour, passing the locks of the Western Inland Lock Navigation Company, the distance of only one hundred miles, is fifty-two cents, and for a ton of goods five dollars and twenty-five cents, besides a considerable duty upon the vessels. The same charge, for the whole extent of the western canal, a distance of 353 miles, which is now made by that company for less than one-third of the distance, would in a short time produce the enormous income of $.§,000,000; but lowering the duty to one dollar a ton, the whole expense of this magnificent operation would be defrayed in a few years, and an immense revenue would be secured to the state, which would enable it to patronize literature and science ; to promote education, morality, and religion; to encourage agriculture, manufactures, and commerce, and to establish the interests of human improvement upon an imperishable basis, and to an incalculable extent.
The commissioners appointed for the purpose of reporting to the legislature, on the subject of a canal navigation between Lakes Erie and Champlain, and Hudson's river, are directed, with a view to the accomplishment of those important objects, to ascertain whether a loan of money can be obtained on the credit of the state of New-York, and also the terms of such loan.
The commissioners, having full confidence in your disposition to promote this great undertaking, and in your ability to obtain the information required, solicit your early attention to this subject, and beg leave to indicate the following points as material to the inquiry ; the amount of the sum that can be loaned ; the rate of interest ; the place where the interest is to be paid ; and the duration of the loan.
FORMS OF CESSIOiNS OF LANDS.
Whereas the Legislature of the state of New-York, by an act entitled " An act to provide for the improvement of the Internal Navigation of the State," passed April 17, 1816, did appoint Commissioners authorisedi and required (among other things) to make application in behalf of the People of this state, for cessions, grants, or donations of lands, for the purpose of aiding in the construction of a contemplated Canal to connect the waters of Lake with the navigable
nity in general, and to myself in particular : And also, in consideration of the sum of one dollar to me in hand paid by the said commissioners in behalf of the said state, I hereby, for myself and my heirs, give, grant, cede, and for ever transfer to the People of the* state of New- York, for the purposes aforesaid, the following piece or parcel of land, to wit :
Provided however, that if the said Canal shall not be completed within twenty years from the date hereof, then the above granjfc and the cession hereby made shall be null and void.
# Whereas the Legislature of the state of New-York, by an Act, entitled " An Act to provide for the improvement of the internal Navigation of this state," passed April 17, 1816, did appoint Commissioners authorized and required (among other things) to make application in behalf of the People of this state, for cessions, grants, or donations of land, for the purpose of aiding in the construction of a contemplated Canal to connect the waters of Lake with the
navigable waters of the Hudson River : And whereas, it is supposed that the said Canal will pass through lands belonging to me, Now therefore, in consideration of the benefits which will be conferred upon all who own real property in the vicinity of the said Canal, and upon myself in particular : And also in consideration of the sum of one dollar to me in hand paid by the said Commissioners in behalf of the said state, I hereby, for myself and my heirs, give, grant, cede, and for ever transfer to the People of the state of New- York, all the lands belonging to me which shall be necessarily occupied by the site of the said Canal, and also by the
JOINT COMMITTEE ON THE SUBJECT OF THE CANALS.
The joint Committee, to whom were referred the report of the Commissioners appointed^ the act for the improvement of the internal navigation of mis State, with the documents thereto annexed, and the minutes, draughts, maps, and profiles of the engineers employed by the said Commissioners, relating to the contemplated Canals from Lake Erie to the Hudson, and from Lake Champlain to the same,
That they have applied their best faculties to the investigation of the important subjects submitted to them ,• and the result has been a settled conviction, that the highest interests of this state require, of the Legislature, the adoption of suitable measures for the iinmediate commencement of these canals.
The minute and copious detail of facts, stated by the Commissioners, in relation to the length, direction, location, and dimensions of these canals, the difficulties and facilities occurring throughout the course of each, and the manner of construction recommended for the various works necessary to their completion, appears
to your committee to be very satisfactory. In estimating the expense of these great undertakings, it was not to be supposed that no errors would be committed ; and it is probable that for some items, the estimates will, in the application of them to practice, be found too low, and for others too high. The aggregate amount of these estimates, however, as well as many particulars which compose it, seems to be well warranted, by the different data appended to the report of the commissioners. And your committee have observed with great pleasure^ that the benefits of actual experiment, in regard to most of the expenses incidental to the construction of canals, is far more extensively furnished by our own country than is generally imagined.
If then, it is rationally established, that the expenses of the western canal will not differ materially from five millions, and those of the northern canal from one million of dollars, is it best for the state of New-York immediately to engage in the accomplishment of these measures ?
This state is favourably situated for the encouragement of every public interest. It contains inexhaustible quantities of salt, gypsum, and iron ore, with a great variety of other valuable materials for manufacturing establishments. The thirty million acres of its territory offer to agricultural industry no uncertain or penurious reward. An unrivalled river navigation for more than one hundred and sixty miles terminating on the sea-board, at a port which is capacious, healthy, and easy of access; its interior boundary line, passing for more than half its length through the waters of Erie, Ontario, and Champlain, and the numerous navigable lakes included within its limits, afford to its citizen^ the most decided commercial advantages.
In such circumstances, its prosperity is not surprising. It was to be expected, that under the direction of prudence and patriotism, its wealth, population, and security would be rapidly advanced. And this advance, which is every where observable, is not the less gratifying because it was natural and probable. It is,
on that account, more likely to be permanent. But has it not nearly reached its maximum, with respect to the southern and middle district, unless some new means of aiding it are speedily discovered and applied? Considerable portions of these districts are now almost replete with inhabitants, who by their industry and enterprise, have taken possession, and made the most, of nearly all the bounties which nature has spread out before them. And beyond the slow progression of improvement to be produced by the invention of happier methods of applying labour, and the more perfect division of mechanical occupation, what will enlarge the borders of their cities and villages hereafter ?
As the eastern and western districts have increased in numbers and opulence, they have loaded the Hudson with their surplus produce, and the merchandise for which they have exchanged it : and this trade has been the chief aliment of all the increase which has latterly been exhibited at the mouth and along the banks of that river. But the remote sections of these districts are contiguous to the territory of a foreign power, and are washed by navigable waters, which flow into the ocean through that territory. It is for the interest, and will therefore be the policy of that power, to invite commercial intercourse with those sections. Facilitated by the course of their streams, and the declivity of their country, our citizens have already extensively engaged in this intercourse. — And, if nothing is done to divert them from it, it is easy to foresee, that it will become permanent, and soon embrace within the number of its agents, all those who live beyond the high lands, in which our rivers running to the north originate ; including the most fertile part of the state, which is hastening also to become the most populous.
Our eastern and western districts having been settled from the south and the east; roads from these points were, of course, first opened. These roads were extended and improved with the diffusion and age of the new settlements. And as they were, for several years,
better in proportion to their proximity to the Hudson^ this circumstance, added to the ties of acquaintance, friendship, and consanguinity, retained the settlers, for a long time and universally, in a business-connexion with our own cities. But these roads are now carried through to the farthest borders of the &tate ; and on the margin of the waters where they terminate, asdense, active, and intelligent population is collected. Stimulated by the energetic impulse of private emolument, these people are making new roads and improving the old, erecting store-houses and wharves, building vessels of every description calculated to facilitate transportation, and at various places extending into the country, by artificial constructions and the improvement of natural streams, navigable communications with the northern waters. The enterprising spirit of these people is laudable. It has heretofore added to the wealth of the state, while it has enriched themselves. And unless it is directed into new channels, it will hereafter lavish the productions of our soil, to the amount of several millions a year upon our northern neighbours. This unwelcome result, it appears to your committee, that the present state of things, is rapidly maturing ; and to render it still more inauspicious, it will inevitably produce the effect of sending to a permanent foreign residence, many of our most useful citizens.
Shall we look on with unconcern, and see so large a portion of the means, within our power, of conferring a perpetually increasing strength and respectability upon our body politic, for ever averted ? Or shall we adopt an easy, an obvious, an effectual method of reclaiming for ourselves and our posterity, to the remotest generations, all these means, amplified into their fullest proportions by a warmer patronage than the frozen outlet of the St. Lawrence can ever afford ?
The decision of this question is now emphatically devolved upon the state. It is a question, in which the interests of every district, county and town, are deeply implicated. There are places, indeed, which
will enjoy, more immediately, and in a higher degree, the incalculable advantages of these canals ; but these advantages will most assuredly, and in no parsimonious measures, reach and enrich every part of the state.
It has been observed by a perspicacious statesman of our country, that "in proportion as the mind is accu§i|;omed to trace the intimate connexion of interests-;vf hich subsists between all the parts of a society united. under the same government; the infinite variety of channels which serve to circulate the prosperity of each to and through the rest ; in that proportion will it be unapt to be disturbed by solicitudes and apprehensions which originate in local discriminations. It is a truth, as important as it is agreeable, and one to which it is not easy to imagine exceptions, that every thing tending to establish substantial and permanent order in the affairs of a country ; to increase the total mass ©f industry and opulence, is ultimately beneficial to every part of it. On the credit of this great truth, an acquiescence may safely be accorded, from every quarter, to all institutions and arrangements, which promise a confirmation of public order, and an augmentation of public resource."
Your committee believe, that navigable canals, connecting the Hudson with lake Erie and with lake Champlain, would, from the moment of their completion, make it cheaper for nearly all our western and northern citizens to find a market down these canals, than in any other direction; and they would certainly afford the safest possible transportation.
But, besides calling back to our own market a large amount of the productions of our own soil, which are now alienated from them, the construction of these canals would draw into our limits the trade of the western parts of Vermont, of a considerable region in Upper Canada, and of the northerp half of all that portion of the United States, which lies west of the Allegany mountains. The future extent of this trade, it would be difficult to calculate. It must be immense. The country south of the great lakes alone, from which
it will flow, includes as many acres as make up the territory of some of the most powerful nsetions of Europe, and is the most fertile part of the globe. That country already contains near a million of souls, and is increasing with a rapidity of population known only on this side of the Atlantic.
The increase of the people of New-England, for the last twenty years, has been at the rate of six percent, annually ; and the surplus thousands of this increase are continually seeking new settlements in the west. A similar climate to that in which they have been bred — a luxuriant soil, and advantages for navigation, which are never lightly esteemed by a trading people, induce these thousands, for the most part, to take up their abode within two or three degrees of latitude south of the lakes. There they are joined by a numerous emigration from the middle and southern states, who, together with them, multiply and thrive in exact proportion to the means of subsistence, which their common industry produces. It is in our power to open tQ that country a cheaper, safer, and more expeditious i;oad to our market towns, than they can possible enjoy to any other. Shall it be done ?
The expense of transportation from Buffalo to Montreal, is 30 dollars a ton ; and the returning transportation is from $60 to $7,^ a ton. The passage of lake Ontario and the St. Lawrence, is shown to be dangerous, by the fact, that many vessels and lives are yearly lost upon them. And this passage, though at different times of very unequal duration, is on an average longer than one would be from Buffalo, through a canal and the Hudson, to New- York. The expense of transportation from New-York to Buffalo is about 100 dollars a ton, and the ordinary length of the passage is about 20 days. In the present state of things, to all the trade of the west, the evils attending the more tedious and expensive route to New-York, are not counterbalanced by the, benefits of a superior capital, and a more open port, which that city enjoys over Montreal. Make the western canal, and it would once and for ever con-
trol that trade ; for it would offer a transportation from Lake Erie to New- York, including the imposition of reasonable tolls, at a rate of from ^JO to ^12 a ton.
Those, whom business and curiosity have led to consider what is the amount of monies now actually paid for transportation by our citizens, will best understand how to appreciate the saving produced by so great a reduction of its price. It is believed by intelligent gentlemen, that the merchants of our state, living in Oneida and the counties west, pay annually, for transportation, not less than one million of dollars. And this belief is strengthened by what is known in relation to the sums paid, by the merchants of Pittsburgh, for waggonage, from Philadelphia and Baltimore, to that place. In the year 1815, the amount of this kind of disbursement, was found to be, in the month of July, jS 103,000, in the month of August, $ 1 J 2,000, and in the first fourteen days of September, $83,000. This saving, it must be confessed, would be of vast importance.
By making the northern canal, a saving would be ensured, of much less amount indeed, but, considering the cumbrous and heavy articles, which must alwaysconstitute the chief subjects of trade, from the neighbourhood of lake Champlain, and the difficulty of removing them upon the present roads, the expense of transportation would be reduced in almost as great a propoition.
In discussing the expediency of opening these canals, it should never be forgotten that the question is, whether we will, by taking measures completely within our power, and not burdensome, secure to our own country incalculable wealth, or will, by neglecting such measures, bestow that wealth, with all its advantages, upon a foreign nation.
To those^of our citizens, who live on the great parallel roads, which traverse the state east and west, it is important to consider, not whether the canal, from lake Erie to the Hudson, will be more travelled than either of those roads, but whether this travel shaU pass through the heart of the state, giving additional
activity to every species t)f profitable labour, by dispensing to it a golden reward, or whether it shall be diverted entirely beyond their reach, and pass down the waters of the St. Lawrence and the Mississippi. And they should remember, that whatever increases population, capital, and commerce, in their vicinity, enlarges the sum of materials, out of which their individual fortunes are to grow. The same considerations will apply with greater or less force, to every portion of our people.
It will not be denied, that the construction of these canals, will induce the transportation into the state, of an immense amount of interior productions, and of foreign goods. Will these come into the state, and depart from it, without leaving any traces of their having been among us ? Or will they swell the comforts of our country towns, and make our villages and cities exhibit, upon a larger scale, the improvements and the magnificence of a prosperous community ?
From the foregoing observations, it will be perceived, that your committee are of opinion, that these canals would be beneficial to every section of the state. .They would eventually make New-York the greatest commercial emporium in the world ; and the greatness of the commerce of that city, would, in a variety of ways, promote the interests of the southern district. Every addition to its inhabitants, would add to its demand for all the numerous articles, which only its immediate neighbourhood can supply ; and every augmentation of its wealth, would send out, in greater numbers, its rich citizens, to patronize the industry, and to cultivate, improve, and embellish the face of the earth, in the adjacent country. Experience shows, in all the rich cities of Europe, that as the means of communication with the interior are rendered easier, better, and more ex ' tensive, from those cities, the value of property has uniformly increased in their vicinity. It must necessarily result, from establishing great affluence in any place, that the ordinary channels of wealth, which are open nearest to that place, will first be filled.
These canals would promote the interests of the middle district, by furnishing it with gypsum, salt, iron, lumber, and fuel, in many places cheaper than they can be otherwise obtained; and by increasing the market for all its surplus productions.
They would speedily give a new and more prosperous aspect to the business of our northern counties, by opening, to a more profitable and growing demand, their extensive forests, abounding with all the usual kinds of lumber, and building timber, and their inexhaustible mines of iron ore; and by facilitating the transportation to and from their markets, in such a manner as to give an additional value to all their other exports, and a reduced price to all their imports.
need elucidation here.
It may be proper, in this place, to notice an objection sometimes made against making these canals, arising from the high price of labour in our country. The foundation of this objection will probably long remain. But can the objection itself have any weight ? Is it not apparent, that if the price of labour is high among us, it applies as well to the prodigious annual expense, which would be saved in transportation, by the canals, as to the cost of their construction ?
The consideration, which your committee have given to these great improvements, has impressed them with a conviction, that from the moment when the Legislature shalldeliberatelydetermine to undertake them, the real property of the state will rise in value, faster than the amount of disbursements necessary to their perfect completion. They ought certainly to be made.
But does good policy require, that they should be immediately commenced ? The benefits which they will insure are, now extensively understood ; and the evils which they will avert, are plain, palpable, and urgent. Every real objection to them must be of a local origin ; and will time lessen such objections ? Every year produces new concentrations of interest, on the
borders of the northern waters, at mill sites, and in the centres of the counties, where villages spring up and grow into importance. Some of these places will be so situated as to think hereafter that the construction of these canals will be injurious to them ; but if it shall be now known, that they wiU be constructed, these villages will take such a location in future, and with prospects much more promising, as to profit by all their advantages.
The land to be occupied by the canals would now cost nothing ; and little expense would be incurred, in the purchase of water privileges from mills and other hydraulic establishments. But wait a very few years, and the enterprise of our countrymen will have appropriated every stream to objects, from which the expense of detaching them will be measured by their profit ; and every mile of the country will contain obstructions to the route, from public or private edifices, from orchards, or from burying grounds. Your committee, therefore, decidedly believe that the best policy of this state requires the immediate commencement of these canals.
Having arrived to this conclusion, it is felt to be a cause of just exultation, that the interests of the state of New-York, demanding the execution of these projects, are so entirely concurrent with those of several of our sister states, and of the union generally. The Legislature of Ohio, with a liberality, and promptitude worthy of that enlightened body, have already expressed their zealous approbation of the canal from lake Erie to the Hudson, and pledge themselves to an efiective co-operation in its construction. Additional aid may be expected from other states in the west.
And surely we may yet look for help from the government of the United States. As bonds of union, as military roads, as favouring the increase and collection of commercial revenue, as means of sustaining her Indian department, and as prolific parents of all kinds of national resource, the claims of these canals upon the general government must hereafter be allowed and fostered. That day which shall see them completed, will be
a proud one for our country. If the Spaniard, who, from the top of the Andes, first discovered the Pacific, felt impelled by a natural impulse, to prostrate himself in thanksgiving to the Almighty, for the prospect with which he was indulged, what pious gratitude will become the American citizens a^henever, by the completion of these improvements, he shall be permitted from the political and moral elevation on which they will place him, to contemplate as wide an expanse,animated, adorned, and illustrated, by every thing interesting and ennobling to man ! Let it be the ambition of this state, now to commence them, and this prospect will soon be realized.
It remains for your committee to point out where they would recommend to have these canals begun; to designate the funds which they would appropriate to them at the present session ; and to state the manner in which they think it expedient to provide for their eventual completion, and the discharge of all the expenses to be incurred in their prosecution.
Notwithstanding the perfect conviction of your committee, that these canals can be made without any serious inconvenience to the financial operations of the state, yet they admit that it is due to the counsels of prudence to bring the solidity of their conviction, to the touchstone of experiment, before the whole system is undertaken.
Under these impressions, they recommend the adop tion of immediate measures, for purchasing the interest of the Western Inland Lock Navigation Company, and for commencing and completing a canal navigation, between Rome and the Seneca river, and between lake Champlain and the Hudson river, at a convenient point below Baker's falls.
If the middle section of the western canal is made before the rights of the Western Inland Lock Navigation Company are purchased, it may induce the latter, in consequence of the increased value of their property, to rise in their demands. And if the state, after a fair trial of the experiment, shall only complete the canals
now proposed, and proceed no further in the whole work, yet these partial operations will open valuable and important communications, and be greatly beneficial to the community.
Your committee, being of opinion, that those designated objects can be accomplished in two or three years, and at an expense not exceeding one million and a half of dollars, recommend that a board of commissioners, to be denominated the Commissioners of the Fund for Internal Improvements, be constituted ; that it consist of the comptroller, the secretary, the attorney-general, the surveyor-general, and the treasurerIt is proposed to establish a fund, or income, to be appropriated expressly and exclusively to the making of these canals, and to be pledged for the payment of the interest and principal of such loans as it may become convenient to make, and which should be made exclusively upon the credit of such income, and not upon the general credit of the state; and that the comptroller be directed to open separate books, and to keep the accounts of those funds distinct from the other funds and accounts of the state; the whole to be under the control and management of the said commissioners of the fund, whose powers and duties shall, besides, embrace the following objects : —
1st. To borrow, on the credit of the fund above-mentioned, a sum not exceeding a million and a half of dollars, with interest not exceeding six per cent, payable semi-annually, and the principal reimbursable in twenty years, or at any time before, in the option of the state.
2d. To pay over, from time to time, such monies as shall be required for the execution of the powers committed to them, by the commissioners constituted by the act to provide for the improvement of the internal navigation of this state.
soon as the said purchase, or the whole, or any part of the said works is completed, have power to establish and receive reasonable tolls, and to take all the necessary measures for that purpose.
5th. The annual application of dollars of the
monies arising from the auction duties, of the duties arising from salt as herein after mentioned, and the "whole of the monies, which the state may derive from the sale of unappropriated lands, shall be pledged for the payment of the said debt and the interest thereof, and shall be received and applied by the said commissioners of the fund for internal improvements ; and they shall have power to apply any unappropriated monies in the treasury to make good any deficiency or failure in the receipts of the said fund, or to borrow on the faith of the state any monies that may be necessary, to be reimbursed from the said funds, when the same shall be received.
6th. The said commissioners of the fund shall at the opening of the next cession of the legislature, report a plan of finance for the execution of the whole of the said canals, and also of a sinking fund for the extinguishment of the debt.
1st. In a free government, where the people compose the sovereign authority, it is chimerical to contemplate the execution of a stupendous plan of internal navigation, without the adoption of a wise and economical system, which will conciliate the affections and secure the favourable opinion of those, who are the source of all legitimate power. To attempt to raise by taxation the whole sum, as it will be required, will impose a burthen on the people, which would be destructive of the project.
2d. The annual revenue of the state is now upwards of 924,000 dollars, and its ordinary expenses about 547,000 dollars, leaving a surplus of near 400,000 dollars, applicable to extraordinary demands on the treasury, and to the extinguishment of the state debt. The auction duties for the last year amounted to about
160,000 dollars. From this fund the sum of dollars may be therefore appropriated annually to the payment of interest as before stated, without interfering with any other claims, and without any inconvenience to the treasury. — It will be also recollected, that the direct tax of the United States, which last year drew from our treasury $365,620 38, has ceased to operate.
3d. The appropriations before mentioned from the duties on auctions and salt, and the partial avails of the sale of public lands, will be at least equivalent to an immediate grant of one and a half million of dollars. On a supposition, that the western canal will cost five, and the northern canal one million of dollars, the commissioners of the fund for internal improvements, will, besides devising a sinking fund, have only to recommend a plan for raising 270,000 dollars annually, being the interest of four and a half millions. For this purpose the following among many other sources may be indicated. And it must be explicitly understood, that as only an annual revenue of 1^90,000, will be required until the canal from Rome to the Seneca river, and from lake Champlain to the Hudson river below Baker's falls are finished, it will not be necessary, to use the funds now designated, until the happening of those events ; and that some of them will be, of course, in a state of rapid accumulation.
1st. A tax to be laid upon all salt maiiufactured in the western district, at the rate of nine cents per bushel, upon that which is made at private works, and at the rate of twelve and a half cents per bushel, upon that which is made at the public works.
2d. The duties on sales at auction, after deducting ^26,000 for the hospital, ^15,000 for the support of foreign poor in the city of New-York, $500 for the Orphan Asylum Society, and $500 dollars for the Economical School.
3d. A tax to be laid upon the valuations of real and personal property, in the counties, cities, or towns, which will be particularly benefitted, by the construe-
tion of these canals, of from one-third to three-fourths of a mill upon a dollar. And the places to which this tax should apply, and the proportion of its application to each, your committee think, should be as follows: — New-York, at 1-2 a mill, on last year's valuation, amounting to ;^41,037
4th. A tax upon all steam-boat passengers, of one cent per mile each, for any distance not exceeding an hundred miles, and not exceeding one dollar for a passage between Albany and New-York.
6th. All unappropriated lands.
7th. Contributions from other states, on condition that they shall make use of the canals, for the same tolls, as may be required from the people of this state.
quired from the people of this state.
9th. Donations of money and lands from individuals. John Grieg, Esq. has already contributed to this fund, by executing a deed to the people of this state, for three thousand acres of land lying in the county of Steuben ; and the agent of the Holland land Company has given satisfactory assurances, that he will execute a deed of 100,632 acres of land, lying in the county of Cattaraugus, for the same purpose.
lOth. As soon as the canals, or any important section of them are completed, a great revenue will accrue to the state, which will speedily extinguish the whole debt, and repay to all the places, which shall have been taxed on the valuation of their real and personal estates, the sums from them respectively levied. This revenue will arise in two ways :
1st. From the artificial mill sites, and the infinite variety of hydraulic uses to which the surplus waters may be applied. These privileges ought never to be sold in perpetuity, but leased and kept under the control of the state, so that no individual can gain an interest in them, that may become prejudicial to the public. And,
2d. From the imposition of light tolls or transit duties, on vessels and cargoes descending the canals, to be increased on those ascending.
Your committee deem it proper, before they conclude, to present to the consideration of the Legislature, a proposition for the construction and completion of the western canal, which has been made to the president of the canal, commissioners, by J Rutsen Van Rensselaer, Esq. as follows :
Desirous of aiding by every means in my power the improvement of the internal navigation of this state 1 take the liberty of submitting to your consideration the following propositions, to be disposed of, as you may deem proper.
1st. I will form a company, who shall give security in the sum of one million of dollars to be approved by the comptroller, that the whole canal from Erie to Hudson shall be completed, on the plan contemplated by the report of the commissioners, except only, that the aqueducts shall be formed of durable materials, probably cast iron, as in my opinion, vt^ood should not be used in any exposed situation. I will then contract to perform the whole work, for ten millions of dollars, five hundred thousand of which shall, on good security be advanced by the state, to be accounted for by the company, on the completion of the canal, and shall form a part of the last expenditure ; and on each subsequent advance, by the state, similar security shall be given, that the amount shall be applied to the object, and a proper proportion of the distance be completed, until the whole is finished.
2dly. I will complete the work, on like advances and security, for the sum of seven millions and an half of dollars, together with the tolls, which may be collected from the time one-fourth of the canal shall be completed to the expiration of twenty years after the whole is finished, the toil not to exceed two cents per mile per ton. Or,
3dly. I will, on the like advances, furnish the like security, and finish the whole, for five millions of dollars, together with the tolls, at the rate specified in the former proposition, for the period therein specified, and for one half that sum for ever thereafter : should the legislature exact a toll, after the twenty years, at the rate of five dollars per ton, for the whole distance, the company shall pay, and the canal be pledged as security, three per centum per annum, on the whole advance, or refund to the state two millions and an half of dollars, at convenient periods, with interest, at six per cent.
In the commencement of an undertaking of this importance, the Legislature should be governed by a spirit of great liberality ; sectional interests should not be indulged, and no objection should be raised to the imposition of a general tax to meet a portion of the expense.
U the Legislature will consent to borrow the five millions of dollars, funds may very easily be provided to meet the payment of the interest, and to redeem the principal at no great distance of time.
Claverack, 11th March, 1817.
To the acceptance of either of these propositions? your committee are entirely opposed, being persuaded, for a variety of important considerations, that the state should retain the perfect control of this canal, in every period of its construction and future regulation.
For the reasons and in conformity with the principles herein specified, your committee have prepared a bill on the subjects submitted to them, which they now ask leave to present.
That they are not required or authorized by law to hold any communications with the western inland lock navigation company respecting the purchase of their interests, and that, of course, they did not institute any inquiry on that subject. It appears however, from an official report of the former commissioners, who were duly authorized, dated March, 1812, that the company asked $190,000 for the shares held by them, exclusive of three hundred and fifty shares held by the state. And the present commissioners coincide in the opinion with the former board, that the price then asked is unreasonably high.
The commissioners have obtained cessions of the land to be occupied bj the Erie canal, from fifty-six persons, through whose farms the line passes, west of the Seneca river ; and Schoharie creek a considerable number of cessions, from persons living within those limits ; but as the deeds of cession, except those which relate to lands west of the Seneca river, are not here, j
of line conveyed by those who have executed them respectively, neither the precise number of these deeds, nor the exact extent of the lands which they cover, can at present be ascertained.
Though the commissioners, at an early day, procured blank forms of cessions to be printed (some of which were delivered to the engineers on the different sections of the canals) and have found more than nine-tenths of those to whom they were offered for subscription, willing to make a donation to the state of that strip of their land, which would be required for the canal, it has not yet been in their power to secure a large portion of the canal lines. Much of the land lying in the western part of the state is owned by persons who do not reside there. The agent of the Holland land company has offered to convey to the state, a strip of land for the canal, through their possessions, not exceeding four rods in width, on condition that the state shall make a good harbour for lake vessels at the mouth of Buffalo creek, a condition which the commissioners think entirely inadmissible. Other agents did not feel themselves authorized to make the donations desired, without consulting their principals. This they engaged to do, and at the same time expressed decided expectations of receiving favourable answers, but had not received those answers at the date of the last communications between them and the commissioners. In some cases the owners of the land, though usually resident there, were absent from home, and it has hitherto been inconvenient to make application to them. Besides, in exploring the route of the canal, in a country but partially cleared, it was impossible for the engineer, in.first
running it over, to determine in many places, where the canal line would pass. After advancing some distance in a doubtful course, difficulties would be met with, which made it expedient to go back upon the line to some point, whence a more eligible course might be pursued. In such cases, cessions on the route first explored would be useless ,- and a few of the deeds actually obtained are of this description. And although the line of canal presents but few obstructions, and is in general extremely favourable, yet it cannot be doubted but that the more minute and extensive examination of resident engineers to whose superintendence the execution of the work ought to be intrusted, will point out many partial deviations from this line, which may be made with great advantage and economy. Hence it seemed the less important to obtain deeds of cession, on a first survey, even if the more general, and as was judged more pressing duties of the commissioners and engineers, had allowed the necessary time. And it was thought, in reference to all those parts of the route of both canals, which should not be immediately undertaken, that the inducements to give the lands to be occupied by the canals, would rather be increased than diminished, making the eventual success of the whole ; projects to depend, as well upon the encouragement
menced.
It is not to be denied that a few individuals, whose lands will be crossed by canals, have refused to make a donation of any part of those lands to the state. A provision by the Legislature, therefore, seems to be required for taking the necessary possession of lands so withheld. Whether this provision extend to a few cases more or less, appears not to be very material, as if it is equitable, it will doubtless involve no public expense, except in cases where it interferes with expensive existing improvements
To the Honourable the House of Assembly.
In compliance with a resolution of the honourable the Assembly, we have the honour of enclosing a statement of the Comptroller. This communication would have been made before, but the accounts, as far as they were ascertained, were agreeably to the directions of the law exhibited to him ; and with every attention, on his part as well as ours, it was not until today that it has been in our power to render this statement.
The expenses of the commissioners include the expenses of travelling, at various periods — of their visit to the Middlesex canal — of their superintendence of the whole route of both canals, of their meetings at various times, and are brought up to their first meeting during the present session of the Legislature. They consist of the following sums, viz. — Expenses of commissioners meeting 17th May, 1816, in New-York including the expense of going there, of stay there, of two commissioners with two engineers going to view the Middlesex canal, stay there, and return home 1^515 00
Expenses of commissioners in meeting at Utica on the 15th July, while there, while exploring the route of the western canal, and returning home, 1080 12
Considering that upwards of 313 miles on the western canal, besides that part of the route south of the mountain ridge and west of Genesee river, and more than 60 miles on the northern canal, have been explored, surveyed and levelled ; that the routes of the canals have been actually laid out; that perspicuous maps and profiles have been made ; and that full reports have been presented, it is believed that no operation so extensive, so complicated and so important, has ever been performed with more economy of expenditure.
A sum not exceeding $4000 will be required, in addition to that part of the appropriation which is unexpended, to complete the payment of the engineers for their services ; to defray the expenses of printing, engraving and stationary; to pay the expenses of the meeting of commissioners and their attendance on their duties during the present session of the Legislature ; to satisfy some demands not yet presented, and also to make a reasonable compensation to the secretary and treasurer of the board, whose time, since the first meeting in May, has been almost exclusively engrossed in discharging those trusts, and in attending to their general duties as commissioners.
I certify, that from accounts and vouchers rendered by the commissioners appointed in and by the act, entitled "an act to provide for the improvement of the internal navigation of this state," passed 17th April,
lowing sums, viz.
To William Peacok, engineer, and Andrew A. Ellicott, surveyor, for their services and for expense of hands, &c. &c. in exploring, levelling, &c. on the western section of the Erie canal, $1563^2
To James Geddes, engineer, for do. do. do. do. 3233 17 To Benjamin Wright, on account of his services and expenses in exploring, levelling, &c. the middle section of thie Erie canal, 2000 00 To Charles C. Broadhead, for his services and expenses in exploring and levelling a portion of the eastern section of the Erie canal, 2097 70 For exploring and levelling a route for the
PASSED APRIL 17, 1817.
I. Be it enacted by the people of the State of JVew- York, represented in Senate and Assembly, That Stephen Van Rensselaer, De Witt Clinton, Samuel Young, Joseph Ellicott, and Myron Holley, be, and they are hereby appointed commissioners, to consider, devise and adopt such measures as may or shall be requisite, to facilitate and effect the communication, by means of canals and locks, between the navigable waters of Hudson's river and lake Erie, and the said navigable waters and lake Champlain j and in case of the resignation or death of any of the said commissioners, the vacancy thereby
occasioned, shall be supplied by the Legislature, in the manner in which senators of the United States, from this state, are directed to be chosen.
II. And be it further enacted, That the said commissioners shall choose one of their number, to be president of their board, and shall appoint a fit person for their secretary, who shall be allowed and paid such salary as the said commissioners shall deem proper and reasonable : And the president of the said board of commissioners, shall have power to call a meeting of the same, w^henever, in his opinion, the public interests require it ; and the said board may adjourn from time to time, to meet at any time and place they may deem most conducive to the public good ; And further^ the said commissioners shall have power to employ such and so many agents, engineers, surveyors, draftsmen, and other persons, as in their opinion may be necessary to enable them to fulfil and discharge the duties imposed upon them by this act, and to allow and pay the said agents, engineers, surveyors, draftsmen, and other persons, for their respective services, such sum or sums as may be adequate and reasonable.
III. And be it further enacted^ That it shall be the duty of the said commissioners, us soon as may be after the passing of this act, to cause those parts of the territory of this state which may lie upon or contiguous to the probable courses and ranges of the said canals, to be explored and examined for the purpose of fixing and determining the most eligible and proper routes for the same, and to cause all necessary surveys and levels to be taken, and accurate maps, field books and drafts thereof to be made, and further to adopt and recommend proper plans for the construction and formation of the said canals, and of the locks, dams, embankments, tunnels and aqueducts which may be necessary for the completion of the same, and to cause all necessary plans, drafts and models thereof, to be executed under their direction.
hereby authorized and required to make application in behalf of this state, to the government of the United States, and of such states and territories as may be benefited by the said canals or either of them, to the proprietors of lands, through or near which, the said canals or either of them may or may be proposed to pass, to all bodies politic and corporate, public or private, and all citizens or inhabitants of this or any other of the United States, for cessions, grants or donations of land or money, for the purpose of aiding in the construction or completing of both or either of the said canals, according to the discretion of the several grantors or donors, and to take to the people of this state, such grants and conveyances as maybe proper and competent to vest a good and sufficient title in the said people to the lands so to be ceded or granted as aforesaid, and for the purposes above-mentioned, it shall be the duty of the said commissioners to open books of subscription in such and so many places as they may think necessary and expedient, and under such rules and regulations as they may from time to time establish ; and further^ it shall be their duty to ascertain whether to any and to what amount, and upon what terms, loans of money may or can be procured on the credit of this state, for the purpose aforesaid.
V. And be it further enacted^ That it shall be the duty of the said commissioners to make, or cause to be made, with as much accuracy and minuteness as may be, calculations and estimates of the sum or sums of money which may or will be necessary for completing each of the said canals, according to the plan or plans which may be adopted and recommended by them, for the construction or formation of the same, and to cause the said calculations and estimates, and all surveys, maps, field books, plans, drafts and models authorized and directed by this act, or so many thereof as may be completed, together with a plain and comprehensive report of all their proceedings under and by virtue of this act, to be presented to the Legislature of this state within twenty days after the commencement of the next regular annual session thereof
VI. And be it further enacted^ That the treasurer shall ^n the warrant of the comptroller, pay to the order of a majority of the said commissioners, out of any monies in the treasury not otherwise appropriated, any sum or sums not exceeding twenty thousand dollars, and for which the said commissioners shall account to the comptroller of this state.
VII. And be it further enacted^ That the act entitled " an act to provide for the improvement of the internal navigation of this state," passed the 8th day of April, 1811, and the act, entitled " an act further to provide for the improvement of the internal navigation of this state," passed June 19th, 1812, be and the same are hereby repealed.
Whereas, navigable communications between Lakes Erie and Champlain and. the Atlantic Ocean, by means of Canals connected with the Hudson River, will promote agriculture, manufactures, and commerce, mitigate the calamities of war, enhance the blessings of peace, consolidate the union, advance the prosperity and elevate the character of the United States. And whereas, it is the incumbent duty of the people of this State to avail themselves of the means which the Almighty has placed in their hands for the production of such signal, extensive, and lasting benefits to the human race. Now, therefore, in full confidence that the Congress of the United States, and the States equally interested with this State, in the commencement, prosecution, and completion of those important works, will contribute their full proportion of the expense, and, in order that adequate funds may be provided, and properly arranged and managed for the prosecution and completion of all the navigable communications contemplated by this Act :
Be it enacted by the people of the State of JVew-Yorlc, represented in Senate and Assembly^ That there shall be constituted a fund to be denominated the Canal Fund, which shall consist of such appropriations, grants. and donations, as may be made for that purpose by the Legislature of this State, by the Congress of the United States, by individual States, and by corporations, companies, and individuals, which fund shall be superintended and managed by a board of Commissioners, to be denominated, " The Commissioners of the Canal Fund," consisting of the Lieutenant Governor, the Comptroller, the Attorney General, the SurveyorGeneral, Secretary and Treasurer, a majority of whom with the Comptroller, shall be a quorum for the transaction of business, and that it shall be the duty of the said board, to receive, arrange, and manage to the best advantage, all things belonging to the said fund ; to borrow from time to time, monies on the credit of the people of this State, at a rate of interest not exceeding six per centum per annum, and, not exceeding in any one year, a sum, which together with the net income of the said fund, shall amount to four hundred thousand dollars, for which monies so to be borrowed, the Comptroller shall issue transferable certificates of stock, payable at such time or times, as may be determined by the said board out of the said fund, to pay to the Canal Commissioners hereafter mentioned, the monies so to be borrowed, and the income of the said fund, reserving at all times sufficient to pay the interest of all monies that shall have been borrowed by the said board ; to recommend from time to time to the Legislature, the adoption of such measures as may be thought proper by the said board for the improvement of the said fund, and to report to the Legislature at the opening of every session thereof, the state of the said fund : and that the Comptroller and Treasurer shall op6n separate books, and keep the accounts of the said fund, distinct from the other funds of the State.
the improvement of the Internal Navigation of this State," passed April 17, 1816, shall continue to possess the powers thereby conferred, and be denominated the Canal Commissioners, and they are hereby authorized and empowered in behalf of this State, and on the credit of the fund herein pledged, to commence making the said Canals, by opening communications by Canals and Locks between the Mohawk and Seneca Rivers, and between Lake Champlain and the Hudson River; to receive from time to time from the Commissioners of the Canal fund, such monies as may be necessary for and applicable to the objects hereby contemplated; to cause the same to be expended in the most prudent and economical manner in all such works as may be proper to make the said Canals, and on completing any part or parts of the works or Canals contemplated by this Act, to establish reasonable tolls, and adopt all measures necessary for the collection and payment thereof to the commissioners of the canal fund : that a majority of the said commissioners shall be a board for the transaction of business, each of whom shall take an oath, well and faithfully to execute the duties of his office, and shall report to the Legislature at each session thereof, the state of the said works and expenditures, and recommend such measures as they may think advisable for the accomplishment of the objects intended by this Act. And in case of any vacancy in the office of Commissioner, during the recess of the Legislature, the person administering the government, may appoint a person to fill such vacancy, until the Legislature shall act in the premises.
And be it further enacted, That it shall and may be lawful for the said canal commissioners, and each of them by themselves, and by any and every superintendent, agent, and engineer, employed by them, to enter upon, and take possession of, and use all and singular any lands, waters and streams, necessary for the prosecutionof the improvements intended by this Act. And to make all such canals, feeders, dykes, locks, dams and other works and devices, as they may think proper
for making said improvements, doing nevertheless no minecessary damage. And that in case any lands, waters, or streams taken and appropriated for any of the purposes aforesaid, shall not be given or granted to the people of this State, it shall be the duty of the canal commissioners from time to time, and as often as they think reasonable and proper, to cause applications to be made to the Justices of the Supreme Court, or any two of them, for the appointment of appraisers, and the said Justices shall thereupon by writing, appoint not less than three, nor more than five discreet disinterested persons as appraisers, who shall, before they enter upon the duties of their appointment, severally take and subscribe an oath or affirmation, before some person authorized to administer oaths faithfully and impartially, to perform the trust and duties required of them by this Act. Which oath or affirmation shall be filed with the Secretary of the canal commissioners ; and it shall be the duty of the said appraisers or a majority of them, to make a just and equitable estimate and appraisal of the loss and damage, if any over and above the benefit and advantage to the respective owners and proprietors or parties interested in the premises so required for the purposes aforesaid, by and in consequence of making and coiistructing any of the works aforesaid ; and the said appraisers^ or a majority of them, shall make regular entries of their determination and appraisal, with an apt and sufficient description of the several premises appropriated for the purposes aforesaid, in a book or books to be provided and kept by the canal commissioners, and certify and sign their names to such entries and appraisal, and in like manner certify their determination as to those several premises, which will suffer no damages, or will be benefited more than injured by or in consequence of the works aforesaid. And the canal commissioners shall pay the damages so to be assessed and appraised, and the fee simple of the premises so appropriated, shall be vested in the people of this state.
mon of the canal commissioners, it shall be for the interest of this state, for the prosecution of the works contemplated by this act, that all the interest and title (if any) in law and equity of the western inland lock navigation company should be vested in the people of this state, it shall be lawful for the said canal commissioners to pass a resolution to that effect; and it shall then be lawful for the president of the canal commissioners, to cause a copy of such resolution, with a notice signed by himself and the secretary of the said commissioners, to be delivered to the president or other known officer of the said company, notifying the president and directors of the said company, that an application will be made to the Justices of the Supreme Court, at a term thereof, to be held not less than thirty days from the time of giving such notice for the appointment of appraisers, to estimate the damages to be sustained by the said company, by investing in the people of this state, all the lands, waters, canals, locks, feeders, and appurtenances thereto acquired, used and claimed by the said company, under its act of incorporation, and the several acts amending the same ; and it shall be the duty of the Justices aforesaid, at the term mentioned in the said notice, and on proof of the service thereof, to appoint by writing under the seal of the said Court, and the hands of at least three of the said Justices, not less than three nor more than five disinterested persons, being citizens of the United States, to estimate and appraise the damages aforesaid; and it shall be the duty of the said appraisers, or a majority of them, to estimate and appraise the damages aforesaid, and severally to certify the same, under oath before an officer authorized to take the acknowledgment ofdeeds, to be a just, equitable, and impartial appraisal to the best of their judgment and belief, and shall thereupon deliver the same to one of the canal commissioners, who shall report the same to the said court; and if the said court shall be of opinion, that the said damages have been fairly and equitably assessed, the said justices, or any three of them, may certify the
same on the said report, and the amount of the said damages, and the expenses of the said apprisal shall be audited by the comptroller, and paid on his warrant by the treasurer, out of the canal fund. And the people of this state shall thereupon be invested with, and the said canal commissioners may cause to be used all the lands, waters, streams, canals, locks, feeders, and appurtenances aforesaid, for the purposes intended by this act.
And be it further enacted^ That for the purposes contemplated by this Act, and for the payment of the interest, and final redemption of the principal of the sums to be borrowed by virtue hereof, there shall be and hereby are appropriated and pledged, a duty or tax, of twelve and a half cents per bushel, upon all salt to be manufactured in the westei-n district of this State : a tax of one dollar upon each steam-boat passenger, for each and every trip or voyage, such passenger may be conveyed upon the Hudson River, on board of 9,ny steam-boat over one hundred miles ; and half that sum for any distance less than one hundred miles and over thirty miles ; the proceeds of all lotteries which shall be drawn'in this State, after the sums now granted upon them shall be paid : all the net proceeds of this State, from the Western Inland Lock Navigation Company: and all the net proceeds of the said canals and each part thereof when made : all grants and donations made or to be made for the purpose of making the said canals : all the duties upon sales at auction, after deducting thereout twenty-three thousand and five hundred dollars, annually appropriated to the hospital,the Economical School, and the Orphan Asylum Society, and ten thousand dollars hereby appropriated annually for the support of foreign poor in the city of New- York. And be it further enacted^ That from, and after the first Tuesday of August next, there shall be paid and collected in the manner now directed by law, upon all salt to be manufactured in the county of Onondaga, a duty of twelve and a half cents per bushel instead of the present duties, and the like tax or duty of twelve
and a half cents per bushel, upon all other salt to be manufactured in the western district of this state, which shall be collected by the superintendent of the salt springs, until otherwise directed bj the Legislature : and for that purpose he shall have a responsible deputy residing at each place where salt is, or may be manufactured, with the like powers, and subject to the like duties as his present deputies: and that all the provisions, forfeitures, penalties, and restrictions contained in the laws relative to the duties upon Onondaga salt, so far as the same may be applicable, shall be in force for the purposes of enforcing the payment and collection of the tax or duties imposed on salt, hereby levied and imposed : and further, that the said superintendent, instead of a yearly report to the legislature, shall make a yearly report to the commissioners of the canal fund, and pay into the treasury of this state, on the first Tuesday of February, May, August, and November, in each year, all the monies collected by him during the quarter preceding each of those days, deducting in addition to what by law is now allowed to be deducted, five per cent, of the duties collected at all other salt works, not situated in the county of Onondoga, and two per cent, of the duties upon Onondaga salt, as a compensation for the collecting and paying over the same.
And be it further enacted^ That it shall be the duty of the said canal commissioners, to raise the sum of two hundred and fifty thousand dollars, to be appropriated towards the making and completing of the said canals, from the Mohawk River to the Seneca River, and from Lake Champlain to Hudson's River, by causing to be assessed and levied in such manner as the said commissioners may determine, and direct the said sum of two hundred and fifty thousand dollars upon the lands and real estate, lying along the route of the said canals, and within twenty-five miles of the same, on each side thereof: which sum so to be assessed and levied, shall be assessed on ths said lands and real estate adjacent to the said several canals, in such pro-
portion for each, as the said commissioners shall determine. And the said commissioners shall have power to make such rules and regulations, and adopt such measures for the assessing, levying, and collecting of the sum or sums ofmoney,eitherby sale of the said lands or otherwise, as they shall deem meet, and the said assessment shall be made on said lands, according to the benefit which they shall be considered by the said commissioners,as deriving from the making of the said canals, respectively : Provided, That such rules, regulations, and measures, shall, before they are carried into effect, be sanctioned and approved by the chancellor and judges of the Supreme Court, or a majority of them : And provided further^ That the company, or individual subject to such tax, shall subscribe any money or other property towards the completion of the said canals, the amount of such donation or voluntary subscriptions, shall, if the same is less than the amount of the tax, be deducted therefrom, and if more, he or they shall be entirely discharged from the said tax.
And he it further enacted, That from, and after the first day of May next, the aforesaid tax upon steam-boat passengers, shall be demanded, taken, and received, by each captain, or master of every steam-boat, navigating the Hudson river; and, that during each month thereafter, in which such boat shall be employed for the conveyance of passengers, it shall be the duty of such captain or master, to cause to be delivered to the comptroller of this state, a return or account sworn to, before some officer authorized to administer oaths, stating the name of the boat, the number of trips made by such boat during such month, and the whole number of passengers conveyed on board such boat, at each of the said trips, over one hundred miles, and the number conveyed less than one hundred miles, and over thirty miles, and pay into the treasury of this state, the amount of such tax collected during the time mentioned in the said return, deducting three per cent, thereof, as a compensation for making such return, and collecting and paying over the said tax : And further, that in case of any neglect or refusal in making such return, or collecting
and paying over the tax, as directed in and by this section,the captain or master so neglecting,shall forfeit and pay the sum of five hundred dollars, beside the amount of the tax so directed to be collected and paid over, to be recovered in an action of debt in the name of the people of this state, and for the use of the aforesaid fund.
CANAL COMMISSIONERS.
Pursuant to the requisitions of the act, entitled, " An act to provide for the improvement of the internal navigation of this state,''"' passed April 17, 1816 ; and of the act, entitled, " An act respecting navigable communications between the Great Western and Northern Lakes and the Atlantic Ocean^'' passed April 15, 1817, the Canal Commissioners respectfully present to the Legislature the following Report : —
As early in the spring a« was practicable, operations w^ere commenced at Rome, by a careful re-examination of the line of the canal, and of the levels of the preceding year. This re-examination induced a belief, that the short summit level at Rome, mentioned in the report, and indicated on the map of last year, might be entirely avoided, and instead thereof, a long summit obtained, extending from the Mohawk river to the vicinity of the salt works at Salina. By this arrangement,
the cost of constructing two locks, the delay of passing them, and the future expense of repairs, would for ever be saved and prevented. Add to this, the new and extended summit would command, at all times, an inexhaustible supply of water, embracing the Oriskany Creek, the Mohawk River, Wood Creek, and the more numerous and copious streams west of Wood Creek, which cross the line of the canal, and discharge themselves into Oneida Lake. After a minute and laborious examination, this alteration was adopted.
The law of April 15, 1817, directs the construction of the middle section " between the Mohawk and Seneca Rivers," without designating any point of union with either of the said rivers. The commissioners therefore believed themselves vested with a discretionary power which would authorize them to approach either of the said rivers, at such place as would most conduce to the public good. Not only from actual observation, but from information derived from the most unquestionable authority, it was ascertained, that the Mohawk River, from Rome to Utica, is extremely serpentine in its course ; and that its navigation, in low water, is much more difficult and imperfect than below the village of Utica ; so much so, that this part of the route of the western inland lock navigation, frequently becomes a portage ; boats being lightened or unloaded west of Rome, and their cargoes carried by land to Utica, where they are re-loaded into boats and transported down the Mohawk. Anticipating that the channel of the Mohawk river may be used for the purposes of navigation, for some time after the completion of the middle section, before the eastern section will be constructed, it was deemed advi'sable to extend the middle section as far east as the village of Utica.
By a reference to the report of last year, it will be found that a sum estimated at $75,000 was assigned to the purchase of " utensils, such as carts, ploughs, scrapers wheel-barrows, iron bars, pick-axes, shovels, chains, temporary work-shops, barracks, &;c." This item of anticipated expenditure, was made on the au-
thority of precedents, derived from the best English engineers; and it was supposed at the time, that it would be expedient for the state to purchase the utensils ' and incur the expense. But further reflections satisfied the commissioners that a more economical course might be pursued. They therefore determined to let out the canal in short sections or jobs to contractors, who should furnish their own tools, and be paid a stipulated price per cubic yard, ior excavation and for embankment. It was believed that under this arrangement, the necessary utensils would be much better preserved from injury and destruction, than they would were they the property of the state,; it was foreseen also, that a set of tools in the hands of a contractor who had finished one job, would furnish him with a strong inducement to engage in another; and it was obvious, that the tools which should remain in the hands of an individual after the completion of any section of the canal, might in a great measure be usefully applied to the reparation of roads, or to the purposes of agriculture ; whereas they would, as the property of the state, turn to little account.
These preliminaries being settled, preparations were made for dividing the canal line into short and convenient sections preparatory to its being let to contractors. The engineers were directed to arrange these sections in such manner, as that every section, if practicable, should have a brook, ravine or low piece of ground at either end, so that every contractor might have the advantage of draining his works, without interfering with any adjoining contract. Augers of nearly four inches in diameter, and with a shaft of twelve feet in length, were procured, with which the earth was perforated, along the canal line, at short distances, to the necessary depth, in order that every alternation in its strata, its hardness or softness, its inclination to vegetable matter, clay, loam, sand, gravel or other substance, and also its porosity or impermeability to w^ater, might be ascertained with the greatest possible accuracy.
The levels of the preceding year, were not only carefully re-examined, but lateral levels were frequently made on each side of the line, with a view to improve its location wherever the nature of the ground would permit; and this was often found practicable. The engineers were directed, in addition to permanent benchmarks, to' place three rows of stakes, the middle row to mark the centre of the canal, and the two outside rows, which were to be sixty feet apart, to designate the extremities of the part to be grubbed, wherever that operation was necessary. Two other rows of stakes were placed in such manner as to designate the width of excavation, conforming also to the curves into which the angles on the line were converted, and varying in their distance from each other in a* ratio combining the depth of cutting and the declivity of the surface of the ground. The engineers also made perspicuous profiles of all the sections separately ; marking them alphabetically, or numerically ; designating the distance embraced by each, and noting the variations of soil, the quality and quantity of timber to be grubbed and cleared, and other peculiarities. — These sectional maps, together with drafts and plans for aqueducts, culverts, &c. are herewith presented
After the extension of the summit level had been determined, an extension which it is believed renders it superior in length to any summit level in the world, considerable solicitude was felt, lest with all the care and accuracy of the engineers some deviation from an exact water level might be made on so long a line. — While Benjamin Wright, Esquire, was re-examining and laying off sections from Rome, west along the canal line, it was deemed expedient, as a test to the accuracy of the work, that James Geddes, Esquire, should start, at a given point on the canal line, at Rome, and carry a level along the road to the east end of Oneida Lake, marking on permanent objects the height of the surface of the water while the lake was tranquil, at various places from the east to the west end, along its southern shore ; that he should then connect by a le-
vel, the Oneida with the Onondaga Lake ; after which he was to carry a level from the last mentioned lake, at Salina, south about one and a fourth miles to the canal line, and from thence to work to the east, laying off sections along the canal line. This was accomplished, and nine miles at the west end of the summit level were laid out into sections. And the commissioners have the satisfaction to state, that when the level of Mr. Wright had been carried along the canal line, to the place where Mr. Geddes had terminated his line, the levels of these engineers, which embraced a circuit, from the place of departure to the junction, of nearly one hundred miles, differed from each other less than one and an half inches ! This result, so satisfactory, exhibits in the engineers a degree of care, skill and precision, in the delicate process of levelling, which has perhaps never been exceeded.
Isaac Briggs, Esquire, an eminent mathematician, who had been employed by the Commissioners as an engineer, after procuring the necessary instruments, was directed to operate between Rome and Utica.
This part of the line was in general less encumbered with forest trees, and offered fewer obstructions to a fair and speedy experiment in excavation than any other. The necessary preliminary examinations had occupied much time, so that the season was already far advanced, and had become excessively wet; the demands for contracts already increased- beyond every exertion to supply them ; it seemed very important that in the course of the season such progress should be made in the works, as would present to the people of the state as satisfactory a test as possible, of the correctness or incorrectness of the estimates of last year : it was necessary before the contracts could be made to determine the exact dimensions of all the works, and the precise manner of their construction; to calculate the cubic contents of masonry in every aqueduct and bridge, so that a sufficient quantity of proper materials might be provided : in short, to settle all the details and provisions of a great variety of miscellaneous contracts,
of which hardly any two are to be found exactly similar to each other. Oppressed by that weight of responsibility, which is the necessary concomitant of such a complication of important concerns, the acting commissioners felt that the united exertions of the engineers and of themselves were indispensable, until by their labours these multifarious details should have assumed, in some measure, an organized form. These considerations, it is hoped, will furnish a sufficient apology for not having divided their exertions at an earlier period, and simultaneously attended to the Champlain canal, as was at first intended, and as it seems was contemplated by the law which authorizes its construction.
After performing the above services, James Geddes, Esquire, was directed to operate between Rome and Utica, until that part of the line should be ready for contracts ; after which he was instructed to repair to the Champlain canal, he having been previously disignated as its engineer.
The first contract is dated the 27th June, 1817, but owing to the time necessarily spent by the contractors in preparation, it was not until the 4th of July that the excavation was commenced.
Although the contracts are various and dissimilar, in conformity to the localities of the line which they respectively embrace, yet there are some general provisions applicable to every contract for grubbing and clearing, for excavation and for embankment, which will be seen in the forms marked A.B.C. hereto annexed, The form of a contract for stone, marked D ; of a contract for the construction of road bridges, marked E. ; and of a contract for cast iron culverts, marked F., are also added. Some of the contracts for stone provide that they shall be paid for according to the measurement by the cord at the place of delivery : others according to the cubic measurement in the wall, after they are laid, and others at so much per ton, weighed at the place of delivery.
names of all the contractors, the dates, extent, nature and prices of the several contracts, the respective times when they are to be completed, and also the sums of money paid or advanced upon each of them.
It v*^ill be perceived that the length of line, embraced by the several contracts for excavation and for embankment,varies from 40 rods, to three miles. The contracts, generally were made to embrace less than would otherwise have been necessary, in order that men in moderate pecuniary circumstances might be enabled to engage in the work, provided they could procure the necessary security. And although this multiplication of the contracts created much more trouble and labour for the commissioners than a contrary course would have done, as on every job it was necessary not only to draw and execute a contract, but also a counterpart thereof, so that each party might have one in his possession, yet this was obviously more just and equitable, than by a diminution of the number of contracts to have put it in the power of a few wealthy individuals to have monopolized the whole, and to have made subcontracts, at reduced prices, with the labouring part of the community.
It was usually the case, when a contract was made, that the contractor wished for an advance in money, in some degree proportionate to the extent of his contract, to enable him to procure teams, utensils, provisions, &c. A sum for this purpose was generally advanced, on the security of some responsible individual or individuals, who became jointly and severally bound with the contractor that the job should be finished by the time and in the manner specified in the contract, or that the money should be refunded with interest ; and further, that the amount of the sum advanced, should be expended in labour towards the completion of the contract within a reasonable time, (generally two months,) or, in default thereof, that ttie said sum should be repaid on demand, with interest. This obligation was generally written on the back of the contract, according to the form hereto annexed, marked H.
in the execution of contracts for excavation, and for embankment, there are great opportunities for deception, by neglecting to remove, in an effectual manner, from the foundation of the works, all the porous and perishable matter, and by constructing the internal and concealable parts of the banks of improper materials. To prevent this, the engineers were instructed to examine the works as often as their other avocations would permit ; and also to employ faithful, active and vigilant assistants, who were frequently to traverse the line, and carefully inspect every job, and commit to writing, and report to the engineer, every departure from a rigid compliance with the respective contracts. The commissioners, also, as far as time would allow, superintended the execution of all the works. The contracts were drawn in such manner (as will be perceived by the forms) that every contractor was compelled to finish his whole job, and have it inspected and accepted by the engineer, before he was entitled to receive any part of his pay. They, however, received a verbal assurance from the commissioners, that while the works were carried on in a faithful manner, monthly payments should be made, amounting nearly to the value of the labour expended on the job, calculated jwro rata according to the prices mentioned in the contract, and deducting all previous advances and payments ; but, that if any attempt at deception was discovered in the works, these payments should be entirely suspended, and a strict compliance with the contract enforced, arrangements were also made to fill the canal with water, after the completion of a job, and previous to a settlement with the contractor, in every place where this was practicable ; so that the leaks, if any, might be at once discovered and repaired, at the expense of the contractor.
When it is considered that the greatest part of the contractors are men of property and respectability, whose reputations are intimately connected with a faithful performance of their contracts,. and when reference is had to the many guards and precautions, which
are calculated to insure the same result, it may be safely anticipated, that the canal will be constructed in the most substantial and durable manner.
The distance now under contract, is about fifty-eight miles, and is wholly on the summit level. A few rods on each side of Oriskany creek, have not been let out, but are reserved in order that the surplus earth may be used in the construction of a dam, which is to be built across that stream. More or less labour has been applied along the whole extent of the line under contract, according to the means of the several contractors, and the time aflfbrded to each of them after the date of the contract, before the close of the season. — The greatest part of the contractors suspended their operations at the freezing of the ground, though several of them have continued to labour on their jobs up to the present time. About two thirds of the whole distance is through new and uncleared land, and of course required grubbing and clearing ; the greatest part of which has been completed. Considerable progress has also been made on about two-thirds of the jobs in excavation and embankment. One job has been completed and inspected, and a final settlement made with the contractors. Another is so far finished, as to be fit for use; but it will nevertheless require a few days additional labour, to give it that beauty and symmetry which are contemplated by the contract; and arrangements are also made to fill it with water before a final settlement is had with the contractor. Detached pieces likewise are completed on many others : Indeed contracts may be seen in every stage of progression, from a bare commencement to a completion. A pretty correct idea can be formed of the amount of labour, which has been applied to each contract, by reference to the prices, and to the amount paid to the respective contractors. It ought,however, to be noted, that from ^200 to ^1000 each was advanced on security, in December last, to the greatest part of the contractors, to enable them to take advantage of the market, in purchasing beef, pork, flour, and other stores and provision for the next season. From
the best estimate that can be formed, it is believed^ that the amount of labour which has been applied on the whole line, would have completed, if concentrated, the average excavation and embankment of about fifteen miles.
Much useful experience has been acquired in the course of the season. Many valuable improvements have been made in the method of grubbing standing timber. It has been ascertained that much labour in excavation is saved, especially in dry ground, by the use of the plough and * scraper : and it is found that banks constructed in this way, by being constantly travelled over by the teams with their loads, are much more solid, and less liable to leakage, than those which are made after the European method with the spade and wheel-barrow. And even with the spade and wheel-barrow, more progress can be made in excavation, than was supposed. As an exemplification of this remark, the commissioners state with the fullest confidence, on the authority of Messrs. Pease, Mosely, and Dexter, that three Irishmen in their employ, finished, including banks and towing-path, three rods of the canal, in four feet cutting, in the space of five and a half days. Thus sixteen and a half days work, accomplished the excavation of two hundred forty-nine and onethird cubic yards; which at twelve and a half cents per cubic yard, would produce to each workmam the very liberal wages of one dollar and eighty eight cents per day.
It is believed that the prices which the contractors receive for the several kinds of work, will afford them, in ordinary seasons, a generous compensation for their labour and superintendence. The contractors in general feel confident of this ; and those who have done the most towards the accomplishment of their jobs, feel the greatest degree of encouragement. Several of them, as will be perceived, have taken second jobs ; and others have made application for them, but could not be accommodated. Those who have finished particular pieces, have been able to make calculations of their
loss or gain with mathematical certainty; and not an instance of this kind is known, in which it has been shown that the prices do not pay for the labour. Mr. Richardson, who has completed his first job, except giving it the last finish, which will not probably require more than ten or fifteen days labour, alledges that he has kept an account of his expenditures, and that notwithstanding the unfavGurableness of the season, he shall clear the whole of his tools and utensils. The excavation of this job, running through low ground, was almost incessantly interrupted or incommoded by repeated inundations. The contractors, in general affirm, that they have been insured from 20 to 30 per cent, by the extraordinary wetness of the season.
The rains have surpassed in extent and duration, all former example. More water has flowed in the Mohawk river the past summer than was ever before witnessed in any season by the oldest inhabitants. Its extensive intervale lands, have been several times deluged: and at Rome, it raised so high in October last, that a part of its waters, overflowing the dividing lands between the river and Wood creek, passed down that creek and were of course discharged into the ocean by the St. Lawrence : thus converting the northern and eastern parts of this state, and, indeed, all the country east of the Hudson, and south of the St, Lawrence, into an island.
But although these excessive rains have been so detrimental to the contractors, yet they have furnished a volume of experience, which cannot fail to be immensely valuable to the state, in the great works of internal improvement which have been commenced. Indeed, with minds accustomed to view in every occurrence a particular dispensation of a benign and superintending Providence, the two last seasons cannot but be regarded with pecuHar interest. In 181 6, when the whole of both routes, from lake Erie and from lake Champlain to the navigable waters of the Hudson, embracing an extent of more than four hundred miles, was to be examined and" explored, the season was uncommonly dry
and favourable ; and perhaps more useful and extensive surveys and levels were made, than were ever before accomplished in one year in any age or country : And in 1817, when the works were to be commenced, no season was ever marked with such repeated inundations ; as if, to indicate at the commencement, by the height, impetuosity and durability of the greatest floods, the exact dimensions and strength of the works, necessary to discharge or resist them.
The examinations of last year, which have been so minute and critical that no important obstructions could have escaped them, have strongly demonstrated the practicability of carrying on these important works.
The ground is so well calculated for a canal, that the commissioners feel very confident, that in the distance of more than fifty eight miles between Utica and Salina, there is not to exceed half a mile which will probably require puddling.
This half mile is in the neighbourhood of Whitesborough ; and even with respect to this, strong expectations are entertained, that without this process it will become water tight. So few rocks or stones exist on the whole extent of the summit level, that it is believed S500 would be more than sufficient to remove every obstruction of this kind. In the town of Manlius, two or three points of shelly, rotten limestone, of a slaty structure such as generally forms the roof or covering of plaster beds, have been discovered, and are indicated on the profiles ; — and on the contract of Mr.Gumar, in this town, fine chrystalized gypsum has been dug up and laid bare by the excavation. In the whole extent of the summit level, there is not a ravine to be filled up, or a ridge to be cut down in which the greatest deviation of the surface of the earth from the top water line amounts to eighteen feet. The average depth of cutting, for the whole distance, is less than five feet ; and an embankment one seventeenth part of the distance, ten feet high, would amount to all the combined works of that kind which are necessary.
A reference to the former report will show, that the contracts on the whole are within the estimates. It is true, that as respects the contracts for excavation, separately considered, although some of them are as low as eleven cents, per cubic yard, yet in the aggregate they will, in a trifling degree, exceed the estimates. But by an examination of the sectional maps, it will be seen, that some of these contracts include small ravines, over which short embankments were necessary ; and in some cases of this kind, where the surplus earth from the parts to be excavated was supposed to be sufficient to form the embankments, nothing was allowed eo nomine for the embankments ; but such sum, by the cubic yard, for the excavation, was agreed on, as was deemed suflScient to cover this extra labour. — This was the case in the first contract of Mr. Richardson, and in several others of the earliest contracts, as will be perceived by the profiles of the sections which they embrace.
The reduction of the short summit level at Rome created between two and three feet additional depth of cutting for about three miles in length ; and this extra depth required an enhancement in the price of excavation : but it should be noted, that the saving of the cost of constructing two locks, in addition to other advantages, will much more than counterbalance this enhancement of expense.
The estimates allowed for grubbing and clearing through uncleared land, $1500 per mile; and by a reference to the contracts it will be perceived that the prices to be paid average about Si 200 per mile. The estimated price for building a road bridge was ;^500 — whereas the whole have been contracted for between Utica and Salina, and wit& a warranty that they shall stand firm and secure for five years, at an average of $335 each. The culverts are to be made of cast iron. They will probably cost as much, and possibly rather more than the estimates; but their permanency and durability, will, it is believed, make them cheaper in the end, than though they had been constructed in the
ordinary manner. In comparing the amount to be paid upon the contracts with the former estimates, it should not be forgotten that all the contractors furnish their own tools, by which the state is relieved from a very serious item of expense.
On the whole, the commissioners feel satisfied from the experience of last year, that with care and economy, and also with the aid of the labour-saving improvements which may be reasonably anticipated during the progress of the works, the Erie and Champlain canals may be completed for a sum which shall not exceed the estimates
About the 5th of Semptember, Mr. Geddes commenced the re-examination of the Champlain canal.— Considerable time was spent in exploring, with a view to ascertain whether, incase the trade on that canal should in a course of years, increase to such a degree as to exhaust Half-Way Brook, which is the principal source of supply for the summit level, a sufficient quantity of water might be obtained from any other quarter. Levels were carried from the Hudson river, at several points above Fort Edward, to the line of the canal : And it was ascertained, that in the event of future deficiency, water may be drawn from the Hudson by a short feeder, in any quantity which may be necessary. It is not proposed to make this feeder at present ; indeed, it is not believed it will be wanted in half a century, unless a change in the seasons, creating a great diminution of water, should take place; but it was deemed prudent, before the canal w as commenced, to ascertain the practicability of its future construction.
The engineer levelled auid examined the whole length of the line of the canal from Fort Edward, which is to be its place of junction with the Hudson, to Whitehall. Five miles from Whitehall, south, along the line of the canal, were marked out into sections ,; which comprehend the greatest part of the excavation between the south part of the village of Whitehall and Fort Ann, as the natural channel of Wood Creek will
be principall)' used the remainder of the distance between those two places. Some doubt existed at Fort Ann, whether it would be best to pass on the east or the west side of the village. Both routes were explored, and it is finally beHeved, that the east route combines the greatest advantages. These two routes form a junction about one mile south of the village of Fort Ann, from which point, about five miles along the line of the canal to the south were laid out into sections. From the termination of this last distance to Fort Edward, it was carefully explored and levelled ; but a part of the distance being swampy and filled with water, by the excessive rains, and it being so late in the fall, that little probability existed of commencing the excavation to advantage until next season, the engineer did not lay off into sections and accurately stake out this part of the line. It is, however, intended that this shall be done in March, before the breaking up of the frost, if the weather will permit, so that the work may be commenced as early in the spring as possible.
The profiles and maps of the engineer are herewith presented. A printed copy of specifications, regulating the manner of constructing the works, and designed in some measure to abridge the labour of writing the contracts, is also hereto annexed.
The line of the canal, and the form of the works, are not materially varied from the plan proposed in the report of last year. It has, however, been thought advisable, and indeed of considerable importance, to enlarge the dimensions of the canal and locks, so as to make them correspond in size with the Erie canal.
Several weighty considerations may be adduced in support of this alteration. Those parts of this state and of Vermont which lay contiguous to lake Champlain, abound in masts, spars, ship-timber, and lumber of all descriptions, to a degree which can hardly be conceived by a person unacquainted with those extensive tracts of country. It will require locks of nearly or quite ninety feet in length to transport masts and
spars to the best advantage; and all the bulky articles of lumber, which are usually rafted, may be transported through such locks in much larger quantities, and of course with much more expedition, than through those of small dimensions, as it requires nearly the same time to pass a small as a large lock.
After the completion of the canals, a considerable exchange of articles may be expected between the western and northern parts of this state. Salt and gypsum will be sent from the w«st to the north, for which iron and the fine marble of Vermont will be returned. It is obvious, that no direct communication of this kind can be carried on between these two parts, unless the boats which navigate the Erie canal, and which will probably be of corresponding dimensions, can also traverse the Champlain canal. If this is not the case, cargoes passing from one of these places to the other must be unloaded and reloaded at the tide-waters of the Hudson, which would increase, in a considerable degree, the expense of transportation.
The additional cost of increasing the dimensions of the Champlain canal, together with its locks, will, it is believed, bear no proportion to the utility of the measure. For more than half the distance between the tide-waters of the Hudson and lake Champlain, this communication will occupy the natural channel of the Hudson and of Wood creek. It is apparent then, that the extra expense of excavation created by this measure cannot be very serious. A considerable share of the expense of a lock is usually incurred in securing a permanent foundation, by piling or otherwise. When it is considered, therefore, that the piling machines and other necessary apparatus will cost about the same sum for locks of different dimensions, it is pretty evident, that an addition ot ten feet to the length, and two to the breadth of a lock, cannot very considerably augment its expense.
The excavation of about five miles of the canal, immediately south of Whitehall, has been contracted for by Messrs. Melanchton Wheeler and Ezra Smith, at
tT*^elve and a half cents per cubic yard, except a deep cutting of about thirty rods in length, for which they are to receive eighteen cents. The work was commenced and continued for some time on this contract, until the weather had become so unfavourable, and the days so short, that it was thought prudent to suspend it till spring.
Reasonable propositions have been made for the excavation of all the remaining part of the line, except that which passes through the village of Whitehall ; but as the work could not be advantageously commenced till next spring, and as a considerable part of the line was not accurately designated, the contracts have not yet been executed.
The re-examination of the Champlain canal, has confirmed and increased the favourable impressions which the former survey had made. From the advantageous nature of the ground generally, and from the contiguity of the materials which are necessary for the construction of the artificial works, the commissioners confidently anticipate, that even with its enlarged dimensions, it will be made for the sum mentioned in the estimate.
An agent was employed early in the season to procure for the state cessions of the lands to be occupied by the Canals. He traversed the whole line from Utica to the Seneca river, and took particular pains to call on every resident land-holder who could be found. The result was, that about nine-tenths of them made voluntary cessions to the state. More than half of the line of the Champlain Canal, between Fort Edward and Whitehall, has also been ceded by the owners, to whom application was made by the same agent.
Several young men have been employed by the engineers as assistants, during the last season, some of whom have manifested a praiseworthy zeal to qualify themselves as engineers ; and from the attention and aptitude which they have exhibited, there is no doubt but they will soon become extremely useful to the state. — One of them has gone to Europe, with a view to make
structing all the works appertaining to Canals.
The construction of Canals is an art within the complete attainment of ordinary capacities. All its rules have been fully explained by eminent engineers, who have written treatises on the subject. And notwithstanding our country has made such trifling advances in Internal Navigation, yet there are already in the United States samples of the most difficult works which will be necessary on the Erie or Champlain Canal. — Neither of these communications will require a reservoir, sough or tunnel, which are always the most expensive appendages to internal navigation. Locks are the most difficult of all the works which will be necessary, and their construction is already well understood in this state.
The state of New-York may indulge the proud reflection, that she possesses within herself the genius, the skill, the enterprise, and all the other means, requisite to the accomplishment of an internal navigation, whose utility will surpass any work of the kind which preceding ages have accomplished. The location and extent of the great lakes, connected together and stretching through several degrees of latitude and longitude, and the wonderful facilities of the country intervening between them and the tide-waters of the Hudson, appear to have been designed by nature, to tempt the improving industry of man. To join the east to the west; to unite the forty-fifth degree of latitude on lake Champlain with the farthest verge of lake Superior ; to connect the whole with the ocean, and to bestow the blessings of any easy intercommunication upon the millions of human beings who are destined to flourish along these extended lines, are within the resources of the people of this state. It rarely falls to the lot of the limited powers of man, to confer any signal, extensive and lasting benefit upon the human race: but the achievement of this magnificent enterprise, surpassing in its effects all the ordinary attainments of human imbecility, would seem, in no partial degree, to emulate the
upon whole states and kingdoms.
An acquaintance with the history of European canals, with the cost of their construction, their location, their annual tonnage, and the revenues which they afford, cannot fail to satisfy every unprejudiced mind, that in a pecuniary point of view, the amount which the contemplated canals will cost, could not in any other way be so profitably invested. Few of the canals of Europe extend their benefits beyond the immediate vicinity of their works. But an inspection of the map of this state will show, that ten times as much territory beyond its northern termination will be benefited by the Champlain canal, as exists along its line; and with respect to the Erie canal, when it has traversed the most productive parts of this state, to its western termination at Buffalo, embracing within its scope exhaustless mines of gypsum and perennial fountains of salt, the boundless theatre of its usefulness is but barely commenced. Is it possible, then, that the accomplishment of these works can fail to yield to the state a rich pecuniary reward, as well as the more honourable testimonials of public gratitude, perpetuated to the latest generations in the plaudits of a countless posterity ?
day of in the year between of the one
part, and the canal commissioners of the state of NewFork of the other part, whereby it is covenanted and agreed as follows, to wit; the said covenants and agrees to grub and clear section Number of the Erie canal, containing in length of the line of the said canal, reference being herein had to the location of said line, and the map thereof, by engineer : the grubbing is to be at least sixty feet wide, that is, thirty feet on each side from the middle of the canal ; from which width all the trees, saplings, bushes, stumps and root^ shall be dug up, and together with all the logs, brush and wood of all descriptions shall be removed at Jeast forty-five feet from the centre of said canal : on each side of the said sixty feet, a space thirty-six feet in width, shall have all its trees, saplings and bushes cut down, and a strip fifteen feet wide, of the last mentioned space on each side of the grubbing, and adjoining thereto, shall have all its trees, saplings, bushes and stumps cut close to the ground, so that none of them shall be left of more than one foot in height ; and all the trees, saplings, bushes, brushes, logs, stumps and wood of every kind, shall be removed wholly without the said strip ; and no part thereof, nor any rubbish of any kind, shall be laid, felled or left on either of the sections adjoining this contract : and the said agrees that during the progress of the work, he will, from time to time, conform to such deviations from the canal line as it is at present designated, as either of the said commissioners, or any engineer by them or either of them appointed for that purpose, shall direct, and to such alterations in the width to be grubbed and
cleared, on any part, or the whole of the said section, as may be directed by the commissioners, or any engineer as aforesaid : And the said work shall be, from time to time, carefully examined and inspected, and to prevent all disputes and misunderstandings or some other engineer in the employ of said commissioners, and to be designated by them or either of them for that purpose, shall be the inspector of the said works ; and whenever this contract shall be fully performed, in the opinion of said inspector, on the part of the said
he shall certify the same in writing, whereupon, within ten days after notice of such certificate, the said commissioners shall pay to the said the sum of dollars, and such further sum as said inspector shall determine to be reasonable, for any additional labour required, inconsequence of any alteration of the present canal line, or any increase of the width of grubbing and clearing directed as aforesaid ; provided, however, and it is hereby expressly covenanted and agreed, on the part of the said that this contract shall be fully
of the one' part, and the canal commissioners of the State of New-York, of the other part, whereby it is covenanted and agreed as follows, to wit : The said covenants and agrees, that he will excavate and construct, in a good, substantial, and workmanlike manner, all that part of the line of the Erie canal, which is included in section reference being herein had to the location and map of said line, made by engineer. The canal and banks are to be constructed
in such manner, that the water may in ail places be at least forty feet wide at the surface, twenty-eight feet at the bottom, and four feet deep ; each of the banks shall be at least two feet perpendicular measurement above the top water line, and such a slope shall be preserved on the inner side of the banks, both above and below the top water line, as that every foot perpendicular rise shall give a horizontal base of at least eighteen inches : the towing path shall be on the side of the canal ; its surface shall be at least ten feet wide, and not more than five feet in any place above the top water line ; it shall be smooth and even, and consist of the best materials excavated. The bank opposite the towing path, shall in no place be less than five feet wide at its surface ; shall be smooth and even, and neither of the banks shall have a less slope on the outer than on the inner side, except where there is a redundance of stuff, increasing their width at the surface beyond the requirements aforesaid. In all places where the depth of cutting below the natural surface of the earth exceeds nine feet, there the towing path shall be five feet, perpendicular measurement, above the top water line, and shall be twelve feet wide, and the bank opposite to the towing path, shall have, at the elevation last aforesaid, above the top water line, a horizontal berm or recess, five feet in width at its surface, and the spoil banks without the towing path and berm, shall in no case have a less slope on the inside than as aforesaid, and no part of the extra stuff, nor any trees or rubbish of any kind, shall be laid, felled, or left on either of the sections of the canal line, adjoining this contract. All the loose and porous materials which are of a perishable nature, or permeable to w^ater, shall occupy the outer extremities of the banks, and for the distance of at least ten feet, horizontally measured from the top water line on each side of the canal, the banks shall be wholly made and constructed, both above and below the top water line, of the most pure, solid, compact, and water-tight earth, which the adjoining excavation can supply, and no vegetable
mould, leaves, roots, grass, herbage, logs, sticks, brush, or any other substance of a porous or perishable nature shall be left, laid, or in any way admitted into the said space of ten feet horizontally measured from the top water line, or above, or below the same : And the said commissioners covenant and agree to pay to the said for completing this contract as aforesaid,
at the rate of cents per cubic yard, for all earth
necessarily excavated between the banks or under them : And it is mutually agreed, that the said works, during their progress, shall be carefully examined and inspected ; and to prevent all disputes and misunderstandings, it is agreed, that or some other competent engineer, to be selected by the said commissioners or one of them, shall be the inspector of the said works, and shall estimate the number of cubic yards of excavation, and his estimate shall be final and conclusive between the parties to this contract : And the said further agrees^ that during the progress of the work, he will, from time to time, conform to such deviations from the present canal line, and to such alterations in the form, slope and dimensions of the banks, towing-path, berm, or any other of the works, as the said commissioners, or either of them, or any engineer in their employ, shall direct : And it is further agreed, that if in the opinion of the inspector aforesaid, the said shall refuse or unreasonably neglect to prosecute this contract, such inspector shall have the power of determining that he has abandoned it, and such determination shall exonerate the Commissioners from every obligation imposed on them by this contract, and they may immediately thereafter, proceed to dispose of the said section in the same manner as if this contract had never existed : And it is fiirther agreed, that whenever this contract, in the opinion of the said inspector, is completely performed in every respect, on the part of the said the said inspector shall certify the same in writing, under his hand, together with his estimate of the number of cubic yards of excavation ; and the said commissioners sLall, with-
said the sum which according to this contract
and the said estimate shall be due to him; provided however, and it is hereby expressly covenanted and agreed on the part of the said that this contract
of the one part, and the canal commissioners of the state of New-York, of the other part, whereby it is covenanted and agreed as follows, to wit ; The said covenants and agrees to embank and con-
struct, in a good, substantial and wdrkmanlike manner, all that part of the Erie canal which is included in section of the line of said canal, and reference
map thereof by engineer. The canal and
banks are to be so constructed, that the water may in all places be at least forty feet wide at the surface or top water line, twenty-eight feet at the bottom, and four feet deep ; each of the banks shall be at least two feet perpendicular measurement above the top water line, and_ such a slope shall be preserved on the inner side of the banks, both above and below the top water line, as that every foot perpendicular rise shall give a horizontal base of at least eighteen inches ; the towingpath bank shall be on the side of the canal; its surface shall be at least ten feet wide; and the surface of the bank opposite to the towing-path shall be at least five feet wide; both banks shall be constructed of pure, solid, compact and water tight earth, and they shall be "made smooth and even, with a slope on their outermost sides, not less than is above mentioned ; And it is further agreed, for the sake
of giving the banks the necessary solidity and a secure connection with the earth on which they are to be erected, that all the trees, bushes and stumps, on the space to be occupied by the canal and banks, shall be cut close to the ground, and together with all the logs, brush and wood of all descriptions, shall be wholly removed, at least forty-five feet from the centre of the canal, and that from a strip fifteen feet in width under each bank throughout the said section, and to be so situated as that its inner edge on each side shall be perpendicularly under the edge of the top water line, all the trees, bushes, stumps and roots shall be thoroughly grubbed, and together with all the logs, brush, wood, weeds, grass, herbage, and vegetable and porous earth, shall be removed entirely without the banks : And the said commissioners agree to pay to the said for completing this contract as follows,
to wit : For grubbing and clearing the sum of for all the necessary excavation under the banks cents per cubic yard, and for embankment cents
per cubic yard, measured in the banks for all earth necessarily placed therein : And the said works during their progress shall be carefully examined and inspected ; and to prevent all disputes and misunderstandings, it is agreed, that or some other competent en-
gineer to be selected by the said Commissioners, or one of them, shall be the inspector of the said works, and shall estimate the number of cubic yards of excavation, and also of embankment, and his estimate shall be final and conclusive between said parties : And the said further agrees, that during the progress of
the work, he will from time to time conform to such deviations from the present line of the Canal, and to such alterations in the form, slope and dimensions of the banks^ towing-path, or any other of the works, as the said Commissioners, or either of them, or their engineer, shall direct : And it is further agreed-, that if in the opinion of any engineer in the employ of said Commissioners, the said shall refuse or unreasonably neglect to prosecute this contract, such engineer
shall have the power of determining that he has abandoned it, and such determination shall exonerate said Commissioners from every obligation imposed on them by said contract, and they may immediately thereafter proceed to dispose of the said section in the same manner as if this contract had never existed . And it is further agreed, that whenever this contract, in the opinion of the said inspector, is completely performed in every respect, on the part of the said the said in-
spector shall certify the same in writing, under his hand, together with his estimate of the number of cubic yards of excavation, and also of embankment : And the said commissioners shall within ten days after notice of such certificate, pay to the said the sum which ac-
cording to this contract and the said estimate shall be due to him : Provided however, and it is hereby expressly covenanted and agreed on the part of the said that this contract shall be fully performed and completed on his part by the day of
Articles of agreement, made the sixteenth day of September, in the year one thousand eight hundred and seventeen, between of the one part, and
the canal Commissioners of the State of New- York, of the other part, whereby it is covenanted and agreed as follows, to wit : The said agrees to furnish,
deliver and cord in compact piles, stone of the best quality, for the construction of an aqueduct on the line of the Canal, over the Creek; The said
hereby covenants to deliver and cord in a close, compact and faithful manner, two hundred cords of stone : The stone shall be delivered and corded near the site of the said aqueduct, and convenient for its construction, in such pile or piles, and place or places, as
either of the said commissioners, or of the engineers in their employment, shall direct at any time before delivery. The stone shall be thick, large, solid, rectilinear, well shaped and well faced, and in all other respects completely adapted to the construction of a substantial and permanent aqueduct. One-twentieth part of the whole quantity shall be delivered and corded by themselves separate from the rest, under the directions aforesaid : And in addition to the above requisites, the said twentieth part shall wholly consist ofgood free-stone, or of that species of lime-stone which is fit and proper to be cut, chiseled and shaped into the arches, curves and angles of an aqueduct : And it is agreed that Benjamin Wright, Esquire, or some other engineer in the employment of the said commissioners, and to be selected by them, or one of them, shall inspect and measure the said stone, and shall be the sole judge in relation to the performance of this contract on the part of the said and whenever the said
engineer shall certify in writing, that this contract is coQipletely performed on the part of the said the said commissioners shall within ten days after notice thereof, pay to the said four dollars and
fifty cents per cord, for the said two hundred and fifty cords : Provided however, that they shall all have been delivered and corded as aforesaid, within the time above specified.
of the one part, and the Canal Commissioners of the State of New-York, of the other part, whereby it is covenanted and agreed as follows, to wit : The said covenants and agrees to furnish all the materials,
workmanlike manner, on or before the day of
a bridge over the line of the Erie Canal, on a public road or highway crossing the same in section No. reference being herein had to the location
The said shall make suitable provision for the
reasonable accommodation of all that travel at the place where said bridge is to be built, while it is building ; and said bridge shall be built as follows, to wit : It shall have two abutments and four wing-walls, all of which shall have their foundation laid as low as the bottom of the canal ; the abutments shall be twentytwo feet apart at the bottom, and twenty-four at the top, and they shall be eleven and a half i'eet high; at the bottom they shall be three and a half, and at the top two and a half feet thick ; their faces lengthwise of the canal shall be twenty feet long at the bottom, and they shall have such a batter at their ends, that the length of said faces, at the top, shall be but eighteen feet ; each of the wing-walls shall be as high as where it connects with the abutment as the abutment itself, and shall slope, as it departs from the abutment, no more than shall well consist with supporting the road and strengthening the abutment ; it shall have the same batter as the ends of the abutments aforesaid; its face shall recede from the canal, so as to form an angle, with the line of the face of the abutment continued, of about forty -five degrees, and it shall have its foundation of such thickness as to afford throughout its whole length with the batter aforesaid, the thickness of two and a half feet at the top, where it shall be finished with a coping of large flat stone. Those sides of the abutments and wing-walls, next to which the earth is to be placed, in landing up the bridge, shall be laid up perpendicularly and in the most substantial manner ; There shall also be made, between the abutments, to support the towing-path under the bridge, a wall which shall have the same extent lengthwise of the canal as the abutments — shall have its face projected into the
canal six feet from the face of the abutment on the towing-path side, and shall be connected and bound in, from its two ends with the last mentioned abutment, by walls laid crosswise of the towing-path ; and these walls, to wit, the wall for the support of the towingpath and those which connect it with the abutment, shall be two and a half feet thick at the bottom and two at the top, and four and a half feet high ; they shall be laid up perpendicularly on the inside and battering on the water side, and their foundation shall be as low as the bottom of the canal ; and the towing-path under the bridge shall be completed by filling up the space between the last mentioned walls and the abutment with gravel, and such shape shall be given to the towing-path on each side of the bridge, as to afford a safe and easy passage under the same. The abutment of said bridge on the towing-path side, shall not have its face laid nearer the centre of the canal, than the edge of the top water line, and all the stone work above required, shall be constructed of large, well-shaped, durable and solid stone, and shall be laid up without mortar. After the abutments are completed, the^re shall be laid across the canal, from one of them to the other, to support the flooring of the bridge, five string-pieces, sixteen inches wide, and twelve inches thick, of strong and durable wood, and to be of such length as to lap two feet on to each abutment, which string-pieces shall be placed at equal distances apart, and shall be so fitted to the stone work on which they are placed, as to rest firm and steady on their narrowest sides, so as to support, in the most effectual manner, a flooring of eighteen feet in width; after which, they shall be covered for their whole length with a flooring of the width aforesaid, and to consist of good hard wood plank, not less than three inches thick. The sides of the bridge shall each be guarded by a plain substantial railing, three feet high, to extend from one end of the flooring to the other, and to be securely fastened to the stringpieces, and properly supported by studs and braces; and as a farther guard, a piece of timber of the same
size as the railing on the bridge, shall be extended from each end of the said railing on both sides down the wing-walls so far as may be reasonable, of which timber, one end shall be strongly connected with the end of the railing, and the other end shall be securely bolted with iron to a large flat stone, to be placed in each wing-wall at a proper distance from the abutment for that purpose. Between the wing^walls and behind the abutments, the said bridge shall be landed up with good solid earth, in such a way as to afford a safe and easy ascent to the bridge from each side, and so that the angle of ascent to said bridge shall in no place exceed, on the face of the road, one inch perpendicular rise to one foot horizontal base: And the said covenants and agrees, that after said bridge is completed in the manner aforesaid, and inspected and accepted, he wall warrant it to stand firm and secure for five years from the time of such acceptance. In consideration of the full performance of this contract on the part of the said said commissioners agree to
that or some other competent engineer, in the
employ of said commissioners, and to be designated by them, or any one of them, for that purpose, shall be the inspector of said bridge; shall determine when it is completed^ and every other question relating to the execution of this contract on the part of the said without appeal : And whenever such bridge is completed as aforesaid, the said inspector shall examine and accept it, and in writing certify that it is accepted; whereupon, within ten days after notice of such certificate, the said commissioners shall pay to the said the consideration aforesaid.
part, and the canal commissioners of the state of NewYork of the other part, whereby it is covenanted and agreed as follows, to wit : the said covenants and
agrees to furnish and deliver before the day of
such and so many iron castings as may be required for the construction of culverts on the line of the Erie canal, between and comprehend-
rate of dollars per ton. The said castings are
all to be delivered at the places where they are to be used ; they are to be of good iron, smooth and even, with all their edges and ends so shaped as that they may fit close together when they are laid in the culverts which they are designed to form : they are to consist of pieces in the form of half cylinders, three eigths of an inch in thickness or more, if required by said commissioners, and not less than three feet in length, except the pieces necessary to complete the ends of the culverts, which shall be half as long as the other pieces, Where culverts are required to be of one foot in diameter the pieces of castings to be delivered at such places shall be of such a description, as that when they are put together in the form of a cylinder, it shall have that diameter, and where larger culverts are required, the pieces to be delivered at such places, shall be adapted to form cylinders of the diameter required provided such diameter does not exceed three feet. In forming the culverts with the pieces of castings, it is intended to lay the concave side of half the pieces up, in such a manner as that when the cylinder is completed by laying the convex side of the other half of the pieces up, each piece in the upper half shall cover the one half of two pieces in the lower half, thus breaking joints, except at the ends, which are to be completed by two half pieces, and all the pieces are to be so cast as to be well adapted to this arrangement ; each piece is to have on its outside, and at or near its edges, cast flanges, projecting so far out, and of such location, thickness, and length on the side of the piece, as may be necessary, and these flanges are to have holes cast or drilled
through them, and are to be placed at such distances on eaclj piece as that when all the pieces of a culvert are laid in their proper bed with their ends close together, all the flanges of 4he upper pieces shall be perpendicularly over the corresponding flanges of the lower pieces, so that the said upper and lower flanges may be strongly fastened together with screws and nuts and, all the pieces in any one culvert, by these means, may be permanently secured in their proper places. The places where said castings are required to be delivered, the number and size of the pieces required at each place, the location, thickness, projection and length of the flanges, shall all be determined by
or some other competent engineer, to be designated for that purpose by said commissioners or one of them, and said engineer shall on or before the day of give notice in writing to the said
particulars, and the said or other engineer to be
designated as aforesaid, shall be the inspector of the said castings ; shall determine their weight, and all questions respecting the fulfilment of this contract on the part of the said without appeal ; and when-
iy perform and complete said contract within the time and in the manner therein specefied, or that we will, at the expiration of said time, repay said sum to said treasurer with interest ; and we hereby further covenant and agree, that said sum shall be laid out in work on said contract, within two months from this day the value of which work shall be determined^ by the opinion of any engineer in the employ of said commissioners, or that we will on demand, after the expiration of said two months, repay said sum to said treasurer with interest. Dated day of
Grubbing and clearing, preparatory to excavation. — All the trees, logs, stumps, bushes, roots and timber of every kind shall be dug, grubbed, cleared, eradicated^ and wholly removed from a space of sixty feet, viz. thirty feet on each side of the middle of the canal : and for the space of fifteen feet in width on each side of the part so grubbed, the trees, bushes, and timber shall be cut as close to the ground as may be, no stumps being left more than one foot in height ; and all the logs, trees, stumps, bushes, roots and wood of all descriptions so grubbed and cut as aforesaid shall be removed fortyfive feet from the centre of the canal, or burned, or otherwise destroyed or disposed of.
All the large trees not embraced in the grubbing and clearing aforesaid, which stand within four rods of the centre of the canal, and which, by falling, after the completion of the canal, might break the banks or obstruct the navigation, shall be cut down.
Excavation. — All the top soil, vegetable mould and every other substance of a porous or perishable nature, shall be first removed from the surface of the ground to be excavated into the outer extremities of the banks; and were ever the earth to be excavated, at or below
the top water line, is composed of materials which are porous, perishable, or permeable to water,such materials shall be wholly removed as aforesaid, not only from the surface of the ground to be excavated, but also from the base of the bank or banks where such materials are to be found, for the space of ten feet horizontally measured from the top water line; and the bank or banks, in such cases, for the said space often feet horizontally measured from the top water line, and also above and below the same, shall be wholly made and constructed of the most pure, solid, compact, and water-tight earth which can be procured from the adjoining excavation.
Dimensions and slope of the Canal. — The canal shall be constructed in such manner that the water may in all places be at least twenty-eight feet wide at the bottom, forty feet wide at the surface or top water line, and four feet deep, reference being had to the levels, surveys and maps of James Geddes, Esq. engineer.
Towing-Path Bank. — The bank to be occupied for a towing-path, shall, in all places, be at least ten feet wide at its surface: it shall be smooth and even, without any sudden inequalities in its height, nor shall it in any place be less than two, nor more than five feet perpendicular measurement above the top water line; its surface shall be composed of the best materials for a towing-path, which the adjoining excavation can supply. ■
Opposite Bank. — The bank opposite the towing-path shall be at least four feet wide on its surface, and at least two ieei perpendicular measurement above the top water line.
Slope of the Banks — The outer and inner sides of both the banks, as well above as below the top water line, shall have such a slope as that every foot perpendicular rise shall give a horizontal base of at least eighteen inches, and the above rule shall apply to all cases of embankment.
Deep-cutting. — Wherever the top water line will be more than five feet below the nutural surface of the earth, the towing-path shall be twelve feet wide, and on the opposite side of the canal a horizontal berm or re-
cess shall be made of four feet in width, which shall not be less than two nor more than five feet perpendicular measurement above the top water line ; and the slope of both the banks, as well above as below the towingpath and berm, shall be at least one and a half feet base to every foot rise.
Embankment. — The ground which is to be occupied as the base of an embankment shall be effectually grubbed and cleared, and all the trees, logs, stumps, roots and timber, and every other substance of a vegetable or perishable nature, shall be removed therefrom. — The embankment shall be wholly composed of pure, solid compact and water tight earth, and shall have the form, slope, height and dimensions heretofore specified. No sticks, logs, roots or timber of any kind shall be left, laid or admitted into or under any bank or embankment.
Spoil banks, rubbish 8^c. — The spoil-banks or surplus earth shall be laid with as much evenness and regularity and as little injury to the adjoining land as may be; and all the trees, logs, stumps, roots, bushes and rubbish shall be disposed of with the like precaution; nor shall any unnecessary injury of any kind be done to the owners or occupants of the land through which the canal passes. No contractor shall place any logs, timber, earth or rubbish in such situation as to obstruct the works on any adjoining contract or part of the canal. No highway or road which crosses the line of the canal shall be obstructed by excavation or otherwise until the materials for a bridge shall have been collected, nor until the contractor shall have received notice from one of the canal commissioners, or one of the engineers in the employment of the said commissioners, to complete the construction of the canal across such highway or road.
Miscellaneom Regulations.— The contractor or contractors shall from time to time conform to such deviations from the canal line, and to such alterations in the form, height, slope or dimensions of the canal, towing-path, or banks, or any other of the works, as either
ment, shall direct.
The contractor shall be paid for constructing the canal and towing-path at a stipulated price per cubic yard for excavation, at a stipulated price per cubic yard for embankment, and at a stipulated price for grubbing and clearing.
All the earth necessarily excavated between the banks or under them shall be estimated by the engineer as so much excavation ; and after an embankment shall have been completed, its contents in cubic yards shall be calculated and the contractor shall be paid therefor as for so much embankment ; and in all cases where the earth necessarily excavated is not to be removed more than one hundred feet to form the adjoining bank or banks, no estimate for embankment shall be made.
James Geddes, Esquire, or some other competent Engineer in the employment of the Commissioners, shall from time to time inspect the works as they advance ; shall be the judge and umpire in relation to the performance of every contract, and shall estimate the number of cubic yards of excavation and of embankment, and his estimate and opinion shall be final and conclusive between the parties ; and whenever he shall certify in writing that the contractor has, in all respects, faithfully performed his contract, the canal commissioners shall, within ten days after notice thereof, pay to the contractor the sum to which, according to the contract and the said estimate, he is entitled. And if any contractor shall, in the opinion of the Engineer, unreasonably neglect to prosecute his contract the Engineer shall have the power of determining that the contractor has abandoned his contract, and such deter* mination shall exonerate the commissioners from every obligation imposed upon them by the said contract, and they may immediately thereafter let the same contract to any other contractor.
LEGISLATURE, JAN. 25, I8l9.
To the Legislature of the State of JVew-York : In obedience to the act, entitled, " ^7i act respecting navigable communications between the Great Western and JYorthern Lakes and the Atlantic Ocean,'''' passed April 1 5th, J 817, the Canal Commissioners most respectfully Report —
That, after a winter of unusual severity, followed by excessive rains in the spring, they had the satisfaction to find, when they commenced their operations for the last season, that those parts of the canal line which had been finished, or nearly so, by the labours of the preceding year, had suffered very little; so that their apprehensions of injury to the banks of the canal, from the breaking up of winter, under the most unfavourable circumstances, are considerably diminished.
Between the Mohawk and Seneca rivers, a great portion of the canal line passes through swamps and marshes, or along their southern margin. And this location, though it will eventually prove of great importance, in reclaiming large tracts of the richest bottom lands, by intercepting the waters which have heretofore inundated them, was yet attended with the serious disadvantage, last spring, of enabling the weather to prevent the contractors from prosecuting their work, with any success, to a late period. Actuated by a laudable determination to omit no means in their power, of a punctual compliance with their engagements, several of the contractors had continued to labour on their jobs all winter: and by their experience it is sufficiently ascertained, that in deep cuttings, in embankments, and were the ground is constantly watered
hy warm springs, or so covered by vegetable matter as to protect it, in a great measure, from freezing, such labours may be carried on profitably during the coldest months in the year. From motives .of economy, and because most of the roads by vt^hich the route of the canal is intersected, between Utica and Salina, are nearly impassible in the summer season, many of the contractors had purchased, in advance, large stores of subsistence for their men and cattle, and transported them to the proper places on the canal line, by sleighing. But this wise and prudent measure was rendered almost unavailing, as to any advance of the work, by uncontrolable events. The surface of the earth was beaten and drenched, by heavy and frequent rains, from the melting of the snow, till near the first of June. During a great part of this time, the stores of the contractors were decreasing, and their expenses were accumulating, while their work was at a stand. The effects of this state of things were equally detrimental and disheartening. But, with the commencement of the summer, the weather became favourable, and since that period, the canal business, in all its branches, has advanced, with economy and rapidity.
The same causes which obstructed the efforts of the contractors, retarded those of the engineers. In the course of the fall of 1817, the country west of the termination of the Rome level, had been examined, in several directions, to a considerable extent, in order to discover if practicable, some means of obviating the great expense of the Salina embankments, and the serious hazards, as well as much greater expense, of the deep cutting, through the marl meadow, in the town of Camillus, From these examinations, there resulted a deep impression of the difficulties presented at these places, especially at the latter. When the canal line was run through the marl meadow, in 1816, the season had been uncommonly dry; and,^ though a deep cutting three miles in length, through light, soft and porous materials, gradually swelling to fifteen feet in the centre, a!?pve the bottom of the canaL
could never be regarded without solicitude, the appearance of this, upon every subsequent inspection, has been more formidable and repulsive. When the past season, however, had so far advanced as to admit of a renewal of these examinations, they were more extensively pursued : and at length, the acting commissioner, upon whom was cast the responsibility of settling the line in that part of the route, in full accordance with the conviction of the engineer of the middle section, and his assistants, determined that two alterations from the line of 1816 were expedient. These alterations were not adopted, without a careful ascertainment and collation of facts and circumstances, which, upon much deliberation, were deemed decisive by them.
The first of the alterations consist in sinking the canal line, across the Salina plains, six feet lower than had been at first proposed. This alteration requires the construction of an additional lock of six feet lift, on each side of these plains ; but, by affording sufficient excavation, in the canal, for the formation of the adjacent banks, it altogether supersedes the necessity of embankment, for about a mile and a half; and where embankment is still requisite, its height is materially diminished. The same diminution is also obtained in the height of an arched bridge, and the largest stone aqueduct to be erected between Utica and the Seneca river. This alteration was recommended, chiefly, by the following reasons.
1st. It produced a saving in expense, estimated at seventeen thousand dollars. This estimate does not include damages to the lands, through which the canal line is laid, which would probably have been claimed, to a large amount, for the half mile adjoining Onondaga creek on the east, in case the original plan had been pursued. The land, along the half mile referred to, had been laid out into village lots, upon which the owners set a high value ; and one tier of these lots, on each side of the canal, must have been dug over and de-
embankment.
2d. It renders the canal more secure. Embankments are, in general, more liable to accidents than other parts of a canal ; and whenever breaches are effected in them, the usual consequences are more injurious.
3d. It will facilitate the construction of a side cut to connect the main canal with the salt works, at the village of Salina, by approaching nearer to a level with those works, in that part of the line to which they are most contiguous.
4th. It will promote the convenience of all those people, who, from the fertile country on both sides of the canal, shall hereafter have occasion to communicate therewith, on the Salina plains. These plains, for the most part, consist of a dry, coarse gravel, mixed, to the depth of three or four feet, with sand and loam, and constitute, from the nature of their soil, as well as from their local situation, an excellent site for business- There is little doubt but they will soon become the scene of extensive dealings.
The second alteration consists, in the establishment of a new summit level, extending from the Nine-Mile creek to the Skeneateles outlet, a distance of between eleven ajid twelve miles, and involving the construction of two ad^itonal locks,of eleven feet lift each, but relieving the line from all the difficulties of the marl meadow. There are three unfailing and pure streams naturally flowing across this level, either of which, at this period of considerable drought, affords water enough for its supply : but if, collectively, they should hereafter prove deficient, the two copious creeks, which bound the level, may be easily conducted into it. Having satisfactory assurance of this essential fact, this alteration was adpoted,
1st. Because it produces a saving in expense, estimated at seventy-five thousand dollars, without taking into the account the charge of lining both banks, for the purpose of sustaining them, with solid earth, brought form a great distance, an operation which the charac-
ter of the marl meadow would undoubtedly have rendered necessary, to a large extent, if the primary designation of the canal line had been adhered to.
2d. Because at the Nine-Mile creek, it admits of the substitution of stone arches in the 'aqueduct, instead of a wooden trunk; and, at the Skeneateles, of an entire stone aqueduct, in place of a dam with guard locks. At both of these places, excellent stone are contracted for, at reasonable prices.
3d. Because it carries the canal line farther south, and nearer to the populous and productive settlements of the western part of Onondaga county.
4th. Because it was much feared, that the completion of the canal, upon the old plan, could not be effected, so as to render it navigable, as soon as it might be, upon the new, by at least one year. This would have been discouraging to the public spirit, by which this great enterprise is supported, and a serious delay of the profitable returns, which may be expected, whenever the communication between the Mohawk and Seneca rivers, is all the way opened. And the reasonableness of such a fear is manifested by the following considerations : The Marl-meadow is a swamp without any outlet, except at its eastern and western extremities : and as it contains great quantities of water, proceeding from Hand's brook, and numerous springs, which run into it, the only possible mode of excavating the canal through it, would be, to begin by opening a wide drain at each end, below the bottom of the .canal, and prosecuting the work from these points towards the centre, taking especial care, as advances should be made, to keep these drains free from all obstructions. The common mode of executing a heavy job of this kind, by stationing numerous parties of labourers upon it, at short distances from each other, could not be adopted here : for besides the difficulty of transporting every barrow of earth a great way, upon a soft and wet surface, all such parties, except one at each end, would soon find themselves at work in a pond, in which the depth of water would increase
in the same ratio with that of the excavation. No cattle or horses could be employed ; and as the parties, at both ends, could not advantageously include more than seventy or eighty hands, it is evident, that so great a labour, even without the occurrence of any untoward events, would require the application of all practical exertions, during several years, for its accomplishment. But, it must be acknowledged, that the depth of the cutting, the weight of the spoil banks, the quantity of water with which the swamp is filled, and the nature of the earth, which is ascertained, by frequent borings, to be chiefly vegetable matter, marl, and sand, are circumstances connected with the old plan calculated to render untoward events, affecting both the cost and time within which the canal could be constructed, and its security, afterwards, extremely probable.
5th. Because there is no part of the Middle Section, of the same length, where the whole expense of opening the navigation will be less than that of the new summit, between the locks.
From the Skeneateles outlet to the Seneca river, the survey and location of the canal-line was easy; and this last portion of it was finally completed by the middle of July. The whole was judiciously divided into short sections, and perspicuously exhibited in maps, profiles and descriptions, which are herewith presented.
The avidity with which great numbers of wealthy and respectable citizens sought contracts, was highly gratifying, and afforded a sure pledge of the energy which has since been displayed in their execution. Many applications, for every section, were always made immediately after, and oft^n before, the returns of the engineer had been received, so as to render it proper to let them out. A very few of the contractors are foreigners, who have recently arrived in this country ; but far the greater part of them are native farmers, mechanics, merchants and professional men, residing in the vicinity of the line ; and three-fourths of all the laborers were born among us.
to the west end of the Middle Section, the whole was taken up, except a few short places necessarily left, where structures of wood and stone were to be erected. But as it requires two or three weeks after a section is agreed for, to construct tools, collect provisions, hire hands, purchase teams, and provide the necessary shelter, it was not till about the tenth of August that the whole line became a scene of the most animated and laborious exertions. From that time to the tenth of December, between two and three thousand men, with half as many horses and cattle, and a considerable variety of mechanical inventions, have been unremittingly employed upon it : And the diligence, ingenuity, and good judgment, with which these means have been applied would hardly be credited, if they did not rest upon a testimony impossible to be doubted, that of the effects produced.
Machinery has hitherto been used, with most success, in the heavy business of grubbing and clearing. By means of an endless screw, connected with a roller, a cable, a Avheel and a crank, one man is able to bringdown a tree of the largest size, without any cuttingabout its roots. For this purpose these means are all, except the cable, combined in a small but very ^irong fram^ of wood and iron. — This frame is immovealbly fastened on the ground, at a distance of perhaps one hundred feet from the foot of the tree, around the trunk of which fifty or sixty feet up, one end of the cable is secured, the other being connected with the roller. When this is done, the man turns the crank, which successively moves the screw, the wheel and the roller, on which, as the cable winds up, the tree must gradually yield, until, at length, it is precipitated by the weight of its top. The force which may be exerted in this way, upon a tree, is irresistible, as with the principle of the wheel and the screw, by the application of the cable at a point so far from the ground, it unites also that of the lever.
the common methods, as that of sound, green stumps; and as our citizens, west of Utica, are every day multiplying these evidences of their industry, it was desi= rable to discover some easier means of eradicating them. Such means have been found ; but the cost of the machinery, in which they partly consist, would forbid the use of them in ordinary cases. Two strong wheels, sixteen feet in diameter, are made and connected together by a round axle-tree, twenty inches thick and thirty feet long ; between these wheels, and with its spokes inseparably framed into their axle-tree, another wheel is placed, fourteen feet in diameter, round the rim of which a rope is several times passed, with one end fastened through the rim, and with the other end loose, but in such a condition as to produce a revolution of the wheel whenever it is pulled. This apparatus is so moved as to have the stump, on which it is intended to operate, midway between the largest wheels, and nearly under the axle-tree ; and these wheels are so braced as to remain steady. A very strong chain is hooked, one end to the body of the stump, or its principal root, and the other to the axle-tree. The power of horses or oxen is then applied to the loose end of the rope above-mentioned, and as they draw, rotary motion is communicated, through the smallest wheel, to the axle-tree, on which, as the chain hooked to the stump winds up, the stump itself is gradually disengaged from the earth in which it grew. After this disengagement is complete, the braces are taken from the large wheels, which then afford the means of removing that stump out of the way, as well as of transporting the apparatus where it may be made to bear on another. The expense of the wheels, axle-tree, chain and rope, is about two hundred and fifty dollars ; and with them, in this way, seven hands and a pair of horses, can grub from thirty to forty large stumps in a day. A few stumps have been found to require the strength of four horses. The gain of power, by this machinery, is somewhat more than eight fold, with very little loss by friction.
Great obstruction to the excavation has been offered by the small roots and fibres which overspread the surface, and every where penetrate the top soil of timbered land. A plough has been invented for cutting up these, greatly superior to the one in common use. It is very narrow or thin, and consists of a piece of iron much heavier than a common plough,strongly connected, at its upper edge, with the beam, and in the rear, with the handle, both of which are of the usual construction. — The front edge of the iron, where the cutting is to be done, is covered with steel, well sharpened and sharped like the front of a coulter, except that it retreats more as it rises to the beam. The lower edge is made smooth, and gradually thickens as it extends back towards the handle, to about four inches. Two yoke of oxen will draw this utensil through any roots not exceeding two inches in diameter ; and by moving it, at short intervals, through the surface of any ground to be excavated, the small roots and fibres are so cut up as to be easily picked and harrowed out of the way of the shovel and scraper.
The experience of two seasons, embracing all those operations concerning which we had most anxiety, has abundantly confirmed our most favourable hopes, in relation to the construction of the canal. But we do not feel ourselves at liberty, in this report, either to conceal or to disguise the fact, that in several places unexpected obstacles have been presented. There have been frequent spots of hard-pan, through most of which, however, the excavation is already completed. At the Oriskany-hill, in the neighbourhood of Rome, and on sections 15, 16, 17, 23 and 64, we have been troubled with quicksand. In some of these places, by a slight alteration of the canal-line, we have, in a great measure, avoided the evil: and what we could not avoid, we have overcome : In the others, such progress is made as leaves us no fear of the result.
On sections 27, 37 and 40 considerable quantities of breccia, or gravel firmly cemented together, have occurred. This substance is the most stubborn and
chiefly removed.
But we have been subjected to the most accumulated expense by indurated clay, and stone, of various descriptions. The indurated clay is either red orblueish, and has shown itself, to the greatest extent, on sections 14, 20, 24, 2 ), 50, 51, 54 and 55, all of which are in great forwardness, and will surely be finished before next August. The stone is all, either gypsum, common limestone, or a kind of meagre limestone. Of the ia&t we expect to make a very important use ; as, by a number of small experiments, in which, after being thoroughly burnt and slaked, or ground, and mixed in equal portions with sand, it appears to form a cement that uniformly hardens under water. The gypsum is found on sections 27, 28 and 59; the common limestone on on sections 19, 23, 24, 27 and 33; and the meagre limestone on sections 27, 31 and 37. The greatest part of all this stone is now excavated ; and where it is not, it probably will be in two months, as a number of men are daily at work in it.
Besides the additional cost of the foregoing contingencies, we have, in several instances, by enlarging the plans upon which our original estimates were formed, or by procuring more durable and better materials for their construction, contributed to swell the expense of our operations ; yet we are firmly persuaded, that the savings we have made, and the economy we have pursued, will enable us to complete the middle section at an amount not exceeding the sum total of those estimates. The better to justify this persuasion, in the minds of your honourable body, we beg leave to refer to the detailed statements, hereto annexed, exhibiting the names of the contractors, the nature of their contracts, the progress made in executing them, and the amount of payments upon them, together with a variety of other particulars tsiiding to explain the true condition of the work confided to our management.
thus going on, the following system has been adopted, to instruct, to inspect, to advise, and to aid, the contractors. The whole line has been subdivided into five parts, to each of which has been assigned, an intelligent, active and vigilant overseer, or assistant engineer, who had previously learnt ; the use of the levelling, instrument; an accurate method of designating the dimensions of the canal, upon every variety of surface; the general principles necessary to ensure the best construction; and the nature of the stipulations contained in the several contracts. — These assistants have been constantly passing backwards and forwards, within the limits assigned them ; to stake out the width of the grubbing and clearing, of the excavation or embankment, and of the mucking from under the banks , to fix pegs in the earth, showing the depth and width of the bottom of the canal, and the height and slope of its banks; to watch that no work should be done unfaithfully; and to take account of, and measure, all unforeseen obstructions.
The original selection of these assistants was in most cases fortunate; and where it was otherwise, the delinquent was soon detected and removed. — Two of these assistants, Canvass White and Nathan S. Roberts, having had more extensive experience to qualify them for it, besides the services above indicated, have been employed in others of a highly responsible character.
Mr. White has run a test level throughout the long summit, which became necessary in order to correct some errors into which the work was falling, between Rome and Utica. He aided essentially in perfoniiiiig the surveys, on the authority of which, the alteration was made in the town of Canillus: he has scientifically examined two routes, upon different levels, for the distance of several miles down the Mohawk river, for the purpose of enabling the commissioners to determine, more judiciously, the location of the canal line through the village of Utica ; and he has recently, in the months of November and December, explored with the level and compass, more than thirty miles of the country, in
the marshes, swamps, and woods, adjoining the Seneca river, on the west. This last service was undertaken with alacrity, and executed with skill and perseverence, at the request of the acting commissioners, who, though the weather had become quite severe, were very anxious, while the waters were low, to obtain all the information required, in order to the proper connexion of the line with the Seneca river, on the east, which could not be ascertained without first knowing the proper continuation of it, from that point westerly, whenever that shall be authorized. Of these services, accurate and full returns have been made, in descriptions, maps and profiles. And the commissioners were most agreeably disappointed, on inspecting tliem, as well as on personal examination upon the spot, by two of their number in company with the principal engineer, to find, that the Cayuga marshes, and the swamps beyond, will admit the canal to be constructed through them at less than the average rate of expense.
Mr. Roberts had been employed, as surveyor, throughout the middle section, in the year 1816; and understanding the difficulties and facilities of the line then run, he has, the last year, conducted the operation of levelling and designating the canal line, as it is actually established, most of the way from Salina to the Seneca river. And with the aid of the principal engineer, who often visited, communicated with, and advised him, especially at all the important points, the line is laid out in the manner and direction most approved.
The department of principal engineer, for the middle section, is still filled by Benjamin Wright, Esquire, to whom all the assistants are subordinate and accountable ; and who, besides inspecting the whole line as often as possible, has devoted his time, to a minute examination of all the most difficult places ; to contriving modes and giving directions best adapted for subduing these difficulties; to forming plans, and executing drafts, of all the more artificial works; to computing.
from time to time, as jobs have been successively completed, the number of cubic yards of excavation and embankment performed upon them, and to estimating, determining and certifying the value of extra labour, of every species, necessarily done upon any of the sections. These duties have expanded into an immense multiplicity of detail : They have been delicate, arduous and fatiguing : but they have been discharged by Mr. Wright with such practical knowledge, industry, equity and discretion, as to deserve the praise of the state, while they have produced no complaint from the contractors.
Several other agents have been appointed, for the transaction of business, which could not safely or conveniently have been done without them.
One has had the care of making and using machines for piling, and of digging out and preparing the foundations of the stone culverts and aqueducts. This last being a business so liable to contingencies, and so necessary to be conducted with a faithful adaptation to circumstances, which could not be known until it was in progress, that it was thought unsafe to have it done by contract.
Another has been employed in making a large number of agreements, for piles, for timber, for plank, for &and, for lime, and for fencing the canal; and in obtaining cessions to the state of the lands through which it passes.
Another was charged to explore the country within a reasonable distance of the canal, for stone, previously to any undertaking, for the delivery of that article, in order that we might surely understand where the best quarries were situated, and also be able to purchase the stone without being subject to exorbitant demands. This agency was afterwards continued for the purpose of inspecting and rough hewing the stone as they were quarried.
Another, who had formerly been familiar with canals in England, and who assisted in the construction of that at Rome, was entrusted with placing and securing
process of pudling around severalof the stone works.
Having seen the locks at Waterloo, and the other improvements, adapted to facilitate the navigation of the Seneca river around its falls ; and requiring more aid than we had provided for the superintendence of works, of a nature allied to those, we engaged the services of Marshall Lewis, Esq. under whose direction those improvements had been made. He has been occupied chiefly with the foundations, at the Limestone the Butternut, and the Oneida creeks, which are com^ pleted ; and with those of the Skeneateles, and OwasCO outlets, which are now advancing. The mechanical skill of Mr. Lewis, arising from much native ingenuity, and long experience, applied particularly, to canals and hydraulic structures, has afforded us many advantages.
The general direction and regulation, of all these departments of action, constitutes no light charge; but it does not limit the responsibilities of the commissioners along the line. It has, moreover, been their duty, to negociate all the important agreements, and reduce them to writing, with the necessary specification of the manner of their execution, in all their variety of particulars. In concluding these agreements they have regarded it as essential to give such prices as would induce men of enterprise, resource and perseverance, to engage with them, and, at the same time, enable them to win, for the canal, more universally, the favour of the legislature, by the frugality of their expenditures. To effect this they have laboured earnestfv, to understand the true nature, and the real value, of every item, both of ma»terial, andof service, entering into the subject matter of their agreements; and to impart, to all applicants for contracts, every information in their power. When contracts were made, in order to insure the greatest economy of execution, advances of money have always been offered, upon reasonable security ; and though no stipulation, re-
quiring it of them, is contained in any contract, the Commissioners have never failed to pay each contractor, as olten as once a month, the amount of his earnings. For this purpose, they have personally gone over the whole line, and estimated the advances of the work, on the several jobs : and while they have thus, by frequent payments, encouraged the contractors, and, by undeviating punctuality, exerted a favorable influence, upon all new negotiations, they indulge the belief, that no cases have occurred, in which losses will be sustained, in consequence of imprudent disbursements.
Among the great number of contractors for the middle section, there are a few persons, who have altogether failed ; and also a few, who have found, although they are still at work, that they have undertaken more than they can perform. Most of these persons were exceedingly injured, by the extraordinary wetness of the last spring and the fall before, and some of them were disabled, by the pressure of pre-existing embarrassments. The unfinished and most difficult parts, of their sections, are now all placed in the very best hands, having been taken up by such of the original contractors as had finished, or made greatest advances, on their own jobs.
In making canals in Europe, it is generally an object of great solicitude, and much of the expense is incurred, to construct reservoirs, and controul waters, enough for their supply; in making ours, we are much more anxious, to divert and waste those, which are superfluous. With a country of, from fifteen to sixty miles wide, stretching its whole length, and abounding with lakes and streams, which all seek their natural discharge by crossing it, no deficiency of water can ever be apprehended. But, to secure our workmen from injury, by floods and freshets, that will often suddenly collect from the extensive land-drain, and the abundant waters, above alluded to, we have been compelled to make numerous culverts and waste wiers. The office of a culvert is, to pass waters, not wanted
for navigation, nuder the canal ; that of a waste-wiei , to discharge the extra waters, which may be in it. We have provided for eight large culverts, of stone, and fifteen smaller ones, of iron : and there are thirteen aqueducts, which necessarily leave capacious water courses beneath them. Of waste wiers, there are seventeen, stretching, on the north side of the line, in the aggregate, a length of eighteen hundred and sixty feet. The expense, of these last, was not included, in our original estimates ; for there are besides, eight wooden aqeducts and a dam, occupying together, a length of thirteen hundred and fifty feet, which perform the same office. An aqueduct is designed to carry the waters, to be navigated in a canal, over the rivers creeks or ravines, which cross its route ; it must, therefore, be adapted to the proper level, and to the width and depth, of the canal. Of these, the whole number, between the Mohawk and Seneca,will be thirteen, of which five, are to consist exclusively of stone, and eight, of wooden trunks resting on stone abutments and piers. The iron culverts are actually laid, and the other works are all under contracts, of which some are executed, and the rest in a rapid course of completion. The tedious and expensive, but essential operation, of preparing and securing, for all of them, a strong and permanent foundation, is three fourths done, For a minute account of their location and dimensions, we refer to schedule number two in the appendix.
On the south side of the canal, the ground always rises, in most places gently, but in some, abruptly. And, in these elevations, within from one to eight miles of the line, are contained inexhaustible quantities of lime and sand-stone. The wants of the country have not yet required, that many quarries should be extensively opened. But, we found some of an excellent quality: that had been. To such we have had reasonable resort, and we have been very fortunate, in opening several new ones. The prices we have given, for the purchasing, quarrying, and delivering, of large, thick, solid, durable, and well faced stone, has varied from seventy-
five cents to one dollar and thirty-seven cents, per ton, according to circumstances. We have, in all cases, chosen to agree for stone, by weight rather than by the cord, or perch, because it lessens the temptation of contractors, to spoil them for our use, by breaking them up into small pieces, which would make them easier to handle, and increase their measurement. And the expense, of erecting scales and weighing them, is not greater than that of piling them up, into compact heaps, for measuring.
There will be nine locks, upon the middle section, including one, at the west end, to facilitate communication with the Seneca river, at high and low water. As the locks of a canal are contrived, for the purpose of effecting a passage from one elevation to another, they must always be subject, while they are shut, to the pressure of a considerable head of water, and while they are filling and discharging, to the force of a rapid current: and, as they must be made as small as the nature, of the transportation through them, will admit, they will be liable to violent impingements from heavy loaded boats. With us, they are also exposed to injury, by the intense frost of winter. It will be perceived, therefore, that, in the construction of them, great care and fidelity are indispensable. The site, which ours will occupy, is uniformly excellent, consisting of gravel mixed with loam or clay, in such proportions as to render it close, heavy, hard, and watertight.
We have let out, the laying and securing of the foundations, the framing and placing of the mitre-cills, and the construction and hanging of the gates, of eight of these locks, to a single individual of skill and responsibility, who has heretofore been engaged, in similar undertakings. The stone-cutting and masonry are more distributed For the performance of these, we have entered into five agreements, with men, whom we believe to be expert and trust-worthy, some of them, from our own knowledge, and the rest from satisfactory recommendations.
The foundations, of these eight locks, are to consist of a solid flooring, of hewed timber, one foot thick, and covered with well jointed three-inch-plank, over which within the chamber, will be laid another flooring, of two-inch-plank, accurately fitted together with waterjoints, and spiked down, so as to prevent leakage : and this foundation is to be strongly supported and guarded by piling. The lock-walls are, to be not less than six feet thick, and sustained, by several massy buttresses, to be laid, in water-cement, and thoroughly grouted — to have all the faces, ends, and beds, of each stone laid in the front of the wall, together with the hollow quoins, the lock-culverts and the ventilators, well cut — and the whole to be suflficiently cramped together with iron, and coped. The mitre-ciOs and gates are to be of the best construction, and properly fitted, secured, and hung. Having provided, by contract, for all the materials necessary, and the labour to be bestow^ed upon them, in the construction of these locks ; and, having counted the cost, we anticipate their entire completion, for a sum not exceeding a thousand dollars, per foot rise. In schedule number three, in the appendix, may be seen further particulars relating to contracts for stone, and for the locks.
That portion of the canal line, which we have been authorized to open, is intersected by fifty-two public roads, on which it became our duty to erect bridges. For all these we have made provision ; and twenty-on€ of them are erected. In several instances, where the canal has traversed a farm, in such a direction and extent as to forbid the owner to occupy it all, without a bridge we have paid a reasonable sum, for the construe tion and reparation of such bridge ; and, in consideration of such payment ; obtained from the owner a perpetual discharge, for the state, from all further obligation relating thereto. And, to prevent these occupation bridges from ever interfering with the navigation, a suitable plan, for their construction, was made, of which a full description wa^ always given to the builder.
It may not be improper to state, here, that the gentlemen appointed, by the supreme court, to appraise dam ages upon the middle section, have examined, decided upon, and certified, the most urgent cases of that kind ; and the whole amount of claims upon us, which they have yet authorized, is sixteen hundred and eighty-six dollars. A list of all the cases decided, with the amount of damages allowed in each, constitutes number four, of the appendix.
The middle section is ninety-four miles long. Every thing that was to be done, on this section, is now either completed, or under contract and to be completed, by the first of October next : except 1st. A few occupation-bridges ; 2d. A small culvert, to pass the waters of a mill-pond,
3d. A lock, to effect the proper connexion with Seneca river, and a short section of the line adjoining it. The materials, for the construction of the lock, may be delivered by water : And, it was so late in the season, before the precise location, of the lock and section could be ascertained, that no advantage would have been secured, by contracting for them this fall. We have reasonable propositions, from good men, to finish them both, in September next. 1th. About a mile of the line, on which the original undertaker has failed, for which we can make effectual provision, in the spring.
2d. Eight miles of excavation and embankment are
completed, inspected and accepted. 3d. Forty miles more have all the excavation and embankment performed; and the frost alone has prevented their being finished. When that is dissolved, and the earth is dry, fifty cents a rod, will entirely complete them.
unbroken.
The most costly embankments were to be made at Nail-creek, at Sedaqueda-creek, at Brown brook, at Brandy brook, at Oneida-creek, at Canastota-creek, at Olcott's brook, at Canasaraga-creek, at ChitteningoCreek, at Beaver-dam-creek, at the outlet of the Little lakes, at Limestone-creek, at Cadwell's swamp, at Butternut-creek, at Onondaga-creek, at Harbour-creek, at Geddesburgh, at the west end of section 37, at the Skeneateles out-let, at Bread-creek, at the Owasco outlet, at Great brook, and at Crane brook. Of these embankments, the nine most expensive are completed, and the residue, in the average, half completed.
Two thirds, of all the deep cutting, is accomplished.
The whole number, of expensive foundations required, was seventeen, of which ten are sunk and secured, and the rest, in considerable forwardness.
The timber, for the waste-weirs, is now felling, and hewing, and sawing ; and their constructions, is all stipulated for, at about four dollars, per foot run.
culverts, aqueducts and bridges, is one fourth done.
The timber for the lock-sites is preparing; the requisite quantities of stone, for all purposes, nearly quarried ; and the scales to weigh them all erected.
The only expensive dam, on the whole route, is that at the Oriskany-creek, which is to be built for $5,700, and is already in some progress.
Taking into consideration every item, of material and of labour, actually provided and paid for ; and comparing them with every item remaining to be provided and paid for, in order to the enjoyment of a navigable communication, between the Mohawk and Seneca rivers; and it is our opinion, that the proportion of the former to the latter, is nearly as two to one.
From the east end of the old canal, at Rome, to Nail-creek, in Utica, exclusive of locks, the distance being 14 miles, 108,128
allowance above mentioned, is 17,337
" The expense, of widening and deepening the old canal, was not included, in the Report of 1817, but was estimated, in another place, at 4,000
" For superintendence of engineers, &c. from west end of old canal, at Rome, to east side of Nail-creek, at % 1 ,000 per mile, ] 5,000
applicable to the completion of the Middle Section. This sum is believed to be more than sufficient for that object. And if the present winter shall afford five weeks of good sleighing to draw stone, and the next summer shall not be unfavourable^, the commissioners entertain sanguine hopes of being able to pass, in a boat, throughout this section, before the next meeting of your honourable body,
tions, of the Erie canal, Isaac Briggs, Esq. has been employed to explore, and re-survey, and locate, the line of the canal, irom Utica towards the Hudon river. Such a location he has made, for upwards of forty miles including all the difl&cult places at Herkimer and the Little Falls. Of his work, he has made ample returns and estimates, accompanied with elegant maps, and profiles, which are herewith presented. From his estimate, it appears, that the cost of opening the canal, through that portion of the line, will be less than our first calculations.
In pursuance of that part of the law, relating to their duties, which requires the canal commissioners to recommend such measures, as they may think advisable, for the accomplishment of the objects intended by the legislature ; we beg leave to recommend ; 1st. That adequate provision be made, for opening a navigable side cut, in the course of the ensuing summer, from the main canal to the salt works, at Selina^ This may be performed in six months, at an expense not exceeding six thousand dollars j and as the main canal is expected to be navigable to the waters of the Cayuga and Seneca lakes, on the one side, and to those of the Mohawk river, on the other, by the close of the next season, it is apparent, that such a side cut would immediately become profitable. 2d. That the militia law be so modified as to excuse from militia duty all persons actually engaged in labouring on the canal. Such labourers are, for the most part, in situations which do not permit them to be properly armed and equipt : They cannot therefore be useful on the parade ground. And, upon a reasonable calculation, there were during the past season, twenty thousand dollars worth of service lost to the canal, by militia interruptions. 3d. That a law be passed, the present session, authorizing and providing for, the entire completion of the Erie canal. Sufficient experience has now been ac,quired to establish the practicability of such a mea-
sure, within the means of the state. And surely, the prosperities, which it will advance, — of an agricultural, a commercial, and a manufacturing, — of a public, and a private, — of a pecuniary, a literary, a political, and a moral, character, commend it to your patronage. It appears to us to be a measure involving the highest earthly interests. And, illustrious as our country has become, for the utility and glory of its achievements, it never had a legislative body, engaged in a measure teeming with benefits, so various, so extensive and so durable, since the cry, of " land, land," was first heard, from one of the ships of its great discoverer. If honour be coveted, solid and expansive as "the great globe itself, and all which it inherits," the accomplishment of this work will ensure its attainment.
That, since the first of June last, when the season became favourable, the excavation of the Champlain canal has been vigorously and successfully prosecuted. More than twelve miles have been completed, to the satisfaction of the Engineer, and a final settlement has been had with the contractors.
The remainder of the excavation is in such a state of advancement, that two months of good weather will ensure its completion, as there is not more on the whole line remaining to be done, than the average excavation of two and a half miles. Considerable progress has been made towards the construction of the artificial works. The stone for the locks have been quarried ;
more than half of them^ it is heheved, are already delivered at the places where they are to be used, and a considerable portion of them are hewn, and ready to be laid into the work. The timber, lime, and sand, are also in a very advanced state of preparation. The materials for the culverts,waste-weirs,bridges,^c.areinsuch a state of forwardness, that there is little doubt but they will all be prepared and delivered before the breaking up of winter: and unless the next season should be uncommonly bad, it is confidently expected, that within ten months from this time, the Champlain canal, from the Lake to the Hudson, will be fit for navigation.
The amount of labour which has been performed the last season, compared with the expenditures, fortifies the opinion expressed in the Report of last season, that the Champlain canal will be finished for a sum not exceeding the estimates; and the Commissioners respectfully recommend the passage of a law, authorizing its construction from Fort Edward to the tide waters of the Hudson.
Most of the eight miles and sixty-four chains, (above mentioned to be completed,) and several places on those sections which are nearly completed, are filled with water, into which a few boats have already been introduced.
On Section L, 3 feet, . . 69 feet
„ do. They were contracted for, at the rate of ^^89 per ton delivered ; and the whole expense of them when properly laid and secured, has been, of those that are three f^et in diameter, about $500 a piece, of those that are two feet in diameter, about $340, and of those that are one foot in diameter, about ;^170
A list of cases, in which claims for damages, on the canal line, between Utica and Seneca river, have been decided upon, and certified, by the Appraisers, together with the amount of damages in each.
To the Legislature of the State of Mew-York : In obedience to the Act entitled '•'•An Act respecting navigable communications between the great Western and JS'orthern LaJces and the Atlantic Ocean,'''' passed April 16th, iSll the Canal Commissioners most respectfully Report —
That the middle section thereof has been so far completed, during the past season, that large boats have actually navigated it, for the distance of seventymiles : and nothing has hindered such navigation throughout the residue of the section, for several weeks previously to the meeting of your honourable body, but the setting in of frost. The important fact of the accuracy of the levels, from one end to the other, of this section, has been ascertained, by the most satisfactory and infallible proof — the admission of water. And when it is remembered that the length of our Rome summit is now extended to near sixty miles, this result, so gratifying on every account, cannot fail to' beget strong confidence in the skill, and ajust praise for the care, of our engineer.
Having now witnessed the completion of a great number and variety of canal contracts, with constant and anxious attention to the mode of their execution, in every stage of their progress, for the purpose of obtaining all the benefits suggested by experience, we expect, hereafter, considerable improvements in the manner of conducting our labours For a resolute ambition of success, and the application of vigorous industry, we cannot hope that an equal number of men
hitherto been employed.
We have found, that in removing common earth, where the depth does not exceed four or five feet, and the ground is dry, the plough and scraper can be used to greater profit than any other means of excavation with which we are acquainted. And the banks which are constructed with scrapers, from being constantly and uniformly travelled over by the cattle and men, during the time required to raise and form them, are so thoroughly compacted as to be not much in danger of injurious settling, after they are once completed. A great proportion of our work has heretofore been performed with these instruments. But as both the western and eastern sections of the canal, will pass through but little wet land, in comparison with that which is traversed by the middle, the use of them hereafter will be much increased.
It was determined by the canal commissioners, when they entered on the construction of the canal, that the inside slope of the banks should be such, that a foot perpendicular rise should give not less than eighteen inches horizontal base. This slope is often adopted in England ; and in earth unapt to slip, it will answer; but in clay, in light earth, especially if it contain much water, and wherever sand predominates^ a greater slope is expedient.
The inside slope of the banks through the middle section, is generally such as that above indicated. There are, however, several places where it is greater. And it is our intention for the future, except where peculiar circumstances forbid, to increase the slope. For besides diminishing the danger of having the banks slide into the bottom of the canal, by diminishing their acclivity, it requires but little observation to become convinced, that such diminution lessens the labour of forming the banks. This is true, when the banks are formed by shovelling and wheeling, but it is eminently so when the work is done by ploughing and scraping. A slope, of a foot rise to eighteen inches base, is so
sleep that it is difficult to drive cattle or horses up it, with a loaded scraper behind them : and as the excavation approaches the bottom of the canal, the difficulty of this operation greatly increases. Indeed, where scrapers have been used, the excavation from the bottom of the canal, at the edges, has been left unfinished, with the adjoining banks also unfinished and very sloping, so that much labour with spades and shovels, was afterwards necessary to take out the earth from the bottom, and place it in the face of the banks, at the top, in order to their completion: Or, if this labour with spades and shovels was saved, the earth in the bottom of the canal at the edges, was ploughed up, and the scrapers, after being loaded by drav»^ing them lengthwise of the canal on the bottom, drawn up the banks, at places of easy ascent left in them, about ten I'ods apart, for the purpose, and after arriving at the top, were drawn lengthwise of the canal, for some distance, and then unloaded on the inner brow of the bank.
This last mode of completing the excavation and giving shape to the banks, has been found the most economical; but to both modes the danger of slips is equally incidental, and greater than it is where the banks are formed by wheelbarrows ; because, in both, the loose earth, which is required to finish the inside face of the bank at the top, is always laid upon a sloping and hard trodden surface^, with which it will not speedily form a solid connection.
Horses and cattle can draw loaded scrapers, without much inconvenience, up a bank of which the slope is such as to give a base of two feet to a rise of one foot; and if the face of the bank is left hard, as it will be made by being travelled on in the process of its construction with the scraper, there will remain no doubt of its retaining its shape with very little impression from heavy rains. This is an advantage of great importance, as it respects the expense of repairs and preservation of the beauty of the canal : and the increased slope, by giving a width of surface at the top water-line four feet
canal.
Wherever the canal line crosses lands abounding in springs, or very wet from any other cause, but so situated as to admit of draining, the spade and wheelbarrow are indispensible utensils, in any common depth of digging; and one of our contractors, Mr. Jeremiah Brainard, of Rome, has invented a wheel barrow,which, without being more expensive than those in common use, is acknowledged by all who have seen it, to be greatly superior to them Its advantages consist in its being lighter, more durable, and much easier to unload.
Experience has convinced us, that after the grubbing and clearing is done, it is most judicious to carry the excavation, wherever it is begun, as soon as may be, to the bottom ; and as the work advances to complete every part of the canal.
Many jobs on the middle section have had three , fourths and often larger portions of the digging performed, and the banks nearly raised, but left with the earth sloping inwards from their outward extremity, after which the contractor has transferred his labour to other parts of the job, intending to bring the whole into a similar state, and then to finish his work by taking out the residue of the bottom, giving it the proper width, and dressing off the banks — From this course of management much evil has ensued. The excavation from the bottom, after baking for months in the sun, has always been found much more difficult, the amount of yards has been materially increased by an unnecessary wash from the banks, the labour necessary to complete the banks has been augmented, and after such labour has been bestowed, there is less beauty in the whole work, and it is more liable to injury. These evils will all be obviated, by completing the canal with as little delay as possible after the ground is broken.
In all cases it is essential, that care should be taken to secure a sufficient drain from every part of the ejtcavation, otherwise the most injurious interruptipns
will be suffered from every shower. No person without experience can be fully aware of the disadvantages of labouring in wet earth. It is much heavier, more tenacious and more slippery than dry, and of course harder to load, harder to remove, and harder to unload : and after it is unloaded into a bank, much of it will run down so as to require a second removal. The labourers who work in it destroy more clothes, live more expensively, are more exposed to sickness, and require higher wages, than other labourers ; the cattle and horses sooner fail, and there is more wear and tear of every implement. Hardly any expense should be avoided, which is necessary to provide good draining. Some of our contractors have not been duly sensible of this, and have lost more or less in consequence. By opening a drain whenever the excavation is begun, and by completing the canal as the work advances, the benefits of an ample drain will be secured to every part of the line.
But this course of proceeding will also produce other . good consequences. The amount of money earned by the contractors,from the time of one payment to another, may be more accurately and easily estimated. The contractor will more readily understand the exact condition of his business, as to profit and loss, and the workmen will be better able to secure themselves against frauds or insolvency in their employers. With the greatest care to ascertain the quality of the excavation in any given section of the canal, previous to its being let out, it is impossible to provide against the occurrence of unforeseen obstructions in the earth, which must be paid for at an equitable valuation, after they shall be disclosed and overcome. The practice of completing the canal as above mentioned, would render these valuations more satisfactory to all parties, because the precise nature and extent of such obstructions would be more clearly perceived, and the labour laid out upon them would be more easily distinguished from other labor.
embraced so great a variety of operations, and have actually given us an excellent navigation, for so great a distance, that we suppose the public mind is fully satisfied of the practicability of the canals.
lowing causes :
I. The width of water in the canal, in all cases of embankment, was originally intended to be only thirty feet at the surface, and the estimate was made accordingly. These embankments have, however, all been made so as to give the common width of forty feet at the surface. This alteration has very much increased the quantity of earth in those embankments which required filling in at the bottom ; and as all the large embankments are of this character, it has added considerably to their expense. It was not adopted without mature deliberation,and a strong conviction of its being judicious. It was found that aqueducts, road bridges, farm bridges, and a few other'unavoidable causes of contracting the width of the canal, were of such frequent occurrence along the line, as to make it very desirable, for the sake of presenting no unnecessary obstruction to motion through the water, to preserve the ordinary width in all places where it was practicable.
The plan of several of the more artificial works has been altered, always it is believed for the better, but so as to render them more expensive. Of this class are the following, to wit :
The aqueduct over Nine-mile creek was originally intended to consist of stone abutments and piers with a wooden trunk. It is constructed exclusively of stone, and has been much enlarged by raising the level of the canal at that place eleven feet.
At the Skeneateles outlet the original estimate embraced a dam, which has since been superseded by an aqueduct of solid stone work, which is also raised eleven feet above the original level.
for stone arches.
II. Waste-weirs have been constructed in various places, where it was believed no sufficient provision could otherwise be had to discharge the surplus waters with which the canal would be filled by the spring floods : and the aggregate extent of these is about two thousand feet.
III. The most prolific source of unforeseen expense, has been found in hard excavation : and this w^e have had in many places, and in all the varieties of hardpan, quick-sand, breccia, marl, gypsum, and limestone.
When the canal line was located by the engineer, he dug or bored into the earth in several places on every mile, to the bottom of the canal, for the purpose of ascertaining the quality of the excavation. Upon information thus gained, he represented the character of the earth to be dug through, in his sectional maps. And when the commissioners entered into contracts, such maps, with the representations contained in them, were the basis of the prices stipulated to be paid by them. But they always gave verbal assurances to the contractors, that if in the progress of the work it should turn out, that the excavation was manifestly worse than it was represented to be, then they would pay for the extra difficulty arising from that cause such sum as the engineer should deem reasonable, over and above the stipulated prices. Under such engagements large sums have been paid.
the earth has become harder, ahnost in exact proportion to the depth of excavation below the surface, and often harder than the earth bored or dug through by the engineer. — Such earth has been of several descriptions : in some places, a hard tenacious clay, closely filled with numerous stones ; in others, and more frequently, a compact mixture of sand and loam, very hard, and filled with blue gravel. Much of these kinds of earth has been found in such condition, that the most industrious men were unable to excavate more than three yards in twelve hours.
2d. For quick-sand. This is a most unmanageable substance, and generally dangerous wherever it occurs.— It has subjected us to extra expense on several sections, not merely by the necessity which it always induces, of performing the excavation two or three times over, but also by compelling us in a number of places, to make defences against it of timber and plank.
3d. For breccia. Patches of this have been frequently found, but they have not been large, except in a few places. The excavation of it is generally more difficult than almost any rock of secondary formation, and has cost from fifty cents to two dollars per cubic yard. The largest masses of it have been encountered in places continually wet, by springs or small streams.
4th. For marl. In Madison, Onondaga and Cayuga counties, many miles of the canal are carried through beds of marl, which, when it is first uncovered, is hard, and in appearance, stone of a slaty structure, but which after it is broken up and removed into the banks, by exposure to the air, crumbles first into small pieces, and finally into a fine earth ; so that no one would imagine, after it has been a short time excavated, that it ever offered any obstruction to the contractor : and yet the excavation of it has cost from thirty to seventy-five cents per cubic yard.
6th. For limestone. This has been found in great, abundance, on sections 19, 22, 23, 24, 27, 30, 31, 32, 33, 37 and 40 ; and the expense of removing it has been from thirtj-seven and a half cents to one dollar per cubic yajd.
estimate, on the middle section, may be mentioned.
IV. The want of sleighing last winter. We had calculated upon great advantages for the delivery of several kinds of materials, particularly timber, plank, lime, sand and stone, by sleighing. The roads leading to most places where these articles were wanted, are usually bad in the summer season. Recently made over a rich deep soil, and rough with frequent causeways, it was obvious that they would be almost impassable with heavy loads on wheels. But when the earth is frozen, and covered with a common winter depth of snow, such roads afford as good a path as any other. We had therefore been at great pains to make contracts for these articles, early enough in the fall, to enjoy the expected benefit of sleighing, for their delivery : And much labour had been expended in quarrying stone, felling and hewing timber, sawing plank, burning lime and hiring teams, to make the most of that benefit.— But there was no sleighing till the beginning of March, and when at last the snow fell, it afforded us no advantages. It came in such quantities as very soon to take out the frost beneath it, and at so late a period as to be exposed to rapid melting from the influence of the sun. In the counties of Onondaga and Cayugawhere most of the materials were required, it lay on the ground for three or four weeks, and was used most of that time, for sleighing, but to no profit. The teams which had been engaged, could then, very few of them, be had ; for nobody is willing, without strong necessity, to be at the trouble and expense of fitting out teams for a few days service of doubtful emolument; and spring snows are seldom durable. — Most of the time while the sleighing lasted, all the materials were covered with snow,' to an inconvenient depth — no hard snow
path could be formed — and the road was, in many places mirj. In truth, but a small portion of the materials were delivered by sleighing; and if the following season had not been uncommonly dry and favourable to wheeling, it is probable that no practicable efforts could yet have effected the delivery of them. That our stone structures might be permanent, we were fully convinced of the great importance of using large stone in their construction. Accordingly, those which we have had delivered, a great portion of them weigh from one to three tons a piece, and some of them much more : but the expense of loading heavy stones into waggons or rarts must always be greater than that of loading them into sleds. — From the combined effect of these causes, the delivery of our materials has cost as much more than we could reasonably have anticipated.
queducts, has been more difficult than was expected.
In order to give the same depth of water over the lock-sills, which is provided for elsewhere, our manner of securing the foundation requires that the excavation shall be sunk tw<^feet below the bottom of the canal; and in digging for these foundations, in several cases, where the earth down to the bottom was hard gravel or clay, we have found it below that, and within the limits of our excavation, to be quicksand. In such cases, we have been compelled to fill the bottom w ith bearing piles. And as these bottoms are about one hundred and thirty feet long, by thirty-six broad, this operation has been attended with" great labour and expense.
At all the places of our principal acqueducts, at the locks, and at some of the large culverts, the difficulty of constructing and maintaining coffer dams, and of bailing out the water, in addition to that of the excavation and pile-driving, which must necessarily be subject to many contingencies, has exceeded our calculations.
nal estimate of the middle section ; and yet we found this indispensable to the security of the canal, and have actually completed it on both sides, for nearly the whole distance.
VII. The water proof lime, which has been used, during the past season, for the most of the mason work done on the canal, has contributed to swell our disbursements beyond our original estimates. This material has been discovered in the progress of our exertions; and it will doubtless hereafter be considered as an article of prime necessity, throughout our country, for all hydrauli-c masonry. Mixed with clean silicious sand and water, and well beaten, it constitutes a mortar which will soon set, and thoroughly cement any work of stone or brick, in which it is used, under water. But in the first use of it we have been unavoidably subjected to many expenses which henceforth need not be incurred. We failed repeatedly in burning, pulverising and mixing it; but many trials have now shown us the way to succeed in all these operations. And all the masons in our employ, though for some time they were loth to use it from an opinion which they uniformly entertained of its being of no value, now regard it as a discovery of the greatest importance. It sets much quicker, and becomes stronger in the air, than common lime mortar; and under water, where common mortar will not set at all, it begins to set immediately, and in a few weeks acquires great hardness and tenacity. It may be quarried with the same labour as common limestone, and is known to occur in the greatest abundance in Madison, Onondaga, Cayuga, Ontario and Genesee counties; its colour is a yellowish grey, before it is burnt, and burning inclines it to a buff It is softer than common limestone and when burnt about ten per cent lighter. It will not slack, but must be pulverized by pounding or grinding, and when reduced to powder its bulk is not materially increased. The quantity of sand mixed with it should be about half that of the lime in bulk. From its not swelling, by being pulverized—
from the expense of grinding it, and from the greatly diminished quantity of sand which it will bear, it will be at once perceived, that its use will always be attended with greater expense than that of common lime. Still it may be used, at a very small proportion of the cost of any other material now known to answer the same purpose : and as it abounds in the vicinity of the canal, it will probably soon supply a great amount of tonnage for transportation by the demand which will arise for it, from without this state.
Vlll. Our efforts have been much retarded, and rendered more expensive, in completing the middle section, by sickness. For about thirty-five miles, the canal line runs at no great distance from the Seneca river, which in that part of its course, except at Jack's rift, is a sluggish stream. The waters of this river flow through a region of the rankest vegetable luxuriance, which, in the spring of the year, they overspread to the extent of many thousand acres more than they do in the fall. In common seasons, the autumn brings with it some danger to the health of the people of this region. The excessive and long continued heat of the last season, subjected them to extensive and distressing sickness. Between the middle of July and the first of October, about one thousand men, employed on the canal, from Salina to Seneca river, were disabled from labour by this cause. Most of these men recovered, but the houses in which they were collected, for near three months, presented a most discouraging spectacle, and although great exertions were made to supply the place of such labourers as became deseased, by fresh hands, in was impossible to prevent some jobs, from being entirely abandoned for several weeks. And where labour was never wholly intermitted, it was much less efficient and the means of it were essentially lessened. The necessary effect of this was, to protract the entire execution of the work, to a much later period than it would otherwise have been extended to, and this inevitably increased the expense. I^ate in the season there were frequent interruptions of labour, by slight
fails of rain and snow. And these interruptions were particularly injurious, in reference to m uch of the extra service done at this period. When the days had become short, and the earth was every where covered with mud, no resolution or ingenuity could make the work advance rapidly, in proportion to the means employed. Every effort was clogged. The excavation of ditiicult places, which had been left incomplete, was slow and laborious. And the performance of all those little jobs, that could not be omitted in bestowing the last finish upon the works previous to their actual use, was attended with tenfold difficulty.
It would not be reasonable to expect, that human foresight could exactly adapt the provision of materials, to all the exigencies of works so extensive, various and unusual, as those of which we had the charge, in the first contracts. Some deficiencies of this kind were experienced, which it was expensive to supply But the material supplieshave all been made, and with theexception of a little lead, with which the iron cramps in some of the stone work remain to be secured, — the coping of the Owasco creek aqueduct, — some labour required upon the feeder from Butternutt-creek, — and two small embaiikraents on the south side of the canal, which have not heretofore been constructed, only because they were not decided to be necessary, until after water was admitted into the canal, the whole of the middle section has been completed. The expense of all these operations cannot probably exceed three thousand dollars, and they will not obstruct the navigation,while they are going on. ,
The side cut out at Salina, is one mile and fortythree chainsin length, and it was estimated, as is stated in our report of last winter, , to cost $(3000. It has been entirely completed with great fidelity and beauty, -at an expense of ;^6041 06 ; and being added to the middle section, which is near ninety-four and a half miles long, we have an extent of 96 miles of artificial navigation, commenced and completed since the 4th of .July, 18 17, at an average expense, per mile, including every thing, of $11792.
In a canal of such length, passingthrough so great a variety of soils, and over such numerous streams which afford the only possible channels through which several considerable lakes, innumerable springs, and a very extensive land drain, will necessarily discharge their waters; and which are yet, from the extent of uncleared land adjacent to them, subject to great obstructions from an accumulation of float-wood, and of course, wherever these obstructions take place, to the pressure of a heavy head of water above them, and a currrent of proportionate violence below, it will not be prudent to calculate' upon entire exemption fr.om injurious casual ties. A breach has been effected, and is now open, in the north bank of the canal, at the Oriskany, which it will take a fortnight in the spring to repair. Other breaches may be expected, though we have spared no labour in our power, which we deemed necessary, to provide against them. And in addition to the security which the whole line derives from the manner iii which it is constructed and guarded, we have divided it into five sections, and assigned to each an experienced and vigilant superintendent, whose duty it is constantly to watch for its safe keeping, and whenever danger threatens it of any kind, to use his utmost means to ward it off
The canal commissioners, during the past season, have limited their disbursements for all labour in the actual construction of the canal, to the middle section. But they have employed exploring parties, on both the w^estern and eastern sections. Between the Seneca and Genesee rivers. Canvass White, Esq. as engineer, has had the charge of a party, which has been engaged for several months in levelling over and surveying different routes for the canal line. These labours lie has performed much to our satisfaction, and having presented a view of them to a meeting of our board, held in October last at Utica, we thereupon decided in favour of the route originally explored between those rivers, in the year 1816 : and a part of this route having first been definitively located,the acting commis-
sioners, under the authority of a resolution of the board,proceeded to enterinto contracts for the construction of the canal, through about twenty miles thereof That portion of the line which is let out, extends from the east bank of the Genesee river to the town of Palmyra, from which to Seneca river, we hope early in the approaching season, to place the whole line under contract. The zeal for engaging in this work has suffered no abatement ; many of the old contractors, and other persons of enterprise and responsibility, have entered into agreements with us ; and very many respectable applications are yet ungratified. The terms of these new contracts are at least as favourable to the state as any heretofore obtained : and one of them requires that the whole work shall be completed by the first of September, J 821. These contracts are dated in December last, and several of them are now in the process of vigorous execution.
From the Genesee river to the Seneca, at the western termination of the middle section, there is a fall of near i 30 feet ; and as every part of a canal line may be better located in descending than in ascending a country it was deemed expedient to commence this operation, and the construction of the western section, at the Genesee river. This expediency was rendered more obvious by the consideration, that the place of crossing that stream, and the canal level there, admit, of but little variation.
At the meeting of the canal commissioners above alluded to, it was resolved, that while about 63 miles of the western section should be put in the course of construction, 2(3 miles of the eastern section also should be placed under contract. This distance extends from Utica to the foot of the Little Falls of the Mohawk river,em bracing the most difficult places on that section, above the Schoharie creek. Eight miles of it will be made in continuation of the Rome level, which before exceeded fifty-eight miles in length; and these eight miles have been contracted for at reasonable prices, by good men, some of whom are now at work upon them.
Valentine Gill, Esq. has been employed as engineer, with the necessary assistants, to explore the country, in reference to the best establishment of the canal line, from Gannet's mill pond in Pahnyra, with which the old level was connected, westerly to the Genesee river, at a point about twelve miles south of Rochester, and thence westerly to Buffalo creek. The easterly part of Mr. Gill's line has been rejected, in favor of the more northerly route ; but he thinks that a line from Rochester may be run southwesterly, so as to intersect with his line west of the Genesee river, and from the point of intersection be carried through the counties of Genesee and Niagara, to a junction with the waters of Lake Erie, south of the village of Buffalo. The great objection to a southern route, through the Holland purchase, is the fear of a deficiency of water to supply it, as such a route must necessarily be carried far above the level of Lake Erie, Mr. Gill's summit level is about 94 feet above Lake Erie, but he is of opinion, that it may be extended more than forty miles, so as to embrace the waters of Wescoy, of Allen's, of Tonnewanta, of Elicott's, and of Little Buffalo creeks, which he thinks in the driest season, would furnish a copious supply. In a country so new, and of which a great part is still covered by standing timber, the interests of the canal require, that great precaution should be taken in the definitive establishment of the canal line. It will be proper that other examinations should be prosecuted through the country west of the Genesee river, previously to a final decision of the route. The maps and repot of Mr. Gill are herewith presented.
In discharge of that part of their duty which relates to the harbour of Buffalo, the canal commissioners employed David Thomas, of Cayuga county, to make the necessary surveys, and report to them the result. This service has been faithfully rendered, and the practicability of the construction of a harbor there, at a moderate expense, seems to be sufficiently established The report of Mr. Thomas, together with his map and estimates of expense, is herewith presented. Whether
such a harbour, when it is constructed, should be paid for out of the canal fund,it appears to us that it would be premature to determine, before the route and termination of the canal is definitively settled in that neighbourhood : and we do not consider the surveys which have yet been made, as affording all the information which is desirable in order to such settlement.
At an early day of the last season, it was feared, that the amount of money subject to our order, might not be more than sufficient to complete the middle section of the Erie Canal, and that part of the Champlain Canal which had been commenced. Hence we determined to confine our expenditure to these parts of the canals, except as to such sums as might be requisite to fit out and pay the necessary exploring parties. Such parties^ the legislature bound us to provide, for the examination of BuflTalo harbour and the Oswego river. And if the canals were to be continued, it was obviously necessary that a part of their routes should be fixed beyond the limits contracted for, before those limits should be entirely completed. For, otherwise, a whole season would have been lost to these undertakings, in the course of which the public property connected with them would have been wasting, the most experienced and efficient contractors would have sustained great loss, in tools and other preparations made with a view to their continued engagements on the canals, and they must have betaken themselves to other employments. These results, and others equally pernicious, would have been inevitable. The total amount of disbursements for exploring parties last year, is ^8,400.
But the unforeseen causes of, expense heretofore indicated as unavoidably connected with bringing all our contracts to a close, have greatly exceeded our expectation ; and we have been compelled to anticipate ^122,500 of the funds of the present year.
Our contracts upon the middle section were all to have been fully performed by the first of October last, and as soon as they were performed, all the monies eai-ned upon them became due. If these sums had
not been paid, every contractor would have been ruined ; and anxious as w^e were, from the most pressing considerations ; that of safety to the canal, which incomplete, would have been much more exposed to injury from the frosts of the winter and the floods of the spring; that of economy to the contractors, who could uol be expected to quit their work when they had nearly accomplished it, and afterwards return to it at great expense, because our disbursements were likely to exceed our estimates : and that of duty to the public, who have a paramount interest in having the canal navigable as soon as possible, in order that it may speedily produce profitable returns, we could not hesitate to incur the responsibility of such anticipation. The money was borrowed at six per cent interest, and on the fifth of January last, certificaes of stock were issued by the commissioners of the canal fund to cover it. The interest of this money, from the time of its being loaned up to the time of issuing the stock, amounts to ;$]775 03 which sum we solicit your honourable body to authorize the comptroller to place to our credit, as w^have paid it for the reasons above stated.
Deduct $122,500 with the interest on loans of the preceding and present years, from $600,000, the amount of the permanent legislative appropriation, and it will be seen that little more than 1^400,000, will remain applicable to the construction of the canals for the ensuing season.
From this sum a further deduction, which may be considerable, but of which the amount is yet unascertained, must be made for the purchase of the rights of the Western Inland Lock Navigation Company, with whose works we shall so interfere at Wood Creek, whenever we fill our canal, as to render such purchase expedient.
After these deductions, we think the money remaining subject to our control, will not be adequate to the due prosecution of the canals. We therefore recommend, that so soon as the amount of money to be paid to the Western Inland Lock Navigation Company shall be ascertained, according to law, it shall be paid by
the commissioners of the canal fund in certificates of stock, to be issued by them for that purpose, and bearing an interest of fiive per cent. And we furthur recommend, that there be appropriated to the canals, by law for the present year, in order to supply the deficiency of funds occasioned by the anticipation aforesaid, and in addition to the amount of stock last above mentioned, the sum of ^122,500, over and above the sums now appropriated to them.
As fast as the canals are rendered navigable, they will be liable to injuries of various kinds. The banks may be broken, the fences may be thrown down, the waste-gates may be opened or shut improperly, the passage may be obstructed, and all the works may be defaced, and many of them essentially impaired, both by carelessness and by malice. We therefore recommend the passage of a law, imposing suitable penalties, for every injury to which they may be exposed.
The experiments that have been attempted at navigation on our canals, have been entirely satisfactory to every witness of them. The novelty of seeing large boats drawn by horses, upon waters artificially conducted— through cultivated fields, forests and swamps, over ravines, creeks and morasses, and from one elevation to another, by means of ample, beautiful, and substantial locks, has been eminently exhilarating. The precision of the levels, the solidity of the banks, the regularity of the curves, the symmetry of the numerous and massive stone works, the depth of the excavation in some places, the extent of the embankments in others, and the impression produced every where along the line, by the visible eflfects of immense labour, have uniformly afforded gratification mingled with surprise. The ease with which the canals may be approached, and the facility of transportation on their waters, will recommend them to immediate and extensive use. And every result hitherto ascertained experimentally, in relation to them, fully justifies the favour with which preceding legislatures have regarded them, and exhi-
During the last season the works on the Champlain canal have been prosecuted with zeal and activity, by the several contractors to whom they were committed. The locks, the waste-weirs,the culverts, and the remaining parts of the excavation and embankment, have been so far completed as to render the canal fit for navigation. — On admitting the water in December last, it was ascertained that both levels are perfectly correct.
Owing to a deficiency of funds, the canal has not been fenced, and this, it is believed, is the most expensive part of the work which remains to be done. A towing path along the margin ofWood Creek is to be constructed. There are two places in the vicinity of. the village of Fort Ann, where the canal passes on the slope of a clay hill, and where the earth below the canal showed a disposition to slip after the canal was filled with water. Measures were immediately taken to secure those slips, but the work was arrested by the frost before it was completed, and it will be necessary to finish it as early in the spring as practicable. The banks of the canal admit but very little water to escape through them ; and it is believed that the solidity and compactness which they will have acquired in another season, will render them impervious to water. The supply of water on the summit level has answered the expectations which had formerly been indulged, and it is believed, that with ordinary seasons, a feeder will not be wanted in many years. Although the market at the present time is unfavourable for the lumbering business, yet from the best information which can be obtained, it is expected, in case no accident should happen to the canal, that nearly half a million of boards and plank will be passed through it the ensuing season.
estimated to cost ^250,000. This estimate was made on the supposition, that the canal should be " thirty feet wide at the surface, twenty feet at the bottom, and three feet deep ; and the locks to be seventy-five feet long, and ten feet wide in the clear." Since • that period, for reasons which are assigned in the report of the 3 1st January, 1818, the canal commissioners determined to enlarge the dimensions of the canal, so that it should be forty-feet wide at the surface, twenty-eight at the bottom, and four feet deep ; and the locks to be ninety feet long, and fourteen feet wide in the clear. This enlargement of the works added about one third to the cost of construction, and the original estiniate increased by the same ratio, would be ^333,000.
There has been paid already, towards the construction of the works, ^232,268 86, and on account of appraisements which were not included in the original estimates, the sum of ^33,876 49. The additional expense of fencing the canal and finishing all the works, will not, it is believed, exceed ^25,000, or ^30,000, so that this section of the canal will be constructed for 1255,000, or $260,000, a diminution from the estimate of more than twenty-eight per cent.
In order to prevent any unjust impression from being made by the preceding statement, as to the comparative economy with which the middle section of the Erie canal has been constructed, it ought here to be observed, that when the original estimate of the expense of opening the Champlain canal was made, there were no such data of minute calculation before the conimissioners, as were furnished on the middle section of the Erie canal. From Utica to the Seneca river, the aggregate expense was made up of a separate valuation of the cost of every mile, that is, there was a distinct estimate for every mile of the grubbing and clearing, of the number of cubic yards of excavation, and of embankment, with the price per yard of each, and of the bridges, culverts, aqueducts and locks, wherever they were deemed necessary. While on the Champlain canal it was necessarily otherwise from the character
of the returns made by the engineer, Col. Garin. These returns did not enable us accurately to calculate the qus.ntity of excavation or embankment, the number of aqueducts, culverts, waste-weirs or bridges.
Jllbany, I8th Feb. 1820.
The joint committee of the Senate and Assembly^ on so much of the speech of his Excellency the Governor as relates to the internal improvements of the state, to whom was referred the annual report of the Canal Commissioners,
The actual construction of those great monuments of the enterprise and munificence of the state, the great Western and Northern canals, is now viewed by the committee as no longer a question of unsettled policy : and the completion of them with all practicable speed, is a measure which, upon deep consideration, sedulous inquiry and cautious calculation, has been already resolved upon by the deliberate acts of the Legislature, and sanctioned by the approving and general voice of an intelligent and reflecting people. In this view of the subject, the committee apprehend that it would be both unnecessary and unseasonable to occupy the time of the Legislature with any further exposition of the various considerations which have influenced the policy of that expansive system of internal improvement, which was entered upon by our predecessors, under a full conviction of the magnitude of the undertaking, and of the high responsibilities which it imposed upon its projectors and advisers.
At a time when the general poUcy of this system was a question undecided, and its practicabiHty by such means as were within the abihty of the state to bestow, rested, in a good measure, upon the basis of theory and the deductions of calculation, it was proper to enlighten and arouse the public sentiment to a just estimate of its immense importance to the best interests of the state, as well as of the capacity of the state to accomplish, completely, the great object proposed. This has already been done, by the repeated exhibition of such general views, facts and estimates, as have had a happy tendency to allay the hostility of the prejudiced, correct the misconceptions of the uninformed, and invigorate the resolution of the timid. The time when such a course was necessary, it is presumed, has now passed. By the successful operations of the two past years, the doubtfulness of theory is now superseded by the surer test of practice, and the uncertain deductions of calculation are verified by the actual touchstone of experiment.
Referring, therefore, for those general views of public policy by which the public councils of the state have heretofore been governed on this subject, to those various public documents now on the fies of the legislature, which have thrown upon it all the light which practical science and the experience of other countries have brought to our aid, in the prosecution of so great and meritorious an enterprise, — the committee conceived that they should the best perform the duties which were expected of them, by directing their inquiries into the manner in which the responsible trusts confided to the canal commissioners had been performed, and to ascertain the extent and celerity with which, for ensuing years, it would (consistent \vith that prudent policy which has hitherto marked the measures of the Legislature on this subject) be prudent to recommend, at this time, the further prosecution of these important works.
has been highly satisfactory as to the past, and eminently encouraging to future efforts and operations. The reports of the Commissioners, for the past and present years, furnish ample evidence of two important facts — that the progress made within those years towards the completion of these works, has, thus far, exceeded the expectations which, at their commencement, had been encouraged by the most ardent of their patrons and projectors, and at an expense not exceeding the estimates upon which they had been predicated, for the particular details which go to justify these conclusions, the committee beg leave to refer to those reports, which at the same time, in a very lucid and practical manner, furnish a full and plain exposition of the whole course of the proceedings of the Commissioners in the execution of the work. From these also it appears, that within the period and the estimates above mentioned, about two thirds of the expense of completing the whole middle section of the Western Canal, ninety-four miles in length, has been already provided and paid for; and that with the advantages of a favourable season for operations, the whole of that section will, in all probability, be in a state capable of boat navigation, in the course of the ensuing year.
Within the same time, the excavation of more than twelve miles of the Northern Canal, has also been completed and paid for, and that of the residue brought to a state w^hich may be completed within two or three months; and the forwardness of the other artificial works is such, that its navigation from Lake Champlain to the Hudson, may reasonably be calculated upon also in the course of the ensuing season.
Viewing, then, the entire completion of the whole line of the canals from Lake Erie to the Hudson, and from Lake Champlain to the navigable waters of the same river, as measures entering into the policy which dictated the commencement 'of them, — as rapidly as should be found compatible with the resources of the state, and as soon as should be fully ascertained to be practicable within the means which had been originally
contemplated; and considering also the experiment which has now been made, as a satisfactory test, by which future and more extensive operations may fairly and safely be* judged — the committee have no hesitation, in accordance with the opinion of the Commissioners, and for the reasons stated by them, in recommend-
1st. That provision be immediately made, by law, for the entire completion of the west section of the Erie canal, and for the construction of the Champlain canal, from Fort Edward to the tide waters of the Hudson.
With a view to obtain all such further information, as the practical experience of the canal commissioners might enable them to communicate, in relation to the appropriations necessary to carry the measures hereby recommended into" effect, the committee addressed to them the inquiries, and received the replies, which are hereto subjoined.
Gentlemen,
The joint committee of the Senate and Assembly, to whom was referred so much of the speech of his Excellency the Governor, as relates to the internal improvements of the state, bave directed me to request of you such information as it may be in your power to communicate to them, on the following points : 1st. Whether any, and what amount of funds, in addition to those already provided for, it may be deemed
necessary to provide, for the purpose of completing the entire Erie canal, and that from Lake Champlain to the tide waters of the Hudson, and what amount may, in their judgment, be advantageously and profitably expended thereon annually.
2d. Should it be thought expedient, by the legislature, to proceed immediately to the completion of only one additional section of the Erie canal, which of those sections would it be recommended first to undertake ?
3. In the event last mentioned, what additional funds, if any, may it be necessary to provide for, and what amount may be advantageously and profitably expended on that section, the middle section, and on the entire route of the canal, from Lake Champlain to the tide waters of the Hudson, annually ?
4th. Should it be thought expedient by the legislature, to proceed immediately to the completion of the middle section only of the Erie canal, and of the entire canal from Lake Champlain to the tide waters of Hudson, what additional funds, if any, may in that event be necessary to provide for ; and what amount may be advantageously and profitably expended on those objects annually ?
5th. What progress (if any) has been made in the assessments upon lands, which are provided for by the 7th section of the act "respecting navigable communications between the great western and northern lakes and the Atlantic Ocean .^" and what are the difficulties (if any) which exist in carrying the powers thereby granted into effect ?
6th. A suggestion of all such legislative provisions as are thought necessary by the commissionBrs, to enable them to carry into effect such of the foregoing objects as may be thought expedient, and generally all such further information, touching these subjects, as it may be thought useful to communicate. By order of the committee.
In answer to the queries submitted, by you, to the canal commissioners, we would state — 1st. That the amount which could be profitably expended in any one year, would depend almost entirely on the character of the season : for example, had the construction of the canals been authorized, and the lines accurately located previous to the year 1816, it is believed that seven or eight hundred thousand dollars might have been profitably expended, during such a year; whereas, the almost continual rains of 1817 would have prevented the economical expenditure of one half that sum.
Should the completion of the whole of both canals be authorized by the legislature, it would probably be prudent to authorize the expenditure of a sum not exceeding six hundred thousand dollars, in any one year, over and above the nett avails of the canal fund ; because in a very favourable season, that amount might be required ; and every exertion should be used to advance the work, during such a season, as far as possible: for the excavation of ordinary earth, when saturated with water, is tedious and expensive, and in swampy grounds where there is difficulty in draining, it may, in many instances, be accomplished fifty per cent, cheaper in a very dry, than in a very wet season ; and in preparing and laying the foundatioa of locks, aqueducts, &c. in the beds of streams, continual freshets would produce still greater sacrifices.
that the western section should be first completed.
By a reference to the former estimates of the Commissioners, it will be perceived that it was calculated that the Erie Canal from Utica to Albany, ninety-eight miles, (and less than one-third of the whole distance) would cost ;8!2,036,177 — whereas, from Utica to Lake
Erie, 254 miles, the estimated cost was only $2,845,561, It is obvious then, that the eastern is the most difficult, and most expensive section of the Erie Canal ; and it is equally apparent, that these difficulties and expenses will be more easily overcome and obviated, by the accumulated and matured experience which will have been acquired by the Commissioners and Contractors, in the previous execution of the more easy parts of the canal. The Mohawk river furnishes at present a partial navigation, the descending trade on which is much less expensive than on land. A canal by the side of the Mohawk will, therefore, not only cost much more than an equal distance on the western section, but its immediate beneficial effects will be much less sensibly felt, because every mile of canal which is made from the Seneca river west, draws from the surrounding country an increase of trade, which not only passes over that mile, but also through the whole extent of the middle section, yielding thereby an accumulation of revenue to the state from the works already made.
The sooner the canal is extended from the Seneca river to Lake Erie, the sooner will those commercial connexions, which have been or are about to be formed, between our western citizens and Montreal, be destroyed, or prevented ; the sooner will the western forests be cleared and cultivated by an enterprising population, and the sooner will the full tide of western commerce set towards the commercial metropolis of the state.
3d. It would not lessen the expenditures but little, were the eastern section omitted ; because, were the whole authorized, the commissioners would not be able immediately to spread their exertions through the whole line ; they would probably not do much more on the eastern section, at present,than carefully to re-survey and re-examine all its difficulties, with a view to understand, as far as possible, the most practicable and economical mode of construction.
have finished their jobs of excavation by the middle of August next; and unless another section is authorized, they will be out of the employment of the state about one half the season.
5th. No progress has been made by the commissioners, to lay the assessment of two hundred and fifty thousand dollars, authorized by the seventh section of the act, entitled, " an act respecting navigable communicati^^ns between the great western and northern lakes and the Atlantic ocean." No time is mentioned in the act, when this assessment is to be laid, and it is very obvious, that it can be laid in a much more equitable manner after the canal shall have been put into operation. Indeed, the commissioners believe that justice could not be done by an immediate apportionment of this tax. Many large tracts of land adjoining the canal, and lying on a lower level, will be wholly or in part reclaimed from a marshy and unproductive state, by intercepting and carrying off, through the canal, the waters by which they had previously been overflowed, but to what extent this result will be produced, cannot, with any considerable accuracy ,be at present ascertained. Villages will also spring up, and the lands become thereby very valuable in many places, where great roads are intersected by the canal.
In nddition to these considerations for delay, the commissioners have been so incessantly occupied in devising plans, forming contracts, and attending to all their pressing and multifarious duties, that it was impossible for them, without suspending the work, to devote any time to the apportionment of this tax.
OF THE COMMITTEE ON CANALS, MARCH 14, 1820.
The committee to whom teas referred that part of his Excellency the Governor'^s speech^ which relates to the Western and J\ orthern Canals^ and various resolutions and petitions pertaining to the same, have directed their chairman further to report —
That, in reference to the resolution of the Hon. the Assembly, concerning the raising of a tax on lands adjacent to the canals, and also the resolution concerning the disbursements of money exclusively upon the eastern section of the Erie canal, and the southern parts of the Champlain canal, until the same are completed, they have requested the canal commissioners to communicate to them such information as they possessed, on the subjects of the said resolutions, and have received from them, in answer to said request, the communication, which accompanies this report.
Having maturely considered that part of the said communication, which relates to the local tax, your committee are of opinion, for the reasons therein stated, in which the canal commissioners are unanimous, that it is expedient at present, for the legislature to take any measure relating to the raising of the said tax. On the subject of directing the places on which the monies subject to the control of the canal commissioners shall be first laid out, your committee perceive that there is considerable diversity of opinion. They understandhowever,that,withoutthe interference of the legislature, it is intended that all that part of the westernsectionof theErie canal, which extends from Seneca river to Genesee river, being about sixty-three miles, and all that part of the eastern section of the same canal, which extends from Utica to the foot of the Little Falls of the Mohawk, being about twenty-six miles ;
and all that part of the Champlain canal, which extends from Fort Edward, on the Hudson river, to the lower end of the Saratoga level, being about twenty-seven miles, shall be divided into small sections, as soon as may be this season, and let out to contractors simultaneously.
Your committee have attended to the suggestions, in favour of a resolution, concerning this subject, as well as to those, against it ; and, after much deliberation, they have found themselves unable to come to a decided result. It is probable, that the different theories, as to the advantages to be expected from ac^ opting that course of expenditure, to which the board of canal commissioners are inclined, or the course indicated, in the resolution of the Assembly^ will be essentially illustrated, by the experience of the approaching season. And your committee deem it expedient, to wait for the benefit of such experience, before they interfere, in any way, to counteract or control the plans of the canal commissioners, who have hitherto managed their business with success.
Your letter, requesting from the Canal Commissioners any information which they have to communicate relating to the subject of two resolutions of the Hon. the Assembly, referred to the committee, of which you are the chairman, has been duly received, and we now transmit to you the following answer thereto.
The first of the said resolutions is in these words, " Resolved, that the committee, on that part of the speech of his Excellency, the Governor, " concerning the Western and Northern Canals, and the repeal or modification of the local tax on lands adjacent to them," be instructed to inquire into, and report upon, the ex-
pediency of bringing in a bill requiring the Canal Commissioners, (luring the present year, to raise the sums, and in the manner required in and by the seventh section of the act, entitled, " An act respecting navigable communications between the great western and northern lakes and the Atlantic ocean, passed April I5th, 1817," and in pursuance of the latter paragraph of the fifth section of the act, entitled, "An act concerning the great western and northern canals, passed April 7th, 1819."
diency of it.
Previous to its collection it would be necessary to have the district on each side of the canal, to which the tax should apply,accurately surveyed and bounded ; and as the canal line waves into frequent curves of different lengths, the labour of ascertaining and designating the outside limits of this district would be very great. If the tax were to be levied upon towns or counties or other territorial divisions, of which the limits are precisely known and described, this survey would be unnecessary. Under those sections of the canallaws, which refer to this subject, as they now stand, it would be unavoidable.
The task of apportioning the tax upon the lands and real estate subject to it, would be exceedingly burdensome : for, in order to this, the lands and real estate, must be separately assessed : and this assessment could not be judiciously made without possessing an accurate description of the property, and a thorough knowledge of all the local circumstances, which could affect its value. The extent of the business of collecting such descriptions, and inquiring into and understanding such circumstances,will be best appreciated by considering, that the length of the Eerie canal is, 353 miles, And that of the Champlain canal, 61 do.
The number of the different owners, and the various kmds of property subject to the tax, included within a territory four hundred and fourteen miles long and fifty broad, and stretching through the most populous part of the state, need only to be mentioned to impress every mind with the conviction, that the labour of making such assessment, would be enormous. And this labour could not be saved, by adopting the assessments, made under the authority of the different towns included within the taxable limits ; because it is well known to those, who have had much to do with town assessments, that there is great inequality in the valuations of property, indifferent towns of the same county, and still greater inequality, in the valuations of property in different counties. These inequalities have been heretofore complained of, and efforts have been made to correct them since the imposition of a state tax. If this local tax should be enforced, the amount of it, upon a part of our citizens, being much greater than any state tax heretofore levied upon them, would induce them to urge a new assessment, to be applied upon uniform principles, to all the lands and real estate subject to the tax. And, as a line twenty-five miles, on each side of the canals, would inevitably necessitate new assessments of portions of iarms and other real estate, which would be divided by such line, that circumstance would so fortify tKe claim of these citizens as to render it irresistible
But if the town assessments should be adopted, the labour of apportioning the tax, upon the tands and real estate required to pay it, according to the benefit, which they shall be considered, by the Canal Commissioners, as deriving from the making of the canals, would be equivalent to that of the assessment. It would involve tbe same necessity of particular and separate descriptions of every kind of property subject to the tax, and a much more difficult estimate of the circumstances, which might be supposed ^to give that property value,— ^ more difficult, because such estimate must be made, without the light of experience, as to the proportion, in
property, in their vicinity.
But let us suppose, that the multiplied details of assessing the property, and apportioning the tax, had been entered upon and gone through with, the Canal Commissioners are then, to make rules and regulations, for collecting the tax, which may be done by sale of the lands and real estate, or otherwise ; nothing more being necessary, to make these rules and regulations of the most binding and effective authority than the sanction and approval of the chancellor and judges of the supreme court, or a majority of them. The delegation of authority so extensive as that of making rules and regulations, which, by the letter of the law, under which they are made, may produce the transfer of a part of the real estate of half this community, appears to be very exceptionable. Nothing but the strongest necessity could justify its exercise, by any body but the legislature.
When these rules and regulations are made, and the assessment rolls completed, containing exact descriptions of all the property taxed, the valuation of it, and the amount of tax apportioned to each individual on it, then, a numerous body of collectors are to be appointed, who must give adequate security for the faithful performance of their duties respectively, and be required to make returns, on or before a certain time, of all the monies collected, by them. These returns must be made, to persons of fidelity and competent intelligence, who must carefully examine them, and who will most assuredly, find them very incomplete. After the labour of many successive years, to perfect the assessment rolls, for the purposes of ordinary town and county taxtation, the description of property is generally very imperfect, and arrears are often charged upon it, from year to year, for the want of such a description as will serve for its legal conveyance. And it is notorious that the amount, actually collected, always falls far short of the sum directed to be collected ; — but as the system of taxation, for these purposes is in uniform application
every year, there are various ways provided by law, by which the defects and errors of one year, are supplied and corrected, in succeeding years. It is certain, that the assessment rolls, for the local tax, and the returns of the collectors thereof, would be more defective and erroneous than those of common collectors, and the errors and deficiencies, in their case, could be remedied only, by the labour of a new assessment, apportionment, and collection.
The inconvenience of this mode of raising money Would soon be apparent to every body, and it would become justly odious. It would also be oppressive : For the great number of persons whom it would employ, and the responsibility and duration of their services, would necessarily lead to great expense. All these services must be reasonably paid: and when the money raised in this way should be counted, and the accumulated services required in order to its collection, should be paid for and deducted, it would probably be found, that not more than half of it would remain applicable to the construction of the canals.
Before the provision for a local tax was adopted, in 1817, a joint committee of the legislature made an elaborate report to the assembly, in which they manifest their opinion that such a tax should be eventually levied from every section of the state, which it was believed would derive peculiar benefit from the canals. The report alluded to, is dated 19 March, 1817, and the following is an extract from it, to wit : " A tax to be laid upon the valuations of real and personal property, in the counties, cities or towns, which will be particularly benefited, by the construction of these canals, of from one third to three fourths of a mill upon a dollar. At the places to which this tax should apply, and the proportion of its application to each, your committee think should be as follows :
The towns of Waterford, Stillwater, Saratoga, Northumberland, and Moreau, in the county of Saratoga, at ^ mill do. 1,762
That the places above enumerated, and not included within the limits of twenty-five miles, on each side of the canals, will be specially benefited, by these works, cannot be doubted, and therefore, it appears just, that if a local tax upon lands and real estate, is to be imposed at all, it ought to extend to them.
But there is now a local tax paid to a large amount, by all the country parts of the state, in the vicinity of the Erie canal, to which the law applies. The tax referred to, is the duty of twelve and a half cents^ per bushel, on all salt manufactured, in the Western District.
The duty on salt is paid cheerfully, and it is of easy collection. The places at which it is manufactured are all so conveniently near the line of the Erie canal, or the Salina-side-cut, as to enjoy all the facilities of tranportation afforded by them. These facilities will immediately lessen the expense of fuel^ at the salt-works, which will produce a proportionate diminution, in the price of salt there. And, as by means of these canals, and the waters with which they connect, the same boats will be able to pass^ early in the ensuing season, without unloading, all the way from the salt works to Schenectady, on the one hand, and to the southern extremities of the Cayuga and Seneca lakes, on the other, it is certain, that the market for this article will be at once greatly extended ; and of course there will be collected a proportionate encrease of duty. And this consideration seems to render, a resort to a local tax, upon lands and real estate, at present, altogether inexpedient.
absolutely impracticable.
The 7th section of the act passed April 15th, 1817, and referred to in the resolution, makes it the duty of the Canal Commissioners " to raise the sum of $250,000, to be appropriated towards the making and completing the said canals from the Mohawk river to the Seneca river, and from Lake Champlain to Hudson's river, by causing to be assessed and levied, in such manner as the said Commissioners may determine and direct, the said sum of $250,000, upon the lands and real estate lying along the route of the said canals, and within twenty-five miles of the same on each side thereof.'''' and the 5th section of the act passed April 7th, 1819, also referred to, in the resolution, suspends the raising of the money directed in the 7th section aforesaid, until the further
order of the legislature thereon, and provides " that, whenever the legislature shall direct the assessment and collection of such tax, a similar tax shall be assessed and collected, on the sections authorized by this act^ and on the like principles as declared in said 7th section." The sections of the two canals authorized to be made, by the act of the 7th April, 1819, were both the eastern and western sections of the Erie canal, and all that part of the Champlain candl, which extends from Fort Edward down the Hudson river, to its navigable waters. Now the line of the Erie canal, through all that part, of the western section, lying between Genesee river and Lake Erie, is not yet located ; neither is the line of that part of the eastern section, which extends from the western limits of Herkimer county to the Hudson river; nor the southern extremity of the line of the Champlain canal. In all places, where the canal-line is not yet definitively established, the district of country, from which the tax should be levied, is not ascertained, a compliance with the resolution, in respect to such places, is therefore, at present, obviously impracticable.
The second, of the said resolutions, is in these words, " Resolved, that the said committee also enquire into, and report upon, the expediency of directing the Canal Commissioners to apply the funds, under their control, in constructing the northern canal, and the western canal, from Utica to the Hudson, and of delaying the construction of a canal west of Seneca river, until the northern canal, and the western canal from Utica to the Hudson, be completed."
After much enquiry and deliberation, it is believed to be wholly inexpedient to subject the Canal Commissioners, to the direction mentioned in this resolution.
1st. Because, about twenty miles of the canal west of the Seneca river, have already been contracted for to individuals, all of whom have been at great expense, in making the necessary preparations for prosecuting their contracts ; and most of whom have been, for some time past, with several hundred hands, actually at work upon them. These contracts were entered into, under the
authority of the canal-laws; and the expense of their full performance, will probably exceed ;S^00,000, of which several thousand dollars have already been earned, by labour laid out upon them.
Under this sanction of the legislature, to violate contracts, thus legally made, could be justified only, by the most pressing considerations ; and, in this case, besides involving a breach of public faith, and the disrepute of legislative instability, it would be doing the greatest injustice to the contractors, unless heavy damages were paid them.
The expense of preparation, in building, the necessary huts for the men and shelters for the cattle, in purchasing spades, shovels, picks, wheel-barrows, ploughs, scrapers, chains, crow-bars, carts, horsingblocks, wheeling-planks, axes, grubbing hoes, wheels, screws, pike-poles, ladders, cranes, horses, oxen, corn, oats, hay, flour, meat and vegetables, and of transporting them all to the scene of labour, is by no means small. The advances made? on the middle section, for these purposes, was generally from $ 300 to $2000, to each contractor, depending upon the extent of his contract. West of the Seneca river, no advances were made, before the commencement of the present year, because the commissioners had no funds, in their hands for such purpose, before that time. And but few advances have been made there since. The expense of preparation, nevertheless, has been incurred. And this expense, together with that of the labour laid out, on the jobs, would, in a great measure, be thrown away. But the loss of this expense and labour, and the disappointment and chagrin of the contractors, would not be the only evils produced by this course.
The owners of the land, through which the line of the canal is carried, while the work is in progress, are subject to many inconveniences. Their fields are thrown open, or their fences are new-laid, for temporary security while the work is going on. The trees, throughout all the woodland, are grubbed up, and cleared away, or felled, for the width of eight rods ;
and out of these trees, timber is cut and hewed, for the foundation of the locks, aqueducts, culverts and waste-weirs, and for constructing the road and frame bridges, aqueducts, and fences. Embankments are commenced across the ravines and vallies, which afford channels for the streams and springs. And while these embankments are incomplete new channels are provided, in many cases, which subject the adjoining lands to more or less hazard of injury. Wherever excavation is begun, drains must be opened, which will naturally discharge all the water running into the excavation. And in times of heavy rain, this will be in such quantity, wherever the line of excavation is long, and the drain from the land into it extensive, as to produce torrents of sufficient power to gully and deface the ground below.
The accumulation of mischiefs, which would surely result, from leaving any considerable portion of the canal-line unfinished, for years, after it was once begun and brought into the situation above mentioned' should not lightly be encountered. Among these mischiefs, in addition to those above enumerated, must be reckoned, the loss, of much valuable timber to the public, and of the use of many acres of his land to the farmer, who would, moreover, be exposed to the expense and vexation, in many instances, of having his usual and most important passages, for all agricultural objects, effectually obstructed on his own farm. It is not in the nature of man to hinder circumstances like these from producing the most untoward effects. And it behooves every friend to the canals, before he contributes to their existence, to consider well their bearing and their influence.
2d. Because, in the prosecution of undertakings so extensive and novel as these canals, it is most prudent and safe, to encounter the places of least difficulty first, and afterwards proceed, with every attainable advantage of experience, to the places of greater difficulty. From the report of the Canal Commissioners dated the 17th February, 1817, it appears, that the whole ex-
by 163, the number of miles, as measured on the canal line explored in 1816 between those two places, audit will be found, that the average expense per mile is glO. 944. In the same report, the estimated expense of the canal, from Utica to the Hudson river, is stated at $ 2, 067,457, which, divided by 98, the number of miles as measured on the canal line, between those two places, shows the expense per mile to be ^21,096. This difference, in expense, was intended to be a correct indication of the difference, in the difficulty of constructing the canal, through the two sections. And, it ought always to be remembered, that, in proportion to the difficulty of making a canal, in any given place, is the chance of expensive contingencies there, even after long experience in the business of making canals. With little experience these chances would be greatly increased.!
The canals have hitherto gone on prosperously. Let us not check their progress, by imprudence. And no one will deny, that a large amount of unforeseen expenses, in connexion with occasional miscarriages, would essentially impair the energy, alacrity and sound discretion, to which the public anxiously looks, for the entire accomplishment of these important projects.
3d. Because, by proceeding immediately with the Erie canal, west of the Seneca river, the ultimate entire construction, of both canals, is ensured : whereas the application of the funds announced, in the resolution, would subject the canal line, west of the Seneca river to the hazard of eventual abandonment. If the Champlain canal were now finished to the tide-waters of the Hudson, and the eastern section of the Erie canal were completed, it is obvious, that the most direct and apparent local advantages, of these works, would be secured to a majority of our population. Every facility of transportation and mutual intercourse, which tiie canals would ever produce, would then be enjoyed, by all our citizens, from the mouth of the Hudson, to the northern extremity of lake Champlain, and from
Ontario county.
Thus situated, it would perhaps be calculating too much upon the foreseeing wisdom or public spirit of any set of men, to expect them to advocate, or contribute to, the disbursements necessary for the continuance of the canal one hundred and sixty-three miles, through a country, which is now averred, by those who think, they have a local interest in opposition to the canal, to be sufficiently well accommodated for navigation, by the waters of lake Ontario. Men, of narrow minds and selfish spirits, would be disposed to argue, from the income, then derived, from that part of the canals, which would be navigable, on the capital expended in their construction, to the profit which ought to be anticipated from their entire completion. And this argument would have seeming weight with such as, not having meditated on the subject much, would be backwand to comprehend the interesting truth, that this state can never enjoy a tenth part of the advantages of the Erie canal, till the tide of inland commerce, of which it is to be the channel, is permitted to flow, without a mile of portage, from the great lakes to the Atlantic.
The great fear entertained, by the friends of the canals, since its practicability has been experimentally demonstrated, has been founded upon the influence o( local feelings, and the deluded calculations of local interests. And it cannot be reasonably imagined, that the way to remove these fears, is to increase the territory, over which such interests are likely to prevail.
The plan of operations adopted, by the Canal Commissioners, of advancing with the Champlain canal to the foot of the Saratoga level, and of hastening the construction of the western section of the Erie canal, while they address themselves more gradually to the diflicult places on the eartern section, seems to comport, better than any other with prudence, and with an earnest de>sire of seeing the wLole works completed, within the shortest tims, and with the least possible drawback from unfortunate contingencies.
While the works are prosecuted in this way, much useful experience will be gradually acquired, without the danger of serious and expensive errors. And no man can, for a moment, conceive, if a canal communication was all the way opened from lake Erie to the Little Falls of the Mohawk, or to the city of Schenectady, that any physical difficulty now existing, or political considerations, which might be conjured up, could then be able to withstand the force of that command for its extension to the Hudson, which would issue from every district, county and town, in the state.
4th, Because, the state has already obtained three valuable donations of land, from the country west of the Seneca river, for the increase of the canal fund, to wit, that of John Greig, Esq. as agent for
and that from the Hon. Gideon Granger, from his own estate, of 1000 „ By a bond duly executed by the donor, this last denation has been guaranteed to produce to the cana! fund, when the western section is completed, the sum ^5000. And Col. Troup, the agent of the Pultney estate situate in the same region, is now urging his Principals, with zeal and a prospect of success, to make a liberal donation, in money, to the same fund.
These acts of munificence, while they furnish the most irresistible evidence of honest and strong devotion to the canal interests, and contribute, in no mean measure, to exalt the character of the state, have also some claim to invite the expenditure of funds in the west. It would doubtless give great impression, to the recommendation, of neglecting for the present, the western part of the canal-line, and of confining the disbursements of money exclusively to the Mohawk and Hudson rivers, if those who live in their vicinity, and enjoy all the gifts of fortune, were to enlarge the canal fund, by similar liberalities.
the canals, would probably accumulate in a greater ratio, compared with the expenditure, by going west, than otherwise. To evince this probability, the follow-^ ing facts and considerations are suggested.
Whenever, in its progress from Seneca river west, the canal reaches the Genesee river, that stream will afford an additional navigation connected with it, for the distance of near forty miles : that is, by making sixty-three miles of canal, at about half the expense, per mile, at which the eastern section is estimated, the state will have the benefit of one hundred miles of interior navigation, through a country, at least as populous and productive as any other equal extent of country, in the state. The surplus productions, of Ontario county alone, have been reckoned, as high, in some seasons, as g600,G00. And, by the published statements, of the collector of the port of Genesee, it appears, that the export, from the mouth of that river, of articles growing and manufactured, in that neighbourhood, for the last two years, has been to the value of about ^900,000.
From the Genesee river, on the most northerly canal route, about seventy-two miles running west, will lead to the waters of the Tonewanta creek. These waters flow into the Niagara river opposite GrandIsland : and as they are deep and still, from the point where the canal will intersect them, to the place of their discharge, as soon as the canal reaches them, they will afford a navigable communication with Lake Erie, obstructed, only by the current of the Niagara, which is very gentle, except at Black Rock. Immediately after this consummation is effected, that great revolution, which the construction of the Erie canal is destined to produce, in the trade, agriculture, manufactures, wealth, political influence, and public character, of this state, will begin speedily to develope itself. The difficulties presented at Black Rock, and thence to the Tonewanta, may be overcome at leisure. The expense of overcoming them was originally computed by the canal commissioners, at $205,377, Of
this sum about 1^10,000, would be required to make a dam and temporary lock of a little more than four feet lift, near the mouth of the Tonewanta creek, which would be necessary, in order to prevent a more expensive operation of deep cutting from the said creek northerly through the mountain ridge, and, in reference to the ulterior purpose, of obviating the impediment, of the Black Rock rapid. In deciding upon the relative profit, of first taking up the eastern or western section of the canal, the residue of this sum ought to be deducted from the aggregate of estimates, west of the Seneca river, because its disbursement might be postponed,to the all other expenses ofjconstructing the canal. For so soon as the navigation is opened to the Niagara river above the falls, the grand object of a navigable communication with the entire lake country will be secured, and that, in such a way, as will effectually induce that country, to make us the most acceptable and profitable returns.
Before endeavouring to give some outline of the wide field of internal trade, which a boatable connexion with Lake Erie would afford us, it may be useful to state more of the advantages, which we should derive, from opening the western section of the canal in preference to the eastern, without adverting at all to exterior territories.
This course would speedily enhance the value of the donations of land to the canal fund, and render them all absolute. If the harbour required at the east end of Lake Erie should be constructed, in one of the modes proposed, to wit, by building a dam from our shore below the Tonewanta creek to Grand Island, and then connecting that island, by a wall of timber, earth and stone, with Bird Island, at the foot of the lake, the state land on the margin of the Niagara river and Grand Island would, at once, become more valuable than any other equal quantity, in the western district. The dam and wall would afford a perpendicular head of water, that could never fail, of near five feet, for the length of about three miles, at the very place,
where hydraulic establishments would be more valuable than at any other, in the United States. And if any other plan of a harbour is adopted, the value of these islands will be essentially increased.
In all cases, the construction of good roads and canals.from large commercial towns,into any interior country,affbrd all their benefits^to a range of that interior country, which constantly widens as the distance, from the town increases. In other words, on a canal, at a point twenty miles from the market town, to which it leads, the farmer would perhaps tind a saving, in transportation, by bringing his produce to the canal, from a dis= tance of five miles ; while at a point two hundred miles from the town, he would find a saving, in transportation, by bringing his produce, from a distance of fifty miles. On the Erie canal this principle has a striking application. The width of country to be benefited, by this canal, in its advance west from Albany always increases, but not exactly in proportion to the distance. From Albany to Utica, that width increases slowly, while from Utica to Lake Erie, it increases rapidly. If the canal were complete, no one would doubt this. It holds good, in a great degree of the western section, before the whole is completed. Besides, as the canal is carried west from the middle section, it will not only invite to its use the surplus produce of a more extensive region, but every ton of property, which it bears to market will pay toll for a much longer distance.
It is certainly good economy, after large expenditures have been made, in the prosecution of any enterprize, with a view to pecuniary profit, to lay out succeeding expenses, in such a way, as will render the first, most productive. A given number of tons transported from Seneca river to Albany would pay twice as much toll, as they would from Utica to Albany, even if navigation extended throughout the whole distance. And it is material here to remark, that the whole length of the eastern section must be finished, before much profit can be derived, from using any part of it. This section runs, along a stream, which with the improvements on
it, now prelBents a parallel and continued navigation, for eighty miles. For descending transportation, this navigation is very valuable, during a great part of the year. The tolls on the canals and locks, which constitute a part of it, for lading in general, is $5,25 per ton, charged both ways, besides a charge, on the capacity of the boat, of $4 31, for one carrying ten tons, and thirty-seven and a half cents for every addition£»l ton. After the state becomes the owner of these canals and locks, and takes off, or essentially lessens the exorbitant toll at present imposed on the passage of all kinds of property through them, as it certainly will do, this season, the value of this navigation will be exceedingly increased ; for it may be used, by boats coming all the way from the remotest western limits, to which the canal may be completed, to Schenectady, without changing their loading. And it is well known, that the amount of tonnage annually carried down the valley of the Mohawk, is at present but a small part of that which is carried up. For the introduction of salt and plaister, to a market as far down as Schenectady, this river is almost equal to a canal. After our great work is done, it will be forever abandoned. But why incur the expense, of $2,067,457, in constructing this section, while there is now an easy connexion, with all the useful part of the river, from that portion of the canal, which is completed, and while, without the construction of the western section, the advantages anticipated from this, would be but very partially exhibited ? Because the river is not navigable throughout, or not so convenient, where it is navigable, as a canal would be, shall we altogether disdain to use it }
Let us now attend to some facts, that are calculated to illustrate the subject of the inland trade, which we may hope to derive from the immediate construction of the western section of the canal. These facts will be very miscellaneous, but they are believed to be stated on good authority.
same lake is not known, but is considerable.
During six weeks, in the year 1818, the number of boats loaded with the produce of the country, chiefly our own, which passed down the St. Lawrence, were counted, near its head, and they averaged fifteen a day, for that time.
The north part of the state of Ohio is favoured with numerous rivers, which afford navigation southward into the country from ten to forty miles ; and on the margin of several of these streams inexhaustible quarries of excellent grindstones are opened, which now supply the demand for that article, in our state for one hundred miles east of Buffalo notwithstanding the expense of land carriage. And on Rocky river, within half a mile of its navigation, there is an excellent coalmine.
The manufacture of pot and pearl ashes, in that state is considerable, and it would be much increased, by affording to them the facilities of transportation, which would be offered, by the construction of the western section of the Erie canal. For they would avail themselves of these facilities, for the Montreal market, by coming through the canal to the mouth of Genesee river, and for the New- York market, by coming through the canal, in the same boat, from Buffalo to Schenectady. With the destruction of their forests, the foundation of this trade, is rapidly passing away.
The soil of that state is well adapted for pasturage, and the raising of wheat and Indian corn; and its exports of flour, beef and pork, are fast increasing. Some of these articles are sent west for the supply of new settlements, some are sent to the United States' garri-
gara river.
The imports of that state are, by the way of NewOrleans, Baltimore, Philadelphia, New-York, and Montreal. The greatest portion of these imports are from Philadelphia, by the way of Pittsburgh. A very able pamphlet published, in 1818, at Baltimore, on the subject of the communications proposed between the Atlantic and western states, contains the following, to wit: " A computation has been made, in Philadelphia, that ten waggons, on an average, leave that place for Pittsburg every day., loaded with an average freight of $200. This gives for the annual amount of the fi-eight $730,000. If we take eight dollars to be the average price of freight (^which their writers state it is) then 8,730,000, will give 91,250 cwt. as the quantity carried. It is difficult to fix an everage value to this merchandise, but it is a low estimate if we value it at $200 per cwt. round. — Then 9 ! ,250 cwt. will give a gross amount of 18,250,000 dollars, the value of merchandise waggoned out, every year, from Philadelphia to Pittsburgh.
If this calculation, from data furnished at Philadelphia, surprise us, by the greatness of its amount, let us try how it will agree with one, from data entirely different, furnished from Pittsburgh. Henry Montgomery, keeper of the turnpike gate, at Chesnut Ridge, between Stoystown and Greensburgh, made an official return, from which it appears, that there passed through his gate, during the year ending May 1818, among other things, 281 four-horse, 2412 five-horse, and 2698 sixhorse teams. In order to make every allowance^, we throw out the four-horse teams entirely ; and to allow for wag2;ons returning eastwardly, we will take only half the nuinber of five and sii-horse teams. This will give 2555 teams, which on a moderate calculation, must carry an average of 35 cwt. The waggons therefore, going westwardly, carry 89125 cwt. which, at an average of $200, gives the value of merchandize, transported to Pittsburgh, $17,885,00."
When the western section of the Erie canal is done, a large proportion of this immense trade will not only be supplied from New-York, but, the articles of which it consists, will be transported through our canal, and, by the imposition of a reasonable transit duty, they will contribute to the augmentation of our canal fund. The people of Ohio feel a deep and lively interest in our canal, and they are every year, seeking more extended commercial connexions with us. Goods have been lately purchased in New-York, and sent thence to Albany in a sloop, thence to Buffalo in waggons, thence to Huron, in a sloop, and thence one hundred and five miles into the country in waggons, at a less expense than they could have been sent for, from Philadelphia. And respectable men, of this city, have recently advertised, to carry goods from New-York, by the way of Albany, and through the western district, to Pittsburgh, cheaper than the expense of carryingthem, to that place from Philadelphia. The objection to this route has been the length of time it requires. But this objection will be removed, or if not wholly, it will be more than counterbalanced, by further deductions of expense, when water carriage may be had from Schenectady to the south shore of Lake Erie.
The impression arising from these facts, undoubtedly is, that a much more profitable result would be ensured to the state, by the construction of the western section, so far as it respects a trade, in articles generally produced, or required, in the country, than would, by the construction of the eastern section.
But the articles of plaster and salt, furnished in inexhaustible abundance along the line of the middle section, are of great importance, in settling the question of pecuniary profit, and of course, intimately connected with the best hopes of the friends of the canals. How will these be affected by ope^iing the western section ?
1st. Of Plaster. — The middle section of the canal, having this season a navigable connevion with the Mohawk river, when the tolls of the Western Inland
Lock Navigation Company, are taken off or greatly reduced, the transportation of this article will be so cheap, as to induce its being brought, from the west, to supply the market as far down as that river is navigable. And it is most probable that the country above Stillwater, to the eastern limits of the state, may obtain, it, from there, upon better terms than they can, from any other quarter. It is believed that the plaster of the west may be afforded at Schenectady ,whenever the tolls are taken off from the Mohawk navigation, as low as four dollars per ton.
But the horse's services would not be required, on the Mohawk, and the hands are supposed to return with an empty boat, besides being one more than would be wanted, except in returning. These circumstances show, that a reasonable toll might be imposed, and ^^t the business, at the price above mentioned, would afford a living profit. And the transportation could be carried on, in boats of twenty tons burthen, more than two months in the year, — ^long enough to »tock the market.
Then in opposition to the additional country to be supplied with that article from the west, by opening the eastern section of the canal, may be put, that part of west Pennsylvania, which may be easily approached from the waters of Allegany river. The country allu-
(led to, is well adapted to the use of plaster, and now obtains it in small quantities, even at the price of three dollars per bushel. This plaster goes from our state, by way of the south end of the Seneca lake, Bath, and the Allegany river. When the canal is opened to the Genesee, it may be taken, in boats, from the quarry, to the foot of the Gardeau falls on the Genesee, and thence by land, to the navigable waters of the Allegany, with half the distance of land transportation, to which it is now subjected. And this would lead to a considerable trade, in that article, with the counties of Warren, Venango, Mercer, Armstrong, Butler and Allegany.
2d. Of Salt. — The Mohawk river will afford the same facilities for the transportation of salt, that it will for plaster. And the market for this article may be extended further east by avoiding the cost of the barrel. For when it can be loaded, at the works, into a boat, from which it need not be unloaded until it passes into the store-house at Schenectady, it will be brought there in bulk. From the extension of the market east, therefore, before the construction of the eastern section, we may expect a great increase of the revenue, from salt.
From the Conemaugh works in Pennsylvania, situated on a creek, which falls into the Allegany river thirty-five miles above Pittsburgh, The salt made at these works, is better than any other made in the valley of the Ohio, though not so good as Onondaga salt. It cannot be sold at Pittsburgh for less than ^7.50 per barrel. The neighbourhood of the springs abound in coal, which is obtained at little cost ; but it is necessary to bore three hundred feet through rock to procure the water, and when procured, it is not very strong. Last year these works sent two thousand barrels to Pittsburgh. The springs were but lately discovered, in the examinations, which were induced by the scarcity and high price of salt, in that country, during the war. The proprietors have not been able to
already to be neglected.
From the Great Kanhawa river, in Virginia. These works have been recently monopolized, in consequence of which the price of salt, in their neighbourhood, has risen. Shafts are sunk here very deep, through solid rock, for water, and after the water has been obtained at great expense, several springs have wholly failed. The salt manufactured here, is of an inferior quality. It is generally sold in large quantities^ near the Ohio river, and above Louisville, at $6 per barrel.
From Kentucky ; in which state, there are five places where extensive manufactories of it are established. These are at the Upper and Lower Blue Springs, at the springs on Licking river, at the Big-bone-lick, at Dennon's licks, and at Bullet's lick. From these places salt has been furnished to the surrounding country, at one dollar per bushel. The water is obtained stronger than that of the ocean, by sinking wells from thirty to forty feet. The whole quantity manufactured, in this state, in 1810, was 324,870 bushels.
From the state of Illinois; where about 200,000 bushels are annually manufactured, at the works of the United States, on Saline river. At these works it is commonly sold at seventy cents per bushel.
Mr. Herger, a merchant of Cincinnati, last spring, purchased four hundred barrels of Onondaga salt, to transport and sell at his place of residence. There \Vere sent, of the same salt, to Sandusky, last fall, not less than five thousand barrels, of which a part was carried to Columbus, the capital of Ohio, by land ; and, at the port of Erie, on the south shore of the lake ol
years ending the 1st January last, 27,900 barrels.
These facts prove that the people of Ohio, inhabiting both her northern and southern borders, are desirous of obtaining our salt. But the increase of their demand for it, under present circumstances, is very small. Not half so much of it is now sent to Pittsburgh as there was ten years ago. Gen. Porter, one of the lessees of the Niagara portage, in a speech, delivered in congress, in 1810, on the subject of internal improvements, having first mentioned the Niagara portage, says, " On the south side of Lake Erie, in the state of Pennsylvania, there is another portage of fifteen miles over an artificial road, from Presqu'isle to French creek, a branch of the Allegany, and which is navigable for boats carrying two hundred barrels. Over these two portages were sent, during the last summer, more than 100,000 bushels of salt, manufactured in the interior of the state of New- York, and transported, through Lakes Ontario and Erie, across these portages, and down to Pittsburgh, for the use of the inhabitants of the Ohio and its tributary streams. This salt trade was commenced about seven years ago, and has becQ increasing ever since, at the rate of twenty -^ve per cent, a year. And if the great line of navigation, to which I shall presently call the attention of the house, were opened, the people of the Ohio, and its various waters, would be supplied, with that great and necessary article of life, fifty per cent, cheaper than it now costs them." The inhabitants of the country referred to, in this extract, have since that period increased three fold, and yet the trade in salt, carried on from Salina with them, has suffered great diminution.
The expense of transportation from Pittsburgh to Louisville is from forty to fifty cents per cwt. when the quantity is considerable. And salt from ISalina may now be offered at Pittsburgh as follows, to wit : Value at Salina, including duties, per barrel, %2 Expense of transportation, thence to Oswego,
In the existing state of things, the expense of transporting a barrel of salt, from Salina to Erie, according to the above statement, is $2 25. When the western section of the canal is made, it may be carried, in the same boat, from one of these places to the other, as the boats, which navigate the St. Lawrence, now pass from that river to Oswego; and then the price of transportation between them will be diminished more than a dollar per barrel.
From these calculations, it is probable, that a barrel of salt may be manufactured at Salina, and sent to Louisville, on the Ohio, when the western section of the canal is made, for the sum of five dollars.
Throughout the valley of the Ohio, Onondaga salt is greatly preferred to any other, within their reach. And when it can be sold, as low down as Louisville, at $5 per barrel, it will take place of all other salt in the market, from that plac^e northerly. Can it be questioned, then, that an immense trade in it, will at once spring up from the completion of the western section of the canal ?
The reason why our salt is manufactured at so much less expense than any other, in the United States is, the water is much stronger than any other, and is procured in quantities that defy the fear of failure, at very little expense. Its strength is such, that from a gallon of it, may be obtained, from sixteen to twenty-six ounces of salt.
The quantity of salt annually imported and consumed in the United States, for ten years ending with 1807, was, in the average, 2,888,385 bushels. The quantity now annually imported and consumed is upwards of 3,000^000 of bushels : and there are made in the country about 2,000,000 of bushels— in all 5,000,000 of bushels. This quantity divided among 10,000,000 of in-
gives to each half a bushel a year.
Grazing countries consume more salt than grain countries, and countries remote from the sea, than those which are near to it, if the population be equal.
With these facts in view, is it not reasonable to be believed, that the construction of the western section of the canal, would open a more extensive demand for the salt, which adds to the canal fund, than the opening of the eastern section possibly could ? Salt at NewYork, which is preferred to that of Salina, by the inhabitants of the eastern and southern parts of our state, though it may not be so good, is sold at from forty to fifty cents per bushel, of fifty-six pounds. At Montreal it is sold at from twenty to thirty cents. And from this last place, it may be sent to lake Champlain, for six cents a bushel. The difference between the prices at New-York and Montreal is occasioned chiefly, by the payment, at the former, of a duty of twenty cents per bushel imposed by Congress on salt imported. If salt comes, from Montreal into this state, it must pay the same duty. And it should not be forgotten, on this sul)ject, that as Congress impose the duty. Congress may take it off It was taken off, and remained off from the 3Jst December 1807 to the 1st of January 1814, Before the eastern section of the canal could be completed, the finances of the United States may be so regulated as not to require it. If the duty should be taken off, the sale of salt from Onondaga, in the valley of the Hudson, would be effectually debarred, for the same reason that now prevents our citizens from conveying it down the St. Lawrence within a hundred miles of Montreal.
But supposing the duty to remain unaltered, is it reasonable to expect, that a greater salt trade, from Salina would be promoted, by the construction of the eastern section, than w^ould be, by that of the western ? Number the population of our state, that will not be supplied with salt from Salina after this year, from the city of New-York, to the north end of Lake Champlain, together with the people of those parts of Vermont,
Massachusetts, Connecticut and New-Jersey, which now procure their salt from New-York ; and if they shall all obtain their supply, of that article, from Salina, after the communication with the Hudson is perfected, they will not equal the population that will ask their supply, of the same salt in the west, after deducting those who are now supplied with it, in that quarter. And the population of the western territory, embraced within the supply, is increasing at the rate of seven or eight per cent, annually ; while that of the eastern, does not increase at a rate exceeding one per cent.
In the preceding facts and remarks, no mention hsas been made of the expense of opening the Champlain canal, from Fort Edward to Waterford. The original estimate of this, was $621,000, though, from more minute examination of that country, recently made, and the discovery of unexpected facilities, the cost will not probably much exceed ,^400,000. In determining on the relative profit of the plan of operations actuallyadopted, and that of the resolution, under consideration, this amount should be added against the latter.
Other weighty reasons might be adduced, to justify the course, taken by the canal commissioners, but the foregoing are deemed satisfactory and sufficient.
The more we examine into the topography of our state and the adjoining country, and consider the sources and principles of inland trade, the more we shall be persuaded, that the richest results, of our great enterprises, cannot be enjoyed, until all the parts of them have received their last hand. When they are complete, the w ealth of every island and every lake, of every continent and every ocean, which is visited by the light of heaven, will contribute to weary their waters with conveyance.
The commissioners of the canal fund, 'pursuant to the directions of the act, entitled " an act respecting navigable communications between the great western and northern lakes knd the Atlatic ocean," passed April 15, 1817, respectfully submit the following REPORT :
REVENUE
The revenue of the " canal fund" for the year 1821, is estimated at two hundred and ten thousand dollars, derivable from the following sources, viz : Duty on goods sold at auction, 115,000
PAYMENTS IN 1820.
The payments made by the commissioners of the canal fund in 1 820, were as follows, viz ; To the canal commissioners, 668,900
To the New- York State Bank and Mechanics and Farmers Bank; amount which those banks stood overdrawn, 31st Dec. 1819, 6,724 69i For interest on loans, 70,627 27
To the Western Inland Lock Navigation Company, for damages sustained by them, by their investing in the state, the lands, waters canals, &c. &c. claimed by them, including the interest of the state in the stock of that company, Jg]51, 820 80
And the payments, to 899,503
Which leaves a balance in bank, to the credit of the commissioners of the canal fund, on the 31st Dec. 1820 of g!l7,568 82
The commissioners of the canal fund are authorized to borrow annually, a sum, which, with the revenues of the fund, shall not, in any one year, exceed g 600,000. By the act, ch. 187. of the last session, however, they were authorized, in addition to the formf er authority, to borrow a sum, which should be sufficient to pay " the damages to be sustained by the western inland lock navigation company, by investing in the people of the state, all the lands, waters, canals, locks, feeders, and appurtenances, claimed by the said company."— For this purpose, the commissioners obtained a loan of ^151,000. The same act also authorized the commissioners of the canal fund to borrow, if required by the canal commissioners for expenditure on the canals in 1820, ^122,500 more ; and the same having been so required, was accordingly borrowed, and makes the aggregate amount of the loans obtained in 1820, exclusive of the premiums obtained upon them, 693,500 dollars.
The amount required to extinguish the interest of the individual stockholders in the western inland lock navigation company, was only ^91,616 : but this board deemed it most correct that the value of the interest of the state in that company, amounting to ^60,204 80, should become a charge upon the canal fund, and therefore borrowed a sum sufficient for the whole, and paid the value of the interest of the state, into the treasury.
And their expenditures to 2,208,758 12
Unexpended balance, $ 17,568 82 A survey and appraisement of the lands appropriated to the canal fund, at the Onondaga salt works, is in progress : and these lands will probably be opened for sale in the course of the year. The lands on Grand Island, cannot, with propriety, it is thought, be surveyed or sold, until the division line between this state and the province of Upper Canada shall have been established. No steps have yet been taken by this board to ascertain the value of the lands granted as donations to the state for the benefit of the canal fund. They amount to 104,633 acres, and are situated in Cattaraugus county, with the exception of 1000 acres which lie in Steuben county.
most respectfully report.
That in pursuance of a concurrent resolution of the honourable the Senate and Assembly, passed 1 3th April last, they have caused a survey to be made from the mouth of the Oswego river up the same to Three river Point, thence up the Seneca river to the outlet of the Onondago lake, and thence up the said outlet the length thereof, with a view of ascertaining the improvements of which the waters of these streams are susceptible, as respects their navigation. That they have caused plans of such improvements to be devised, and estimates of their expense to be formed ; and that although it has not been in their power, from the constant pressure of other duties devolved on them, by law, personally to inspect the said waters, and to consider on the spot, of the plans and expenses of such improvements, they have no doubt that such improvements are practicable. The survey has been made, the levels ascertained, the plans devised and the estimates formed, by S. Bates, Esq. as engineer, whose returns are herewith presented.
The said commissioners further report, that they have not caused a survey to be made in order to understand the practicability expense and effects of draining the Cayuga marshes, only because the condition as to expense, upon which they were directed to act has never been complied with on the part of the applicants relating to said marshes.
To De Witt Clinton^ Stephen Van Rensselaer, Myron Hoiley, Henry Seymour, and Samuel \oung. Esquires , Commissioners of the iLrie and Hudson Canals.
At your request, and agreeably to directions contained in a resolve of the honourable legislature of the state of New-York, I have examined the communication between Salina and Oswego through the Seneca and Oswego rivers, and beg leave to present you the result. Commencing at the mouth of Oswego river, on a level with lake Ontario.
ascent, 14 751 dist. 1.27.40
To surmount this rapid, it is proposed to build a dam across the Oswego river, which shall flow the water back upon the succession of rapids connected with the Horse-race and Little Smooth rock rapids. It will be necessary to raise this so high as to obtain twenty feet of ascent from the lake level, and one foot and a half additional, to cover the rift at the foot of the next lock, which will be on the face of the rift in 2^ feet water; this is necessary to assist the navigation from the above lock. From the eastern end of the abovementioned
dam, it will be necessary to cut a canal fifty-one chains long, on the bank of the river, in about 3.ijO, cutting to a site for a lock of 10 feet lift, thence three chains to the river, into which it will be necessary to drop, and continue the canal down the stream, nine chains, by a side wall next the shore, to where the first lock of ten feet lift will probably be placed.
3ifeet, cutting 14.508 yds. at 16 cts. Excavation, 3 chains, average 5 feet, cutting (rock) 1301 yds. 37-|- cts. Two locks, each 10 feet lift.
tance 2 miles 19 chains.
Of this ascent, 5.25 will have been accounted for by the improvements on the head of Oswego rift. It will be necessary, for the improvement of the remainder 18.7 feet, to place a dam and lock near tli« Little Smooth rock rift, and another at such distance above this rift, as the ascent will demand.
17.31 ascent.
To overcome these rapids, erect a dam and lock at any place most convenient, probably about 12 chains above the head of the Horse-race, at the head of a short stretch of still water, and another at the foot of Devil's Horn.
cribed of most of these below.
2d. By a dam placed across at the centre of the island, and a canal across the elbow, formed by the bend of the river from this place, with a lock inland.
3d. By a dam as last above mentioned, only across the western branch of the river, and a river lock, assisted by a wing dam from the southerly point of the island, to the north end of the island, which stands on the head of the rift, and which forms a part of the wing dam in the occupation of Man
4th. By a dam thrown across the river, about 6 chains below the island, when the river is compressed to about 6 chains width ; at this place, the dam would stand in about 9 feet water.
Estimate, on 1st plan only.
Dam, 600 — deduct for assistance gained from the position of the island, 60, is 540 in 4 feet water, will be 9 feet high, 7,364
Lock 5 feet lift, 5,000
Excavation necessary at head of lift, to construct a channel, 2.50 chs. long, 30 feet wide, 1.50 deep in rock, 275 yds. at $ 1 25 per yard. 348 75
To surmount this rapid and falls, it will be found necessary to place a lock at or near the foot of the rapids, of 1 3 feet lift ; from which a canal may be constructed to Falley's mill pond — distance chains 105.50. Of this distance 25 chains demand a cutting equal to 7 feet, partly in very steep side lying ground, and the remainder 80.50 ch. cutting may call for an average of 3^ feet.
ed— average thickness, 6 {eet ; height, 13 feet; length, 53 chns. 312 perches pr. chain, at ;^1 pr. perch, 16,536
There will be several places wh^re locks are placed on rifts, at which excavation of rock would be necessary to form a boat channel, as at Braddock's rift, which cannot probably be done for less than 1 ,000
There is another made of improving the navigation of this river, which may be fallen on, which would be to make all the locks in land, the dams on the heads of the rifts, and in all cases construct your canal in the bank of the river. This mode might possess some advantages which the other does not — amongst which are the fisheries, and the uninterrupted navigation of the river by rafts, in flood tides, and the lowness of the dams. These are countervailed by the arduous nature and processof excavation, in every side lying banks, often times almost perpendicular, and often times rising above the level, 40 50 and 60 feet. The expense of this mode would be much greater than that of the foregoing. In all places where the ^^first method w ould admit of it. I have made calculations on improving by the assistance of short canals, which lessen the expense in such places ; but in every other adjoining, the expense would be greatly increased. But it appears to me, that the most judicious mode of making a navigable communication from Oswego to Oswego Falls is, to construct a canal through the county, on one side or the other of the river, taking the level of the falls for the basis of the work.
In doing this, I think the priifie difficulty will be to get separated from the river. This circumstance,though arduous, is not insurmountable, ft may be done by a mound of stone work and embankment against the bank of the river, keeping up to the level of the water above the falls, till we arrive at a point near Falley's Pond, say about six chains south of it, from whence we may take the natural ground, embracing any cutting which may be thought best.— From this point, and on this summit, the neighbourhood of Oswego village may be attained, near to which it will be necessary to drop down three locks, of ten or eleven feet lift. Being fully of opinion that this course is practicable, I beg leave to present you a probable result of the undertaking. Stone wall and bulwark from falls, 52 chains,
Guard lock, 6 feet high, 3,200
Excavation, say, 11 miles, 3 1-2 feet cutting, supposing a canal to be constructed 28 feet at bottom ; to contain 4 feet of water, and to measure 40 feet in width or surface of the water, 217,333 y'ds. at 14 cts. is 30,426
In the foregoing estimate, I have extended the improvements to within about 80 rods of sloop and schooner navigation, in the harbour of Oswego, leave it then in a basin, which should remain until time shall demonstrate the propriety of locking down to the lake. The remaining lockage will be 71.45 feet, which can be overcome for 71,500 dollars.
Having given such examination, &c. of the position of this river, below the falls, permit me to offer the examination from the falls southward to the Onondaga lake.
From Lyon's wharf, southwardly, no improvement is necessary, till we have ascended the river to the Horseshoe rift, 5 miles 20 chains. This is a small rapid, in length about four chains, on which is an ascent of less than 6 inches. This, of itself, might be improved for a trifling sum, say 250 dollars, by cutting through the bar in such manner as to give a passage for boats ; but it would perhaps be policy to connect the improvements on this with the succeeding rifts : at this place a dam, including all necessary land work, would be about 400 feet long, and if built 10 feet high, would cover all the rifts north of Three river point. The only objection which presents itself to this course, is the destruction of about 300 acres low land, which would be flooded by this dam, and consequent unhealthiness.
Three river rift, with a lock of about 7 feet lift, each of which would require the necessary increase of walls, to guard against floods. If the difficulty which almost uniformly presents itself along this stream, of departing from it, did not prevent, it would be a useful plan to dam on the head of Knockemstiff rift, and canal round them to the river below the Horse-shoe, a distance of about five miles. This, could it be done by a dam of three feet in height, would supersede the necessity of improvement on the Gaston's rifts, which present themselves next above Drury's bar.
Drury's bar of itself hardly presents an obstruction; but should improvements below not do away the small amount of evil attending it, should judge that a passage through it might be obtained for an expense of 150 dollars.
It is highly probable that almost any mode of improving the rifts below Three river point, will have a particular effect on the Gastons rift. This is a fall of one foot 95-100; but as no certain calculation can be made on that effect — will estimate on the common mode of dam and lock.
10,048
The next and last improvement, except those which may be made to connect the Salina branch with Onondaga lake, is the outlet of the Onondaga lake—Distant from Gaston's rift, 6 miles. This outlet now affords about 14 inches of water, and is a continued rapid from the Onondaga lake, through two-thirds of itis length, which is fifty-eight chains. The ascent through this outlet is two feet and twenty-three hundredths. To improve this part of the navigation, I would beg leave to propose the lowering of the Onondaga lake, to a level with the surface of the Seneca river ; this may be done by a canal cut in a straight direction between the lake and river, of such depth as to hold four
feet water; this would give an average of cutting of, six feet and fifty hundredths, and the length would be about fifty-three or fifty-four chains.
The improvement by the first of these methods will be best, on several accounts. The low lands round the margin of this lake, will be in some measure reclaimed by the process. — the salt springs be less incommoded with fresh water, and the neighbourhood of Salina rendered more healthy. There are those who object to lowering the lake, and propose to improve by scraping out the present channel ; this method cannot avail much, as the channel is of sufficient width to draw off the lake, and therefore all that is taken out above the level of Seneca river, will not probably deepen the water in the channel of the outlet.
212,599 00
Remarks. — I have found the general depth of the still water in the Oswego and Seneca rivers, to be 7 to 9 feet and in a few instances 10 feet and from measurements taken at many places. I find the spring floods to have risen 6, 7 and 8 feet above the water, as it was when I took the necessary examinations; from which has arisen the charge of j^uard locks to many of the dams in the estimates. I also found that the water (flood)in its passage down the rifts, generally did not rise to that height, but from the velocity of current on these inclined planes, and in some instances from expanded surfaces, the rise on them was from 3 to 4 feet. The effect of dams at the foot of these rapids, and on their faces, would be to create an almost equal rise of the floods on the whole of the river, which I have estimated at 6 feet as the lowestand least possible general rise — yet I have no doubt but in some instances more will be necessary, The depth of the water at the head of, and on the faces of the several rifts. is 1.50 2. 2.50 feet; of consequence, in many places excavations in rock, with the disadvantages of being under water, will undoubtedly be necessary, or an increased height of dam. In the estimate of locks on the Oswego falls rift, some expense might probably be saved by increasing the number of locks, and lessening the quantum of lift; this measure would reduce the height and length of the the side walls. In my estimate of dams, 1 have given, a computation of such as I conceived to be most permanent, and took for the basis of my calculation, the dam at Oriskany, enlarging mine to meet some of the contingencies which may befal them from a vastly greater pressure of flood than can ever force itself on the dam on that stream; but at the same time, am well assured that dams of a less
durable fabric may be built, and are actually erected under the auspices of mill owners, which answer the purposes for which they are intended, but are continually calling for repairs under the inspection of vigilant proprietors. This kind of dam is so foreign from the idea of permanent improvement, that I shall not trouble you with an estimate of, it.
Should the river navigation require a towing path to be constructed on the bank, the additional expense would be about ten hundred dollars per mile, or in the aggregate 12,000 dollars; the nature and situation of the banks often times rising almost perpendicularly from the waters edge to the height of 60 or 70 feet above the surface of the water, renders the project arduous ; and the rise of the floods inconvenient, for in all cases it must be at least 6 feet elevated above common water, to enable the navigator to avoid the rise of the above described spring freshets.
I cannot close these remarks, without giving some information relative to the fisheries, which present themselves on the rifts of both rivers. From information, the correctness of which I have no reason to doubt, the weirs and fisheries of different kinds on the Oswego Falls rift, alone, produce about 1,000 barrels of eels annually, independent of other fish, which may be estimated at half that quantity. On almost all the rifts, there are more or less of these devices erected, and in the proper season, kept in repair and closely attended to. The price of a barrel of eels, at its lowest estimate, is ^10, other fish are probably worth more, but say ten ; and we have for an estimate, fifteen thousand dollars as the produce of the Oswego Falls rift, this rift occupies a length of a little more than two miles ; then I conceive that it will not be an aggravated estimate, to say, that all the remaining rifts will produce another fifteen thousand dollars. The nett profits arising from this branch of business, I have no means of calculating. Those rifts and the fisheries erected on them, except at Oswego Falls, will be overwhelmed by the process of damming and locking the river, and many who now
draw much of their support from that source, will ip consequence be deprived of their usual means. It is said, and with truth, that this employment is not of the brilliant national use, which is attached to agriculture, but still those employed in it are citizens and men, and fill a niche in the general estimate; deprive them of this resource, and they will not become husbandmen ; they will remain what they were — fishermen, or become something worse. They have elected to rake the waters for their supplies, and their surplus, they barter with the farmer for their bread, who is glad to make the exchange, rather than break in upon his profession to catch fish.
In the first method of improving Oswego Falls, the process pointed out will apply, without much difference of description or expense, to either side. The canal proposed, is calculated for the eastern side of the river. It may be made on either side ; but I think the approach on the west side, to the harbor of Oswego, somewhat more difficult, and the embankment would probably be more expensive.
In my plans, I have not laid down any part of the river above the Oswego Falls, where there is no necessity of improvement ; having pursued this course, it became difficult to draw a connecting plan of the outlet of Onondaga lake. I hope that no disadvantage will result from it.
The depth of water in Buffalo creek is sufficient for a harbour. In taking soundings almost up to the ferry, (which is one mile from the entrance) the least depth observed was 1 1 feet, and this only in two places ; but the common depth up this stream, is from 12 to 14 feet. About 50 rods above the mouth of Little Buffalo, we found 17 feet, and a few rods within that part of the entrance which is obstructed by sand, we found 19 feet. No injury to this channel need be apprehended from depositions of either sand or mud.
The breadth of this creek, just above little Buffalo, is full 16 rods ; but thirty five rods above the breadth is only 12 rods; and the calculation of two triangles, taken further up the stream at the respective distances of forty and seventy rods, gave no material difference. From its uniform appearance, we deemed it unnecessary to make any further examination but credible persons assert that the apparent breadth and depth of this creek, continue for more than two miles.
be occupied by wharves
It appears that after freshets in this stream, the entrance is deepened from 12 to 15 feet; but the common current is so sluggish as to permit the first gale to drive sand and gravel into it, from the south. As the obstruction to navigation only originates from this simple cause, a remedy equally simple, will be sufficient, and may be found in a pier or mole, as heretofore proposed by Wm. Peacock. I think however, that both its position and construction should be different.
work ought to be secured in the rear. Thus, if we began half way down the point, (which is only a loose bed of sand and gravel,) Buffalo creek might break through between the pier and the light-house. On the contrary, if we commence it above that building, the entrance of the creek will be less protected from northwesterly storms : and this view will be important, whether we consider the entering of vessels or the drifting of sand into the channel. It appears that the direction of the gale shapes the gravel point, as its course on W. Peacock's map, varies considerably from its present position.
The reason given for locating the pier above the light house, was founded in misapprehension. There is no appearance of sand or gravel having ever been brought down by Buffalo creek.
In respect to the construction, I have doubts whether loose stone in a pile, would withstand the violence of the lake. A gentleman of observation made the following remark, in reply to my letter : — From many experiments tried at this place, (Pultneyville.) I am satisfied that loose stones cannot answer. The force of the waves will remove them, even if very large ; and those of a moderate size will be taken several rods by the under toio.^^
One disadvantage of employing driven piles, is, that the top must be as wide as the base. The quantity of materials to construct such a pier, is great in proportion to the strength, for the waves dash with great violence against a perpendicular wall, but where they strike on a slope, the force is neither instantly nor wholly applied. The exposed surface of the timber is also very great, as will be evident from an estimate of all the pieces which are necessary to connect the piles together ; and though the sand would doubtless accumulate so much as to protect it near shore, yet much of the western extremity must decay before it would receive that support.
Believing these objections to be valid, I would propose that the pier commence at the light-house, and extend north <70 west (nearly in the direction of Tow-
son's battery) as far as the sand lies on the bottom, I would recommend that cribs of round logs, be made to occupy the whole of this line, which, when sunk (and filled with gravel) shall only reach to the surface of the water. At the surface, the width should be ten feet, and the base one foot wider for every foot of depth, the slope to be equal on both sides. On the top of this structure I would recommend cribs of similar construction, but of good white oak, the sides of which should contract so as to leave only an opening of 3 feet at the height of 6 feet. These should be filled with stone, as the logs are laid, and connected by cross pieces, which being covered by the stone, would render the fabric immoveable. Long flat stones (which may be readily procured) should rest with one end on the upper logs, the other within the frame, slanting downward ; and large round stones from the beach, to be moved by tackle, . be placed partly within the frame, like the key stone of an arch.
believed will not balance the expense.
A lamp at the west end of the pier would be very useful to vessels entering in the night ; and as there would be smooth water within the pier, it would always be easy to approach it in a skiff.
In constructing the larger cribs, two logs of 40 feet in length are first to be laid parallel on the water : close to each end of these, a notch is to be cut on the under side, to receive two small logs, thus completing the parallelogram. Through these connecting pieces, and 4 feet from the middle toward the ends, holes are bored, into which iron bolts, long enough to reach from the bottom to the surface, must be fastened. As the logs will easily turn in the notches, the bolts can be laid down, and not incommode the workmen.
On the two long logs, cross ones are laid close, to form a floor, and the building constructed in the usual manner, excepting the slant, though partition logs in the middle, to strengthen the frame, should not be omitted. Green timber, being so nearly of the speci-
iic gravity of water, the building, as it progresses, will rise but little above the surface, A thick layer of brush with the leaves on, covering the whole floor, should be sunk ; and brush of the same description, should be placed on every side and end log, which, when pressed down by each upper log, will render the whole sand-tight. When holes are bored through the two last end logs, the bolts are raised, passed and keyed, thus confining the whole frame together. Iron, under water in lake Erie, is not injured by rust.
As soon as the crib is thus prepared, and brought on the spot where it is to be sunk, (it should be built as near as possible,) brush and gravel are filled in, in alternate layers : these materials may be procured in the greatest abundance, on the adjoining shore.
If the last layer be of brush, pressed down by the upper crib, the sand will not be washed out, as the brush which projects inside from the chinks, bending down by the weight of gravel, will" form a thick coating. As the lake rises with every gale, in proportion to the violence will be the depth of water over this part of the pier. The greatest rise of water is about four feet.
The expense of this construction may be estimated, in the following manner: In 13 feet water, the solid content of a crib would be 8580 feet. Deduct 890 for the partition logs and floor. Then 7690 feet — 60 cords of brush and gravel at $\ 50 per cord, will — ^90.
It is presumed that this allowance for brush and gravel, will be ample : at a small expense, an apparatus can be constructed in a scow, so as to load the gravel from the beach, and to unload it into the crib by horses and scrapers.
It has been said that logs will cost 2 cents a foot in length ; but I consider the estimate too high, and believe that it might be obtained for one cent a foot. Computing these logs at 15 inches diameter, each foot in length will be 1.22 cubic: 105 feet would make a cord, and ^1 05 be the price. When timber in this country was not valued, the customary price of firewood
was 1^1 per cord, though it was drawn two miles, but in these logs, much cutting, necessary in cord wood, is saved, and all the labour of cording.
Assuming that each log, with the chink, will raise the sides 1 8 inches, we will have for both sides, 1 8 logs, 40 feet long — 720. For the ends and middle, 2i logs, averaging 16-1- feet in length ; 2() logs, 2.3 feet long, for the floor; the two bottom logs, which will probably settle in the sand, with the two bolt pieces. In all, 1840 feet. $lli 40
The labout, no bolts required, 5
The solid content of this part, calling the perpendicular height 8 feet, will be 1600, which (deducting nothing for cross pieces) — 121^ cords at $'3 — 37. .30.
Stone of a good shape may be procured at the reefs, (which lie towards Fqtrt Erie,) more easily than at Bird Island, as the distance as well as the current, is considerably less. Stone may also be got from the beach about two miles up the lake. It is deemed that $3 per cord is a suffirient allowance, as the high prices heretofore obtained at Buffalo, for materials and labour, is nearly at a close. An allowance for placing the upper stones, however, would be proper, and the whole expense of this part may be estimated at f^50 for 40 feet of pier in length.
The average depth of the soundings, taken by order of Joseph Ellicott, *very near this line, was 7 feet. From several calculations of the expense of constructing such a pier, in water of difTerent depths, I found
per foot for the average.
The pier ought to extend 1150 feet--g;3l62 50, without any estimate for superintendence, which, with the proper allowance for contingencies, is submitted to the consideration of the commissioners.
It is very important that the cross logs of the upper frame be variously placed, so that no one be placed immediately over another, in order that the stones may lie on these pieces, and render the whole immoveable.
If doubts of the permanence of this part should arise, more cross timbers on the first log may be added, and by plank or small timbers on these, the whole weight of stone may be applied. The top cross pieces, at the ends of the frame, may also be fastened by upright scantling to the partition logs of the lower story ; but without this, I think it will be sufiiciently fixed.
1 also received the following propositions :
1. To make the harbour at Black Rock. For this purpose, it was proposed to erect a dam across that part of the Nifigara river, which flows on the side of Squawisland. The breadth is estimated at 80 rods, and the depth at 12 feet. As this island is low, an ambankment would be necessary the whole length ; and at its upper point, a pier was proposed, to extend about 30* rods from the east shore, up into lake Erie. The whole length of this work would be about a mile and a half.
In gales of great violence, it would be much easier for the vessels to enter this harbour, than the proposed one at Buffalo. The objections which arise to this plan, however, are not trivial. The expense alone, in the present state of things, would be sufficient to discourage the attempt ; for as the descent of water in this distance is not less than 4 feet 10 inches, we would have nearly 17 feet for the height of the dam, which, together with the pier, should be water tight, so as to overcome the rapids at Black Rock.
The general current of the winds is down the lake, which vessels ready to sail almost continually experience ; and the narrowness of the channel would prevent them from beating against it.
In case of hostilities with the British, so long as they possess the opposite shore, this harbour would be useless. A retrospect of the last war will show that this objection is not frivolous ; and, however much we may deprecate such a state, the possibility will continue to exist.
It is also asserted by creditable persons who have long resided near the spot, that no pier could be made to withstand the ice a single season ; and when we reflect that it comes into the river in large masses, down which it is impetuously hurried, we may well admit the danger.
street of Buffalo, intersects the beach.
It was proposed to build a pier in a westerly direction, until as ufficient depth of Mater was attained, and then to extend it northerly, nearly parallel to the shore.
tance,was mentioned.
I have not discovered any advantage in this plan. The expense must be much greater than to shelter the entrance of Buffalo creek; neither do I consider the low ground near that place, an eligible site for a dense population.
1 subjoin an estimate of the expense of constructing the pier, in w hich an increase of price is assumed for such items as may possibly require it.
W. Peacock's price for brush was % 1 per cord ; If half the lower story be filled with this, we have %2 per cord for gravel — to 43 cents per cubic yard. No increase required.
To the Legislature of the State of JYew- York, pursuant to the act, entitled, " Jin act respecting navigable communications, between the great Western and JYorthern Lakes, and the Atlantic Ocean,'''' passed April 1 5th, 1817 the Canal Commissioners most respectfully *
That the construction of the great works submitted to their superintendence, has advanced, during the past season^ with greater economy than any antecedent experience had led them to expect. The want of money in the country, and the growing reputation of the undertakings, have greatly increased the number of responsible competitors for contracts; of which the natural effect has been, a reduction, in the price of almost every kind of labour required on the canals ; And this effect has been further promoted, by the abundant stores of grain and provisions, in the interior of the state, for which there has been no foreign demand.
While the labour of opening, both the Eastern and Western sections of the Erie canal, has been prosecuted, with undiminished energy, and, under contracts reduced from thirty to forty per cent, below former prices, the Canal Commissioners, since their last report, have had new and more minute surveys extended through nearly all the country, between the Genesee river and Lake Erie, and between Utica and the Hudson, with a view to the most eligible establishment of the canal route. The surveys, made in the year 1816, by Engineers Geddes and Peacock, furnished us with a full conviction of the practicability of effecting a navigable communication, between Lake Erie and the Genesee river, and enabled us to form a probable estimate of the expense. But those surveys indicated two passages, through either of which the canal might be carried, leaving it to be determined, by subsequent more particular examinations, which of the two should be preferred.
The most southerly of these passages, had the advantage, of a location more through the centre of our western settlements — of being several miles shorter — and requiring less expenditure, in the construction of the canal, than the other, according to our estimates, of upwards of ^300,000. But pursuing that passage the canal must be raised about seventy-five feet above the surface of Lake Erie, which would, of course, deprive us of feeding it, with water, from that inexhaustible source. And a fear was entertained, from the beginning, of an ultimate deficiency of water, in that passage, if it should be adopted. For the purpose of ascertaining, whether such a fear w^as groundless or not, we have had the various springs and streams, which might be conducted into the summit level of the canal, on that route, guaged ; and have considered the surface and character of the country, from which the rains would naturally drain into that level. And the result has been a unanimous conviction, in our minds, that the fear is but too well grounded.
condition of the country, for that summit level, if it could be all saved, does not appear deficient; and these estimates were made, upon the state of the waters, in a period of drought. But, since the Middle Section of the canal has been filled, we have found, that more water has been wasted, in it, by evaporation, soakage, and leakage, than we had anticipated. And this discovery we deem, ia itself, sufficient to settle the question, between the two routes. But there are other considerations, by no means to be overlooked, in relation to this question.
The country from which water may be had, for the southern route, rises as it stretches south of the canal, but very gently, and the distance is not far, before it has a greater declivity, in other directions, than towards the canal : and much of it is yet uncleared. Now all experierce shows, that it would be unsafe to calculate, that the springs and streams of a new country, will not grow more penurious of their waters in proportion as ' the forests are felled and removed, and the earth is subjected to cultivation.
The vegetable matter, which constitutes the soil, of all lands thickly covered with wood in their natural state operates, like a sponge, to retain the waters with which it may be filled ; and the surplus waters, which may fall upon such lands, collect, in the natural basins upon their surface, serving as reservoirs for the numerous Springs, which break out below; or they slowly pass off in streams obstructed by trunks of trees, and other ruins of the forest. But when the hand of vigorous and judicious agriculture is once introduced, the aspect of such lands, is very soon altered. The quantity of water retained upon the surface is diminished, — by letting in the sun upon the soil, — by draining the swamps, — and by removing the obstructions from the streams. With the progress of cultivation many springs wholly disappear, others are esentially lessened, and the larger streams become little brooks ; except during the actual continuance of a great thaw or a heavy rain. Whenever these occur, the floods are rendered greater by
cultivation, than they were before; because much less water is absorbed, bj the surface of cleared fields than of wood lands in their natural state : and, because all the water not absorbed, finds a much less impeded passage, into the channels of the streams. But if the waters rise, suddenly, on such occasions, in the streams of a cultivated country, they as soon subside. And many a farm in our state, which to the new settler, when he first took possession of it, appeared objectionable for being too wet for his purposes, an experience of twenty years has shown to be much more objectionable for being too dry
Impressed with these considerations, we have coneluded that prudence would not permit us to adopt any route west of the Genesee river, which should rise above the level of Lake Erie. The most northerly route indicated, on the engraved map of i 817, does not rise above that level. To that route, therefore, during the last year, our attention has been specially directed. And we. have constantly employed David Thomas as engineer, with all the necessary assistants, upon it, from May to late in November. The results of the examination made by this party, have been much to our gratification, for they have confirmed our former most favourable impressions, after having been produced with great care, diligence, and skill
The survey of Mr. Thomas has been extended, from Genesee river to the Tonnewanta creek, a distance of a little more than seventy-two miles, including the deep cutting, through the Mountain ridge. And throughout this survey, the face of the country,— the nature of the earth to be excavated, and the character of the streams to be passed, are all so well understood, that the canalline may be speedily prepared for the contractor.
From the Genesee river easterly, there are fifty-one miles and a quarter, of the canal line, either completed, or under contract, including the whole distance from, that river to Montezuma, except about nine miles. These nine miles have not heretofore been placed in a condition to be opened, because the appropriations
would not warrant entering into engagements with contractors for the whole distance between Rochester and Montezuma, and because there is now, contiguous to these nine miles, nearest the latter place, and extending from near one end of them to the other, a circuitous and imperfect navigation by means of the Canandaigua outlet and the Seneca river. With the ample appropriations made at the present session of the Legislature, it will be the duty of the Canal Commissioners to complete the canal through these nine miles, with all possible despatch.
In the fifty-one miles and a quarter, of the canal' line above mentioned, there have been two important deviations from the route, which was traced in 1816, both of which are deemed improvements. One of them is in the place of crossing the valley of the Irondequot creek. Here it was found, that instead of establishing the line, so as to require an embankment twenty chains long, on the top, and sixty-five feet, in height, from the bottom of the valley, it might be so located, by carrying it a little further north, as to divide this great embankment, into two parts, both of which, would not contain more cubic yards, than the one required, on the first route And, as the earth in this vicinity consists too exclusively of sand and gravel to be well adapted to embankments, this division was thought judicious, and the new line was adopted. But since its adoption, instead of the largest of the two embankments, we have concluded to substitute an aqueduct of wood. It was found, by calculation, that the construction of this embankment would involve the expenditure of a capital so large, that the interest of it would exceed the sum required to complete the aqueduct together with the interest thereon, computing the interest, in both cases, for the probable duration of the aqueduct. Economy, therefore, induced us to make the substitute. We had, however, a strong additional inducement to the course, which we adopted ; and this was, the safety of the work after its completion. It has already been mentioned that the quality of the earth near the embankment is
not fit for use, in it. When, by means of the aqueduct, the canal is rendered navigable, good earth for the embankment, may be economically brought from a distance, in boats ; and the embankment may be constructed of such materials as will be safe, and at the same time raised and completed in such a way as to cause no interruption in the use of the canal, by the removal of the aqueduct.
The other alteration consists, in carrying the canal line south of mud-creek, from a point a little west of Palmyra village, to a point a little west of the village of Lyons, the distance, between these two points being about fourteen miles. The line, as explored in 1816, was all the way on the north side of this creek. But the new route is recommended, by its shortening the length of the canal two miles and fifty-two chains, by its being less expensive, and by its passing through earth more suitable for ensuring the canal against injurious accidents, when it shall be filled with water. This new route was examined, and found eligible, by Nathan S. Roberts, Esquire, one of our Resident Engineers, whose vigilance and industry deserves much praise ; though in justice to the sagacity of Judge Geddes, the Engineer who explored the western section of the Erie canal, with so much perseverance and good judgement, in 1816, it ought not to be forgotten, that he suggested the propriety of surveying this new route.
The contracts west of the Middle section, besides grubbing and clearing, excavation, embankment and fencing, provide for the construction of the following more artificial works, to wit : —
Fifteen locks of various lifts, but which, in the aggregate furnish the means of ascending or descending, one hundred and eighteen feet. One of these locks is nearly completed in the handsomest and most substantial manner; and the materials for all the others are now chiefly procured and delivered : — Twenty stone culverts, of different sizes, all to be arched and placed upon permanent foundations, and more
Five aqueducts, of which one is to cross Mud creek, near Lyons, and to be constructed entirely of stone, with three arches of thirty feet span each, one is to cross the same creek near Palmyra, and to be constructed of stone abutments and piers, with a wooden trunk resting upon them ; two are to cross the valley of Irondequot creek, and a narrow ridge adjacent thereto these two being to be built exclusively ofwood, and to extend, in the aggregate, a length of 1350 feet ;and one is to cross Black brook, in the town of Galen, and to consist of stone abutments supporting a wooden trunk. The foundations of these aqueducts are in considerable forwardness, and most of the materials, for their completion, are delivered ; — Forty road-bridges and a smaller number of Occupationbridges. About half of these bridges are erected, and all of them which have been contracted for, during the last season, are required to be six inches higher above the top water line, and to be made eight feet wider, between their abutments, than those were, which had been previously built, on the Middle section.
All the above contracts have been prosecuted with great zeal and success, insomuch that in the aggregate the fifty-one miles and a quarter, are more than half done; and nine miles have been -in such condition, as to allow of an experimental admission of water. A large part of this extent runs through the sands of Perrinton and Pittsford, where we have always had a great apprehension of difficulty, by leaks and breaches. Through these sands we had taken the precaution to have the banks made much thicker than usual, and w^ith a greater slope ; and the efiects of admitting the water, to the depth of about two feet, have been satisfactory and encouraging.
Having adopted that route, for the canal, which, at every departure from the level of lake Erie, in its progress eastward, will descend, till it reaches the Seneca
river, we entertain no doubt of an abundant and perma nent supply of water, for every part of the canal line. But, in order to provide against any possibility of danger, on this subject, it is intended to construct the canal, through the dry region, between the locks, at the Mountain ridge, and the Genesee river, with a descent towards the east, of one or two inches, in every mile; the necessary effect of which will be, to save the expense of at least one lock, and to induce a current, of so much water from Lake Erie, towards the east, as will leave but little to be required from the Genesee river : and this little may be still reduced, if it shall ever become expedient, by a feeder from the Irondequot creek, a copious and equable stream, which it was formerly supposed could not be drawn upon, for the canal, but which, by the enterprising zeal of David S Bates, Esqyire one of our Resident Engineers, has been found capable of being taken into it, at Pittsford, near the west end of a level, about thirteen miles in length. From this level eastward, there might be obtained a sufficient supply of water, from the Canadaigua Lake, Mud creek, and several other sources, for all the demands of the canal, if the Genesee river were annihilated.
On the middle section of the canal, we have placed mile-boards, duly painted and numbered, from one end to the other. And the whole length of it, as measured from Genesee-street, in the village of Utica, to the lock, which connects it with Seneca river, without including the Salina side cut, is found to be a few chains more than ninety-six miles.
The navigation of this section commenced throughout in May last. But, as there were several places on it requiring repairs, and as it was soon discovered, that our supply of water, would not be adequate to the requirement of an extensive and increasing transportation, some time was occupied in repairing breaches, in strengthening weak places, especially those, where the high embankments had settled and in opening several new feeders. And we did not think we
should be justified, in asking toll, till the first of July. From that time, till 4he ice prevented all passing, there has been received, for toll, on this section, the sum of B')2U 34.
This amount has been collected, by charging at the following rates, which were agreed upon at a meeting of the Canal Commissioners, and duly advertised, to wit :
each, or 40 bushels in bulk, being a ton.) •' Gypsum, 5 mills, per ton, per mile. " Flour, meal, and all kinds of grain, salted provision,
pot and pearl ashes, one cent, per ton, per mile. " Merchandise, two cents, per ton, per mile. " Timber, squared and round, 5 mills, per hundred
solid feet, per mile.
•' Boards, plank and scantling reduced to inch measure and all s iding lath, and other sawed stuff, less than one inch thick, 5 mills, per thousand feet per mile. " Shiiigles, one mill, per thousand, per mile. " Brick, sand, lime, iron-ore and stone, 5 mills, per
Besides the above mentioned amount of toll received, there has been collected, at the Little Falls of the Mohawk, since the rights of the Western Inland Lock Navigation Company ,have been transferred to the state, the sum of $450 56, for toll, the toll having been charged, from Rome to the lower lock at the Little falls, at the same rates, per mile, as are stated, in the above table, in reference to the canal line.
The system, adopted by us, for regulating the collection of tolls, requires, that whenever i any property, chargeable with toll, arrives at one of the places of collection, the person entrusted therewith, should exhibit a bill of particulars, containing an exact account^ of all the property, arranged, under different heads, according to the different rates of toll which it may be liable to pay ; and containing also, the name of the boat and its tonnage, if the articles are conveyed in a boat, together with the place, from which it comes, and that to which it is destined. When such a bill is presented, it is made the duty of the collector to examine the property, and ascertain, whether it corresponds with the bill. If it does, he receives the full amount of toll arising from the whole passage, and receipts it on the bill, which he copies into a book provided by him for that purpose; after which, the bill, with the receipt, is handed back to the boatmen, who, when he arrives at the next place of collection, exhibits his receipted bill, to the collector, and if there has been no change in the lading, is permitted to continue his passage. If additional articles are taken into the canal, between the first collector, to whom the bill of lading is pre-
sented, and any subsequent one, such subsequent collector ascertains, whether all such articles are properly added to the bill, and makes the same receipt of toll and entry of those articles, as was made by the first collector in, relation to the original bill. The collectors are required to give bonds for the faithful discharge of their duty. And by way of a check upon their accounts, one of them is required to make an entry of all the property paying toll, at the several places of collection, and of all the receipts therefor, by the collectors. The system further proposes, that once in three months, an agent of the canal commissioners, who is competent to the task, shall examine the books of the several collectors, for the purpose of ascertaining their accuracy ; receive from them the amount of tolls, collected during the preceding quarter, and transmit it to the commissioners of the canal fund.
to wit.
For fencing, -.-.-$ 5637 06 On settlement of other old contracts and accounts, - - - - - - 3040 64
The expense of reparation has, thus far, been much greater than it probably will be for the same length of time to come. With our utmost exertions, in 1819, we were not able to have a number of contracts, on the Middle section, brought to an end, until the occurrence of frost and snow, in the fall. And there is no earth so impervious to water, but that, if it is subjected to the pressure of a considerable head, immediately
alter it has been thrown up, it will be thereby endangered : and if new embankments are frozen, as soon as thej are made, whenever the binding power of the frost is destroyed, the same danger continues. We were well aware, when the contracts were entered into that all banks, which are intended to hold water, should have time to settle and dry, before they are used for that purpose. And it was accordingly provided that all our contracts should be fully performed, in time to experience these effects, in a good degree. But they were not : and we have been called upon to make the most expensive repairs, in those banks, which were latest raised. The banks have now had time to settle and dry the breaches have been faithfully closed, great care has been taken to strengthen every place, in which there was any appearance of weakness, and the whole have been so much compacted by travelling upon them, that they are cq^^tainly much more solid and secure.
Before toll began to be received, on the canal, the transportation, of the season, had been nearly half accomplished. And the quantity afterwards passing, on the canal, was materially less. than it would otherwise have been, in consequence, — of the early want^of water in the Mohawk, — of the number of teamsters still soliciting business on the roads, who rather than suddenly change their employment were compelled to transport, at very low rates,— and, of the numerous impediments, which it was known would, at first, hinder that general resort to the canal, which its superior safety, facility and economy, will speedily and certainly effect. The amount of tolls, however, increased regularly, during every successive month, in which they were collected. And the best expectations entertained, before hand, of the advantages of transportation, on the canal, have been surpassed. In the course of the next season, while the expenditure, on the Middle section, is likely to be small, the toll collected, will doubtless be many fold greater than it has been, in the course of the past.
thirty miles of the line, beginning at the terminatioo'of the Middle section, at Utica, and extending, along the valley of the Mohawk, eastwardly of the Little falls, to the town of Minden, is now in such a state of forwardness as to ensure its entire completion, the present year.
The original surveys, on this section, which were extended eastwardly as far as the Schoharie creek, having pointed out a practicable route for the canal, without marking the precise line which was to be followed, the Engineers, on the opening of the last season, were required to re-survey the route, and definitively to locate the line ; and, at the same time, to lay it off into half mile sections, that it might be put into the hands of the labourers as early as possible. The line embraced many places of difficulty, and admitting of many variations in its course, much time was necessarily spent, in ascertaining and determining on the best possible location of it ; and nearly half of the season had elapsed before the most considerable part of the work, could be put under contract. The contractors however commenced their work, with alacrity, and continued to push it, with great vigour, until the approach of winter, when the entire expenditure of the money appropriated to the construction of this section, as well as the inclemency of the season, necessarily suspended their labours.
During the time which has been allowed for active operations, some of the most considerable and arduous undertakings, on the line, have been performed : and every part of the work, which it was important to have done, the last season, has been accomplished. Eight miles connected with the Rome level, is so far complete as to require nothing more to render it navigable than the filling up of the drains, which were left open, for the security of the newly formed banks, which, without this precaution, would have been liable to injury., from the sudden admission of heavy Hoods of water into tiie canal. On the remaining twenty-two miles, all the grub-
portion of the excavation and embankment.
An important work has been executed, at the dug way, opposite the village of Herkimer, where a steep and sliding hill, on one side, and the Mohawk river, on the other, has barely allowed room, for a road to be formed, between them. At this place, to preserve the road, and to avoid the falling earth, from the hill, it was necessary to construct the canal along the edge of the river, by carrying, in the Mohawk a broad and high embankment of earth taken from the hill. This has been done ; and the whole has been supported and protected, from the injurious effect of a strong current, by a substantial wall of stone, laid up, from the bottom of the river, to the top of the embankment.
At the Little falls, the spirited exertions of the contractors have been attended with great success ; and on two sections, which included what has been considered the most difficult part of the work, and as requiring the labour of years to perform, the whole excavation is already nearly completed ; and from the massy fragments of rock, which have been blown from the line of the canal, a broad and substantial wall has been built, which, forming and supporting one side of the canal, extends along the margin of the river, for nearly three quarters of a mile, and rises, to a line measuring from ten to twenty five feet, above its base. Besides these two sections, there are three sections above, and one below, the falls, on which a good deal of rock has been encountered. A part of it has been thrown out,' and what remains to be done can be executed before the termination of the ensuing summer.
From Utica to Minden, there is a fall, in the canal line, of one hundred and five feet, which will be descended, by thirteen locks. For these, contracts have been entered into, for their completion, early in September next. And nearly all the stone necessary for their construction, consisting of the finest and largest blocks of lime stone, have been quarried, hewed and transported to the line of the canal, and are in readiness to be laid into the works, on the opening of spring.
Of six aqueducts, and thirty -six culverts, which are required, on the line now under contract, the greatest part of them have been built, with stone laid in watercement, and are completed, in the most substantial and durable manner.
Contracts for the performance of every work, have been obtained, on terms extremely favsurable to the state. And it is a most interesting fact, that notwithstanding this part of the canal includes the expensive work, at the Little falls, the most formidable obstau:le on the Eastern section, and also includes more than one half of the lockage, between Utica and Schenectady, the whole will be completed, at an expense, per mile, but little exceeding that of the Middle section.
From Minden, the survey, of the route of the canal, was continued along the south side of the Mohawk, to the head of the Cohoes falls. At this point, the Engineer found the first and only practicable place of leaving the valley of the Mohawk, and of descending, with the canal line, to the Hudson. The' lateness of the season, and the necessity of his returning to put the line west of Schenectady, in a situation to be put under contract, before the setting in of winter, prevented his prosecuting his surveys and examinations as far^ as under other circumstances, would have been adviseable. But this examination has been such, as to warrant the conclusion, that the canal can be constructed, along this route, at an expense, much within the original estimates.
The important services pertaining to the Engineer's department on the Eastern section, have been, for the last season, chiefly devolved upon Canvass White, Esquire, whose usefulness, from the beginning, has been constantly increasing with the progress of our labours, by his continued assiduity and increasing knowledge.
The Erie canal now affords an artificial navigation of about ninety-eight miles, in length, including the Salina side-cut. And we confidently exp'ect to double that distance, before our next annual report. With the wise and liberal appropriations, which your honourable body
has lately made applicable to this undertaking, it is not unreasonable to anticipate; the full consummation, of the project, for connecting the great Lakes of the west, with the Atlantic ocean, before the close of the year 1823.
The works on the Champlain canal have been vigorously prosecuted during the past season. About seventeen miles of excavation, extendirrg from Saratoga falls to within ten miles of the village of Waterford, have been nearly completed. The banks of the canal, on the above seventeen miles, have been formed and completed with a strength and beauty far surpassing any of the similar works which had been previously finished ; and it is but justice to attribute this improvement in the permanency and symmetry of the work,to the skill, fidelity, and industry of William Jerome, Esq. the Assistant Engineer, to whose superintendence the above mentioned excavation was principally committed. The aqueduct across Fish creek is under contract, and the materials for its construction are nearly all delivered. Contracts have also been made for the waste weirs, bridges, &c. and for fencing the canal, which are in part executed. A dam has been thrown across the Hudson, at the head of Fort Miller falls, which aided by excavations made in the bed of the river, through Crocker's and Potter's rifts, has produced a good boat navigation between Fort Edward and Fort Miller. The excavation of a lateral canal around Fort Miller falls, and the construction of two locks at that place, are in a g,tate of considerable forwardness^ The greater part of the materitils for a dam across the Hudson, to be located near the head of Saratoga falls are prepared. The object of this dam is to raise the water into the canal on the Saratoga level, and to complete the navigation above the dam, to its junction with the lateral canal before mentioned. The fencing of the canal, and the completion of the towing path along Wood, creek, between F(^t Edward and Whitehall, have been nearly finished ; and that part of the route in which the navigation is confined to Wood creek, has been
in this stream.
The upr>?»raleled drought of last season, occasioned, for three months, a d^^ficiency of water on the summit level. Although it could not be predicted that such a season would occur, yet its result, if it did happen, was always foreseen. Indeed, from the exaininations of 18 J 6, it was not believed that the summit level could be navigated at all without a supply of water from a feeder. It was supposed at that time, that a feeder might be brought from Lake George, or from the Hudson river ; and it was ascertained^that one might be easily made from Halfway brook : And in the Report of the Canal Commissioners ofthe 18th March, 1817, it is proposed " to erect a dam across Halfway brook, of eighteen feet in height, half a mile above the mouth of said brook, and by a natural ravine leading to the south, to direct so much ofthe water of said brook to the summit level, as may be necessary for the convenience of the canal.";
Further examinations were made in 1817, and in the Report ofthe 31st January, 1818, the Canal CommissioBcrs state, that " considerable time was spent in exploring, with a view to ascertain whether, in case the trade on the canal should, in a course of years, increase to such a degree as to exhaust Halfway brook, which is the principal source of supply for the summit level, a sufficient quantity of water might be obtained from any other quarter. Levels were carried from the Hudi son river, at several points above Fort Edward, to the line of the canal. And it was ascertained, that in the event of future deficiency, water may be drawn from the Hudson by a short teeder, in any quantity which may be necessary." Thus it will be perceived that Halfway brook was regarded as " the principal source of supply for the summit level," that a feeder from this stream was deemed indispensible, and that the necessity of an additonal future supply from the Hudson was also anticipated.
copious springs were intercepted, and that without any feeder, the supply of water was greater than had previously been expected. By a reference to the Report of the 18th February, 1820, it will be seen that it was expected, " that with ordinary seasons," a feeder for the present would not be wanted. The limited appropriations to the Champlain canal did not warrant the construction of a feeder in 1819. Had the feeder been made, the summit level could not have been finished: and it appears in the same Report, that " owing to a deficiency of funds, the canal was not fenced."
For ten years previous to the last season, the summers in general were cool and wet : and during the whole of that period, (except the season of 1816, had the canal been previously constructed, it is believed there would have been a sufficient supply of water on the summit level, without any aid from the Hudson, or Halfway brook. But last summer was an exception to almost every other. From the middle of June to the 20th September, the ordinary summer showers were almost entirely wanting; and during this period, the heat of the atmosphere occasioned an evaporation so intense as to exhaust the streams and springs in the neighbourhood of the Champlain canal, to a degree never before witnessed by the oldest inhabitants of the country.
The foregoing references to former Reports, and the preceding observations, are submitted to show, that the failure of water on the summit level, was not occasioned by any mistake of the commissioners or Engineer, or by leaks in the canal, as some have erroneously supposed.
The extraordinary dryness of the last summer produced a considerable diminution of the water of Halfway brook, although that streamisentirely formed by springs: And as such seasons may occur again, it was thought best to make a feeder from the Hudson in the first instance, whereby the expense of a feeder from Halfway brook, which might not at all times be sufficient, would be entirely saved to the state.
head af Baker's falls, and leading it along the declivity, parallel to the river, to a point where the bank, composed of slate rock, became too precipitous to proceed further, and from thence by a small tunnel or sough, nearly at right angles with the river, to conduct the water through a ridge of slate, into a ravine, from whence it might easily be connected with the summit level. The other, by throwing a dam across the Hudson, afeout half a mile above the village of Fort-Edward, thereby raising the water to the necessary height, and by a navigable cut of abQut half a mile in length, to connect the pond created by said dam, with the summit leveL This feeder is indicated on the engraved map and profile, of the Champlain canal.
ft was at first thought, that the former mode might be preferable to the latter : But, after spending some time in sinking shafts for the sough, the hardness of the rock, and the great influx of water through the seams of slate produced a diflferent conclusion. A contract was therefore made, for the erection of the dam, the excavation of a navigable feeder, and the construction of a guard-lock, to prevent the irruption into the canal, of the floods of the river The excavation was nearly finished last season, and the materials for the dam are to be transported to the spot, early in the spring. With a favourable season, it is expected that these works will be finished within six or seven months from this time. It is believed, that the Champlain canal will be completed and rendered navigable next season, as far as the south end of the Saratoga level, and that the remaining ten miles, to the village of Waterford, will be excavated. The whole of the Champlain canal might be finished this year, with the aid of the liberal appropriations recently made by the Legislature. But as there is ninetythree feet of lockage in the above mentioned ten miles, and as the stone for the locks, must be brought from the town of Kingsbury, it will be more economical to delay the construction of the locks, until another year, when the canal will be in operation, as above mentioned, and thereby save the expense of
materials.
Although the navigation was interrupted for three months, by a deficiency of water on the summit level, yet, during the spring and fall, considerable quantities of lumber were transported through the canal, from Lake Champlain to the Hudson, and from thence to a southern market ; upon which, however, as the works were not finished, no toll was received.
The whole quantity of lumber, which passed from Lake Champlain, through the locks, at Whitehall, according to the return of the lock-keeper, is as follows, to wit : One hundred and fifty-nine thousand boards, ninety-eight thousand plank, thirteen thousand cubic feet of pine timber, ten thousand do. of hemlock timber, twenty-nine cords of tanners' bark, twenty four do. of fire wood, one hundred and four thousand oak staves, forty-nine thousand shingles, three thousand four hundred and eighty saw-logs, ten thousand rails, nine thousand cedar posts, and eight thousand fence boards.
In looking back to the numerous difficulties, and responsibilities,— some of them of an aspect the most disheartening, which surrounded the canals, especially in their commencement, we feel compelled, by common justice, to commend the aid, which has been, at all times, afforded by our Engineers. In the selection of all the persons, who are now employed by us, under this character, we have been eminently fortunate. But to the Hon. Benjamin Wright and James Geddes, the state is most indebted. Possessing much local information, competent science, long experience in many kinds of business bearing some analogy to canal operations, and well established characters for industry and fidelity, these gentlemen have rendered the most essential services, in all the duties of their department. They were first appointed Engineers : they have unceasingly, and with improving fitness, devoted their best faculties to the great cause in which they were engaged. And they have hitherto been found equal to the high trust? confided to them.
The state has now been engaged, nearly four years, in the actual construction of the Erie and Champlain canals. And the success of her efforts has been, at least, equal to the expectation of the most ardent advocates of these measures. This success could not have been attained, without care, vigilance, discretion, and energy, in the complicated and arduous labours, of which it is the fruit. And these labours could not nave been performed, without the support of a wise foresight and just liberality, in several successive legislatures. To us it appears, that these legislatures have afibrded a spectacle most animating, encouraging, and delightful, in reference to the sagacity of the people to understand, and their wisdom to provide for, their most substantial interests. They exhibit the most impressive example, which the UniteJ States have yet produced, since the adoption of the Federal constitution, of the beneficent effects of free government, upon the character of a community. They are intimately connected with the best hopes of the Republic. Rising above all fugitive and partial interests, and with a full detail of the costs of these works before them, the immediate representatives of the people, have so clearly discerned the benefits, which they would introduce, as to apply to them from year to year, a greater proportion of their funds, than is sufficient, to defray the ordinary expenses of their state government. And this proportion, your honourable body has greatly increased.
When a project is once decisively embraced, of which the practicability is ascertained, but of which only a small part of its advantages can be enjoyed before it is fully performed, it is wise, it is economical, to apply large means to the performance. And the appropriation of the additional million of dollars to the canals, for this year and the next, will be every where a theme of praise and congratulation. This act of the legislature, is a just and a great cause for rejoicing, — because it ensures the speediest possible completion of the canals. — because, when they are completed, they will immediately communicate their blessings to
millions of" freemen, — and, because they will contribute most effectually and rapidly to the spreading of our fellow-citizens broad-cast and thick, with all their precious institutions for the perpetuation of civil liberty, and the promotion of knowledge and virtue — with every thing most admirable and sacred, in our social condition, throughout the almost boundless and unoccupied regions of the west.
Passed February 9, 1821.
WHEREAS in the prosecution of the great western and northern canals, experience has not only demonstrated the practicability of their construction, but so far as any portions of them have been completed, their unquestionable utility : And whereas it is of great importance to the interests of this state, that the whole should be finished and made productive without any unnecessary delay, and at a period when all circumstances are highly favourable to their progress : Therefore, in consideration of the great advantages which offer at the present time in the cheapness and abundance pf labour, and in the low rate at which money may be obtained for the accomplishment of these interesting and useful works.
Be it enacted by the People of the State of JVew-York. represented in Senate and Assembly ^Thdii the commissioners of the canal fund be, and they are hereby empowered, in addition to the loans already authorized bylaw, to borrow from time to time, during the years one thousand eight hundred and twenty one, and one thousand eight hundred and twentytwo, moneys on the credit
t)l the state, nt a rate not exceeding six per cent, per annum, and not exceeding one million of dollars in each year : for which moneys, so to be borrowed, certificates of stock shall be issued in the manner directed in and by the act, entitled " an act to improve the funds and to provide for the redemption of the funded debt of this state," payable at such time or times as may be determined by the said board, out of the canal fund ; and to pay to the canal commissioners the moneys so to be borrowed, to be applied in the same manner and proportion as already provided for by law : Provided, That it shall not be lawful for the commissioners of the canal fund, to make loans under this act beyond such amount as, for the payment of the interest thereof, the canal fund at the time shall be deemed ample and sufficient.
^nd be it further enacted, That it shall be lawful for the two houses of the legislature, by concurrent resolution, to appoint an additional canal commissioner ; and that the commissioner so appointed, as well as the present commissioners, shall hold their respective offices during the pleasure of the two houses of the legislature, subject to be removed by concurrent resolution of the two houses.
^tid be it further enacted, That it shall be lawful for the two houses of the legislature, by concurrent resolution, to appoint three appraisers on the eastern section of the Erie canal, and three appraisers on the western section of the Erie canal, and three appraisers on the Champlain canal ; and that the appraisers so appointed, as well as the present appraisers, shall hold their respective offices during the pleasure of the legislature, subject to be removed by concurrent resolution of the two houses.
jlnd be it further enacted, That it shall be the duty of each and every canal commissioner already appointed, to superintend the making and constructing of either the Erie or Champlain canals, within sixty days from the passage of this act, and of every acting canal commissioner hereafter appointed, before entering upon the duties of his office, to enter into a bond to the peo-
^le of this state, with at least two substantial freeholders as sureties, iu a penal sum of fifty thousand dollars, conditioned for the faithful discharge of the duties now enjoined, or that may hereafter be enjoined on him by law ; and for the faithful accounting of all moneys entrusted to him, as such acting canal commissioner^ whenever, and as often as he may be required so to do by law, or by concurrent resolution of the senate and assembly, or by the comptroller of this state ; and the said bonds shall be approved of by the comptroller, and filed in his office.
^^ndbe it further enacted^ That in order the better to guard against mistakes and losses, it shall be the duty of the acting canal commissioners, respectively, hereafter to take duplicate receipts for all sums of money which they may advance and pay to their engineers, contractors and agents
Jind be it further enacted^ That whenever the sum or sums of money, paid to any canal commissioner, and remaining unaccounted for, shall amount to fifty thousand dollars, it shall not be lawful for the commissioners of the canal fund, to advance or pay to such canal commissioner any further sum or sums of money, until he shall first have produced an account and vouchers to the comptroller, showing the payment and expenditure on the canal of at least forty thousand dollars of said sum.
And be it further enacted^ That it shall, be the duty of the commissioners of tbe canal fund, previous to every loan hereafterto be made,to give notice of such intended loan, that sealed proposals will be received to a given day; which proposals shall not be opened until a certain hour of such day, to be named in the notice ; and said notice shall be published in two news papers, in each of the cities of New-York and Albany, and continued for two weeks daily in the New- York papers,and at least twice a week in the Albany papers.
The following Letters, and the Essay with which they are accompanied, cast much light on the second great Western Canal. They will be read with deep interest in the nation and out of the nation.
Charles G. Haines, Esq.
Dear Sir — I hare been prevented by business and a desire of communicating more satisfactory information, from sooner acknowledging the receipt of your letter of the 4th of August.
You give great pleasure, by informing me of the interest felt in the state of New-York, in regard to the commencement and completion of a canal from the Ohio river to Lake Erie.
Young as our state is, and forced hitherto to rely, almost exclusively, on direct taxation, for public improvements, as well as for the support of government, we look to your state for capital, in the first instance, towards affecting this object, either by way of loan, should the work be undertaken by the state, or for individual subscription, should it be thought necessary to incorporate a company for the purpose.
I should be much obliged by the views that may be entertained by any members of your association, concerning the prospect of raising these funds in New-York, in either of the above mentioned alternatives ; to the latter of which, 1 confess I feel a repugnance, while a hope can reasonably be entertained, that the work will be accomplished by the state.
You are pleased to observe, that " the command of public opinion will be the command of financial resources ;" this is very true, but, even in the rich state of New-York, it required time, patience, and perseverance, to acquire that command ; b}' proofs heaped upon demonstration, when a vast enterprise, of a nature still new to this country, was proposed ; and we are greatly indebted, here, for your daring experiment, inasmuch as it may lead, by force of its great example, to an investigation of what latent resources Ohio may possess.
The House of Representatives of our Legislature addressed to me last winter a similar inquiry, in answer to which, I communicated what information I then possessed on the subject ; a copy of this message,
to which I beg leave to refer you, is forwarded by this post. The intelligence 1 have since acquired on this head, is favourable. One of the public surveyors has since assured me, that in the dry season preceding, he found the two eastern branches of the Sandusky that issued from the Morass, mentioned in that paragraph of the message marked A, to afford each a supply of water sufficient to turn a large run of mill-stones, by an undershot wheel. There seems no doubt, that these can be diverted into the Scioto. On the other hand, a more correct examination has proved, that the little Scioto, at the place mentioned in the same paragraph, is elevated seven feet above the Sandusky. I have no further information of the supply of water, for the route through the valley of Mad Kiver, nor any thing to add concerning the practicability of a water communication through the north eastern part of this state, and part of Pennsylvania.
I can only answer the first, as regards geographical distance : The length of the canal must inevitably depend on the course which the face of the country will compel the engineer to pursue ; and this is not likely to be so sinuous as your western canel. By the road (tolerably direct) from Sandusky Bay, to the mouth of the Scioto, the distance is about two hundred miles : From the bay to Cincinnati, by a road less direct, about ten miles less. In relation to the fall, I have to observe, that the survey made by Mr. Briggs from the tide water in Janaes' River, in Virginia, to the mouth of the Kenahawa, shows my conjecture to be nearly correct, concerning the comparative elevation of the lake, and of the Ohio, at the mouth of the Scioto. I should presume, that at Cincinnati, the river must be at least 40 feet lower.
The survey alluded to in paragraph C, was from the level of the Bay, in a direction towards the heads of the Great Miami and Mad Rivers. In the opinion of many judicious persons, there must have been some error in this survey ; although the summit in that course must be considerably higher than in a line northwardly from this place, where the Scioto flowing from the west, and branches of the Sandusky from the north east, approach each other ; and from whence each river bends its course to an opposite point of compass from the other. The reason for supposing this error, is chiefly grounded on the circumstance, that the principal rapids of the Sandusky are within 18 or 20 miles of the level of the lake, and have been surmounted by canoe navigation ; while above them, from its most southern bend, the current of the river is represented as very gentle.
I perceive that the New- York newspapers (probably on the authority of Mr. Steel) represent the summit between Sandusky and Scioto, as elevated 300 feet above lake Erie ; I think it probable that this approaches the truth The estimate attributed to Captain Riley, is generally thought too extravagant for notice.
Your third inquiry concerns the leading advantages of the canal to the state of Ohio, and to the country bordering on the lakes, on the completion of the great western canal, from Erie to the Hudson ?
Among the principal benefits which may first be expected to be derived from the completion of these works, would be the importation of salt, iron, and some other heavy, but indispensable commodities, not yet produced here in sufficient quantities ; besides the diminished cost of transportation of various articles of merchandise, consumed among us, and for which, a large portion of the western country would resort to the market of New-York — a trade which heretofore has been, in a great measure, the life of Philadelphia and Baltimore.
if lateral and diverging canals are to be formed (especially towards the Muskingum) the importation of gypsum for manure, might, at no great distance of time, become an item of great importance : But, the greatest advantage we should expect, would be the easy and cheap conveyance, to your grand mart, of our agricultural productions ; which, under an imperfect cultivation by a population still thin, are already immense. The region in the south western part of this state, called the Miami country, is one of our most fertile, best cultivated, and most populous districts. From one county within it, containing about 400 square miles, my correspondent last winter, acquainted me with the result of his inquiries into its product, as follows: Harvested, last season, (1819) 246,000 bushels of wheat — 43,500 bushels of rye — .463,000 bushels of corn. In the winter preceding, I was informed, that the same county, had prepared, and chiefly sent off, 4,000 hogs for market. This kind of stock, is almost uniformly driven to the lake, or to the Ohio, to be slaughtered, by way of saving expense, in the carriage of salt pork and bacon. Of the proceeds of their daries, and considerable numbers of neat cattle and horses reared in this county I have no returns. This county may be assumed as the average of what is severally produced by 7 or 8 others, all nearly of the same dimensions, in the quarter above mentioned.
The average cost of land carriage, to places where these provisions can be embarked, on the Ohio or the lake, is scarcely to be reckoned less, even in these dull times, than from 50 to 75 cents per hundred, through the year. It is true, that much of this cost of land carriage, is occasionally saved in this state, by transporting on the principal streams that cross different parts of Ohio ; but this navigation is not without considerable difficulties and dangers, and is withal, so uncertain, depending on the rise of the waters (which, after all the preparation of adventurers, sometimes fails of their expectation) that it forms an increase of expense.
North and west of Chillicothe, lies the most fertile part of the country on the waters of the Scioto — extensive and beautiful in a high degree, to the eye of the farmer, but more lately settled, less populous, and in general much less cultivated, than the Miami country. The small county however, contigious to this in which I am writing, has, for successive seasons, produced far greater wheat harvests than have ever been gathered in any of the more western coun-
and more to Sandusky Bay.
Of the country on the lakes, 1 know nothing personally, except our own coast of lake Erie. Governor Cass and the secretary of Michigan, Mr. Woodbridge, are persons whose intelligence and active zeal in discovering what concerns their territory, will enable them better, than any one known to me, to satisfy you, of what advantages would be likely to result to the countries bordering on the Detroit, and lakes Huron, Michigan, and Superior, from the accomplishment of these great canal communications.
The settlement of that part of this state, bordering on the lake, is considerably more recent than that near the Ohio, and much less of its forests have yielded to the hand of improvement. That portion of territory known by the appellation of the ' Connecticut Western reserve,' as well as most of the land (not yet sold) lying west of it, is in general, less a grain, than a grazing country, which may partly account for a slower progress of settlement, till within a few years, during which it has rapidly increased, in population and improvement, and the inhabitants exhibit a great deal of public spirit, in promoting and accomplishing works of public utility. Iron ore is abundant in various parts of the reserve. They have yet few forges or furnaces. Their search for salt has been less successful, and I anticipate that for this article they must depend on New-York. Coal has not been discovered in any considerable quantity near the lake ; but it is understood, that inexhaustible bedj of this mineral are found in the south eastern part of the reserve, and touching on the probable route for a canal in that quarter adverted to in a preceding part of this letter.
1 am unable to answer this question by any conjecture of tolerable accuracy. I believe there are several practicable, of greater or less extent. At present, I dare not venture to add any thing to the hazardous remark contained in paragraph D, of the message, so often (and I fear so fatiguingly) referred to.
You will observe that there is a part of the communication transmitted to you at this time relative to a tinanciering plan, irrelevant to the subjects of your inquiries. Our legislature passed an act at their last session proposing to purchase from the United States, from one to two millions of acres for the object of a canal ; and for a survey, and estimates, in case the proposition should be agreed to. It was not accepted by congress, not that the price offered was insufficient, or that the security would in other circumstances be objectionable, but on the principle, as I understand, that it is impolitic for congress to give credit to a state, or for a state to become indebted to the United States, on any terms or conditions, or for any purpose whatever. A bill, however, passed the senate, providing for a survey, 4'C. which now lies among the unfinished business of the house of
representatives. Unsuccessful in this attempt — uncertain what may be the disposition of congress at their next session, and the aspect of affairs among us rather gloomy, from the depression of our agriculture, we are compelled to view the accomplishment, and even the commencement, of the Ohio canal, as more remote than our own sanguine wishes had once imagined it to be. But I cannot consent to loose sight of it, while its practicability remains probable. Patience and perseverance may at length prevail : diligent investigation, may, I trust, devolve dormant resources in our stale ; its government is free from debt, its credit, (yet untried abroad) may prove good ; but our legislature must be well convinced, before they consent to pledge that credit, in a new scheme of immense magnitude.
It is to me a source of regret, that I have not possessed the means, to afford you information more exact and satisfactory. I have taken measures, which, I hope, will be effectual, to enable me to digest several statistical accounts and estimates of the nature and quantity of our productions, in agriculture and manufactures. If 1 succeed according to my hopes, I shall have it in my power to furnish you in the course of next winter,. with more precise and certain answers, to some of your queries. After the polite invitation 1 have received, to contribute to the general stock of information, on the great subject of the internal trade and navigation of the country, it would be ungrateful, and argue a w mt of patriotism in me, should I withhold from you the association, what knowledge on the subject, I possess, or may acquire. If any thing valuable can be culled from this communication (too imperfect in matter and manner for publication) 1 shall be proud to have furnished it ; and I still indulge the hope of being able in a few months, to offer you a statement on soine of the points of your inquiry, more certain and therefore more worthy of their acceptance.
Sir — I have received your note of this dale, on behalf of the NewYork corresponding association, for the promotion of internal improvements, requesting information as to the practicability and probable expense, of making a canal acro-^s the state of Ohio, from lake Erie to the Ohio river.
In answer to your inquiries, I will refer you to an essay on the subject of the contemplated canal across Ohio, (which is herewith transmitted to you) which I transmitted to Governor Brown, of Ohio, and which was by him laid before the legislature of that state at their last session. The ideas contained in that essay were hastily thrown
lieve that they may be relied on as correct.
The completion of the Erie and Hudson canal, and the Erie and Ohio canal, will produce a complete revolution in the trade of a considerable portion of the western country. It will cement the eastern and western states together by the strongest ties ; and if similar improvements are made throughout the United States, we need not dread a separation, of the American union, which no American can desire to behold ; and I wish that the generation that witnesses its dissolution, may witness also, the world wrapt in flames. With sentiments of esteem,
the State of Ohio.
NOTHING can be of more importance to the state of Ohio, than the making of a navigable canal from Lake Erie to the Ohio river. That it is practicable to make such canal admits not of a doubt. Were it made and the Hudson and Erie canal finished, we should have an easy and cheap highway on which to transport our surplus produce to the New- York market. I have had the levels taken at three different places, from the summit level between the Scicto, and the Sandusky, to the head of Sandusky Bay at Lower Sandusky. From the summit level on the most favourable route for a canal that I am acquainted with to Lower Sandusky, the descent, agreeable to the report of Mr. Farrer, whom I employed for the purpose of taking the levels, is 318 feet. Mr. Farrer had good instruments, and I presume that the levels are taken with tolerable accuracy. By the report of the engineers employed by* the state of Virginia, they make the Ohio river at the mouth of the Great Kenhawa river, 83 feet lower than Lake Erie. If those levels are to be relied on. and we ascertain what is the amount of the descent in the Ohio, from the mouth of the Great Kenhawa to the point where the canal is intended to communicate with the Ohio, we will then know what will be the whole amount of lockage required. If we allow 50 feet for that descent, the lockage will be as follows : From Lake Erie to the summit level 318 feet : From the summit level to the Ohio 433 feet, making the whole amount of lockage 761 feet. The estimate by the commissioners for making the New-York canal is ^13,80 0 per mile. Owing to the reduction in the price of labour, it is found that it can be made for much less monev. The ground for mak
iiig a canal across the state of Ohio, is much more favourable thau that over which the New-York canal is now making. And although there would be more lockage on the Ohio canal than on the NewYork canal, yet it is believed that it can be made at less expense than an equal distance of the New York canal. There would not have to be that heavy expense incurred in excavating rock that is encountered on the New-York canal. When we take into consideration the low price at which labour can be had, and the advantage to be gained by the employment of experienced engineers, now employed on the New- York canal, 1 think I hazard but little in saying that a canal can be made across this state for ^12,000 per mile, if we suppose the canal to be 200 miles long, at this rate it will cost 2,400,000 dollars. I am aware that some will say that the state of Ohio is too young and too poor to undertake this mighty project. But I deny that the state of Ohio is either young or poor. She contains at this time more than 500,000 souls, and ranks the 4th or 6th state in the Union. Can a state with such a population be young ? can a state with such a population (of industrious people too) be poor ? It has been justly remarked, " That population is power, and industry is wealth," So 1 contend that we are both powerful and rich. If the whole line of the canal was divided into feet, it would not make (admitting its length to be 200 miles) 13 1-2 to each man in the state subject to militia duty. The enquiry by some will be, how is the money to be raised to dig this mighty ditch ! Raise it in the same way the state of New- York does — borrow it on the credit of the state. Many there are, I have no doubt, who will doubt whether money can be borrowed on the credit of the state : To such 1 would say, go and try. If we stand at the base of a hill and look up without making an effort to ascend we will never reach its summit, and it may be fairly estimated on the completion of the canal, it will produce a revenue that will discharge the interest, and enable the state to pay large annual instalments of the principal debt; and in addition to the instalments, in a few years, defray the whole expenses of the state government. The amount received for toll could be expended in making the canal ; so, that although it cost 2,400,000, yet it might not be necessary to borrow any thing like that sum. The distribution of the sum of money that the canal would cost among the people of this state, would give them more relief from their present pecuniary embarrassments, than can be had from any laws that may be enacted for that purpose.
As the lands in the vicinity of the canal belonging to the general government would be greatly enhanced in value, 1 think it not improbable that congress will make a donation to the state of a body of land in its vicinity so far as it passes through their territory, if so, it would aid very much in making it. the celebrated Brindley, the greatest engineer that England, or perhaps the world ever produced, Mr. Philips, in his history of inland navigation, says, " Having spoken of various circumstances of rivers before a committee of the House of Commons, in which he seemed to treat all sorts of rivers
with great contempt, a member asked him for what purpose he apprehended n. ,rs were created. After considering a moment before he gave Ins answer, replied, to feed navigable canals." Such was the opinion of this great man, and such indeed must have been the opinions of many others ; for vv^ tind canals in Great Britain in many places running parallel with navigable rivers. Persons unacquainted with the ch'^ap rate* at which goods are transported on canals, are surprised when they learn that a ton weight can be transported at the rate of one cent per mile. The illustrious Fulton but a short time previous to his death, gave it as his opinion that goods could be transported on the New-York canal, when completed, at the rate of one cent per ton per mile. We find him supported in this opinion by Charles G Haines, Esq. " Corresponding Secretary to the New-York Association for the promotion of Internal improvements." Col Haines' situation enables him, on this subject, to form correct opinions ; his opinions on any subject are entitled to great respect. Mr. Philips, in the preface to his history of inland navigation, says, "All canals may be considered as so many roads of a certain kind, on which one horse will draw as much as 30 horses do on ordinary turnpike roads, or on which one man alone will transport as many goods as three men and eighteen horses usually do on common roads. The public would be great gainers, (he further adds) were they to lay out upon the making of every mile of canal, twenty times as much as they expend upon making a mile of turnpike road."
A country is never made poorer by making internal improvements, even if the people are taxed to make them. If money be taken from the people it is again paid out among them and kept in circulation. Were the canals through Ohio and New-York finished, I have no doubt but that two thirds of the surplus produce of all the country watered by the Ohio and its tributary streams above the Falls, would pass through them to the New York market. That it would be the interest of every shipper to give the preference to New-York is obvious. You have there a healthy climate, where if you think proper to store up your produce, you can do it in safety. Not so at New-Orleans ; if you there store up perishable articles they may be considered next to lost. The amount of produce that perishes on the way to and at New-Orleans, every 15 years . would itself more than pay for building a canal across the state of Ohio. During the spring tides, when the principal part of the produce of the western country is carried to New-Orleans that market is glutted, and the shipper is very often pleased at being able to return home with half the money his cari;o cost him.
If Mr. Fulton's estimate as to the expense at which goods can be transported on canals be correct, the expense of transporting a barrel of flour to the city of New-York (allowing ten barrels for a ton) will be as follows : —
To this must be added the tollage through both canals.
The lowest rate at which flour is at present freighted to New-Or-* leans from the falls is ^ i 25 per barrel. Nor is it probable that the price will be reduced, as the boats which costs from 100 to laO dollars is generally thrown away at New-Orleans, or sold for a sum not exceeding the tenth part of their cost. Opportunities but seldom offer to ship in steam-boats, owing to the difficulty of passing the falls. It will be recollected, that while our produce is carried to NewYork, at the cheap rate quoted above, that our foreign goods can be brought through the same channel at the same rates (whereas, at present, the expense of transportation costs from 3 to 5 cents per lb. or from 67 to 112 dollars per ton.) More or less of these goods the people will have, and the cheaper the rates at w-hich they can be furnished, the better for the country. And besides, it must be recollected, that if they are brought across the mountains by way of Pittsburgh, or from New-Orleans, by way of the Mississippi and the Ohio, that the expense of transportation is paid to the citizens of other states. If they are brought through the Ohio canal, the money saved in the state thereby, would in twenty-five years, amount to more than the whole cost of the canal. It must be admitted that the risk on the canal and lake, is much less than on the Ohio and Mississippi, and the time required to carry the produce that way, much less.
By turning the trade from New-Orleans to New-York, we would save thereby, the lives of many of our most enterprising and useful citizens, who would otherwise tall victims to the diseases of the lower Mississippi. The state of Kentucky has lost more of her citizens by the Orleans trade within the last fifteen ye-ars, than she has lost by the late war, and it is known, she bled at every pore.
Lateral canals may be made from the main canal in many places, which will serve to collect to the main canal the rich products oi the soil through which they pass, and at the same time afford means of furnishing the country with many of the necessaries of life, at prices greatly below what they now cost or ever will cost without the canal, 1 will only name the article of salt which by the means of the canal may be furnished to the people in the interior of the state, from the Salines of New-York, at a price, but little, if any thing, exceeding fifty cents per bushel. It is impossible to calculate what will be the benefits that may be derived to the people of this state by the making of the canal. In its progress, it will, no doubt, lay open rich beds of minerals. It will lay us, as it were along side of the Atlantic. It will, in short, elevate the character of the state, and put it half a century in advance of her present situation.
And I would respectfully inquire, whether the convicts now in the Penitentiary naight not be more usefully employed in making a canal, than at work in the Penitentiary?
It only remains for the legislature ©f Ohio to apply the means within their reach to accomplish this desirable object. When accomplished, there can be no doubt but that it will produce a sufficient revenue to defray the expenses of the state government for ever.
I. Beit enacted by the People of the State of JVew-York, represented inSenate and Assembly, That Stephen Van Rensselaer, De Witt Clinton, Samuel Young, Joseph EUicott and Myron Holley, be and they are hereby appointed commissioners, to consider, devise and adopt such measures as may or shall be requisite, to facilitate and eifect the communication, by means of canals and locks, between the navigable waters of Hudson's river and lake Erie, and the said navigable waters and lake Champlain ; and in case of the resignation or death of any of the said commissioners, the vacancy thereby occasioned, shall be supplied by the legislature, in the manner in which senators of the United States, from this state, are directed to be chosen.
II. And be it further enacted, That the said commissioners shall choose one of their number, to be president of their board, and shall appoint a fit person for their secretary, who shall be allowed and paid such salary as the said commissioners shall deem proper and resonable : And the president of the said board of commissioners, shall have power to call a meeting of the same whenever, in his opinion, the public interests require it ; and the said board may adjourn from time to time, to meet at any time and place they may deem most conducive to the public good : And further, the said commissioners shall have power to emploj' such and so many agents, engineers, surveyors, draftsmen, and other persons, as in their opinion may be necessary to enable them to fulfil and discharge the duties imposed upon them by this act, and to allow and pay the said agents, engineers, surveyors, draftsmen, and other persons, for their respective services, such sum or sums as may be adequate and reasonable.
III. And be it further enacted. That it shall be the duty of the said commissioners, as soon as may be after the passing of this act, to cause those parts of the territory of this state which may lie upon or
contiguous to the probable courses and ranges of the said canals, to be explored and examined for the purpose of fixing and determining the most eligible and proper routes for the same, and to cause all necessary surveys and levels to be taken, and accurate maps, fiield books and drafts thereof to be made, and further to adopt and recommend proper plans for the construction and formation of the said canals, and of the locks, dams, embankments, tunnels and aqueducts which may be necessary for the completion of the same, arfd to cause all necessary plans, drafts and models thereof, to be executed under their direction.
IV Jl7id be it further enacted. That the said commissioners or a majority of them, shall be, and they are hereby authorized and required to make application in behalf of this state, to the government of the United States, and of such states and territories as may be benefitted by the said canals or either of them, to the proprietors of lands through or near which the said canals or either of them may. or may be proposed to pass, to all bodies politic and corporate, public or private, and all citizens or inhabitants of this or any other of the United States, for cessions, grants or donations ef land or money, for the purpose of aiding in the construction or completing of both or either of the said canals, according to the discretion of the several grantors or donors, and to take to the people of this state, such grants and conveyances as may be proper and competent to vest a good and sufficient title in the said people to the lands so to be ceded or granted as aforesaid ; and for the purposes above mentioned, it shall be the duty of the said commissioners to open books of subscription in such and so many places as they may think necessary and expedient, and under such rule's and regulations as they may from time to time establish ; And further, it shall be their duty to ascertain whether to any and to what amount, and upon what terms loans of money may or can be procured on the credit of this state, for the purposes aforesaid.
V. And be it further enacted. That it shall be the duty of the said commissioners to make or cause to be made, with as much accuracy and minuteness as may be, calculations and estimates of the sum or sums of money which may or will be necessary for completing each of the said canals, according to the plan or plans which may be adopted and recommended by them, for the construction or formation of the same, and to cause the said calculations and estimates, and all surveys, maps, field books, plans drafts, and models, authorized and directed by this act, or so many thereof as may be completed, together with a plain and comprehensive report of all their proceedings under and by virtue of this act, to be presented to the legislature of this state within twenty days after the commencement of the next regular annual cession thereof.
VI. Jlnd be it further enacted, That the treasurer shall on the warrant of the comptroller, pay to the order of a majority of the said commissioners, out of any monies in the treasury not otherwise appropriated, any sum or sums not exceeding twenty thousand do,l-
troller of this state
VII. And be it further enacted, That the act entitled "an act to provide for the improvement of the internal navigation of this state," passed the 8th day of April, 18 < 1, and the act, entitled " an act further to provide for the improvement of the internal navigation of this state," passed June 19, 18 i2, be and the same are hereby repealed.
Whereas navigable communications between lakes Erie and Champlain and the Atlantic ocean, by means of canals connected with the Hudson river, will promote agriculture, manufactures and commia-ce, mitigate the calamities of war, and enhance the blessings of peace, consolidate the union, and advance the prosperity and elevate the character of the United States ; And whereas it is the incumbent duty of the people of this state to avail themselves of the means which the Almighty has placed in their hands for the production of such signal, extensive, and lasting benefits to the human race. Now, therefore, in tuU confidence that the congress of the United States, and the states equally interested with this state, in the commencement, prosecution and completion of those important works, will contribute their full proportion of the expense, and in order that adequate funds may be provided, and properly arranged and managed for the prose-" cution and completion of all the navigable communications contemplated by this act :
Be it enacted by the People of the State of New-York, represented in Senate and Assembly, That there shall be constituted a fund to be denominated the canal fund, which shall conjiis*" of all such appropriations, grants, and donations, as may be made for that purpose by the legislature of this state, by the congress of the United States, by individual states, and by corporations, companies and individuals ; which fund shall be superintended and managed by a board of commissioners, to be denominated "the commissioners of the canal fund," consisting of the lieutenant-governor, the comptroller, the attorney general, the surveyor general, secretary and treasurer, a majority of whom, with the comptroller, shall be a quorum for the transaction of business ; and that it shall be the duty of the said board, to receive, arrange and manage to the best advantage, all things beIpnging to the said fund ; to borrow from time to time, monies on the credit of the people of this state, at a rate of interest not exceeding six per centum per annum, and not exceeding in any one year, a sum, which together with the net income of the said fuad, shall amount to
four hundred thousand dollars, for which monies so to be borrowed, the comptroller shall issue transferable certificates of stock, payable at such time or times, as may be determined by the said board ; out of the said fund to pay to the canal commissioners hereafter mentioned, the monies so to be borrowed, and the income of the said fund, reserving at all times sufficient to pay the interest of all monies that shall have been borrowed -by the said board : to recommend from time to time to the legislature the adoption of such measures as may be thought proper by the said board for the improvement of the said fund, and to report to the legislature at the opening of every session thereof, the state of saidfund ; and that tl*e comptroller and treasurer shall open separate books, and keep the accounts of the said fund, distinct from the other funds of the state.
And be it further enacted. That the commissioners appointed by the act, entitled " an act to provide for the improvement of the internal navigation of this state, "i passed April 17, 1816 shall contnue to possess the powers thereby conferred, and be denominated " the canal commissioners," and they are hereby authorized and enapowered in behalf of this state, and on the credit of the fund herein pledged, to commence making the said canals, by opening communications by canals and locks between the Mohawk and Seneca rivers, and between lake Champlain and the Hudson river ; to receive from time to time from the commissioners of the canal fund, such moneys as may be necessary for, and applicable to the objects hereby contemplated ; to cause the same to be expended in the most prudent and economical manner in all such works as may be proper to make the said canals, and on completing any part or parts of the works or canals contemplated by this act, to establish reasonable tolls, and adopt all measures necessary for the collection and payment thereof to the commissioners of the canal fund : that a majority of the said commissioners shall be a board for the transaction of business, each of whom shall take an oath, well and faithfully to execute the duties of his office, and shall report to the legislature at each session thereof, the state of said works and expenditures, and recommend such measures as they may think advisable for the accomplishment of the objects intended by this act. And in case of any vacancy in the office of commissioner, during the recess of the legislature, the person administering the government may appoint a person to fill such vacancy, until the legislature shall act in th« premises.
And he it further enacted. That it shall and may be lawful for the said canal commissioners, aud each'of them, by themselves, and by any and every superintendent, agent and engineer employed by them, to enter upon, and take possession of, and use all and singular any lands, waters and streams, necessary for the prosecution of the improvements intended by this act. And to make all such canals, feeders, dykes, locks, dams, and other works and devices, as they may think proper for making said improvements, doing, nevertheless, no unnecessary damage. And that in case any lands, waters or streams, taken and appropriated for any of the purposes afor^aid
shall not be given or granted to the people of this state, it shall be the duty of the canal commissioners, from time to time, and as often as they think reasonable and proper, to cause applications to be made to the justices of the supreme court, or any two of them, for the appointment of appraisers, and the said justices shall thereupon, by writing, appoint not less than three, nor more than five discreet, disinterested persons as appraisers, who shiill, before they enter upon the duties of their appointment, severally take and subscribe an oath or affirmation, before some person authorised to administer oaths, faithfully and impartially to perform the trust and duties required of them by this acte Which oath or affirmation shall be filed vrith the secretary of the canal commissioners ; and it shall be the duty of the said appraisers, or a majoritj' of them to make a just and equitable estimate and appraisal of the loss and damage, if any over and above the benefit and advantage to the respective owners and proprietors or parties interested in the premises so required for the purposes aforesaid, 'by and in consequence of making and constructing any of the works aforesaid ; and the said appraisers, or a majority of them, shall make regular entries of their determination and appraisal, with an apt and sufficient description of the several premises appropriated for the purposes aforesaid, in a book or books to be provided and keptbj' the canal commissioners, and certify and sign their names to such entries and appraisal, and in like manner certifiy their determination as to those several premises, which will suffer no damages, or will be benefited more than injured, by or in consequence of the works aforesaid. And the canal commissioners shall pa}*^ the damages so to be assessed and appraised, and the fee simple of the premises so appropriated, shall be vested in the people of this state.
And be it further enacted. That whenever in the opinion of the canal comjnissioners, it shall be for the interest of this state, for the prosecution of the works contemplated by this act,, that all the interest and title (if any) in law and equity of the western inland lock navigation company should be vested in the people of this state, it shall be lawful for the said canal commissioners to pass a resolution to that effect ; and that it shall then be lawful for the president of the canal commissioners, to cause a copy of such resolution, with a notice signed by himself and the secretary of the said commissioners to be delivered to the president or other known officer of said company, notifying the president and directors of the said company that an application will be made to the justices of the supreme court, at a term thereof, to be held not 1-ess than thirty days from the time of giving such notice for the appointment of appraisers, to estimate the damages to be sustained by the said company, by investing in the people of this state, all the lands, waters, canals, locks, feeders and appurtenances thereto acquired, used and claimed by the said company, under its act of incorporation, and the several acts amending the same ; and it shall be the duty of the justices aforesaid, at the term mentioned in the said notice, and on proof of the service, thereof to appoint by writing under the seal of the said court, and
the hands of at least three of the said justices, not less than three nor more than five disinterested persons, being citizens of the United States, to estimate and appraise the damages aforesaid ; and it shall be the duty of the said appraisers, or a majority of them, to estimate and appraise the damages aforesaid, and severally to certify the same under oath, before an officer authorized to take the acknowledgment of deeds, to be a just, equitable and impartial appraisal to the best of their judgement and belief, and shall thereupon deliver the sanle to one of the canal commissioners, who shall report th<e same to the said court ; and if the said court shall be of opinion, that the said damages have been fairly and equitably assessed, the said justices or any three of them, may certify the same on the said report, and the amount of the said damages, and the expense of the said appraisal shall be audited by the comptroller, and paid on his warrant by the treasurer out of the canal fund. And the people of this state shall thereupon be invested with, and the said canal commissioners may cause to be used, all the lands, waters, streams, canals, locks, feeders and appurtenances aforesaid, for the purposes intended by this act.
And be it further enacted, that for the purposes contemplated by this act, and for the payment of the interest, and final redemption of the principal, of the sums to be borrowed by virtue thereof, there shall be and hereby are appropriated and pledged, a duty or tax, of twelve and a half cents per bushel upon all salt to be manufactured in the western district of this state ; a tax of one dollar upon each steam boat passenger, for each and every trip or voyage, such passenger may be conveyed upon the Hudson river, on board of any steam boat, over one hundred miles ; and half that sum for any distance less than one hundred miles and over thirty miles ; the proceeds of all lotteries which shall he drawn in this state, after the sums now granted upon them shall be paid ; all the net proceeds of this state from the western Inland lock Navigation company : all the net proceeds of the said canals and each part thereof when made ; all grants and donations made or to be made for the purpose of making the said canals ; all the duties upon sales at auction, after deducting thereout twenty three thousani) and five hundred dollars, annually appropriated to the hospital, the economical school, and the orphan asylum society, and ten thousand f<ol!ars hereby appropriated annually for the support of foreign pool nn the city of Nevv-York.
And be if further enacted, That from and after the first Tuesday of August next, there shall be paid and collected in the manner now directed by law, 'jpon ails?li to be manufactured in the connty of Onondaga, a duty of twelve and a half cents per bushel, instead of the present duties, and the like tax or duty of twelve and a half cents per bushel, upon ail other salt to be inai-'ufartured in the western district of this state, which shaU be colloced by the .superii\tendent of the salt springs^ until otherwise directed by tf.o legislature ; and for that purpose he shall have a respoMslMe deputy residin'^,- at each place where salt is, or may be manufactured, with the like powers,
and subject to the like duties as his present deputies : and that all the provisions, forfeitures, penalties, and restrictions contained in the laws relative to the duties upon Onondaga salt, so far as the same may be applicable, shall be in force for the purposes of enforcing the payment and collection of the tax or duties imposed on salt, hereby levied and imposed ; and further, that the said superintendent, instead of a yearly report to the legislature, shall make a quarter-yearly report to the commissioners of the canal fund, and pay into the treasury of this state, on the first Tuesday of February, May, August, and November, in each year, all the monies collected by him during the quarter preceding each of those days, deducting, in addition t<;t, what by law is now allowed to be deducted, five per cent of the duties collected at all other salt works, not situated in the county of Onondaga, and two per cent of the duties upon Onondaga salt, as a compensation for the collecting, and paying over the same.
A7id be it further enacted. That it shall be the duty of the said catfal commissioners, to raise the sum of two hundred and fifty thousand dollars, to be appropriated towards the making and completing of the said canals, from the Mohawk river, to the Seneca river, and from lake Champlain to Hudson's river, by causing to be assessed and levied in such manner as the said commissioners may determine and direct, the said sum of two hundred and fifty thousand dollars, upon the lands and real estate, lying along the route of the said canals, and within twenty-five miles of the same, on each side thereof: which sum so to be assessed and levied, shall be assessed on the said lands and real estate adjacent to the said several canals, in such proportion for each, as the said commissioners shall determine. And the said commissioners shall have power to make such ruies and regulations, and ado^tsuch measures for the assessing, levying and collecting the sum or sums of money, either by sale of the said lands, or otherwise, as they shall deem meet, and the said assessment shall be made on said lands, according to the benefit which they shall be considered by the said commissioners, as deriving from the making of the said canals respectively: Provided, That such rules, regulations and measures, shall, before they are carried into effect, be sanctioned and approved by the chancellor, and judges of the supreme court, or a majority of them : And provided further, That if any company or individual subject to such tax, shall subscribe any money or other property towards the completion of the said canals, the amount of such donations or voluntary subscriptions, shall, if the same is less than the amount of the tax, be deducted therefrom, and if more, he or they shall be entirely discharged from the said tax.
'>- And be it further enacted. That from and after the first day of May next, the aforesaid tax upon steam-boat passengers, shall be demanded, taken and received, by each captain, or master of every steam-boajt navigating the Hudson river; and, that during each month thereafter, in which such boat shall be employed for the conveyance itff passengers, it shall be the duty of such captain or master, to
cause to be delivered to the comptroller of this state, a return or account,53ivorn to, before some oflBcer authorized to administer oaths, stating the name of the boat, the number of trips made by such boat during such month, and the whole number of passengers conveyed on board such boat, at each of the said trips, over one hundred miles, and the number conveyed less than one hundred miles, and over thirty miles, and pay into the treasury of this state, the amount of such tax collected during the time mentioned in the said return, deducting three per cent thereof, as a compensation for making such return, and collecting and paying over the said tax ; And further. That in case of any neglect or refusal, in making such return or collecting and paying over the tax as directed in and by this section, the captain or master so neglecting, shall forfeit and pay the sum of five hundred dollars, besides the amount of tax so directed to be collected and paid over, to be recovered in an action of debt in the name of the people of this state, and for tbe use of the aforesaid fund.
I. Be it enacted by the People of the state of New-York, represented in Senate and Assembly, That it shall be the duty of the commissioners of the canal fund, in addition to the sums vehich they are already authorized to borrow, to borrow from time to time monies on the credit of the state, at a rate not exceeding six per centum per annum, and not exceeding in any one year a sum, which together with the net income of the canal fund, and with the sums which they are already authorized to borrow shall amount to six hundred thousand dollars ; for which monies so to be borrowed, certificates of stock shall be issued in the manner directed in and by the act, entitled " an act to improve the funds, and to provide for the redemption of the funded debt of this state," payable at such time or times as maybe determined by the said board, out of the said canal fund, and to pay to the canal commissioners the monies so to be borrowed.
II. And be it further enacted, That the canal commissioners be and they are hereby authorized and empowered, in behalf of this state, and on the credit of the canal fund, to proceed to open communications by canals and locks, between the Seneca river and lake Erie ; between such point on the Mohawk river, where the middle section of the great western canal shall terminate and the Hudson river ; between Fort Edward and the navigable waters of the Hudson river, and between the great western canal and the salt works in the village of Salina ; to receive from time to time from the commissioners of the canal fund such monies as may be necessary for and applicable to the object? hereby contemplated ; to cause the
same to be expended in the most economical and prudent manner in all such works as may be proper to make the said canals and locks, and completing any of the works contemplated by this act ; to establish reasonable tolls, and adopt all measures necessary for the collection and payment thereof to the commissioners of the canal fund.
III. And be it further enacted, That all the provisions of the third section of the act, entitled " an act respecting navigable communications between the great western and northern lakes and ihe Atlantic ocean," as it respects the powers of the canal commissioners to enter upon and take possession of the lands, waters and streams therein mentioned, the construction of all necessary artificial works thereon, the mode of estimating and appraising the loss and damage occasioned thereby to the owners and proprietors of such lands ; and the payment of the damages to be so assessed and appraised, shall be extended to and apply to all and singular any lands, waters and streams necessary for the prosecution of the improvements intended by this act ; and the same proceedings shall be had for estimating and appraising the loss and damage occasioned by the occupation thereof, and for payment of the same, as in and by the third section of said act is provided in relation to the lands therein mentioned.
IV. And be it further enacted. That every person actually engaged in labouring on either of the canals authorized by this act, or the act respecting navigable communications between the great western and northern lakes and the Atlantic ocean, shall be exempt from doing militia duty in this state, except in cases of insurrection or invasion, during the time when he is so'actually engaged; and the certificate of one of the canal commissioners or contractors who shall employ such men so liable to peform militia duty, in the performance of their contracts, shall be prima facie evidence of such engagement.
V. And be it further enacted, 1 hat the assessments upon certain lands which are directed to be made by the seventh section of the act respecting navigable communications between the great western and northern lakes and the Atlantic ocean, shall be suspended until the further order of the legislature thereon : And further. That whenever the legislature shall direct the assessment and collection of such tax, a similar tax shall be assessed and collected on the sections authorized by this act, and on the like principles as declared in said seventh section.
VI. And be it further enacted, That it shall be the duty of the canal commissioners, on or before the first day of February, in each and every year, to settle and account with the comptroller for all monies by them received from the commissioners of the canal fund ; and it shall be the duty of the comptroller to report the settlement so made to the legislature, as soon thereafter as may be, detailing the sums allowed by them to the engineers, agents and servants, respectively employed in the superintendence and construction of said canal and the works connected therewith.
board, and not to exceed three in any one year) as shall be actually engaged in the superintendence of the works and the immediate duties connected therewith, in full compensation for their services and personal expenses, a salary of twenty-five hundred dollars each a year, to commence on the first day of January last.
1 . Be it enacted by the people of the State of J^ew-York, represented in Senate and Assembly, That in all cases when a new road or public highway is laid out; by legal authority, in such direction as to cross the line of the Erie canal, Champlain canal, or the Salina side cut, after said line is established, and in such manner as to require the erection of a new bridge over either of the said canals, for the accommodation of said road, such bridge shall be so constructed and forever maintained at the expense of the town in which such bridge is to be situated : Provided however, that no bridge shall be constructed across either of the said canals, without first obtaining for the model and location thereof, the consent in writing of one of the acting commissioners, or the principal engineer of the canal to be intersected by said road ; And provided, that if any person or persons, shall undertake to construct or locate such bridge without such consent, and shall proceed therein, so far as to place any materials for that purpose on either bank of the canal, or on the bottom thereof, he or they shall be subject to a penalty of fifty dollars for such undertaking, and either of said commissioners or engineers shall be authorized to remove all such materials so soon as they are discovered, wholly without the banks of the canal.
2. And be it further enacted, That every person who shall lead, drive, or ride, any horse, ox, ass, mule, or other cattle upon the towing-path, or the bank opposite to the towing-path, of either of the said canals, except for the purpose of towing boats or other floating things upon the waters thereof, and except, for the purpose of conveying articles to and from the said canals, in order to their transportion on the waters of the same or their delivery at their place of destination, shall forfeit for every offence, the sum of five dollars,
and pay all damages consequent upon such offence over and above the said forfeiture ! and in case of default, in the immediate payment of such forfeiture, after conviction of said offence, such person or persons shall be liable to imprisonment in the gaol of the county where such offence shall be committed, for a term not exceeding thirty days, at the discretion of the court before whom such conviction shall be had.
3. And whereas it may hapT^en thai the said canal, or the works connected therewith, may be injured by unforeseen accidents, whereby the navigation may be interrupted, and the lands adjacent thereto may be exposed to damage ; therefore, Be it further enacted, for the speedy reparation of such injury, that whenever, and as often as such case shall happen, it shall be lawful for the said commissioners, or either of them, or of their engineers, or any other person employed by either of them, with carts, waggons,' or other carriages, with their beasts of draft or burthen, and all necessary tools and implements, to enter upon any lands contiguous to the said canals, or the works connected therewith and to dig for, work, to get and carry away, and use, all such stone, gravel, clay, timber and other materials as may be necessary or proper, in their opinion, for such reparation, doing as little damage thereby as the nature of the case will permit. And in case damages shall be claimed by the owner or owners of any land, entered upon for the purpose of obtaining materials as aforesaid, and the said commissioners, or either of them, or the principal engineer of that portion of either of said canals, where such injury may have occurred, cannot agree with such owner or owners as to the amount of said damages, then, for the purpose of ascertaining that amount, it shall be lawful for either of the said acting commissioners, or for such engineer", to select one discreet free-holder of the county wherein such damages may be claimed, and such owner or owners another, and these two freeholders shall select a third, which three, after being severally sworn, before any person authorized to administer oaths, faithfully and impartially to assess said damages, shall proceed to inquire into said damages, and after having ascertained the same by the concurrent opinion of any two or all of the said freeholders, they shall certify the same in writing under their hands and seals, or the hands and seals of any two of them ; and the amount of damages thus certified, shall be paid to such owner or owners, by the said commissioners, within ten days after said certificate shall be delivered to them, or as soon thereafter as they shall be in funds ; and proof of such payment, or of the offer of such payment, in case of refusal to receive the same, on the part of such owner or owners, shall for ever discharge the said commissioners and their engineers, and all persons employed by them, from all claims for entering upon such land, and taking and using materials as aforesaid ; and in case the amount of damages certified by said freeholders, in any case, shall fall short of the sum offered for such damages by said commissioners or engineer, previously to the selection of said freeholders, then the cost of
all proceedings after such offer, shall be deducted from the amount of damages so certified, and said commissioners shall be required to pay to said owner or owners, no more than the residue of said damages after the deduction of such cost ; but in case the amount of damages so certified, shall exceed such previous offer, then all such cost shall be paid by said commissioners over and above the damages so certified : and the said freeholders shall each be entitled for his services, the sum of one dollar and fifty cents, for each assessment of damages, and if more days than one are required to ascertain and assess said damages, then each of said freeholders shall be entitled to one dollar and fifty cents per day, for every day thus required.
4. And be if further enacted. That every boatman or other person having charge of any boat or other floating thing, upon either of the said canals, which shall pass through any lock thereon in descending from a higher to a lower level, shall previously to moving his boat or other floating thing into any lock, shut the lower gates of such lock, and the paddles thereto belonging, before he shall open the upper gates, or draw or open the paddles thereof, or open the culvert gates of the head of said lock, and after he shall have moved his boat or other floating thing into said lock, he shall then shut the upper gates thereof, and the paddles thereof, and the gates of the culverts belonging to the head thereof, before he shall draw or open the paddles of the lower gates thereof; and immediately after such boatman or other person shall have moved his boat or other floating thing, through* any lock either waj^ and shall have emptied such lock, he shall securely shut all the passages for water into and out of said lock, contrived for the purpose of filling or emptying the same : And at all times, boats or other floating things going up the said canals, if within sight of any boat or other floating thing coming down, and at a distance not exceeding one hundred yards below any lock shall pass through such lock before the boat or other floating thing above such lock, shall come down ; and if there shall be more boats or other floating things than one below and one above any lock, at the same time, within the distance aforesaid, such boats or other floating things shall go up and come down through such locks by turns, as aforesaid, until they shall a^l have passed the same, in order that one lock full of water may serve two boats or other floating things. And if any boatman or other person shall offend against either of the provisions of this section, he shall forfeit for every such ofi'ence the sum of twenty-five dollars.
5. And be it further enacted. That if any boat or other floatingthing shall be so moored, in either of the s?id canals, as to obstruct the navigation thereof or if any person or persons shall obstruct the navigation of either of the said canals, by means of the loading, unloading, misplacing or otherwise misconducting any boat or other floating thing, and shall not immediately, upon being requested thereto by any commissioner, engineer, superintendent or agent employed on said canals, or by any person incommoded by said obstruction,
remove the same, the boatman or person who caused said obstruc tion, shall forfeit for every such offence, the sum of twenty-five dollars, over and above the expense of removing said obstruction.
6. Afid be it further enacted, That if any person shall obstruct the navigation of either of the said canals, by sinking any vessel, timber, stone, earth or other thing or things, to the bottom of either of said canals, or by placing any obstruction on the towing path thereof, or on the bank opposite the towing path thereof, such person shall forfeit for every such offence, the sura of twenty-five dollars ; and in case such forfeiture is not paid forthwith, on conviction of such offence, such convict shall be imprisoned in the gaol of the county where such offence may be committed, upon the warrant of any court before whom such conviction may be had, for the term of one calender month.
7. And be it further enacted. That if any person or persons shall wantonly or unnecessarily open or shut, or cause to be opened or shut, any lock gate, or any paddle or culvert gate thereof, or any waste gate, or drive any nails, spikes, pins or wedges into either of the said gates, or take any other mode of preventing the perfect and free use of either of the said gates, or shall wantonly or maliciously break, throw down or destroy any bridge or fence, on either of the said canals, such person or persons shall, for every such offence, forfeit the sum of fifty dollars, and be imprisoned in the gaol of the county where such offence may be committed, upon the warrant of the court before whom a conviction for such offence shall be had, for a term not less than one, nor more than three calerfder months.
8. And be it further enacted. That if any person or persons shall wilfully and maliciously break, throw down or destroy any lock, bank, waste-weir, dam, aqueduct or culvert, belonging to either of the said canals, such person or persons shall, for every such offence, pay all the damages arising from such breaking, throwing down or destroying, and on conviction thereof, before any court of general sessions of the peace, or (^ourt of oyer and terminer to be held in the county where such offence may be committed, shall be sentenced to imprisonment in the state prison, at hard labour, for any term not less than three years, in the discretion of the court before whom such conviction shall be had.
9. And be it further enacted, That in all cases where any boat or other floating thing, in passing on either of the said canals, shall meet with any other boat or other floating thing, it shall be the duty of the boatman or person having charge of each of said boats, or other floating things, to turn out to the right hand, so far as to give to each other a free passage, or as to be wholly on the right side of the centre of the canal : and in all cases when any boat or other floating thing shall approach any place on either of the said canals, which is less than thirty feet wide at the top water line, or which will not safely permit their passing, it shall be the duty of the boatman or person having charge of the boat or other floating thing, going from the navigable waters of the Hudson river, to wait at such distance from
such narrow place as may be convenient for the boat or other floating thing, going towards the said navigable waters, to pass through said narrow place, until such passage is eflfected ; and every boatman or other person violating either of the provisions of this section, shall forfeit, for every such offence, the sum of ten dollars.
10. And be it further enacted, That no boat or other floating thing shall be permitted to move on either of the said canals, without permission in writing of a majority of the canal commissioners, faster than at the rate of five miles an hour ; and that in all cases in which a boat intended and used chiefly for the carriage of persons and their baggage, shall overtake any boat or other floating thing, not intended or used chiefly for such purpose, it shall be the duty of the boatman or person having charge of the latter to give the former every practicable facility for passing ; and whenever it shall become necessary for that purpose, to stop, until such boat for the carriage of passengers shall have fully passed ; and every boatman or other person who shall offend against any part of this section, shall forfeit, for every such offence, the sum often dollars.
11. And be it further enacted, That no person shall construct any wharf, basin or watering place on, or make and apply any device whatever, for the purpose of taking water from either of the said canals, without first obtaining permission therefoe, of one of the acting commissioners, or of the principal engineer of the canal where such wharf, basin, watering place, or device as aforesaid is desired, in writing ; and if any person shall offend against this section, by attempting to make any such construction or apply such device, without such permission, or shall not conform to the directions of the acting commissioner or engineer who may give such permission, in respect to the location and size of such wharf, basin, watering place, or device as aforesaid, such person shall, for every such offence, forfeit the sum of twenty five dollars ; and the said acting commissioners, or engineer, shall be authorized, at the expense of the person thus attempting to remove and destroy every such wharf, basin, watering place or device as aforesaid.
12. And be it further enacted. That if any agent, toll collector, lock keeper or superintendent employed on either of the said canals, and occupying any house, office, building or land belonging thereto, shall be discharged from his employment by either of the acting commissioners on said canals, and shall not deliver up the possession of such house, office, building or lands and their appurtenances, together with all the books, papers and other matters and things belonging to the said canals, within seven days next after notice of such discharge shall be given to him, or left at such house, office or building ; or if the wife or family of any such agent, toll collector, lock keeper or superintendent, who shall die in either of said employments, shall refuse to deliver up the possession of such house, office, building, or lands and appurtenances, together with the books, papers and other matters and things belonging to either of the said canals, in his, her or their custody, power or possession, within seven days after
another person shall have been appointed in the place and stead of the person so djing, then and in either of those cases, it shall be lawful for any justice of the peace, in the county where such house, office, building or lands shall be, and he is hereby required, by warrant, under his hand and seal, to order any constable or other peace officer, with such assistance as may be necessary, to enter such house, office, building, or upon such land, in the day time, and remove the persons who shall be found therein, together with their goods and chattels, out of such house, office, building, and off from such land, and to take possession of all the books, papers, matter'i and things belonging to said canals, and to deliver possession of the same to the new appointed agent, toll collector, lock keeper or superintendent.
13. And be it further enacted, That the tonnage of all articles conveyed on either of the said canals, on which toll may be charged therefor, shall be ascertained and charged according to the real weight thereof, and that one hundred and twelve pounds weight avoirdupoise shall be deemed and taken as and for one hundred weight ; and in case any difference shall arise between any collector of the said rates, and the boatman or other person having charge of such articles, or the owner thereof, concerning the weight thereof, it shall be lawful for any such collector to stop and detain such articles together with the vessels in which they may be contained, and to weigh the same ; and if upon such weighing the said articles shall be found to weigh more than the account given thereof by such boatman, person or owner, then it shall be lawful for such collector to charge toll for said articles, according to their weight thus found ; and such boatman, person or owner, shall pay the expenses of such Tveighing, at the rate of twelve and a half cents for every ton weighed to the said collector, who in case of refusal to pay the same, on demand, by such boatman, person or owner, shall be authorized to levy the said expenses, in the same manner as is hereinafter provided in case of refusal to pay toll.
14. Aiid be itfurtiier enacted, That in all cases where toll is charged by the number of articles conveyed, or by the number of feet contained therein, if any difference shall arise between any collector of the said toll and the boatman, or person having charge of such articles or the owners thereof it shall be lawful for any such collector to stop and detain such articles, together with the vessels in which they may be contained, and to count or measure the same ; and if upon such counting or measurement, rl shall be found that the said number of feet exceed the account given by such boatman, person or owner, then it shall be lawful for such collector to charge toll according to the number and feet thus found, and such boatman, person or owner shall pay the expenses of such counting or measurement, at the rate of six cents a piece for such articles as pay toll by number, and twelve and a half cents per hundred feet for such articles as pay by the foot, for ail the articles so counted or measured, to such collector,
who in case of refusal to pay the same, on demand, by such boatman person or owner, shall be authorized to levy the said expenses, in the same manner as is herein after provided in case of refusal to pay toll.
15. And he it further enacted. That no boat or vessel of any description shall be permitted to pass through any lock, on either of the said can;ds, unless such boat or vessel, shall have painted, in large letters, near the head or stern thereof, and above the water when full la(^en, the name of such boat or vessel, and the place #where the same is owned ; and every boat or vessel, except those used exclusively for the carriage of persons and their baggage, shall have fixed on each side thereof, two metalic straps, one near the head, and one near the stern, extending from below the surface of the water when empty, to above the surface of the water when full laden, which straps shall each be so graduated and marked, as distinctly to show the amount of tons weight contained in said boat or vessels ; and every person who shall attempt to pass any boat or vessel through any lock, or shall introduce any boat not named and graduated as aforesaid, into either of the said canals, in violation of this section, after the first day of September next, shall forfeit, for every such offence, the sum of twenty-five dollars.
16 And heit further enacted, Th^i no person navigating either of the said canals, shall be permitted to use therein any setting pole, or shaft pointed with iron or other metal, and if any person shall offend against this section, he shall, for every such offence, forfeit the sum of five dollars, and it shall be the duty of the lock keeper to take such pole or shaft so found.
17. Andbeit further enacted. That every boatman or person having charge of property moving on either of the said canals shall give to such persons as may be duly authorized to collect tolls, at the place where such collector shall attend for that purpose, a just account or bill of lading, in writing, signed by the person or persons sending or conveying such property, or by his or their clerk or agent, which account shall contain a statement of the weight of all the property on which toll is charged by the ton, and of the number of all rticles on which toll is charged by the number, and of the feet of articles on which toll is charged by the foot ; and in all cases where a difference in the rate of toll is charged on different articles, the weight or quantity of each specifically set forth ; and it shall contain a statement of the place from which such property is brought, and where the same is intended to be landed ; and in case any boatman or person having charge of any property as aforesaid, shall neglect or refuse to give such account when thereto requested by any such collector, or shall wilfully and knowingly give a false account, or deliver any part of such property at any other place, than that mentioned in said account ; or shall wilfully do any other act whereby the payment of said toll, or any part thereof, shall be avoided, or if the person required to sign such account, shall sign a false account of such property, every person so offending shall forfeit, for such offence, the sum of twenty-five dollars.
18. Andbe it further enacted, That any collector of toll, duly authorized by the canal commissioners, may stop and detain all boats and other property floating on either of the said canals, until the boatman or person having charge thereof or the owner thereof shall pay the toll or may distrain any part of the said property sufficient to satisfy the same, which distress shall be kept by the collector of tolls taking the same, for the space of eight days, and afterwards, be sold at public auction at the place where such tolls are usually receivable, to the highest bidder, rendering the surplus on demand, if any there be after payment of the said toll and the cost of distress and sale, to the owner or owners thereof.
19. Andbe it further enacted, That for all damages done to either of said canals, or any of the works connected therewith, either of the acting commissioners or principal engineers shall be authorized to sue in any court of competent jurisdiction ; and if a verdict or judgement shall be given, either on proof made, or by default, or upon demurrer, against any person or persons, for such damages, the plaintiff shall recover the same, with full costs of suit ; and in all cases in which suits are brought, it shall be the duty of the canal commissioners to have accurate accounts kept of the amount of recoveries and of costs and expenses, and after deducting the said costs and expenses from said amount, to pay the residue of said recoveries over to the commissioners of the canal fund.
20. And be it further enacted. That the canal commissioners shall be authorized to establish the rates of toll to be paid on all articles conveyed on either of the said canals in any manner, and to erect all such toll houses, weighing scales, offices and other edifices, and purchase such ground for the convenience thereof, as they may think necessary for the convenient and profitable use of the said ca" nals, at such times and places as- they may deem proper, and that they shall be authorized from time to time, to make all such rules and regulations in respect to the collection of toll and the payment thereof to the commissioners of the canal fund, in respectto the size and structure of boats, rafts, and other floating things, on the waters of each of the said canals, and in respect to all matters, in any way connected with the navigation thereof, and to impose such forfeitureft of money fo.r the breach of such rules and regulations, as they may deem reasonable, from time to time, provided said forfeitures shall in no one case exceed the sum of twenty-five dollars.
21. And be it further enacted, That in all cases in which it shall ■ be deemed necessary by the principal engineer, in laying out the line of the Erie and Champlain canals, or any work connected therewith, to discontinue or alter any part of a public road or highway, on account of its interfering with a proper location or construction of either of said canals, such engineer shall be authorized to make such discontinuance or alteration ; and upon his drawing up, in writing and figures a true description of all such parts of any public road or highway as he may discontinue and new lay on the account aforesaid, and filing the same in the clerk's office of the town
of which such discontinuance and alteration may be situated, the same shall be lawful : Provided hozaever, That the canal commissioners shall, before they obstruct the passage on any part of the highway now legally established, open and reasonably work, in order to render it passable such part of said highway as may be new laid by said engineer as aforesaid ; and the certificate of said engineer, ia writing, that the part of any highway new laid as aforesaid, is opened and reasonably worked as aforesaid, by said canal commissioners, shall be sufficient for their justification ; and that any alteration heretofore made by any engineer, in any public road or highway, on either of the said canals, shall, from the time of such alteration, be deemed lawful to all intents and purposes.
22, And be it further enacted, That no acting commissioner, or principal or assistant engineer, employed on either of the said ca nals, shall be liable to be taken by warrant in any civil suit, arising out of, or connected with their official duties, any law to the contrary notwithstanding : but that such persons may be proceeded against by summons in all cases.
23. jlnd be it further enacted, That all penalties and forfeitures created by this act, the recovery of which is not otherwise herein specially provided for, may be sued for and recovered before any justice of the peace, in any county where such penalty or forfeiture shall accrue, in the name of either of the canal commissioners, principal engineers, or any collector of toll duly appointed by said commissioners, who are hereby respectively autbprized to sue for and recover the same ; and the amount of such penalties and forfeitures, when recovered, shall be paid over or accounted for to the commissioners of the canal fund.
Jin Act to amend " An Act respecting navigable Communications between the Great Western and Northern Lakes and the Atlantic Oce^i,'' passed April ]5th, 1817, and for other purposes.
Passed March 30, 1820.
1. Be it enacted by the People of the State of New-York, represented in Senate and Assembly, That from and after the first day of April next, the collection of the tax of one dollar upon each steam boat passenger on the Hudson river, imposed by the act above mentioned, shall be and the same is hereby suspended until the payment thereof shall become necessary to the redemption of the pledge given by the state in the act aforesaid, so far as the same relates to the loans which have already been made under the said act, wifLou!: reference to any loans which may hereafter be made under the same, and -the collection thereof directed by law.
is above suspended, and for the payment of the interest and final redemption of the principal of the sums borrowed or to \>n borrowed by virtue of the said act, there shall be and hereby is appropriated and pledged five thousand dollars annually ; and it shall be the duty of the president and directors of the north river steam boat company, and they are hereby required, in each and every year during the continuance of their charter, and as long as the payment and collection of the said tax shall remain suspended as aforesaid, on or before the first day of January, to pay into the treasury of this state the sum of five thousand dollars ; and in case of any neglect or refusal in paying over to the treasurer of this state the said sum of five thousand dollars annually, the said president and secretary and the company incorporated under the name and style of " the North River Steam Boat Company," shall forfeit and pay the sum of one thousand dollars, besides the amount so directed to be paid over, to be recovered in an action of debt in the name of the people of this state, and for the use of the aforesaid fund ; and the owners of stock in such company shall be personally responsible for such amount, and the penalty also.
3. And be it further enacted, That the commissioners of the land ofiice be and are hereby directed to cause to be surveyed into lots of such size as they shall deem for the interest of the state, the lands owned by the people of the state of New- York in the tract set apart for the use of the salt springs in the county of Onondaga, except such parts thereof as are now leased under any existing laws of this state, and such other parts as they may deem it expedient to reserve, and to sell the same in the manner that unappropriated lands of the state are directed to be sold, in such parts and at such times as they shall judge best for the interest of the state ; reserving to the people of the state, in all sales of land made under this act, all salt springs, salt mines, coal mines, and other mines and minerals upon such lands, with a right to enter on and use such parts thereof as may be necessary to dig or work such mines or springs.
4. Jlnd be it further enacted, That the said commissioners of the land office be and are hereby authorized to receive surrenders of the leases of such of the pasture and marsh lots as the present lessees are willing to surrender.
6. And be it further enacted. That the said commissioners of the land office be and are hereby authorized in their discretion, to obtain by compromise the surrender of such of the marsh lots and pasture lots on said tract as in their opinion may be necessary for the future growth of the villages on said tract, and for the extension of the manufactories thereon, and to cause to be laid out so many village lots and salt manufacturing lots, with such additional streets, squares and places of deposit for wood and bulky commodities as in their opinion the future growth and accommodation of said villages and the extension of salt manufactories may require ; and to cause the said village lots to be sold in the manner provided in the third section of this act. Provided, That the said commissioners shall reserve for
such future extension of the salt manufactories such marsh and uplands adjacent to each of the salt manufacturing villages on said tract as in their opinion may ever be necessary or useful for the future extension of said manufactories, and for the state to retain in their hands, to prevent any monopoly of, the ground most suitable for the erection of manufactories of salt.
6. And he it further enacted. That the monies arising from the sales of any lands by virtue of this act, shall be paid over to the commissioners of the canal fund, to be by them applied to the uses for which such fund was created : Provided, That the legislature may at any time hereafter make an appropriation of any portion of the proceeds of the said lands for the improvement of the navigation of the Oswego river, and the communication between the Salina branch canal, and the Onondaga lake.
7 And be it further enacted, That the sum of twenty-five thousand dollars arising from the first of said sales be and is hereby appropriated for the improvement of the navigation of Oswego river, under the direction of the canal commissioners ; and it shall and may be lawful for the commissioners of the canal fund forthwith to borrow, on the credit of the fund arising from the sales of said lands, at a rate of interest not exceeding six per cent per annum, the sum of twenty-five thousand dollars, to be repaid by the said first of the said monies arising from said sales ; and it shall be the duty of the commissioners of the canal fund, as soon as they shall have so borrowed the same, to pay over the same to the canal commissioners, to be by them applied in the improvement of the Oswego river.
1. Be it enacted by the People of the State of New-York, represented in Senate and Assembly. That the comptroller is hereby authorized and required to allow the canal commissioners, in the settlement of their accounts, seventeen hundred and seventy-five dollars and three cents, it being the sum paid by said commissioners, for interest on one hundred twenty-two thousand five hundred dollars, borrowed by them in the year one thousand eight hundred and nineteen, and expended in making the Erie and Champlain canals.
2. And be it further enacted. That whenever the damages, to be sustained by the Western Inland Lock Navigation Company, by investing ia the people of this state, all the lands, waters, canals, locks, feeders, and appurtenances, claimed by the said company, shall be appraised and determined, in the manner required by the fourth section of the act, entitled, " An act respecting navigable communications between the great Western and Northern lakes and the Atlantic ocean," passed April fifteenth, one thousand eight hundred and seventeen, it shall be the duty of the commissioners of the canal fund, in addition to the sums which they are now authorized annually to borrow, to borrow on the credit of this state, at a rate of
interest not exceeding six per centum per annum, the amount of said damages, and the expense of said appraisal, and also, the further sum of one hundred and twenty-two thousand five hundred dollars, when required by the canal commissioners, to be expended in making canals during the present year, for which monies so to be borrowed certificates of stock shall be issued in the manner directed by the first section of said act.
3, And be it further enacted, That one-fourth of the monies to be applied in constructing the said canals shall be appropriated towards the construction of the Champlain canal, and the remaining three-fourths, one-half towards the western section of the Erie canal, and the remaining half towards the eastern section of the said Erie canal ; provided however, that the canal commissioners should be authorized out of the said monies, to complete and keep in repair, such parts of the canal as have been in part, or wholly finished : and provided further, that in case the respective amounts above appropriated, should prove more than can be judiciously expended on the said different sections, it shall be the duty of the commissioners, especially charged with the superintendence of such section, to consent to the expenditure thereof on the other sections.
In Assembly, 5th April, 1820.
Resolved, (if the honourable the senate concur herein,) That the canal commissioners be directed to keep a separate and distinct account of all monies which may hereafter be expended on or about the middle section of the western canal, or in keeping the same in repair, and of the monies which may be received on said section for tolls ; and a like account in respect to any other section of the western and northern canals, whenever any such section shall be finished, and to report the same annually to the legislature.
Whereas in the prosecution of the great western and northern catials, experience has not only demonstrated, the practicability of their construction, but so far as any portions of them have been completed, their unquestionable utility : And whereas it is of great importance to the interests of this state that the whole should be finished and made productive without any unnecessary delay, and at a period when all circumstances are highly favourable to their progress : Therefore, in consideration of the great advantages which offer at the present time, in the cheapness and abundance of labour, and in the low rate at which money maybe obtained, for the accomplishment of these interesting and useful works
1. Be it enacted by the People of the State of New-York represented in Senate and Assembly, That the commissioners of the canal fund be and they are hereby empowered in addition to he loans already authorized by law, to borrow from time to time during the years one thousand eight hundred and twenty-one, and one thousand eight hundred and twenty two, monies on the credit of the State, at a rate not exceeding six per cent per annum, and not exceeding one million of dollars in each year, for which monies so to be borrowed certificates of stock shall be issued in the manner directed in and by the act entitled " an act to improve the funds and to provide for the redemption of the funded debt of the State" payable at such time or times as may be determined by the said board, out of the canal fund, and to pay to the canal commissioners, this monies so to be borrowed, to be applied in the same manner and proportion as already provided for by law; Provided, That it shall not be lawful for the commissioners of the canal fund, to make loans under this act, beyond such amount as for the payment of the interest thereof, the canal fund at the time shall be deemed ample and sufficient.
2. And be it further enacted, That,it shall be lawful for the two houses of the legislature by concurrent resolution, to appoint an additional canal commissioner and that the commissioner so appointed as well as the present commissioners, shall hold their respective offices during the pleasure of the two houses of the legislature, subject to be removed by concurrent resolution of the two houses.
3. And he it further enacted, That it shall be lawful for the two houses of the legislature by concurrent resolution to appoint three appraisers on the eastern section of the Erie canal, and three appraisers on the western section of theErie canal, andthree appraisers on the Champlain canal, and that the appraisers so appointed as well as the present appraisers shall hold their respective offices during the pleasure of the legislature, subject to be removed by concurrent resolution of the two houses.
king and constructing of either the Erie or Champlain canals within sixty days from the passage of this act, and of every acting canal cominissioner hereafter appointed, before entering upon the duties of his office, to enter into a bond to the people of this state, with at least two substantial freeholders, as sureties, in a penal sum of fifty thousand dollars, conditioned for the faithful discharge of the duties now enjoined, or that may hereafter be enjoined on him by law, and for the faithful accounting for all monies intrusted to him as such acting canal commissioner, whenever and as often as he may be required so to do by law, or by concurrent resolution of the senate and assembly or by the comptroller of this state, and the said bonds shall be approved of by the comptroller, and filed in his office.
6. And be it further enacted. That in order the better to guard against mistakes and losses, it shall be the duty of the acting canal commissioners respectively hereafter to take duplicate receipts, for all sums of money which they may advance and pay to their engineers contractors and agents.
6. And he it further enacted, That whenever the sum or sums of money paid to any canal commissioner, and remaining unaccounted for, shall amount to fifty thousand dollars, it shall not be lawful for the commissioners of the canal fund to advance or pay to such canal commissioner, any further sum or sums of money until he shall first have produced an account and vouchers to the comptroller, showing the payment or expenditure on the canal, of at least forty thousand dollars of said sum.
7. And be it further enacted, That, it shall be the duty of the commissioners of the canal fund, previous to every loan, hereafter to be made, to give notice of such intended loan, that sealed proposals will be received to a given day, which proposals shall not be opened until a certain hour of such day, to be named in the notice, and said notice shall be published in two newspapers in each of the cities of Albany and New-York, and continued for two weeks daily in the New-York papers, and at least twice a week in the Albany papers.
Note In the introduction, a reference was made to the letter by Mr. GEORGE BOWEN, rcceutlj of the commercial house of Bowen & Co. of Pittsburgh, but now a merchant of this city. Of Mr. Bowens extensive mercantile knowledge, I have the most perfect reliance. His letter to me is a very valuable paper, and I sincerely regret that it is mislaid, and cannot be added to the appendix. Many of my calculations, relating to the trade of the western country, was grounded on the data which it furnished. I yet intend to give this document to the public in another shape, and can now render Mr. Bowen no other return , than the assurance of my gratitude .
| 212,109 | common-pile/pre_1929_books_filtered | publicdocumentsr00newy | public_library | public_library_1929_dolma-0022.json.gz:3939 | https://archive.org/download/publicdocumentsr00newy/publicdocumentsr00newy_djvu.txt |
ZDjGQq8WcaV02c8U | Complete Works of Shakespeare | 16 As You Like It Act V
ACT V
SCENE I. The Forest of Arden
Enter Touchstone and
Audrey.
TOUCHSTONE.
We shall find a time, Audrey; patience, gentle Audrey.
AUDREY.
Faith, the priest was good enough, for all the old gentleman’s saying.
TOUCHSTONE.
A most wicked Sir Oliver, Audrey, a most vile Martext. But Audrey, there is a
youth here in the forest lays claim to you.
AUDREY.
Ay, I know who ’tis. He hath no interest in me in the world.
Enter William.
Here comes the man you mean.
TOUCHSTONE.
It is meat and drink to me to see a clown. By my troth, we that have good wits
have much to answer for. We shall be flouting; we cannot hold.
WILLIAM.
Good ev’n, Audrey.
AUDREY.
God ye good ev’n, William.
WILLIAM.
And good ev’n to you, sir.
TOUCHSTONE.
Good ev’n, gentle friend. Nay, prithee, be
covered. How old are you, friend?
WILLIAM.
Five-and-twenty, sir.
TOUCHSTONE.
A ripe age. Is thy name William?
WILLIAM.
William, sir.
TOUCHSTONE.
A fair name. Wast born i’ th’ forest here?
WILLIAM.
Ay, sir, I thank God.
TOUCHSTONE.
“Thank God.” A good answer. Art rich?
WILLIAM.
Faith, sir, so-so.
TOUCHSTONE.
“So-so” is good, very good, very excellent good. And yet it is not, it is but
so-so. Art thou wise?
WILLIAM.
Ay, sir, I have a pretty wit.
TOUCHSTONE.
Why, thou sayst well. I do now remember a saying: “The fool doth think he is
wise, but the wise man knows himself to be a fool.” The heathen philosopher,
when he had a desire to eat a grape, would open his lips when he put it into
his mouth, meaning thereby that grapes were made to eat and lips to open. You
do love this maid?
WILLIAM.
I do, sir.
TOUCHSTONE.
Give me your hand. Art thou learned?
WILLIAM.
No, sir.
TOUCHSTONE.
Then learn this of me: to have is to have. For it is a figure in rhetoric that
drink, being poured out of cup into a glass, by filling the one doth empty the
other. For all your writers do consent that ipse is “he.” Now, you are
not ipse, for I am he.
WILLIAM.
Which he, sir?
TOUCHSTONE.
He, sir, that must marry this woman. Therefore, you clown, abandon—which is in
the vulgar, “leave”—the society—which in the boorish is “company”—of this
female—which in the common is “woman”; which together is, abandon the society of
this female, or, clown, thou perishest; or, to thy better understanding, diest;
or, to wit, I kill thee, make thee away, translate thy life into death, thy
liberty into bondage. I will deal in poison with thee, or in bastinado, or in
steel. I will bandy with thee in faction; will o’errun thee with policy. Therefore tremble and depart.
AUDREY.
Do, good William.
WILLIAM.
God rest you merry, sir.
[Exit.]
Enter Corin.
CORIN.
Our master and mistress seek you. Come away, away.
TOUCHSTONE.
Trip, Audrey, trip, Audrey! I attend, I attend.
[Exeunt.]
SCENE II. Another part of the Forest
Enter Orlando and
Oliver.
ORLANDO.
Is’t possible that on so little acquaintance you should like her? That but
seeing, you should love her? And loving woo? And wooing, she should grant? And
will you persever to enjoy her?
OLIVER.
Neither call the giddiness of it in question, the poverty of her, the small
acquaintance, my sudden wooing, nor her sudden consenting. But say with me, I
love Aliena; say with her that she loves me; consent with both that we may
enjoy each other.
Enter Rosalind.
ORLANDO.
You have my consent. Let your wedding be tomorrow. Thither will I invite the
Duke and all’s contented followers.
ROSALIND.
OLIVER.
And you, fair sister.
[Exit.]
ROSALIND.
O my dear Orlando, how it grieves me to see thee wear thy heart in a scarf!
ORLANDO.
It is my arm.
ROSALIND.
I thought thy heart had been wounded with the claws of a lion.
ORLANDO.
Wounded it is, but with the eyes of a lady.
ROSALIND.
Did your brother tell you how I counterfeited to swoon when he showed me your
handkercher?
ORLANDO.
Ay, and greater wonders than that.
ROSALIND.
O, I know where you are. Nay, ’tis true. There was never anything so sudden but
the fight of two rams, and Caesar’s thrasonical brag of “I came, saw and
overcame.” For your brother and my sister no sooner met but they looked; no
sooner looked but they loved; no sooner loved but they sighed; no sooner
sighed but they asked one another the reason; no sooner knew the reason but
they sought the remedy; and in these degrees have they made pair of stairs to
marriage, which they will climb incontinent, or else be incontinent before
marriage. They are in the very wrath of love, and they will together. Clubs
cannot part them.
ORLANDO.
They shall be married tomorrow, and I will bid the Duke to the nuptial. But O,
how bitter a thing it is to look into happiness through another man’s eyes! By
so much the more shall I tomorrow be at the height of heart-heaviness, by how
much I shall think my brother happy in having what he wishes for.
ROSALIND.
Why, then, tomorrow I cannot serve your turn for Rosalind?
ORLANDO.
I can live no longer by thinking.
ROSALIND.
I will weary you then no longer with idle talking. Know of me then—for now I
speak to some purpose—that I know you are a gentleman of good conceit. I speak
not this that you should bear a good opinion of my knowledge, insomuch I say I
know you are. Neither do I labour for a greater esteem than may in some little
measure draw a belief from you, to do yourself good, and not to grace me.
Believe then, if you please, that I can do strange things. I have, since I was
three year old, conversed with a magician, most profound in his art and yet not
damnable. If you do love Rosalind so near the heart as your gesture cries it
out, when your brother marries Aliena shall you marry her. I know into what
straits of fortune she is driven and it is not impossible to me, if it appear
not inconvenient to you, to set her before your eyes tomorrow, human as she is,
and without any danger.
ORLANDO.
Speak’st thou in sober meanings?
ROSALIND.
Therefore put you in your best array, bid your friends; for if you will be
married tomorrow, you shall, and to Rosalind, if you will.
Enter Silvius and
Phoebe.
Look, here comes a lover of mine and a lover of hers.
PHOEBE.
Youth, you have done me much ungentleness
To show the letter that I writ to you.
ROSALIND.
I care not if I have; it is my study
To seem despiteful and ungentle to you.
You are there followed by a faithful shepherd.
PHOEBE.
Good shepherd, tell this youth what ’tis to love.
SILVIUS.
It is to be all made of sighs and tears,
And so am I for Phoebe.
PHOEBE.
And I for Ganymede.
ORLANDO.
And I for Rosalind.
ROSALIND.
And I for no woman.
SILVIUS.
It is to be all made of faith and service,
And so am I for Phoebe.
PHOEBE.
And I for Ganymede.
ORLANDO.
And I for Rosalind.
ROSALIND.
And I for no woman.
SILVIUS.
It is to be all made of fantasy,
All made of passion, and all made of wishes,
All adoration, duty, and observance,
All humbleness, all patience, and impatience,
All purity, all trial, all observance,
And so am I for Phoebe.
PHOEBE.
And so am I for Ganymede.
ORLANDO.
And so am I for Rosalind.
ROSALIND.
And so am I for no woman.
PHOEBE.
[To Rosalind.] If this be so, why blame you me to love you?
SILVIUS.
[To Phoebe.] If this be so, why blame you me to love you?
ORLANDO.
If this be so, why blame you me to love you?
ROSALIND.
Why do you speak too, “Why blame you me to love you?”
ORLANDO.
To her that is not here, nor doth not hear.
ROSALIND.
Pray you, no more of this, ’tis like the howling of Irish wolves against the
moon.
[to Silvius.] I will help you if I can.
[to Phoebe.] I would love you if I could.—Tomorrow meet me all
together.
[to Phoebe.] I will marry you, if ever I marry woman, and I’ll be
married tomorrow.
[to Orlando.] I will satisfy you if ever I satisfied man, and you shall
be married tomorrow.
[to Silvius.] As you love Rosalind, meet.
[to Silvius.] As you love Phoebe, meet.—And as I love no woman, I’ll
meet. So fare you well. I have left you commands.
SILVIUS.
I’ll not fail, if I live.
PHOEBE.
Nor I.
ORLANDO.
Nor I.
[Exeunt.]
SCENE III. Another part of the Forest
Enter Touchstone and
Audrey.
TOUCHSTONE.
AUDREY.
Enter two Pages.
Here come two of the banished Duke’s pages.
FIRST PAGE.
Well met, honest gentleman.
TOUCHSTONE.
By my troth, well met. Come sit, sit, and a song.
SECOND PAGE.
We are for you, sit i’ th’ middle.
FIRST PAGE.
Shall we clap into’t roundly, without hawking or spitting or saying we are
hoarse, which are the only prologues to a bad voice?
SECOND PAGE.
I’faith, i’faith, and both in a tune like two gipsies on a horse.
SONG
PAGES.
[Sing.]
It was a lover and his lass,
With a hey, and a ho, and a hey nonino,
That o’er the green cornfield did pass
In the spring-time, the only pretty ring time,
When birds do sing, hey ding a ding, ding.
Sweet lovers love the spring.
Between the acres of the rye,
With a hey, and a ho, and a hey nonino,
These pretty country folks would lie,
In the spring-time, the only pretty ring time,
When birds do sing, hey ding a ding, ding.
Sweet lovers love the spring.
This carol they began that hour,
With a hey, and a ho, and a hey nonino,
How that a life was but a flower,
In the spring-time, the only pretty ring time,
When birds do sing, hey ding a ding, ding.
Sweet lovers love the spring.
And therefore take the present time,
With a hey, and a ho, and a hey nonino,
For love is crowned with the prime,
In the spring-time, the only pretty ring time,
When birds do sing, hey ding a ding, ding.
Sweet lovers love the spring.
TOUCHSTONE
Truly, young gentlemen, though there was no great matter in the ditty, yet the
note was very untuneable.
FIRST PAGE.
You are deceived, sir, we kept time, we lost not our time.
TOUCHSTONE.
By my troth, yes. I count it but time lost to hear such a foolish song. Come, Audrey.
[Exeunt.]
SCENE IV. Another part of the Forest
Enter Duke Senior, Amiens, Jaques, Orlando, Oliver
and Celia.
DUKE SENIOR.
Dost thou believe, Orlando, that the boy
Can do all this that he hath promised?
ORLANDO.
I sometimes do believe and sometimes do not,
As those that fear they hope, and know they fear.
Enter Rosalind, Silvius and
Phoebe.
ROSALIND.
Patience once more whiles our compact is urged.
[To the Duke.] You say, if I bring in your Rosalind,
You will bestow her on Orlando here?
DUKE SENIOR.
That would I, had I kingdoms to give with her.
ROSALIND.
[To Orlando.] And you say you will have her when I bring her?
ORLANDO.
That would I, were I of all kingdoms king.
ROSALIND.
[To Phoebe.] You say you’ll marry me if I be willing?
PHOEBE.
That will I, should I die the hour after.
ROSALIND.
But if you do refuse to marry me,
You’ll give yourself to this most faithful shepherd?
PHOEBE.
So is the bargain.
ROSALIND.
[To Silvius.] You say that you’ll have Phoebe if she will?
SILVIUS.
Though to have her and death were both one thing.
ROSALIND.
I have promised to make all this matter even.
Keep your word, Phoebe, that you’ll marry me,
Or else, refusing me, to wed this shepherd.
Keep your word, Silvius, that you’ll marry her
If she refuse me. And from hence I go
To make these doubts all even.
[Exeunt Rosalind and
Celia.]
DUKE SENIOR.
I do remember in this shepherd boy
Some lively touches of my daughter’s favour.
ORLANDO.
My lord, the first time that I ever saw him
Methought he was a brother to your daughter.
But, my good lord, this boy is forest-born
And hath been tutored in the rudiments
Of many desperate studies by his uncle,
Whom he reports to be a great magician,
Obscured in the circle of this forest.
Enter Touchstone and
Audrey.
JAQUES.
There is sure another flood toward, and these couples are coming to the ark.
Here comes a pair of very strange beasts, which in all tongues are called fools.
TOUCHSTONE.
Salutation and greeting to you all.
JAQUES.
Good my lord, bid him welcome. This is the motley-minded gentleman that I have
so often met in the forest. He hath been a courtier, he swears.
TOUCHSTONE.
If any man doubt that, let him put me to my purgation. I have trod a measure; I
have flattered a lady; I have been politic with my friend, smooth with mine
enemy; I have undone three tailors; I have had four quarrels, and like to have
fought one.
JAQUES.
And how was that ta’en up?
TOUCHSTONE.
Faith, we met, and found the quarrel was upon the seventh cause.
JAQUES.
How seventh cause?—Good my lord, like this fellow?
DUKE SENIOR.
I like him very well.
TOUCHSTONE.
God ’ild you, sir, I desire you of the like. I press in here, sir, amongst the
rest of the country copulatives, to swear and to forswear according as
marriage binds and blood breaks.
DUKE SENIOR.
By my faith, he is very swift and sententious.
TOUCHSTONE.
According to the fool’s bolt, sir, and such dulcet diseases.
JAQUES.
But, for the seventh cause. How did you find the quarrel on the seventh cause?
TOUCHSTONE.
Upon a lie seven times removed—bear your body more seeming, Audrey—as thus,
sir. I did dislike the cut of a certain courtier’s beard. He sent me word if I
said his beard was not cut well, he was in the mind it was. This is called the
“retort courteous”. If I sent him word again it was not well cut, he would send
me word he cut it to please himself. This is called the “quip modest”. If again
it was not well cut, he disabled my judgement. This is called the “reply
churlish”. If again it was not well cut, he would answer I spake not true. This
is called the “reproof valiant”. If again it was not well cut, he would say I
lie. This is called the “countercheck quarrelsome”, and so, to the “lie
circumstantial”, and the “lie direct”.
JAQUES.
And how oft did you say his beard was not well cut?
TOUCHSTONE.
I durst go no further than the lie circumstantial, nor he durst not give me the
lie direct; and so we measured swords and parted.
JAQUES.
Can you nominate in order now the degrees of the lie?
TOUCHSTONE.
O sir, we quarrel in print, by the book, as you have books for good manners. I
will name you the degrees: the first, the retort courteous; the second, the
quip modest; the third, the reply churlish; the fourth, the reproof valiant;
the fifth, the countercheck quarrelsome; the sixth, the lie with circumstance;
the seventh, the lie direct. All these you may avoid but the lie direct and
you may avoid that too with an “if”. I knew when seven justices could not take
up a quarrel, but when the parties were met themselves, one of them thought but
of an “if”, as, “if you said so, then I said so;” and they shook hands, and
swore brothers. Your “if” is the only peacemaker; much virtue in “if.”
JAQUES.
Is not this a rare fellow, my lord?
DUKE SENIOR.
He uses his folly like a stalking-horse, and under the presentation of that he
shoots his wit.
Enter Hymen, Rosalind in woman’s clothes, and
Celia. Still music.
HYMEN.
Then is there mirth in heaven
When earthly things made even
Atone together.
Good Duke, receive thy daughter.
Hymen from heaven brought her,
Yea, brought her hither,
That thou mightst join her hand with his,
Whose heart within his bosom is.
ROSALIND.
[To Duke Senior.] To you I give myself, for I am yours.
[To Orlando.] To you I give myself, for I am yours.
DUKE SENIOR.
If there be truth in sight, you are my daughter.
ORLANDO.
If there be truth in sight, you are my Rosalind.
PHOEBE.
If sight and shape be true,
Why then, my love adieu.
ROSALIND.
[To Duke Senior.] I’ll have no father, if you be not he.
[To Orlando.] I’ll have no husband, if you be not he.
[To Phoebe.] Nor ne’er wed woman, if you be not she.
HYMEN.
Peace, ho! I bar confusion.
’Tis I must make conclusion
Of these most strange events.
Here’s eight that must take hands
To join in Hymen’s bands,
If truth holds true contents.
[To Orlando and Rosalind.] You and you no cross shall part.
[To Celia and Oliver.] You and you are heart in heart.
[To Phoebe.] You to his love must accord
Or have a woman to your lord.
[To Audrey and Touchstone.] You and you are sure together
As the winter to foul weather.
Whiles a wedlock hymn we sing,
Feed yourselves with questioning,
That reason wonder may diminish
How thus we met, and these things finish.
SONG
Wedding is great Juno’s crown,
O blessed bond of board and bed.
’Tis Hymen peoples every town,
High wedlock then be honoured.
Honour, high honour, and renown
To Hymen, god of every town.
DUKE SENIOR.
O my dear niece, welcome thou art to me
Even daughter, welcome in no less degree.
PHOEBE.
[To Silvius.] I will not eat my word, now thou art mine,
Thy faith my fancy to thee doth combine.
Enter Jaques de Boys.
JAQUES DE BOYS.
Let me have audience for a word or two.
I am the second son of old Sir Rowland,
That bring these tidings to this fair assembly.
Duke Frederick, hearing how that every day
Men of great worth resorted to this forest,
Addressed a mighty power, which were on foot
In his own conduct, purposely to take
His brother here and put him to the sword;
And to the skirts of this wild wood he came,
Where, meeting with an old religious man,
After some question with him, was converted
Both from his enterprise and from the world,
His crown bequeathing to his banished brother,
And all their lands restored to them again
That were with him exiled. This to be true
I do engage my life.
DUKE SENIOR.
Welcome, young man.
Thou offer’st fairly to thy brother’s wedding:
To one his lands withheld, and to the other
A land itself at large, a potent dukedom.
First, in this forest let us do those ends
That here were well begun and well begot;
And after, every of this happy number
That have endured shrewd days and nights with us
Shall share the good of our returned fortune,
According to the measure of their states.
Meantime, forget this new-fall’n dignity,
And fall into our rustic revelry.
Play, music! And you brides and bridegrooms all,
With measure heaped in joy to th’ measures fall.
JAQUES.
Sir, by your patience. If I heard you rightly,
The Duke hath put on a religious life
And thrown into neglect the pompous court.
JAQUES DE BOYS.
He hath.
JAQUES.
To him will I. Out of these convertites
There is much matter to be heard and learned.
[To Duke Senior.] You to your former honour I bequeath;
Your patience and your virtue well deserves it.
[To Orlando.] You to a love that your true faith doth merit.
[To Oliver.] You to your land, and love, and great allies.
[To Silvius.] You to a long and well-deserved bed.
[To Touchstone.] And you to wrangling, for thy loving voyage
Is but for two months victualled.—So to your pleasures,
I am for other than for dancing measures.
DUKE SENIOR.
Stay, Jaques, stay.
JAQUES.
To see no pastime, I. What you would have
I’ll stay to know at your abandoned cave.
[Exit.]
DUKE SENIOR.
Proceed, proceed! We will begin these rites,
As we do trust they’ll end, in true delights.
[Dance. Exeunt all but Rosalind.]
EPILOGUE
ROSALIND.
It is not the fashion to see the lady the epilogue, but it is no more
unhandsome than to see the lord the prologue. If it be true that good wine
needs no bush, ’tis true that a good play needs no epilogue. Yet to good wine
they do use good bushes, and good plays prove the better by the help of good
epilogues. What a case am I in then, that am neither a good epilogue nor
cannot insinuate with you in the behalf of a good play! I am not furnished like
a beggar; therefore to beg will not become me. My way is to conjure you, and
I’ll begin with the women. I charge you, O women, for the love you bear to men,
to like as much of this play as please you. And I charge you, O men, for the
love you bear to women—as I perceive by your simpering, none of you hates
them—that between you and the women the play may please. If I were a woman, I
would kiss as many of you as had beards that pleased me, complexions that liked
me, and breaths that I defied not. And I am sure as many as have good beards,
or good faces, or sweet breaths will for my kind offer, when I make curtsy,
bid me farewell.
[Exit.] | 4,745 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://openwa.pressbooks.pub/shakespearecompleteworks/chapter/the-project-gutenberg-ebook-of-the-complete-works-of-william-shakespeare-by-william-shakespeare-24/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:76406 | https://openwa.pressbooks.pub/shakespearecompleteworks/chapter/the-project-gutenberg-ebook-of-the-complete-works-of-william-shakespeare-by-william-shakespeare-24/ |
EOlS3fbY29xf5wEE | Innovative Business Mindset | Chapter 1: Entrepreneurship Introduction
Entrepreneurship Today
As we dive into the study of entrepreneurship, let’s define what we mean by the word entrepreneur. There are many definitions, but for this course, we’ll think of entrepreneur as someone who identifies and acts on an idea or problem that no one else has identified or acted on. This combination of recognizing an opportunity to bring something new to the world and acting on that opportunity is what distinguishes an entrepreneur from a small business owner. A small business owner is someone who owns or starts a business that already has an existing model, such as a restaurant, whereas an entrepreneur is someone who creates something new. For example, this new creation can be a new process or product, a business that identifies a new or unique target market, or a combination of ideas that creates a new approach or method (OpenStax, 2020).
Large organizations can try to replicate this by fostering “intrapreneurship.” Intrapreneurship encourages employees to think like entrepreneurs and develop fresh perspectives that can lead to new ideas for the company. These workers may have more freedom, but the organization still has control over the project and takes on any associated risks. We’ll discuss intrapreneurship in more detail in the next chapter (Stanford, n.d.).
In a broader sense, what people consider an entrepreneur can vary. Some scholars strictly differentiate between entrepreneurs and small business owners. Others acknowledge that a small business owner may also be an entrepreneur—they are not mutually exclusive. Someone may start a venture that is not a completely new idea but introduces a product or service to a new region or market.
Where does a franchise fall in this discussion? Again, there is not complete agreement, with some claiming that a franchisee and entrepreneur cannot be the same, and others arguing that a franchise is, indeed, an entrepreneurial venture. Small business owners and franchisees can be considered entrepreneurs. For the purposes of this course, we’ll learn the key principles of entrepreneurship alongside the concepts, strategies, and tools needed to succeed as a small business owner or franchisee.
Entrepreneurs have many different talents and focus on a variety of different areas, taking advantage of many opportunities for entrepreneurial ventures. An entrepreneurial venture is the creation of any business, organization, project, or operation of interest that includes a level of risk in acting on an opportunity that has not previously been established. For some entrepreneurs, this could be a for-profit venture; for other entrepreneurs, this could be a venture focused on social needs and take the form of a nonprofit endeavor. Entrepreneurs might take a variety of approaches to their entrepreneurial venture, such as those shown in Table 1.1.
Types of Entrepreneurs
Understanding the different types of entrepreneurs as shown in Table 1.1 is important because it helps provide the right support and resources for their specific needs. This knowledge also highlights how each type of entrepreneur uniquely contributes to the economy and society, which will be discussed in later chapters.
Table 1.1: Types of Entrepreneurs
| Type of Entrepreneur | Approach to Venture |
|---|---|
| Traditional entrepreneur | Someone who identifies and acts on an idea or problem that no one else has identified or acted on in the same way |
| Social entrepreneur | Someone who has an interest in solving a social, environmental, or economic problem |
| Serial entrepreneur | Someone who starts a business and once it is up and running, they start a new business and repeat this cycle |
| Small business owner | Someone who owns or starts a business that already has an existing model, such as a restaurant |
| Solopreneur | Someone who is an entrepreneur or small business owner and is the only person working in the business |
| Intrapreneur | Someone who has the same mindset as an entrepreneur but acts within the confines of an existing organization (Libretexts, 2024) |
Types of Business Ownership
Before we continue, it’s important to understand the different types of business ownership structures that exist. See Table 1.2 for a description of commonly found business ownership structures and liability information. Structures are often chosen because of their tax implications and personal liability to the owners (Bitler, 2024).
Table 1.2: Business Ownership Structure Types
| Business Ownership Type | Description | Personal Liability |
|---|---|---|
| Sole Proprietorship | An unincorporated business entity operated by a single person; simple to set up and operate and with profits/losses passing directly to the owner. | Yes |
| Partnership | A business co-owned by two or more individuals, with management, profits, and liabilities depending on the type of partnership formed. | Yes (varies by type) |
| C Corporation | A separate legal entity from its owners, paying corporate income tax, with potential for unlimited investors and perpetual existence. | No |
| S Corporation | A separate entity with shareholder liability protection, avoiding double taxation by passing profits/losses through to shareholders’ personal taxes. | No |
| Limited Liability Company (LLC) | Combines elements of sole proprietorships, partnerships, and corporations, offering liability protection and pass-through taxation without complex regulations. | No |
| Nonprofit Corporation | Formed for charitable, educational, religious, literary, or scientific purposes; exempt from state and federal income taxes, with profits directed toward charitable goals. | No |
| Franchise | A business model where an individual (franchisee) operates a business under the brand and business model of a larger company (franchisor), typically with a mix of ownership benefits and obligations. | Yes (varies by contract) |
Personal liability refers to an individual’s legal responsibility for the debts and obligations of their business. If a business incurs debts, is sued, or faces other financial obligations, the owner’s personal assets (such as their home, car, and savings) can be used to satisfy these obligations. This concept is critical in determining the extent to which a business owner is financially exposed to risks associated with their business operations.
While there can be much to consider, the Small Business Administration has guidance on how to structure a business, along with other resources entrepreneurs find valuable.
Social Entrepreneurship
A social entrepreneur has an interest in solving a social, environmental, or economic problem. A social entrepreneur identifies a problem with a social or community focus, a concern for quality of life, or concern for our entire planet’s health (OpenStax, 2020).
One such person is Angad Daryani, a young serial inventor. Daryani left school in the ninth grade to join the Media Lab at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), where he worked on an industrial-scale air filter to clean pollutants and carcinogens out of our planet’s air. Daryani’s home country of India is the world’s third largest emitter of carbon dioxide, according to Global Carbon Atlas, behind China and the United States (Figure 1.1).
Daryani is interested in not only solutions for air pollution, but his product will also provide financial gains and add to his personal credibility as a serial entrepreneur, or someone who starts and harvests multiple entrepreneurial ventures. Daryani describes himself as an inventor and social entrepreneur, combining his interest in improving lives through a variety of entrepreneurial ventures, including products like Sharkits (a do-it-yourself-kit company that teaches children how to build technology), the SharkBot 3D printer (an attractive, low-cost, and reliable 3D printer), and several other projects that combine technology and human needs. As each of these products advances to commercialization, the products and technology are becoming more applicable for other uses as well. For more examples of projects that Daryani is working on, take a look at his Abgadmakes website, which includes videos and articles and also highlights the international recognition he has received for his innovative work.
Entrepreneur In Action
Research Angad Daryani and his technology to remove air pollution by visiting this CNN article.
- What other products besides the originally intended application of improving air quality could this technology or methodology be used for?
- What critical decisions would you anticipate that Angad will face in creating and commercializing his product?
- How would you define success for Angad or this air-cleaning company?
Pause and Reflect
Consider a social issue that you might feel compelled to take on as a passion project. Some social issues include childhood hunger, access to clean water, access to education, or opioid abuse.
Watch Johann Hari’s Ted Talk on addiction to learn more. (TEDGlobal, 2015)
- Do you have any ideas for creating an entrepreneurial venture around the idea of building quality relationships and communities?
- How would you balance a passion project with an entrepreneurial purpose?
Entrepreneurial Lifestyle and Career
Being an entrepreneur has become synonymous with being an innovator, a change agent, or a risk taker. Regardless of job titles or descriptive characteristics, entrepreneurship has a universal appeal for how people think and engage with the world (OpenStax, 2020).
Choosing the path of entrepreneurship requires a willingness to take on calculated risks. The difference between risk and calculated risk is conducting the necessary research and investigation to make informed decisions that minimize risk. There can be personal financial risk when starting a new venture. Some startup entrepreneurs continue with their current employment while working on the side to develop their idea into a venture that eventually will generate an income. Until the venture requires near full-time work and generates income, maintaining an outside income works well for many entrepreneurial teams.
Industry Example
Consider the eyeglass startup Warby Parker (Figure 1.2). Dave Gilboa and Neil Blumenthal, lead entrepreneurs for Warby Parker, were still working their day jobs when they approached an angel investor with their idea. The angel investor asked a few questions and wasn’t impressed. This investor believed that Gilboa and Blumenthal should demonstrate their solid commitment to the venture by quitting their day jobs to dedicate more time and energy to Warby Parker. Instead of following that advice, Gilboa and Blumenthal kept their day jobs while they continued to work toward building their venture, and Warby Parker eventually became highly successful. There are many paths to becoming an entrepreneur and many paths to creating a successful venture. For an entrepreneur’s life and for their venture, it is crucial to identify the path that works best. This path should support their goals, unique situation, and visions.
Pause and Reflect
The Entrepreneur as a Problem Solver
What are some challenges you face in your life? Have you ever actively thought about how you could solve those problems? Or have you actively identified exactly what the problem is from an analytical perspective? We often rush from recognizing a problem to choosing a solution without fully understanding whether we have correctly identified the issue. Properly defining the problem and assessing the potential, innovation, and practicality of your solution are crucial for effective problem-solving. Often, when we start to explore the problem, we find that it has multiple causes, such as the following:
- The need for something to be better, faster, or easier
- The effects of changes in the world on your industry, product, or service
- Market trends based on geography, demographics, or the psychology of the customers
One characteristic of a savvy entrepreneur is recognizing the ability to identify a problem from an opportunity-identification perspective. We might identify feeling hungry as a problem, but an entrepreneur would identify the problem using an opportunity-identifying perspective by determining how the problem could be translated into an opportunity to create a new venture—perhaps combining the problem of feeling hungry between meals into a street kiosk or a vending machine with food choices or creating a new snack that is nutritious, satisfying, and portable. When people have a busy day with no time or easy access to food, they often end up hungry. Rephrasing the problem, or need, from an opportunity viewpoint opens the search for a sustainable solution beyond the simple awareness of feeling hungry. We might solve this problem by opening a snack bar with offerings containing essential vitamins and proteins and is easy to transport with a long shelf life. Understanding the problem from the perspective of how to solve it for one person into how to solve it for multiple people rephrases the problem into an opportunity-identification perspective.
3M’s Post-It Note
DID YOU KNOW? The Post-it note was created by Arthur Fry, an intrapreneur. He wanted to solve the problem of saving his church hymnal page without damaging it. He found that bookmarks would often fall out. He soon realized his creation could help others when colleagues kept stopping by his desk for “bookmarks.” (Bellis, 2019)
You might also have an interest in solving food-related problems on a larger scale. People trapped in a war-torn region may not be able to leave the safety of their shelters to find, grow, barter, or buy food. They may not have the money to buy food. How could you reach your target market within a war-torn area? Red Cross emergency response teams provided more than 4.5 million meals and snacks with their partners to communities affected by disasters in 2023. Could your idea of creating a snack bar fit into a partnership with the Red Cross (American Red Cross, 2023)?
Although this might seem like a simple problem with a simple solution, recognizing a problem, finding a realistic solution, and creating a successful venture requires an entrepreneurial mindset. Every day, people become entrepreneurs as they identify and solve problems, or face new challenges or frustrations, and resolve them in creating products or services to address these issues.
Pause and Reflect
Recognizing Problems
In your daily life, what problems do you encounter? What would make your life easier? How would you finish this sentence: “If only ________ existed, my life would be better or easier”? To spur your creativity, you might research global problems to find an area that interests you and sparks your passion for living a fulfilling life. When identifying a problem, consider process-related problems, as well as service-related problems.
- What problem have you identified?
- What can you do to resolve that problem?
The Entrepreneurial Personality
Studies of the entrepreneurial personality find that entrepreneurs share certain key traits. Most entrepreneurs have the following characteristics:
- Ambitious: They are competitive and have a high need for achievement.
- Independent: They are individualists and self-starters who prefer to lead rather than follow.
- Self-confident: They understand the challenges of starting and operating a business and are decisive and confident in their ability to solve problems.
- Calculated Risk-takers: Although they are not averse to risk, most successful entrepreneurs favor business opportunities that carry a moderate degree of risk where they can better control the outcome over highly risky ventures where luck plays a large role.
- Visionary: Their ability to spot trends and act on them sets entrepreneurs apart from small-business owners and managers.
- Creative: To compete with larger firms, entrepreneurs need to have creative product designs, bold marketing strategies, and innovative solutions to managerial problems.
- Energetic: Starting and operating a business takes long hours. Even so, some entrepreneurs start their companies while still employed full-time elsewhere.
- Passionate: Entrepreneurs love their work.
- Committed: Because they are so committed to their companies, entrepreneurs are willing to make personal sacrifices to achieve their goals.
This is not an exhaustive list of traits. What other traits would you add to the list above?
Pause and Reflect
How Can You Put Your Strengths to Work?
Create a list of ten strengths that you currently possess. If you need help creating your list, ask your friends or family what they believe you are good at doing. Think about what achievements you have accomplished, what compliments you have received, and what people say about you. The answers to these questions will help you identify your strengths.
- Create a list of ideas that build off your strengths or are related to your strengths.
- Analyze this list to create another list of possible businesses that you could start that relate to your strengths.
Key Takeaways
- An entrepreneur identifies and acts on a unique idea or problem, whereas a small business owner operates within an existing model. This distinction highlights the innovative nature of entrepreneurship compared to traditional business ownership.
- Entrepreneurs can be categorized into various types, including traditional, social, serial, small business owners, solopreneurs, and intrapreneurs. Each type approaches ventures differently, with intrapreneurs innovating within existing organizations.
- Social entrepreneurs focus on solving social, environmental, or economic problems. An example is Angad Daryani, who creates technologies to address issues like air pollution while achieving financial and personal success.
- Successful entrepreneurs often share traits such as ambition, independence, self-confidence, calculated risk-taking, vision, creativity, energy, passion, and commitment. These characteristics enable them to innovate and drive their ventures forward.
- Entrepreneurs excel at identifying problems and rephrasing them as opportunities for innovation. This mindset allows them to create sustainable solutions that address needs on a larger scale, transforming everyday challenges into business opportunities.
Knowledge Check
Can you match each type of entrepreneur to its definition?
Someone who identifies and acts on an idea or problem that no one else has identified or acted on.
Someone who owns or starts a business that already has an existing model, such as a restaurant.
An intrapreneur is someone working in a business who receives encouragement to think like an entrepreneur and develop fresh perspectives that can lead to new ideas for the company. These workers may have more freedom, but the organization still has control over the project and takes on any associated risks.
An entrepreneurial venture is the creation of any business, organization, project, or operation of interest that includes a level of risk in acting on an opportunity that has not previously been established.
An unincorporated business entity operated by a single person, simple to set up and operate, with profits/losses passing directly to the owner.
A business co-owned by two or more individuals, with management, profits, and liabilities depending on the type of partnership formed.
A separate legal entity from its owners, paying corporate income tax, with potential for unlimited investors and perpetual existence.
A separate entity with shareholder liability protection, avoiding double taxation by passing profits/losses through to shareholders' personal taxes.
Combines elements of sole proprietorships, partnerships, and corporations, offering liability protection and pass-through taxation without complex regulations.
Formed for charitable, educational, religious, literary, or scientific purposes, exempt from state and federal income taxes, with profits directed toward charitable goals.
A business model where an individual (franchisee) operates a business under the brand and business model of a larger company (franchisor), typically with a mix of ownership benefits and obligations.
A social entrepreneur has an interest in solving a social, environmental, or economic problem. A social entrepreneur identifies a problem with a social or community focus, a concern for quality of life, or concern for our entire planet’s health.
An angel investor is an individual who provides financial backing for small startups or entrepreneurs.
Determining how a problem could be translated into an opportunity to create a new venture. | 4,134 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://wtcs.pressbooks.pub/innovativebusinessmindset/chapter/chapter-1/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:16133 | https://wtcs.pressbooks.pub/innovativebusinessmindset/chapter/chapter-1/ |
1If0-Z4GBkoZSDfM | 7.1: Introducing Market Failure | 7.1: Introducing Market Failure
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Market Failure
learning objectives
- Identify common market failures and governmental responses
Market failure occurs when the price mechanism fails to account for all of the costs and benefits necessary to provide and consume a good. The market will fail by not supplying the socially optimal amount of the good.
Prior to market failure, the supply and demand within the market do not produce quantities of the goods where the price reflects the marginal benefit of consumption. The imbalance causes allocative inefficiency, which is the over- or under-consumption of the good.
The structure of market systems contributes to market failure. In the real world, it is not possible for markets to be perfect due to inefficient producers, externalities, environmental concerns, and lack of public goods. An externality is an effect on a third party which is caused by the production or consumption of a good or service.
Air pollution : Air pollution is an example of a negative externality. Governments may enact tradable permits to try and reduce industrial pollution.
During market failures the government usually responds to varying degrees. Possible government responses include:
- legislation – enacting specific laws. For example, banning smoking in restaurants, or making high school attendance mandatory.
- direct provision of merit and public goods – governments control the supply of goods that have positive externalities. For example, by supplying high amounts of education, parks, or libraries.
- taxation – placing taxes on certain goods to discourage use and internalize external costs. For example, placing a ‘sin-tax’ on tobacco products, and subsequently increasing the cost of tobacco consumption.
- subsidies – reducing the price of a good based on the public benefit that is gained. For example, lowering college tuition because society benefits from more educated workers. Subsidies are most appropriate to encourage behavior that has positive externalities.
- tradable permits – permits that allow firms to produce a certain amount of something, commonly pollution. Firms can trade permits with other firms to increase or decrease what they can produce. This is the basis behind cap-and-trade, an attempt to reduce of pollution.
- extension of property rights – creates privatization for certain non-private goods like lakes, rivers, and beaches to create a market for pollution. Then, individuals get fined for polluting certain areas.
- advertising – encourages or discourages consumption.
- international cooperation among governments – governments work together on issues that affect the future of the environment.
Causes of Market Failure
Market failure occurs due to inefficiency in the allocation of goods and services.
learning objectives
- Explain some common causes of market failure
Market failure occurs due to inefficiency in the allocation of goods and services. A price mechanism fails to account for all of the costs and benefits involved when providing or consuming a specific good. When this happens, the market will not produce the supply of the good that is socially optimal – it will be over or under produced. To fully understand market failure, it is important to recognize the reasons why a market can fail. Due to the structure of markets, it is impossible for them to be perfect. As a result, most markets are not successful and require forms of intervention.
Reasons for market failure include:
- Positive and negative externalities : an externality is an effect on a third party that is caused by the consumption or production of a good or service. A positive externality is a positive spillover that results from the consumption or production of a good or service. For example, although public education may only directly affect students and schools, an educated population may provide positive effects on society as a whole. A negative externality is a negative spillover effect on third parties. For example, secondhand smoke may negatively impact the health of people, even if they do not directly engage in smoking.
- Environmental concerns: effects on the environment as important considerations as well as sustainable development.
- Lack of public goods: public goods are goods where the total cost of production does not increase with the number of consumers. As an example of a public good, a lighthouse has a fixed cost of production that is the same, whether one ship or one hundred ships use its light. Public goods can be underproduced; there is little incentive, from a private standpoint, to provide a lighthouse because one can wait for someone else to provide it, and then use its light without incurring a cost. This problem – someone benefiting from resources or goods and services without paying for the cost of the benefit – is known as the free rider problem.
- Underproduction of merit goods: a merit good is a private good that society believes is under consumed, often with positive externalities. For example, education, healthcare, and sports centers are considered merit goods.
- Overprovision of demerit goods: a demerit good is a private good that society believes is over consumed, often with negative externalities. For example, cigarettes, alcohol, and prostitution are considered demerit goods.
- Abuse of monopoly power: imperfect markets restrict output in an attempt to maximize profit.
When a market fails, the government usually intervenes depending on the reason for the failure.
Introducing Externalities
An externality is a cost or benefit that affects an otherwise uninvolved party who did not choose to be subject to the cost or benefit.
learning objectives
- Give examples of externalities that exist in different parts of society
In economics, an externality is a cost or benefit resulting from an activity or transaction, that affects an otherwise uninvolved party who did not choose to be subject to the cost or benefit. An example of an externality is pollution. Health and clean-up costs from pollution impact all of society, not just individuals within the manufacturing industries. In regards to externalities, the cost and benefit to society is the sum of the value of the benefits and costs for all parties involved.
Externality : An externality is a cost or benefit that results from an activity or transaction and that affects an otherwise uninvolved party who did not choose to incur that cost or benefit.
Negative vs. Positive
A negative externality is an result of a product that inflicts a negative effect on a third party. In contrast, positive externality is an action of a product that provides a positive effect on a third party.
Negative Externality : Air pollution caused by motor vehicles is an example of a negative externality.
Externalities originate within voluntary exchanges. Although the parties directly involved benefit from the exchange, third parties can experience additional effects. For those involuntarily impacted, the effects can be negative (pollution from a factory) or positive (domestic bees kept for honey production, pollinate the neighboring crops).
Economic Strain
Neoclassical welfare economics explains that under plausible conditions, externalities cause economic results that are not ideal for society. The third parties who experience external costs from a negative externality do so without consent, while the individuals who receive external benefits do not pay a cost. The existence of externalities can cause ethical and political problems within society.
In regards to externalities, one way to correct the issue is to internalize the third party costs and benefits. However, in many cases, internalizing the costs is not financially possible. Governments may step in to correct such market failures.
Externality Impacts on Efficiency
Economic efficiency is the use resources to maximize the production of goods; externalities are imperfections that limit efficiency.
learning objectives
- Analyze the effects of externalities on efficiency
Economic Efficiency
In economics, the term “economic efficiency” is defined as the use of resources in order to maximize the production of goods and services. An economically efficient society can produce more goods or services than another society without using more resources.
A market is said to be economically efficient if:
- No one can be made better off without making someone else worse off.
- No additional output can be obtained without increasing the amounts of inputs.
- Production proceeds at the lowest possible cost per unit.
Externalities
An externality is a cost or benefit that results from an activity or transaction and affects a third party who did not choose to incur the cost or benefit. Externalities are either positive or negative depending on the nature of the impact on the third party. An example of a negative externality is pollution. Manufacturing plants emit pollution which impacts individuals living in the surrounding areas. Third parties who are not involved in any aspect of the manufacturing plant are impacted negatively by the pollution. An example of a positive externality would be an individual who lives by a bee farm. The third parties’ flowers are pollinated by the neighbor’s bees. They have no cost or investment in the business, but they benefit from the bees.
Externality : This diagram shows the voluntary exchange that takes place within a market system. It also shows the economic costs that are associated with externalities.
Externalities and Efficiency
Positive and negative externalities both impact economic efficiency. Neoclassical welfare economics states that the existence of externalities results in outcomes that are not ideal for society as a whole. In the case of negative externalities, third parties experience negative effects from an activity or transaction in which they did not choose to be involved. In order to compensate for negative externalities, the market as a whole is reducing its profits in order to repair the damage that was caused which decreases efficiency. Positive externalities are beneficial to the third party at no cost to them. The collective social welfare is improved, but the providers of the benefit do not make any money from the shared benefit. As a result, less of the good is produced or profited from which is less optimal society and decreases economic efficiency.
In order to deal with externalities, markets usually internalize the costs or benefits. For costs, the market has to spend additional funds in order to make up for damages incurred. Benefits are also internalized because they are viewed as goods produced and used by third parties with no monetary gain for the market. Internalizing costs and benefits is not always feasible, especially when the monetary value or a good or service cannot be determined.
Externalities directly impact efficiency because the production of goods is not efficient when costs are incurred due to damages. Efficiency also decreases when potential money earned is lost on non-paying third parties.
In order to maximize economic efficiency, regulations are needed to reduce market failures and imperfections, like internalizing externalities. When market imperfections exist, the efficiency of the market declines.
Key Points
- Prior to market failure, the supply and demand within the market do not produce quantities of the goods where the price reflects the marginal benefit of consumption.
- The structure of market systems contributes to market failure. In the real world, it is not possible for markets to be perfect due to inefficient producers, externalities, environmental concerns, and lack of public goods.
- Government responses to market failure include legislation, direct provision of merit goods and public goods, taxation, subsidies, tradable permits, extension of property rights, advertising, and international cooperation among governments.
- A price mechanism fails to account for all of the costs and benefits involved when providing or consuming a specific good. When this happens, the market will not produce the supply of the good that is socially optimal – it will be over or under produced.
- Due to the structure of markets, it may be impossible for them to be perfect.
- Reasons for market failure include: positive and negative externalities, environmental concerns, lack of public goods, underprovision of merit goods, overprovision of demerit goods, and abuse of monopoly power.
- In regards to externalities, the cost and benefit to society is the sum of the benefits and costs for all parties involved.
- Market failure occurs when the price mechanism fails to consider all of the costs and benefits necessary for providing and consuming a good.
- In regards to externalities, one way to correct the issue is to internalize the third party costs and benefits. However, in many cases, internalizing the costs is not feasible. When externalities exist, it is possible that the particular industry will experience market failure.
- In many cases, the government intervenes when there is market failure.
- An economically efficient society can produce more goods or services than another society without using more resources.
- An externality is a cost or benefit that results from an activity or transaction and affects a third party who did not choose to incur the cost or benefit. Externalities are either positive or negative depending on the nature of the impact on the third party.
- Neoclassical welfare economics states that the existence of externalities results in outcomes that are not ideal for society as a whole.
- In order to maximize economic efficiency, regulations are needed to reduce market failures and imperfections, like internalizing externalities. When market imperfections exist, the efficiency of the market declines.
- In order for economic efficiency to be achieved, one defining rule is that no one can be made better off without making someone else worse off. When externalities are present, not everyone benefits from the production of the good or service.
Key Terms
- public good : A good that is both non-excludable and non-rivalrous in that individuals cannot be effectively excluded from use and where use by one individual does not reduce availability to others.
- merit good : A commodity which is judged that an individual or society should have on the basis of some concept of need, rather than ability and willingness to pay.
- externality : An impact, positive or negative, on any party not involved in a given economic transaction or act.
- public good : A good that is both non-excludable and non-rivalrous in that individuals cannot be effectively excluded from use and where use by one individual does not reduce availability to others.
- free rider : One who obtains benefit from a public good without paying for it directly.
- monopoly : A market where one company is the sole supplier.
- intervene : To interpose; as, to intervene to settle a quarrel; get involved, so as to alter or hinder an action.
- externality : An impact, positive or negative, on any party not involved in a given economic transaction or act.
- efficient : Making good, thorough, or careful use of resources; not consuming extra. Especially, making good use of time or energy.
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C-eC3lkzgzZfvoXi | Atoms First / OpenStax | 49 Effusion and Diffusion of Gases
[latexpage]
Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Define and explain effusion and diffusion
- State Graham’s law and use it to compute relevant gas properties
If you have ever been in a room when a piping hot pizza was delivered, you have been made aware of the fact that gaseous molecules can quickly spread throughout a room, as evidenced by the pleasant aroma that soon reaches your nose. Although gaseous molecules travel at tremendous speeds (hundreds of meters per second), they collide with other gaseous molecules and travel in many different directions before reaching the desired target. At room temperature, a gaseous molecule will experience billions of collisions per second. The mean free path is the average distance a molecule travels between collisions. The mean free path increases with decreasing pressure; in general, the mean free path for a gaseous molecule will be hundreds of times the diameter of the molecule
In general, we know that when a sample of gas is introduced to one part of a closed container, its molecules very quickly disperse throughout the container; this process by which molecules disperse in space in response to differences in concentration is called diffusion (shown in (Figure)). The gaseous atoms or molecules are, of course, unaware of any concentration gradient, they simply move randomly—regions of higher concentration have more particles than regions of lower concentrations, and so a net movement of species from high to low concentration areas takes place. In a closed environment, diffusion will ultimately result in equal concentrations of gas throughout, as depicted in (Figure). The gaseous atoms and molecules continue to move, but since their concentrations are the same in both bulbs, the rates of transfer between the bulbs are equal (no net transfer of molecules occurs).
We are often interested in the rate of diffusion, the amount of gas passing through some area per unit time:
The diffusion rate depends on several factors: the concentration gradient (the increase or decrease in concentration from one point to another); the amount of surface area available for diffusion; and the distance the gas particles must travel. Note also that the time required for diffusion to occur is inversely proportional to the rate of diffusion, as shown in the rate of diffusion equation.
A process involving movement of gaseous species similar to diffusion is effusion, the escape of gas molecules through a tiny hole such as a pinhole in a balloon into a vacuum ((Figure)). Although diffusion and effusion rates both depend on the molar mass of the gas involved, their rates are not equal; however, the ratios of their rates are the same.
If a mixture of gases is placed in a container with porous walls, the gases effuse through the small openings in the walls. The lighter gases pass through the small openings more rapidly (at a higher rate) than the heavier ones ((Figure)). In 1832, Thomas Graham studied the rates of effusion of different gases and formulated Graham’s law of effusion: The rate of effusion of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of the mass of its particles:
This means that if two gases A and B are at the same temperature and pressure, the ratio of their effusion rates is inversely proportional to the ratio of the square roots of the masses of their particles:
Applying Graham’s Law to Rates of Effusion Calculate the ratio of the rate of effusion of hydrogen to the rate of effusion of oxygen.
Solution From Graham’s law, we have:
Hydrogen effuses four times as rapidly as oxygen.
Check Your Learning At a particular pressure and temperature, nitrogen gas effuses at the rate of 79 mL/s. Under the same conditions, at what rate will sulfur dioxide effuse?
52 mL/s
Effusion Time Calculations It takes 243 s for 4.46 \(×\) 10−5 mol Xe to effuse through a tiny hole. Under the same conditions, how long will it take 4.46 \(×\) 10−5 mol Ne to effuse?
Solution It is important to resist the temptation to use the times directly, and to remember how rate relates to time as well as how it relates to mass. Recall the definition of rate of effusion:
and combine it with Graham’s law:
To get:
Noting that amount of A = amount of B, and solving for time for Ne:
and substitute values:
Finally, solve for the desired quantity:
Note that this answer is reasonable: Since Ne is lighter than Xe, the effusion rate for Ne will be larger than that for Xe, which means the time of effusion for Ne will be smaller than that for Xe.
Check Your Learning A party balloon filled with helium deflates to \(\frac{2}{3}\) of its original volume in 8.0 hours. How long will it take an identical balloon filled with the same number of moles of air (ℳ = 28.2 g/mol) to deflate to \(\frac{1}{2}\) of its original volume?
32 h
Determining Molar Mass Using Graham’s Law An unknown gas effuses 1.66 times more rapidly than CO2. What is the molar mass of the unknown gas? Can you make a reasonable guess as to its identity?
Solution From Graham’s law, we have:
Plug in known data:
Solve:
The gas could well be CH4, the only gas with this molar mass.
Check Your Learning Hydrogen gas effuses through a porous container 8.97-times faster than an unknown gas. Estimate the molar mass of the unknown gas.
163 g/mol
Gaseous diffusion has been used to produce enriched uranium for use in nuclear power plants and weapons. Naturally occurring uranium contains only 0.72% of 235U, the kind of uranium that is “fissile,” that is, capable of sustaining a nuclear fission chain reaction. Nuclear reactors require fuel that is 2–5% 235U, and nuclear bombs need even higher concentrations. One way to enrich uranium to the desired levels is to take advantage of Graham’s law. In a gaseous diffusion enrichment plant, uranium hexafluoride (UF6, the only uranium compound that is volatile enough to work) is slowly pumped through large cylindrical vessels called diffusers, which contain porous barriers with microscopic openings. The process is one of diffusion because the other side of the barrier is not evacuated. The 235UF6 molecules have a higher average speed and diffuse through the barrier a little faster than the heavier 238UF6 molecules. The gas that has passed through the barrier is slightly enriched in 235UF6 and the residual gas is slightly depleted. The small difference in molecular weights between 235UF6 and 238UF6 only about 0.4% enrichment, is achieved in one diffuser ((Figure)). But by connecting many diffusers in a sequence of stages (called a cascade), the desired level of enrichment can be attained.
The large scale separation of gaseous 235UF6 from 238UF6 was first done during the World War II, at the atomic energy installation in Oak Ridge, Tennessee, as part of the Manhattan Project (the development of the first atomic bomb). Although the theory is simple, this required surmounting many daunting technical challenges to make it work in practice. The barrier must have tiny, uniform holes (about 10–6 cm in diameter) and be porous enough to produce high flow rates. All materials (the barrier, tubing, surface coatings, lubricants, and gaskets) need to be able to contain, but not react with, the highly reactive and corrosive UF6.
Because gaseous diffusion plants require very large amounts of energy (to compress the gas to the high pressures required and drive it through the diffuser cascade, to remove the heat produced during compression, and so on), it is now being replaced by gas centrifuge technology, which requires far less energy. A current hot political issue is how to deny this technology to Iran, to prevent it from producing enough enriched uranium for them to use to make nuclear weapons.
Key Concepts and Summary
Gaseous atoms and molecules move freely and randomly through space. Diffusion is the process whereby gaseous atoms and molecules are transferred from regions of relatively high concentration to regions of relatively low concentration. Effusion is a similar process in which gaseous species pass from a container to a vacuum through very small orifices. The rates of effusion of gases are inversely proportional to the square roots of their densities or to the square roots of their atoms/molecules’ masses (Graham’s law).
Key Equations
- \(\text{rate of diffusion}=\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\frac{\text{amount of gas passing through an area}}{\text{unit of time}}\)
- \(\frac{\text{rate of effusion of gas A}}{\text{rate of effusion of gas B}}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}=\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\frac{\sqrt{{m}_{B}}}{\sqrt{{m}_{A}}}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}=\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\frac{\sqrt{{\text{ℳ}}_{B}}}{\sqrt{{\text{ℳ}}_{A}}}\)
Chemistry End of Chapter Exercises
A balloon filled with helium gas takes 6 hours to deflate to 50% of its original volume. How long will it take for an identical balloon filled with the same volume of hydrogen gas (instead of helium) to decrease its volume by 50%?
4.2 hours
Explain why the numbers of molecules are not identical in the left- and right-hand bulbs shown in the center illustration of (Figure).
Starting with the definition of rate of effusion and Graham’s finding relating rate and molar mass, show how to derive the Graham’s law equation, relating the relative rates of effusion for two gases to their molecular masses.
Effusion can be defined as the process by which a gas escapes through a pinhole into a vacuum. Graham’s law states that with a mixture of two gases A and B: \(\left(\frac{\text{rate A}}{\text{rate B}}\right)={\left(\frac{\text{molar mass of B}}{\text{molar mass of A}}\right)}^{1\text{/}2}.\) Both A and B are in the same container at the same temperature, and therefore will have the same kinetic energy:
\({\text{KE}}_{\text{A}}={\text{KE}}_{\text{B}}\text{KE}=\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\frac{1}{2}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}m{v}^{2}\)
Therefore, \(\frac{1}{2}{m}_{\text{A}}{v}_{\text{A}}^{2}=\frac{1}{2}{m}_{\text{B}}{v}_{\text{B}}^{2}\)
\(\frac{{v}_{\text{A}}^{2}}{{v}_{\text{B}}^{2}}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}=\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\frac{{m}_{\text{B}}}{{m}_{\text{A}}}\)
\({\left(\frac{{v}_{\text{A}}^{2}}{{v}_{\text{B}}^{2}}\right)}^{1\text{/}2}={\left(\frac{{m}_{\text{B}}}{{m}_{\text{A}}}\right)}^{1\text{/}2}\)
\(\frac{{v}_{\text{A}}}{{v}_{\text{B}}}\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}={\left(\frac{{m}_{\text{B}}}{{m}_{\text{A}}}\right)}^{1\text{/}2}\)
Heavy water, D2O (molar mass = 20.03 g mol–1), can be separated from ordinary water, H2O (molar mass = 18.01), as a result of the difference in the relative rates of diffusion of the molecules in the gas phase. Calculate the relative rates of diffusion of H2O and D2O.
Which of the following gases diffuse more slowly than oxygen? F2, Ne, N2O, C2H2, NO, Cl2, H2S
F2, N2O, Cl2, H2S
During the discussion of gaseous diffusion for enriching uranium, it was claimed that 235UF6 diffuses 0.4% faster than 238UF6. Show the calculation that supports this value. The molar mass of 235UF6 = 235.043930 + 6 \(×\) 18.998403 = 349.034348 g/mol, and the molar mass of 238UF6 = 238.050788 + 6 \(×\) 18.998403 = 352.041206 g/mol.
Calculate the relative rate of diffusion of 1H2 (molar mass 2.0 g/mol) compared with 2H2 (molar mass 4.0 g/mol) and the relative rate of diffusion of O2 (molar mass 32 g/mol) compared with O3 (molar mass 48 g/mol).
1.4; 1.2
A gas of unknown identity diffuses at a rate of 83.3 mL/s in a diffusion apparatus in which carbon dioxide diffuses at the rate of 102 mL/s. Calculate the molecular mass of the unknown gas.
When two cotton plugs, one moistened with ammonia and the other with hydrochloric acid, are simultaneously inserted into opposite ends of a glass tube that is 87.0 cm long, a white ring of NH4Cl forms where gaseous NH3 and gaseous HCl first come into contact. \({\text{NH}}_{3}\left(g\right)+\text{HCl}\left(g\right)\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}⟶\phantom{\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\text{NH}}_{4}\text{Cl}\left(s\right)\) At approximately what distance from the ammonia moistened plug does this occur? (Hint: Calculate the rates of diffusion for both NH3 and HCl, and find out how much faster NH3 diffuses than HCl.)
51.7 cm
Glossary
- diffusion
- movement of an atom or molecule from a region of relatively high concentration to one of relatively low concentration (discussed in this chapter with regard to gaseous species, but applicable to species in any phase)
- effusion
- transfer of gaseous atoms or molecules from a container to a vacuum through very small openings
- Graham’s law of effusion
- rates of diffusion and effusion of gases are inversely proportional to the square roots of their molecular masses
- mean free path
- average distance a molecule travels between collisions
- rate of diffusion
- amount of gas diffusing through a given area over a given time | 2,575 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://pressbooks.nscc.ca/chemistryatoms/chapter/effusion-and-diffusion-of-gases/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:72425 | https://pressbooks.nscc.ca/chemistryatoms/chapter/effusion-and-diffusion-of-gases/ |
Pus8iRpGuZfL0RMe | 5.7: Wave-Particle Duality | 5.7: Wave-Particle Duality
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Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Identify phenomena in which electromagnetic waves behave like a beam of photons and particles behave like waves
- Describe the physics principles behind electron microscopy
- Summarize the evolution of scientific thought that led to the development of quantum mechanics
The energy of radiation detected by a radio-signal receiving antenna comes as the energy of an electromagnetic wave. The same energy of radiation detected by a photocurrent in the photoelectric effect comes as the energy of individual photon particles. Therefore, the question arises about the nature of electromagnetic radiation: Is a photon a wave or is it a particle? Similar questions may be asked about other known forms of energy. For example, an electron that forms part of an electric current in a circuit behaves like a particle moving in unison with other electrons inside the conductor. The same electron behaves as a wave when it passes through a solid crystalline structure and forms a diffraction image. Is an electron a wave or is it a particle? The same question can be extended to all particles of matter—elementary particles, as well as compound molecules—asking about their true physical nature. At our present state of knowledge, such questions about the true nature of things do not have conclusive answers. All we can say is that wave-particle duality exists in nature: Under some experimental conditions, a particle appears to act as a particle, and under different experimental conditions, a particle appears to act a wave. Conversely, under some physical circumstances electromagnetic radiation acts as a wave, and under other physical circumstances, radiation acts as a beam of photons.
This dualistic interpretation is not a new physics concept brought about by specific discoveries in the twentieth century. It was already present in a debate between Isaac Newton and Christiaan Huygens about the nature of light, beginning in the year 1670. According to Newton, a beam of light is a collection of corpuscles of light. According to Huygens, light is a wave. The corpuscular hypothesis failed in 1803, when Thomas Young announced his double-slit interference experiment with light (see Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\)), which firmly established light as a wave. In James Clerk Maxwell’s theory of electromagnetism (completed by the year 1873), light is an electromagnetic wave. Maxwell’s classical view of radiation as an electromagnetic wave is still valid today; however, it is unable to explain blackbody radiation and the photoelectric effect, where light acts as a beam of photons.
A similar dichotomy existed in the interpretation of electricity. From Benjamin Franklin’s observations of electricity in 1751 until J.J. Thomson’s discovery of the electron in 1897, electric current was seen as a flow in a continuous electric medium. Within this theory of electric fluid, the present theory of electric circuits was developed, and electromagnetism and electromagnetic induction were discovered. Thomson’s experiment showed that the unit of negative electric charge (an electron) can travel in a vacuum without any medium to carry the charge around, as in electric circuits. This discovery changed the way in which electricity is understood today and gave the electron its particle status. In Bohr’s early quantum theory of the hydrogen atom, both the electron and the proton are particles of matter. Likewise, in the Compton scattering of X-rays on electrons, the electron is a particle. On the other hand, in electron-scattering experiments on crystalline structures, the electron behaves as a wave.
A skeptic may raise a question that perhaps an electron might always be nothing more than a particle, and that the diffraction images obtained in electron-scattering experiments might be explained within some macroscopic model of a crystal and a macroscopic model of electrons coming at it like a rain of ping-pong balls. As a matter of fact, to investigate this question, we do not need a complex model of a crystal but just a couple of simple slits in a screen that is opaque to electrons. In other words, to gather convincing evidence about the nature of an electron, we need to repeat the Young double-slit experiment with electrons. If the electron is a wave, we should observe the formation of interference patterns typical for waves, such as those described in Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\), even when electrons come through the slits one by one. However, if the electron is a not a wave but a particle, the interference fringes will not be formed.
The very first double-slit experiment with a beam of electrons, performed by Claus Jönsson in Germany in 1961, demonstrated that a beam of electrons indeed forms an interference pattern, which means that electrons collectively behave as a wave. The first double-slit experiments with single electrons passing through the slits one-by-one were performed by Giulio Pozzi in 1974 in Italy and by Akira Tonomura in 1989 in Japan. They show that interference fringes are formed gradually, even when electrons pass through the slits individually. This demonstrates conclusively that electron-diffraction images are formed because of the wave nature of electrons. The results seen in double-slit experiments with electrons are illustrated by the images of the interference pattern in Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\).
Example \(\PageIndex{1}\): Double-Slit Experiment with Electrons
In one experimental setup for studying interference patterns of electron waves, two slits are created in a gold-coated silicon membrane. Each slit is 62-nm wide and 4-μm long, and the separation between the slits is 272 nm. The electron beam is created in an electron gun by heating a tungsten element and by accelerating the electrons across a 600-V potential. The beam is subsequently collimated using electromagnetic lenses, and the collimated beam of electrons is sent through the slits. Find the angular position of the first-order bright fringe on the viewing screen.
Strategy
Recall that the angular position θ of the n th order bright fringe that is formed in Young’s two-slit interference pattern (discussed in a previous chapter) is related to the separation, d , between the slits and to the wavelength, λ, of the incident light by the equation dsin θ = nλ, where n = 0, \(\pm 1\), \(\pm 2\),.... The separation is given and is equal to d = 272 nm. For the first-order fringe, we take n = 1. The only thing we now need is the wavelength of the incident electron wave.
Since the electron has been accelerated from rest across a potential difference of ΔV = 600 V, its kinetic energy is K = e ΔV = 600 eV. The rest-mass energy of the electron is \(E_0\) = 511 keV.
We compute its de Broglie wavelength as that of a nonrelativistic electron because its kinetic energy K is much smaller than its rest energy \(E_0\), K ≪ \(E_0\).
Solution
The electron’s wavelength is
\[\lambda = \frac{h}{p} = \frac{h}{\sqrt{2m_eK}} = \frac{h}{\sqrt{2E_0/c^2K}} = \frac{hc}{\sqrt{2E_0K}} = \frac{1.241 \times 10^{-6} \, eV \cdot m}{\sqrt{2(511 \, keV)(600 \, eV)}} = 0.050 \, nm. \nonumber \]
This λ is used to obtain the position of the first bright fringe:
\[\sin \, \theta = \frac{1 \cdot \lambda}{d} = \frac{0.050 \, nm}{272 \, nm} = 0.000184 \Rightarrow θ = 0.010°. \nonumber \]
Significance
Notice that this is also the angular resolution between two consecutive bright fringes up to about n = 1000. For example, between the zero-order fringe and the first-order fringe, between the first-order fringe and the second-order
Exercise \(\PageIndex{1}\)
For the situation described in Example \(\PageIndex{1}\), find the angular position of the fifth-order bright fringe on the viewing screen.
- Answer
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\(0.052^o\)
The wave-particle dual nature of matter particles and of radiation is a declaration of our inability to describe physical reality within one unified classical theory because separately neither a classical particle approach nor a classical wave approach can fully explain the observed phenomena. This limitation of the classical approach was realized by the year 1928, and a foundation for a new statistical theory, called quantum mechanics, was put in place by Bohr, Edwin Schrödinger , Werner Heisenberg , and Paul Dirac . Quantum mechanics takes de Broglie’s idea of matter waves to be the fundamental property of all particles and gives it a statistical interpretation. According to this interpretation, a wave that is associated with a particle carries information about the probable positions of the particle and about its other properties. A single particle is seen as a moving wave packet such as the one shown in Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\). We can intuitively sense from this example that if a particle is a wave packet , we will not be able to measure its exact position in the same sense as we cannot pinpoint a location of a wave packet in a vibrating guitar string. The uncertainty, Δx, in measuring the particle’s position is connected to the uncertainty, Δp, in the simultaneous measuring of its linear momentum by Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle:
\[\Delta x \Delta p \geq \frac{1}{2}\hbar. \label{6.63} \]
Heisenberg’s principle expresses the law of nature that, at the quantum level, our perception is limited. For example, if we know the exact position of a body (which means that Δx = 0 in Equation \ref{6.63}) at the same time we cannot know its momentum, because then the uncertainty in its momentum becomes infinite (because Δp ≥ 0.5 ℏ/Δx in Equation \ref{6.63}). The Heisenberg uncertainty principle sets the limit on the precision of simultaneous measurements of position and momentum of a particle; it shows that the best precision we can obtain is when we have an equals sign (=) in Equation \ref{6.63}, and we cannot do better than that, even with the best instruments of the future. Heisenberg’s principle is a consequence of the wave nature of particles.
We routinely use many electronic devices that exploit wave-particle duality without even realizing the sophistication of the physics underlying their operation. One example of a technology based on the particle properties of photons and electrons is a charge-coupled device, which is used for light detection in any instrumentation where high-quality digital data are required, such as in digital cameras or in medical sensors. An example in which the wave properties of electrons is exploited is an electron microscope.
In 1931, physicist Ernst Ruska - building on the idea that magnetic fields can direct an electron beam just as lenses can direct a beam of light in an optical microscope—developed the first prototype of the electron microscope. This development originated the field of electron microscopy . In the transmission electron microscope (TEM) , shown in Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\), electrons are produced by a hot tungsten element and accelerated by a potential difference in an electron gun, which gives them up to 400 keV in kinetic energy. After leaving the electron gun, the electron beam is focused by electromagnetic lenses (a system of condensing lenses) and transmitted through a specimen sample to be viewed. The image of the sample is reconstructed from the transmitted electron beam. The magnified image may be viewed either directly on a fluorescent screen or indirectly by sending it, for example, to a digital camera or a computer monitor. The entire setup consisting of the electron gun, the lenses, the specimen, and the fluorescent screen are enclosed in a vacuum chamber to prevent the energy loss from the beam. Resolution of the TEM is limited only by spherical aberration (discussed in a previous chapter). Modern high-resolution models of a TEM can have resolving power greater than 0.5 Å and magnifications higher than 50 million times. For comparison, the best resolving power obtained with light microscopy is currently about 97 nm. A limitation of the TEM is that the samples must be about 100-nm thick and biological samples require a special preparation involving chemical “fixing” to stabilize them for ultrathin slicing.
Such limitations do not appear in the scanning electron microscope (SEM) , which was invented by Manfred von Ardenne in 1937. In an SEM, a typical energy of the electron beam is up to 40 keV and the beam is not transmitted through a sample but is scattered off its surface. Surface topography of the sample is reconstructed by analyzing back-scattered electrons, transmitted electrons, and the emitted radiation produced by electrons interacting with atoms in the sample. The resolving power of an SEM is better than 1 nm, and the magnification can be more than 250 times better than that obtained with a light microscope. The samples scanned by an SEM can be as large as several centimeters but they must be specially prepared, depending on electrical properties of the sample.
High magnifications of the TEM and SEM allow us to see individual molecules. High resolving powers of the TEM and SEM allow us to see fine details, such as those shown in the SEM micrograph of pollen at the beginning of this chapter ( Figure 6.1.1 ).
Example \(\PageIndex{2}\): Resolving Power of an Electron Microscope
If a 1.0-pm electron beam of a TEM passes through a 2.0-μm circular opening, what is the angle between the two just-resolvable point sources for this microscope?
Solution
We can directly use a formula for the resolving power, \(Δθ\), of a microscope when the wavelength of the incident radiation is \(λ=1.0\, pm\) and the diameter of the aperture is \(D = 2.0\, μm\):
\[\Delta \theta = 1.22 \frac{\lambda}{D} = 1.22 \frac{1.0 \, pm}{2.0 \, \mu m} = 6.10 \times 10^{-7} rad = 3.50 \times 10.5^o. \nonumber \]
Significance
Note that if we used a conventional microscope with a 400-nm light, the resolving power would be only 14°, which means that all of the fine details in the image would be blurred.
Exercise \(\PageIndex{2}\)
Suppose that the diameter of the aperture in Example \(\PageIndex{2}\) is halved. How does it affect the resolving power?
- Answer
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doubles it | 2,969 | common-pile/libretexts_filtered | https://phys.libretexts.org/Courses/Bowdoin_College/Phys1140%3A_Introductory_Physics_II%3A_Part_2/05%3A_Photons_and_Matter_Waves/5.07%3A_Wave-Particle_Duality | libretexts | libretexts-0000.json.gz:6654 | https://phys.libretexts.org/Courses/Bowdoin_College/Phys1140%3A_Introductory_Physics_II%3A_Part_2/05%3A_Photons_and_Matter_Waves/5.07%3A_Wave-Particle_Duality |
J71FHlS0-ASx_9R4 | 3.2: Reading- Operating Systems | 3.2: Reading- Operating Systems
Introduction
The PC of a business end-user will quite commonly provide a number of different application programs, but no program development tools. It is also possible (although unlikely) that the PC of a programmer could provide development tools only, and no other commercial applications. But the one thing that all these machines would definitely have is an operating system (OS). The operating system is an essential piece of software that resides on virtually every computer. It allows the computer to run a number of different applications apparently simultaneously, and shares resources such as printers between a number of different users, while at the same time performing those functions that are critical to the correct operating of the computer system, regardless of which application is running.
Different types of computers may require different operating systems. Most mainframe computers have a proprietary operating system, such as IBM’s MVS or Siemen’s BS2000. At the opposite end of the market, we find that the leading operating system for the IBM compatible Personal Computers is Microsoft Windows (having all but replaced its predecessor MS-DOS) although Mac-OS and Unix variants such as Linux also have strong followings.
Today’s operating systems are true marvels of engineering and rate among the most complex artifacts designed by humans. Their complexity stems from the increasing number of functions that an operating system is required to handle.
Multitasking
Today’s computers handle many applications at the same time: you could be downloading a file from the Internet at the same time as you update a spreadsheet that is embedded within a word-processing document (while at the same time your virus scanner is running in the background). Each application needs to share the CPU, main memory and all peripheral devices. The OS sees to it that all conflicts are resolved and each application gets a fair share of the common resources, often in accordance with a certain priority schedule. An important task, therefore, is that of the proper scheduling of different tasks. The OS also ensures that illbehaving applications do not impact on the integrity of the other applications and their data. (By the way, when a single application program runs multiple tasks simultaneously, this is known as multithreading.)
Multi-user management
Barring the personal computer, computers have more than a single user at any one time – a typical mainframe may have to handle many thousands of simultaneous users. Each of the users may operate a different application (see multitasking) but will not be prepared to wait for other users to finish their tasks. So the OS sees to it that each user gets a fair share of the CPU of the mainframe, by slicing each second in tiny fractions and allocating them to the different users. In addition, each user may have a different profile in terms of access to certain peripheral devices and data. This requires sophisticated security and data management.
Memory management
Apart from the CPU, primary memory is often the most expensive and scarcest component of a computer system. Efficient memory management is a key component of any OS, especially in multitasking and multi-user environment. The likelihood that there is sufficient memory to load all the data and software for all users simultaneously is extremely small. In practice, a technique of virtual memory is used whereby the available amount of main memory is extended by using secondary storage devices, usually the hard disk. During a typical program execution, not all program instructions and data are required at once. The OS will swap out all unused software and data segments onto disk, until they are actually required.
Secondary storage management
All applications require disk storage – if only to store the application software itself. The OS provides the common access routines to the secondary disk storage devices. It will keep track of data and program file names, physical locations and perform common functions such as the copying, erasing or backing up of data. It also makes the differences in physical hardware as transparent as possible: a data file will appear the same to an application whether the data is being loaded from a diskette, a hard disk or an optical CD-ROM.
Peripheral handler
Apart from managing the memory and secondary storage devices, the OS is usually also responsible for the handling of other peripheral devices. Again, a major objective is to relieve the application from the responsibility of having to cater for a multitude of different possible input and output devices. Thanks to the OS, a program (developer) does not need to cater for the differences between a trackball, mouse or other pointing device. The OS will also ensure that your document will be printed correctly, regardless of whether you have a colour inkjet, a laser or lowly dot-matrix printer attached. Equally, individual programs no longer have to worry about the resolution or capability of your computer monitor. The critical element is again that the applications do not have to worry about the actual hardware connected to the computer system. This is usually achieved by means of device drivers, small software routines that become part of the operating system and help it to interface correctly with specific hardware devices. The device drivers for popular or standard devices are usually already included in the operating system. More esoteric or very new hardware devices will come with a separate disk containing the proper device drivers. These then have to be installed as part of the operating system at the same time as connecting the hardware.
Communications Management
Communications software allows a computer to recognise the presence of other machines on a network, and to grant or restrict access to local files. It also manages network traffic, by monitoring communications lines and diagnosing problems, as well as sending and receiving data to and from remote devices. While PC operating systems include some basic networking and communications facilities, network operating systems (NOS) such as Novell and Unix provide sophisticated management tools for large networks.
User interface
Until the late 1980s, operating systems focussed on the efficient management of resources, tasks and secondary storage. The popularity of personal computers meant that a whole class of less-technical end-users entered the world of computing. This pressured the IT industry into developing a user-friendlier graphical user-interface and the user interface is quickly becoming a significant part of microcomputer operating systems. Different types of user interface have already been discussed earlier in this chapter.
System Utilities
As a logical extension of the operating system, additional system utilities are often required to assist with the proper and optimal use of the computer. Some system utilities may be provided along with the operating system, while others are marketed by independent third-party vendors. A number of system utilities focuses on improving the functionality of the operating system (e.g. better hard disk management) while others provide additional functions (e.g. anti-virus or encryption software). More examples of system utilities are editors, additional security utilities, performance monitors, file viewers, data compression software etc.
- Discovering Information Systems Section 5.4. Authored by : Jean-Paul Van Belle, Mike Eccles, and Jane Nash. Located at : https://archive.org/details/ost-computer-science-discoveringinformationsystems . License : CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives
- Abandoned MS DOS 5.0 operating system manual. Authored by : Alexander Synaptic. Located at : https://www.flickr.com/photos/synapticism/15836248264 . License : CC BY-NC: Attribution-NonCommercial | 1,575 | common-pile/libretexts_filtered | https://workforce.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Introduction_to_Computer_Applications_and_Concepts_(Lumen)/03%3A_System_Software/3.02%3A_Reading-_Operating_Systems | libretexts | libretexts-0000.json.gz:50973 | https://workforce.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Introduction_to_Computer_Applications_and_Concepts_(Lumen)/03%3A_System_Software/3.02%3A_Reading-_Operating_Systems |
n5XF-6G8rxnQdwry | Arteriosclerosis : etiology, pathology, diagnosis, prognosis, prophylaxis, and treatment / by Louis M. Warfield ; with an introduction by W.S. Thayer. | FIG. I.
Fig. I. Arteriosclerosis of the thoracic and abdomina, aorta, showing irregular nodules, atheromatous plaquesl denudation of the intinia, thin plates of bone scattered throughout with spicules extending into the lumen of the vessel. Note the contraction of the openings of the large branches, the rough appearance of the aorta and the greater degree of sclerosis of the upper two-thirds, i. e., of the aorta above the diaphragm. This aorta in the recent state was much thickened and almost inelastic.
Louis M. Warficid, A. B., M. D.
lastructof in Medicine, Washington University Medical Department; Physician to the Protestant Hospital; Adjunct Attending Physician to the Martha Parsons Hospital for Children, St, Louis» Mo. Formerly Medical House Officer at The Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, Md, Member St . Louis Medical Society, Missouri State Medical Society, and American Medical Association, etc.
PREFACE.
It is hoped that this small volume may fill a want in the already crowded field of medical monographs. Our attempt has been to give to the general practitioner a readable, authoritative essay on a disease which is especially an outcome of modern civilization. To that end all the available literature has been freely consulted, and the newest results of experimental research and the recent ideas of leading clinicians have been summarized. The writer has supplemented these with results from his own experience but has thought it best not to burden the contents with case histories.
The stress and strain of our daily life has, as one of its consequences, early arterial degeneration. There can be no doubt that arterial disease in the comparatively young is more frequent than it was twenty-five years ago, and that the mortality from diseases directly dependent on arteriosclerotic changes is increasing. Fortunately, the al-
most universal habit of getting out-of-doors whenever possible, and the revival of interest in athletics for persons of all ages, have to some extent counteracted the tendency to early decay. Nevertheless, the actual average prolongation of life is more probably due to the very great reduction in infant mortality and in deaths from infectious and communicable diseases.
The wear and tear on the human organism in our modem way of living is excessive. Hard work, worry, and high living all predispose to degenerative changes in the arteries and so bring on premature old age.
We have tried to emphasize this by laying stress on the prevention of arteriosclerosis rather than on the treatment of the fully developed disease.
No bibliography is given inasmuch as this is not intended as a reference book but rather as a guide to a better appreciation and imderstanding of a most important subject. It has been difficult to keep from wandering off into full discussions of conditions incident to and accompanied by arteriosclerosis ; but, in order to be clear in our statements and complete in our descriptions, we have had
to invade the fields of heart disease, kidneydisease, brain disease, etc. We trust, however, that these excursions will serve to show how intimately disease of the arteries is bound up with diseases of all the organs and tissues of the body.
Some authors have been named when their opinions have been given. Thanks are extended also to many others to whom the writer is indebted but of whom no individual mention has been made.
The writer also takes this opportunity of expressing his appreciation of the kindness of Dr. D. If. Harris, who took the microphotographs, and to the publishers for their unfailing courtesy and consideration.
Fig. II. Normal Aorta 2
Fig. III. Cross-section of a large artery 6 Fig. IV. Convenient sphygmomanometer 12 Fig. V. Nodular Sclerosis of the Coronary
INTRODUCTION.
There is a despotism to which the greater part of mankind is enslaved, a despotism as absolute in the republic as in the autocracy — ^the tyranny of words. The thought or fancy, unexpressed, may have its passing influence; expressed, the mere sound of our own voice exercises upon us a subtile influence which, as it were, drives home the idea, while repetition fastens upon us an impression which, before we are aware of it, has become a conviction — a part of ourselves.
A term which strikes the popular ear becomes soon associated, in the mind of the average individual, with an idea or a picture which may vary greatly from that of his neighbor, and more yet from the truth. Nevertheless time and repetition fix the idea until 'tis difficult to realize that the word has not to everyone the same constant and sharply defined signification.
These vary greatly in character and origin. Those of older years were usually expressions intended to describe certain groups of clinical symptoms and were based largely on purely hypothetical considerations. These terms must, of necessity, have been rather indefinite and uncertain in their application even among the medical profession, and much more so among the general public. Such is that commonest and most detestable of words which means everything to everybody and nothing under the sun in itself, "Biliousness. ' ' Such has been the term "Malaria" in its popular sense. Such is, often enough, the all too popular word "Rheumatism. ' ' In more modem times, with the development of knowledge of pathological anatomy and physiology, more accurate terms have come into medicine, some based on anatomical, some on physiological changes. Many of these terms have also passed over into popular usage. And while, originally, they designated specific anatomical conditions or physiological processes, the uninstructed public associate them naturally with groups of symptoms, and form many and varied
individual the words mean something.
All this has too often its repercussion on the physician who, in order to satisfy his patients, who demand a name for the symptoms from which they suffer, is led, almost unconsciously, to use a specific term in a general way to cover a variety of conditions in which perhaps the exact diagnosis may not be wholly clear, until, by force of habit and repetition, he finds a certain satisfaction in hiding behind an empty term, and becomes himself a victim of the tyranny of words. What an array of pathological processes have been dismissed under the specific diagnosis of ' 'gastritis " or ' 'neuritis ' ' !
The study of those changes in the blood vessels, hyperplastic, degenerative, or inflammatory which are the inheritance of advancing years, and have been so aptly called "the rust of life " , is not new. The term "Arteriosclerosis ' ' was used anatomically by Lobstein three quarters of a century ago, and the relations of arterial change to visceral disease have long been a fertile field for speculation and study. But the popularization of the term "Arteriosclerosis" from a clinical standpoint
is relatively recent. In later years, however, it has definitely caught the popular ear; it figures in the newspapers as a "new disease; ' ' it means something to each member of the public; it is a diagnosis satisfying to the anxious friends of the patient. And, too often, the general diagnosis "Arteriosclerosis ' ' has come to satisfy the physician himself who, without finding a definite explanation of the obscure symptoms of his patient, rests on his oars with the constatation of the tortuous temporal or the palpable radial of the sufferer. The term "Arteriosclerosis ' ' is fast coming to take a place near the throne once occupied by "Malaria"; it is becoming a dangerous word. Great as is the importance of arterial changes in relation to many of the ills to which flesh is heir, and numerous as have been the anatomical, clinical and experimental researches concerning this subject, it must be acknowledged that there is much yet to be learned with regard to the etiology, the manner of development, the nature of the changes in different parts of the arterial tree, their relation to variations in blood pressure and to visceral disease as well as concerning the relations of peripheral to central changes ;
vations which have been made.
In view therefore of these considerations as well as of the widespread and indiscriminate popular use of the term "Arteriosclerosis," the time would seem to be peculiarly fitting for the publication of a brief and practical consideration of the present state of our knowledge concerning the nature and clinical bearings of arterial disease such as that which my friend Dr. Warfield seeks to set forth.
There can be no doubt that we Americans are prone to waste our energies. We do not know how to rest or to conserve our strength ; and it is probably true, as Dr. Warfield suggests, that the wear and tear of this feverish and unreasoning activity leaves, too often, an early mark on the cardio-vascular system.
It should, as he has said, be the earnest endeavor of the physician to prevent the premature development of these vital changes rather than to seek to alleviate symptoms after irreparable damage has been done.
ANATOMY.
With the increased complexity of our modern life, comes increased wear and tear on the human organism. This is most often revealed in the very commonly seen arterial disease which may develop in persons much under middle age. The old adage that "A man is as old as his arteries" is even more true today, if possible, than when it was first said.
Arteriosclerosis is not universally considered to be a disease sui generis; some authors would rather call it a symptom or a group of symptoms which, however, are not specific enough to warrant their collection into a definite disease. We shall, however, consider arteriosclerosis as a disease rather than as a symptom group for, from a clinical standpoint, there is much in favor of regarding it as an entity.
Definition — ^Arteriosclerosis (Arteriocapillary fibrosis) may be defined as a subacute and chronic disease of the arteries, char-
2 Arteriosclerosis
acterized anatomically by increased thickness of the walls of the blood vessels, the initial lesion being for the most part in the middle (muscular) coat, leading not infrequently to calcification of this coat and to the formation of minute aneurysms along the vessels. The term arterio-capillary fibrosis undoubtedly has a broader meaning. Almost without exception the capillaries are involved in the morbid process, and even the veins may be markedly thickened. Under such circumstances, it is proper to speak of vascular sclerosis or angiosclerosis.
A few brief reminders of the anatomy of the arteries will not be out of place here. For the clear comprehension of the disease under discussion, it is necessary to keep in mind the essential histological differences between the aorta and the larger and smaller branches of the arterial tree.
The vascular system, as a whole, is often referred to as a central pump with a series of closed tubes that branch widely, and, collecting again, converge into vessels of the same area as at the beginning. While this is a rough illustration, it is useful but natur-
Fig. II. Normal aorta. Compare with Figure I. Note the perfectly smooth, glossy appearance of the intima. The openings of all the intercostal arteries are distinctly seen. In the recent state this artery was highly elastic, capable of much stretching both transversely and longitudinally.
that control every part of the system.
Generai. Structure of The Arteries — The essential portion of any blood vessel is the endothelial tube composed of flat cells cemented together by intercellular substance and having no stomata between the cells. This tube is reinforced in different ways by connective tissue, smooth muscle fibres and fibro-elastic tissue. Although the gradations from the larger to the smaller arteries and from these to the capillaries and veins are almost insensible, yet particular arteries present structural characters sufficiently marked to admit of histological differentiation.
The whole vascular system, including the heart, has an endothelial lining which may constitute a distinct inner coat, the tunica intima, or may be without coverings as in the case of the capillaries. The intima (Fig. III.) consists typically of endothelium reinforced by a variable amount of fibroelastic tissue in which the elastic fibres predominate. The tunica media is composed of intermingled bundles of elastic tissue, smooth muscle fibres, and some fibrous tis-
sue. The adventitia or outer coat is exceedingly tough. It is usually thinner than the media and is composed of fibro-elastic tissue. This division into three coats is, however, somewhat arbitrary, as in the larger arteries, particularly, it is difficult to discover any distinct separation into layers.
The muscular layer varies from single scattered cells, in the arterioles, to bands of fibres making up the body of the vessel in the medium sized arteries and veins.
There is elastic tissue in all but the smallest arteries, and it is also found in some veins. It varies in amount from a loose network to dense membranes. In the intima of the larger arteries the elastic tissue occurs as sheets which under the microscope appear perforated and pitted, the so-called fenestrated membrane of Henle.
The nutrient vessels of the arteries and veins, the vasa vasorum, are present in all the vessels except those less than one millimeter in diameter. The vasa vasorum course in the external coat and send capillaries into the media. Lymphatics and nerves are also found in the vascular walls.
Arteries — ^The structure of the arteries varies notably, depending upon the size of the vessel. In a cross section of the radial artery, one sees a wavy outline of intima, caused by the endothelium following the corrugations of the elastica. The endothelium is seen as a delicate line in which a few nuclei are visible. The media is comparatively thick, and is composed of muscle cells, arranged in flat .bundles, and plates of elastic tissue. Between the media and the externa the elastic tissue is somewhat condensed to form the external elastic membrane. The adventitia varies much in thickness, being better developed in the medium sized than in the large arteries. It is composed of fibrous tissue mixed with elastic fibres.
"Followed towards the capillaries, the coats of the artery gradually diminish in thickness, the endothelium resting directly upon the internal elastic membrane so long as the latter persists, and afterwards on the rapidly attenuating media. The elastica becomes progressively reduced until it entirely disappears from the middle coat, which then becomes a purely muscular tunic and, before
the capillary is reached, is reduced to a single layer of muscle cells. In the precapillaryarterioles the muscle no longer forms a continuous layer, but is represented by groups of fibre-cells that partially wrap around the vessel, and at last are replaced by isolated elements. After the disappearance of the muscle-cells, the bloodvessel has become a true capillary. The adventitia shares in the general reduction, arid gradually diminishes in thickness until, in the smallest arteries, it consists of only a few fibro-elastic strands outside the muscle-cells" (Piersol's Anatomy).
The large arteries differ from those of medium size mainly in the fact that there is no sharp line of demarcation between the intima and the media. There is also much more elastic tissue, distributed in firm bundles throughout the media, and there are fewer muscle fibres, giving a more compact appearance to the artery as seen in cross section. This predominance of elastic tissue permits of great distension by the blood forced into the artery at every heartbeat, the calibre of the tube being less markedly imder the control of the vasomotor nerves than is the case
Fig. III. Cross section of a large artery showing the division into the three coats; intima, media, adventitia. The intima is a thin Une composed of endothelial cells. The wavy elastic lamina is well seen. The thick middle coat is composed of muscle fibres and fibro-elastic tissue. The loose tissue on the outer (lower portion of cut) side of the media is the adventitia.
in the small arteries where the muscle tissue is relatively more developed. The adventitia of the large arteries is strong and firm, and is made up of interlacing fibro-elastic tissue of which some of the bundles are arranged longitudinally.
Veins — The walls of the veins are thinner than those of the arteries ; they contain much less elastic and muscular tissue, and are, therefore, more flaccid and less contractile. Many veins, particularly those of the extremities, are provided with cuplike valves opening towards the heart. These valves, when closed, prevent the return of the blood to the periphery and distribute the static pressure of the blood column. The bulgings caused by the valves may be seen in the superficial veins of the arm and leg. There are no valves in the veins of the neck where there is no necessity for such a protective mechanism, gravity sufficing to drain the venous blood from the cranial cavity.
Capii^laries — ^These are endothelial tubes in the substance of the organs, the tissue of the organ giving them the necessary support. They are the final subdivisions of the blood-
vessels, and the vast capillary area offers the greatest amount of resistance to the blood flow, and thus serves to slow the blood stream and allow time for nutritive substances or waste products to pass from and to the blood, Usually the capillaries are arranged in the form of a net work, the channels in any one tissue being of nearly uniform size, and the closeness of the mesh depending upon the organ. Thus, in the lung, the mesh work is closest ; in organs of great functional activity, as in the kidneys, the thyroid, the hver,etc., there is an enormous capillary net work.
The capillaries have no nerve supply, but are flushed or emptied entirely by the dilatation or contraction of the small arteries. The capillary resistance really depends to a great extent on the behaviour of the very small arteries in which are a few muscle cells sufficient to close the lumen of the vessel when excessively stimulated and thus to shut off a capillary area. When this happens to great numbers of the smallest arteries, parts of organs or whole organs maybe rendered anemic, and, in the case of the fingers or toes, small portions may actually become gangrenous.
BLOOD PRESSURE.
No attempt will be made to give more than a very brief outline of the chief points in the physiology of the circulation that have a special bearing on the disease under discussion. A complete understanding of the physiology of the heart and bloodvessels facilitates the comprehension of many of the morbid processes that are found in arteriosclerosis and explains why it is that not always do we have defects that a priori might be expected to follow certain causes.
"The heart and the blood vessels form a closed vascular system containing a certain amount of blood. This blood is kept in endless circulation mainly by the force of the muscular contraction of the heart. But the bed through which it flows varies greatly in width at different parts of the circuit, and the resistance offered to the moving blood
The velocity varies greatly in different parts of the circulation. In the arteries it changes with every heart beat. As the bed widens the flow is necessarily slower, until, in the enormous capillary area, the flow has become even and slow, and increases as the blood is collected into the venules, until at the venous openings of the right auricle it is almost as rapid as at the aorta.
Innumerable factors influence the rate and amount of the flow to any part or parts. Given a fixed amount of fluid that completes a circle in a certain time, any change in any part of the circle necessarily has its opposite effect elsewhere in the circle provided we assume that the force and rate of the heart beat remain the same. Thus contraction of all the vessels in the splanchnic area cuts off an enormous portion of the circle. Now, if the blood is to make the circuit in the same time as before the contraction, then vessels elsewhere must dilate to a corresponding degree. Suppose now that there were some
Physiology of the Circulation 1 1
substance in the circulation that acted particularly on the musculature of the splanchnic vessels causing them to contract and to a lesser extent on the other arteries, then an increased resistance would result which could be overcome only by more force exerted on the part of the heart.
At every systole from 50 to 100 cc. of blood are thrown into an already filled aorta . Ther e is thus 70-80 times a minute forcible stretching of the arch and the thoracic aorta. In order to accommodate this extra blood these structures must expand. After the closure of the aortic valves the column of blood is kept at a considerable pressure by the compression of the highly elastic aorta. At the top of the arch three large vessels are given off, the innominate, the left carotid, and the left subclavian. These to some extent take up a portion of the strain. No other large vessels are given off until below the diaphragm. It is thus seen why it is that the thoracic aorta is more apt to be the seat of disease than any part of the vascular system.
sure must be maintained. As the heart contracts, the pressure is suddenly raised and the pulse wave is transmitted towards the periphery. This pressure is known as the maximum or systohc pressure. It is, of Course, highest at the heart. In the brachial artery in man, where the pressure is usually measured, it amoimts to lOo to 130 mm. of mercury. It is lower in children and higher in old people as a general rule, to which there are numerous exceptions. The minimum pressure in the artery, i. e., the pressiure at the end of diastole, is known as the diastolic pressiu'e. The difference between these two pressiu-es is known as the pulse pressiue, and meastues normally in an adult in the brachial artery about 45 to 48 mm. of mercury. This represents to a great extent the elastic force of the aorta which diuring diastole keeps the blood flowing and maintains the pressiue.
Several instruments have been devised to measiu*e the maximum blood pressure in man. Instruments have also been made to measure the minimum pressure but they are too complicated for general use. Cook's modification of the Riva-Rocci instrument with the 9 or
Fig. IV. A convenient sphygmomanometer. A, stand made of thin board fitted securely to a heavy base 4x4x3^ in.; B, scale graduated in centimeters and millimeters from 1 to 15; C, the U-tube of heavy glass 2 mm. in diameter, the mercury shown standing at zero on the scale; D, short outlet tube with clamp; E, 9 cm. arm band of rubber encased in heavy canvass, the hooks and eyes sewn on the canvass so that the band may be snugly fitted around the arm above the elbow; F, a double bulb syringe for inflating the arm band. The arm band and tube containing the mercury have free air connection so that when the arm is compressed by the air forced into the arm band the mercury rises in the tube. With a finger on the pulse of the subject the syringe is compressed until the pulse disappears. By cautiously letting out air through the clamp D, the point on the scale is noted when the pulse first is felt. Several readings are to be made and the average taken. This gives the systolic pressure. The diastolic pressure cannot be determined with any degree of accuracy with any but the most elaborate instruments. The distance that the mercury rises in the left arm of the tube is doubled in order to get the whole reading, for the mercury in the tube on the right is depressed to the same extent as it is elevated on the left. This instrument enables one to read pressures of 300 mm. of Hg.
12 cm. arm band, Janeway's portable instrument or the Stanton instrument are all used. The principle upon which all depend is the compression of the brachial artery by means of air forced into a band, resulting in the obliteration of the pulse at the wrist. Mercury is forced into an upright, or U-tube, and just at the time when the pulse at the wrist disappears, the reading is made. This is the systolic pressure. If now air is released and the point noted where the maximum oscillation of the mercury occurs, one may read approximately the disastolic pressure. The difference between these two readings is, of course, the pulse pressure.
Physiologically there are wide fluctuations in the blood pressure. Sleep, exercise, food, drink, psychic factors, etc., may alter the blood pressure gradually or suddenly. However, increase of pressure, unless pathological, is not maintained after the particular stimulus has ceased to act.
Undoubtedly the greatest blood pressure values are to be seen in cases of chronic interstitial nephritis where the systolic pressure reaches 270 mm. of mercury or even higher. Not all diseases of the kidney, however, cause increased blood pressure. It is frequently absent in the toxic nephritis cases and in those caused by certain of the infectious diseases. However, in primary acute Bright 's disease, which is probably infectious in character, and in the nephritis secondary to scarlet fever, there is practically always an increase in the arterial pressure. This rise may amount to fifty millimeters of mercury within forty-eight hours of the onset of the disease.
Certain forms of arteriosclerosis cause a permanent increase in blood pressure and are accompanied by heart hypertrophy. Such are especially cases of sclerosis of the first part of the aorta and extensive sclerosis of the splanchnic vessels. In uncomplicated arteriosclerosis, only a small proportion of patients show increased blood pressure. When the elasticity of the arteries is diminished, they ofi'er a greater resistance to dilating forces, but once having been dilated, they do
not so easily recover their original size. The rigidity of certain areas may be neutralized by dilatation of other areas. But the splanchnic arteries are of such paramount importance in the regulation of the peripheral resistance that disease in them renders it difficult or impossible for dilatation in other parts of the body to be sufficient to compensate for the splanchnic contraction. (Fig. VI).
Elliott recently in an interesting comparison of the blood pressure in pure arteriosclerosis and in chronic nephritis arrived at the following conclusions: (i) The ordinary clinical type of arteriosclerosis is not necessarily accompanied by high blood pressure; (2) Where high blood pressure is met with in arteriosclerosis, it points to the existence either of associated renal disease, or of sclerosis of the splanchnic vessels and of the aorta above the diaphragm — or both; (3) If we can exclude the renal disease (chronic), splanchnic or aortic sclerosis is to be suspected.
If it were not for the so-called tone of the whole vascular area the heart could not maintain the circulation. This tone is maintained by the contraction of the involuntary muscle
in the vessels. With the exception of the arteries of the brain and of the lungs, there are both vasoconstrictor and vasodilator fibres from the sympathetic nervous system to the smooth muscle fibres of the arteries. The splanchnic area is relatively poorly supplied with dilator fibres. The continuous constrictor impulses sent out from the sympathetic ganglia along the dorsal spine to the arteries keeps the vessels in a state of constriction sufficient to offer enough resistance to the blood flow to facilitate the work of the heart without placing, for any prolonged period, a great strain on it.
It is, therefore, conceivable that an increase in blood pressure may come about in two ways: (i) by stimulation of the constrictor centre (or centres?) ; (2) by direct action on the muscle cells in the arterial walls. It is believed that the active principle from the medulla of the adrenal gland, adrenalin, is responsible for the maintenance of the arterial tone. It has been found that at various places in the body there are collections of cells known as chromaffin cells, which apparently have an internal secretion analogous
to, if not the same as, the active principle of the adrenal gland. A group of these cells discovered in the heart, has been found to be much hypertrophied in a case of chronic interstitial nephritis accompanied with increased blood pressure and heart hypertrophy.
Clinically, we know that adrenalin causes a rise in the bloodpressure. Experimentally, as we shall discuss later, adrenalin not only is able to cause a rise in blood pressure but also a degeneration of the muscle layer with consequent production of lesions resembling to some extent those of arteriosclerosis in man.
While it must not be forgotten that, given an equal peripheral resistance, a rapid heart will cause the blood pressure to rise, nevertheless this condition usually does not last long. Practically all cases of permanent high tension are due to increase of the peripheral resistance.
PATHOLOGY.
The whole subject of the pathology of arteriosclerosis has been much enriched by the study of the experimental lesions produced by various drugs and micro-organisms upon the aortas of rabbits. Simple atheroma must not be confused with the lesions of arteriosclerosis. The small whitish or yellowish plaques so frequently seen on the aorta and its branches, may occur at any age, and have seemingly no great significance. Such places may grow to the size of a dime or more, and even become eroded. They represent fatty degeneration of the superficial endothelium that at times has no demonstrable cause, at times follows in the course of various diseases, and undoubtedly is due to disturbances of nutrition in the intima. Except for "the danger of clot formation on the uneven or eroded spot, these places are of no especial significance, and are not to be confused with the atheroma of nodular sclerosis.
The lesions of true arteriosclerosis are of a different character. It has been customary to differentiate three types, (i) the focal or nodular; (2) the diffuse; (3) the senile. It seems of no great value to make a separate division of the senile form but for convenience of description it will be done. The retrogressive changes of advancing years cannot be rightly termed disease, and the fact even that a man of forty years may have the hard arteries of a man of eighty may mean only that the tissue of the former was poor, the tubing wore out early. Our parents determine the kind of tissue that we shall have as our inheritance. The arteries are elastic tubes capable of much stretching and abuse. In the aorta and large branches there is much elastic tissue and little muscle. When the vessels reach the organs, they are found to be structurally changed in that there is in them a relatively small amount of elastic tissue but a great deal of smooth muscle. This is a provision of nature to increase or decrease the supply at any one point.
great changes in the capacity of the area. On the contrary, the feed pipes, the actual irrigators, must have some mechanism by which they may flood or curtail the supply of blood to the part. It is after all in the arterioles and smaller arteries, those with considerable muscle fibre that the lesions of arteriosclerosis do the most damage. A point to be emphasized is that the whole arterial system is rarely, if ever, attacked uniformly. That is, there may be a marked degree of sclerosis in the aorta and coronary arteries with very little, if any, change in the radials. On the contrary, a few peripheral arteries only may be the seat of disease. It is not possible to judge the state of the whole arterial system by the stage of the lesion in any one artery, but on the whole an undue thickening of the radial indicates analogous changes in the mesenteric artery and the aorta.
As the body ages, certain changes take place in the arteries leading to thickening and inelasticity of their walls. This is a normal change, and in estimating the palpable thickening of an artery, such as the radial, the age of the individual must always be considered.
Thayer and Fabyan in an examination of the radial artery from birth to old age found that in general the artery strengthens itself as more strain is thrown upon it, bynewelastica in the intima, and connective tissue in the media and adventitia. Up to the third decade there is only a strengthening of the media and adventitia. During the third and fourth decades there is also distinct connective tissue thickening in the intima. "In other words, the strain has begun to tell upon the vessel wall, and the yielding tube fortifies itself by the connective tissue thickening of the intima and to a lesser extent of the media. " By the fifth decade the connective tissue deposits in the intima are marked, there is an increase of fibrous tissue upon the medial side of the intima and, in lesser degree, throughout the media. The vessel can now be felt as a uniform tube. "Finally, in these sclerotic vessels, degenerative changes set in, which are somewhat different from those seen in the larger arteries, consisting as they do, of local areas of coagulation necrosis with calcification, especially marked in the deep layers of the connective tissue thickenings
These changes may go on to
actual bone formation." The mesenteric artery differs in some respects from the radial, but in the main the changes brought about by age are the same. Thayer and Fabyan note two striking points of difference: "(i) Calcification is apparently much less frequent than in the radials. (2) In several cases plaques were seen with fatty softening of the deeper layers of the intima and superficial proliferation — a picture which we have never seen in the radial."
In the aorta the elastic muscular intima thickens progressively with age. Scheel has made very careful measurements of the ascending, the thoracic and abdominal aorta, and the pulmonary artery. He found that from birth to 60 years the aorta became progressively wider and lost its elasticity. The pulmonary artery changed little if at all after 30-40 years and where before it was wider than the aorta, it now was found to be smaller. In chronic nephritis both were widened. The continuous increase of width and length of
the aorta stands in reverse relationship to the elasticity of its walls. This is the process that later leads to arteriosclerosis.
So far as the anatomical lesions in the aorta and branches are concerned there is much uniformity even though the etiological factors have been diverse. The only difference is one of extent. To Thoma we owe the first careful work on arteriosclerosis. He regarded the lesion in arteriosclerosis as one primarily situated in the media, a lack of resistance in this coat. A rupture here caused a local widening and consequently the blood could not be distributed evenly to the organ which the diseased artery or arteries supplied . Moreover, there was danger of a rupture at the weak spot unless this spot were strengthened and the lumen again made its former size. Nature's method of repair was a hypertrophy of the subintimal connective tissue and the formation of a nodule at that point. The thickening was compensatory, resulting in the establishment of the normal calibre of the vessel. Thoma showed that by injecting an aorta, the subject of such changes, with paraffin at a pressure of about i6omm.
Hg., these projections disappeared and the muscle bulged externally. He recognized the fact that the character of the arterychanged as the years passed, and to this form he gave the name primary arteriosclerosis. To the group of cases caused by various toxic agents, or following peripheral resistance and consequent high pressure, he gave the name secondary arteriosclerosis. This is a useful division. Even in the diffuse form one will not find lesions of the same grade everywhere. The sclerosis is scattered all over the system; indeed there may be parts that show no lesions whatever. Recently these experiments of Thoma have been repeated and results obtained which are not in accord with his findings. For example, Ophuls finds that stretching of an aorta that has not lost its elasticity will also smooth out the atheromatous plates and nodules, and, moreover, that careful examination of cross sections made through areas beneath the now flattened plates, fails to reveal any evidence of weakness or degeneration of muscle. He attempts to explain the discrepancy between his and Thoma 's results by supposing that Thoma examined
late stages of the process when the media was diseased; then it could not be told whether or not the lesions in the media were primary.
In syphilis there are very frequently yellowish-white, irregularly shaped plaques on the intima of the ascending aorta. These are slightly raised above the surface. A tendency to aneurysm formation is present and the aorta is always more or less dilated and has not its customary elasticity. Some have described a special form of mesaortitis due to syphilis, but the majority of pathologists believe that this is not possible. However, this question is not definitely settled, as small gummata have been found beneath the intima and the puckered appearance of the internal coat, that is sometimes seen, is suggestive of a syphilitic scar. Quite recently, Spirochetae pallidae have been found in the thickened intima of a patient who died from occlusion of the coronary artery. There was no definite history of syphilis but postmortem a scar was found on the prepuce.
In the nodular form of arteriosclerosis there are places on the aorta and its branches where, as a result of disease and consequent
stretching of the media, there follows a circumscribed dilatation of the vessel. This leads to local compensatory connective tissue growth. The two forms, nodular and diffuse, are more often found together.
The pathological changes vary much in their extent when portions of the same vessel or of different vessels are compared. Frequently, no change is visible from the outside, but again it is readily seen that at one or more spots the artery is widened or shows an irregular contour. On cross section no change in the lumen may be foimd, or it may show here and there places where it is widened. As a rule the diameter of the lumen becomes greater, and increases as the disease progresses. The stretching of the vessel wall is of a progressive character, and some have thought that the changes in the wall itself are in part due to the destruction of the vasa vasorum.
The changes in the nodular variety affect for the most part the aorta and primarily the ascending portion of the arch. Here there are yellowish or yellowish-white flat projections which are found more frequently
to be the seat of sclerosis.
When these spots represent the beginning of true arteriosclerosis there is already a lesion in the media and compensatory changes are going on, the purpose of which is to strengthen the vessel wall. As the process advances in the arteries these areas undergo molecular changes due probably to destructon of the vasa vasorum. A granular debris composed of fatty cells, degenerated cells and cholesterin crystals forms the so-called atheromatous abscess. Should the contents be discharged into the lumen of the vessel the atheromatous ulcer results. Beneath this the ingrowth of connective tissue from the media and adventitia is an attempt to mend the weak spot. Should there be no strengthening at such a point, there is great danger of aneurysmal dilatation.
Sclerosis of the radials of such an extent that these arteries are easily palpable, is a different disease from that of the sclerosis in the aorta. The difference may be due possibly to two factors, (i) the structural dif-
ference in the two vessels, and (2) the difference in the sudden strain put on each at every cardiac systole. In the radial artery it is usually the media that is diseased, the origin of the lesion is in the muscle cells, and the middle coat alone is damaged. The intima and adventitia are not essentially involved, but there is frequently thickening of the intima over the diseased media. In the wall of the vessel the changes that occur are fatty degeneration of the muscle cells and later of the elastic fibres, with subsequent deposits of lime salts in the diseased tissue . There may be calcification of the intima alone, but there is rarely a deposit of lime salts in the media without concomitant deposits in the intima. This gives the beaded character to the vessel. The vessel is perceptibly thinned at the sites of these areas and there result many small pouchings, the intima over these areas being much thickened. These are in reality true minute aneurysms, and when such an artery is held against the light it is seen to be transparent.
Fig. V. Cross section of a coronary artery, x50 showing nodular sclerosis. Note the heaping up of cells in the intima, the fracture of the elastica, and the destruction of the media beneath the nodule. The primary lesion apparently was in the media. The thickened intima is the effort on the part of nature to heal the breach. At such places as shown here aneurysms may form.
tima. The intimal thickenings may be entirely proUferative and represent chronic inflammatory production of new tissue. Changes in the media do not necessarily accompany such a lesion. There are some, however, who do not believe that in the aorta the primary lesion is in the intima.
The thickening of the media in the small arteries which is due to the proliferation of connective tissue beneath the endothelium, or to the proliferation of the endothelial cells themselves, may cause such narrowing that thrombosis is favored and a distortion of the vessel is apt to occur. However, the overgrowth alone seldom if ever is sufficient to close the lumen of a vessel. The total occlusion is brought about by a slowing of the blood current, and thrombosis which later becomes organized. Such places may become channeled and allow a certain amount of blood to pass along the thrombosed vessel. These conditions are known, the one as endarteritis deformans, the other as endarteritis obliterans.
jected into the circulation of animals, have enabled us in a way to judge of the early lesions of arteriosclerosis in the human arteries. Following the injection of small and repeated doses of adrenalin over a certain interval of time, changes occur in the arteries of rabbits that are arteriosclerotic in type, the essential lesion being a degeneration of the muscular and elastic tissue of the media, with the consequent production of aneiuysms in the vessel. This is analogous to the arteriosclerosis of the radial artery in man. The degenerations in the arteries after experimental lesions are of the nature of fatty metamorphosis, and later proceed to calcification. Adrenalin, barium chloride, digitalin, physostigmin, nicotine, and other substances have been found to exert a selective toxic action on the muscle cells of the middle coat of the aorta.* The most frequent site of disease in these experimental lesions is the thor-
* The infundibular portion of the pituitary body, the portion which is developed from the infundibulum of the brain, posseses an internal secretion which, injected intravenously, causes a marked rise of blood pressure and slowing of the heart beat. So far as I know this active principle of the gland has not been used to produce experimentally the lesions of arteriosclerosis.
acic aorta, and it is there that the most severe changes are seen. While the toxic action is felt in the vessels all over the body, the lesions are as a rule scattered and small. The thoracic aorta stands the brunt of the high pressure, and this combined with the toxic action of the drug or drugs, results in the formation of a fusiform aneurysmal dilatation which stops at the diaphragmatic opening. The aortic opening in the diaphragm seems to act as a flood gate, allowing only a certain amount of blood to flow through, and thus the abdominal aorta is protected to a great extent from the deleterious effects of increased pressure. Focal degenerative lesions are, however, found in the abdominal aorta.
Changes somewhat analogous to those found in the human aorta as the result of intimal proliferations, are produced in animals by the toxins of the typhoid bacillus and streptococcus. The changes caused by these toxins are proliferations of cells in the intima and subintimal tissues, and a breaking up of the internal elastic lamina into several parallel layers that stretch themselves between the
proliferating cells. The diphtheria toxin on the contrary produces a lesion more like that produced by adrenalin. All pathologists are not agreed as to whether these experimental lesions are truly arteriosclerotic or not; the general trend of opinion seems to be that sufficient work thus far has been done to afford strong support to Thoma's views.
The changes in the intima constitute the effort on the part of nature to repair a defect in the vessel wall which is to compensate for the weakened media and the widened lumen. This applies only to the diffuse type, not to the condition analogous to that produced by the toxin of the typhoid bacillus, for example.
When an artery loses its elasticity and begins to have connective tissue deposited in its walls, the pressure of the blood stretches the vessel now no longer capable of retracting when the pulse wave has passed, and in consequence the artery is actually lengthened. This necessarily causes a tortuosity of the vessel which can be easily seen in the temporals, brachials, radials, and other arteries just beneath the skin.
The exact mechanism of increase in blood pressure is not satisfactorily explained. With the exception of the vessels in the brain and lungs, the smaller arteries are supplied with vasoconstrictor and vasodilator nerve fibres from the sympathetic nervous system.- Normally when an organ is actively functioning the vessels are widely dilated and the flow of blood is rapid. Psychic influences of various kinds have a marked effect on vasomotor control of parts of the body.
It is conceivable that in one section of the body the vessels may be markedly contracted ; but if there is dilatation in some other part there will be no increased work on the part of the heart, and there need be no rise of blood pressure. The vascular system, while likened to a system of rubber tubes, must be thought of as a very live system, every subsystem having the property of separate control.
For blood tension to be raised all over the body there must be one of two causes ;either the blood must be more viscous, or the conditions over the body must favor the generalized contraction of a large capillary area. The
ence in the blood of some poisonous substance.
It must be borne in mind that the great splanchnic area is capable of holding all the blood in the body, and in respect of its liablity to arteriosclerosis, it is second only to the aorta and coronary arteries. The enormous area of the skin vessels could probably contain most of the blood. The fact that the blood is distributed over the body depends on the tone of the vasoconstrictor centre. The fact that the vessels in the splanchnic area are frequently attacked by sclerotic changes means as a rule increase of work for the heart. The resistance offered to the passage of the blood means that for the blood to travel at the same rate that it did before the resistance set in, more power must be expended in its propulsion. In other words, the heart must gradually become accustomed to the changed conditions and as a result of increased work the muscle hypertrophies.
In diffuse arteriosclerosis the heart is always hypertrophied. This is a result, not a cause of the condition. In the pure type, there is hypertrophy only of the left ventricle with-
Fig. VI. Cross section of a small artery in the mesentery. Note that vessel appears capable of being much widened. The internal elastic lamina is thrown into folds somewhat resembling the convolutions of the brain. Note also that the middle coat of the artery is composed almost entirely of muscle. The enormous numbers of such vessels in the mesentery and intestines explains the ability of the splanchnic area to accomodate the greater part of the blood in the body. Universal constriction of these vessels would naturally render the intestines anemic. The vasomotor control of these vessels plays an important role in the distribution of the blood. Small arteries in the skin and in other organs, except the brain and lungs, have a similar function. Highly magnified.
out dilatation of the chamber. The muscle fibres are increased in number and size, and there are frequently areas of fibrous myocarditis due to necrosis caused by insufficient nutrition of the muscle. In these cases the coronary arteries share in the generalized arteriosclerotic process. The openings of the arteries behind the semilunar valves may be very small. There is often thickening and puckering of the aortic valves and of the anterior leaflet of the mitral valves leading at times to actual insufficiency of these orifices. Later when the heart begins to weaken there is dilatation of the chambers and loud murmurs result, caused by the inability of the nondistensible valves to close the dilated orifices. Until the compensation is established, it is impossible to say whether or not true insufficiency is present.
In the so-called senile type of arteriosclerosis, a retrogressive change and not what is here called true arteriosclerosis, the arteries may be so lined with deposits of calcareous matter that they appear as pipe stems or they may be tortuous. They feel hard and absolutely nondistensible. At times,
no pulse wave can be felt. When the calcification is not so diffuse, the artery is beaded. The larger arteries such as the brachials and femorals are most affected. The walls become thinned and show cracks, and areas apparently, but not actually, denuded of intima. White thrombi may even be deposited on these areas and atheromatous ulcers are frequent in such arteries. The danger of an embolus plugging one of the smaller arteries is great, and should the thrombi be on the carotid arteries, hemiplegia may result from cerebral embolism. On microscopical examination of the arteries there is seen extreme degeneration of all the coats, the degeneration of the media leading almost to an obliteration of that coat. On seeing arteries such as these one wonders how the circulation could have been maintained, and the organs nourished. Senile atrophy of the liver and kidneys naturally goes hand in hand with such arterial changes.
There is as a rule no increase in arterial tension; on the contrary the pressure is apt to be low. This is readily understood when the heart is seen. This is small, the
muscle much thinned, flabby and of a brownish tint, the so-called "brown atrophy". Microscopically there is seen to be much fragmentation of the fibres with a marked increase in the brown pigment granules that surround the cell nuclei. Cases are seen, however, in which blood pressure increases as the patient grows older. The hearts in such cases are more or less hypertrophied and show extensive areas of fibroid myocarditis.
There are many cases of arteriosclerosis that lead to definite interference with the closure of the valves of the heart, particularly the mitral and aortic. It has been said above that puckerings of the valves frequently occur. This arteriosclerotic endocarditis at times leads to very definite heart lesions, chiefly mitral insufficiency and aortic insufficiency with murmurs of a stenotic character at the base. There is rarely true aortic stenosis, however. The murmur is caused by the passage of the blood over the roughened valves and into the dilated aorta. Aortic stenosis is one of the rarest of the valvular lesions, and should be diagnosed only when all factors, includng the typical pulse tracings, are taken into consideration.
The kidneys as a nile show extensive sclerosis. A very markedly contracted kidney from which the capsule strips with difficulty may be present, portions of the cortex of the kidney adhering to the capsule. This form is seen for the most part in chronic nephritis, where it may be impossible to say whether the renal or the heart condition was primary. Again, the kidneys may be increased in size, the capsules slightly adherent, the surfaces a little rough. Such organs frequently present atrophic depressed areas, deep red in color. In both types of kidney the consistence is much increased. On microscopical examination, there is widespread deposit of fibrous tissue throughout the organ. Many of the glomeruli are represented only by empty spaces ; those which are seen are small and con^ tain much increased fibrous tissue. The new tissue surrounds the tubules; these are compressed and the tubule cells are atrophied, and the arteries show the changes described within.
Arteriosclerosis of the pulmonary ARTERIES is an exceedingly rare affection and may occur independently of disease of the
greater circulation. The cases in the Hterature (four in number) were characterized by wide-spread thickening of the pulmonary arteries with marked hypertrophy of the right ventricle. In two of the cases, no changes in the bronchial arteries or in the pulmonary veins were demonstrable. Three of the cases occurred in persons younger than thirty five years.
ROSiS — not infrequently occurs with arteriosclerosis. It is seen in those cases characterized by increased blood pressure. Such increased pressure in the veins is due for example to cirrhosis of the liver which affects the portal circulation, or to mitral stenosis which affects the pulmonary veins. The affected vessels are usually dilated. The intima shows compensatory thickening especially where the media is thinned. Occasionally hyaline degeneration or calcification of the new-formed tissue is seen. "Without existing arteriosclerosis the peripheral veins may be sclerotic, usually in conditions of debility, but not infrequently in young persons" (Osier).
In many cases of arteriosclerosis, the pathological changes are not confined to the arteries but are found in the veins as well as in the capillaries. Such cases could be called angiosclerosis.
The causes of arteriosclerosis are many and varied. No two of us have the same resisting power towards poisons that circulate in the blood. Some go through life exposed to all the infectious diseases without ever becoming infected, while others fall easy victims to every disease that comes no matter how careful they may be, and it is quite the same in regard to the resistance of the arterial tissues. If the tubing is of first class quality and the individual does not place too much strain on it, he may live to the Biblical three-score years and ten, and possess arteries that have undergone such slight changes that they are not palpable. Such a person is, however, the exception. On the other hand if the tissue is of poor quality, even the ordinary wear and tear of living causes early changes in the vessels, and a person of forty may have hard arteries.
abnormal for a boy of fifteen.
Two broad divisions of arteriosclerosis may be made: (i) Congenital, or the result of inherited tendency ; (2) Acquired. Of these, the acquired group is by far the larger and more important.
CoNGENiTAiv FORM — ^When Dr. O. W. Holmes was asked how to live to the age of seventy, he replied that a man should begin to pick his ancestors one hundred years before he was bom. Our parents determine the character of the tissues with which we start in life and this determines our general resistance. We might properly speak of congenital arteriosclerosis where the affected individual had poor arterial tissue with which to begin life, for that, in a sense, is a congenital defect, and arterial tissue that is bad is prone to disease.
Arteriosclerosis may occur in infants. Cases have been reported of calcification of the arteries in infants and children. The arteriosclerosis may occur without nephritis or rise of blood pressmre. Cerebral hemorrhage in a child of two years has been seen. Heredity
Etiology 43
in these cases plays a most important role. In many of the reported cases there was no question of congenital syphilis. Aneurysms, single or multiple, have been found in the arteries of children, and even the pulmonary artery may show sclerotic canges.
Acquired form — ^AU the cases that are usually seen belong in this group. The cases of the previous group are very rare and clinically are not of very great importance.
Hypertension holds first place as a cause of arteriosclerosis. With every systole of the heart, blood is forced out into the arterial system against a certain amount of resistance represented by the tonicity of the capillary area, and the amount of cohesion between the viscous blood and the walls of the arterioles. When a dilatation of the capillaries over any large area takes place, the blood pressure falls, providing there is no compensatory contraction in other areas to make up for the decreased resistance in the dilated vessels. The viscosity of the blood, as such, probably has very little effect on the resistance to the flow. With the systole of the heart there is a sudden dilatation of the
arch of the aorta, and a wave of expansion follows, which is transmitted to the periphery and is lost only in the capillaries.
The blood pressure is constantly changing. Physiologically there are relatively wide variations in the pressure in a perfectly normal individual. There are some persons who have hypotension, a blood pressure much below the normal. Many diseases, especially the prolonged fevers, diminish markedly the blood presstue. Whether the hypertension is the cause of the structural changes that are found in the walls of the vessels, or is the result of the diminished area of the arterial tree through which the same amount of blood has to be driven as before the vessel walls became narrowed, is still disputed. As has been stated, experimental evidence would tend to place the initial blame upon the poisons circulating in the blood, which first damage the vessel walls. The subsequent changes then produce thickening and inelasticity. Some think (AUbutt) that the hypertension is primary. There are cases seen clinically
that lend support to this view. Not infrequently individuals in middle life begin to show increase of arterial blood pressure without discoverable cause. It is probable, however, that such cases are those of beginning nephritis where the urine is perfectly normal, as far as chemical examination reveals, but the circulation of some poison in the blood causes a rise of pressure. This is a very interesting group of cases, and more will be said about it later.
No age is exempt from the lesions of arteriosclerosis if we consider the two groupsHowever, the disease is seen for the most part in persons past middle life. The relative frequency with which it is found in the different decades depends on so many factors that it is of no value to tabulate them. As has been stated, arteriosclerosis of all types is an involution process that advances with age. Longevity is a question of the integrity of the arterial tissue, and no one can tell what sort of "vital rubber" (Osier) anyone of us has. However, many with poor tubing may make such use of it that it will outlast good tubing that is badly treated. Unfortunately we
Sex. There Is no doubt that men are far more prone to arterial disease than women are. This is explained by the greater exposure of men to those conditions of life which tend to produce high tension, and so to produce arteriosclerosis, or vice versa. Arteriosclerosis in women is not often seen until after the fiftieth year. Cases of the most extreme grade of pipe stem arteries are, however, seen in old women, and calcified arteries are not hard to find among the inmates of an old woman's home.
Race. The most beautiful examples of arteriosclerosis in this country are seen in the negro. Not only is this disease more frequent in the black race, but the age of onset is much earlier than in the Caucasian. The accidents of arteriosclerosis, viz. aneurysm, cerebral hemorrhage, etc., are more common among the negro males. The etiological factors that are most often found in the history are the prevalence of syphilis and hard physical labor.
Occupation. Certain occupations have a distinct causal relationship to arteriosclerosis; among such are particularly those entailing prolonged muscular exercise, especially if much lifting is necessary. Everyone is familiar with the phenomena accompanying the exertion of lifting. The breath is drawn in, the glottis is closed, and the muscles of the chest wall are held rigidly while the exertion lasts. This causes a great increase in blood pressure, and constant repetition of this will produce permanent high tension. In hospitals, the stevedores as a class have marked arteriosclerosis, and, almost without exception, they are comparatively young men. Occupations that are accompanied with prolonged mental strain, such as now occur to the heads of large manufacturing and financial institutions, also predispose to early arterial changes. Psychic activity, especially when it is accompanied by worry, is a potent factor in the production of the increased blood pressure which is the chief factor in producing arterial disease. There are, however, men who seem not to be harmed by the constant
the exceptions.
Workers in factories where paint is made and the ingredients hand mixed, are prone to develop arteriosclerosis early in life. It has been found that the laborers most apt to be victims of lead intoxication are those who are careless in their habits of cleanliness, particularly in regard to the fingernails. The continuous absorption of lead into the system, brings about a condition of hypertension that has its inevitable results.
The fact is that any occupation which entails either the absorption of toxic substances, or prolonged muscular labor, will hasten markedly the onset of arterial disease.
Infectious diseases. As more study has been given to the arteries in persons who have died of the acute infectious diseases, more has come to light concerning the effects of the toxins of these diseases on the vessel walls. In the arteries of children who have died of measles, scarlet fever, diphtheria, cerebrospinal meningitis, etc. , degenerative changes in the arteries occur, modified only by the length of time that the toxins have acted.
Clinically the
typhoid toxin appears to cause the early production of arteriosclerosis. The changes in the arteries occur for the most part, and always earlier, in the peripheral arteries, and the media is chiefly affected. Minute yellowish patches are foimd on the aorta, carotids, and coronaries . In persons who have passed through an attack of one of the fevers, and have later died from some other cause, regenerative changes are sometimes found to have taken place in the arteries, consisting of an ingrowth of elastic fibres from the intact adventitia to the diseased media.
Syphilis. This is one of the most important of the etiological factors in the production of arteriosclerosis. Acute aortitis affecting the ascending and transverse portions of the arch of the aorta is very commonly seen, and the irregular, scattered, slightly raised, yellowish- white patches of sclerosis in
the arch which are found years after the syphilitic lesion, are considered by some to be very characteristic of syphilis. A mesaortitis also occurs that is frequently a locus minoris resistentiae where an aneurysm forms. In fact, it is claimed (Osier) that all aneurysms occurring in persons under thirty years of age are due to syphilitic aortitis. In the late stages of syphilis the arterial lesions may be of a diffuse character.
Chronic drug intoxications. Lead, tobacco, and according to some, tea and coffee, are to be classed as causal factors in the production of arteriosclerosis. Certain it is that all these substances have a tendency to raise the arterial pressure, but whether the drug itself causes first a degeneration, and later hypertension results, or vice versa, is not yet positively known. We have just mentioned that lead particularly has a marked effect in producing arterial lesions. Other drugs as adrenalici, barium chloride, physostigmin, etc., while producing experimental arteriosclerosis, hardly could produce the disease in man. Alcohol has been blamed or much, and as an etiological factor in the
production of arteriosclerosis formerly was accorded a first place. More recently much doubt has been thrown on this supposition by the work of Cabot, who showed that the mere drinking of even large quantities of spirits had no effect in producing arterial disease. Nevertheless it is maintained by most clinicians that alcohol is one of the most common causes of arterial disease, and with this opinion we agree. Just what role tobacco plays is difficult to say. My own opinion is, that of itself when used in moderation, it has no ill effects. However as tobacco is a drug that raises markedly the blood pressure, excessive use must be held responsible for the production of arteriosclerosis. It is difficult to separate its effects from those produced by eating and drinking.
OvER-EATiNG. There can be no doubt but that the constant overloading of the stomach with rich or difficultly digestible food, is responsible for a large number of cases of arteriosclerosis. Everyone must have noted the increase in force and volume of the heart beat after the ingestion of a large meal. The constant repetition of such processes con-
ceivably can lead to damage to the vessel walls through hypertension. In how far the toxins absorbed from the intestinal tract are responsible for the arterial disease, it is not possible to say. However, they probably do play a certain etiological role, it may be the whole role.
]\IentaIv strain. Worry kills more people than work. The high pressure under which so many of our people now work is responsible for a not inconsiderable number of cases of arteriosclerosis. The activities of the modem life with its multitude of cares and worries bring many a young head to the grave.
Muscular overwork. This is to be reckoned with as an etiological factor. One sees it especially among the laboring class in both whites and negroes. Possibly other factors as alcohol and coarse heavy food contribute to the early arterial degeneration. Hypertrophy of the heart occurs in athletes, and statistics gathered among the oarsmen especially, show a relatively high mortality at the different decades traceable to the high tension produced while in training. This
has been accorded it.
RENaIv disease. Chronic disease of the kidneys is one of the surest producers of increased tension; in fact, some see in high tension, even without demonstrable kidney lesions, the earliest sign of a chronic progressive nephritis. There are many, however, who hold that there may be exceedingly high blood pressures without kidney disease. It is possible to divide the cases into two groups that we may call, (i) primary, (2) secondary. By the primary renal disease is meant the group of cases where the kidney disease undoubtedly antedates, by a shorter or longer time, the development of the arteriosclerosis ; in other words the arterial disease appears to be caused by the kidney disease.
By the secondary renal disease is meant the group of cases, possibly a small group, where the arterial disease leads to the formation of the kidney lesions. Where the first group occurs for the most part in comparatively young persons, the second group is the result of involuntionary processes due to advanced age.
We have learned that however careful analysis of the urine may be, we can not be sure of the pathological state of the kidney which secretes the urine. Too often so-called normal urine will be secreted by a badly diseased kidney, whereas a urine which contains considerable albumen and many casts may be secreted b}'' a kidney almost perfectly healthy, the lesions being only of a transient and trivial nature.
Too much must not be expected of any one special method of examination; the whole individual must be viewed from every standpoint.
SYMPTOMS AND PHYSICAI. SIGNS.
Gknerai^ — As involution processes are physiological, as has been described (vide infra) , arteriosclerosis may assume an advanced grade and run its course devoid of symptoms referable to diseased arteries. It is doubtful if the sclerosis itself could produce symptoms, except in cases later to be described, were it not that the organs supplied by the diseased arteries suffer from an insufficient blood supply and the symptoms then become a part of the symptom complex of any or all the affected organs.
There are cases, however, in comparatively young persons where a combination of certain ill-defined symptoms gives a clue to the underlying pathological processes. These symptoms of early arteriosclerosis are the result of slight and variable disturbances in the circulation of the various organs. Normally there are frequent changes in the blood pressure in the organs but the vasomotor control of normal elastic vessels is so perfect
that no symptoms are noted by the individual. When the arteries are sclerosed, they are less elastic and the blood supply is, therefore, less easily regulated. At times symptoms occur only after effort. The patient may tire more readily than he should for a given amount of mental or bodily exercise; he is weary and depressed, and occasionally there is noted an unusual intolerance of alcohol or tobacco. Vertigo is common especially on rising in the morning or in suddenly changing from a sitting to a standing position. There may be dull headache that the accurate fitting of glasses does not alleviate. Unusual irritability or somnolency with a disinclination to commence a new task may be present. Sometimes the effort of concentrating the attention is sufficient to increase the headache. This has been called "the sign of the painful thought". Numbness and tingling in the hands, feet, arms, or legs are also complained of, and neuralgias, not following the course of the nerves but of the arteries, also occur. It is important to remember that the train of symptoms resembling neurasthenia in a person over forty-five
years old may be incipient arteriosclerosis. This tardy neurasthenia frequently accompanies cancer, tuberculosis, diabetes and incipient general paralysis, as well as incipient arteriosclerosis.
Bleeding from the nose, epistaxis, taking place frequently in a middle-aged person, sometimes is an early symptom. The bleeding may be profuse but is rarely so large as to be positively harmful. In fact, it may do much good in relieving tension. Slight oedema of the ankles and legs is seen. Dyspnoea on slight exertion is not uncommon. Dyspeptic symptoms are not infrequent, pyrosis (heartburn) , a feeling of fulness after meals with belching or a feeling of weight in the epigastrium. The dyspeptic symptoms may be so marked that one might almost speak of a variety of arteriosclerosis, the dyspeptic type. For quite a while before any symptoms that woulddefinitely fixthecaseas one of undoubted arteriosclerosis, the patient complains that foods which previously were digested with no difficulty now give him gastric distress. The examination of the stomach contents of a patient presenting gastric symp-
toms reveals usually a subacidity. The total acidity measured after the Ewald test meal may be only 20 and the free HCl may be absent. Attention has been called to an unnatural pallor of the face in early arteriosclerosis. Progressive emaciation is sometimes seen in cases of arteriosclerosis and may be the only symptom of which the patient complains.
Hypertension — Not all cases of arteriosclerosis are accompanied by increased arterial tension. As has been stated in a previous chapter, the blood pressure in the arterial system depends chiefly on two factors, viz.; the degree of peripheral (capillary) resistance and the force of the ventricular contraction. The highest arterial pressures recorded with the sphygmomanometer occur not in pure arteriosclerosis but in cases where there is concomitant chronic interstitial disease of the kidneys. When this is found there is always arteriosclerosis more or less marked. In cases where the arteries are so sclerosed that they feel like pipe stems there may be an actual decrease in the blood pressure. Hence the clinical measuring of the
Fig. VII. Enormous hypertrophy of left ventricle due to prolonged increased peripheral resistance. Note that the whole anterior surface of the heart is occupied by the left ventricle. The right ventricle does not appear to be much affected. A case of chronic nephritis. One-half normal size.
pressure in the brachial artery alone is not sufficient for a diagnosis of arteriosclerosis. A persistent high blood pressure even with normal urinary findings is not a sign of arteriosclerosis but of incipient chronic nephritis. The high tension later will lead to the production of sclerosis of the arteries but in these cases the kidney is primarily at fault.
The heart — When the arterial tree becomes narrowed and the resistance offered to the flow of blood thereby is increased, more muscular work is required of the left ventricle and according to the general laws which govern muscles the ventricle hypertrophies. There is an actual increase in number of fibres as well as an increase in the size of the individual fibres. Some of the best examples of simple hypertrophy of the left ventricle are found under such circumstances. The chambers as a rule do not dilate until the resistance becomes greater than the contraction can overcome, when symptoms of broken compensation of the heart take place. The hypertrophy of the left ventricle brings more of this portion of the heart towards the anterior chest wall. The enlargement
is towards the left also, consequently the apex beat is found below and to the left of its usual site, even an inch or more beyond the nipple line. The impulse is heaving, pushing the palpating hand forcibly up from the chest wall. The visible area of pulsation may occupy three interspaces and the precordium is seen to heave with every systole. On auscultation the second sound at the aortic cartilage is ringing, clear, and accentuated. Not infrequently, too, the first sound is loud and booming but has a curious muffled sound that may even be of a murmurish quality. The leaflets of the mitral valve may be the seat of sclerosis, the edges slightly thickened and not quite approximating causing a definite murmur with every systole. This murmur may be transmitted out into the axilla and heard at the inferior angle of the left scapula.
PalpabIvE Arteries — Not every artery that can be felt is the subject of arteriosclerosis, and, as has been stated, palpable arteries being more or less a condition of advancing years, judgment as to whether the artery is pathologically or physiologically thickened
may be a matter of individual opinion. A radial artery that lies close to the lower end of the radius and can actually be seen to pulsate when the hand is held slightly extended on the back of the wrist, is easily felt but must not, therefore, be considered a sclerosed artery. The radial may be so deeply situated in the wrist of a fat subject that it is difficultly palpable. Yet the two cases just described may have arteries of identical structure, there being no more retrogressive changes in the one than in the other. "Experience is fallacious and judgment difficult".
There is also a right way and a wrong way to palpate the artery, the radial for example. No accurate data can ever be obtained by feeling the artery with one hand. The small, contracted, wiry artery of a chronic nephritic may feel like a pipe stem, but if properly felt the mistake will not be made of considering such an artery an unusually sclerosed one.
To palpate the radial artery, both hands are used. With the middle finger of the right (left) hand the artery is compressed peripherally, that is, nearest the wrist. The blood is then pressed out of the artery with
the middle finger of the left (right) hand, so as to obliterate completely the pulse wave and the two or three inches between the middle fingers are felt with the index fingers. By holding the finger firmly on the artery near the wrist so as to block any wave that may come through the palmar arch by anastomosis with the ulnar artery and by releasing pressure on the proximal middle finger, some idea may be had of the degree of pulse tension. However, no amount of practice can more than approximate the tension and when one is surest that he can tell how many miUimeters of pressure there is, he is apt to be farthest wrong when he checks his guess with the sphygmomanometer.
Much may be learned from carefully palpating the peripheral arteries, and, as a rule, the sclerosis of these arteries means general arteriosclerosis although there are many exceptions to this.
Ocular symptoms — ^These are important but are as a rule not found because not looked for. Not every practitioner is skilled in the use of the ophthalmoscope. Frequently, the disease is recognized first by the ophthal-
mologist. In general, the symptoms are gradual loss of acute vision, and attacks of transient loss of vision. The explanation which has been offered for these phenomena is the contraction in a diseased central artery. In the fundus are seen increased tortuosity of the retinal vessels and their terminal twigs with more or less bending of the vessels at their crossings. The arteries are terminal ones and small patches of retinitis are therefore found. The changes have been divided into (i) Suggestive, (2) Pathognomonic.
teries.
Moreover, there is the arcus senilis, the fine translucent to opaque circle surrounding the outer portion of the iris. Practically every one with a well marked arcus senilis has arteriosclerosis, but vice versa not every one with even marked arteriosclerosis has an arcus senilis.
Nervous symptoms — The onset of arteriosclerosis is, in the majority of cases, so insidious that certain nervous manifestations due in all probability to disturbances in blood pressure, are present long before the actual sclerosis of the arteries can be felt. These nervous symptoms are at times the sign posts to show us the way to the accurate diagnosis. There may be gradual increase in irritability of temper, inability to sleep, vertigo even extending to transient attacks of unconsciousness. Loss of memory for details and
nervous indigestion may be present. Various paresthesias as numbness, tingling, a sense of coldness or of heat or burning, a sense of stiffness or even actual stiffness or weakness may occur in the arms and legs, more frequently in the legs. The pain complained of may be due to occlusion of an artery, although evidence for this is lacking. It has been thought by some that the pain in angina pectoris might be due to this cause.
Several curious and interesting diseases which have been thought by some to have arteriosclerosis as a basis are accompanied by pain. Such are erythromelalgia, Raynaud's disease, "dead fingers", and intermittent claudication.
There is a group of cases that is characterized by a period of prolonged low fever, the fever never rising as a rule above 100.5 degrees F. to 1 01 degrees F., but lasting for weeks and even months. Except for a feeling of malaise, slight headache, and possibly slight dyspnoea on exertion, the patient seems to be fairly well. When after careful observation and elimination of all the common causes of prolonged fever, including syphilis
and tuberculosis, one is at a loss to know what the disease is, there may be a possibility that subacute arteriosclerosis may be the cause of the symptoms. There are times when the disease may progress very rapidly. Cases are seen in which the peripheral arteries become hard and stiff a short two years from the onset.
"Well developed arteriosclerosis shows foiu: pathognomonic signs: (i) Hypertrophy of the heart, (2) Accentuation of the aortic second sound, (3) Palpable thickening of the arteries, and (4) Heightened blood pressure. However, it must not be inferred that these signs must be present in order to diagnose arteriosclerosis. It has already been said that a very marked degree of thickening with even calcification of the palpable arteries may occiu" with absolutely no increase of blood pressure, and at autopsy a small flabby heart may be found.
In this connection, the classification of Prof. T. Clifford Allbutt is worthy of extended notice. He divides the causes of arteriosclerosis clinically into three classes: i. The toxic class — the results of poisons of the
most part of extrinsic origin, chiefly those of certain infections. In some of these diseases, the blood pressures, as for example, in syphilis, are ordinarily unaffected; in others, as in lead poisoning, they are raised.
2. The class he calls hyperpietic,* in which an arteriosclerosis is the consequence of tensile strength, of excessive arterial blood pressure persisting for some years. A considerable example of this class is the arteriosclerosis of granular kidney, but in many cases kidney disease is, clinically speaking, absent.
3. The involutionary class, in which the change depends upon a senile, or quasisenile degradation. This may be no more than wear and tear, a disposition of all or of certain tissues to premature failure — partly atrophic, partly mechanical — under ordinary stresses; or it also may be toxic, a slow poisoning by the "faltering rheums of age". In ordinary cases of this class the blood pressures for the age of the patient, are not excessive. Although the toxins of the specific fevers, notably typhoid, as stated above, and
influenza, have been shown to produce arteriosclerosis, this, under, favorable circumstances he believes tends to disappear. This has been shown by Wiesel (v. infra).
As the blood pressure is dependent on the resistance offered by the capillaries and arterioles, there are only two ways in which increased presstue can be brought about ; either by rendering the blood more viscous, or by the generation of some poison from the food taken into the body which, acting on the vasomotor centre, or directly on the finer vessels, arteriolar or capillary, sets up a constriction over any large area, and mainly in the splanchnic area. In regard to the liability to arteriosclerosis, this area stands second only to the aortic and coronary areas. He believes that arteriosclerosis itself has little effect in raising arterial pressure. Many cases are seen in which with extreme arteriosclerosis there was no rise in blood pressure, and some in which pressures have been rising even long before the appearance of arterial disease. Prof. Allbutt also believes that in the hyperpietic cases the arteries undergo a transient
ses can be reached and overcome.
CHnically speaking, then, hyperpietic arteriosclerosis is not a disease but a mechanical result of disease. If the narrowing of the arterioles is brought about by thickening due to arteriosclerosis, then it would seem a priori that such obliteration should cause a rise in pressure. Were the vascular system a mere mechanical set of tubes and a pump, this would happen, but other factors of great importance must be taken into consideration besides, the mechanical factors, viz:; chemical and biological factors. Thus, whole parts may be closed and with compensatory dilatation in other parts there would be little or no change in pressure, unless there were hyperpiesis. In established hyperpiesis, we note two conditions in the radial artery, first a comparatively straight vessel with a small diameter; secondly, a larger, more tortuous vessel, "the large leathery artery." In the cases of the first group, hyperpiesis is often more marked, although not appearing so to the examining finger, than in the second class . In view of the difficulty of estimating by
touch alone the amount of hyperpiesis in a contracted hard artery, it is often overlooked until a ruptured vessel in the brain startles us to a realization of our mistake. The "narrow" artery is more dangerous than the tortuous one, for with every change in pressure the passive vessels of the brain must receive blood that under normal conditions would go to other parts of the circulation.
In involutionary sclerosis there is a gradual thickening and tortuosity of the vessel, which, although it may be greater than in the hyperpietic cases, yet is never so dangerous to life. The heart in hyperpiesis hypertrophies and dilates, but such a heart is the result, not an integral part, of the arterial disease.
Although arteriosclerosis is a disease which affects the whole arterial system, it nevertheless never reaches the same grade all over the body. The difference in the structure and functions of the various organs determines to great extent the eventual symptomatology. Endarteritis obliterans of a small sized artery in the liver or leg would lead to no marked symptoms as the circulation is so rich that the anastomoses of the blood vessels would soon establish a collateral circulation that would be perfectly competent to sustain the function of the part. Quite different would it be should one of the small arteries of the brain, the lenticulo-striate, for example, which supplies the corpus striatum, become the seat of a thrombosis or embolism caused by arteriosclerosis. The arteries of the brain are terminal arteries and the blood supply would be cut off entirely with a resulting anemic necrosis of the part supplied
by the artery and a loss of function of the part. What would be of no moment in the leg or arm, might prove even fatal in the brain.
The further symptomatology, therefore, of arteriosclerosis depends entirely on the organ or organs most affected by the interference with the blood supply. The following groups may be recognized:
(i) Cardiac — Most cases of arteriosclerosis sooner or later present symptoms referable to the heart. When the organ is hypertrophied and is already working against an enormous peripheral resistance a slight excess of work put upon it may cause a dilatation of the chambers with the resulting broken compensation. There is dyspnoea on slight exertion, possibly some precordial distress, slight oedema of the ankles and lower legs and possibly scanty urine. With proper care,
such a patient may recover but the danger of another break in compensation is enhanced. The next attack is more severe. The oedema is greater, there may be signs of oedema of the lungs, effusions into the serous cavities may occur. The heart shows marked dilatation. There is gallop or canter rhythm and there are loud murmurs at the apex. When a patient is first seen in this stage it may be quite impossible to state whether or not there is true valvular disease of the heart. The muscle is usually diseased in that there is fibroid degeneration of more or less extensive character. This factor causes the heart to lose much of its elasticity and increases the tendency to permanent dilatation. Such cases must be watched before one can say that true valvular insufficiency is not present. The fatal termination of such a case is quite like that of true valvular disease. There is increasing dyspnoea, increasing anasarca, and the patient usually succumbs to oedema of the lungs, drowned in his own secretions-
A very rare complication of the fibroid degeneration of the heart muscle is aneurysm of the heart wall. The apex of the left ven-
tricle is most commonly the site of the aneurysm and rupture occasionally occurs. Such an accident is rapidly fatal. In the arteriosclerotic process which occurs at the root of the aorta, the coronary arteries become involved both at the openings and along the courses of the vessels. A branch or branches or even one artery may become blocked as a result of obliterating endarteritis. The arteries of the heart are terminal vessels and as a rule blocking of them leads to anemic infarcts. These areas become replaced by fibrous tissue which in the gross specimen appears as streaks of whitish or yellowish color in the musculature. Anemic infarcts may not occur. If such is the case, there must be either abnormal anastomotic communications between the otherwise terminal vessels, or the circulation is maintained by means of the vessels of Thebesius. Through arteriosclerosis of the coronary vessels extensive fibrous changes may occur that lead to a myocarditis with its attending symptoms— dyspnoea, irregular and intermittent heart, gallop rhythm, oedema, etc. One of the most distressing and dangerous results
Fig. VIII. Aortic incompetence with hypertrophy and dilatation of left ventricle the result of arteriosclerosis afifecting the aortic valves. Note how the valves have been curled, thickened, and shortened, the edges of the valves being a half an inch below the upper points of attachment. The anterior coronary artery is shown, the lumen somewhat narrowed. One-quarter size.
of sclerosis of the coronary arteries and of the root of the aorta is angina pectoris. While in almost every case of angina pectoris there is disease of the coronary arteries, the contrary does not hold true, for most extensive disease, even embolism, of the arteries is frequently found in persons who never suffered any attacks of pain. This symptom group is more common in males than in females and as a rule occurs only in adult life. "In men under thirty-five syphilitic aortitis is an important factor." (Osier).
Since the valuable experiments of Erlanger on Heart Block, considerable attention has been paid to lesions of the Y-shaped bundle of fibres, a bundle arising at the venous orifices in the right auricle and extending to the two ventricles, known also as the auriculoventricular bundle of His. Interference with the transmission of impulses through this bundle gives rise to the symptom group known as the Stokes- Adams syndrome,* which
* The bundle of His has been found to be the pathway through which the impulses, that stimulate the heart muscle to contract, reach the ventricles. The mechanism briefly is this. Impulses apparently have their origin at the openings of the inferior and superior cava in the right
is characterized by (a) slow pulse, (b) cerebral attacks, — vertigo, syncope, transient apoplectiform and epileptiform seizures, (c) visible auricular impulses in the veins of the neck. Many of the cases which occur are in elderly people the subjects of arteriosclerosis.
auricle. Contraction of the heart,as shown by cardiogram s and cardioplethysmographs, moves in a wave towards the ventricles. Normally there seem to be several stimuli originating at the venous orifices, all of which,however, do not reach the ventricles. There is, moreover, a definite ratio between the number of stimuli and the actual number of ventricular contractions. These may be 4:1, 3:1, 2:1, 1:1. Thus it is clear that there may be 4, 3, 2, 1 auricular contractions to one ventricular contraction. Now by experimentally compressing the heart of the dog at the auriculo-ventricular ring by means of a special clamp there is marked disturbance in the relation of the auricular and ventricular contractions. This blocking of impulses may be carried on to the extent that the auricles and ventricles beat absolutely independently of one another. Slight blocking may give extra systolic beats heard at the heart but not felt in the pulse.
In Stokes-Adams syndrome we find that lesions of the bundle of His give us much the same phenomena as we can experimentally produce on animals by actual compression of the bundle.
Those interested in further information may find it by consulting articles by Erlanger, Dawson, Hirschfelder, Hev,'lett, etc., in Jour. Exper. Med., Brit. Med. Jour., Am. Jour. Med. Sc, Jour. Amer. Med. Assoc, Johns Hopkins Hospital Bulletin, etc. All the literature is contained in articles written during the past four years.
There is disease of the bunde of His (auriculo-ventricular bundle) in cases recently carefully examined. G. C. Robinson in a collection of i6 cases found most of them due to gummatous lesions of the bundle, some however, were arteriosclerotic in type. The condition is most interesting and careful autopsies should be made on all those dying with symptoms of Stokes- Adams disease.
Renal — There are those who see in increased arterial tension renal disease alM'^ays manifest or latent. While it is a valuable observation that persistent high tension is very frequently the warning sign of a beginning chronic nephritis, one cannot say that such is always the case. We frequently see elderly patients in whom there is high tension and some arteriosclerosis of the palpable arteries, but in whose urines repeated examinations fail to reveal the slightest evidence of renal disease. Such kidneys are small and granular, to be sure; they are known as the senile kidney. The connective tissue is increased and there is also throughout the body, evidence of senile atrophy. Such kidneys connot strictly be said to be diseased even
though they may appear much hke the kidneys of much younger persons who have died from definite chronic nephritis. However, in a large number of cases of arteriosclerosis renal symptoms appear. There is oedema of the ankles and legs, puffiness of the eyelids, anemia, etc. There may be uremic amauroris, uremic convulsions, or symptoms of mild uremia, such as headache, transient attacks of blindness, dizziness, vertigo, etc. It is not possible always in a given case to decide whether the arterial or the renal disease was the primary one. Clinically the question is not of such great importance, as the end results are practically the same whichever system was first involved, where symptoms of both put in their appearance.
AbdominaIv or Viscerai. — There is an important group of cases to which but little attention has been paid until quite recently. This is the abdominal or visceral type of arteriosclerosis. It has been stated that arteriosclerosis of the splanchnic vessels almost invariably causes high tension. Among others, Jane way has shown that general arteriosclerosis without marked disease of
nile increase of blood pressure.
There are cases in which the brunt of the lesion falls upon the abdominal vessels. Such cases have been called "Angina abdominalis". It has been suggested (Harlow Brooks) that this type of arteriosclerosis may be determined by constant overloading of the stomach with food, especially rich and spiced food. This causes overwork of the special arteries connected with digestion and so leads to sclerosis of the vessels of the stomach, pancreas, and intestines. Personal habits probably influence to great extent the production of this more or less localized condition.
The organs supplied by the diseased arteries suffer from changes analogous to those occuring in general or local malnutrition, such as starvation, old age, or local anemias. These changes are atrophy with hemachromatosis (brown atrophy) or fatty infiltration and degeneration. Following the degenerative changes there result connective tissue growth and further limitation of the functioning power of the affected organs.
Pain is a more or less constant symptom of visceral sclerosis. In the early stages there may be only a sense of oppression, of weight, or of actual pressure in the abdomen or pit of the stomach. There may be only recurring attacks of violent abdominal pain accompanied by vomiting. In some cases symptoms of tenderness in the epigastrium, pains in the stomach after eating, vomiting and backache may suggest gastric ulcer. There may be dyspnoea and a sense of anguish accompanied with a rapid and feeble pulse. Hematemesis may make the symptom group even more like ulcer of the stomach, and only the course of the disease with the failure of rigid ulcer treatment and the substitution of treatment directed towards relief of the arterial spasm with resulting betterment, enables one to make a diagnosis. The condition may be present for years and the symptoms only epigastric tenderness with dizziness and sweating on lying down after dinner, as in one of Perutz's patients. The attacks are probably due to spasmodic contraction of the sclerosed intestinal vessels with a resulting local rise in blood pressure. The pains
mesenteric plexuses.
This result of arteriosclerosis is not so uncommon, and by keeping this cause of obscure abdominal pain in mind we are now and then enabled to save a patient from operation.
angina pectoris gastralgica.
Iv. G. 47 years old, married, letter carrier, adm. June 12, 1902. The patient had had malaria. At 30 and 40 yrs. he had ischias; suffered much from eructations and when 42 had catarrh of the stomach, which was the beginning of his present illness, and for which he underwent a rigid diet and Carlsbad water cure.
On admission, he complained that when he returned home after work, he suddenly experienced a burning and a feeling of oppression in the stomach, he could not breathe freely, but during the pain had to remain standing and take short, quick breaths. Such an attack lasted about a minute, then he could go on. This sort of
attack was repeated every 8 to 14 days. In summer, he had fewer attacks, in fall they became more frequent and especially frequent and severe in winter. Between attacks he felt quite well, could eat anything, had no eructations, no vomiting. Recently the attacks had become more frequent and more severe. Milder attacks began with a drawing pain in the pit of the stomach and a feeling of fulness in the stomach. As soon as the attack ceased there was some belching and then relief was felt. When the attack came on shortly after eating, there followed troublesome vomiting and then relief. Severe attacks began with burning pain in the stomach located deeply, which radiated outwards over the chest to the manubrium sterni, with a feeling in the larynx as if the parts were being screwed together, violent pain, that extended fromthe neck over both under jaws to the temples, at the same time there followed sweating and salivation now and again and also radiation of the pain to the teeth.
In especially severe attacks the pain was felt between the shoulders as a band around the chest; deep breathing was impossible.
Following the attacks there was great weakness. Actual feelings of impending dissolution the patient never had, likewise no streaming pains in the left or right shoulders, in the arm or below; no dizziness, no palpitation. The pulse showed no abnormality during the four to fifteen minute attacks.
The exciting causes of the attacks recently were many. Not only walking but also lifting, psychic exertions especially at his work, changes of temperature, e. g., leaving a hot room in winter for the outside cold, would bring on attacks. Especially easily were attacks brought on by taking spicy foods, cheese, wine, whiskey. In the intervals he felt well, had a good appetite, the bowels were regular. He was a moderate drinker and smoker. He had had gonorrhoea at 22 years; a soft chancre at 23, no skin eruptions.
P. E. — He is a well built man, the pupillary reaction is prompt, the patellar reflexes are normal. The mucous membranes are somewhat livid, the skin is slightly icteric. There is visible pulsation at the jugular notch; the arteries are not hard. The sphygmomanometer (Basch) reading is 115;
pulse 72; the lungs are normal. The point of maximum impulse of the heart is palpable in 5th interspace, somewhat displaced outwards ; the dulness reaches on right to sternal border. The second aortic is ringing; after the sound there is a diastolic murmur which is transmitted downwards as far as the xiphoid. Posteriorly to the left from the spine the diastolic murmur and the second ringing tone are plainly heard.
much improved.
Cerebral — It has been stated that arteriosclerosis is a general disease yet certain systems of vessels may be affected far more than others and indeed there may be marked sclerosis at one part of the body and none demonstrable at another part.
In advanced sclerosis there may be one or more of a series of accidents due to embolism, thrombosis, or rupture of the vessels. Such conditions as transient hemiplegia, monoplegia or aphasia may occur. The attacks
may come on suddenly and be over in a few minutes; what Allbutt calls "Larval apoplexies ' ' . They may last from a few hours up to a day; they are very characteristic. A patient aged 64 years with pipestem radials and tortuous hard temporals would be lying quietly in bed when suddenly he would stiffen, the eyes would become fixed and the breathing cease. In a few seconds consciousness returned, the patient would shake himself , pass his hand over his brow and ask "Where am I? Oh, yes, that's all right". He had as many as thirty of these attacks in twenty-four hours, none of them lasting over one minute. Just what such attacks are due to it is hard to say. Some have attributed them to spasm of the smaller blood vessels of the brain, but there have never been demonstrated in the vessels any constrictor fibres.
There is a well recognized form of dementia caused by arteriosclerosis. In general paralysis of the insane and in senile dementia the blood vessels are always diseased. Milder grades of psychic disturbances are accompanied by such symptoms as mental fatigue, persistent headaches, vertigo, memory
weakness and fainting. Aphasia, periods of excitement and mental confusion occur in some. Later stages are at times accompanied by inclination to fabulate, loss of judgement, disorientation, narrowing of the external interests, episodes of confusion and hallucinatory delirium.
The hemiplegias, monoplegias and paraplegias may occur again and again and last for one or two days. Unless there has been rupture of the vessels there is complete recovery as a rule.
In persons who have arteriosclerosis with high tension attacks of melancholia are seen. There are at the same time fits of depression, insomnia, irritability, fretfulness and a generally marked change in disposition. When the tension is reduced by appropriate treatment these symptoms disappear, to recur when the tension again becomes high. On the contrary attacks of mania are accompanied by low blood preasure. The dizziness and vertigo in cerebral arteriosclerosis are probably due to the stiffness of the vessels which prevents them from following closely the variations of pressure produced by
occurs.
In Stokes-Adams syndrome the slow pulse is due as has been stated to some lesion of the auriculo-ventricular muscle bundle in the heart. The epileptiform and apoplectiform attacks which occur are due to the sclerosis of the cerebral vessels . In a case, seen by the writer, of a colored man thirty-two years of age who gave a history of syphilis, the cerebral sclerosis as well as the lesion in the heart was in all probability due to the syphilitic toxin.
Arteriosclerosis of the cerebral vessels is always a serious condition. The greatest danger is from rupture of a blood vessel. Another of the dangers is gradual occlusion of the arteries bringing about necrosis with softening of the brain substance. The latter is more apt to be associated with psychic changes, dementia, etc.; the former, with hemiplegia. It is curious that a small branch of the Sylvian artery, the lenticulostriate, which supplies the corpus striatum, should be the one which most frequently ruptures. Where the motor fibres from the whole
cortex are gathered together in one compact bundle a very small hemorrhage may and does cause very serious effects. A comparatively large hemorrhage in the silent area of the brain may cause few or no symptoms.
Spinai^ — It is conceivable that arteriosclerosis of the vessels of the spinal cord might cause symptoms which would be referred to the areas of the cord where the process was most advanced. The lesions would be scattered and consequently the symptoms might be protean in character.
not so uncommon.
This is on the whole a rare condition, much less common than arteriosclerosis of the cerebral vessels. Collins and Zabriskie report the following typical case :
"H., a fireman ,51 yrs.old,was in ordinary good health until toward the end of 1 902 . At that time he noticed that his legs were growing weak and that they tired easily. Later he complained of a jerking sensation in different parts of the lower extremities and at times of sharp pain, which might last from
several minutes to two or three hours. The legs were the seat of a heavy, unwieldly sensation, but there was no numbness or other paresthesia. About the same time he began to have difficulty in holding the urine, a symptom which steadily increased in severity. These symptoms continued until March 1903, i. e., for three months, then he awakened one morning to find that he was unable to stand or walk, and the sphincters of the bowels and bladder relaxed. There was no complaint of pain in the back or legs, no difficulty in moving the arms, in swallowing or in speaking. He says he was able to tell when his lower extremities were touched and he could feel the bed and clothes. He was admitted to the City Hospital three weeks later and the following record was made on April 21, 1903.
The patient was a frail, emaciated man of medium height, who had the appearance of being 55-60 yrs. of age.. He was unable to stand or walk. When he was lying he could flex the thigh and the legs slowly and feebly. There was slight atrophy of the anterior and inner muscles, more of the left than
of the right side. The knee jerks and ankle jerks were absent. Irritation of the soles caused quite a typical Babinski phenomenon. The patient had fair strength in the upper extremities, but the arms tired very soon, he said. The grip was moderate and alike in each hand. The motility of the face, head^ and neck was not noticeably impaired. There was no difficulty in swallowing, and articulation was not defective. Tactile sensibility was slightly disordered in the lower extremities, although he could feel contact of the finger, the point of a pin, and the like. Sensibility was not so acute as normal; there was a quantitative dimunition. Sensory perception was not delayed. There was a distinct zone of slight hyperesthesia about as wide as the hand above the femoral trochanters. Above that, sensibility was normal. There was no discernible impairment of thermal sensibility. No part of the body was particularly tender on pressure. A bedsore existed over the sacrum, and there was excoriation of the genitals from constant dribbling of urine.
Examination of the chest showed shallow respiratory movements. The heart was regular, weak, there were no murmurs, the second sound was accentuated. Examination of the abdomen showed that the liver and spleen were palpable, but were not enlarged. The abdominal reflexes, both upper and lower, were sluggish. The patient was slow of speech, likewise apparently of thought. He did not seem to show an adequate interest in his condition, still he was fully oriented and seemed to have a fair memory. His mental reflex was slow. There were indications in the peripheral blood vessels and heart of a moderate degree of general arteriosclerosis. The peripheral vessels, such as the radial, were palpable, the walls thickened, the blood pressure increased.
The patient did not complain of pain while he was in the hospital, a period of four weeks, nor was there any particular change in the patient's symptoms, subjective and objective, during this time. His mental state remained clear until forty-eight hours before death, when he became sleepy, stuporous, and comatose, dying apparently of cardiac weak-
At autopsy, except for a few small hemorrhages in the posterior horns of the lower dorsal segments on the right side and a similar condition of the left anterior horn, there was nothing noticed. On microscopical examination, there was widespread sclerosis of the vessels of the cord of a marked degree with only slight thickening of the vessels of the brain. There were secondary degenerations of ascending and descending type particularly marked at the ninth dorsal segment. They included portions of all the tracts, the pyramidal tract as well. The symptoms in brief were: (i) Weakness and easily induced fatigue of the legs; (2) peculiar sensations in the lower extermities, described as jerky, numbness, heaviness, and occasionally sharp pain; (3) progressive incontinence of urine; (4) progressive paraplegia.
Local or peripheral — ^When the arteriosclerosis in the peripheral arteries reaches a stage where endarteritis obliterans supervenes, there is usually no chance for a compensatory or collateral circulation to be estab-
lished. The area supplied by the vessel undergoes dry gangrene. A portion of a toe or finger or a whole foot or hand may shrivel up. It is more common to see the spontaneous amputation take place in the lower extremities. The same effect may be produced by the plugging of a vessel with a thrombus. There may be much pain connected with the sudden blocking, whereas the gradual obliteration of the blood supply of a toe or foot is not as a rule at all painful. The condition is at times revealed more or less accidentally when a patient injures his toe or foot and discovers that there is no sensation to the part and that the wound instead of healing is inclined to grow larger.
Other interesting vasomotor phenomena are frequently connected with arteriosclerosis. Such a one is the curious condition known as Raynaud's disease, a vascular disorder which is divided into three grades of intensity: (i) local syncope, (2) local asphyxia, (3) local or symmetrical gangrene. This is not the place to describe this condition except to say that the condition called "dead fingers ' ' is the most characteristic feature of
the first stage. Chilblains represent the mildest grade of the second stage. The parts are intensely congested and there may be excruciating pain. Anyone who has ever had chilblains knows how painful they can be. The general health is not impaired as a rule, although the attacks are apt to come on when the person is run down. The third stage may vary from a very mild grade, with only small necrotic areas at the tips of the fingers, to extensive multiple gangrene.
Another and very rare condition in which chronic endarteritis was the only constant finding is the disease discribed by S. Weir Mitchell and called by him erythromelalgia (red neuralgia.) This is "A chronic disease in which a part or parts — usually one or more extremities — suffer with pain, flushing, and local fever, made far worse if the parts hang down." (Weir Mitchell).
Probably the most frequently seen result of arteriosclerosis in the leg arteries is the remarkable condition, first described by Charcot, known as intermittent claudication. Persons the subject of this disease are able to walk if they go slowly. If, how-
ever, any attempt be made to hurry the step, there results total disability accompanied at times by considerable cramp-like pain. The condition is much more prone to occur in men than in women, and Hebrews seem more frequently affected. The cause is most probably to be sought in the anemia which results from the narrowing of the channels through which the blood reaches the part. The stiff, much narrowed arteries allow sufficient blood to pass along for the nutrition of the part at rest or in quiet motion. Just as soon as more violent exercise is taken, calling for more blood, an ischemia of the part supervenes, for the stiff vessels cannot accomodate themselves to changes in the necessary vascularity of the part. A rest brings about a gradual return of blood and the function of the part is restored. Pulsation may be totally absent in the dorsal arteries of the feet and when the legs are allowed to hang down there is apt to be deep congestion.
In this connection a curious case reported by Parkes Weber will not be out of place. The patient, a male, aged 42 years complained of cramp-like pains in the sole of the left foot
and calf of the leg occurring after walking for a few minutes and obliging him to rest frequently. When the legs were allowed to hang over the side of the bed, the distal portion of the left foot became red and congested looking. No pulsation could be felt in the dorsal artery of the left foot or in the posterior tibial artery. There was no evidence of car dio- vascular or other disease. An ulcer on the little toe had slowly healed, but cramplike muscular pains still occurred on walking. The disease had lasted about five years without the appearance of gangrene. Weber calls this case one of arteritis obliterans with intermittent claudication.
DIAGNOSIS.
Arteriosclerosis is essentially a disease of middle life and old age; only rarely do we see it in persons under forty years of a^^e.
The diagnosis of arteriosclerosis may be so easily made that the tyro could not fail to make it. It is, however, the purpose of this volume to lay stress on the earliest possible diagnosis and, if possible, to point out how the diagnosis may be arrived at. It is obviously much to the advantage of the patient to know that certain changes are beginning in his arteries, that, if allowed to go on, will inevitably lead to one or more of the symptom groups described in the preceding chapters.
The combination of (i) hypertrophied heart, (2) increased blood pressure, (3) palpable arteries, and (4) ringing, accentuated second sound at the aortic cartilage is in, reality, the picture of advanced arteriosclerosis. If the individual is in good condition much
may be done by judicious advice and treatment to ward off complications and prolong life with a considerable degree of comfort. But we should not wait until such signs are found before making a diagnosis and instituting treatment. As in all forms of chronic disease the early diagnosis is all important.
The history of the case is the first essential. Often a careful inquiry into the personal habits of a patient, with the record of all the preceding infectious diseases will give us valuable information and may be the means of directing the attention at once to the possible true condition. Particularly must we inquire into the family history of gout and rheumatism. An individual who comes of gouty stock is certainly more prone to arterial degeneration than one who can show a healthy heredity. Alcoholism in the family also is of importance because of the fact that the children of alcoholics start in life with a poor quality of tissue, and conditions that would not affect a man from healthy stock might cause early degeneration of arterial tissue in one of bad ancestry.
Diagnosis and Differential Diagnosis. 99
What infectious diseases has the patient had? Even the exanthemata may cause degenerations in the arteries, but, as has been shown, such lesions probably heal completely with no resulting damage to the vessel. Should the patient have passed through a long siege of typhoid fever the problem is quite different. Here, (vide supra) (Thayer) the palpable arteries do appear to be sclerosed permanently. Probably the length of time that the toxin has had a chance to act determines the permanent damage to the vessel wall. More potent than all other diseases to cause early arteriosclerosis is syphilis, and hence very careful inquiry should be made in regard to the possibility of infection with this virus. Not only the fact of actual infection but the duration and thoroughness of treatment are important matters for the physician to know.
What is the patient's occupation? Has he been an athlete, particularly an oarsman, has he been under any severe, prolonged, mental strain? Is he a laborer? If so, what form of manual labor is he engaged in? Such questions as these should never be overlooked as
they form the foundation stones of an accurate diagnosis and early, accurate diagnosis, we repeat, is essential to successful therapy.
We have called attention to the factor of sustained high pressure in the production of arteriosclerosis. Constant overstretching of the vessels leads to efforts of the body to increase the strength of the part or parts. The material which is used to strengthen the weakened walls has a higher elastic resistance than muscle and elastic tissue, but a lower limit of elasticity, and is none other than the familiar connective tissue. In athletes, laborers, brain workers who are under constant mental strain, and in those whose calling brings them into contact with such poisons as lead, there is every factor necessary for the production of high tension and consequently of arteriosclerosis.
Another question in regard to personal habits is how much tobacco does the patient use and in what form does he use it? Our experience is that the cigar smoker is more prone to present the symptoms of arteriosclerosis than the cigarette smoker, the pipe smo-
ker or the one who chews the tobacco. A very irritable heart results not infrequently from cigarette smoking but such is almost always found in young men in whom the lesions of arteriosclerosis are exceedingly rare. The probabilities are that the arteriosclerosis in cigar smoking results from the slowly acting poison which causes a rapid heart rate with an increase of pressure.
Last but not least, and perhaps the most important question is, has the patient been a heavy eater? This we believe to be a potent cause of splanchnic arteriosclerosis with the resulting indigestion, cramplike attacks, high blood pressure, etc. In a joking manner we are accustomed to remark "Overeating is the curse of the American people. ' ' There is however much truth in that sentence. Osier, than whom there is no keener observer, states that he is more and more impressed with the fact that overloading the stomach with rich or heavy or spiced foods is today one of the first causes of arterial degeneration. It stands to reason that this is true. We know that organs exposed constantly to hard work undergo hypertrophy, and that the blood
tension in those organs is high. Blood tension is, after all, dependent on capillary resistance, and if the capillaries are distended with blood, the resistance is great. The digestive organs can be no exception to this rule. Increased work means an increase of blood. This inevitably causes distension of the capillaries with stretching of the arteries and consequent damage to the walls. Once arteriosclerosis is present a vicious circle is established.
A man about forty-five consults us and says that he has noticed recently that he gets out of breath easily; in tying his shoes he experiences some dizziness. He finds that he has palpitation of the heart and possibly pain over the precordial region now and then. He notices also that he is irritable, that is his family tell him he is, and he notices that things that did not use to annoy him, now are almost hateful to him. On examination, one finds a palpable radial, a somewhat hypertrophied heart and slightly accentuated second aortic sound. The blood pressure may be high. The urine may or may not reveal any abnormalities. Not infrequently, although no albumen may be found, there are hyaline
casts. Such a case of arteriosclerosis is evidently not to be regarded as early. Then the question arises how are we to recognize early arteriosclerosis ? I do not believe that the solution of this problem lies entirely in the hands of the physician. Some men are fortunate enough to come up for an examination for life insurance before an observant doctor who recognizes the palpable artery, makes out the beginning heart hypertrophy and the slightly accentuated second aortic sound. The patient will tell you that he never felt better in his life. He gets up at seven, works all day, plays golf, drinks his three to six whiskies, and is proud of his physical development. But the great mass of people are not fortunate from this standpoint. They do not seek the advice of the physician until they are stretched out in bed. They boast of the fact that for twenty years they have never had a doctor. One may well say that it is a problem how to reach such persons. It seems to me that there can be but one way to do this. The people must be taught that the duty of a physician is just as much to keep them in health as it is to bring
them back to health when they are ill. To that end people should be taught that at least twice a year they should be carefully examined. I do not mean that the patient should present himself to the doctor and, after a few questions the doctor say cheerfully "You are all right". The patient should be systematically examined. That means a removal of the clothing and examination on the bare skin. Such co-operation on the part of patient and doctor would save the patient years of active life and make of the doctor, what his position entitles him to, the benefactor to the community. Too often careless work on the physician's part lulls the patient into a false sense of security and he wakes up too late to find that he has wasted months or years of life. Early diagnosis of arteriosclerosis is only possible in exceptional cases unless people present themselves to the physician with the thought in mind that he is the guardian of health as well as the healer.
There are patients who go to the ophthalmologist for failing vision. Physically they feel quite well. They have been heavy eaters, hard workers, men and women who
have been under great mental strain. On examination of the fundus of the eye there is found sHght tortuosity of the vessels with possibly areas of degeneration in the retina. A careful physical examination will usually reveal the signs of arteriocslerosis elsewhere. We have mentioned frequently high tension as an early sign. This must be taken with somewhat of a reservation, for this reason: not infrequently a persistent high tension is the earliest sign of chronic nephritis. The arteries may be pipe-stem in character and the heart small and flabby. However, if one watches for the palpably thickened superficial arteries (always bearing in mind the normal palpability as age advances) and the high tension, he cannot go far wrong in his treatment whether the case is one of chronic nephritis or of arteriosclerosis.
There is also this to bear in mind. Arteriosclerosis may be marked in some vessels and so slight in the peripheral vessels that it cannot with certainty be made out. But when the radials are sclerosed it is usually the case that similar changes exist in other parts. Then
too, there may be marked changes at the root of the aorta leading to sclerosis of the coronaryvessels alone, and the first intimation that the patient or anyone else has that there is disease, may be an attack of angina pectoris. Except for symptoms on the part of the heart there is no way to make the diagnosis of sclerosis of the coronary arteries.
Differential diagnosis — In arriving at a diagnosis when the question is whether or not arteriosclerosis is the main etiological factor, the most important fact to know is the age of the patient. Other points that have been dwelt on fully must of necessity also be borne in mind.
Possibly the chief conditions that may be confused with some of the results of arteriosclerosis are pseudo agina pectoris which may be mistaken for true angina pectoris, and ulcer of the stomach, appendicitis (?) or other inflammatory abdominal condition which may mistaken for angina abdominalis.
Diseases in which arteriosclerosis is COMMONLY FOUND — There are certain more or less chronic diseases in which arteriosclerosis is found either as a separate disease or as a result of the chronic disease itself, or the sclerosis may be the cause of the disease. As examples of the first class are diabetes mellitus, and cirrhosis of the liver. As examples of the second class are chronic nephritis, gout, syphilis, lead poisoning. Examples of the third class have already been fully described. Then certain rare diseases
that have been briefly described in this chapter, viz: Raynaud's disease and erythromelalgia, are frequently associated with demonstrable arteriosclerosis.
In a disease that presents as many vagaries as arteriosclerosis, it is not possible to give a certain prognosis. Unfortunately we do not as a rule see the arteriosclerotic until the disease is well advanced, or even after some of the more serious complications have taken place. By that time the condition is progressive, and while the prognosis is grave the individual may live a number of years.
It is fortunate for the arteriosclerotic that mild grades of the disease are compatible with a fairly active life. The disease in this stage may become arrested and the patient may live many years. Not only in the mild grades is this possible. Even patients with advanced sclerosis may enjoy good health provided the organs have not been so damaged as to render them unfit to perform their functions. The frequency with which we see advanced arteriosclerosis at the post mortem table as an accidental discovery, attests the truth of the foregoing statement. Yet how often
Prognosis 1 1 1
does it happen that individuals, apparently in the best of health, suddenly succumb to an asthmatic or uremic attack, an apoplexy, cessation of the heart beat or a rupture of the heart due to arteriosclerosis !
In order to arrive at an intelligent opinion in regard to prognosis certain factors must be taken into consideration, chief of which are; the seat of the sclerosis, the probable stage, the existing complications, and, last and most important, the patient himself. The whole man must be studied and even then our prognosis must be most guarded.
It is much more dangerous for the patient when the process is in the ascending portion of the arch of the aorta than when it has attacked the peripheral arteries. Here, at the root of the aorta, are the openings of the coronary arteries and the arteries supplying the brain are close by. The coronary arteries here control the situation. When loud murmurs are heard at the aortic orifice and the heart is evidently diseased, it is useful to divide the endocarditis into two types, the arteriosclerotic and the endocarditic. The etiology of the former is sclerosis and the
prognosis is grave because of the liability, nay the probability, that the orifices of the coronary arteries will become narrowed. The etiology of the second type is in most cases rheumatic fever or some other infectious disease, and the prognosis is far better than in the first type. True,thetwomay be combined. In such a case, the prognosis is entirely dependent upon the course of the arteriosclerosis.
The involvement of the arteries in the kidneys is of considerable importance for it is usually bilateral and widespread. As a rule the disease makes but slow progress provided that the general condition of the patient is good, but at any time from a slight indiscretion or for no assignable cause, symptoms of renal insufficiency may appear and may rapidly prove fatal.
It must not be thought that because the localisation of the arteriosclerosis in the peripheral arteries is usually the most favorable condition that it is therefore devoid of ill effects. On the contrary, very serious, even fatal, results may be brought about by interference with the circulation with resultant extensive gangrene
of the part supplied by the diseased arteries. The amputation of a portion of a leg, for instance, may relieve, to some extent, an overburdened heart and prove life-saving to the patient, but the neuritic pains are not necessarily relieved. The torture from these pains may be excruciating.
No stage of the disease is exempt from its particular danger. In the early stages of the disease before the artery or arteries have had time to become strengthened by proliferation of the connective tissue, there is the danger of aneurysm. Later, the very same protective mechanism leads to stiffening and narrowing of the arteries and hence to increased work on the part of the heart with all of its consequences. Thrombosis is favored, and where atheromatous ulcers are formed, embolism is to be feared.
As the complications and results of arteriosclerosis come to the front every one must be considered by itself and as if it were the true disease. There may be a slight apoplectic attack from which the patient fully recovers, but the prognosis is now of a grave character as the chances are that another
attack may supervene and carry off the subject. Yet after an apoplectic attack patients have lived for many years. Probably the most noted illustration of this is the life of Pasteur. He had at forty-six hemiplegia with gradual onset. He recovered with a resulting slight limp, did some of his best work after the stroke, and lived to be seventy- three years old. Yet the exception but proves the rule and the prognosis after one apoplectic stroke should always be guarded.
The first attack of cardiac asthma is to be looked upon as the beginning of the end. The end may be postponed for some time but it comes nearer with every subsequent attack. One may recover from what appears to be a fatal attack of cardiac asthma accompanied by oedema of the lungs and irregular, intermittent, laboring heart, but the recovery is slow and the chances that the next attack will be the fatal one are increased.
The significance of albuminuria is difficult to determine. The kidneys secrete albumen under so many conditions that the mere presence of albumen in the urine may have but lit-
tie prognostic value. Many cases are seen where there is no demonstrable albumen, and yet the patient may suddenly have a cerebral hemorrhage. As a general rule the urine should be carefully examined but not too much stress should be laid on the discovery of albumen and casts. It is not always possible to determine the extent of the kidney lesion by the urinary examination, yet at any time a uremic attack may appear and prove fatal. One might say that the appearance of albumen in the urine of an arteriosclerotic where it had not been before, is a bad sign, and in making a prognosis this must be taken into consideration.
Bleeding from the nose is not infrequently seen in those who have arteriosclerosis. It can hardly be called a dangerous symptom as it can always be controlled by tampons. There are times when epistaxis is decidedly beneficial as it relieves headache, dizziness, and may avert the danger of a hemorrhage into the brain substance. It is rare to have nose bleed except in cases of bigh tension in plethoric individuals. My experience has been that it has saved me the trouble of
bleeding the patient. It is always of serious import in that it indicates a high degree of tension, but there is scarcely ever any immediate danger from the nose bleed itself.
Intestinal hemorrhage is always a grave sign. As has been shown, arteriosclerosis of the splanchnic vessels not infrequently occurs, and an embolus or thrombus may completely occlude the superior mesenteric artery. The chances of the establishment of a collateral circulation are small, as the arteries of the intestines are end arteries. Necrosis of the part follows, blood is found in the stools, and perforation or gangrene, or both, are apt to follow. There may be blocking of small branches only leading to ulceration of the intestine. Under all conditions the prognosis is serious.
The general condition of the patient, his build, physical strength, powers of recuperation, etc., must be taken into account in giving a prognosis. The more powerful the individual the more favorable as a rule is the prognosis with this reservation always in mind, that the greater the body development the greater is the heart hypertrophy and the
accidents from high tension must not be overlooked. Many puny individuals with stiff, calcified arteries go about with more ease than a robust man with thickened arteries only. The differentiation as pointed out by Allbutt, is well to keep in mind in giving a prognosis. It cannot be too strongly emphasized that it is the whole patient that we must consider and not any one system, that at the time happens to be the seat of greatest trouble, and by its group of symptoms dominates the picture.
It is evident from what has been said that an accurate prognosis in arteriosclerosis is no easy matter. Were arteriosclerosis a simple disease of an acute character there might be grounds for giving a more or less definite prognosis. The most that can be said is that arteriosclerosis is always a serious disease from the time that symptoms begin to make themselves known. The gravity depends altogether on the seat of the greatest arterial changes, and is necessarily greater when the seat is in the brain than when it is in the legs or arms.
The attitude of the patient himself also determines to a great extent the prognosis. Some men, especially those who have always enjoyed good health, turn a deaf ear to warnings and instead of ordering their lives according to the advice of the physician, persist in going their own way in the hope that the luck that has always been with them will continue to stand at their elbows. Neither firmness nor pleadings avail with some men. The only salve for the conscience of the physician is that he has done his best to steer the patient away from the shoals and breakers. In others who realize their condition and take advantage of the advice given as to the regulation of their lives, the prognosis is generally favorable.
To sum up the chapter in a few words, we should say: Always remember that the patient is a human being, study his habits and character and mode of life; look at him as a whole ; take everything into consideration, and give always a guarded prognosis.
PROPHYLAXIS.
Arteriosclerosis comes to almost everyone who lives out his allotted time of life. As has been noted within, many diseases and many habits of life are conducive to the early appearance of arterial degeneration. Decay and degeneration of the tissues are necessary concomitants of advancing years and none of us can escape growing old. From the period of adolescence certain of the tissues are commencing a retrograde metamorphosis, and hand in hand with this goes the deposit of fibrous tissue which later may become calcified. The arterial tissue is no exception to this rule, and we have already shown that certain changes normally take place as the individual grows older, changes which are arteriosclerotic in type and are quite like those caused in younger people by many of the etiological factors of the disease.'
We are absolutely dependent upon the integrity of our hearts and blood vessels. Respiration may cease and be carried on ar-
tificially for many hours while the heart continues to beat. Even the heart has been massaged and the individual has been brought back to life after its pulsations have ceased, but such cases are few in number. We cannot live without the heartbeat and the prophylaxis of arteriosclerosis consists in the adjustment of our lives to our environment, so that we may get the maximum amount of work accomplished with the minimum amount of wear and tear on the blood vessels.
The struggle for existence is keen. Competition in every profession or trade is exceedingly acute, so much so that to rise to the head in any branch of human activity requires exceptional powers of mind. Among those who are entered in this keen competition, the fittest only can survive for any period of time. The weaklings are bound to succumb. A scion of halthye stock will stand the wear and tear far better than will the progeny of diseased parentage.
It is only necessary to call attention to the part that alcohol, syphilis and insanity play in heredity. These have been discussed fully in the earlier part of this book.
We live rapidly, burning the candle at both ends. It is not strange that so many comparatively young m.en and women grow old prematurely. While heredity is a factor as far as the prophylaxis of arteriosclerosis is concerned, of far more importance is the mode of life of the individual. Scarcely any of us lead strictly temperate lives. If we do not abuse our bodies by excessive eating and drinking and so wear out our splanchnic vessels and cause general sclerosis by the high tension thereby induced, we abuse our bodies by excessive brain work and worry with all their multitudinous evils. The prophylaxis of arteriosclerosis might well be labeled "The Plea for A More Rational Mode of lyife". Moderation in all things is the keynote to health, and to grow old gracefully is an art that admits of cultivation. Excesses of any kind be they m.ental, moral, or physical, tend to wear out the organism.
People habitually eat too much; many drink too much. They throw into the vascular system excessive fluid combined with toxic products that cause eventually a condition of high arterial tension. It has been
shown how poisonous substances absorbed from the intestines have some influence on the blood pressure. Anything that causes constant increase of pressure should be studiously avoided.
Mild exercise is an essential feature of prophylaxis. One may, by judicious exercise and diet, make of himself a powerful muscular man without, at the same time, raising his average blood pressure. The man who goes to excess and continually overburdens his heart, will suffer the consequences, for the bill with compound interest will be charged against him. It is a great mistake for anyone to work incessantly with no physical relaxation of any kind, and yet, after all, it is not so much physical relaxation that is necessary, as the pursuit of something entirely different, so that the mind may be carried into channels other than the accustomed routes. Diversification of interests is as a rule restful. That is what every man who reaches adult life should aim at. Hobbies are sometimes the salvation of men. They may be ridden hard, but even then they are helpful in bearing one completely away from daily cares and worries.
The man who can keep the balance between his mental and physical work is the man who will, other things being equal, live the longest and enjoy the best health.
Nowadays the trend of medicine is towards prophylaxis. We give the State authority to control epidemics so far as it is possible by modern measures to control them.
We urge over and over again the value of early diagnosis in all chronic diseases, for we know that many of them, and this applies particularly to arteriosclerosis, could be prevented from advancing by the recognition of the condition and the institution of proper hygienic and medicinal treatment.
It is the patent duty of every physician to instruct the members of his clientele in the fundamental rules of health. Recently the President of the American Medical Association, in his address before the 1908 meeting, urged the dissemination of accurate knowledge concerning diseases among the laity. While this may be done by City and State Boards of Health, it seems far better for the modern trained physician to work among his own people. With concise information
concerning the modes of infection and the dangers of waiting until a disease has a firm hold before consulting the health mender, people should be able to protect themselves from infections and be able to nip chronic processes in the bud. But it is difficult to turn the average individual away from the habit of having a drug-clerk prescribe a dose of medicine for the ailment that troubles him. It is really unfortunate that most of the pains and aches and morbid sensations that one has speedily pass away with little or no treatment. Herein lies the strength of charlatanism and quackery. Unfortunate, yes, for a man can not tell whether the trivial complaint from which he suffers is any different from the one that was so easily conquered six months ago. But instead of recovering, he grows worse. Hope that springs eternal in the human breast, leads him to dilly-dally until he at last seeks medical advice, only to find that the disease has made such progress that little can be done.
Instruct the public to consult the doctors twice a year. The dentists have their patients return to them at stated intervals
only to see if all is well. How much more rational it would be if men and women past the age of forty had a physical examination made twice a year to find out if all is well.
The prophylaxis of arteriosclerosis is moderation in all the duties and pleasures of life. This in no sense means that a man has to nurse himself into neurasthenia for fear that something will happen to him. As one grows in years exercise should not be as violent as it was when younger, and food should be taken in smaller quantities. Many forms of exercise suggest themselves, particularly walking and golf. Walking is a much neglected form of exercise which, in these modern days with oiur thousand and one means of locomotion, is becoming almost extinct. There is no better form of exercise than graded walking. To strengthen the heart selected hill climbing is one of the best therapeutic methods that we have. The patient is made to exercise his heart just as he is made to exercise his legs, and as with exercise of voluntary muscles comes increase in strength, so by fitting exercise may the heart muscle be increased in power. A warning
should be soiinded however against over exercise. This leads naturally to hypertrophy with all its disastrous possibilities. Men who have been athletes when young should guard against overeating and lack of exercise as they grow older. Many of the factors which favor the developement of arteriosclerosis are already there and a sedentary, ordinary life such as office all day, club in afternoon, a few drinks and much rich food, will inevitably lead to well advanced arterial disease.
Karl Marx in his famous Socialistic platform said "No rights without duties; no duties without rights. " So we may paraphrase this and say "No brain work without moderate physical exercise in the open air; no physical exercise without moderate brain work. ' '
There is yet one other point that is important, the combination of concentrated brain work and constant whiskey drinking. This is most often seen in men of forty-five to fifty-five, heads of large business concerns who habitually take from six to twelve drinks of whiskey daily, and with possibly a bottle of wine for dinner. Such men look ruddy and in
prime health but almost invariably, careful examination will reveal unmistakable signs of arterial disease. There is usually the enlarged heart and pulse of high tension with or without the trace of albumen in the urine. The lurking danger of this group of manifestations has so impressed the medical directors of several of the large insurance companies that a blood pressure reading must be made on all applicants over forty years of age. Should high blood pressure be found the premium is increased as the expectation of life is proportionately shorter in such men than in normal persons. Therefore, let every physician act his part as guardian of health. Only in this way is the prophylaxis of arteriosclerosis possible.
TREATMENT.
Although it has been rather dogmatically stated (vide supra) that everyone who reaches old age has arteriosclerosis, it must not be inferred that absolutely no exceptions to this rule are found. Cases are known where persons of ninety years even had soft arteries, and we have seen persons of sixty whose arteries could not be palpated. When infants and children are seen with considerable sclerosis, it proves that, after all, it is the quality of the tissue even more than the wear and tear, that is the determining factor in the production of arteriosclerosis. It would be well if those who cannot bring healthy progeny into the world were to leave this duty to those who can.
In general the treatment of arteriosclerosis is prophylactic and symptomatic. In the preceding chapter we had something to say about prophylaxis in general; we must again refer to it in detail.
Arteriosclerosis is essentially a chronic progressive disease, and the secret of success in the management of it is not to treat the disease or the stage of the disease, but to treat the patient who has the disease. To infer the stage of the disease from the feeling of the sclerosed artery, may lead to serious mistakes. Persons with calcified arteries may be perfectly comfortable, while those with only moderate thickening may have many severe symptoms. The keynote is individualisation. It is m-anifestly absurd to treat the laboring man with his arteriosclerosis as one would treat the successful financier. The habits, mode of life, every detail, should be studied in every patient if we expect to gain the greatest measure of success in the treatment. One may treat fifty patients who have typhoid fever by a routine method and all may recover. Individualising, while of great value in the treatment of acute diseases, yet is not absolutely essential in order that good results may be obtained. Far different is it when treating a disease like arteriosclerosis. One who relies on textbook knowledge will find
himself at a loss to know what to do. Textbooks can only outline, in the briefest manner, the average case, and no one ever sees the average book case. At the bedside with the patients is the place to learn therapeutics as well as diagnosis. All that can be hoped for in outlining the treatment of arteriosclerosis is to lay dov/n a few principles. The tact, the intuition, the subtle something that makes the successful therapeutist, can not be learned from books. So the man who treats cases by rule of thumb is a failure from the beginning. There are certain general principles that will be our sheet anchors at all times and for all cases. The art of varying the application of these fundamentals to suit the individual case, is not to be culled from printed words.
Hygienic treatment — Every man is more or less the arbiter of his own fate. Granted that he has good tissue to begin life, his own habits and actions determine his span of comfortable existence. The hygienic treatment resolves itself into advice in regard to prophylaxis.
First and foremost is exercise. It has seemed to us that the revival of out-of-door sports is one of the best signs of promise of the preservation of a virile, hardy race. That women, as well as men, indulge in the lighter forms of out-of-door exercise should bring it about that the coming generation all start in life under the most advantageous conditions of bodily resistance.
Among all the forms of exercise, golf probably is the best. It is not too violent for the middle aged man, yet it gives the young athlete quite enough exercise to tire him. It is played in the open. One is compelled to walk up and down in pleasant company, for golf is essentially a companionable game, while he reaps the full benefit of the invigorating exercise. The blood courses through the muscles and lungs more rapidly : the contraction of the skeletal muscles serves to compress the veins and so to aid the return of blood to the heart: the lungs are rendered hyperemic, deeper and fuller breaths must be taken; oxidation is
necessarily more rapid, and effete products, which if not completely oxidized would possibly act as vasoconstrictors, are oxidized to harmless products and eliminated without irritating the excretory organs.
Other forms of out-of-door exercise that can be recommended are tennis, canoeing, rowing, fishing, horseback riding, swimming, etc. Tennis is the most violent of all the sports mxcntioned and might readily be overdone. Rowing as practised by the eights at college is undoubtedly too violent a form of exercise, and m.ay be productive in later life of very grave results. Canoeing is a delightful and invigorating exercise. The muscles of the arms, shoulders, and trunk are especially used, the leg muscles scarcely at all. Nevertheless the deep breathing that necessarily comes with all chest exercises aerates every portion of the lungs, and is of great benefit to the whole body.
Swimming as an exercise has much to recommend it. In this sport all the muscles take part and at the same time the chest is broadened and deepened. •
All these methods of using the muscles to keep ourself in trim, so to speak, are part and parcel of the general hygienic mode of life that is conducive to a healthy old age. Exercise can be overdone, as eating can be overdone. Both are essential and yet both can be the means of hastening an individual to a premature grave.
When the arteriosclerosis has advanced so far that it is easily recognizable, certain forms of exercise should be absolutely prohibited. Such are tennis, rowing, swimming.' Horseback riding to be allowed must be strictly supervised. At times this may be an exceedingly violent exercise. As an outof-door sport, there is nothing that equals golf. The physician, knowing the character of the course, and the length of it, can say to his patient that he may play six, nine, twelve, or eighteen holes, depending on the patient's condition.
For those who are not able to get out, exercise in the room with the windows open must take the place of out-of-door sports. Here the use of chest weights is a most excelent means of keeping up to the tone of the
muscles. By adjusting the weights, the exercise may be made light, medium, or heavy. Every physician should be familiar with the chestweight exercises. They are not as good as open air exercise but they undoubtedly have been the means of saving years of life to many patients with arterial disease.
There comes a time when all forms of exercise must be prohibited on account of the dyspnoea, oedema, dizziness, etc. It seems unwise to keep such a patient in bed, even though the oedema be considerable. Once on his back in bed he becomes weak, and the danger of oedema of the lungs or hypostatic congestion of the bases, with subsequent broncho-pneumonia, is very great. Although such persons can not exercise actively, they should have passive exercise in the form of massage, carefully given, so that no injury is done to the rigid vessels. It is possible to rupture a vessel, the walls of which are encrusted with lime salts, and full of small aneurysmal dilatations. Every patient must be watched carefully and measures instituted for the individual.
BaIvNEotheraphy — As a bracer and invigorator, the cold or cool bath, (shower or tub) in the morning on arising can be highly recommended. It promotes skin activity, is a stimulant to the bowels and kidneys and to the general circulation, besides being cleansing. We find today that the morning bath has become such a necessity to the average American that all new hotels are fitted with private baths, and old hotels, in order to get patronage, are arranging as many baths connected with sleeping rooms as is possible.- Our generation assuredly is a ruddy, clean-bodied one. What the actual results of this out-door life and frequent bathing will be for the race remains to be seen, but one cannot but feel that it must build up a stronger, more resistant race of people, who not only enjoy better health than did their forefathers, but enjoy it longer.
Not every one can stand a cold bath. It is folly to urge it on one to whom it is distasteful, or on one who does not feel the comfortable glow that should naturally result. For the well, or those with a tendency to arteriosclerosis, or those in whose families there
have been several members who had early arteriosclerosis, such proceedings as recommended could not be improved upon. However, for the person who has well recognized sclerosis, only w^arm baths should be advised, and these not daily. The water should be at a temperature of 90-95 degrees F. Care should be taken that persons sent to spas be cautioned against hot baths. It is not inconceivable that the increased force of the heart beat that accompanies a hot bath might be sufficient to rupture a sm.all cranial vessel. Hence, Turkish and Russian baths should be most unqualifiedly condem^ned. As a matter of fact, persons vary so in their habits with regard to bathing that what might suit one person would do another m.uch harm.
Person Aiv habits — The personal habits of the individual, more than any other factor, determine whether or not arteriosclerosis sets in early in his life. The m.an or woman who is moderate in eating and drinking, sees that the kidneys are kept in good condition, and attends strictly to regularity of the bowels, lays a good basis for the measure of health which is so essential for happiness. It has been
shown that sclerosis of the splanchnic vessels may be due to constant irritation of toxic products elaborated in digesting constantly enormous meals. In obstinate constipation, many poisons, the nature of which we do not know, are absorbed and circulate in the blood. We have not sufficient data to prove that constipation favors the production of arteriosclerosis, but our impression has been that it does favor it. Constipation can often be relieved by a glass of water before breakfast, a regular timxC to go to stool, and abdominal m.assage or exercises. Some maintain that it is a bad habit only, and can be readily overcome. Whatever is done, avoid leading the patient into the drug habit, for the last state of the patient will be worse than the first. Habits of sleep are not of such great importance. Most persons get enough sleep except when under severe m.ental strain. Most adults need from seven to eight hours sleep, although some can do all their work and keep in primiC health on five or six hours sleep.
We can not see that the use of tobacco in any form in moderation is harmful to most men. Undoubtedly the blood pressure is raised when mild tobacco poisoning occurs, and individual peculiarities of reaction to the weed are multitudinous. But to condemn offhand the use of plant is the height of folly. There is no reason why the arteriosclerotic who has always used tobacco in moderation, should not continue to use it, whether he smoke cigarettes, cigars, or pipe. His supply should be decreased, but there is no sense in depriving a man of one of the solaces of life, unless, as is sometimes the case, abstinence is easier to the patient than moderation.
As for alcohol, opinions differ widely. Some see in alcohol one of the most frequent causes of arteriosclerosis; others do not believe that the part played by alcohol is a serious one; only in conjunction with other poisonous substances is it dangerous. Probably unreasoning fanaticism has had much to do with the wholesale condemnation of alcoholic beverages. The general effect of alcohol is to lower the blood pressure by causing marked dilatation of all the vessels of the skin. True,
the alcohol circulates in the blood, and is broken up in the liver, and this organ would seem to bear the brunt of the harm done. Alcoholic drinks in moderation, I do not believe have any deleterious effect on health. On the contrary, I believe that they may in some cases assist digestion and assimilation. Indiscriminate indulgence is to be condemned, as is over indulgence in exercise or eating. What may be moderate for A, might be excessive for B. Every man is then the arbiter of his own fortune and within his own limits can indulge moderately (a relative term after all) without fear of doing himself harm. In advanced arteriosclerosis it is necessary to decrease the supply of alcohol just as it is necessary to cut down the food supply. This must rest entirely on the judgment of the physician, who must not act arbitrarily, but must have his reasons for every one of his orders.
Dietetic treatment — Most persons eat too much. We not only satisfy our hunger, but we satisfy our palates, and, instead of putting substantial foodstuffs into our stomachs, we frequently take unto ourselves concoctions that defy description.
Food stuffs are composed of one or all of three clases: (i) proteids, (2) fats, (3) carbohydrates. As examples of the first are beef and white of egg; of the second, the oils, butter, lard; of the third, sugar, potato, beet, corn, etc.
The physiologists and chemists have shown us that both endogenous and exogenous uric acid in excess will cause a rise of blood pressure, but the bodies most concerned in the production of elevated blood pressure are the purin bodies, those organic compounds which are formed from proteids, and represent chemically a step in the oxidation of part of the proteid molecule to uric acid. Red meat contains more of the substances producing purin bodies than any other one common food stuff, and for this reason the excessive meat eater is, ceteris paribus, more apt to develop arteriosclerosis comparatively early in life. An amusing experience of Dr. J. Mackenzie's is apropos. He writes, "An elderly man came to see me complaining of slight attacks of angina pectoris. His arteries were thickened and his pulse very hard, 210 mm. Hg. He is a brewer's agent.
I said, 'You must give up beer and spirits. ' He replied, 'I am a teetotaler.' 'Well, then, you must eat less butcher's meat'. 'I'm a vegetarian ' was his reply ! ' '
too much meat is undoubtedly harmful.
The fats and carbohydrates contain practically no substances that react on the body of the ordinary individual in a deleterious manner during their digestion. The extra work that is put on the heart by the formation of many new blood vessels in adipose tissue is the only harmful effect of over indulgence in these food stuffs.
It has been found that nitrogen equilibrium can be maintained at a wide range of levels. Formerly 135-150 gms. of proteid daily were considered necessary for a man doing light work. Now it is known that half that amount is sufficient to keep one in nitrogenous equilibrium, and to enable one to keep his weight. A person at rest requires even less than that. One who is engaged in hard physical labor burns up more fuel in the muscles, and so must have a larger fuel supply.
Although we habitually eat too much we drink too little water. For those who have any form of arterial disease an excess of fluid is harmful, as the vessels become filled up and a condition of plethora results, which necessarily reacts injuriously on the heart and circulation. The drinking of a glass of water during meals is, I believe, good practice. The water must be taken mouthful at a time, and not gulped down. If this is done, there results sufficient dilution of the solid food to enable the gastric juices successfully and rapidly to reach all parts of the meal.
Some are in favor of a rigid milk diet for those who have arteriosclerosis. Some men have lived on nothing but milk for several years and have not only kept in good health, but have actually gained weight and led at at the same time active lives. It has been held by others that rigid milk diet is positively harmful on account of the relatively large quantity of calcium salts that are ingested. This was thought to favor the deposition of calcareous material in the walls of the already diseased arteries. While possibly there may
be some danger of increased calcification, the majority of clinicians are in favor of a milk cure given at intervals. Thus the patient is made to take three to four quarts daily for a period of a month. There is then a gradual return to a general diet, exclusive of meat, for several weeks, then another rigid milk diet period.
If we are bold enough to follow Metchnikoff in his theories of longevity, we might advise resection of the large intestine, on the ground that it is an enormous culture tube that produces prodigious amounts of poisonous substances which are thrown into the general circulation. To combat such a grave (?) condition as the carrying of several feet of large intestine, we are recommended to take buttermilk or milk soured by means of the b. acidus lacticus. Clinical experience has taught that in arteriosclerosis buttermilk is of great value, whether it be the natural product, or made directly from sweet milk by the addition of the bacilli. The latter is a smoother product and has, to my mind, a delightful flavor. Cases that cannot take milk or any other food will often take butter-
milk, and do well on this restricted diet. From two to four quarts daily should be taken. It should be drunk slowly as should milk.
Medicinal — It has long been thought that the iodides have some specific effect on the advancing arteriosclerosis, checking its spread, if not really aiding nature to a limited restoration of the diseased arteries. It is possible that the eulogies upon the iodides owe their origin to the successful treatment of syphilitic arteriosclerosis, in which condition these drugs have a specific action. However that may be, there is no doubt that the administration of sodium or potassium iodide is good therapeutics in cases of arteriosclerosis.
Unfortunately many persons have such irritable stomachs that they cannot take the iodides, even though they be diluted many times. They may be made less irritating by giving them with essence of pepsin. Unless the case is syphilitic, it is doubtful if it is of value to increase the dose gradually until a dram or even more is taken three times daily after meals. Usually a maximum dose of ten grains seems to be quite sufficient. This
maybe taken three times a day, well diluted, for three months. There follows a month's rest, then the treatment is resumed for another period of three months, and so on. Either sodium or potassium iodide in saturated solution may be given. The sodium salt is possibly less irritating, and contains more free iodine than the potassium salt, although the latter is more generally used. The strontium iodide may also be used.
One sees a patient now and then who cannot take the iodides, however they may be combined. For such patients one may obtain good results with iodopin, sajodin, or other of the preparations put up by reputable firms. Personally, I have never yet seen a patient who could not take the ordinary iodides in some form or other, and I am opposed to ready made drugging.
The action of the iodides is to lower the blood pressure, and they are of greatest value when the blood pressure is high, and when headache, and precordial pain are present.
When the case is moderately advanced, very mild doses, gr. y^ morning and evening, of the thyroid extract may be given. It is
generally believed that the internal secretion of the thyroid and the adrenal are antagonistic. That the thyroid secretion lowers blood pressure is certain, possibly on account of its iodine content. Some combinations of iodineand thyroid such as the iodothyroidin have been used and have had some measure of success attributed to them.
When the blood pressure is high and there is reason to believe that this should be controlled, we have at hand a group of drugs which have proved of inestimable value . The nitrites have the power of markedly reducing the pressure, and of equalizing the circulation. The most evanescent of these drugs is amyl nitrite. This is put up in the form of capsules, or pearls, containing from one to three minims, which, when needed, are broken in a cloth under the nostrils. The effect is almost instantaneous. There is flushing of the face and other peripheral vessels denoting a relaxation and widening of the bed of the blood stream, and a consequent decrease in the pressure in the arteries. The effects of amyl nitrite however are soon over. It is used only in attacks of cardiac spasm, as in
angina pectoris. Nitroglycerin, the spiritus glonoinioftheU.S. P., acts in about the same manner as amyl nitrite but the effects last longer. One drop of the one per cent, solution given every four hours and increased to physiological effect, then reduced just below the dosage at which disagreeable effects follow, is a very valuable means of reducing pronounced high tension. I have found this drug of great benefit especially in cases where arteriosclerosis combined with chronic nephritis causes cardiac asthma. Still another drug which I have found of service in these conditions, one whose sphere of action is somewhat broader, because its effects are more lasting, is sodium nitrite. This is given in water in doses of one to three grains every four hours. Som.e have objected to the use of this drug, but my experience has made me place much confidence in its harmlessness, provided that the patient is carefully watched. This, however, applies to all of the nitrite compounds. For a mild case, one often finds that sweet spirits of nitre is sufficient to control the pressure and relieve the distressing symptoms, and it is undoubtedly the least
harmful of all the nitrites. Drugs that are of great value, but of which little is noted in textbooks, are aconite and veratrum viride. Both of these drugs are well known to be marked circulatory depressors. Veratrum viride in my experience should be very cautiously used, and never used unless a trained attendant is constantly at hand. With regard to aconite I have no such feeling, and a mixture of tincture of aconite and spiritus aetheris nitrosi may be given for several weeks with no fear of doing any harm. Personally, of all the drugs mentioned, I prefer the nitrite of sodium or the combination just given. They may be advantageously alternated.
After all, as a pressure reducer, no drug or group of drugs can take the place of absolute rest in bed with careful regulation of the hygiene and diet of the patient . This should be borne in mind and a course of this treatment should be instituted in all cases of persistent high tension in which symptoms are present.
whole the evidence is not highly favorable.
Morphine is invaluable. No drug is of such value in the nocturnal dyspnoeic attacks that occur in the late stages of arteriosclerosis when the heart or the kidneys are failing. Morphine not only relaxes spasm and quiets the cerebral centres, but is an actual heart stimulant under such conditions, and should never be withheld, as the danger of the patient's becoming addicted to its use is more fanciful than real.
As heart stimulants, one may use strychnine, spartein, caffein, or camphor. In desperate cases, where a rapidly diffusible stimulant is needed, a hypodermic syringefull of ether may be given, and repeated in a short while.
Several years ago a so-called serum was brought out by Trunecek which was said to have a favorable effect on the metabolism of the vessel walls. It was given at first hypodermatically or intravenously but the former method was painful. It was later stated that given by mouth it acted just as well. The results with the Trunecek serum have not come up
to the expectations that the early favorable reports promised. The original serum was composed as follows: NaCl, 4.92 gm.: Na2 SO4, 0.44 gm. ; Na2 CO3, 0.21 gm. : K2 SO4, 0.40 gm.; aqua destil. q. s. ad. Too.o cc. Later this was modified for internal use to the following prescription* R
M. Ft. cachets No. XIII.
The contents of every cachet corresponds to 15 cc. of the fluid serum or to 150 cc. of blood serum. The preparation called antisclerosin consists of the salts contained in the serum. As to its efficacy, I cannot judge, as I have never felt that it was worth while to use it. Reports Of cases in which it has been tried do not speak very highly of it.
In the general treatment of arteriosclerosis, there is no one factor of more importance than the regular daily bowel movement.
Attention to this may save the patient much discomfort and even acute attacks of cardiac embarrassment. The choice of the purgative is immaterial, with this reservation only, that the mild ones, such as cascara, rhubarb, licorice powder and" the mineral waters, should be thoroughly tried before we resort to the more drastic purgatives. The old Lady Webster dinner pill is an excellent tonic aperient. When the heart is embarrassed and oedema of the legs and effusion into the serous cavities have taken place, then it becomes necessary to use the drastic purgatives that cause a number of watery movements. Bpsom salts given in concentrated form, elaterin gr. 1-12, the compound cathartic pill, blue mass and scammony, or even croton oil may be used. Since the observation of a greatly congested ' intenstine from a patient who had been given croton oil, I have ceased to use this purgative, and I doubt much if its use is ever justifiable in these cases.
The management of the ordinary case of arteriosclerosis resolves itself into a careful hygienic and dietetic regime with the addition of the iodides, aconite, or the nitrites.
A diet consisting of very little meat, alcohol in moderation or even absolutely prohibited, and not too much fluid should be prescribed. Condiments and spices should also be used sparingly. Cold baths, shower baths, cold and hot sheets alternating, are of great benefit in assisting the heart to do its best work by making the large capillary area of the skin more permeable. It is not true that such baths raise the blood pressure so markedly. Certain acts,' as sneezing, violent coughing, etc., increase the blood pressure much more than judicious bathing.
Symptomatic treatment — The fact that arteriosclerosis really loses much of its own identity and, in later stages, becomes merged with the symptomatology of the diseases of various organs, as the kidney, brain, heart, compels us for completeness' sake to say a few words about the treatment of these complications.
One of the results of arteriosclerosis of the coronary arteries, angina pectoris, demands prompt treatment. In the acute attack, the chief object is to relieve the spasm and pain. Pearls of amyl nitrite should be inhaled,
and morphine sulphate with atropine sulphate given hypodermatically at the very earliest moment. It is senseless to withhold morphine. The only possible reason for withholding it would be uncertainty as to the diagnosis. It is probably better to err on the safe side, and should the case prove to be one of pseudo angina, in the next attack sterile water can be given instead of the morphine and atropine.
When a patient is seen in the condition of broken compensation with the much dilated heart, anasarca, dyspnoea and suppression of urine, there is no better practice than venesection. Kspecially is this valuable when the tension is still fairly high and the individual is robust. Following the abstraction of six to eight ounces of blood the whole picture changes, so that a man who a short while before was apparently at death's door, notices his surroundings and takes an interest again in life. This should be followed up with thorough purgation, and cardiac stimulants should be ordered. In such cases digitalis is useful, but its action is never so striking as in cases of this general character
due to uncompensated valvular disease. It must be remembered that in arteriosclerosis the changes in the myocardium must be of a considerable grade for the heart to give away. Therefore, digitalis can not be expected to act on a diseased muscle as it acts on a comparatively healthy muscle. It is only in such cases of broken compensation that digitalis should ever be used. It is a vasoconstrictor as well as a cardiac stimulant, and hence in choosing a drug to increase the working power of the heart when there is only arteriosclerosis and a weak heart, one should put digitalis out of the list. It is absolutely contraindicated in Stokes-Adams syndrome.
There are however some cases, especially those with transudations, when digitalis may be carefully tried even though high tension be present. It is sometimes of advantage to combine digitalis with the nitrites although they are said to be physiologically incompatible.
Still another drug that is of great value in conditions such as have been described is diuretin. This may be given in capsule or
tablets, grs. x. three times daily. There is only one caution to express in the use of this drug. It does not act well when the kidneys are the seat of chronic inflammatory changes ; in fact, actual harm may be done by administering the drug under such conditions.
For the pain in aneurysm nothing (except, of course, .morphine) is so valuable as iodide of potassium. Patients who are suffering agony, when put to bed and given KI grs. x. three times a day, soon lose all the distressing symptoms. This applies particularly to aneurysms of the arch of the aorta.
When the sclerosis has affected the cerebral arteries to such an extent that symptoms result, the case is, as a rule, exceedingly grave. Not much can be done except to relieve the headaches and keep down the blood pressure, if this is high, by means of rest in bed, the iodides, aconite, or the nitrites. The cases of transient monoplegias or hemiplegias can be much relieved by careful hygienic measures and judicious administration of drugs. Much ingenuity is sometimes required to overcome the idiosyncracies of
in surmounting all such difficulties.
The treatment of intermittent claudication is the treatment of arteriosclerosis in general. Sometimes the circulation in the affected leg or legs is much helped by daily warm foot baths. Light massage might be tried and the galvanic current may be used once or twice daily.
There are a few distressing symptoms that occur usually late in the disease, when complications have already occurred, which frequently baffle the therapeutic skill of the physician. The chief of these, insomnia, dyspnoea, and headache may not be late manifestations, but insomnia and headache are frequently associated with the moderately advanced stages of arteriosclerosis. At times all the symptoms seem to be due to the high tension the relief of which causes them to disappear. There are unfortunately times when high tension is not responsible for the headache and insomnia. Under these circumstances, such drugs as trional, veronal, am^dene hydrate, ammonol, etc., may be tried imtil one is
found to give sleep. For the headaches phenacetin alone or in combination with caffein and bromide of sodium may be tried. Acetanilid, cautiously used, is at times of value. There have been cases of arteriosclerosis with low blood pressure accompanied by severe headaches that have been relieved by ergot. Codein should be used with care and morphine only as a very last resource.
Great care must always be exercised in giving drugs that depress the circulation for it is easily conceivable that more harm than good can come from injudicious drugging.*
* Quite recently sodium sulphocyanate is said by some to give excellent results in the treatment of arteriosclerosis. It is given in doses of a fraction of a grain to one grain, well diluted with water, three times daily. Those who recommend the drug emphasize the necessity of care in the administration. It should not be given for any length of time or in large doses. Frequent blood pressure estimations should also be made, and the patient should be carefully watched. The drug is a poison. Experimentally in vitro it has the power, even in very dilute solution, of dissolving the salts of calcium.
PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS.
The time spent in obtaining a careful history of a case is time well spent. Often the diagnosis can be made from the history alone, the physical examination merely adding confirmation to the data already obtained.
The younger the patient who has arteriosclerosis, the more probable is it that syphilis is the etiological factor. A denial of infection should have little weight if the history of possible exposure is present. Miscarriages in a woman should arouse the suspicion of lues in her husband.
There are various ways of examining a patient but there is only one right way; the examination should be made on the bare skin. However skillful one may be in the art of physical diagnosis, he can gather few accurate data by examining over the clothes even if he use a phonendoscope.
pounds of medicine later.
It is a wise maxim never to drive a horse too far. Apply that to the human being and the rule holds equally well.
There may be no symptoms in a case of advanced arteriosclerosis. Do not on that account neglect to advise a patient in whom the disease is accidentally discovered.
feels grateful.
When a competent ophthalmologist refers a case to a general practitioner with the statement that he believes from the appearance of the fundus of the eye that arteriosclerotic changes are present over the body, the case should be most carefully examined. The earliest diagnoses are not infrequently made by the ophthalmologist.
It is the part of wisdom never to have such a firmly preconceived idea of the diagnosis that facts observed are perverted in order to fit into the diagnosis. Let the facts speak for themselves.
Beware of the snap diagnosis. Even in a case of v>^ell marked arteriosclerosis when the diagnosis seems to be written in large letters all over the patient, go through' the routine. Nine times out of ten this may seem needless. The tenth time it saves your conscience and reputation. Always consider that you are examining a tenth case.
Do not call the nervous symptoms displayed by a middle-aged man or woman neurasthenia until you have ruled out all organic causes, particularly arteriosclerosis.
When palpating the radial artery, always use both hands according to the method already described. Pay attention to the superficial or deep situation of the arter>^
The examination of one specimen of urine does not give much information especially if it should be found to contain no abnormal elements. Fairly accurate data may be gathered from the mixed night and morning urine; most accurate data from the twenty-
In measuring the day's output a good rule is as follows : Begin to collect urine after the first morning's micturition and collect all including the first quantity passed the next morning. It is best to examine the centrifugated urine for casts even though no albumen be present. It is useless to look for casts in an alkaline urine.
Blood pressure readings should always be taken with the patient in the same posture at every estimation. At the first examination it is advisable to take readings from both brachial arteries. Let the patient sit comfortably and relax all muscles.
As a rule there is no anomaly of the urinary secretion, yet one must constantly note the amount passed in twenty -four hours and the frequency of micturition.
Differentiate as soon as possible between the uncompensated heart caused by valvular disease and that caused by arteriosclerosis.
There is a difference in prognosis. Both give the same symptoms, and are treated similarly until compensation returns; thereafter the management of the two forms is different.
Aortic incompetence that comes on late in life is generally the result of curling of the free margins of the valves caused by arteriosclerosis. Prognosis is grave because of the fact that the heart muscle also is the seat of degenerative changes and compensatory hypertrophy is established with difficulty.
When laying down a regime for a patient, consider his disposition, and individualize the treatment. Remember that exercise is an essential feature of the hygiene of the patient's life but do not forget to be explicit about the amount and character of the permissible exercise.
In the prophylaxis of arteriosclerosis, a rational mode of living is the all-important factor. As a rule, the less meat one eats, the less is the liability of arterial degeneration as age advances. The exceptions to this rule are many, and probably depend
with which the individual begins life.
The diet in well marked cases of arteriosclerosis should be carefully selected with regard to its nutritive and non-irritating character. Animal proteids should be sparingly used. Milk should have an important place in the dietary.
aneurysm as surely as iodide of potassium.
Iodides frequently upset the stomach. Be cautious in the use of them. The irritable stomach may turn the scales against your patient.
Use cardiac stimulants with care and judgment. If all the valuable ammunition is used up at first, the fight will be lost.
When you want to use digitalis, remember two important points, (i) The arteriosclerotic heart is one scarred with patches of fibrous myocarditis, and hence is no longer a heart that can respond with every fibre. (2) Digitalis contracts the arterioles and thus increases the peripheral resistance.
the heart.
See to it that the patient has a daily movementof the bowels. In the early stage try the effect of the mineral waters such as Pluto, or Hunyadi Janos, or artificial Carlsbad salts (Sprudel salts) . These last can be made as follows: Sodium chloride, §i, sodium bicarbonate, §ii; sodium sulphate, giv. Take two tablespoonsful of this in a glass of hot water before breakfast. Should these not succeed, assist the action of the drugs by the use of enemata. The pill of aloin, strychnine sulphate, and extract of cascara,with the addition of a small quantity of hyoscyamus, is a mild tonic purgative. In cases of constipation with high tension, there is no drug as valuable as calomel or one of the other mercurials.
Never give Epsom salts unless copious watery stools are desired to deplete effusion into the serous cavities or into the subcutaneous tissue.
may be wrapped in a hot wet sheet and covered with blankets. I do not beHeve in administering pilocarpine to assist the sweating. Remember to treat the patient and not the disease. The careful hygienic and dietetic treatment, combined with the least amount of drugging, is the best and most rational method of treatment.
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CV2rAHEAAHqetJoB | 10.5: Comparing Search Tools | 10.5: Comparing Search Tools
Common Search Tools & Search Engines
There are many different search tools, and you probably use quite a few without thinking about them, such as artificial intelligence (AI) assistants. Examples include Siri, Alexa, Google Assistant, Cortana, and Bixby. AI assistants are usually voice activated and will search the internet for answers to your questions, suggest resources for you to look at for information related to your question, and perform tasks such as turning on lights or creating a shopping list.
Another type of search tool that you probably use is a search engine. Search engines are online tools that search for web pages based on keywords. Many of these are now embedded in your browsers to make searching online easier, but each have their own websites as well that you can search from. The big names in this area are Google, Yahoo!, and Bing. Though they may bring back different search results, they function overall using the same main principle: to bring back as many relevant results as possible. How each one defines and determines what is “relevant” may differ, and their criteria and methods are typically not transparent to the user.
Other Tools
Besides search engines, there are other online search tools that you might be familiar with but didn’t know what to call them, such as Yelp. There, you can search for businesses and learn information about those businesses, often including links to their websites. Yelp doesn’t search the Web; rather, it maintains its own records and links for those businesses. Because Yelp controls what it searches and what it lists, it is called a directory. Web directories are search tools that link out to hand-selected websites usually organized by categories or topics.
Determining which search tool is the best to use depends on what you are trying to accomplish. If you’re trying to find the nearest pizza restaurant, using an AI assistant is probably really great; using a directory like Yelp might also be helpful. But what about for our scenario ? What type of search tool would be the best to use, do you think? | 458 | common-pile/libretexts_filtered | https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Research_and_Information_Literacy/Introduction_to_College_Research_(Butler_Sargent_and_Smith)/10%3A_Searching_the_Web-_Strategies_and_Considerations/10.05%3A_Comparing_Search_Tools | libretexts | libretexts-0000.json.gz:33459 | https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Research_and_Information_Literacy/Introduction_to_College_Research_(Butler_Sargent_and_Smith)/10%3A_Searching_the_Web-_Strategies_and_Considerations/10.05%3A_Comparing_Search_Tools |
teR2BcskiQ22KQky | New salamanders of the genus Oedipus : with a synoptical key / by E. R. Dunn ; Reports on results of the Captain Marshall Field expeditions. | BY E. R. DUNN.
Through the courtesy of the Field Museum of Natural History in loaning their collections of salamanders of the genus Oedipus for study in connection with the revision of the Plethodontidae, on which I have been engaged for some time, I am enabled to add to the number of described species, and to clear up the status of some forms hitherto imperfectly understood.
A good many new forms of Oedipus have been described since the last general discussion of the genus. The various expeditions of the Field Museum of Natural History, of the Museum of the University of Michigan, and of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, during the year 1923, have brought to light three more new species and good series of two forms hitherto very poorly represented in collections. One of these, Oedipus parvipes Peters, breaks down the distinction between the normal forms of the genus and the wormlike forms frequently referred to Oedipina. Therefore, it seems appropriate to append to the descriptions of these three new forms a brief synopsis of the whole genus. This is based on somewhat uneven material, the mountain forms being usually well known, while the lowland species are still represented in collections by very few specimens. Of the 30 species recognized hereinafter, I have seen specimens of 29, the missing one being the perhaps mythical salamander from Haiti. These 29 forms are represented by a series of 564 specimens preserved in various museums in America.
The genus Oedipus is closely allied to and perhaps derived from the wide-ranging northern genus Hydromantes. These two represent the terrestrial wing of the f ree-tongued Plethodontidae, as Gyrinophilus, Pseudotriton, and Eurycea represent the mountain-brook wing. I conceive these two to be parallel series, Hydromantes and Gyrinophilus (with their primitive double premaxillae) standing at their bases. Hydromantes differs from Oedipus in having double premaxillae, and in lacking the basal constriction of the tail. The "Oedipina" forms of Oedipus lack this constriction, but are degenerate in other ways as well, and are completely connected with normal Oedipus by parvipes. The genus is large and varied, but the very different extremes are connected by intermediate forms.
Oedipus schmidti sp. nov.
Type from mountains west of San Pedro, Honduras, at 2000 feet, on trail. No. 4538 Field Museum of Natural History. Adult female. Collected May 5, 1922, by K. P. Schmidt.
Diagnosis. — A large Oedipus, with groove from eye to gular fold; feet well developed, almost entirely webbed; vomerine teeth 20, series extending beyond nares; lead gray, with indistinct black spots.
Description of Type. — 13 costal grooves; 3 costal folds between appressed toes ; head width 4% in length from snout to vent ; head length 3^ in length of body; head a truncated oval as seen from above; eye longer than its distance from tip of snout; outline of upper jaw concave as seen from side; angle of jaw back of hind angle of eye; both eyelids fitting under a fold of skin behind ; a groove from eye to gular fold ; a groove from this down behind angle of jaw ; limbs well developed; fingers 3, 2, 4, i in order of length, last joint of 3 free, rest entirely in web; toes 4, 3, 2, 5, i in order of length, last joint of 3 and 4 almost free, rest entirely in web; anal lips smooth; tail longer than body, terete, a basal constriction; vomerine teeth 20 in series, beginning beyond outer border of nares, running nearly straight in and then a little back, separated from its fellow by such a distance as would result from the lack of one tooth of a series, separated from parasphenoids, by a little over the diameter of the nares; latter in a single patch divided posteriorly, beginning opposite anterior fourth of nares; leaden gray above, lighter below; small irregular black spots on sides of body and tail ; total length 195, head 24, body 83, tail 88.
Remarks. — This species seems quite close to robustus of Costa Rica, differing mainly in the greater webbing of the toes, in the presence of black spotting on the sides, and in the absence of the white ring around the base of the tail. It is known only from the type.
Type from La Loma, on trail from Chiriquicito to Boquete, altitude about 2000 feet, Bocas del Toro, Panama. No. 9406 Museum of Comparative Zoology. Adult female. Collected by E. R. Dunn and Chester Duryea.
Description of type, — 13 costal grooves; 4 costal grooves between appressed toes ; head width 6 in length from snout to vent ; head length 3^ in length of body; head truncate, nostrils at angles; eye less than its distance from tip of snout ; snout swollen ; a tubercle below nostril ; outline of upper jaw convex as seen from side; angle of jaw back of hind angle of eye ; upper eyelid fits over lower behind ; a dermal ridge across head between eyes, extending onto eyelid ; an additional tubercle on eyelid posterior to this; grooves of head obsolete; limbs well developed ; fingers and toes palmate ; third finger and third toe longest, their tips projecting slightly beyond web; tail constricted at base; anal lips smooth; tail longer than body; vomerine teeth 9 in series, beginning behind inner edge of nares, extending in and back, separated from its fellow by width of nares and from parasphenoids by twice that distance; parasphenoids in a single patch beginning opposite middle of eye socket ; no teeth on maxilla ; reddish gray above ; light gray below ; on dorsal surface and sides the ground color is obscured by brownish black streaking, and shows clearly only on top of the head; total length 82, head 10, body 32, tail 40.
about a foot from the ground near a small brook. It was sluggish.
Remarks. — The dermal ridge across the head is unique in the genus. Unfortunately only a single specimen was secured so that possibly it is abnormal, although it has every appearance of normality. The relationships are not very evident. The other palmate species without maxillary teeth is rufescens, and it may be allied to that form or to striatulus, another small species with dorsal streaking. The specimen, although a female, shows a strongly swollen snout.
Type from mountains west of San Pedro, Honduras, at 4500 feet altitude. No. 4568 Field Museum of Natural History. Adult male. Collected April i, 1923, by K. P. Schmidt and Leon L. Walters.
to vent ; head length about 4 in length of body ; snout swollen, a tubercle below nostril; nostril larger than pupil; outline of upper jaw sinuous as seen from side; angle of jaw below hind angle of eye; both eyelids fitting under a fold of skin behind; a groove from eye to gular fold; a branch from this down behind angle of jaw; limbs well developed; fingers 3, 4, 2, I in order of length, last two phalanges of 3 free ; toes 3, 4, 2, 5, i in order of length, last two phalanges of 3 free ; tail longer than head and body, constricted at base, terete ; anus lined with papillae ; vomerine teeth 5 in series, beginning behind inner edge of nares, curving in and back, separated from its fellow by a space equalling the gap between two teeth of the same series, separated from parasphenoids by the length of a series ; latter in single patch, beginning opposite middle of eye-socket; internal nares a slit; premaxillary teeth enlarged, forward, out of line with maxillary teeth; dark grayish brown, lighter on back, a dark band on sides; a dark triangle, apex backwards, base between eyes; lighter gray dotted with white below and on sides; two light spots on base of tail; total length 75, head 6.5, body 25.5, tail 43.
Variation. — A female, Field Museum No. 4579, same data, differs in having the snout not so swollen; no tubercle under nostril; anal lips smooth; vomerine teeth 8 in series, separated from its fellow by a gap equalling twice that between two teeth of the same series, separated from parasphenoids by twice that distance; total length 80, head 7, body 27, tail 46.
A young specimen, Field Museum No. 4584, same data, has the dorsal region covered by a light reddish gray band with scalloped edges, this band contains irregular darker spots, and two lighter spots above anus ; a dark band between eyes ; a dark stripe from eye to insertion of arm, total length 46, head 4, body 17, tail 25; 3 costal folds between appressed toes.
No. 4590, same data, is reddish gray above and on sides, gray below ; weak and irregular dorsal and lateral dark lines; a dark stripe from eye to insertion of arm; total length 55, head 5, body 20, tail 30.
marked while most of the adults are almost uniform.
Remarks. — This species is closely allied to O. picadoi of Costa Rica, which has, however, weaker limbs, there being six costal folds between the appressed toes. The other two forms with large nostrils, pennatulus and townsendi, have the toes completely webbed.
II. cephalicus (leprosus auct.), rostratum, morio, subpalmatus, ads perms, altamazonicus, colonneus, rufescens, striatulus, lignicolor, yucatanus, salvinii, attitlanensis , platydactylus (variegatus auct.). This series begins with five mountain animals with incompletely palmate feet and ends with palmate lowland species whose immediate relationships are uncertain. However, the last five are pretty clearly allied.
nostrils.
IV. lineolus, infuscatus, parvipes, alfaroi, collaris, uniformis. These are the "Oedipinas" and have no primitive members and no obvious connection with any other forms. The Haitian form is perhaps mythical.
Of these four series the most primitive of each is set down first and is a Mexican species. What I have considered as platydactylus may prove divisible into two or three races. The key does not pretend to follow throughout the natural order, being arranged solely with regard to convenience and ease of determination.
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WUrhKgVqKn-r-JNe | Theory of voussoir arches / by Wm. Cain. | s. Example of a stone arch subjected only to its own weight. Method of tabulating loads ;i:id arms, and constructing trial lin j of resistance 30
magnitude of thrust at crown 40
Example 1. Stone arch previously considered subjected to its own weight and an eccentric load. Method of drawing trial resistance line.
15. Example of an arch subjected to
wheel loads, by a graphical method, to pass an equilibrium polygon through any three points. Peculiar division of arch ring and corresponding computation of tables. 78 Examples.
Eddy's Constructions for the solid arch) for testing the strength and stability of stone arches. Live load. 162
PREFACE.
In the present edition of this work, the method of drawing trial lines of resistance, given in the lirst edition, is retained and several new chapters added containing discussions of new constructions, equilibrium polygons, properties of curves of resistance, unit stresses, and in the last two chapters, two independent developments of the application of the theory pertaining to solid arches "fixed at the ends" to voussoir arches. The Appendix contains the discussion of the experiments on wooden arches, at the limits of stability, given in the former edition, though here the matter is presented in a more condensed form.
It will probably be admitted that the theory* of solid arches, fixed at the ends, applies directly to voussoir arches, when no mortar is used in the joints and the voussoirs fit perfectly between the skew-
backs when not under stress, the resistance of the backing to distortion of the arch under stress being neglected and all loads being supposed to be transmitted vertically to the arch ring.
If the line of resistance determined from this theory, for the original joints, everywhere lies within the middle third of the arch ring, no further trial, on the supposition of other bearing joints, has to be made, so as to make the assumed and computed joints agree.
ited to this case.
The theory is likewise approximately applicable where thin layers of cement mortar are interposed between some or all of the arch stones that are allowed to harden well before the centres are struck.
For such cases, the design of a number of arches, for spans from 0 to 160 feet, for a rise of one- fifth the span, are given in Chapter IV. and the attention of constructors is particularly called to this table and the comparison of results with certain empirical formulas as shown in figure 25.
It has long been the opinion of the author that the much heavier locomotive loads of to-day require greater depths of keystone than are given by many formulas in current use, and he submits that the results of Chapters IV. and V. effectually establish this position and show the danger of ignoring a theoretical treatment of the subject even where only approximately applicable, as in the case of arches as actually built. The loads may not be transmitted vertically and the spandrel filling may resist spreading, and, in fact, act partly as an arch ; but, it is better not to count on these extra elements of stability, except as neutralizing the dynamic effect of the moving load alone, and the middle third limit prescribed may be looked upon in the light of introducing a factor of safety against the effect of the loads regarded as static.
The author has derived assistance in the theory from Schemer's Theorie des Voutes ; also from Prof. Greene's "Arches," and Prof. Eddy's "New Constructions in Graphical Statics. "
CHAPTER I.
1. The voussoir arch is composed of blocks of stone, brick or other material, in the shape of truncated wedges, called arch stones or voussoirs, whose inferior surface, known as the soffit, is usually cylindrical and perpendicular to the radiating surfaces of contact called the joints. Between the stones, mortar, either common or prefer ably hydraulic, is generally interposed.
The lowest voussoirs rest against the abutments along the surfaces called the skewbacks or springing joints and the lower edge of these joints is called the springing line,
Figure 1 represents a section of the arch made by a plane perpendicular to a generating element of the cylindrical surface. This plane intersects the soffit in a curved line called the intrados and the exterior
surface of the arch ring in a line called the extrados. The intrados is generally an arc of a circle or two arcs of circles as in the gothic arch, an ellipse or a false ellipse (basket-handle) composed of several arcs of circles tangent to each other.
vertical joint through the crown.
The keystone or key is the highest arch stone, extending generally either side of the crown, so that there is no actual joint at the crown.
The haunch or reins is the part of the arch between the crown and skewback, and the spandrel is the part of the structure
above the extrados and limited by the roadway or other superior surface. The arch is limited at the ends or heads, by planes called faces — perpendicular to a generating element of the soffit in right cylindrical arches, which alone will be considered in this treatise. The spandrel walls at the faces are usually of a superior quality of masonry, but the space between them is often filled with inferior masonry, gravel or earth, called the spandrel filling or simply the backing.
In large arches this space is often occupied by separate walls, running parallel with the roadway and connected by flat stones or light arches, which support the material of the roadway.
The span of the arch (Figure 1) is the perpendicular distance between the springing lines, and the rise is the vertical distance from the plane of the springing lines to the highest part of the intrados.
When the radial length of joint is the
same throughout, the arch ring is said to be of uniform section and its constant depth, measured radially, is the depth of keystone.
2. In investigating the strength and stability of right cylindrical arches, it is convenient to consider a slice of the arch and load comprised between two vertical planes, perpendicular to the axis or axes of the arch, and one foot apart, and it will be understood that all subsequent figures refer to such a slice whether distinctly stated or not.
As the spandrel filling between the end walls offers less resistance to deformation of the arch ring than the spandrel walls at the faces, it is proper to consider the slice to be taken in the interior, where the backing is of the least resisting character, in order that we may investigate the most unfavorable case.
As the external forces, including the weight of arch, will be considered symmetrical with respect to the vertical plane midway between the faces of the slice, all the forces may be considered as acting in
the medial plane. The same evidently obtains for the internal stresses at the joints, so that we have simply to investigate the equilibrium of forces in one plane.
The hypothesis will be made that the weight per cubic foot of the arch stones is the same throughout ; similarly for the spandrel filling. This is not exactly true, but is certainly near enough, when stones are selected from the same quarry, especially when the arch is investigated as to the action of the very heavy eccentric loads of to-day ; for any irregularity can be supposed included in the hypothetical loading (never exactly realized) with perfect safety.
noted as we proceed.
o. In constructing voussoir arches a wooden frame or centre is built between the abutments, whose upper convex surface exactly coincides with the soffit of the arch to be built. The lower arch stones are laid first, and it is a matter of experience that in a semi-circular arch the arch
stones can be laid successively up to about half the rise without any centering whatsoever. This corresponds to the joint which makes an angle of 30° with the horizontal, or 00° with the vertical. The central portion of 12 i.° has to be supported by the centre, until finally the keystone (which should exactly fit the remaining space) is driven in and the centre removed.
If the spandrel wall is built up to the 3< ° joint as solidly as the abutment, as should always be done, the arch and spandrel below this joint can be considered as rigid and a part of the abutments; hence the true arch is the central portion of 12i.° total amplitude.
On this account it is convenient to define a segmented arch as one whose total amplitude, or angle between the planes of its extreme joints, is equal to or less than 120°.
The pressure of one arch stone against another at the joints gives rise to molecular stresses, represented by the little arrows in figure 1. It is our object first to find the resultants of these stresses on each joint.
The thrust at the crown is thus the resultant of the stresses on one side of the crown joint exerted against and balanced by the stresses on the other side of the joint. Similarly for any other joints.
SYMMETRICAL ARCHES.
4. We shall consider first an arch formed of two branches AC, 130 (Figure 2), symmetrical and placed in juxtaposition, and comprised between two parallel vertical planes perpendicular to the axis of the arch, the arch being right cylindrical. This arch, composed of voussoirs in the shape of wedges, leans against two abutments at its extremities A and B, and is loaded not only with its own weight but with any other weight whatsoever, distributed symmetrically on either side of the crown C. The mass of the arch is subject to the laws of friction in its joints. The adherence of the mortar, interposed between the voussoirs, being difficult to estimate will not be considered. As the two half arches are symmetrical as to the crown C, it is clear that the points of
application, A and B of the reactions Ra and R2 of the surfaces of support, will be also symmetrical in relation to the vertical
passing through the crown, and that the line AB will be horizontal, in whatsoever manner the points A and B may vary upon the surfaces of support.
Now the weight of arch and load = P, acting downwards through the crown C, together with the reactions Rr and R2 acting upwards, form a system of forces in equilibrium, and because Hl and R2 must meet P in a point D they are equally inclined to P and hence are equal.
If we decompose the reactions, R: and R2, into their horizontal and vertical components Pj, Q15 P2, Q2, we should have P1 = P2= the weight of half arch with its load, and the thrust QjZuQ,,.
Let us consider now one of the two halves, for example AC. Let EPj be the vertical passing through the centre of gravity of this half with its load; to hold this mass in equilibrium it is necessary that there exists at the crown a force whose direction CE passes through the point of intersection E of the vertical EP, with the direction of the reaction Rr
As the vertical component of R: equals the weight Pl acting through E and since by the laws of statics, the algebraic sum of the horizontal components of the forces acting on the half arch AC, must equal
zero, the thrust at the crown C of the arch is necessarily equal to the second component Q1? of the reaction R. and must be horizontal as it is.
zontal force at C.
5. (Figure 3.) Let ab, oj)^ «2/>2, be the joints of an arch; P19 P., the vertical directions of the weights of the parts ab b^a,\ <fbb2 <?2; including the loads on the
their common centres of gravity.
The horizontal force Q, at the crown, combined with the reaction R2 at the j oint «8&2 holds the part abb9a9 in equilibrium and similarly for the reactions on other joints.
At the points where the direction of Q cuts P,, P2, combine those forces with Q as shown in the figure; the resultant of Q and Pj cuts joints alb1 at Aj, which is therefore the centre of pressure on that joint. As the weight abb2az with its load equals P2 and is the weight on joint a2 &2, the resultant of P2 and Q will give the force acting on ajb^ in direction, position and magnitude ; it cuts «262 at A2, which is therefore the centre of pressure on that joint.
In the same way the resultants and centres of pressure on all the joints may be determined. A broken line connecting these centres of pressure on the various joints will be called the line of the centres of pressure or more briefly, the line of resistanee.
For voussoirs indefinitely small, it approaches indefinately a curved line and will be called the curve of the centres of pressure or curve of resistance.
may remain in equilibrium, it is necessary :
(1.) That the points of intersection C', A,, A2, fall in the interior of the respective joints ab, a}bl9 ajby If for any joint this is not so; e. </., if the point A] was above bl9 the mass abb^ al would then turn around the edge 61? as an unresisted couple would be formed. To explain : suppose the resultant Hl to pass outside of joint albly conceive two equal opposed forces, each equal to R, to act at edge b,this does not disturb the equilibrium; then R, the force acting through A, (which is outside the joint) with its equal but not directly opposed force at bl9 would form the unresisted couple in question which causes overturning.
(2.) That the directions c^A^ c2A2 of the pressures upon the joints do not make angles with the normals to the respective joints which exceed the angle of friction.
below.
However, the friction of the materials usually employed in construction is sufficiently great to not give cause for fear as regards sliding, generally.
It is very easy to alter the direction of the joints should sliding be apprehended, hence it will not be considered further.
The two former requirements refer to stability^ supposing no crushing of the material occurs. The last requirement pertains to the strength of the masonry at a mortar joint.
(3.) The resultant of the pressure on any joint must not pass so near the edge that crushing of the mortar or the stone (or brick) may occur. Of course in practice a certain factor of safety would be used, but as this subject will be treated in full later, we shall only remark here that reasons will be given further on why the true line of resistance should not depart at any joint more than one- sixth the depth of joint from its centre, or in other words,
should everywhere be confined to the middle third of the arch ring and in fact it is best to use still narrower limits.
It is to be remarked that the foregoing theory does not require horizontal resistance in the spandrel, which is not generally built with the same care that is taken in the construction of the arch stones, and thus cannot generally be regarded as unyielding; hence when a line of resistance such as C'Aj A., passes, somewhere, out of the arch ring, a serious derangement of the arch may occur, even though the spandrel may -prevent its falling: hence it appears to be a poor construction to build such an arch in preference to an arch in which the resultant pressures on the joints everywhere keep within the limits prescribed. This will be adverted to again.
If no line of resistance can be dniwn within the prescribed limits, or crushing is feared on any joint, the depth of the voussoirs must be increased on part or the whole of the arch; or the profile may be altered; or, finally, we may combine both of these methods to secure stability.
6. We shall now enter into detail to show how lines of resistance can be drawn through various points of the arch ring.
Let us consider as in Art. 2 a slice of the arch 1 unit thick. In Fig. 4, let Q=the , horizontal thrust at the point M of the !
crown joint (compare Fig. 3 throughout) ; </, its vertical distance below the apex C; P= weight of arch and load C A on joint at A; a — horizontal distance from A, tlKcentre of pressure on the joint, to the vertical passing through the centre of gravity of P; h— vertical distance between C and
and A.
If we consider another point A' of the mrve of resistance, at a vertical distance above A=e, we shall have an analogous notation P', a', b'.
Having obtained from eq. (1) or eqs. (2) and (o), Q and its point of application at the crown, we find where the resultant pressures cut each joint as in Art. 3.
If the first curve drawn passes outside of the prescribed limits in one or more places, take points on the limiting curves
through two of these points.
If the.arch is stable at all, it will almost invariably be found in practice that the last curve so drawn will fulfill the required conditions of remaining in the prescribed limits. If not a third approximation may be tried, and so on.
This is Dr. Scheffler's method of drawing a line of resistance within prescribed limits and in practice, after becoming familiar with the leading cases, the first trial is generally sufficient.
7. Let us proceed to show how to find the centres of gravity of the weights abb^ d^ abb^a^ (Fig. 3), as also the magnitudes of those weights. If the arch is loaded with any weights, reduce them to the same specific gravity as that of the masonry of the bridge supposed homogeneous, as follows : Lay down these weights in their exact positions on the arch, and alter the vertical dimensions to conform to the specific gravity of the stone. We shall thus substitute blocks of stone, by scale,
the rolling load.
We now divide the horizontal through A (Fig. 5) into an appropriate number of parts and through these points of division
Regard each trapezoid DGG'D' as a rectangle, and calculate its surface by multiplying its horizontal width AA' by
the mean vertical dg. Next regarding the centre of gravity of each trapezoid as that of the corresponding rectangle, we shall find the centre of gravity of the trapezoid DD'G'G, for .example, to be upon the mean vertical dg, which equally divides the horizontal AA'. Draw through C, the joint CH; the weight DD'G'G will be considered as resting on the joint CH, which is in excess by the small triangle CG'H, an error too small to be regarded in flat arches.
Scheffler gives a graphical construction for correcting the joints to correspond better to the weights, but it is very tedious in practice and defaces the drawing with too many many lines, so it is not given. In article 11 will be found a method that will insure all desirable accuracy for any form of arch.
The assumption that the whole weight vertically over a voussoir acts on it is not strictly true, whether the spandrel is of earth or masonry ; for part of it is doubtless distributed in a different manner by aid of the friction of the particles, or in some cases from the spandrel itself acting as a sort of arch. Again, any horizontal spreading of the haunches of the arch is
partially hindered by horizontal resistances in the spandrels. These influences though are on the side of safety, particularly when the dynamic effects of moving loads are considered. In the case of culverts the earth exerts a thrust, as to which and the treatment of culverts and tunnel arches, see Science Series No. 42.
Assuming the loads over the arch to act as above, we multiply the surface of each trapezoid by the horizontal distance of its centre of gravity from A ; the sum of these moments divided by the sum of the trapezoid surfaces (which are also the volumes), will give the horizontal distance from A to the centre of gravity of the whole part considered. This method will thus give us
gravity from the crown.
8. First Example. — Let us illustrate by an example of a railroad bridge (Fig. 1.5) of 50 ft. span and 10 ft. rise, the arch being a segment of a circle ; voussoirs 2.5 ft. deep ; the spandrel walls, of the same specific gravity as the voussoirs, rising 2. S3 ft.
but a vertical slice of it 1 ft, thick.
In the following table the first column gives the number of the joint from the crown; the second (w) the width of the horizontal divisions AA', A'A"- - of Fig. >"> ; the third (v) the corresponding mean heights dg - - -; the fourth (s), the product of these dimensions, giving thus the surface of each trapezoid. Column (c) gives the distance of the centre of gravity of each trapezoid from the crown ; column (m) the product of (s) and (c). Now we cumulate, going from the crown, in the next two columns, these surfaces (s) and products (s X c) ; column (S) being formed by adding the surface of each trapezoid to the total surface, just found, which precedes it. The last quantity in column (S) should = sum of col urn (s).
In the same way column (M) contains the continued sum of column (m), and hence its last number should equal the sum of column (m). Dividing now the numbers in column (M) by the corresponding ones in column (S) we get, column (C), the horizontal distances of the centre of gravity of each weight Pl5 P2 —
3771.61
The preceding table shows that the surface (or volume, for a slice 1 ft. thick) of the half arch with its load equals 235.(.i sq. ft.; its moment as to the crown is 3TTUJ1 and the distance of its centre of gravity from the joint at the crown is 10 ft. Let it be required to pass a curve of resistance through the crown joint, K of its depth from the summit of the arch and through joint (> at }-3 of its depth above its lowest point. By measurement on the drawing (Fig. 9) we finda=25.i> — 16=1). (>, 6=11.2. We have also P=235.9 cubic feet of stone; hence by formula (1), Art. 0,
tons of a cubic foot of stone.
If now at the points of intersection of the horizontal through the point of application of Q at the crown, with the verticals passing through the centres of gravity of the surfaces given in column (S), [Pj, P2, - - -, of Fig. 3], we combine these weights with Q, the points of intersection of the resultants of Q with these weights
sought.
For example, to determine where the line of resistance cuts joint 4, lay off the distance in column (C), 11.3 horizontally from the crown, then on a vertical lay off upward from this point the corresponding weight on joint 4, given in column (S) 144.5 ; drawing a horizontal line through the last point found=Q = 20^, we get the resultant by completing the triangle of forces.
sure on that joint. It will be advisable, in practice, to prick off the centres of gravity, taken from column (C), at one operation and number each one with the number of the corresponding joint to avoid mistake.
On continuing this construction for each joint, we shall find that the line of resistance remains within the inner third of the arch ring.
It may be remarked that the small triangle mentioned is in excess only for the joint in question; thus this error is not carried on.
The ordinary method of constructing a line of pressures is to combine any resultant with the next weight following, regarded as concentrated at its centre of gravity. By this construction any small error in draughting is carried on, whereas, by the former method, it is confined only to the joint where it occurs first.
With accurate instruments and care, using a sufficiently large scale, this method should answer all the requirements of accuracy, and will generally be found the
shortest in the end; whereas, with many joints, it is difficult to locate this curve precisely by the ordinary method.
We have made use in the above example, of formula (1) to compute the thrust at the crown. This can preferably be found without computation, as follows: at the point H on the horizontal through the crown, lay off, to the scale of force, vertically upwards the weight of half arch and load = #35.!.) and through the extremity of the line, draw an indefinite horizontal. The intersection of the latter with the line drawn through the point <> first mentioned and the assumed centre of pressure on joint f>, will cut off a distance on this horizontal, equal to Q to the scale of force. This value of Q is then to be laid off in constructing all the other triangles of force. This method can likewise be followed in the next example if preferred.
9. Second Example. — (Fig. 7.) Suppose a load of two 40-ton engines, one on each side of the crown, over divisions 2, 3, and 4, i. e., 15 ft. along the rails. We shall suppose it to bear only on 6 ft. of the thickness of the viaduct. Calling the weight of a cubic foot of stone = .07 ton and A, the height of the block of stone 15 ft. long by 6 ft. wide that is required to weigh as much as one engine; we have 6 X 15 X h .07 =40 .-./*= 6.3.
We now form the following table which refers to Fig. 7, which, as the arch and load is symmetrical, represents, as before, only one-half the arch.
A line of resistance passing through the middle 01 the crown, the point on the springing joint, as before, will be found to be contained inside of the limiting curves, and is drawn as in Fig. 7, taking care to lay off the centres of gravity on the prolongation of Q. We find in this case a = 25. 6 — 15 = 10.6, P=330, 6=10.7.
If it is desired to draw the curve corresponding to the minimum of the thrust in the limits chosen (see Art. 19.) we resort to equations (2; and (3). As the nearest approach of the last line of pressures drawn to the outside limiting curve, is at joint 2 ; pass a curve of resistance through the point of intersection of that outside limiting curve with the second joint and the previous point at the springing joint. We find P= 330, a— 10 6, <?=9.8 and from table 2, column (S)Pi = S9; from column (c) and the drawing a! =9. 8 — 6 = 3.8.
Laying off this latter distance, from the summit of the arch ring, downwards, we draw the curve as before. It is everywhere within the proper limits, and of course touches the upper middle third limit at joint 2 and the lower middle third limit at joint 6, as assumed.
If we suppose a weight of 13.3 tons to rest on division 3 on both sides of the crown, along 5 ft. of the length of the rails, we shall find by forming a table and constructing the line of resistance as in the last case above, that it passes slightly below the upper limit at the crown, and is everywhere contained in the middle third of the arch ring.
A curve of resistance for a uniform load of 1.5 tons per foot along the whole length of the bridge can be drawn to follow very closely the curve drawn in the first example.
One or two more suppositions of isolated weights, symmetrically placed, were made, but in all cases it was found that a curve of resistance could easily be drawn in the inner third of the arch ring. The thrust is too small to fear crushing, and the directions of the thrust are inclined to the normals of the arch joints at angles much smaller than the angles of friction, hence sliding is not to be feared.
The curves of resistance drawn in the preceding examples are not necessarily the true ones, otherwise we should at once conclude that thus far the arch had stability. The true curve depends upon the elastic yielding of the arch to the weights acting on it and we shall see later how the aid of a few principles from the theory of elasticity will enable us to locate it approximately. For the present, we shall continue the subject by showing how
any trial line of resistance can be made to pass through any three points of an arch ring, either unsymmetrical or unsyminetrically loaded. The method first given below requires the solution of some equations: subsequently in Art. 15 a purely graphical method is developed which will doubtless generally be preferred.
10. In unsymmetrical arches, or arches unsymmetrically loaded, there is a joint, EF (Fig. 8), generally near the crown, at which the thrust is horizontal. Where the arch is only solicited by vertical forces, by compounding them with this thrust, as before, we find the resultants on every joint, and it is evident in this case that the horizontal thrust is the same all through the arch.
It is more convenient however, to find the inclined thrust at the crown and combine the partial weights with it, to find the resultant on each joint.
Q, the horizontal thrust, i. e. the horizontal component of any one whatsoever of the pressures acting through I, L, K. ;
P, the vertical component of the pressure S at the crown joint, which will be considered positive, if it is directed upwards, as regards pressure from the right part upon the left.
Let <?, be the vertical distance of the point of application of S below the horizontal ACB; (fv hi'y 9v h* ; 9v h*> the horizontal and vertical co-ordinates of I, K and L as to the point C as the origin ;
P1, P11, P111, the vertical components of the pressures acting through I, K and L; P1? P2, P3, the weights of the segments C , I, CK, CL, with their loads ;
#i> <32> as, the horizontal distances of the centres of gravity of these segments CI, CK, CL, from the points I, K and L respectively.
Observe that arch CI is in equilibrium under the action of the left reaction tPl acting up and Q acting to the right being its components) the thrust S at the crown (P acting up and Q acting to left being its components) and the weight of arch CI and load Pl acting downwards.
Similarly, the part CK is in equilibrium under the action of P'' (acting up) and Q (acting to left) at K, the force P (acting down) and Q (acting to the right) at the crown and the weight P2.
Lastly, the part CL can be dissociated from the rest and conceived to be in equilibrium under the action of the reaction at L acting upwards, the forces P (acting up) and Q (acting to the left) at the crown and the weight P3 of CL and load.
Balancing vertical components for the parts CI and CK respectively, we have, P'-fP^P, ........................ (1)
Next taking moments about I, K and L of the forces holding in equilibrium the part CI, CK and CL respectively.
If the third given point L of the curve of pressures is upon the joint at the crown C, the value of q is known, and we have : gs = o, h3 = q, P8 = O. From eqs. (3) and (4) we find
* Add-(4) and (3) and call the sum eq. (11); also subtract (5) from (3.) Place the values of Q equal to each other in this last eq. and eq. (11); reducing, bearing in mind that do-c?:j =dlf e.2-e3 = ci, &c., we find P as in eq. (8). Substitute this value of P just found in eq. (11) and deduce Q. which gives eq. (9). Eqs. (6) and (5) are only particular cases of eqs. (8), (9) and (10) when P;j = O.
Example 1. Fig. 9 represents the same viaduct, before considered in Art. 8, with a load of 40 tons on 15 feet of length over divisions "<?, 3 and 4, on one side of the arch only. The table of Art. 8 refers to the right half of the arch : the table of article 0 to the left side.
Let us pass a curve of resistance through the middle of the crown and through a point on each springing joint, y^ depth joint above its lower edge.
From M, the middle of the crown joint, lay off downwards MN=P, alsoNH=Q on the horizontal through N; MH will then represent tl on the crown joint
in direction, position and magnitude; and by combining it with the weight of each artificial voussoir and load, on each side of the crown, each acting through its centre of gravity, we evidently obtain the resultants on the various joints in direction, position and magnitude, and therefore can trace the curve of pressures. For example, to find the resultant on the third joint on the left side of the arch : draw a horizontal line through M and lay off on it the distance of the centre of gravity of the three first divisions, from M, which by Table 2 ( Art.8) , column C, is found to be 8.8.
Draw a vertical through this point and from its point of intersection with MH, lay off upwards the weight 159 (column S) of the three divisions in question.
From the upper extremity of this last line draw a line || and equal to MH; completing the parallelogram of forces as per figure, the point where the resultant cuts joint 3 is the centre of pressure of that joint, and the resultant is given in magnitude, position and direction by the diagonal.
the same.
The nearest approach of the curve of pressures to the extraclos is on joint 1, of the left side of the arch, where it is only three-tenths (.3) of a foot (on a large scale drawing it was found to be .35) from the edge. The nearest approach to the intrados is at joints 3, 4 and 5 on the right, being only about .7 to .75 from the edges at those joints.
Example 2 Draw a line of resistance for the bridge, loaded as above, through the lower middle third limit at the left springing, the upper middle third limit at the right springing and at a point on the crown joint 1. 1 ft. above the intrados. It passes above the middle third limit at joint 2 on the loaded side, its maximum departure, and just touches the lower limit at joints 1 and 2 on the unloaded side.
Example 3. By aid of formulas (8), (9) and (10), draw a line of resistance through the lower middle third limit at the left springing and the upper middle third limit at joint
right springing joint.
The thrust at the crown will be found now to act 0.76ft. below the centre of the joint, its horizontal component being 294 cu. ft. and its vertical component 18 cu. ft. The line of resistance everywhere keeps within the middle third limits except at joints 1 and 2 on the right where it passes O.U and 0.12 respectively below the limit.
third of the arch ring.
If the backing is raised higher, thus making the bridge weigh more, a rolling load will have less effect upon it . hence a less depth of keystone may be used. Other things {he same, it is a simple question of economy, considering the approaches, whether to increase the height of surcharge above the arch ring, or the depth of the arch stones.
Fig. 10 shows the effect of rolling loads in different positions, on the piers; the middle bay not being loaded but with its own weight, the end spans as per figure. The resultants at the springing joints we have before determined; combining the two on any pier with the weight of pier, according to the usual rule for three forces not intersecting in one point, we obtain the final resultants on the bases of the piers.
It is seen from the figure that the 40 tons on both sides produces a more hurtful effect on the pier than a 40 ton load on one side only.
By combining the weight of abutment with the thrust on it, we find that the centre of pressure on the foundation course is sufficiently within the limits for most cases in practice.
The dotted line in the abutment gives
the centres of pressure of all the forces acting on each joint for the joints in question. For example, to find where this centre of pressure is on the springing line, produced, we combine the inclined resultant on the arch joint at the springing with the weight of the abutment above the springing line, acting through its centre of gravity. This resultant makes an angle with the vertical of only 23°, hence sliding on the springing course is not to be feared, if the abutment is solidly built.
necessarily the true ones.
Further on will be given a method of locating approximately, the true line of resistance for a well built arch, with thin mortar joints, between immovable abutments. The abutments in the figure are of such proportions as to be practically immovable, as the centre of pressure on the base is near its centre, but not so the piers. The first pier on the right tends to lean to the left, the second one to the right, This tendency is resisted too by the
central arch, which thus puts forth a stronger horizontal thrust than assumed, corresponding to a line of resistance passing nearer the intrados at the crown and the extrados at the skewbacks, the maximum efforts being produced when the line of resistance passes very near these curves so that no crushing ensues. We are not able to locate this line with our present knowledge, but it is plain that this central arch will put forth its maximum effort if necessary, to prevent much motion inwards of the tops of the piers, so that the centres of pressure on their bases will not depart as far from their centres as the figure shows. As there will be some motion however, it tends to cause the line of resistance of the other arches to travel down the skewbacks at the piers and to move up the crown joints, from the slight increase of span, thus giving rise to a less horizontal thrust from those arches, which again tends to correct the eccentricity of the thrust on the piers. If preferred, the lines of resistance can be redrawn in these arches, corresponding to a minimum thrust
(within reasonable limits) of the outer arches and a maximum thrust of the central arch, when the stability of the piers will be more apparent. Experience incli, cates that piers of the proportions shown are perfectly stable.
The method of finding the weights and centres of gravity given in Art. 7, although sufficiently correct for flat arches with a small depth of key, is not so for thick arches approaching the semicircular or elliptical in form. The following is suggested by the author as giving all desirable accuracy with but little more labor than Scheffler's method.
The arch is preferably divided into a number of equal voussoirs (see Fig. 11), and the vertical lines drawn from the upper ends of the joints to the reduced contour of the surcharge, divides the latter into trapezoids. As before, we draw the medial dotted lines, which will be assumed to pass through the centres of gravity of the trapezoids, though the latter can be found exactly by the usual graphical con-
struction if desired. The area of a trapezoid — width X mean height =: w v. On multiplying the area by the distance from the crown to the medial line of the trapezoid (c) we have the moment m = (w v) c« about the crown, for any trapezoid.
The quantities vr, v, s, c and m for Fig. 11 are entered in the table below, being the upper numbers corresponding to the joint given in the first vertical column. The corresponding quantities for the voussoirs are the lowest numbers of the horizontal rows.
Calling r, in Fig. 11, the radius of the extrados, rl9 that of the intrados and n the proportion of the circumference included by the voussoir, we have its content
ure the middle length and depth on a drawing, their product will give the required volume of a voussoir (= 2.35 = 4.7 in this case).
Tlie centres of gravity of the voussoirs will be assumed to lie on the (dotted) centre line of the* arch ring and midway between the joints; the distances from these points to the vertical through the crown give the arms in column (c). The volume (4.7) of a voussoir multiplied by its c, gives the corresponding ID of the table.
This manner of considering the voussoirs and surcharge separately is continued, until in columns S and M the quantities referring to the same joint are combined by the continued addition of the quantities in colums (s) and (ni) respectively.
If the voussoirs are taken the same size, there is really no necessity of entering their dimensions; simply giving their common area in column (s).
accuracy.
Concentrated loads on the arch are easily included by introducing a third row of numbers, for any voussoir affected, just above those given for the trapezoids as will be fully explained in a subsequent article.
Let fig. l'-> represent a semi-circular arch of Inn ft. span, :> ft. key and o ft. depth of surcharge over the crown of the same specific gravity as the voussoir. The live load extends from the crown to the right abutment and weighs .'),<•< M> pounds per foot of rails. If this bears on a width of <] feet it is equivalent to a layer of stone of the same density as the voussoir (15<> Ibs. pr. cu. ft.) 3. 4 ft. high, as shown in the figure.
The spandrel was divided up by vertical lines, ."> ft. apart for 4" ft. from the crown, then 2 ft. apart for the next 10 ft., and 1 ft. apart for the remaining 3 feet. The joints 1, 2, 3, . . . are then drawn as in the figure.
The following is a condensed table of loads (S in cubic feet) and distances from the crown to their centres of gravity (C».
Let us pass a line of resistance onetwelfth the depth of arch ring below the centres of joints 8 and the crown joint, or through a, c and m. By the formula method of art. 10 we find by aid of a drawing, &c., P = — 32. S, Q = 444.H. (It will be instructive for the reader to test these values by the purely graphical method of art. 15, which is generally to be preferred).
at the crown joint.
Lay off on om produced mo to the left and equal to om. Through the points o thus determined, draw_verticals and lay off from o the distances 01, 02, - - , equal to the values of S pertaining to joints 1,2,
, as taken from the tables pertaining
to the right and left sides respectively. Straight lines from m to 1, 2, - - , represent the resultants of the thrust at crown and load down to joints 1, 2, - - - , in magnitude. Their positions are found as follows : draw a horizontal through ra, and
lay off on it the numbers in column C; the first table referring to the left half of the arch, the last table to the right half.
From the points so found draw vertical lines to intersection with wo, produced if necessary, which thus give the points where the inclined thrust at in is to be combined with the weight from the crown to any joint, to find the resultant on that joint; whose intersection with it is thus the centre of pressure for that joint.
Thus the weight from the crown to joint 8 on the left, acts 25' to left of m\ lay off 25' on the horizontal through m, then drop a vertical to intersection b with mo; then draw ~ba \\ mS of force diagram for left of arch, to find a the center of pressure for joint 8. Similarly d and c are found for joint 8 on the right. These should be the first constructions made to test the values of P and Q found, which correspond to the line of resistance passing through a, m and c.
es below the middle third of the arch ring
on the unloaded side, the following amounts in feet: at joints 2, 3, 4, ."> and <), .o, .4, .3, .2 and .1 respectively; it then crosses the arch ring, passes above the middle third about joint 12, and cuts the springing joint 4.5 feet outside of the arch ring.
On the loaded side it passes above the middle third 0.1 at joints 4 and 5; then crosses the centre line and is just tangent to the lower middle third limit at joint 10, below which it again crosses the arch ring and passes into the abutment, cuttingjoint 10 about 3 feet outside of the arch ring.
JZxercise. Draw a line of resistance for the part a m c regarded as a segrnental arch, through the upper middle third limit at joint 8 on the left, the lower limit at joint 8 on the right and 1,25 ft. above the intrados at the crown.
We should find P= -23.8, Q = 44'.U and the line of resistance everywhere keeps within the middle third, barely touching the lower limit at joint 2 on the left and passing 0.10 ft. inside of the upper limit at
joint o on the right and corresponding nearly to the maximum and minimum of tlie thrust in the limits of the middle third (see Art. 20). The span of the arch amc is 75.45 feet, the rise 17.2 ft. or between % and V5 of the span.
If for a moment we regard the unaided semi-circular arch first considered; since the line of resistance (or in fact any line of resistance that can be drawn inside the arch ring of the upper portion) passes outside the arch ring at the abutments, the arch will fall, the parts S-10 rotating outwards about joints K> and the crown descending. But with spandrels built of solid masonry up to about joints 8 (called the joints of rupture), the parts 8-16 can be regarded as almost immovable and the part a m c can be approximately treated as a segimental arch on fixed abutments.
However, as the higher the abutments the more their tops will yield to a horizontal thrust, the depth of arch ring determined for the segimental arch a m c, regarded as resting on immovable abutments, should be slightly increased to
allow for the slight horizontal spreading at a and c. This spreading is due partly to the elastic yielding of the abutment from 8 down to the foundation and partly to the closing up the joints of the rather fresh mortar in the vertical joints of the spandrels when the centres are struck.
Some constructors, especially the French engineers, increase the depth of arch ring from the crown to the abutments so that the true line of resistance shall not leave the middle third (or other limits) anywhere. This is, of course, the best way to build a semi-circular or elliptical arch, the abutments being built with joints inclined (about at right angles to the thrust) and in fact treated as a part of the arch in finding the true line of resistance.
POLYGON.
In Fig. 13, representing half an arch, suppose the thrust S at the crown is known in position, direction and magnitude and that the weights P1? P2 and P3 of the sue-
cessive voussoirs 01, 12, '23 and loads, have been found and laid off in position as shown. From some convenient point O, draw a line parallel to in nQ9 the direction of the thrust S at the crown acting at m,
the points 1, 2 and 3 with O by straight
lines. These lines are called rays, O is the pole and the figure is known as the /*'>•/ w diagram. The rays Ol, O2, O3, represent the resultants on the joints 1, ^', '), respectively in magnitude and direction. To find their position on the arch, produce the thrust S at m to intersection n} with P. ; from this point, draw a line parallel to ray Ol of the force diagram, intersecting joint 1 at <7; produce this line on to intersection <1 with P2, at which point draw a parallel to ray O2, intersecting joint 2 at 1> ; again produce the last line on to intersection f with P2, at which point, draw a parallel to ray O3 to intersection c with joint 3. The points </, &, c, are the centres of pressure on joints 1, '2, 3 and a broken line connecting in with a, a with 6 and & with c (dotted line) is the line of resistance. This method of combining each resultant thrust on a j oint, with the weight of next voussoir and load to find the resultant on the next lower joint, is open to the objection that any error made is carried on, whereas, by previous methods, any error made in construction is confined to
Jie joint in question. The polygon m ;/, If is called an equilibrium polygon, and we note that it does not coincide with the line of resistance; also that it passes through the centres of resistance a and &, but does not pass through c ; hence an equilibrium polygon may pass out of the arch ring at certain points and yet the centres of resistance on the joints be found in the arch ring; so that it cannot be used alone in testing the stability of an arch ring, particularly for semi-cicular arches, though it is generally sufficiently near the truth for flat arcs.
If we produce /' c/, which gives the direction of the pressure on joint 2 to intersection n2 with in ul produced, we have n2, a point in the vertical through the centre of gravity of the part of the arch from the crown to joint '2. This is true, because we know that we must combine S at the crown, with the weight of arch from O to ^ (Pj+P2) at such a point on the line of action of S as to give a resultant on joint ^ that will coincide in position and direction with the former
resultant d /'. The only point that satisfies this condition is ng which proves the statement. Similarly/' c produced to intersection with m n^ at ?*3 gives a point in the vertical passing through the centre of gravity of first three voussoirs and load.
Conversely, if by previous methods we compute the horizontal distances of n,, n2j n3, from the crown and thus fix the points n1? n2, ns in position, and then find the resultants on joints 1, "2 and 3 by drawing lines from n1? ng and ns parallel to rays Ol, O2, O3, to intersections a, b and c with joints 1, 2 and 3, these resultants produced to intersection will form sides of the equilibrium ^polygon m nl df.
ing the theory of the solid arch further on.
(13a.) Sometimes the position of the thrust at the crown is not given, but the thrust at the lower joint 3 (ray O3) is given, passing through c. In this case, P,, P2 and P3 having been laid off in position and the force diagram constructed, draw from c a line parallel to ray O3, to intersection f with P3 ; then a line parallel to ray O2,
from f to intersection d with P2 ; next a line from d parallel to ray Ol, to intersection na with P1 ; lastly, draw from ul a line parallel to ray Go = S, to intersection in with crown joint; giving thus the same equilibrium polygon m 7^1 df as before, and the same line of resistance m a b c determined as above.
Let Fig. 14 represent an arch, or a portion of an arch, of any kind, loaded in any manner, the joints through A and B being any two joints whatsoever, and the joint through I being any intermediate joint.
Call W the weight of arch and load included between joints A and B, W and W" the weights of arch and load included between joints A and I and joints I and B respectively, 1' = horizontal distance from the vertical through the centre of gravity of W to point I. Assume the thrust upon , the joint at I as having the direction Z I H and at the point H, where it intersects the vertical through the centre of gravity
of the thrust upon the joint at A, the point
C lying upon the vertical through A and either above or below it, or in fact coinciding with it as a special case.
In the force diagram below let the vertical Q P, to any scale, represent W, Q G= W", and G P = W; then on drawing a line through P, parallel to H C, and a line through G parallel to H I, their intersection gives the pole O; so that drawing through Z a parallel to Q O to intersection with the vertical through B, we establish the point D. Connect C arid D by a straight line, called the closing line, the vertical through I meeting it at E and the perpendicular let fall from I upon it meeting it at X Next, through the pole O, draw a line O M parallel to C I) to intersection M with Q P and call the length O M = T and M P— V. These lengths represent the two components of the resultant P O which acts along the line C H in true position. The two resultants, whose intensities are P O and O Q, acting up along the lines C H and D Z respectively, support the weight of the arch, or with the components of the weight of the arch, form a system in equilibrium.
tion into two components, one vertical
acting from C towards S at a horizontal distance a from the vertical through I, and the other acting from C towards D.
The intensities of these two components are given by the lines PM= V and OM = T in the force diagram, though they are represented in the figure above to a diminished scale.
Now if we suppose the part of the arch to the right of the joint through I to be removed and its action on the left part to be replaced by the resultant pressure it exerts at I ( = O G of force diagram) acting to the le% the left part of the arch, extending from joint I to A, is evidently in equilibrium under the action of this force, the. weight W of this part AI with load and the two components V and T at C.
Now the moment T. IX is equal is II.
IE; since, if at the point E we decompose T (acting along CD) into vertical and horizontal components, the moment of the former about I is zero and the moment of the latter =H. IE, which is thus equal to the moment of T about I = T. IX, whence, Va-WT=H. IE.
Similarly if we conceive drawn another equilibrium polygon A K J Y B, with pole O', passing through the points A, J and B in the verticals through C, I and D respectively, we should have
where V is the component AR directed vertically, T' the one along AB, of the left reaction acting from A towards K arid H1 is the new pole distance.
The resultant whose line of action is KJY, is the resultant on the joint passing through I or the previous joint considered, J being simply a point on that resultant in the vertical through I, but not on the' joint, unless the latter is vertical. It follows that W is unaltered and it remains to be proved that V=V.
We have, from the first equilibrium polygon the system of forces V and T acting at C, the weight of arch and load W acting I to left of vertical B D, and lastly the resultant reaction at D, all together constituting a system of forces in equilibrium. Hence taking moments about D, we have (AL being horizontal)
Similarly, from the second equilibrium polygon, we see that the forces V, T', W and the reaction at B, constitute a system of forces in equilibrium; hence taking moments about B, we have
since the right members are equal in the last two equations, it follows that V=V ; whence the left members of the two equations preceding the last two are equal and we have
the closing lines CD and AB.
The above conclusions equally hold if the weights W, W" are replaced by their components, Representing the weights of successive voussoirs and loads, and the equilibrium polygon is drawn for the entire system, since the pressures on joints A, I and B are not altered by the decomposition ; whence the previous formulas all hold and the principles in question are established as before.
The reader who is acquainted with the principles of the equilibrium polygon will recognize that C H Z I) is the equilibrium polygon for the vertical forces V ( = PM at C, W at H, W" at Z and a vertical force = MQ in intensity, at B.
proves that the moment of all the vertical forces to the left of a point I is exactly equal to the pole distance H measured to the scale of force, multiplied by the vertical distance from I to the line CD (known as the closing line) measured to the scale of distance.
Similarly since V'=V, the same moment is equal to H'.JF as shown above or the principle is generally true for any equilibrium polygon drawn as above.
As in drawing a line of resistance it is generally most convenient to know the thrust on the vertical joint U at the crown in position, direction and magnitude, the method of finding it for the polygon whose pole is O', will now be indicated. At the intersection of JY witli the vertical through the centre of gravity of the portion of the arch included between joints U and I with its load, combine the thrust at J ( = G O' in force diagram), acting from left to right, with the weight of the portion considered =WG on force diagram, giving the thrust at the crown = O'W ini magnitude and direction. We find it in position by drawing through the above intersection a line parallel to O'W as as shown by the small arrow. From this thrust at the crown we draw the line of resistance right and left of the crown in the usual manner.
If the joint through I is the vertical
crown joint, then KJY is at once the line of action of the thrust there, its magnitude being equal to O'G in the force diagram.
Where the joint through I is near A, it may happen, particularly when »the tangent to the centre line of the arch ring near A is nearly vertical, that the vertical through the centre of gravity of W or the weight from joint I to joint A with load, lies to the left of A.
On constructing the figure, however, it will be found that all of the previous equations hold, so that the above conclusions are generally true.
The principle proved above, enables us to draw an equilibrium polygon through any three points, as A, J and B of an arch. To do this take I (Fig. 14) on a vertical through J, draw the joint through I and find the values and positions of W and W".
Then, as detailed above, draw the trial equilibrium polygon C H I Z D corresponding to pole O, the points C and D being in the verticles through A and B.
The equilibrium polygon A K J Y B can now be directly drawn, beginning at A, J or B at pleasure, as it must pass through these points. Thus beginning at J, we draw KY || O'G to intersections K and Y with W and W"; then lines parallel to PO' and O'Q through K and Y respectively should pass through A and B.
In Fig. 15 is snown an arch of 75 feet span, 15 feet rise and 7.5 feet depth of keystone, the top of the backing rising to 2 feet above the top of arch ring. The specific gravity of this backing is supposed to be 0.8 of the masonry of the arch ring, and the heights above the arch ring are reduced to eight- tenths of the original on both sides of the arch, though it is
only shown on the rignt half to avoid confusion of lines. Cooper's class " extra heavy A " locomotive is placed over the left half in the position shown. The weight on each pair of wheels will be supposed to bear on the length and width of a cross tie, and to be transmitted vertically downwards. If we regard the cross ties as 8 feet in length, the weight per foot of length for drivers, is 15 -r-- 8 short tons which is equivalent in weight to 20.8 cubic feet of stone, weighing .07 ton or 140 Ibs. per cubic foot. This supposes the ring stones to be made of stone of this specific gravity which corresponds to good sandstone masonry.
The 'equivalent for the pilot and tender wheels are 14.3 and 10.1 cubic feet respectively. These weights, resting on the successsive voussoirs through the spandrels, are given in column s, Table II (upper numbers), their distances from the crown are given in column c and their moments about the crown in column m. The lower numbers pertaining to any t, in columns s and m refer to the un-
loaded half and are found from Table I by summing up the corresponding quantities for any joint which are made out as explained in Art. 11.
It will be observed that the division of the arch ring is different from that hitherto used. As we shall use this division in a subsequent article, from considerations pertaining to the theory of the solid arch, we shall state that the centre line of the arch ring is divided into 32 equal parts (2.77 ft. long each), and then the voussoir joints are taken in succession two divisions apart, except for the two voussoirs next the springing and the two next the crown where only one division is taken. This division of the arch ring is easily made with dividers. The volume of each small voussoir is 2.77x7.5 = 20.8 and the large ones have a volume = 2 X 20.8 ~ 41.6 cubic feet. The horizontal distances from the centre of each voussoir (taken on centre line) to the crown are the lowest numbers of column c, Table 1. The columns S, }.•: and C in either table are made out as usual (see Art. 11).
All the computations in these and similar subsequent tables were made with a in. inch slide rule, which ensures sufficient accuracy with but small mental wear and tear.
If it is desired to pass a line of resistance through the points A and B at the springing joints and through J on the 5th joint, we first draw the load line C 870 ... o for the left half of arch and lay off on it from Table II, column S, 08=25, 07 = 'X>, etc.; also from column C lay off the successive distances, on a horizontal (dotted) line through the crown, to the verticals through the centres of gravity of the loads from the crown to any joint. Similarly C' '.>, . . . , 17 is the load line for the right half and Y Z is a vertical through its centre of gravity.
We now assume the thrust at the crown to act along same line HZ and draw rays CO and C'O' parallel to it; at the point H where this line meets the vertical through the centre of gravity of the left half of the arch and load, draw H A. Then draw a ray from o in left load line, parallel to II A to intersection with ray C O at O, thus fixing the pole O. Make C' O' = C O to fix the right pole, since C O gives the magnitude of the thrust at the crown.
The thrust at crown meets Y Z at Z5
from which point draw a parallel to ray O' — IT to intersection D with the vertical through B. Connect A, D and A, B and mark the points E and F where they are intersected by a vertical through J.
At the point where the trial crown thrust meets the vertical through the centre of gravity of arch and load from crown to joint 5, 10.^ ft. to left of crown (Table II) draw a parallel to ray Oo to intersection I with the vertical through J.
Through the trial pole O (as in Art. 14) draw O M || A D to intersection M with load line ; then draw M P || A B a distance to the right whose horizontal projection is,
F are rather short, double them and lay of along same line C R through C, C L = '2 x JF, CH = '2 x IE. Then if Sis the intersection of a horizontal line through C and a vertical through O, connect L and S and draw R Q parallel to L S to intersection Q with C S produced, which construction gives H' = C Q. A vertical through Q to intersect M P at P gives the new pole
P. At the right, draw ray C' P ' parallel and equal to a ray from P to C (not drawn) and we have the new pole P' at the right.
We have only now to draw through J a line parallel to ray Po to intersection T with the line of action of the weight from the crown to joint 5, to fix a point T in the line of action of the new thrust at the crown.
Through T draw a line parallel to PC, and from the intersections K and Y of this line with the verticals through H and Z draw lines parallel to rays Go and O'-IT respectively, which lines should pass through A and B if the work has been done correctly.
If this does not obtain the error is perhaps largely due to not taking off the lengths IE and JF (with dividers, never with scale) with sufficient accuracy. At any rate, the construction must be repeated if necessary until the line of resistance will pass through the three points A, B and J.
The centre of resistance on any joint is found in a similar manner to that already given for the springing joint B. The
broken line connecting the centres of resistance on all the joints is shown by the clotted line to pass near the centre line throughout, which is due to the great depth of arch ring chosen in this case for the sake of a clear figure.
When the point J is on the crown joint, take I to coincide with it and draw the line of action HZ of the trial thrust at the crown through I = J. The construction then proceeds as before, only the final thrust at the crown, K Y, is now drawn through 1= J parallel to ray PC.
The graphical methods given above of determining completely the thrust at the crown for a line of pressures passing through any three points in the arch ring will probably be preferred to the analytical methods of Art. 10.
The preceding article indicates the entire construction for the case represented by Fig. 15. Let the reader repeat this construction on a scale of 3 or 4 feet to the inch and compare with the numerical values of the components of the thrust at the crown found by the formula method.
pass a line of pressures through the lower middle third limit at the left springing and through the upper middle third limits at joint 2 on the left and at the springing joint on the right. With a scale of 30 feet to the inch it is found that the thrust at the crown acts 0.76 foot below the centre of the joint, its horizontal component being ; 294 cu. ft., vertical component 18 cu. ft.
In Fig. 16, e, c a represents an unsymmetrical arch, or an arch acted on by forces not symmetrical, vertical or inclined.
acting on the arch between a and c, not including the reaction R at a. Then on combining R=a& with P, we get the centre of pressure c on the joint cc^ Similarly we could proceed for other points, b9 d, e, of the curve of resistance, corresponding to the resultant R=.o&7 acting through a in the direction ak.
Let al b cl d e^ be a second curve, corresponding to the reaction R' at a^ Now if S is such a force, acting towards the left, that when combined with R, it gives R' as a resultant, we can find a point cl9 on joint cc,, of the new curve of resistance, either by combining R' with P as before, or by combining its components with P : thus call the resultant of R and P, T; this combined at I with S, gives a resultant which cuts joint c c^ at t\, a point lying between Id and c, Id being in the direction of s produced.
By this construction it is seen that the new curve of resistance, corresponding to the reaction R' at a', passes through b and d, the points where k I intersects the first curve of resistance; for other joints, as eeiy the new curve lies nearer kl than the first curve; since when S acts to the left, the combination of T, for any joint, with S, gives a resultant acting between T and S, which therefore cuts the joint nearer kl than the first center of pressure.
S are vertical, but that both act to the
left, whence the horizontal component of R' exceeds that of R. The joints are, moreover, not supposed inclined more than !K)° from the vertical, counting from the top.
17. Prop. If two curves of resistance cut each other, the curve which lies nearest the straight line, which joins their common points, corresponds to the greatest horizontal thrust.
We have seen in the preceding article that the two curves can only intersect on the straight line k I (Fig. 10) as implied in the proposition.
Now if, at any joint c c}, the centre of pressure cl9 corresponding to the curve al b cl del9 lies nearer kl, the straight line joining b and d, than the curve abcde, then we may suppose a force S, acting in the direction kl, to be combined with T at I, to effect it. The force S, thus found, must therefore, when combined with R at a give R'; since R and S produce, the same effect as R'; so that all points of the first curve can be found by combining R with the resultant of the force P, up to
resultant with S.
The force S, acting to the left, increases the horizontal component of the resultants on each joint; hence the curve a^bc^de^ corresponds to a greater horizontal thrust than the curve abed e, as stated in the proposition.
If the arch is symmetrical, the curves of pressure are symmetrical with respect to the crown, whence kl must be horizontal.
18. (1). If a cure e of resistance has two points common to the intrados and an intermediate point common to the extrados, it corresponds to the minimum horizontal thrust.
For, suppose the curve a b c d e^ Fig. 16, touches the extrados near c, the intrados on both sides nearer the abutments.
Then any other curve of resistance, al b cl d e^ that remains in the arch ring, must cut the first, only in points on the straight line kl, joining any two points of intersection.
tour curves of the arch ring, must, if it remains in the arch ring, pass nearer kl than the first curve, whence, by Prop. Art. 17, the first curve corresponds to a less horizontal thrust. Q.E.D.
(2). If (f <<f<rre of resistance, a b c dc, Fig. 17, has two points of' contact, b and '7, with the extrados, and <m intermediate point of contact c -with the intrados, it corresponds to a iidninnwn horizontal thrust, if b c dy in the vicinity of c, lies
line bd,
For any other curve, lying in the arch ring, as the dotted curve, must lie nearer the straight line kl, joining their points of intersection, than the first, in the vicinity of b c and d, and thus corresponds to a greater horizontal thrust. This case of
in practice.
(3). If) however , the intrados, in the vicinity of c lies between the curve b c d, Fig. 18, and the straight line bd> the curve corresponds to <i imurinnuu horizontal thrust ; since this curve lies nearer Id than any other, as the dotted curve of resistance.
bd, whereas the reverse occurs in Fig. 17.
When a curve of resistance possesses both the properties of the maximum and minimum of the thrust, the arch is at the limit of stability; as see all the figures relating to the experiments in the Appendix. The above principles were first stated by Dr. Herman Schetfier.
ance are symmetrical with respect to the vertical through the crown; hence for a half arch and load we can state the following propositions :
(1). When the point of contact with the extrados is higher than the point of contact with the intrados, the curve of resistance corresponds to the minimum horizontal thrust.
(:i). When the point of contact with the extrados is lower than the point of contact with the intr ados, the curve of resistance corresponds to the maximum horizontal thrust. It generally touches the intrados at the crown joint.
The curve corresponding to the minimum thrust generally touches the extrados at the crown for usual loads and depths of arch ring; but for thin arch rings with little or no surcharge above the crown, especially with gothic arches, the curve of resistance passes below the crown and touches the extrados at some lower point. This likewise may happen, even for segmental arches of usual depth, when a heavy load is placed over the middle of either
haunch, as shown in Art. 9 for the curves drawn corresponding to the minimum horizontal thrust within the middle third limits.
For segmental arches, the lower point of contact for either maximum or minimum thrust is generally at the springing joint.
when we wish to find the maximum or
minimum thrust for curves contained within the middle third or any other limits, only we substitute the upper and lower limiting curves for extrados and intrados in the enunciations.
In Fig. 19 the dotted line represents a curve of resistance corresponding to the maximum and minimum of the thrust at the same time, within the limits shown.
The part a b c corresponds to the max. and
bed to the min. of the thrust within those limits; for b lies above a straight line drawn from a to c, Art. 18 (3), and c lies between b and d, Art. 18 (1).
In an arch by itself, if but one curve of resistance can be drawn within its contour curves, thus corresponding at once to the maximum and minimum thrust, the arch is at the limit of stability.
UNIT STRESSES AT ANY POINT OF A JOINT.
21. In Figure 3 of Article 5, the resultants of the molecular stresses on the joints ab, at b1? a2 b2, are Q, R15 R2, respectively. To find these stresses at any point of a joint as a2 b2. The resultant R2 on the joint a., b2 meets it at A2, whose distance from the nearest edge ( a2 A2 in this case) we shall call d. The joint is rectangular in shape ; its width perpendicular to the plane of the paper being unity, and its radial length a2 b2 we shall call h.
As R2 is generally inclined to the normal to the joint, resolve it at A2 into two components, the first, which call R, being normal to the joint and the other acting
parallel with the joint. The last component is a shearing force and undoubtedly lessens the resistance of the joint, but because its influence is difficult to estimate it is generally neglected.
It will first be assumed that the mortar in the joint can withstand both tension and compression, in which case R2 can fall outside the joint a2 b2 (Fig. :>), a distance d
measured along the line of the joint produced, and still stability be assured if the mortar possesses sufficient strength. Similarly for concrete arches. In Fig. *?<>, let B D represent the joint a2 b2 of Fig. o and at the point where the resultant on this joint cuts the joint or the joint produced, resolve it into shearing and normal compo-
nents ; neglecting the former, we have the normal component R, acting through a, a distance d -f- J£ h from the centre E of the joint (Fig. 20).
At the point E conceive two opposed forces -{-R,— R, equal and parallel to R to act. This does not destroy equilibrium. To avoid confusion + R and— R are drawn through A, a point in the normal to BD at E, but it is understood that A is supposed to coincide with E. The force R with the force— R forms a right-handed couple RR, that can be replaced by the equal couple pp or the forces, £,£'.... c', c, equal and opposed to the uniformly increasing tensible resistances from E to B and the compressive resistances from E to D, E lying in the centre of gravity of the crosssection.
From the theory of flexure, calling t = c the stress per square unit at the extreme edge B or D, we have the moment of the couple RR = M = R (d + % h) = V6 ch2 ; whence,
The remaining force + R at E (A), acting at the centre of gravity of the joint corresponds to a uniform compression,
As the forces given by (1) and (2) act at the same time, their algebraic sum or " effect " (see figure) gives the actual stresses along joint B D, which are thus seen to be uniformly increasing from a neutral axis, not passing through E. The tension at B = t— rand compression at D
As in voussoir arches the resultant rarely or never passes outside the arch ring, let us suppose hereafter that it cuts the joint to which it refers, in its interior a distance d from the nearest edge ; then we have,
As this theory supposes that the limit of elasticity has been nowhere exceeded, the stretch or shortening of the "fibres" is proportional to the stress and therefore to the distance from the neutral axis; hence
theory of beams.
It is seen from (3) that t — r is positive, or tension is exerted at B, for d < K h ; for d == K h, t — r = o or there is no
Hence when the resultant cuts the joint within its middle third there are only compressive forces exerted on the joint; when it passes outside the middle third, tensile
can supply them.
In the last case, if the mortar cannot resist tensile forces, the normal component of the resultant will be decomposed into stresses, over a length of joint 3d, pro-
This is plain, because we have just found that for d = }3 h, that od— h, was under compression, the stress at the farthest edge' from the resultant being nothing.
The stress at the most compressed edge is likewise double the average on the part of the joint under compression .*. it is
the mortar cannot resist tension.
The last formula and formula (4) suffice to give the maximum compression per square unit for the cases to which they refer, where the voussoirs are each in one block. In case the arch ring is made of several rolls as in brickwork or when we meet with joints transverse to the radial joints as we proceed along the latter, the above theory is only approximately true.
Example 1. In an arch of 5 feet radial length of joint at the springing, the resultant has a normal component of 73.36 tons and it acts 1 ft. below the centre of the joint.
at the intrados and extrados.
X'2. Iii the theory of the solid arch, which will be presently referred to, it is necessary to know the moment M of the resultant on any joint with respect to the centre of that joint. This may be expressed in three different ways: first, by the product of the resultant by the perpendicular from the centre of the joint upon it; second, by R ( }., h — d ) as above, since the shearing component has no moment, and lastly by multiplying the horizontal component of the resultant on any joint by the vertical distance from the centre of the joint to where a vertical through this
centre meets the resultant. This is plain, since at the intersection of the vertical with the resultant decompose the latter into vertical and horizontal components. The moment of the former about the centre of the joint is zero; hence the1 moment of the latter (the constant horizontal thrust of the arch ) is equal to that of the resultant itself.
In the appendix will be found an account of a number of experiments on small wooden arches at the limit of stability with their corresponding resistance lines, which, of course, correspond to the maximum and minimum thrust at the same time, within certain limits. (See art. '2 '.)
In the fourth experiment, irith a yieldUKJ pier, the top of the pier and the haunches of the arch moved outwards and the crown descended. In this case the limiting line of resistance (for the slightly deformed arch) touches the extrados at the crown, the intrados at the haunches and
witli yielding abutments.
With rigid abutments the method of failure for gothic or sequential arches, with a load at the crown is given by experiments one and eleven, and for an eccentricload by experiments sixteen and seventeen. The figures show the lines of resistance-. The .arches rotated about those edges •\vhich the lines of resistance approached nearest. As the arches were slightly deformed at the instant before rupture, if the resistance lines had been drawn for the deformed arch, they would necessarily have passed through the edges of the joints, as no crushing there was experienced for these very light wooden arches.
When arches having rigid abutments are built with too thin an arch ring, it is found that the arch fails by the crown rising and the haunches falling inward. TJie line of the centres of pressure passes through the intrados at the crown and
rotating about these edges; the upper segment turns upwards about the extrados edge at the haunches and the lower segment falls inwardly, rotating about the springs. The spandrels, if any, must crack over the springs, haunches and crown; the lower segments fall inwardly into the void between the abutments and are speedily followed by the upper part with the spandrels.
'could just contain one line of resistance and no more within the limits of the arch ring down to the lower joints of rupture, and that when the span was 2(J times the
could be inscribed within the middle third drawn to the lower joints of rupture. The lower joints of rupture made angles with the vertical of 07° in the first case and about fJ'-i0 in the second.
If we call s = span, h = rise, and k=. depth key, the following table gives Woodbury's limits of k in terms of the span for segmented arches of various ratios of Tito*; the first set of values k -=- s giving the ratios of depth of key to span which permits only one line of resistance to be drawn within the limits of the arch ring; the second set of values, the
ratios of k to s in order that only one line of resistance can be inscribed within the middle third of the arch ring. If the spandrel is carried above the crown, these
ratios will become less; but, if after the centres are struck, the spandrels are brought to a level with the top of keystone, the last ratios should certainly never become less or joints will open. In fact, if these values are attained the construction for the solid arch will give a line of resistance passing slightly outside of the middle third and thus bringing tensile stresses on fresh mortar at some of the joints. Properly, the spandrels should be built up progressively from key to abutment, so that the height at the key is attained before that at the abutment. As it will be well for the reader to test some of these values, it may be mentioned that for the first set of values above, the line of resistance touched the intrados at the crown, the extrados at the haunches, and the intrados at the springing. The curves limited to the middle third touched the lower limit at the crown and springing and the upper limit about the haunches.
Exercise. — When the span is 100 feet, rise 20 feet, and depth of key 4 feet ( V25 space), and the spandrel rises to a
single line of resistance.
The method of failure of segmental arches with rigid abutments and an eccentric load over the haunch of the left half may be illustrated by a reference to fig. 19. Conceive the arch ring to diminish in depth so that finally but one curve of resistance can be drawn therein. It will be found to touch the extrados to the left of the crown and at the right springing joint; it will touch the intrados at the left springing joint and a little to the right of the crown.
In a large arch, crushing at the edges is experienced before this minimum depth of arch ring is attained. In any case the arch will sink at the joints under the load, the joints at the intrados opening, whereas the arch ring rises a little to the right of the crown, since the pressure there is nearly all concentrated at the lower edge. At the left springing, the lower part of the arch rotates downwards about the lower edge and at the right springing about the upper edge of the joint. As a consequence,
the arch divides into three parts; the left part falling inwards, the middle portion rising at the right but falling at the left end and the right segment rotating upwards about the upper edge of the right springing joint.
In any kind of an arch, loaded in any manner, the method of failure is easily arrived at by simply studying the line of resistance pertaining to the case.
LENE OF RESISTANCE DETERMINED AS IN A SOLID ARCH. METHOD OF ISOLATED LOADS FOR SEGMENTAL ARCHES. COMPUTATION OF DEPTH OF KEYSTONE.
'^4. A great many approximate solutions have been proposed for the voussoir arch, but none satisfactory. The true line of resistance in an arch depends primarily upon its elasticity, and likewise upon the care with which the stones are cut and fitted, the thickness and yielding of the mortar joints, the settlement and time of striking of the centres if the mortar joints have not hardened, and finally the yielding of the piers or abutments. So many of these influences cannot be exactly estimated that the author has hesitated about applying the theory of the solid arch " fixed at the ends" to the voussoir arch, particularly on account of its complexity, though 111 Van Nostrand's Magazine for January and November, 1871), he claimed that the theory
of the solid arch was the most exact solution for the cases assumed, and a graphical treatment was given in the last named article, to which reference will be made further on.
From Prof. Swain's article in Van Nostrand's Magazine for October, 1880, it is to be inferred that the application of the theory of elasticity to the stone arch had already been considered by a few authors mentioned. In 187!) Winkler published his notable theorem (given in the article last mentioned) ; also Castigliano applied the theory of the solid arch, after the method of " least work," to stone arches. In the same year Prof. Greene, of the University of Michigan, published a more practical treatment, founded on the analytical theory of the circular arch, using the method of isolated loads.
In this chapter a method similar to Prof. Greene's is used, the tables, however, being obtained by aid of Winkler's tables, for the solid arch " fixed at the ends." The xp<r/i of the centre line of the arch ring was divided into equal parts, and the quan-
titles in the tables found for isolated loads at the points of division by interpolation (by aid of diagrams to a large scale), from Winkler's constants, which refer to equal angular divisions, though a few direct computations were made for loads very near the abutment. Winkler's theory and tables for the solid arch are given in Du Bois's " Graphical Statics," and the preliminary computations of cx and c2 were made out as explained in " Theory of feolid and Braced Arches" by the writer, p. 00, the deformation of the arch ring, due to bending moments, being alone considered. The general table given in this chapter refers only to arches whose rise is one fifth of the span. The method of equal horizontal divisions adopted here offers great practical advantages, and enables one with small labor, comparatively, to investigate the strength and stability of a given stone arch. The position of the lice load causing maximum departures of the centres of pressure from the centres of the joints, is more accurately ascertained than hitherto, and some unexpected conclusions were established.
25. The theory of the solid arch " fixed at the ends," is strictly applicable to a solid arch of stone, iron or other material perfectly fitted, when not under stress, to rigid abutments, the theory requiring three conditions to be satisfied, viz.: (1) the tangents to the centre line at the springs are fixed in position, (2) span invariable, and (o) the vertical displacement of one springing above the other equals zero; all having reference to the deformation of the arch ring due to the stresses caused by its own weight and any load that may be applied.
The theory is evidently rigidly applicable to a voussoir arch, with no mortar in the joints, provided the voussoirs are cut so perfectly that the arch fits accurately between the rigid abutments when not under stress. When thin cement mortar is used in the joints and allowed to harden before the centres are struck, the conditions are but little altered ; but for bad fitting stones and thick mortar joints, not sufficiently hardened, neither this theory nor any other
is exactly applicable, though it may be regarded as some guide in the relative dimensioning of arches of various spans.
It must be carefully observed, too, that, if in a voussoir arch, without mortar, fitting perfectly when not under stress between the skewbacks, the centre of pressure on any joint, as determined by the theory of the solid arch, falls without the middle third, the joint will only bear on a length equal to three times the distance from the centre of pressure to the nearest edge of the joint (Art. 21). In this case only the bearing surface of the joint must be included in the formulas for fixing the resistance line. Hence a new determination has to be made on this basis and so on, until the assumed and computed bearing joints agree. This method, although possible, is very tedious, so that the theory is only a practicable one when the arch ring is such that the true line of the centres of pressure lies everywhere within the middle third.
20. In Fig. *239 the circular curve, of rise equal to one-fifth of its chord or span, represents the centre line of an arch ring of constant section. The span is 5 units in length, the rise one unit. Each half span is divided into 10 equal parts and vertical lines drawn through the points of division. Where the successive lines cut the curve will be designated as points <>, 1, '2, :3, . . . , 10 and 1', •>', .r, . . . 10' for the left and right halves respectively, the left springing point being called lo, the right springing 10', the crown 0 and the numbers increasing regularly along the arc from the crown to the two springjoints respectively.
If a single load W is placed on the arch, supposed to be without weight, its equilibrium polygon will consist of two straight lines. When W is directly over a point of the arch previously fixed, as 4, the table gives at once c^ y and ca in terms of h = rise of centre line of arch considered, where cl = vertical distance from point 10
on arc to side of equilibrium polygon, c2 the same for point 10' on arc and y — vertical distance above the crown to apex D of equilibrium polygon.
Thus if W acts at 4 on arch, the rise of whose centre line (above the centre of the springing joints) is 10, the span 50, we have from table, that the resultant at left abutment acts — .10 X 10 or l.G below centre of joint, the resultant at right springing, acts -f-. 290 X 10 or 2.90 above centre of joint, and the apex D lies .21.0 X 10 = 2. 10 above the highest point of centre line of arch ring, plus coefficients corresponding to points above the arc and minus below, as just indicated. On laying off W on a vertical line just to left of arch as shown, and drawing lines from the extremities parallel to the sides of the equilibrium polygon passing through D, the intersection gives the pole of the force diagram. The length of the horizontal line from the pole to the line representing W, gives H = horizontal thrust due to W alone, and the line divides W into the two vertical components of the reactions Vt
and V2 at left and right springings respectively. For W = 1 (to a large scale) we can thus find graphically the coefficients in columns H, V, and Y2, but it is better to compute them from easily derived formulas:
paying attention to the sign of c,. Since x is known, H can be at once computed and afterwards Vj and V2. The coefficients thus found are to be multiplied by W in any application, as indicated in the table. The moment about any point of the centre line of the arch ring, for any weight W is equal to the H corresponding, multiplied by the vertical distance from the point to the equilibrium polygon corresponding to W (see Art. 22). The algebraic sum of such moments due to any number of weights, gives the total moment
at the point and the sum of the IPs gives the total horizontal thrust clue to the weights. If the moment at the point, due to the weight of the arch is found and added to the preceding moment and its H likewise added to the previous sum of the IPs, then the quotient of the total moment divided by the total II, gives the vertical distance from the point on the centre line of the arch ring to the equilibrium polygon corresponding to the weight of arch and loading considered. This is the method to be used in fixing any point of the equilibrium polygon after the theory of the solid arch " fixed at the ends". When the moment is plus, the equilibrium polygon is above the centre line of the arch ring at the point; when minus, below.
For convenience, the values of M, = Hc1 and M2 = Hc2 ( the moments at the left and right springing joints) as well as Mj-j-Mg are given in the general table. The coefficient for a weight at the crown ( point 0 of arc) is only half of Mt -f- M2 for reasons that will appear directly.
Let fig. 24 represent any arch whose rise is one-fifth the span; the rise of ite centre line is also one-fifth its chord from centre to centre of springing joints. Divide the half chord of the centre line into ten equal parts and erect verticals at the points of division. Reduce the length of
the part of these verticals comprised between the extrados of the arch and the horizontal roadway line to eight tenths of each. This is best done graphically. Thus if e g is laid off equal to 10 and ef equal to 8 to any scale, and we lay off any length from e along e g and from its ex tremity draw a parallel to g f to intersection with 6/', the distance from this intersection to e gives the reduced length. The material above the arch ring to the reduced contour can then be regarded as weighing the same per cubic foot (.07 ton) as the arch ring. On drawing dotted verticles half way between the first verticals, the area of the trapezoids comprised between any two successive dotted verticals will be equal to the width multiplied by the length of the full vertical between them, and it will be regarded as a force acting along the medial (or full) vertical. In fact, for a length of arch equal to unity, this area is also the volume of a prism having for a base this area, and by multiplying by .07 it can be reduced to tons.
tion of the arch from either springing joint to the first dotted vertical will be neglected, as its influence is very small in fixing the true equilibrium curve. The weight at the crown is that due to the portion comprised between the adjacent dotted verticals on either side. This division of the arch is different from that hitherto used.
27. Let us proceed now to the consideration of an arch of 100 ft. span. The rise is 20 ft. and the depth of the key 5 ft., the horizontal roadway rising 2 ft. over the crown. The first column in the table below gives the joint of the arch at which the weight is concentrated. The " depth" of a " trapezoid " ( column 2) multiplied by the constant " width " 5.2 ( column 3 ) gives the area = volume == W, expressed in cubic feet. We have only to multiply these values, as well as those given in columns H and M, by .07 to reduce to tons when desired.
The coefficients of columns H and M, -f- M2 are taken from the general table above. On multiplying these by the successive values of W we get the horizontal
thrusts and moments given in columns H and Mt of the table. Any thrust in column H is that due to the load at the point corresponding, hence the sum gives the total thrust due to loads 0, 1, 2, - - - , !». On adding to this the same sum, less that due to the load at the crown, we get the thrust due to the weight of the entire arch = 51*4.0 cubic feet, since the loads at equal distances from the crown are the same. Similarly M, for load at 0 -f- Mt for load at O1, is the same as Mj for load at <> + M2 for load at 6 = ( M4 + M2)
for load at 6. The same principle holds for any two loads at equal distances from the crown. The coefficient for the load at the crown was not doubled, as there is no other load corresponding to it.
On adding up the figures in the last column and multiplying by h = 2()1 we find the total moment — — 250.2, and on dividing this by the total H= 504.0 we find that the resultant at the left springing passes 0.42 foot below the centre of the joint. The same holds at the right springing on account of symmetry. The equilibrium polygon can now be drawn, as the vertical component = : J weight of arch — 500.75 and H = 51)4.0 are given as well as Cj= — .42. Construct the force diagram by drawing Hand from its left extremity ; layoff successively on a vertical downwards half the load at crown and the loads at 1, 2, - - - , 0 (see fig. 24). We draw the equilibrium polygon from a point .42 below the centre of the left springing joint, as explained in Art. (13a). It is very near the centre line and is shown approximately in fig. 24. Its vertical distance from points
l>, o, 0 and o' on the arc are respectively +.27, +.2, — .25 and — 1 ; so that multiplying by H = 5(J5, the moment at these points are -f- 101, -\- 120, — 141) and — 00 respectively. We have previously seen (Art. 13) that the resultant along in n, say of fig. 24, is strictly that pertaining to the joint between m and n at a, the true resistance curce passing slightly below rn\ still for purposes of comparison below it is near enough to consider the line m n to represent the line of action of the resultant acting on the joint passing through the point where the vertical through m cuts the centre line, particularly as we shall find that the maximum departure of the line of resistance from the centre of the joints, when the live load is considered, is nearly always at a springing joint where no error is made. Further, as the resultants on the upper joints are nearly perpendicular to them for usual loads the intersection of a perpendicular from m on the joint corresponding can be regarded as the centre of pressure, for purposes of comparison below.
We are now prepared to consider the additional influence of the live load, which in all the subsequent examples in this chapter will be taken as a locomotive load of Oooo pounds per foot of track, 20 feet in length or slightly greater or less, corresponding to the horizontal divisions of the arch, followed by a tender load of 2400 Ibs. per ft. 30 ft. long, about, and this followed by another locomotive load as before. This about corresponds to Cooper's class extra heavy A, without the pilot wheel. For cross ties S ft. long, these loads for a slice of the arch I foot thick, are 750 and 30o Ibs. per ft. respectively. As the horizontal divisions of the arch are 5.2 ft. each, the locomotive load on each division = 750 x 5.2 Ibs., or the weight of 27.8 cubic ft. of stone weighing 140 Ibs. per cubic ft.; the tender load on each division is 11.1 cubic ft. stone. The first locomotive will be assumed to cover 4 divisions of 5.2 ft. each or 2o.8 ft. ; the tender 6 divisions or 31.2 ft. As M and H both vary, for any point as we shift the live load, it is only by trial
can be found for the point considered.
Thus consider point 5 of centre line of arch ring where, for dead load only we have found M = -f-120 and H = 5(,>4.(,». On a large scale drawing similar to fig. 23 (except that loads at all points 1, 2, 3 - - are considered), on measuring the vertical ordinates from point 5 of arc to the equilibrium polygons corresponding to weights W=27.8 at 4, 5, 0, 7, and adding the results ( = .778) we have the total moment due to locomotive load at 4, 5, 6, 7, = .778 X h W = .778 X 20 X 27.8 =: -f 432.0. That due to tender load at 8, 9, is similarly = .061 X 20 X 11.1 = + 13.5 ; adding moment = -\- 120 due to dead load, the total moment at point 5 = -f- 500.1. The horizontal thrust due to loads 27. 8 each at 4, 5? 0, 7, is found by adding the coefficients in column H of general table for points 4, 5, 0, 7, and multiplying by 27.8 .-. 2.37G5 X 27.8 = 00.1. Similarly for tender load at points 8, t), the thrust is .2203x11.1 = 2.4. Adding the thrust due to weight of arch, -VJ4.1) to the sum of these two and we have
the total horizontal thrust = 663.4. On dividing-}- 5 6 6.1 by this, we find that the equilibrium polygon due to dead load, locomotive load at 4, 5, (>, 7, and tender load at 8, 9, passes 0.89 foot above the centre of the joint through point 5 on arc, whence on drawing a normal to the joint through the point found, the resistant is found to pass 0.8 above centra measured along the joint. The live load may now be moved to right or left one or more divisions, but for no other position is the resultant on joint 5 so far from the centre as is found by a computation similar to the above. A similar investigation for point 6 with locomotive loads at 4, 5, 0, 7 and tender loads at 8, 9, gives M = +520, H = W>4, so that c = + .7S or less than for point 5. From fig. 23 it is evident that for points 5 or 6 the live load should not extend as far as point 2 from the left, as the moment due to a load at 2 or to the right is negative. Trial shows that for a maximum c at 6 the load should not extend to o, but from 10 to 4 inclusive as just given.
At the crown the max. departure is caused by loads, say from 4 to 10 and 41 to lo1 ; but it is not so great as elsewhere, and as the loading is unusual it will not be further considered.
At point 31 of arc, for loc. loads at o, 1, 2, 3, tender at 4 to 9 inclusive, c — - 3I'i) H- 74(1 = — . 5 or less than for any other point hitherto examined. This value will doubtless be increased slightly by moving live load one or two divisions to the left.
Consider next the right springing joint. M2 and consequently c2, for dead load is minus. This obtains for spans of about 35 ft. and upwards, for rise = l/5 span, so that the live load to left of crown giving a positive moment at K)1 acts against the dead load; hence we should not expect to find c2 for such spans as great as cx at the left springing, where the moments due to both live and dead loads have the same (minus) sign, but only trial can determine. For spans less than about 35 ft., max. c2, may be greater than max. c13 as in fact was found to be the case for an arch of 25 ft. span.
For this 100 feet span, M2 -f- H was computed for the front of the loc. load at 2', 1', 0 and 1 successively, and found to be greatest when the loc. loads were at 0, 1, 2, 3 and tender loads at 4, 5, G, 7, 8, 1). The computation proceeds as before, the sum of the coefficients in columns M2 and H of the general table, for the points above being multiplied by hW and W respectively, thus :
The computation for max. ct proceeds after the same principle. The maximum GI corresponds to loc. loads at 5, 0, 7, 8 and tender load at 9. The moment coefficients are taken from column M, in general table.
ct = -884.1 -=- 642.7 = — 1.370, or the resultant passes 1.38 ft. below the centre of the left springing joint for this position of the live load.
To draw the left resultant in position we next compute the vertical component Va. Add up the coefficients in column V,, of general table for points 5, 6, 7, 8 and multiply by 27.8; also multiply (for tender load at point 9) .9918 by 11.1; the sum added to the half weight of arch gives the total Vx
From the point, 1.38 ft. below the centre of the left springing joint, lay off vertically upwards V\ = 678.5, to any scale, and from the upper extremity of this line draw a horizontal equal in length (to the scale of VJ to total H = 042.7 to fix the pole of the force diagram. A line from the pole to the lower extremity of Yt gives the magnitude and direction of the resultant on the left springing joint. It cuts this joint .95 ft. below its centre For accuracy the left springing joint should be drawn to a large scale (anywhere along the radius), and this construction made to the large scale as this is found to be the joint where the centre of pressure is farthest from the centre.
As the resultant passes 0.13 ft. outside of the middle third the depth of key must be increased. From this and some other examples it was found that if the depth of key was increased by 3 to 4 times the departure, the line of resistance for the new arch would lie inside the middle third limit, just touching it at the critical joint, the left springing in this instance.
In this case the depth of key was increased by 4 X 0.13 = 0.52 ft., or say 0.5 ft., so that the new key was 5.5 feet. A new construction and computation for this arch showed that the resultant on the left springing joint passed .02 ft. inside the lower middle third limit or practically touched it.
If desired, the equilibrium polygon for the entire arch can now be drawn for the last loading considered. As before we compute Vt, H, ct, and it is best to compute c2 as a check on the construction which can be made as explained in Art. loa. It is much better, however, to find by computation the position of the centre of gravity of the left half of arch and load c^nd determine by construction at once the centre of pressure at the crown joint, from which points the polygon can be drawn more accurately towards either abutment.
28. On investigating arches of various spans in the manner indicated above, it was found that the springing joints were the only ones necessary to examine, except in the case of a 12.5 ft. span, 2.5 ft. rise
and 2.2 ft. depth of key, where a single concentrated load of 40,000 pounds over point 6 was found to cause the resultant on the joint through 0 to reach the upper middle third lin it. The load in no other position gave as great a departure on any other joint. In this case the values of c, V, and H were computed, and from the force diagram resulting the true direction of the resultant on joint 0 in position and magnitude was obtained.
In any arch, the resultant on the critical joint having been found in position and magnitude, the normal component can be scaled off and the maximum intensity of stress at the most compressed edge found as in Art. 21.
The following table gives the final results of a series of constructions to determine the depth of key for stone arches of rise — one-fifth the span, so that the line of resistance should everywhere be contained within the middle third of the arch ring of uniform cross- section and just touch it at the critical joints.
The arch ring was supposed to weigh
140 Ibs. per cubic foot, the material above it 112 Ibs. per cu. ft., and the loading as given above, viz. : 6,000 Ibs. per foot of track locomotive load for about 20 feet (depending on the length of the horizontal divisions of the arch), followed by a tender load of 2,400 Ibs. per foot on about 30 feet, and this followed by a second locomotive and tender of the same weights, with the one exception of the 12.5 ft. span, where a load of 40,000 Ibs. on two drivers was alone assumed. These loads were supposed to bear equally on 8 feet cross ties and to be transmitted vertically to the arch.
The actual lengths of locomotive and tender loads measured along the rails for the different spans was as follows :
It is only in the case of the 150 ft. span
that the locomotive length appreciably exceeded 20 ft., but the weight of arch was so great, compared with that of the load, that the error in finding the depth of key was small.
As mentioned above, the joint of rupture where the departure of the resistance line from the centre of joint was greatest, was found to be the left springing, except for the 25 ft. span, where it was the right springing and the 12.5 ft. span, where 6 was the critical joint.
The above values are plotted to scale ' Fig. 25, being shown by the small circles. A line through these circles is nearly straight, but not sufficiently so for accuracy. The following table gives these
On fig. 25 are plotted for comparison the depths of key purposed by Dejardin (line D), Scheffler (line S, by interpolation from his tables for rise = V.4 and */6 span), Croizette-Demoyers (line C D) and Trautwine (line T) (see Art. 31).
The depths of key, as computed, are in excess of most of the values given, all of which refer to materials of only average strength (second class masonry for the Trautwine line). This excess was to be expected, for most of the old formulas are founded on the successful practice of the past, and cannot therefore be expected to give results corresponding to the very much heavier locomotive loads of to-day, though
in the design of common road bridges.
The French authors quoted, after finding the depth of key (as plotted above), then increase the radial length of joint towards the abutment, making it vary as the secant of the inclination to the vertical.
The above table is for an avch of uniform section. The same material can be better disposed, perhaps, by making the depth of keyless and increasing the length of joint as we approach the abutment; but the theoretical treatment of this case falls under that of the arch of variable crosssection, and it has to be omitted for want of space.
The table gives the depth of key for immovable piers or abutments and arch stones that fit perfectly between the skewbacks, when laid on the centres (without mortar) and supposed not under stress. Where the abutments or pier* are yielding^ either from not having a rock foundation or from too small a width (particularly in a series of arches), or where mortar in the joints is used which is not hard
when the centres are struck, or in any case when the mortar joints are not thin and hard, so that the arch cannot be regarded as practically homogeneous throughout, then an increase should be given to the depths above, according to the best judgment of the engineer.
The arch ring has been supposed above TO be of sandstone and weigh 140 Ibs. per ruble foot. If it weighed 100 Ibs. the same depth of key would correspond to live loads 8/7 of those assumed, or a less depth of key would suffice for same loads.
LOWABLE IN STONE AND BRICK ARCHES.
The average pressure on a joint is equal to the normal thrust divided by the area of the joint, and this reaches a maximum in existing bridges (according to Scheffler,
for masonry weighing 150 Ibs. per cu. ft.) from 17 tons per square ft. at the crown to 62 tons per square ft. at the springing. In such arches the resultants on the joints acl outside the middle third; but even if they acted at the middle third limits, the intensity of pressure at the most compressed edge would be double the above or .34 and 124 tons per square ft. at crown and springing respectively. Scheffler recommends not exceeding average pressures at the crown and springing, corresponding to columns of the same material as the voussoirs 207 and 308 ft. high, or say 15.5 to *^> tons per square ft. for stone weighing 150 Ibs. per cubic ft.
This rule seerns safe (for cement joints, not common mortar) and corresponds for stone weighing 150 Ibs. per cu. ft. or fair limestone, to intensities of pressure at the most compressed edges of 31 tons per sq. ft. at the crown and 40 tons at the springing.
30. Existing structures that have done good service, :IH well as arches which have failed, afford the data from which the many empirical formulas for depth of keystone have been derived. These formulas are not based on theory but on successful practice and are valuable in their way,
but very unsatisfactory iii some respects. Thus they differ very greatly in their results, some giving double the depth of Keystone for certain spans as others, and besides they rarely make a distinction between a common road bridge and one intended for the heaviest modern locomotives to pass over at great speed.
In fact these formulas generally represent the practice of the past, mainly for light road bridges (with a few exceptions) and can serve a useful purpose in the design of such bridges; but most of them are evidently inadequate for the heavy moving loads of to-day on railroads.
As preliminary to writing some of the best known of the formulas, it will be convenient to give simple formulas for expressing the radius in terms of the span, for ease of reduction, as most of the formulas are expressed in terms of the radius.
31. The following formulas, by French engineers, for k = depth of keystone in feet, are taken from DuBosque ("Pouts et Viaducts en Maconnerie") after reducing to English
He likewise adapts the first formula of (5) to elliptical or false elliptical arches of small rise, by considering r to represent the radius in feet of an arc of a circle of same span and rise.
These call for good granite laid with care.
To all the above formulas must be added .02 //, u-Jiere H is the height of the surcharge above the crown, reduced if necessary to the density of earth.
This is plainly a very ru It: and i u-x.kot way of allowing for an extra surcharge of earth, M:r- i ;v moleraie amount, must add materially to the slahilit'/, the io;;d being fixed and symmetrical with respect to the crown and thus giving a line of resistance much nearer the centre line of the arch ring than an eccentric rolling load, and not calling for an extra section on account of the dynamic effect of the live load. A:tually a smaller ar /h ring can be used up to a * certain height with the same security, especially considering that the active (or passive) pressure of the earth around the arch almost ensures stability (when crushing is not to be feared) even for thin arch riu^s.
In any case the arch should be examined, first leaving out the horizontal pressure of the earth, which generally only adds to the stability, and afterwards considering it.
After finding the depth of keystone by preceding formulas, the Europeans generally increase the (radial) depth of arch ring from the crown to the springing. If we call d the angle that any joint makes with the vertical, and I the radial length of any joint for seymental archcx, the following formula for this length is frequently used,
Du Bosque prefers to find the radial length of the joint
at the springing joints and crown by (7) and other formulas above, and draw an arc of circle through the upper ends of those joints to define the extrados.
For semi-circular, elliptical or basket handled arches the rule is to measure up from the springing line, half the rise and draw a horizontal to intersection with the intrados ; the joints drawn there normal to the intrados called " the joints of rupture," must have a length equal to the depth of keystone multiplied by a coefficient, which is
As before, a circle is drawn through the upper ends of the " joints of rupture," and the crown joint for the extrados down to the joint of rupture and there tangents are drawn to this circle to limit the masonry down to the abutment.*
• The above lengths of joints at crown and elsewhere are in excess of average English and American practice, which may be partly due to the poorer qualities of stone found in France. We shall now give+some English and American formulas.
Rankings formulas. Find the longest radius of curvaturer of the arch ; then the depth of key for a single arch, including tunnel arches in rock or conglomerate, is
For an arch of a series the coefficient of r under the radical should be 0.17; fora tunnel arch in gravel or firm earth 0.27, and in wet clay or quicksand 0.48. The defect
in this formula is the lack of a constant term to give a proper depth of key for arches of small span. It gives smaller values even than Dupuit's formula for the very best materials.
has the constant term, but is wrong in principle, in that for the same span the depth of key increases with r or as the rise diminishes ; whereas the flatter the arch, for the same span, the less should be the key (where crushing is not in question) since a line of resistance can be more easily inscribed within the same limits in a flat arch than in one of greater rise when the key is the same. This last defect characterizes all the formulas given above, but those of Dejardin and Dupuit.
Space forbids deducing the fundamental equations of solid arches, but the reader is referred to the author's " Theory of Solid and Braced Elastic Arches," pages 21 to 3G, for a simple development of the theory. The following are the three equations which must be satisfied in order that a line of resistance may be the true one:
The first indicates that the end tangents to the centre line of the arch ring are fixed in direction; the second, that the deflection of one end of the arch below the other is zero ; and the third, that the span is invariable.
The centre line of the arch ring is supposed divided into a great number of parts, each equal to AS; M represents the moment of the resultant about the centre of the joint traversing the middle of the corresponding AS, E is the modulus of elasticity for the corresponding voussoir AS long, and I represents the moment of inertia of a plane joint traversing the centre of AS, about a horizontal axis passing through the centre of the joint. The origin of co-ordinates is taken at the centre of the left springing joint; x is the
horizontal and y the vertical distance from this origin to the centre of the corresponding AS. The summation extends over the entire arch ring.
If we call H the uniform horizontal thrust of the arch for vertical loading, and v the vertical distance from the centre of any joint traversing the middle of AS, to the resultant acting on that joint, we have by Art. 22, M = Hv.
As by the graphical method it would be impracticable to divide the centre line of the arch ring into a very great number of parts, we must content ourselves with dividing it into a certain number of parts of appreciable length and find the M, E, I, x and y for the middle of each part, which gives a fairly good average and is sufficiently correct in practice.
be dropped as well as AS.
Therefore, for an arch ring of constant cross-section where I is constant, the three conditions (1), (2) ard (3), reduce very simply to
In the case of the voussoir arch, if the curve of the centres of pressure, as determined in position by the above equations in a manner to be shown, lies everywhere in the middle third of the arch ring, there will be no tension exerted on any joint, so that the theory of the solid arch exactly applies when there is no mortar in the joints and the stones are cut to fit perfectly.
If, however, the centre of pressure on any joint without mortar lies outside the middle third, only a part of this joint is under compression (Art. 21), so that on substituting the I for that part in eqs. (1), (-0 and (o) for an arch of variable cross section, a nearer approximation can be made by another trial and so on. Eventually the assumed and computed values of
I will practically agree when the line of resistance can be regarded as fixed. In case there is mortar in the joint that can supply all needed tensile resistance, the line of resistance can pass without the middle third without any change in the equations, as the voussoir arch, save for a different modulus for the thin mortar joints, is subjected to the same deformation as the corresponding solid arch, so that its line of resistance is nearly identical. As in well designed bridges the line of resistance should nowhere pass out of the middle third, for any loading, to avoid the possibility of joints opening with the accompanying infiltration of water, as well as to provide a factor of safety, the tentative method above will rarely be needed, and the line of resistance can be at once found from (4), (5J and ((>) for the arch of constant cross section.
to solve the following problem :
In fig. 20, having given a series of fixed points bT, b2, b3, ..., 1>8, and having drawn parallel ordinates 1>3 v3, 1>4 v4, ..., through them, intersecting a line m, m in the points mT, ni8, ..., it is required to draw in, m8 so as to satisfy the two conditions.
where m b represents the ordinate from ml mg to any one of the points b, ordinates above mt m8 being counted positive, those below negative, and x represents the distance (abscissa) from an assumed origin O
to the ordinate m b to which it refers. If we give x the subscript of the ordinate to which it refers, then the above conditions can be written in full, for this figure,
Now draw a straight line from b1 (= vj to bs (= v8) and designate where it intersects the ordinates by v2, v3, . . . ; any ordinates as m5 b5 can be written
which gives m b plus when above mx ms and minus below, as is imperative. Substituting in the equations above we have
If we call x0 the abscissa of the resultant of the lines of the type vb treated as forces and x'0 the abscissa of the resultant of the lines vm treated as forces, then, since the moment of the resultant is equal to the sum of the moments of the components, the last eq. above can be written,
whence, in view of the relation, 3 (vb) = 2 (vm), we have x0' = x0. This establishes the proposition, that when the line n^ m8 has been determined correctly, the resultant R of the lines vb, treated as forces, must equal and coincide with the resultant of the lines vm treated as forces.
We can quickly, to any convenient scale, find the value of R = v2 b, +V3 m~ • - • +v7 b7. Its position can be found by taking moments, most conveniently, about an ordinate AB through the centre of the liiu-
If the lines v b, by pairs, are equidistant
from AB, as happens in all the applications that follow, call the distances from this ( dotted ) medial ordinate ( AB) to the ordinate through bj? b2, b3 and b4, z,, z2, z3 and z4 respectively. Then treating left handed moments as positive, right handed as negative, we have the algebraic sum of the moments about the medial ordinate, equal to ( v7 b7 — v2 b2 ) z2 + ( v6 be— v8 .bs ) z3 -f(v5 b5 — v4 b4 ) z4 ; and on dividing this by R (as found above) we have the distance from the medial ordinate to R which can then be laid off in position, as shown in the figure.
The differences as (v7 b7 — v2 ba) can readily be found by taking the distance v2 b2 in dividers and laying it off from v7 along v7 b7. The difference between the two lines is to be measured to the same scale as the ordinates v b in finding the value of R above. (This method is to be generally used in similar cases).
We next draw a trial line nl ng and divide ordinates as v5 n. (n5 being the intersection of nj ns with the ordinate v5 b5) in-
to n8.
The resultant T of the sum of the ordinates from the line v, v8 to v1 ng can be found in magnitude, by adding up the ordinates, and in position by taking moments about A as just explained. Lay it off the computed distance to the left of A.
Now the position of T is not changed when YJ n8 assumes its true position v, m8 (m1 m8 being regarded as the true line to satisfy the original conditions), since all the ordinates in the triangular space vt vg ns are altered in the same ratio. T is thus fixed in position no matter where n8 may be placed on the line vs n8.
It follows, because of this property and since the ordinates, by pairs, are equidistant from AB, that the resultant T' of the ordinates intercepted between Vj n 8 and nt n8 is at the same distance to the right of A that T is to the left. Then if ul is afterwards shifted to m19 T' is unchanged in position, since all ordinates are altered in the same ratio. Finally, if n8 is
shifted to m8, m, remaining stationary, the position and value of T" remain unchanged. Hence lay off T' in position as far to the right of A as T is to the left, and get its trial value by adding up the ordinates included between vl ns and n:
From what has been proved above it is plain that if n: n8 has been drawn correctly, the resultant of T and T' or of the ordinates between v1 vg and nt n8 must coincide with and be equal to R; hence calling I and I1 the distances from T and T' respectively to R, we have
If the trial, T representing the sum of the ordinates from vx v8 to v, ng, is not equal to the true value of T just found, reduce the distance vg n to vg m8 in the ratio of the true T to the trial T just found.
Change v1 u1 to v: m1 in the ratio of the true T' (given by formula above) to trial T' = sum of ordinates from vl n,, to nl na.
effected graphically.
As the sum of similar ordinates in the triangle vl n8 ml is the same as for the triangle Y! ms nij and their resultant has the same position, it is evident that m, m8 is the true closing line (as it is called) to satisfy the conditions.
It is easy to see if the first condition is fulfilled by taking the successive lengths, m3 bs, m4 b4, m5 b5, m6 b6 in dividers and adding up along a straight line. Similarly add the lengths, m, b,, m2 b2, m7 b7, m8 b8, along the same straight line. If the two total lengths agree, the condition 2 (mb) = o is satisfied.
When the ordinates vb are equal at equal distances from the medial line AB, R must coincide with AB. Now the resultant of 2 (vm) cannot pass through the centre unless ml m8 is drawn parallel to v, v8, in which case the lines vm will all be of equal length throughout. Their number, in the present instance, is 8, so that by
which at once determines the line m, nig.
It is equally correct and shorter to take the sum of the ordinates vb to one side of AB and divide by 4 when the total number of ordinates is 8.
34. We shall now proceed to design a series of stone (or brick) arch bridges, whose rise is one-fifth the span^ so that the line of resistance for the position of the rolling load tried shall just be contained within the middle third limits of the arch ring, and the intensity of pressure on any edge of a voussoire joint shall not exceed say oO tons per square foot for the best brick, or 50 tons for good granite or sandstone.
The live load assumed is known in Cooper's Specifications as c< Class extra heary A". We give below the distances in feet from the front pilot wheel to each pair of wheels in turn and on the same line, the weight of the pair of wheels in tons of 2000 pounds :
The position of the pilot wheel of the second locomotive is given last, from which all the wheels of the second locomotive can be located when desired. For short spans the above load may be used or 40 tons equally distributed upon two pairs of drivers, seven feet centre to centre, whichever produces the most hurtful effect.
The arch ring will be supposed of uniform section throughout and composed of brick or sandstone weighing 140 Ibs. (.(/! tons) per cubic foot. The material above the arch ring up to the level of the roadway will be supposed to have a specific gravity eight-tenths of that of the arch ring.
last. If these cross-ties are 8 feet in length we shall suppose the load uniformly distributed along this length, so that for one foot length of cross tie the load will be but one-eighth the load on the whole length of the cross tie. The load for one foot in length of tie is then reduced to cubic feet of masonry by dividing by 0.07.
35. Example ./(see plate, fig. 27). The figure represents an arch of 12.5 ft. span, 2.5 rise, 2.2 ft. depth of keystone, and radius 9.06 ft., with a surcharge rising 2 ft. above the crown to the level roadway and loaded 3 ft. to the left of the crown with 20 tons on 8 ft. cross ties, equivalent to 35.7 cubic ft. of masonry of the same specific gravity as the arch ring (0.7 ton per cubic foot) on 1 ft. length. The dotted medial lines of the trapezoids are 0.<v. of the same lines extended to the roadway, thus giving the "reduced contour" shown. It is evident, for this small span, that the alternative load of 80,000 pounds equally distributed on the two pairs of drivers 7 feet apart, must produce the most hurtful effect. As only one pair of drivers can get
on the half arch they are placed as shown, not quite */4 8Pan to left of crown. The centre line of the arch ring is divided into 'M equal parts, the dotted joints are drawn as shown (only a few of these are drawn near the left springing), two divisions apart and radial lines (full lines) are drawn midway between them. The portion of the arch ring between a springing joint and the iirst clotted joint constitutes one artificial voussoir, and the portion between any two consecutive dotted joints likewise constitutes a voussoir.
As the theory of the solid arch requires that we find the moment for each voussoir about the middle of its centre line, or where the full radial lines cross it, at the points al5 a2, ... , the construction of Art. 15 applies, or we take the division of the arch included between the full radial lines in tabulating quantities, and find the resultants acting on these full line joints as in Article 15.
The loads S are laid off on either side of the arch, the arms either side of the crown, and for an assumed thrust, shown by the upper inclined line through the crown, the various resultants on the joints 1 to L6 are found as in Art. 15. These resultants intersect the verticals through aly a2, . . ., a,G at the points b1? b2, . . . , b16.
36. To locate the line k k', measure the ordinates from a straight line joining at and a16, to the points a1? a2 . . .,.a8; add, divide by 8 and lay off the distance vertically from aj to k and from ^ , to k' and draw the line k k'.
b16 by straight lines and find R and the trial T and T', exactly as explained in Art. 33, in position and magnitude. The positions are given on the figure. Trial T = 23.35, trial T'= 14.1, R = 38.78;
This is best done by the ratio lines as shown, or the distances may be computed and laid off to scale. The line mm' is thus the true closing line of Art. 33, for points bt b:, . . . blti.
3S. The ordinates y,, y2, . . ., y8 (from a a17 toa15 a,, . . ., aj are next scaled off; also the ordinates from k k' to a^ a,, . . ., a., called k a15 ka.:, . . ., k a8, and we find the value of 2 (k a.y) — 2 (k a4 . y4 + k a5 . y. + k a, . y6 + k a7 . y7 4- k a s . y8 — k ax . y! ka, . y, — ka8y.) = 11.50.
Next, the ordinates from m m' to the points b:, b,, . . ., b16, called mb^ mb2, . . ., in b16 are scaled off and 2 (nib . y) is found. In the present instance the complete expression for this is (m b8 + m b9) ys + (m b7 + m b10) y7 + (m be + m bn) y6 + (m b. + m bJ2) y 5 + (mb4 + mbi3) y4 — (ml>8 + mbl4) y3 — (m b2 + in b15) y2 — (m bt -f m bl6) jl = lX.*-v;S, ordinates above mm' being treated as positive, those below negative.
We have now only to reduce the ordinates nib in the ratio of 11.50 to lJS.^8 (by the proper ratio lines), and lay off the reduced lengths. from the line kk' vertically up or down, according to the sign of m b to find all the points c,, c,, . . ., clG in the true equilibrium polygon for the arch. The ordinate from m in' to the point where the trial thrust meets the crown is likewise reduced in the same ratio and laid off from k k' to fix the true centre of pressure on the crown joint, .05 ft. below the centre of the joint.
The reader familiar with Prof. H. T. Eddy's " Constructions in Graphical Statics " will recognize that the above pro-
30. It will now be shown that the points <?, located as above, are points in the equilibrium polygon, directly over the centre of the artificial voussoirs, which satisfy the three conditions for an arch fixed at the ends (Art. 32)
as shown in Art. 33.
Lines of the type k a in these formulas refer to vertical ordinates measured from kk' to at, a2, ... al6. Similarly mb represents a vertical ordinate from line m m' to bj or bL, etc.; ordinates above kk' or mm1 being regarded as plus, those below minus.
The ordinates m b were DOW all changed in the same ratio, which does not affect the position of mm1. The altered ordinates were next laid off from k k', the new value of in b being equal to k c in the figure.
Also by the construction of Art. 08, since every m b has been altered in the ratio 11.50 to 18.28 to the corresponding k c, 2
Art. 38.
If the right member of the last equation is transferred to the left member, since, kc - k a = a c, we have, 2 (a c . y) = o. On subtracting eqs. (A) from (B) and writing the equation just found in the group, we have
40. As the closing line m m' has been shifted to kk' and the ordinates m b altered in the ratio 11.50 to 18.28, by the theory of equilibrium polygons, we draw from the old pole O (on the left) a parallel to m m1 (in its first position) to intersection J with the load line, then a horizontal to the right a distance = old pole distance X
11. oO
the left force diagram. This is easily effected graphically by laying oif J L and J M in the ratio of 11.5 to 18.28 and drawing M P parallel to L I, I being the point where a vertical through O intersects the horizontal through J.
The new pole may likewise be found by the method of Art. 14, by drawing through O a parallel to a line connecting bt and bl6 to intersection with load line, then from this point, a parallel to a line connecting the points Ci and cl6, previously found, a distance to the right whose horizontal pro-
on left.
The points c can be tested by drawing the new resultants on the joints, having given the new poles and the position of the thrust at the crown. These resultants produced to intersection with the respective joints from a0 to al7 give the centres of pressure on the corresponding joints.
The centres of pressure all lie within the middle third of the arch ring, except at joint G where the thrust passes exactly l/Q depth from centre. The intensity at the upper edge of joint 0 is therefore double the mean. The normal component of this thrust is the weight of 03.2 cu. ft. of stone = 03.2 X .07 = 4.4 tons; the mean pressure is thus 4.4 -r- depth joint '2.2 ft. = 2 tons and the intensity at upper edge is therefore 4 tons per square foot.
41. To test the accuracy with which the work has been done, we measure a c at the points ax to al6, counting distances above a plus, below minus; then find the co-ordinates x, y, of each point &l to a16 regarding a0 as the origin, x being measured horizon-
tally (along a0 a17) to the ordinate through any point a and y vertically above a0 a1T to point a as previously stated, and finally from the products as shown in the table:
2 (ac) = o, 2 (ac . y) = o, 2 (ac . x) = o, may be satisfied. The results, however, are very close, as will be apparent on supposing the points c all to be lowered one hundredth of a foot only, when 2 (+ a c) will become -f- 1.47 and 2 ( — ac), — 1. ")*^, the minus sums now being the greater. The changes will evidently be equally great in the other sums, so that we have accidentally here determined the centres of resistance within about .01 foot, even on this small scale. We may readily rest content though^ with half a tenth of a foot error on each joint owing to unavoidable errors of construction. See the next example where these errors are as pronounced as for any arch examined and yet a shifting of the points c by half a tenth of a foot is about all that is necessary to satisfy the conditions.
We conclude for the arch just examined, for the given position of the live load, that the line of resistence just touches the middle third limit at one point only, and that it possesses the proper margin of safety both as to strength and stability.
ft., was next examined.
The depth of spandrel filling over the crown was 2 ft. and the live i'oad-consisted of the last three driving wheels of the locomotive above specified on the left half of the arch, no load on right half.
from crown, 15 tons 8.3 ft. and 15 tons 12.8 ft. from crown.
The division of arch ring and the construction generally was exactly like that just given for Example I, so that it is not necessary to enter into it. The true thrust at the crown, after the theory of the solid arch, was found to act .06 ft. below the centre of the crown joint and its horizontal component was 120.25 cu. ft. = 8.4175 tons, the vertical component 10'. 5 cu. ft. =0.735 ton.
If we conceive the thrust at the crown lowered 0.1 ft. but maintaining its same direction and magnitude, the points c will all be lowered 0.1 foot, and the new ratios will be as follows :
Here the minus t-rnis exceed the plus terms so much that it is plain that the thrust has been lowered too much ; in fact (neglecting any possible tilting) it is evidentsthat the true position of points c lies between the first and last positions and is nearer the former than the latter; so that we can safely say that the first series of points is certainly within 0.05 foot of the correct position.
that the construction affords practically exact results.
On constructing the centres of pressure on all the joints, it was found that they nowhere leave the middle third except at the right springing joint (17) where the centre of pressure was 0.08 ft. above the middle third limit. Hence it was thought best to increase the depth of keystone three times this amount, or 0.25 ft., making the radial depth of arch ring uniformly 2.75 f*et.
This is so near the former value, 2.5 ft., that it was not thought worth while to test it by another construction. It will be assumed to satisfy all conditions.
The intensity of thrust at the upper edge of the right springing joint (for the arch ring 2.5 ft. deep) is found to be 9.2 tons per square foot, at the lower edge of the left springing joint 8.7 tons.
43. Example III. Segmental stone arch of 50 feet span, 10 ft. rise, radius 36.25 ft., and height of surcharge above crown 2 feet. A construction for a depth of keystone of 3 feet showed, for the loading to be given, that the line of resistance passed outside the middle third ; hence, for a second trial, a depth of arch ring of 3.5 feet was assumed. The loading omitted the pilot wheel and consisted of the eight drivers on the left half of the arch, viz. : 15 tons 4.25 feet from crown ; 15 tons 10 feet ; 15 tons 14.25 feet ; and 15 tons 19 feet, all to left of crown of arch.
The line of resistance nowhere passed outside the middle third of the arch ring. At the springing joints the resultants touch the lower middle third limit on the loaded side ; and the upper limit on the unloaded side ; at the crown the thrust passes through the centre of the crown joint. The arch thus satisfies all the conditions of stability. The horizontal component of thrust at crown = 279.3 cu. ft. = 19.55 tons, and th.3 vertical component = 21 cu. ft. = 1.47 tons. The normal component of the thrust at the left springing = 413.5 cu. ft. = 28.95 tons, giving an intensity at the intrados of
This arch then satisfies all conditions for this loading.
44. Example IV. Stone arch of 100 ft. span, 20 ft. rise, radius 72.5 ft., depth of keystone 5 ft., and height of surcharge above crown 2 ft. The Ir adiug consisted of one locomotive and tender, as specified in Art. 34, covering the left half of arch, the right half being unloaded. The pilot wheel was placed 8 feet to left of crown, the other wheels following in order at the distances given in Art. 35. so that the last tender wheel was barely on the arch.
The line of resistance was ev< rywhere contained within the middle third, except at the left springing joint where it passed 0.17 ft. below the limit; hence to satisfy the middle third limit the arch ring should be increased in depth, say 3X 0.17= .51ft., making the depth 5.5 ft.
The thrust at the crown joint fell 0.4 ft. below centre for the arch of 5 ft. key, its horizontal component being 689.7 cu. ft. =-• 48.279 tons, and the vertical component 26.5 cu. ft. =1.855 ton. The intensity of thrust at lower edge = 14.3 tons per sq. foot.
Tin? thrust at the left springing acted 1 foot below the centre of the joint, its normal component being 1048 cu. ft. = 73.36 tons. It acts as a uniformly increasing stress over a depth of joint = 3x1.5=4.5 ft. ; hence the average stress is 73. 36 -f- 4. 5= 16.3 and the intensity at lower edge is double this, or 32.6 tons per square foot. For a 5.5 ft. key the intensity is much less.
weight.
Here we need consider only the right half of the arch, since the thrust at the crown, from consideration of symmetry, must be horizontal as well as the line m m' (using the designation given on plate for another span).
Hence for an assumed horizontal thrust at the crown,
having found points such as b and drawn the line k k' i before, we determine line m m' for points 6 exactly as \ found kk' for points a ; or it is generally shorter to add up with dividers the ordinates to points b above a trial line as kk', and subtract from the sum the length we obtain by adding up ordinates to points b below k k'. The difference divided by 8 gives the amount the horizontal m m' is above or below k k' to satisfy the condition 2 (,iub) = o. The points b meant above are b(), b1(), .... blg. As a test the sum of the ordinates from m m' to points b above should exactly equal the sum to points b below m m'.
The sum of the products 2 (ka . y) is made out exactly as before. Its value for the half arch in this case is 302. Similarly find 2 ^nib . y) = mb0 . y() - mb]() . yu) + mbn . yn f mb^ . y12 + mbjg . ylg - (mbtt, ' yu + mbl6 . Ju mbM . y ) = 3S8, the ordinates rub being measured from m m' up (-f ) or down (— ) to points 6.
On diminishing all the ordiuates tub in the ratio of Su±:( to 388 and laying them off from k k', we find the points c through which the resultants on the joints pass.
tion with all the joints.
It is interesting to compare the new curve of the centres of pressure for the bridge unloaded, with that found previously for the load on the left half. Thus reiuembi ring that the depth of arch ring is 5 ft., one-sixth of which is 0.83 ft. from the centre to curves defining middle third limits, the following tables give the distance measured atony any joint from its centre to the centre of pressure of the joint, plus distances being measured upwards, minus distances downwards. The upper numbers, under the joint numbers, correspond to the arch unloaded and the lower numbers to the arch loaded.
It will be observed at joints 0, 5 and 10, where the ceu hvs of pressure for bridge loaded are farthest from centre of joints, that when the live load comes on the centres of pressure remain on the same side of the centre line of the arch ring as for bridge unloaded. At many other joints as 17 the reverse obtains. Hence, if the arch was not circular, but of such a figure that, for bridge unloaded, its centre line would be the focus of the centres of pressure on the joints, the departure of the line of resistance for bridge loaded at joints 0, 5 and 10 would not be so great as above, though at joint 17 (which is often a critical joint), and at some other points, it would beigreater. Therefore such a design would often permit of smaller arch rings, such that the line of resistance for the bridge loaded in any way could still be inscribed in the middle third. However, in some of the bridges examined (Exs. II. and III.) the centre of pressure on joint 17, for bridge loaded, passed through the upper middle third limit, so that if an arch having its centre line, the line of resistance for arch unloaded, was used here of the same depth as before, the centre of pressure on joint 17 would leave the middle third, and the arch would not be as stable as before.
As we cannot tell, without a special investigation of this kind, which design will prove the most economical, it is well to hold on to the segmental circular arch until the others, for ail kinds of loading, are proved the most ecouom
ical, particularly as it is much easier to construct, and the economy, if any, in replacing it by the other, must be small, Writers generally, in advocating the catenarian curves, have not properly considered the preponderating influence of heavy eccentric loading.
40. An examination of the lines of resistance in all the preceding examples fails to indicate any simple approximate rule for constructing them without recurring to the theory of the solid arch. I have stated elsewhere, partly on the strength of a few constructions after the theory of the solid arch, for uniform loads or comparatively light eccentric loads, that " it seems highly probable that the actual line of resistance is confined within such limiting curves, approximately equidistant from the centre line of the arch ring that only one line of resistance can be drawn therein." From the constructions above this rule is found to indicate very roughly about the position, but it is not precise enough in practice. Thus for the 100 ft. span above unloaded, the true curve passes .4 below the C2ntre line (measured, not vertically, but along the joint) at the springs, .35 above at joints 4 and 13 and .37 below at the crown ;
but the divergences are much greater at the joints of rupture (0, 4 or o, 9 and 17) for the arch heavily loaded on one side, as we see from the table, and the same thing is shown on the plate for the 12.5 feet span. Hence we cannot state precisely that if a line of resistance can be inscribed in the middle third, the true line of resistance will be found in the middle third. It is in fact plain from the above constructions that if only one line of resistance can be inscribed in the middle third, the true line will pass outside of it at certain points; for the first line touches the curves limiting the middle third at all the joints of rupture, as it corresponds to both the maximum and minimum of the thrust within those limits, whereas the true curve does not at all the joints, hence it cannot agree with the former and hence must lie outside the middle third limits, since by assumption only one line of resistance can be drawn therein.
which is practically true for segmental arches of constant cross-section. The theory is given in full in an article by Prof. Geo. F. Swain on the stone arch, in Van Nostrand's Magazine for October, 18SO. Winkler's theorem is as follows: That line of resistance is approximately the true one which lies nearest the centre li)te of the arch ring ax deter rained by the method of least squares.
This remarkable theorem is easily demonstrated by aid of the theory of elasticity, and while it is no aid practically in precisely fixing the true line of resistance, yet the conclusions are valuable as confirming, in a general way, the preceding constructions.
47. The method of finding the true resistance line given in this chapter is perfectly general and applies to any form of arch of constant cross- section. The defect in the method practically is that the most hurtful position of the live load cannot be readily ascertained. It is true that for single loads the method of this chapter will give the quantities c,, y and c2 as defined
in Chap. IV.,* from which we may make out a table and proceed as in the preceding chapter. This method is very long and is rarely needed, as circular arches are generally built; and for these the quantities c1? y and c, can be readily found from existing tables and formulas.
The positions of live loads assumed in this chapter simply followed the roui^h rule of putting the heaviest part of the load over the middle of the haunches. The constructions resulting were all made before the method of the preceding chapter was developed. It is gratifying to note thai the conclusions as to depth of key, etc., are almost identical with those of Chap. IV., where the most hurtful position of the live load was carefully ascertained.
APPENDIX.
The writer, in 1874, performed some experiments on light wooden arches at the limit of stability, which tend to confirm theory and are instructive in many ways. They will be given in full below. The experiments were made with great care ; the voussoirs being accurately cut, the span kept invariable and horizontal, piers vertical, and the weight applied very gently and without shock.
The dimensions will all be given in iuchi. s.
A Gothic arch (Fig. 28) of 14 in. span, and 12.12 in. rise, was cut out of a poplar (tulip tree) plank, 3.65 in. thick, consisting of 8 voussoirs, each 3. Go thick, i> deep, and 4.U8 along their centre line from middle to middle of joint : each vousscir weighing .52 Ib. Quite a number of voussoirs were cut out of the same layers of fibres and those selected that weighed exactly the same : the voussoir to be tried being hung to one end of a delicate balance beam, with a voussoir of the standard weight at the other end. The two voussoirs at the crown not being cut out of the same layers of fibres as the others, were shaved oft' about the middle of the extrados (not touching the joints) so as to weigh exactly 1 voussoir of the standard weight and their centres of gravity were found experimentally, and found to be at exactly similar points in both voussoirs, so that the entire arch was symmetrical as to the crown.
The centres of gravity of the other voussoirs are taken on the arc of a circle passing through the middle of the joints, and for >my voussoir, equidistant from the joints bounding that voussoir. For voussoirs whose sides are
little inclined this is sufficiently near the truth, and by dividing the arch ring into a sufficient number of artificial roussoirs the result may be made as accurate as we please. Still as no wood is homogeneous the results can only be regarded as approximate as compared with the hypothetical homogeneous arch, still sufficiently near to establish the laws heretofore demonstrated.
When this arch was set up the joints apparently fitted perfectly, and on placing a drawing-board by the side of the arch and tracing off its contour curves, it was found to be a perfect Gothic whose arcs, composing the contour curves were correct arcs of circles described from the springing points opposite.
A number of rectangular wooden bricks of exactly 1 voussoir in weight, of various sizes, were also cut out, as well as half bricks, quarter bricks, etc., and some solid rectangular piers of various dimensions.
A voussoir is taken as the unit of weight.
In experiments where weights were placed upon the top of the arch, an assistant added brick after brick, carefully balancing the load at the top on either side by the fingers until the arch reached its balancing point ; i. c., the point where it stood with the weight, but fell with a slight jarring.
The two bottom voussoirs were, when necessary, kept from sliding by two fastening tacks being driven into the board on which the ur.'li rested, pressing against the arch .03 above the springing line, or so little that it may be disregarded. The board was carefully levelled at every experiment by a spirit level, and the span kept invariably at 14 in.
Ftrst Experiment. — With 8.2 voussoirs on the summit of the arch it stood, though fell with 8.3 voussoirs on the summit ; rotating on joints 2 on iutrado al edge, join's 4 at the extrados and at the upper edge of the crown joint, the arch being forced out at the haunches and falling at the crown. (See Fig. 28.)
The following table gives in its first column the number of joint from the crown; columns, the elementary weights (4.1 voussoir being the weight on the summit that goes to each abutment, the weight of each voussoir being taken as unity) ; column in gives tho horizontal distance from the crown to the centre of gravity of each voussoir with its load, if any, which, in this case, is also the moment in reference to the vertical through the crown of each voussoir. Columns 8, M, and C have been before « -xplained:
Try a line of resistance, passing 0.1 from the upper edge of crown joint and 0.1 from the extrados edge of the joint at the springing. It is found to cut joint 2 at 0.1 from the intrados.
From joint 0 to joint 2 the line of pressures corresponds to the minimum of the trust ; from joint 2 to joint 4, to the maximum within limiting curves 0.1 from intrados and extrados respectively. (Art. 20.)
Sliding would have occurred on joint 4, as the resultant on that joint made an angle of 21 deg. with the normal, but for the tacks before mentioned.
The diagrams for this and all the following experiments were drawn to a scale of one-third the natural size, except in the case of some of the pier experiments.
It may pertinently be "enquired, why at the limit of stability, the centres of pressure should not be found at the very edges of the joints in place of being ().". inch from those edges ? The answer is simple : We have seen in Art. 21 that when the centre of pressure on a joint leaves the middle third, the joint begins to open, and this opening is quite perceptible when this centre of pressure is very near the edge. This opening of the joints causes a deformation of the arch ring, so that the figure just before rotation occurred is not that assumed in the drawing. If the deformation had been known at the instant of rupture, so that the true figure could have been drawn, then the line of resistance would have passed through the very edges of the joints 0, 2 and 4, as they alone were bearing at the time. No attempt was made to find the deformed figure ; in fact, it varied so rapidly just before rupture that it would have been impossible to have found it. Similar remarks and explanations apply to all the subsequent experiments.
Second Experiment. — With the two voussoirs at the crown in one solid piece, the arch could not give by rotation, as the lower edge of crown joint could not open. With a sufficient pressure on the crown, there was sliding along joints 1, the coefficient of friction being small for these wooden bl cks.
the keystone in one solid piece.
Third Experiment. — On placing a knife edge against a notch .03 deep, cut into the bottom voussoir, 0.4 above the springing line, on each side, the arch balanced with 11.1 voussoirs on the summit. The line of resistance must now pass through the knife edges, and it will be found on constructing a diagram that it will pass about 0.1 fromedpcs at joints 0 and 2, as before.
Fig. 29
Fourth Experiment — (Fig. 29.) The same arch stood, being very nearly on the balancing point, on solid piers In. high. 1.9 wide, and 3.65 thick, each pier weighing 2.3 voussoirs, the intrados at the springing being at the inner edge of pier. The piers were made vertical by a spirit level, and their tops were upon the same level in every experiment given.
cuts the base of the pier 0.2 from its outer edge.
Fifth Experiment.— With piers 40.47 in. high, 3.65 wide, and 1.9 thick, weighing 10.1 voussoirs each, with the intrados of arch at springing on a line with inner edge of pier, the same arch balanced. The pier was built of a solid block 22 in. high and 5 bricks placed on top, one above the other to make up the 40.47 in height.
passed through the very edges.
Sixth Experiment.— The pier of Exp. 4 (Fig. 29) was moved outward (from the axis of the arch) > o that when its inner edge was .1 from the springing, it stood with no weight on the summit ; when it was .4 from edge, it stood with .5 vs., fell with .6 vs. ; .5 from edge, balanced with .7r> .vs. : .6 from edge balanced with .75 vs. ; .7 from edge balanced with .37 vs. ; 1.0 from edge balanced with .12 vs.
On constructing the table and diagram as above for the load .75 vs., we find the centre of pressure on joint 4, .63 from the inner edge, or slightly over the extreme limit above, as should be the case.
Seventh Experiment.— The same arch stood easily with .75 vs. on the summit, on solid piers, 22. high, 3.65 wide, and 1.9 thick, each weighing 5.1 vs. ; the arch fell with the addition of .12 vs. more.
On constructing this figure it will be found that the line of centres of pressure, assumed 0.1 from edges of joints 0 and 3 as before, passes .63 from inner edge of springing jc hit (us was stated above) and cuts the base of pier .39 from its outer edge or about 1-9 the width of pier.
On constructing the line of resistance for a weight of 1.25 at the apex, passing 0.1 from the edge of joints 0 and 3 as before, it will be found that the centre of pressure on joint 4 is .7 from the edge, again slightly over the extreme limit .63 found by experiment.
It is evident from an inspection of the arches in churches that constructors were well aware that a higher pier might be used when its inner edge was moved back a certain distance from the springing, which is equivalent to what we have established above.
Ninth Experiment.— With the pier used in E-JCI>. 4. and the same arch, excepting that the two voussoirs at the crown were in one piece, the arch and pier just balanced as in Exp. 4. In fact the arch and pier can easily rotate on the third joint and the outer edge of pier.
Tenth Experiment. --The same arch with piers 1.98 wide, 7.5 high and thickness of arch, each weighing 2 vs., stood easily when a cylindrical pin .03 in diameter was placed at the lower edge of crown joint. This joint bore at no other point, hence the line of resistance passes through the pin. Assuming it to pass .1 from the edge of joint 3. the construction will show that it cuts the springing joint .6 from inner edge and the base of pier .15 from its outer edge.
The experiments that we have just considered very
clearly indicate the fallacy of that theory which supposes that if a line of resistance passes outside the inntr third of the arch ring, that it must fall. On the contrary, in every case of the stability of the arches previously given, it is impossible to draw a line of resistance everywhere contained within the inner third of the arch ring.
Eleventh Experiment. — Fig. oU. With this same Gothic arch a segniental circular arch was now made of 24.24 in. span and 7 in. rise ; the voussoirs being as before 2. deep and :>.G5 thick.
With 7.C vs. on the summit, this arch balanced; the weight being placed on a small stick resting on the trammit. With a greater weight the rotation occurred on joints 0, 2 and 4, the crown falling.
Fio. 30
On trial it was found that the true line of resistance passes .15 from the edges at joints 0, 4 and 2 ; giving the characteristics of both a maximum and a minimum thrust.
The ends of this arch required fastening tacks thrust into the board and pressing against voussoirs 4, .03 above the springing as in the first exp., with the Gothic, to prevent sliding. The thrust on joint 4 made an angle of 50 w with the normal to that joint.
Twelfth Experiment. — With this arch resting on piers 3 63 wide, 5.8 high and 2. thick, each weighing 1.5 vs., the inner edge of pier being on a line with the springing, the arch balanced with .5 vs. on the summit.
We find, by constructing a line of resistance passing .15 from summit and the intrados at the third joint, that it cuts the base of pier .24 from its outer edge.
Thirteenth Experiment. — To form some idea of the action of mortar of different degrees of hardness, pieces of cloth .07 thick when not pressed, and .04 thick when pressed between two flat surfaces by the hands were put between the joints of the Gothic arch (Fig. 28), each piece weighing .015 voussoir.
The span was then altered until the joints were all close, when it was found to be 14.57, the rise to the apex being 14.55. On placing a drawing-board by the side of this arch and tracing its contour curves, they were found to be very nearly arcs of circles, though not with their centres at the springing points. To locate them ; measure horizontally from the springing points .32 towards the middle of the span, and then vertically downwards 0.1 to the centres, from which the arch may be drawn. .
This arch balanced with 4.0 vs. at apex; fell with 4.05 vs. The limiting lines to the curve of resistance was found to be distant .3 = 1-7 depth of joint from the contour curves, at its nearest approach to them.
This arch spread outwards upon the application of the weights, joint 2 being the point of rupture at the haunches ; hence it is evident that if there had been a solid spandrel, or in this case, simply the pressure of the hands, to resist
this spreading, that the arch would not have fallen. The spandrel would have supplied horizontal forces in addition to the vertical^ones due to its weight.
The curves of resistance were drawn in all the foregoing experiments, not taking into consideration the last mentioned derangement of the arch, which would have caused this curve to pass nearer the edges or exactly through them.
In fact, in most of the experiments, just before rotating, the edges alone seemed to be bearing. In the case of the simple Gothic, without cloth joints, when a sufficient weight was applied at the summit, the joint there and joint 2 opened sensibly before the balancing weight was put on. The segmeiital arch flew out at the second joints, falling at the crown, only opening when near the balancing point.
Isolated weights applied at the summit do not occur in practice, and it is hardly probable that a well-built viaduct, whose intrados is a segment of a circle with thin joints, will spread appreciably after the mortar has well set ; and this is necessarily a stronger form of arch than the semi-circular, elliptical, or hydrostatic, where; the spandrel thrust is generally required to cause stability.
If the latter profiles are desired, let the depth of the voussoirs be increased towards the abutment, so as to keep the line of resistance within the proper limits of the arch ring, when the constructor will be assured of stability.
It certainly seems singular, that engineers should ever rci-niti'iHdul an aivh like the hydrostatic, which necessarily ri -quires a very effective spandrel thrust to keep the arch from tumbling down.
The spandrels must in such cases be built with the same '•are used with the arch stones, thus increasing the expense, while really losing in stnngth.
Gothic* arch, pieces of soft woolen cloth .15 thick when not pressed, and .1 when pressed hard between two bri -ks by the hands, were next inserted, each piece of cl:>tli weighing .027 voussoir. The span, when the joints w« r> close, was found to be 15 in. ; rise to apex, 14.63, The centres for describing the contour curves were 1.07 in. from the springing points measured horizontally towards the middle of span.
This arch balanced with 2.3 vs. on the apex.
Assuming this arch to preserve its figure, the curve of resistance passes about one-fourth of the depth of joint from the edges at its nearest approach to them.
fresh mortar joints.
Fifteenth Experiment. — A Gothic arch of about half the dimensions of the first given in Exp. 1 was cut out, really lief ore the arch we have just been considering.
It was not found to be symmetrical as to weight, onehalf weighing 1-32 of the whole arch more then the. other half. Still as arches in practice are unsymnu -tri'-al as to weight at least it will be interesting to know, that assuming this arch to be symmetrical, the curve of pressures passes .075 from the edges at joints of rupture, morally with weights at the apex.
In the experiment with the cloth joints the cloth was .05 thick not pressed ; .04 when pressed hard b The curve of resistance was found to pass .1 from tne edges at the joints of rupture, with a weight on the ,-i>ex, and nearly so in the pier experiment with no weight on the apex.
Sixteenth Experiment.— The Gothic arch given by Fig. 28 will now be considered with an uusymmetrieal loud. A stout needle was thrust into the second voussoir from the crown on the right side, in the, direction of a vertical through its centre of gravity, as represent* d in Fit:. 31. With
a weight of 3.3 vs. on the top of the needle, the arch balanct-d, opening at summit and lower end of joint 1 on the right. The voussoir to which the weight was added would have slid if urns had not been thrust into the edges of its joints, thus supplying n force analogous to friction, though not interfering at all with rotation.
A line of resistance can be drawn, as shown in the figure, passing .18 from the extrados at joints 4 on left, and 1 on right and .18 from the intrados at joints 0 and 3 on the right.
The lower edge of the crown joint was imperfect, being the only imperfect edge in the arch, and this may account for the line of resistance retreating farther in the arch than for a load in the summit as before r.>nsidered.
The thrust on joint 1, on the right, was inclined at an angle of 15° to the normal to that joint, which accounts for the sliding, as the joints were planed and across the grain.
was next tried with the eccentric load.
A short needle was thrust in voussoir 2 on the left, in the direction of the vertical through its centre of gravity, as shown in Fig. 32 ; the arch balanced with 5.4 voussoirs on the top of this needle.
9.4 61,28
The voussoir on which the weight was placed would have slid along its joints but for pins being thrust into its edges in a manner that did not interfere with rotation.
A line of resistance was drawn that passes .15 from the iutrados at joint 2 on the right and .2 distant from the edges at joints 4, 1 and 4; hence the true curve will probably puss about .18 from these edges. This is nearly (.03 difference) what we obtained, for the limits from the of the line of resistance in the llth Exp., Fig. '3(\. The thrust on joint 1 on the left is inclined 16° .5 to the normal to the joint, nearly wh<vi: we found before. The sliding in this and the last experiment only occurred just before the balancing weight was applied ; the line of pressures travelling down the crown joint as the weight was increased, until finally the direction of the pressure on joint 1 exceeded the complement of the angle of friction.
Eighteenth Experiment.— Figure 33 represents two ratters 9.92 in length, 1.9 width (dimension in plane of paper) and 3.60 thick, leaning against each other at the top and against piers 7.7 high, 1.98 wide and 3.(> thick at their bottom edge, which is moved back 0.6 from the edge of the pier. The horizontal distance between the vertical piers is in in., so that the feet of the rafters are 11.2 apart. Each rafter weighed 2.3 vs. ; each pier 2. vs. The rafters and piers just balanced in this position.
Reasoning as in Art. 2, we see that the thrust at the upper edges of contact of the rafters is horizontal ; hence draw a vertical line through the centre of gravity of the rafter equal to its weight ; the resultant on the lower edge of the rafter passes through this edge, and combined with the
weight of the pier acting through its centre of gravity, gives the resultant thrust on the base of the pier. In thhit strikes twenty-two hundredths (.'22) from its outer edire.
This experiment was performed to ascertain whether the resultant on the ba-e could ever be drawn through the outer edge of base for the original figure. It seemed probable, as the centres of pressure at the apex and top of the pier were absolutely fixed, and there was only one real
joint at the base of the pier ; but we see, even from this case, that the joint opened sufficiently to deform the original figure, so that the resultant cannot be drawn exactly through the outer edge for the original figure. This should offer a valuable hint to experimenters and constructors, not
to look for the stability in similar structures that the theory of ' ' rigid ' ' or incompressible bodies would give, especially structures composed of a great number of blocks without cementing material.
Nineteenth Experiment. — Fig. (34), represents a r-fter and pier of the preceding experiment ; the rafter leaning against a vertical rough plastered wall by its edge, the lower edge resting on the pier 1.03 back from its inner edge. This was the balancing position.
After several trials, assuming as we found in the preceding experiment, that the resultant strikes .22 from the outer edge of the base of pier, it was found that the direction of the thrust against the wal? was inclined about 35° to the horizontal, which is about what we should imagine the angle of friction of the edge on the wall to be. If the thrust at the upper edge be assumed horizontal as is usual, it will be found that the final resultant passes outside the base of pier; hence, such an assumption is false. The construction (Fig. 34), will also show that .32 v. of the rafter is sustained by the wall, 1.98 v. being supported by the pier : i. c. about one seventh of 'the weight of the rafter is upheld by the friction of the plastered wall.
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pWEjWPNIf-S4MEKw | Lifespan Human Development: A Topical Approach | 10.4 Cognition in Adolescence and Adulthood
Learning Objectives
- Describe adolescent egocentrism.
- Describe the limitations of adolescent thinking.
- Describe how differences between cross-sectional, longitudinal, and sequential research designed have contributed to our understanding of the development of intelligence in middle adulthood.
- Define crystallized and fluid intelligence.
- Explain how intelligence changes with age.
Cognition in Adolescence
Adolescence is a time of rapid cognitive development. Biological changes in brain structure and connectivity in the brain interact with increased experience, knowledge, and changing social demands to produce rapid cognitive growth. These changes generally begin at puberty or shortly thereafter, and some skills continue to develop as an adolescent ages. Development of executive functions, or cognitive skills that enable the control and coordination of thoughts and behavior, are generally associated with the prefrontal cortex area of the brain. The thoughts, ideas, and concepts developed at this period of life greatly influence one’s future life and play a major role in character and personality formation.
Improvements in basic thinking abilities generally occur in several areas during adolescence:
- Attention. Improvements are seen in selective attention (the process by which one focuses on one stimulus while tuning out another), as well as divided attention (the ability to pay attention to two or more stimuli at the same time).
- Memory. Improvements are seen in working memory and long-term memory.
- Processing speed. Adolescents think more quickly than children. Processing speed improves sharply between age five and middle adolescence, levels off around age 15, and then remains largely the same between late adolescence and adulthood.
Adolescent Egocentrism
Adolescents’ newfound meta-cognitive abilities also have an impact on their social cognition, as it results in increased introspection, self-consciousness, and intellectualization. Adolescents are much better able to understand that people do not have complete control over their mental activity. Being able to introspect may lead to forms of egocentrism, or self-focus, in adolescence. Elkind’s theory on adolescent egocentrism is drawn from Piaget’s theory on cognitive developmental stages, which argues that formal operations enable adolescents to construct imaginary situations and abstract thinking.
Accordingly, adolescents are able to conceptualize their own thoughts and conceive of other people’s thoughts. However, Elkind pointed out that adolescents tend to focus mostly on their own perceptions, especially on their behaviors and appearance, because of the “physiological metamorphosis” they experience during this period. This leads to adolescents’ belief that other people are as attentive to their behaviors and appearance as they are themselves (Elkind, 1967; Schwartz et al.., 2008). According to Elkind, adolescent egocentrism results in two distinct problems in thinking: the imaginary audience and the personal fable. These likely peak at age fifteen, along with self-consciousness in general.
Imaginary audience is a term that Elkind used to describe the phenomenon that an adolescent anticipates the reactions of other people to him/herself in actual or impending social situations. Elkind argued that this kind of anticipation could be explained by the adolescent’s conviction that others are as admiring or as critical of them as they are of themselves. As a result, an audience is created, as the adolescent believes that he or she will be the focus of attention. However, more often than not the audience is imaginary because in actual social situations individuals are not usually the sole focus of public attention. Elkind believed that the construction of imaginary audiences would partially account for a wide variety of typical adolescent behaviors and experiences; and imaginary audiences played a role in the self-consciousness that emerges in early adolescence. However, since the audience is usually the adolescent’s own construction, it is privy to his or her own knowledge of him/herself. According to Elkind, the notion of imaginary audience helps to explain why adolescents usually seek privacy and feel reluctant to reveal themselves–it is a reaction to the feeling that one is always on stage and constantly under the critical scrutiny of others.
Elkind also suggested that adolescents have another complex set of beliefs: They are convinced that their own feelings are unique and they are special and immortal. Personal fable is the term Elkind used to describe this notion, which is the complement of the construction of an imaginary audience. Since an adolescent usually fails to differentiate their own perceptions and those of others, they tend to believe that they are of importance to so many people (the imaginary audiences) that they come to regard their feelings as something special and unique. They may feel that they are the only ones who have experienced strong and diverse emotions, and therefore others could never understand how they feel. This uniqueness in one’s emotional experiences reinforces the adolescent’s belief of invincibility, especially to death.
This adolescent belief in personal uniqueness and invincibility becomes an illusion that they can be above some of the rules, constraints, and laws that apply to other people; even consequences such as death (called the invincibility fable). This belief that one is invincible removes any impulse to control one’s behavior (Lin, 2016). Therefore, some adolescents will engage in risky behaviors, such as drinking and driving or unprotected sex, and feel they will not suffer any negative consequences.
Intuitive and Analytic Thinking
Piaget emphasized the sequence of cognitive developments that unfold in four stages. Others suggest that thinking does not develop in sequence, but instead, that advanced logic in adolescence may be influenced by intuition. Cognitive psychologists often refer to intuitive and analytic thought as the dual-process model; the notion that humans have two distinct networks for processing information (Kuhn, 2013.)
Intuitive thought is automatic, unconscious, and fast, and it is more experiential and emotional. In contrast, analytic thought is deliberate, conscious, and rational (logical). Although these systems interact, they are distinguishable (Kuhn, 2013). Intuitive thought is easier, quicker, and more commonly used in everyday life. The discrepancy between the maturation of the limbic system and the prefrontal cortex, as discussed previously, may make teens more prone to emotional intuitive thinking than adults.
As adolescents develop, they gain in logic/analytic thinking ability but may sometimes regress, with social context, education, and experiences becoming major influences. Simply put, being “smarter” as measured by an intelligence test does not advance or anchor cognition as much as having more experience, in school and in life (Klaczynski & Felmban, 2014).
Risk-taking
Because most injuries sustained by adolescents are related to risky behavior (alcohol consumption and drug use, reckless or distracted driving, and unprotected sex), a great deal of research has been conducted to examine the cognitive and emotional processes underlying adolescent risk-taking. In addressing this issue, it is important to distinguish three facets of these questions: (1) whether adolescents are more likely to engage in risky behaviors (prevalence), (2) whether they make risk-related decisions similarly or differently than adults (cognitive processing perspective), or (3) whether they use the same processes but weigh facets differently and thus arrive at different conclusions. Behavioral decision-making theory proposes that adolescents and adults both weigh the potential rewards and consequences of an action. However, research has shown that adolescents seem to give more weight to rewards, particularly social rewards, than do adults. Adolescents value social warmth and friendship, and their hormones and brains are more attuned to those values than to a consideration of long-term consequences (Crone & Dahl, 2012).
Some have argued that there may be evolutionary benefits to an increased propensity for risk-taking in adolescence. For example, without a willingness to take risks, teenagers would not have the motivation or confidence necessary to leave their family of origin. In addition, from a population perspective, is an advantage to having a group of individuals willing to take more risks and try new methods, counterbalancing the more conservative elements typical of the received knowledge held by older adults.
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Cognitive Development in Early Adulthood
Emerging adulthood brings with it the consolidation of formal operational thought, and the continued integration of the parts of the brain that serve emotion, social processes, and planning and problem solving. As a result, rash decisions and risky behavior decrease rapidly across early adulthood. Increases in epistemic cognition are also seen, as young adults’ meta-cognition, or thinking about thinking, continues to grow, especially young adults who continue with their schooling.
Perry’s Scheme
One of the first theories of cognitive development in early adulthood originated with William Perry (1970), who studied undergraduate students at Harvard University. Perry noted that over the course of students’ college years, cognition tended to shift from dualism (absolute, black and white, right and wrong type of thinking) to multiplicity (recognizing that some problems are solvable and some answers are not yet known) to relativism (understanding the importance of the specific context of knowledge—it’s all relative to other factors). Similar to Piaget’s formal operational thinking in adolescence, this change in thinking in early adulthood is affected by educational experiences.
Table 9.2 Stages of Perry’s Scheme
| Stage | Summary of Position in Perry's Scheme | Basic Example |
|---|---|---|
| Dualism | ||
| The authorities know | “The tutor knows what is right and wrong” | |
| The true authorities are right, the others are frauds | “My tutor doesn’t know what is right and wrong but others do” | |
| There are some uncertainties and the authorities are working on them to find the truth | “My tutors don’t know, but somebody out there is trying to find out” | |
| Multiplicity | ||
| Everyone has the right to their own opinion | “Different tutors think different things” | |
| The authorities don’t want the right answers. They want us to think in a certain way | “There is an answer that the tutors want and we have to find it” | |
| Everything is relative but not equally valid | “There are no right and wrong answers, it depends on the situation, but some answers might be better than others” | |
| You have to make your own decisions | “What is important is not what the tutor thinks but what I think” | |
| Relativism | ||
| First commitment | “For this particular topic I think that….” | |
| Several commitments | “For these topics I think that….” | |
| Believe own values, respect others, be ready to learn | “I know what I believe in and what I think is valid, others may think differently and I’m prepared to reconsider my views” |
adapted from Lifespan Development by Lumen Learning
Some researchers argue that a qualitative shift in cognitive development takes place for some emerging adults during their mid to late twenties. As evidence, they point to studies documenting continued integration and focalization of brain functioning, and studies suggesting that this developmental period often represents a turning point, when young adults engaging in risky behaviors (e.g., gang involvement, substance abuse) or an unfocused lifestyle (e.g., drifting from job to job or relationship to relationship) seem to “wake up” and take ownership for their own development. It is a common point for young adults to make decisions about completing or returning to school, and making and following through on decisions about vocation, relationships, living arrangements, and lifestyle. Many young adults can actually remember these turning points as a moment when they could suddenly “see” where they were headed (i.e., the likely outcomes of their risky behaviors or apathy) and actively decided to take a more self-determined pathway.
Watch It
Please watch this brief lecture by Dr. Eric Landrum to better understand the way that thinking can shift during college, according to Perry’s scheme. Notice the overall shifts in beliefs over time. Do you recognize your own thinking or the thinking of others you know in this clip?
You can view the transcript for “Perry’s Scheme of Intellectual Development” here (opens in new window).
Cognition in Middle Adulthood
The brain at midlife has been shown to not only maintain many of the abilities of young adults, but also gain new ones. Some individuals in middle age actually have improved cognitive functioning (Phillips, 2011). The brain continues to demonstrate plasticity and rewires itself in middle age based on experiences. Research has demonstrated that older adults use more of their brains than younger adults. In fact, older adults who perform the best on tasks are more likely to demonstrate bilateralization than those who perform worst. Additionally, the amount of white matter in the brain, which is responsible for forming connections among neurons, increases into the 50s before it declines.
Emotionally, the middle-aged brain is calmer, less neurotic, more capable of managing emotions, and better able to negotiate social situations (Phillips, 2011). Older adults tend to focus more on positive information and less on negative information than do younger adults. In fact, they also remember positive images better than those younger. Additionally, the older adult’s amygdala responds less to negative stimuli. Lastly, adults in middle adulthood make better financial decisions, a capacity which seems to peak at age 53, and show better economic understanding. Although greater cognitive variability occurs among middle aged adults when compared to those both younger and older, those in midlife who experience cognitive improvements tend to be more physically, cognitively, and socially active.
Crystalized versus Fluid Intelligence
Intelligence is influenced by heredity, culture, social contexts, personal choices, and certainly age. One distinction in specific intelligences noted in adulthood, is between fluid intelligence, which refers to the capacity to learn new ways of solving problems and performing activities quickly and abstractly, and crystallized intelligence, which refers to the accumulated knowledge of the world we have acquired throughout our lives (Salthouse, 2004). These intelligences are distinct, and show different developmental pathways as pictured in Figure 10.22. Fluid intelligence tends to decrease with age (staring in the late 20s to early 30s), whereas crystallized intelligence generally increases all across adulthood (Horn et al., 1981; Salthouse, 2004).
Fluid intelligence, sometimes called the mechanics of intelligence, tends to rely on perceptual speed of processing, and perceptual speed is one of the primary capacities that shows age-graded declines starting in early adulthood, as seen not only in cognitive tasks but also in athletic performance and other tasks that require speed. In contrast, research demonstrates that crystallized intelligence, also called the pragmatics of intelligence, continues to grow all during adulthood, as older adults acquire additional semantic knowledge, vocabulary, and language. As a result, adults generally outperform younger people on tasks where this information is useful, such as measures of history, geography, and even on crossword puzzles (Salthouse, 2004). It is this superior knowledge, combined with a slower and more complete processing style, along with a more sophisticated understanding of the workings of the world around them, that gives older adults the advantage of “wisdom” over the advantages of fluid intelligence which favor the young (Baltes et al., 1999; Scheibe et al., 2009).
These differential changes in crystallized versus fluid intelligence help explain why older adults do not necessarily show poorer performance on tasks that also require experience (i.e., crystallized intelligence), although they show poorer memory overall. A young chess player may think more quickly, for instance, but a more experienced chess player has more knowledge to draw upon.
Seattle Longitudinal Study
The Seattle Longitudinal Study has tracked the cognitive abilities of adults since 1956. Every seven years the current participants are evaluated, and new individuals are also added. Approximately 6000 people have participated thus far, and 26 people from the original group are still in the study today. Current results demonstrate that middle-aged adults perform better on four out of six cognitive tasks than those same individuals did when they were young adults. Verbal memory, spatial skills, inductive reasoning (generalizing from particular examples), and vocabulary increase with age until one’s 70s (Schaie, 2005; Willis & Shaie, 1999). In contrast, perceptual speed declines starting in early adulthood, and numerical computation shows declines starting in middle and late adulthood (see Figure 10.23).
Cognitive skills in the aging brain have been studied extensively in pilots, and similar to the Seattle Longitudinal Study results, older pilots show declines in processing speed and memory capacity, but their overall performance seems to remain intact. According to Phillips (2011) researchers tested pilots age 40 to 69 as they performed on flight simulators. Older pilots took longer to learn to use the simulators but subsequently performed better than younger pilots at avoiding collisions.
Tacit knowledge is knowledge that is pragmatic or practical and learned through experience rather than explicitly taught, and it also increases with age (Hedlund et al., 2002). Tacit knowledge might be thought of as “know-how” or “professional instinct.” It is referred to as tacit because it cannot be codified or written down. It does not involve academic knowledge, rather it involves being able to use skills and to problem-solve in practical ways. Tacit knowledge can be seen clearly in the workplace and underlies the steady improvements in job performance documented across age and experience, as seen for example, in the performance of both white and blue collar workers, such as carpenters, chefs, and hair dressers.
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Cognition in Late Adulthood
Attention
Changes in sensory functioning and speed of processing information in late adulthood often translate into changes in attention (Jefferies et al., 2015). Research has shown that older adults are less able to selectively focus on information while ignoring distractors (Jefferies et al., 2015; Wascher et al., 2012), although Jefferies and her colleagues found that when given double time, older adults could perform at the same level as young adults. Other studies have also found that older adults have greater difficulty shifting their attention between objects or locations (Tales et al., 2002).
Consider the implication of these attentional changes for older adults. How does maintenance or loss of cognitive ability affect older adults’ everyday lives? Researchers have studied cognition in the context of several different everyday activities. One example is driving. Although older adults often have more years of driving experience, cognitive declines related to reaction time or attentional processes may pose limitations under certain circumstances (Park & Gutchess, 2000). In contrast, research on interpersonal problem solving suggests that older adults use more effective strategies than younger adults to navigate through social and emotional problems (Blanchard-Fields, 2007). In the context of work, researchers rarely find that older individuals perform more poorly on the job (Park & Gutchess, 2000). Similar to everyday problem solving, older workers may develop more efficient strategies and rely on expertise to compensate for cognitive declines.
Problem Solving
Declines with age are found on problem-solving tasks that require processing non-meaningful information quickly– a kind of task that might be part of a laboratory experiment on mental processes. However, many real-life challenges facing older adults do not rely on speed of processing or making choices on one’s own. Older adults resolve everyday problems by relying on input from others, such as family and friends. They are also less likely than younger adults to delay making decisions on important matters, such as medical care (Strough et al., 2003; Meegan & Berg, 2002).
What might explain these deficits as we age?
The processing speed theory, proposed by Salthouse (1996, 2004), suggests that as the nervous system slows with advanced age our ability to process information declines. This slowing of processing speed may explain age differences on a variety of cognitive tasks. For instance, as we age, working memory becomes less efficient (Craik & Bialystok, 2006). Older adults also need longer time to complete mental tasks or make decisions. Yet, when given sufficient time (to compensate for declines in speed), older adults perform as competently as do young adults (Salthouse, 1996). Thus, when speed is not imperative to the task, healthy older adults generally do not show cognitive declines.
In contrast, inhibition theory argues that older adults have difficulty with tasks that require inhibitory functioning, or the ability to focus on certain information while suppressing attention to less pertinent information (Hasher & Zacks, 1988). Evidence comes from directed forgetting research. In directed forgetting people are asked to forget or ignore some information, but not other information. For example, you might be asked to memorize a list of words but are then told that the researcher made a mistake and gave you the wrong list and asks you to “forget” this list. You are then given a second list to memorize. While most people do well at forgetting the first list, older adults are more likely to recall more words from the “directed-to-forget” list than are younger adults (Andrés et al., 2004).
Aging stereotypes exaggerate cognitive losses
While there are information processing losses in late adulthood, many argue that research exaggerates normative losses in cognitive functioning during old age (Garrett, 2015). One explanation is that the type of tasks that people are tested on tend to be meaningless. For example, older individuals are not motivated to remember a random list of words in a study, but they are motivated for more meaningful material related to their life, and consequently perform better on those tests. Another reason is that researchers often estimate age declines from age differences found in cross-sectional studies. However, when age comparisons are conducted longitudinally (thus removing cohort differences from age comparisons), the extent of loss is much smaller (Schaie, 1994).
A third possibility is that losses may be due to the disuse of various skills. When older adults are given structured opportunities to practice skills, they perform as well as they had previously. Although diminished speed is especially noteworthy during late adulthood, Schaie (1994) found that when the effects of speed are statistically removed, fewer and smaller declines are found in other aspects of an individual’s cognitive performance. In fact, Salthouse and Babcock (1991) demonstrated that processing speed accounted for all but 1% of age-related differences in working memory when testing individuals from ages 18 to 82. Finally, it is well established that hearing and vision decline as we age. Longitudinal research has found that deficits in sensory functioning explain age differences in a variety of cognitive abilities (Baltes & Lindenberger, 1997). Not surprisingly, more years of education, higher income, and better health care (which go together) are associated with higher levels of cognitive performance and slower cognitive decline (Zahodne et al., 2015).
Watch It
Watch this video from SciShow Psych to learn about ways to keep the mind young and active.
You can view the transcript for “The Best Ways to Keep Your Mind Young” here (opens in new window).
Intelligence and Wisdom
When looking at scores on traditional intelligence tests, tasks measuring verbal skills show minimal or no age-related declines, while scores on performance tests, which measure solving problems quickly, decline with age (Botwinick, 1984). This profile mirrors crystalized and fluid intelligence. Baltes (1993) introduced two additional types of intelligence to reflect cognitive changes in aging. Pragmatics of intelligence are cultural exposure to facts and procedures that are maintained as one ages and are similar to crystalized intelligence. Mechanics of intelligence are dependent on brain functioning and decline with age, similar to fluid intelligence. Baltes indicated that pragmatics of intelligence show little decline and typically increase with age whereas mechanics decline steadily, staring at a relatively young age. Additionally, pragmatics of intelligence may compensate for the declines that occur with mechanics of intelligence. In summary, global cognitive declines are not typical as one ages, and individuals typically compensate for some cognitive declines, especially processing speed.
Wisdom has been defined as “expert knowledge in the fundamental pragmatics of life that permits exceptional insight, judgment and advice about complex and uncertain matters” (Baltes & Smith, 1990). A wise person is insightful and has knowledge that can be used to overcome obstacles in living. Does aging bring wisdom? While living longer brings experience, it does not always bring wisdom. Paul Baltes and his colleagues (Baltes & Kunzmann, 2004; Baltes & Staudinger, 2000) suggest that wisdom is rare. In addition, the emergence of wisdom can be seen in late adolescence and young adulthood, with there being few gains in wisdom over the course of adulthood (Staudinger & Gluck, 2011). This would suggest that factors other than age are stronger determinants of wisdom. Occupations and experiences that emphasize others rather than self, along with personality characteristics, such as openness to experience and generativity, are more likely to provide the building blocks of wisdom (Baltes & Kunzmann, 2004). Age combined with a certain types of experience and/or personality brings wisdom.
References (Click to expand)
Andrés, P., Van der Linden, M., & Parmentier, F. B. R. (2004). Directed forgetting in working memory: Age-related differences. Memory, 12, 248-256.
Baltes, P. B. & Lindenberger, U. (1997). Emergence of powerful connection between sensory and cognitive functions across the adult life span: A new window to the study of cognitive aging? Psychology and Aging, 12, 12–21.
Baltes, P. B., Staudinger, U. M., & Lindenberger, U. (1999). Lifespan Psychology: Theory and Application to Intellectual Functioning. Annual Review of Psychology, 50, 471-507.
Blanchard-Fields, F. (2007). Everyday problem solving and emotion: An adult development perspective. Current Directions in Psychoogical Science, 16, 26–31
Craik, F. I., & Bialystok, E. (2006). Cognition through the lifespan: mechanisms of change. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 10, 131–138.
Crone, E. A., & Dahl, R. E. (2012). Understanding adolescence as a period of social–affective engagement and goal flexibility. Nature reviews neuroscience, 13(9), 636-650.
Elkind, D. (1967). Egocentrism in adolescence. Child Development, 38, 1025-1034.
Garrett, B. (2015). Brain and behavior (4th ed.) Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Hasher, L. & Zacks, R. T. (1988). Working memory, comprehension, and aging: A review and a new view. In G.H. Bower (Ed.), The Psychology of Learning and Motivation, (Vol. 22, pp. 193–225). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Hedlund, J., Antonakis, J., & Sternberg, R. J. (2002). Tacit knowledge and practical intelligence: Understanding the lessons of experience. Retrieved from http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/army/ari_tacit_knowledge.pdf
Horn, J. L., Donaldson, G., & Engstrom, R. (1981). Apprehension, memory, and fluid intelligence decline in adulthood. Research on Aging, 3(1), 33-84.
Jefferies, L. N., Roggeveen, A. B., Ennis, J. T., Bennett, P. J., Sekuler, A. B., & Dilollo, V. (2015). On the time course of attentional focusing in older adults. Psychological Research, 79, 28-41.
Kuhn, D. (2013). Reasoning. In. P.D. Zelazo (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of developmental psychology. (Vol. 1, pp. 744-764). New York NY: Oxford University Press.
Klaczynski, P. A., & Felmban, W. S. (2014). Heuristics and biases during adolescence: developmental reversals and individual differences.
Lin, P. (2016). Risky behaviors: Integrating adolescent egocentrism with the theory of planned behavior. Review of General Psychology, 20(4), 392-398.
Meegan, S. P., & Berg, C. A. (2002). Contexts, functions, forms, and processes of collaborative everyday problem solving in older adulthood. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 26(1), 6-15. doi: 10.1080/01650250143000283
Park, D. C. & Gutchess, A. H. (2000). Cognitive aging and everyday life. In D.C. Park & N. Schwarz (Eds.), Cognitive Aging: A Primer (pp. 217–232). New York: Psychology Press.
Perry, W.G., Jr. (1970). Forms of ethical and intellectual development in the college years: A scheme. New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.
Phillips, M. L. (2011). The mind at midlife. American Psychological Association. Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/monitor/2011/04/mind-midlife.aspx
Salthouse, T. A. (1984). Effects of age and skill in typing. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 113, 345.
Salthouse, T. A. (1996). The processing-speed theory of adult age differences in cognition. Psychological Review, 103, 403-428.
Salthouse, T. A. (2004). What and when of cognitive aging. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 13, 140–144.
Salthouse, T. A., & Babcock, R. L. (1991). Decomposing adult age differences in working memory. Developmental Psychology, 27, 763-776.
Schaie, K. W. (1994). The course of adult intellectual development. American Psychologist, 49, 304-311.
Schaie, K. W. (2005). Developmental influences on adult intelligence the Seattle longitudinal study. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Scheibe, S., Kunzmann, U. & Baltes, P. B. (2009). New territories of Positive Lifespan Development: Wisdom and Life Longings. In C. R. Snyder & S. J. Lopez (Eds.), Oxford handbook of Positive Psychology (2nd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.
Schwartz, P. D., Maynard, A. M., & Uzelac, S. M. (2008). Adolescent egocentrism: A contemporary view. Adolescence, 43, 441- 447.
Strough, J., Hicks, P. J., Swenson, L. M., Cheng, S., & Barnes, K. A. (2003). Collaborative everyday problem solving: Interpersonal relationships and problem dimensions. International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 56, 43- 66.
Tales, A., Muir, J. L., Bayer, A., & Snowden, R. J. (2002). Spatial shifts in visual attention in normal aging and dementia of the Alzheimer type. Neuropsychologia, 40, 2000-2012.
Wasscher, E., Schneider, D., Hoffman, S., Beste, C., & Sänger, J. (2012). When compensation fails: Attentional deficits in healthy ageing caused by visual distraction. Neuropsychologia, 50, 3185-31-92.
Willis, S. L., & Schaie, K. W. (1999). Intellectual functioning in midlife. In S. L. Willis & J. D. Reid (Eds.), Life in the Middle: Psychological and Social Development in Middle Age (pp. 233-247). San Diego: Academic.
Zahodne, L. B., Stern, Y., & Manly, J. (2015). Differing effects of education on cognitive decline in diverse elders with low versus high educational attainment. Neuropsychology, 29(4), 649-657.
Licenses & Attributions (Click to expand)
CC Licensed Content
“Cognitive Development During Adolescence” by Lumen Learning is licensed under a CC BY: Attribution.
“Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective, Second Edition” by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under a CC-BY-NC-SA-3.0/modified and adapted by Ellen Skinner & Dan Grimes, Portland State University
Lifespan Development by Lumen Learning is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License/modified and adapted by Ellen Skinner & Dan Grimes, Portland State University
“Puberty & Cognition” by Ellen Skinner, Dan Grimes & Brandy Brennan, Portland State University and are licensed under a CC-BY-NC-SA-4.0
Media Attributions
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QfRKykBiKF2hSyvq | Excel for Contractors | 2.1 Formulas
Learning Objectives
- Learn how to create basic formulas.
- Understand relative referencing when copying and pasting formulas.
- Work with complex formulas by controlling the order of mathematical operations.
- Understand formula auditing tools.
This section reviews the fundamental skills for entering formulas into an Excel worksheet. The example used for this chapter is the construction of a personal budget. Most financial advisors recommend that all households construct and maintain a personal budget to achieve and maintain strong financial health. Organizing and maintaining a personal budget is a skill you can practice at any point in your life. Whether you are managing your expenses during college or maintaining the finances of a family of four, a personal budget can be a vital tool when making financial decisions. Excel can make managing your money a fun and rewarding exercise.
Open the Data File
Download Data File: CH2 Data
- Open the Data file named CH2 Data and use the File/Save As command to save it with the new name CH2 Personal Budget.
Figure 2.1 shows the completed workbook that will be demonstrated in this chapter. Notice that this workbook contains four worksheets. The first worksheet, Budget Summary, serves as an overview of the data that was entered and calculated in the second and third worksheets, Budget Detail and Loan Payments. The second worksheet, Budget Detail, provides a detailed list of all the expenses and the third worksheet, Loan Payments, provides information regarding car payment and mortgage payment amounts. The last worksheet, Prepare to Print, has data that is unrelated to the budget worksheets but will be used in Section 2.4 – Preparing to Print.
Creating a Basic Formula
When formulas and cell references are used Excel will automatically recalculate when data is changed
Formulas are used to calculate a variety of mathematical outputs in Excel and can be used to create virtually any custom calculation required for your objective. Furthermore, when constructing a formula in Excel, you use cell addresses that, when added to a formula, become cell references. This means that Excel uses, or references, the number entered into the cell location when performing the calculation. As a result, when the numbers in the cells that are referenced are changed, Excel automatically recalculates the formula and produces a new result. This is what gives Excel the ability to create a variety of what-if scenarios, which will be explained later in the chapter.
To demonstrate the construction of a basic formula, we will begin working on the Budget Detail worksheet, which is shown in Figure 2.2. To complete this worksheet, we will enter some data, and then create several formulas and functions. Table 2.1 provides definitions for each of the spend categories listed in the range A3:A11. When you develop a personal budget, these categories are defined on the basis of how you spend your money. It is likely that every person could have different categories or define the same categories differently. Therefore, it is important to review the definitions in Table 2.1 to understand how we are defining these categories before proceeding.
Table 2.1 Spend Category Definitions
| Category | Definition |
| Utilities | Electricity, heat, water, home phone, cable, Internet access |
| Cell Phone | Cell phone plan and equipment charges |
| Food | Groceries |
| Gas | Cost of gas for vehicle |
| Clothes | Clothes, shoes, and accessories |
| Insurance | Renter, homeowner, and/or car insurance |
| Entertainment | Activities like dining out, movie and theater tickets, parties, and so on |
| Vacation | Vacation expenses |
| Miscellaneous | Any other spending categories |
The amount of money spent each month for each category, as well as the amount of money spent last year, is already entered into the worksheet. We will write formulas that will calculate the annual (yearly) amount spent, the percent of the total spent each category represents, as well as the percent change from last year’s spending to the current year.
The first formula will calculate the Annual Spend values. The formula will be constructed so that it takes the values in the Monthly Spend column and multiplies them by 12 (the number of months in a year). This will show how much money will be spent per year for each of the categories listed in Column A. Since the first category is Utilities, we will start by creating the formula to multiply the Monthly Spend amount in B3 by 12. This formula will be created in D3 – the Annual Spend cell for the Utilities category. This formula will be written as: =B3*12
- Switch to the Budget Detail worksheet if needed. Click cell D3.Formulas always start with the equal sign. This signifies to Excel that the contents of the cell should be calculated, not just displayed as basic text or numbers.
- Type an equal sign =
When the first character entered into a cell is an equal sign, it signals Excel to perform a calculation. - Type B3. This adds B3 to the formula, which is now a cell reference. Excel will use whatever value is entered into cell B3 in the calculation.
- Type the * . This is the symbol for multiplication in Excel. As shown in Table 2.2 the mathematical operators in Excel are slightly different from those found on a typical calculator.
- Type the number 12. This multiplies the value in cell B3 by 12. In this formula, a number, or constant, is used instead of a cell reference because it will not change. In other words, there will always be 12 months in a year.
- Press the ENTER key. This enters the formula into the cell.
Table 2.2 Excel Mathematical Operators (move up)
| Symbol | Operation |
| + | Addition |
| − | Subtraction |
| / | Division |
| * | Multiplication |
| ^ | Power/Exponent |
Why?
Use Cell References
Cell references enable Excel to automatically recalculate when one or more inputs in the referenced cells are changed. Cell references also allow you to trace how results are being calculated in a formula. You should never use a calculator to determine a mathematical output and type it into the cell location of a worksheet. Doing so eliminates Excel’s cell-referencing benefits as well as your ability to trace a formula to determine how results are being calculated.
Use Universal Constants
There will be times when you are writing formulas that you will need to use universal constants, or numbers that do not change, such as the number of days in a week, weeks or months in a year, and so on. For example, if you are calculating the monthly cost of an item when you know the yearly cost, you will always divide by 12 since there are 12 months in a year. In this case, you use the constant of 12 instead of a cell reference because the number of months in a year never changes.
Figure 2.3 shows how the formula appears in cell D3 before you press the ENTER key. Figure 2.4 shows the result of the formula after you press the ENTER key, as well as the formula bar which displays the formula as it was entered in the cell.
The Annual Spend for Utilities is $3,000 because the formula is taking the Monthly Spend in cell B3 and multiplying it by 12. If the value in cell B3 is changed, the formula automatically produces a new result.
Relative References (Copying and Pasting Formulas)
Once a formula is typed into a worksheet, it can be copied and pasted to other cell locations. For example, in cell D3 we have calculated the annual spend for the Utilities category, but this calculation needs to be performed for the rest of the cell locations in Column D. Since we used the B3 cell reference in the formula, Excel automatically adjusts that cell reference when the formula is copied and pasted into the rest of the cell locations in the column. This is called relative referencing and is demonstrated as follows:
- Click cell D3.
- Place the mouse pointer over the Auto Fill Handle in the bottom right corner of the cell.
- When the mouse pointer turns from a white block plus sign to a black plus sign, click and drag down to cell D11. This pastes the formula into the range D4:D11.
- Double click cell D6. Notice that the cell reference in the formula is automatically changed to B6.
- Press the ENTER key.
Figure 2.5 shows the results added to the rest of the cell locations in the Annual Spend column. For each row, the formula takes the value in the Monthly Spend column and multiplies it by 12. You will also see that cell D6 has been double clicked to show the formula. Notice that Excel automatically changed the original cell reference of B3 to B6. This is the result of relative referencing, which means Excel automatically adjusts a cell reference relative to its original location when it is pasted into new cell locations. In this example, the formula was pasted into eight cell locations below the original cell location. As a result, Excel increased the row number of the original cell reference by a value of one for each row it was pasted into.
Why?
Use Relative Referencing
Relative referencing is a convenient feature in Excel. When you use cell references in a formula, Excel automatically adjusts the cell references when the formula is pasted into new cell locations. If this feature were not available, you would have to manually retype the formula when you want the same calculation applied to other cell locations in a column or row.
Creating Complex Formulas (Controlling the Order of Operations)
The next formula to be added to the Personal Budget workbook is the percent change over last year (Column F). This formula determines the difference between this year’s Annual Spend values (Column D) and the values in the Last Year Spend column (Column E) and shows the difference in terms of a percentage. This requires that the order of mathematical operations be controlled to get an accurate result.
Excel uses the standard mathematical order of operations, as defined in Table 2.3. When writing complex formulas it is important to remember this order of operations. You want to be sure that your formulas will calculate in the order you intend. To help you remember which operations will be performed first, you can use the acronym PEMDAS.
P – parentheses
E – exponents
MD – multiplication and division
AS – addition and subtraction
Table 2.3 shows the standard order of operations (PEMDAS) for a typical formula. To change the order of operations shown in the table, you can use parentheses to process certain mathematical calculations first.
Table 2.3 Standard Order of Mathematical Operations (PEMDAS)
| Symbol | Order |
| ( ) | Any calculation inside parentheses will be done first. If there are layers of parentheses used in a formula, Excel computes the innermost parentheses first and the outermost parentheses last. |
| ^ | Excel executes any exponential computations next. |
| * or / | Excel performs any multiplication or division computations next. When there are multiple instances of these computations in a formula, they are executed in order from left to right. |
| + or − | Excel performs any addition or subtraction computations last. When there are multiple instances of these computations in a formula, they are executed in order from left to right. |
To create the Percent Change formula, we will need to use parentheses to control the order of the calculations. We need the difference of the two values to be found before the division is done, so we will use parentheses around the subtraction portion of the formula to indicate that calculation needs to be done first. This formula is added to the worksheet as follows:
- Click cell F3 in the Budget Detail worksheet.
- Type an equal sign =.
- Type an open parenthesis (.
- Click cell D3. This will add a cell reference to cell D3 to the formula. When building formulas, you can click cell locations instead of typing them.
- Type a minus sign −.
- Click cell E3 to add this cell reference to the formula.
- Type a closing parenthesis ).
- Type the slash / symbol for division.
- Click cell E3. This completes the formula that will calculate the percent change of last year’s actual spent dollars vs. this year’s budgeted spend dollars (see Figure 2.6).
- Press the ENTER key.
- Click cell F3 to activate it.
- Place the mouse pointer over the Auto Fill Handle.
- When the mouse pointer turns from a white block plus sign to a black plus sign, click and drag down to cell F11. This pastes the formula into the range F4:F11.
Figure 2.6 shows the formula that was added to the Budget Detail worksheet to calculate the percent change in spending. The parentheses were added to this formula to control the order of operations. Any mathematical computations placed in parentheses are executed first before the standard order of mathematical operations (see Table 2.3). In this case, if parentheses were not used, Excel would produce an erroneous result for this worksheet.
Figure 2.7 shows the result of the percent change formula if the parentheses are removed. The formula produces a result of a 299900% increase. Since there is no change between the LY spend and the budget Annual Spend, the result should be 0%. However, without the parentheses, Excel is following the standard order of operations. This means the value in cell E3 will be divided by E3 first (3,000/3,000), which is 1. Then, the value of 1 will be subtracted from the value in cell D3 (3,000−1), which is 2,999. Since cell F3 is formatted as a percentage, Excel expresses the output as an increase of 299900%.
Integrity Check<
Does the Output of Your Formula Make Sense?
It is important to note that the accuracy of the output produced by a formula depends on how it is constructed. Therefore, always check the result of your formula to see whether it makes sense with data in your worksheet. As shown in Figure 2.7, a poorly constructed formula can give you an inaccurate result. In other words, you can see that there is no change between the Annual Spend and LY Spend for Household Utilities. Therefore, the result of the formula should be 0%. However, since the parentheses were removed in this case, the formula is clearly producing an erroneous result.
Skill Refresher
Formulas
- Type an equal sign =.
- Click or type a cell location. If using constants, type a number.
- Type a mathematical operator.
- Click or type a cell location. If using constants, type a number.
- Use parentheses where necessary to control the order of operations.
- Press the ENTER key.
Auditing Formulas
Excel provides a few tools that you can use to review the formulas entered into a worksheet. For example, instead of showing the outputs for the formulas used in a worksheet, you can have Excel show the formula as it was entered in the cell locations. This is demonstrated as follows:
- With the Budget Detail worksheet open, click the Formulas tab of the Ribbon.
- Click the Show Formulas button in the Formula Auditing group of commands. This displays the formulas in the worksheet instead of showing the mathematical outputs.
- Click the Show Formulas button again. The worksheet returns to showing the output of the formulas.
You can also toggle Show Formulas on and off using the keyboard. Hold down the CTRL key while pressing the ` key.
Figure 2.8 shows the Budget Detail worksheet after activating the Show Formulas command in the Formulas tab of the Ribbon. As shown in the figure, this command allows you to view and check all the formulas in a worksheet without having to click each cell individually. After activating this command, the column widths in your worksheet increase significantly. The column widths were adjusted for the worksheet shown in Figure 2.8 so all columns can be seen. The column widths return to their previous width when the Show Formulas command is deactivated.
Skill Refresher
Show Formulas
- Click the Formulas tab on the Ribbon.
- Click the Show Formulas button in the Formula Auditing group of commands.
- Click the Show Formulas button again to show formula outputs.
Keyboard Shortcuts
Show Formulas
- Hold down the CTRL key while pressing the accent symbol `. Same for Excel for Mac.
Two other tools in the Formula Auditing group of commands are the Trace Precedents and Trace Dependents commands. These commands are used to trace the cell references used in a formula. A precedent cell is a cell whose value is used in other cells. The Trace Precedents command shows an arrow to indicate the cells or ranges (precedents) which affect the active cell’s value. A dependent cell is a cell whose value depends on the values of other cells in the workbook. The Trace Dependents command shows where any given cell is referenced in a formula. The following is a demonstration of these commands:
- Click cell D3.
- Click the Trace Dependents button in the Formula Auditing group of commands in the Formulas tab of the Ribbon. A blue arrow appears, pointing to cell F3 (see Figure 2.9). This indicates that cell D3 is referenced in a formula entered in cell F3.
- Click the Remove Arrows command in the Formula Auditing group of commands in the Formulas tab of the Ribbon. This removes the Trace Dependents arrow.
- Click cell F3.
- Click the Trace Precedents button in the Formula Auditing group of commands in the Formulas tab of the Ribbon. A blue arrow with dots in cells D3 and E3, and pointing to cell F3 appears (see Figure 2.10). This indicates that cells D3 and E3 are references in a formula entered in cell F3.
- Click the Remove Arrows command in the Formula Auditing group of commands in the Formulas tab of the Ribbon. This removes the Trace Precedents arrow.
- Save the CH2 Personal Budget file.
Figure 2.9 shows the Trace Dependents arrow on the Budget Detail worksheet. The blue dot represents the activated cell. The arrows indicate where the cell is referenced in formulas.
Figure 2.10 shows the Trace Precedents arrow on the Budget Detail worksheet. The blue dots on this arrow indicate the cells that are referenced in the formula contained in the activated cell. The arrow is pointing to the activated cell location that contains the formula.
Skill Refresher
Trace Dependents
- Click a cell location that contains a number or formula.
- Click the Formulas tab on the Ribbon.
- Click the Trace Dependents button in the Formula Auditing group of commands.
- Use the arrow(s) to determine where the cell is referenced in formulas and functions.
- Click the Remove Arrows button to remove the arrows from the worksheet.
Trace Precedents
- Click a cell location that contains a formula or function.
- Click the Formulas tab on the Ribbon.
- Click the Trace Precedents button in the Formula Auditing group of commands.
- Use the dot(s) along the line to determine what cells are referenced in the formula or function.
- Click the Remove Arrows button to remove the line with the dots.
Key Takeaways
- Mathematical computations are conducted through formulas and functions.
- An equal sign = precedes all formulas and functions.
- Formulas and functions must be created with cell references to conduct what-if scenarios where mathematical outputs are recalculated when one or more inputs are changed.
- Mathematical operators on a typical calculator are different from those used in Excel. Table 2.2 “Excel Mathematical Operators” lists Excel mathematical operators.
- When using numerical values in formulas and functions, only use universal constants that do not change, such as days in a week, months in a year, and so on.
- Relative referencing automatically adjusts the cell references in formulas and functions when they are pasted into new locations on a worksheet. This eliminates the need to retype formulas and functions when they are needed in multiple rows or columns on a worksheet.
- Parentheses must be used to control the order of operations when necessary for complex formulas.
- Formula auditing tools such as Trace Dependents, Trace Precedents, and Show Formulas should be used to check the integrity of formulas that have been entered into a worksheet.
Attribution
Adapted by Mary Schatz from How to Use Microsoft Excel: The Careers in Practice Series, adapted by The Saylor Foundation without attribution as requested by the work’s original creator or licensee, and licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0. | 4,538 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/constructionexcel/chapter/2-1-formulas/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:29274 | https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/constructionexcel/chapter/2-1-formulas/ |
IfE8szn27XgxMolZ | Learn Chinese, Learn Cyber：学中文，学网安 | 1.7 Cultural Notes for Self Introductions
- Chinese names （姓and 名）
Unlike names in English and many other Romance languages, last names (姓) precede before first names （名）in Chinese names, and for the most part there are no middle names in Chinese names. A vast majority of Chinese last names consist of one character, like 李，王，周，张， 陈 ，however, there are some Chinese last names with two characters, such as 欧阳， 宇文，司徒 (欧阳: Ōuyáng 宇文: Yǔwén, 司徒: Sītú) and so on. Over 90% of Chinese first names are two characters such as 赵莉莉，陈志学while only a small percentage of Chinese first names are one character 李梅，周萌，张笛. One thing we need to pay attention is that when you address people with two-character first names, you can address them by “Last name + first name” or you can address them just by their first name in most of informal contexts. However, as far as people with one-character first name are concerned, you can only address them by “Last name + first name” unless you are romantically involved with them.
2. Short videos (短视频)
Chinese short video (短视频, duǎn shìpín) apps have become a dominant force in China’s social media landscape. They offer bite-sized entertainment and a platform for creative expression. The two leading platforms in China are Douyin (抖音, dǒuyīn) and Kuaishou (快手, kuàishǒu). Douyin, developed by ByteDance (字节跳动, zìjié tiàodòng), is the Chinese version of TikTok. It boasts over 748 million active users in China as of September 2024. Kuaishou, its main competitor, has a strong presence in rural areas and claims over 504 million monthly active users. 抖音 focuses on trendy, personalized content with a younger, urban user base primarily in first and second-tier cities. It emphasizes individualized recommendations and instant engagement. In contrast, 快手 targets a more diverse audience, including users from third and fourth-tier cities and rural areas. 快手’s content is more grounded in everyday life, with a stronger social and community aspect. The two apps differ in their recommendation strategies: 抖音 prioritizes short-term user attention and quick feedback, while 快手 emphasizes long-term user retention and deeper interactions. 抖音’s content is often more stylized with trendy music and effects, whereas 快手 focuses on authentic, relatable content. These differences reflect their distinct approaches to user engagement and content curation in the competitive Chinese short video market.
These two Chinese apps share similarities with their U.S. counterparts, like TikTok, Instagram Reels, and YouTube Shorts. However, Chinese platforms have more advanced e-commerce integration, allowing users to make purchases directly within the app. They also tend to have higher user engagement, with Chinese users spending an average of over 60 minutes daily on short video apps. While TikTok dominates globally with 1.5 billion active users, Douyin and Kuaishou focus primarily on the Chinese market. These platforms have become integral to Chinese pop culture and are widely used for marketing, with 80% of China’s netizens using short video apps.
Chinese and U.S. short video apps prioritize personalized content delivery through AI-driven algorithms. However, Chinese platforms strongly emphasize live streaming and virtual gifting features, contributing significantly to their monetization strategies. | 668 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://eaglepubs.erau.edu/cyberchinese/chapter/cultural-notes-for-unit-1-self-introductions/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:16246 | https://eaglepubs.erau.edu/cyberchinese/chapter/cultural-notes-for-unit-1-self-introductions/ |
S4F-jRtuqM5Dr1Rm | Primary systematic human physiology, anatomy, and hygiene : a new and improved method of analysis and classification, both simple and complete, practical and interesting, adapted to the use of young scholars / by T.S. Lambert. | every boy and girl will some day receive this pleasing and useful present,) ought he not at once to teach the child how to wind it, set the hands, &c. ?
IP THE FATHER SHOULD TEACH THE CHILD HOW TO TAKE CARE OP AND USE TflE
watch? 3. What — ? should be read, What has every child received? The position of the verb in this case is changed a little. Sometimes a word must be thus changed, or one added, or one dropped* The object of the in. vention was to question the paragraphs thoroughly , and yet occupy but little space. The method effects the object admirably.
INTRODUCTORY.
not to breathe into it because the moist breath might rust it, &c., and the child should give heed to what he was told, would not the watch last longer and keep better time ?
4. If a child learns to take care of his body, will it not be likely to last him longer, and serve him better, than if he knows nothing about it ? Of course it will ; and, therefore, every one, even while young, should learn such things as are in this book.
5. If any child should receive a present of a watch, would it not be very strange if he should hear it tick, and see the hands move over the face, day after day, without wishing to have the watch opened and the causes of the sounds and of the motion explained ?
6. The body that every child has is much more curiously made than any watch. A child’s hands and arms can not only move round in a circle, but also in many different ways ; indeed, one finger of a child’s hand is more curious than both hands of a watch, with all their moving wheels.
7. If the ear is placed over the breast a little to the left of its centre, a very distinct, pleasant sound will be heard, repeated a little oftener than once in a second.
8. This regular, frequent sound heard in the chest is caused by the heart — a small organ about as large as a man’s fist. It is one of the most useful parts of the body, because it drives the blood through all parts.
bone and the front ends of the ribs have been taken away, and the heart is close under them ; that is the reason it can be heard so plainly.
10. Every one who has not before done it, should place his ear over the heart and listen to its sounds. They will cause more pleasure than any child ever enjoyed in hearing a watch tick, especially if it is known how very faithfully the heart will do its duty.
a hundred years pass away, it will work on — and with what surprising regularity ! — to give life and health, and warmth and comfort to all parts of the body, throbbing or beating more than four thousand times per hour during all the hours of the longest life.
12. But if a child should receive a present of a nice watch, it would wish to learn the names of its chief parts. It would not like to call the “ key 55 a winder, nor the “ .crystal ” a window ; for though the words would be understood, they would not sound well, because they are not generally used in that way.
13. Every one should learn the proper names of those parts of the body that are most important and most frequently spoken of ; for, if a person knows the proper names of objects, he will be prepared to hear or to read about them at any time, and he will appear creditably if he speaks about them.
14. Every child seeing a watch opened, will wish to know what the parts are for, and will enjoy a pleasure in learning ; because knowledge is so very useful to us, that it has been made very pleasant for him to gain knowledge.
15. Every child will be still more interested to learn how we breathe, drink, and eat ; what becomes of the air, water, and food, of which three things every boy or girl in a year uses as much as two horses could draw; also how we walk, run, talk, wink, sneeze, and cough ; how we hear, see, smell, &c. ; how we grow, keep warm, and a hundred such things.
16. There is another very important reason why every child should study, and in the right manner, the subjects upon which this book treats.
do so in part, because it will give him courage to learn everything thoroughly ; therefore, I will try to explain the reason as clearly as possible.
belief.
20. One of the best improvements that can be produced in the mind, is to have it become unwilling to do anything for which the reason is not plain, and to ask a reason for everything it does.
21. The study of our bodies in the right manner, is the very best of studies, because it shows so clearly that every part of the body was made for a purpose, and that there is a good cause and reason for everything and every action in the body.
. 22. It is natural to suppose, therefore, that a mind that learns so many whys and wherefores as this study can give, will, from habit, be very apt to seek for a cause and reason for everything else.
23. As the mind studies the uses of the different parts of the body, many of them are found to be alike ; these are put together in a class, or classified.
24. These classes are found to act upon each other, and thus the classes are classified, in an orderly or systematic manner ; which means, that all the parts act together to gain a desired and intended result — as the wheels of a watch act together systematically to cause the hands to show the time. Now this action of the mind in classifying is one of the most important, as well as one of the most useful, as a habit, that can be practised. But, again, to class things according to their
18. Effect of use upon — ? 19. Effect of activity upon — ? 20. What is — ? 21. Why is — ? 22. What — ? 23. What result — ? 24. How are — ? What does the mind the greatest good ?
greatest good.
25. The plate-page 6 is introduced to illustrate what is meant by classifying systematically. It is numbered 6, because it occurs systematically after the 5 plate-pages that it represents in a condensed manner. This and other plate-pages, when used, will be numbered according to their natural order.
26. Fig. 1 (plate-page 6) represents the skeleton or framework of the body, composed of parts similar to each other in most respects, though differing in some.
27. The skeleton is found from head to foot ; it supports all parts, and protects some ; its parts are united by joints, most of which allow motion of one part upon another.
clothing the skeleton from head to foot.
29. The muscles are the lean meat ; their use is to produce motion, chiefly of different parts of the skeleton to which they are attached. (See plate-pages 1 and 2 for more distinct views of the skeleton and muscles.)
part of the body.
31. The nerves are, singly, so small that they cannot be seen by the naked eye ; of course, the white pulpy cords represented in the picture are bundles of the single nerves, that, millions in number, connect every part of the body with the brain. They are so numerous, that the point of the finest cambric needle cannot prick through the skin without piercing one or more.
an influence, as it is called, from the brain through a nerve to the muscles, causing them to contract and relax, and thus move the parts of the skeleton to which they grow.
Remark. — The words “ contract ” and “ relax ” have a peculiar meaning. When a muscle contracts it becomes shorter ; and when it relaxes it stops contracting, and can be easily extended,
33. Illustration. — If the mind wishes to raise the hand, it sends down an influence to a muscle on the front part of the upper arm, which muscle, by shortening, draws up the lower arm. This action of the muscle can be felt by grasping the front part of the upper arm, and then raising the lower arm : try it.
34. Fig. 4 (plate-page 6) represents the skin — a kind of bag containing the three other parts, protecting them, and forming a beautiful finish or surface upon them. It serves also several other useful purposes.
35. But the skeleton, muscles, and nerves must grow, be kept warm, and in good repair, for which they need a constant supply of blood.
37. The blood-tubes are tubes of three different kinds — some as large as a man’s thumb, and others so small that they cannot be seen by the naked eye, and so numerous that the smallest needle cannot prick the skin without piercing one or more, and causing a flow of blood.
38. The eye easily teaches that a very large part of the body and some whole members of it are made of the four kinds of organs just described.
40. By running our eyes across those five
Figures of plate-page 6, or over the plate-pages 1, 2, 3, and 5, we shall see that an arm is composed of (Fig. 1) skeleton, (Fig. 2) muscles, (Fig. 3) nerves, (Fig. 4) skin, (Fig. 5) blood-tubes ; or the
42. We might notice these organs according to their positions, or Anatomically — as skeleton, muscles, skin ; or skin, muscles, skeleton ; and then nerves and blood-tubes ; or these might be noticed with each of the kinds of larger organs in which they are found, and of which, in one sense, they form a part.
43* Why both the nerves and blood-tubes should be extended through the skeleton, muscles, and skin so numerously, will be evident from Figs. 2 and 3, as it is there seen that the nerves and blood-tubes connect all parts with two centres in the body.
44. Fig. 2 represents a few out of millions of nerves extending between the various parts of the body and the brain situated in the head. This is a back view.
45. Fig. 3 represents one set of blood-tubes called arteries, leading out from the heart — a centre situated in the chest — into all parts of the body ; another set of tubes called veins (see plate-page 5) leads the blood back from all parts to the heart, or centre.
their wTay to the heart.
46. The two Figs. 2 and 3 show very plainly the important fact that there are two centres in the body, and that there are two different means, (one, tubes or blood-vessels ; the other, cords or nerves,) connecting the centres with all parts of the body.
46. What do — ? What is the centre in the Head, with which all the nerves connect, called ? What is the centre at II., Fig. 3, from which the great blood-tube starts out, called ?
Fig. 6.
47. The Figs. 1, 2, and 4 of plate-page 6 show that all the outer parts of the body are composed of skeleton, muscles, and skin, with the connecting nerves and blood-tubes.
walls of the head.
47. What does Fig. 1 (plate-page 6) represent ? What does Fig. 2 (platepage 6) represent ? What does Fig. 4 (plate-page 6) represent ? What do “ outer parts of the body” include ? 48. How shall — ?
49. Fig. 4 represents a view of the skull — the skeleton of the Head. The upper part of the skull, containing the Brain, as in a case or box, is called the Cranium ; the lower and front part, forming the sockets of the eyes, the passages of the nostrils, and the cavity of the mouth, is called the Facium.
50. Fig. 5 represents the muscles of the side of the head and face, some of which can be felt under the skin when they cause the motions for which they are intended.
51. Fig. 6 represents, in a very beautiful manner, several bundles of nerves leading from the skin and the muscles just below it, inward to the great centre where the mind has its seat.
52. The skin also is represented in Fig. 6 at the margin of the picture, as if the skin had been cut through on a line with the centre of the nose, and removed from the side of the head and face.
53. Fig. 7 represents the skin as forming the margin of the picture ; 5, 6, and its branches, represent blood-tubes proper ; while the small beaded net-work of tubes, and the small bodies with which they are connected in the neck, represent lymphatics, or white blood-tubes, as they are sometimes called.
54. These large, beautiful pictures of the walls of the head show that, like the arm, the Headwalls are composed of a skeleton, muscles, nerves, skin, and blood-tubes.
55. The student should now look at the Figures of plate 6, and- state the kinds of organs composing the lower limbs, trunk, walls, and neck, naming each kind distinctly, and writing them out, as in case of the arm.
What do you think is the reason for writing part of the words in the table without any capital letters ? What can you construct from Skeleton, Muscles, Nerves , Skin, and Blood-Tubes?
This means, that the parts named betore the first brace are each composed of all the organs mentioned after the last brace. Let it be noticed, that headwalls and trunk-walls are in different type from the other names, so also are nerves and blood-tubes.
57. The student should be questioned, and should write tables upon the compositions of his fingers, thumbs, and other parts, until he becomes perfectly familiar with the five kinds of organs that form such a large part of the body, and where they are to be found. He should commence with the surface of his arm, and name in their order the parts to be found in a line through its centre ; so with other parts of the body.
58. He should be also questioned in regard to them, so that he will become familiar with their mode and order of action ; that is, he should be asked the use of each kind of organ every time that it is mentioned.
59. The student should be asked how large a part of the body, in size or weight, these five kinds of organs compose. He can judge by looking over the Figures of plate-page 6.
62. It is natural therefore to conclude that a great deal of muscular exercise will be necessary to keep in health so large a portion of the body as has been made solely for motion.
63. If the student has rightly studied this LONG ILLUSTRATION AND ACCOMPANYING PICTURES, he has learned a great deal of Physiology, Anatomy, and Hygiene — much more than he is aware. There is, in fact, a whole volume of Physiology and Anatomy in plate-page 6. It expresses facts of great importance to remember.
64. The intention was to present by this illustration, in an attractive manner, a brief and striking outline-idea of the chief parts of the body, and familiarize the student with them in the outset, as well as to show him how well and systematically he can classify them.
portant to have him perceive, that each part is made
* Remake. — There is a great difference between the expressions health and the best condition for use ; if the latter is true of a jjart, the former also must be ; but a part may be in health and not in a condition for its desirable use. Upon this matter a very incorrect idea prevails, since it is usually thought, that if a part is in health, it is in the beet condition for use, and also, that the better the condition for use in which any part is, so much the more healthy it is ; and, therefore, it is thought that bringing a part into this better condition improves health. But the right arm of the blacksmith is no more healthy than his left arm ; both are healthy, but the former in the better condition for strength. Therefore, only a certain degree of activity is necessary to health ; and the bounds of health have a great latitude within which parts may be adapted to the various conditions required of them for use. Indeed, sometimes, by bringing part s into a condition that is necessary for use, the health may be injured. For example : a man in making himself very strong, might take so much of his time and of his blood in exercising his muscles, that other parts must suffer.
AND WITH GREATEST INTEREST, THE VARIOUS PARTS OF
the body, he must first seek to know their use, and what it is desirable they should do ; then he can easily learn how they are adapted to do it, and how to keep them in such a condition that they can do it most perfectly.
67. This is the true way in which to study the body, giving all the advantage of learning it the most completely, and also the still higher advantage of improving the mind to the highest degree.
Remark. — If a boy should say he was about to make something, and should ask what he should make it of, and how he should make it, the reply would be a question, asking .him what that which he intended to make was to be, or what it was to be for. If he should be asked what it was to be, the object would be to learn what it was for ; for if he should reply that it was to be a bow, every one would know what it was to be for? viz., to shoot with ; to know what it was to be for, would be necessary, in order to answer him correctly. He could then be told what he must get, and how he must shape it ; he would be told that he must get some tough, springy, or elastic wood, like hickory, that could be very much bent without breaking. If the use of anything is not known, what it is must first be studied, in order to learn what it may be for — and, perhaps, experiments must be tried ; but if its use is known, we can best learn hoAV it is made, and how it is to be used, if we are first told its use, as we can then experience much pleasure in learning the adaptation of its structure to its use.
it is a servant.
69. Many seem to think the body is the master and the mind the servant, for they expend all their time and money in adorning the body, and neglect their minds. They seem to think the houses they live in and the clothes they wear are of much greater importance than the thoughts they have or the words they speak.
70. I hope to show eveey child that the common idea is wrong, by showing him that every part of the body is really made for the purpose of serving the mind.
71. The mind caees foe the body, in order that it may serve the mind the better ; and the better the body is cared for, the better can the mind use it for any purpose.
72. It must theeefoee be foolish to spend time and money on the body, and leave the mind in ignorance ; quite as foolish as it would be for a people to well feed, finely clothe, and securely shelter the servant of a king, and leave the king himself in abject poverty ; or to bestow great honor on the soldiers of an army, and leave the general a beggar.
74. The last expression might be read : Every man (meaning all mankind, women and children included) equals a mind and body added ; or man embraces both mind and body.
the body
should be studied on account of the mind, and for the purpose of learning how the body and all its parts can be best made to serve the mind, and make it more useful and happier.
77. To LEARN HOW TO MAKE THE BODY MOST USEFUL TO THE MIND, WE MUST LEARN, 1st, the USeS of the various parts of the body ; 2d, how they are constructed ; 3d, how to keep them in such a condition that they will be best adapted to fulfil their purposes.
structure of different parts of the Human Body.
83. Hygiene is the name given to that branch that treats upon the manner of keeping the different parts of living things in, not only health, but a condition best adapted to use.
84. Human Hygiene therefore treats upon the manner of keeping the different parts of the Human Body in the best condition for appropriate use — certainly the most important subject that can concern the mind of any person, since each person is himself interested in the matter beyond what he can be in anything else.
the three divisions of the study of the Human Body are,
Remark. — As there are two other kinds of living things besides man, viz., animals and vegetables, there are two other kinds of Physiology, Anatomy, and Hygiene, viz. :
* I have seen it stated, that Comparative Anatomy is the name of the science that treats upon the structure of animals ; but that is incorrect, as any dictionary will show : not to te^ch what is not known is tolerable, but to teach error when the truth is known is inexcusable ; especially is it so to make such egregious blunders as that mentioned above.
Physiology ; what the parts are for. Anatomy ; how made or constructed. Hygiene ; how kept in good condition.
put our clothes.
88. The Trunk has limbs growing to it, but not exactly as limbs grow out from the trunk of a tree. The four limbs being alike, in some respects, are called by the common name limbs; but as twro differ from the other two, they are called upper and lower limbs; and one of each being on each side, it is also called right or left. This is classifying.
89. There is also to be seen growing upwards from the Trunk a short column called the Neck, on the top of which rests the Head.
90. The body therefore appears to be con^ structed of four kinds of members — the Trunk, limbs, Neck, and Head. The Neck is sometimes considered as an extension of the Trunk, in which case the members would be of only three kinds — Trunk, limbs, and Head.
BODY ANALYZED INTO SIX MEMBERS.
91. Usually, the upper and lower limbs are considered as two kinds of members ; as explained hereafter, it is also desirable to have a part found in the Neck, called the larynx, considered as a distinct member.
92. The body in this work will therefore be considered as constructed of six members — Trunk, lower limbs, upper limbs, Neck, Head, and larynx.
93. In what order shall the members be considered ? is now the important question. They should be studied in the order of their use. But how are we to learn the order of their use — which member is master, and which members are servants ? and are these all servants directly to one, or are some servants to others, and some independent?
94. In one view the Trunk may be considered as the member on account of which all the rest were needed and made : the lower limbs to carry it ; the upper limbs to feed it, and the Head to show where, and to plan how, to obtain food.
95. Some persons do, so to speak, allow the Trunk to become the master of the other members ; but, like fire, it is a very good servant, but very bad master.
97. If we try the experiment of cutting the
LARGE NERVE, FlG. 2, CONNECTING THE BRAIN IN THE Head with the lower limbs, all power to move the limb, and all sensation in it, is lost ; thus, if the foot of the person should be pricked, or a coal of fire dropped on it, he would not feel it, and could
to a man.
99. These simple experiments fully prove two facts : 1st, the great fact that the mind has its seat, throne, or home in the Head ; 2d, the lesser fact, that the office of the nerves is to connect parts of the body with the brain, in order that the mind may control and be acted on by them.
100. This great fact is the most important in the whole study, enabling us to learn all the rest with interest and satisfaction, since we have only to ask what the mind requires to do, or to have done, in order to learn why other parts must be added to the Head, and what they must be.
101. This great fact also makes certain that the Head is the head-member of the body, and to which the Trunk even must take the place of servant. We will now learn in what order the members should be arranged.
is knowledge.
103. For the mind to gain knowledge, the Head must be furnished with instruments for hearing, seeing? smelling, tasting, and touching objects.
100. Fig. 8 represents a head on its travels, supported first by a curved column composed of solid pieces with elastic cushions between them, resting upon a broad ring, to each side of which the lower limbs are attached. The bones themselves are also filled with
106. What does — ? Can you see the thin cushions in Fig. 9? Will a tumbler sound as loudly, if struck when full of water, as it will when empty ? Does the marrow in the hones have the effect of the water in the tumbler?
protective marrow, so that when the foot strikes the ground very little of the jar felt by the foot passes up to the Head, within which there are various means to protect its delicate organs from the jars that do reach it.
107. To keep this column upright when desirable, and to easily control its motions when it should be curved, long levers, called ribs, have been applied to each side ; these curve round to the front, and are on each side fastened to a bone in the centre called the breast-bone, or Sternum, the whole forming a conical, basket-like frame, or skeleton of the Chest, as the upper part of the Trunk is called.
110. Plate-page 2 represents muscles stretching from the limbs below to the broad ring at the bottom of the Trunk, and from the ring up to the ribs ; also between them up to the column above the Trunk, and to the Head, forming so many stays to sustain the column, when necessary, or to curve it into any other position.
with a Neck, Trunk, and lower limbs.
112. But while travelling in search of knowledge, the mind will want to examine many things, and, for the purpose of handling them, must be supplied with hands, which, to do much, must be placed at the outer ends of long flexible arms. Hence the upper limbs, for the structure of which see plate-page 6.
113. One thing more will be needed : the mind requires to ask questions and to answer them, for which purpose it must have the means of talking.
114. For talking there will be required a bellows to take in and blow out air; this is provided in the Chest; but the air, as it is blown out of the bellows, must be made to produce sounds ; and for this purpose there is a carious instrument, forming a small part of the windpipe. It can be usually seen, but always felt in the upper part of the Neck, as an enlargement of the windpipe ; it is commonly called Adam’s apple ; but its proper name is larynx.
115. When we simply breathe the air through the larynx, no sound is produced ; but when we blow it through suddenly, and with force, sounds are caused, and, by the assistance of the mouth, speech is produced.
larynx
117. Upon examination of the necessities of the six members, W’e shall find that they must be kept at a proper temperature, for as soon as they are too warm, or too cold, they do not work well ; they must also be kept in repair, &c. ; for all of which an abundance of Blood is necessary, and must be prepared.
118. Will not another member be required to make Blood ? No ; for what is necessary for making blood, and for forcing it through the Blood-tubes, will exactly fill the otherwise empty Trunk-walls.
119. Figs. 11 and 12 represent a part of the Contents of the Trunk- walls, the front portions of which have been removed to show the Heart, Lungs, Stomach, Liver, and Second Stomach, as they would naturally appear in their places.
Remark. — One of the most curious things in the body is the exact, proportionate size of the Trunk-walls and their Contents to each other, and to the body to which they belong.
120. It is not to be denied that, as it is the duty of the Trunk to prepare and circulate an abundance of blood through all the other members, so also is it their duty to supply the Trunk with an abundance of good Air, Water, and Food, from which to prepare good Blood
Fig. 11. Fig. 12.
122. The science and art of cooking, and indeed all of housekeeping — such as cleanliness, ventilation, clothing, &c., that pertains to preserving and promoting, or restoring health — should be held in the highest honor and esteem, as nothing promotes more the welfare of mankind ; but it should always be kept in view that the reason why the welfare of mankind is thus served, is because good Blood is essential to the proper action of the mind.
121. Of what is Blood made?. Where is the Heart (II) situated in Fig. 11 ? In which Fig., 11 or 12, is the Heart (H) seen the most fully ? In which Fig. are the ribs cast hack the farthest ? 122. Why should — be held in honor ?
ANALYSIS OF THE SIX MEMBERS INTO TWO MECHANISMS.
123. The subjects of this chapter are among the most interesting and important that will be found in this book. It is doubtful if, in the whole range of studies, any ideas can be found more valuable than those suggested here, if taken in all their bearings.
124. Several facts have been mentioned in previous chapters, and others shown, that will appear very curious when brought out and compared, and will compel our minds to come to some very important conclusions.
nected with all parts of it, in which the divisions of the Nerves and Blood-tubes are so similar that the same language may be used for each. (See paragraphs 31 and 37.)
INTO TWO MECHANISMS.
126. Second Fact. — The scholar has doubtless noticed, that each of the two members — the Head and the Trunk — have walls and contents, viz. :
127. Third Fact. — We breathe air, drink water, and eat food, into the Trunk : while we hear, see, smell, and taste, through the Head. This fact leads us to the —
128. Fourth Fact.— The Trunk receives material things, viz., such as can be handled and weighed, while all the operations in the Head are upon that which is immaterial, viz., cannot be handled nor weighed — thoughts, feelings, sensations, volitions, &c. How very, very, very different the two are ! Stop a moment, and think over the idea.
129. Fifth Fact. — From the Head an immaterial influence is exerted upon all parts through the nerves , hence called Nervous Influence (yet no man really knows anything of consequence about its character) : while from the Trunk there is poured through the Blood-tubes into all parts a current of vital, material fluid— the Blood — that we know nearly everything about.
condition fit for use.
131. Seventh Fact. — Every part is used, or brought into use or action, by means of Nervous Influence exerted through the nerves ; and is kept in a condition fit
for use by means of the Blood poured through the Blood-tubes. For example (plate-page 6) : the arm is constructed of a framework (Fig. 1), and of muscles (Fig. 2), which are brought into action through the nerves (Fig. 3), the whole being covered with skin (Fig. 4), which can also cause sensation through the nerves ; while, in the second place, Blood-tubes (Fig. 6) are interwoven through each organ — skeleton, muscle, and skin — in order that the Blood may keep them in a good condition for use.
132. Eighth Fact. — A few orderly experiments, or the answers to a few questions, will show that over some parts of the body the mind has perfect control, while over other parts it can exert no direct control ; and the latter will be found to be those parts which are concerned in supplying the organs with Blood.
133. Can the mind move the Head? Yes. Can it control the action of the Heart ? No. Can it bend the Neck? Yes. Can it stop the breath? No. Can it bend the walls of the Trunk ? Yes. Can it cause the Stomach to act? No. Can it move the lower limbs ? Yes. Can it control the action of the Liver ? No. Can it raise or lower the arms ? Yes. Can it excite the Kidneys to action ? No. Can it exercise the larynx at pleasure ? Yes. Has it direct power over the Second Stomach ? No.
134. Bring together those parts to which the answer is yes. The mind can control the Head, Neck, walls of the Trunk, lower limbs, upper limbs, and larynx. These, therefore, are called voluntary.
135. Bring together those parts to which the answer is no. The mind cannot directly control the Heart, Lungs, Stomach, Liver, Kidneys, or, in short, any
131. How is each pari kept in condition ? Describe the arm as shown in plate-page 6. 132. — what ? 133. Try and see if you can control the parts as stated. 134. What arc those parts — ? 135. What are those parts — ?
involuntary.
136. All these facts show very clearly that the body is constructed of two mechanisms — one directly connected with the Brain and Mind, and directly controlled by the Mind, while another is added to that, and is not directly under the control of the Mind.
Remark. — By a mechanism is meant several parts arranged to work together in producing a result. In a clock several parts work together to move the hands. If it strikes, there is another set of parts working together to cause the striking. In a large factory there is a great mechanism, or many small ones, working together to produce the articles made there , and, to keep the different parts of the producing mechanisms in repair, a machine-shop or secondary mechanism is added to the factory ; while, to keep it warm or cool, some other mechanism will be necessary, and will be added. Thus, in the body, the Contents of the Trunk-walls are a machine-shop and heating mechanism for repairing and keeping warm or cool the mechanism used by the mind.
138. These mechanisms, or groups of parts, may be called the M, or Mental or Prime : and the B, or Blood-making, or Secondary, as follows :
139. The greater importance of the Mental Mechanism will be clearly felt, by noticing the interesting fact that this mechanism is double — right and left throughout.
140. A look at the Figures of plate-page 6 will show that the Mental Mechanism is double, for the pictures of the skeleton, muscles, and nerves, show the fact clearly.
141. The skin even, that as an external covering seems to show no signs of being right and left, will, upon being pricked, in case of certain diseases, reveal the fact that it is also right and left ; for on one side of an exact middle line — much more exact than could be drawn with a pencil — the skin being pricked will not cause any pain, while on the other side of the line the prick may be very painful. The reason is, that the nerves of either side never cross the central line in the skin for the smallest distance ; and if those on one side are so diseased that they cannot act, pain will not be caused by pricking the skin of that side, while those of the other side may be perfect, and will cause pain if pricked.
How many different muscles can you count in each side of Fig. 15 ? Are the parts on both sides of Fig. 16 numbered? Why not? How many parts in Fig. 16 do not appear to be double ?
145. Fig. 17 represents a front view of the brain, the spinal cord, extending down, and its branching nerves. Is not the whole double ?
146. Fig. 18 represents (1 and 3) the pipe, tube, or swallow, through which food passes into the Stomach, or food-pouch (8, 9, 10, and 12), situated in its natural position in the Trunk-walls, a part of which is shown.
148. Though the Lungs, in one view, are called double — so is the heart — and we speak of them as the right and left lung, or heart, yet they are really single, for both lungs, or both parts of the lungs, are necessary for complete breathing, and each heart has an entire and distinct office.
149. All the Contents of the Trunk- walls, or the Blood-making parts or mechanism, are to be looked upon as single, and, when apparently double, are to be regarded as parts of a single thing ; for if one lung is diseased or injured so that a man cannot breathe with it, he suffers from want of breath ; while, if he loses one eye, he can see as well as ever, in most respects.
150. But the Mental Mechanism, when in any respect it seems single, is really double. The Head is double ; and though, when divided, we may call its parts the right and left half of the Head, it will be better to call them the right and left Heads, since, though they cannot operate when removed from each other, each does operate by itself when they are together ; and the parts are also completely alike on each side of the line.
151. There are in the HexVd, not only two ears and two eyes, but two noses — for each nostril is a distinct nose — and two mouths ; for though it is single, so far as it is useable for eating food, drinking water, and breathing, viz., so far as it works for Blood-making, and belongs to the Contents of the Trunk-walls, yet, so far as it regards tasting or touching anything, it is mental, and is double — there being a line above and below, showing the line of union : look and see it.
152. The Neck is double, as is shown by Fig. 16, in which the single tubes through which the food and air pass, are seen at 12 and 13 ; 28 is a bone, and also
148. What is really true — ? 149. What said of — ? 150. What said of — ? 151. — how many evidently double parts ? Can you see the dividing line in the roof of the mouth, and on the tongue ? 152. Is — ?
halves.
153. The Trunk- walls are double; it is evident the limbs are ; and an examination of the larynx will show that that organ is also double.
154. It can now be understood that a person may not only be right-handed, but other parts of the body may be stronger upon one side than upon the other.
155. Indeed it generally happens that if a person is right-handed, he will be right-footed, and rightfaced as well ; so that, by looking at the face, and observing which side a person uses the most actively, we can usually tell whether he is right or left-handed ; so we can by observing the foot, for a person will usually “ turn out his toes 55 the most on the weakest side.
156. If A PERSON CAN USE ONE HAND NEARLY AS well as he can the other, he will have a smooth voice, because both sides of the larynx, that chiefly produces the tones of the voice, are as well balanced as the hands.
157. It appears then that every person has two Heads, right and left ; two Necks, right and left ; two Trunk-walls, right and left ; two lower limbs, right and left ; two upper limbs, right and left ; two larynxes, right and left ; which, together, make up the right and left Mental Mechanisms.
158. There are therefore three mechanisms in the body — two alike in kind — right and left, Mental, and the Blood-making, in a tabular manner, thus :
united, so as to form a whole, not only by growing together at certain points, but, so to speak, by being geared together by nerves that extend across from one to the other ; so that the mind can use the two as if they were one, by means of influences passing through these cross nerves, called commissures.
160. The Blood-making is united to the Mental Mechanisms, not only by growing to them, but by means of important and numerous bundles of nerves that extend between the Mental and Blood-making Mechanisms, through which Nervous Influences act in both directions.
161. Fig. 19, one of the most beautiful cuts ever made, admirably represents a portion of the Head, Neck, and Trunk, exposing the bundles of nerves (c, #, d) extending between the Stomach (5)? the Liver (Z), the Lungs (L), and the Head: through these the mind acts, and is acted upon, but not in such a direct manner as in case of the other class of nerves ; if a man’s mind is gloomy, or is perplexed about his business, it will affect his Stomach and prevent its digesting his food well, but he cannot make his Stomach act, or cease acting.
Illustration 1. — Dr. Beaumont, who had the opportunity of frequently looking into the injured Stomach of Alexis St. Martin, says, that if he became angry the process of digesting the food in the Stomach would sometimes stop for an hour, and then not go on well.
Illustration 2. — No person can blush or make his face pale by merely willing to do so ; but if he feels angry, &c., the effect of his feelings, through certain of the nerves upon the Blood-Tubes, will increase or lessen their size, which, by allowing more or less Blood to pour into them, will affect the color of the face.
Will you compare the nerves of Fig. 19 with those in plate-page 3, and in Fig. 3, and state the difference between them as it respects the parts that they appear to connect, or to which they seem to belong ?
Remark. — On the other hand, if the Stomach is not well, it will affect the mind badly. A child should not ask a favor of its father just before dinner, but wait till his Stomach is satisfied, and the request will be more likely to be granted.
162. Some of the most important lessons in Physiology, or in any branch of Science, are suggested by the truths exhibited in this chapter.
163. One of the grandest truths that can be learned is the one shown by the classification of the members into two kinds of Mechanism — Mental and Blood-making ; for it shows that there will be two great classes of very interesting, practical facts : one class includes everything that has anything to do with Blood-making — such as food, drink, air, clothing, shelter, &c., things, like the Blood, of a material nature ; the other class includes everything that improves the Mind — what we hear, see, &c. ; our thoughts, feelings, &c., that, like the Mind, are of an immaterial nature. In short, we must study the Blood, and study the Mind.
164. The second great truth is very clearly shown, viz., that all parts of the Body exist only because necessary on account of the Mind ; therefore, the study of the Blood-making Mechanism is important only because Blood is necessary to keep in good condition those parts of the Body that the Mind uses.
165. The third great truth is, that the action of the Mind impresses the Body; that an often repeated impression becomes permanent, since the frequent and stronger use of the right face gives it a stronger expression ; if, therefore, persons wish a pleasant and good expression, they must be pleasant and good in their Minds, by habit ; on the other hand, a deceiving or illnatured Mind will, by habit, produce a bad face.
study, that of the construction of mechanisms.
168. Each mechanism has been spoken of as a single thing — and very properly — because that which is accomplished by one is very different from that which is done by the other.
169. In another sense, each mechanism is not a single thing : because, as has already been seen, it must be made up or constructed of several different sets of parts, each set or class adapted to perform a certain duty; yet the whole is intended to work together, in accomplishing the intended purpose of the mechanism, which purpose cannot be accomplished without the assisting action of each part of the mechanism.
170. Blood-making requires, for example, that air should be breathed, water drank, food eaten, &c., for each of which corresponding sets or classes of parts must be needed.
ANALYSIS OF MECHANISMS INTO APPARATUS. 47
171. Each set or class of parts needed in each mechanism for performing each distinct duty, is called an apparatus, and what is performed is called its function . Of course there must be as many of one as there are of the other.
172. Example. — Breathing , or respiration , is called a function ; and the set or class of parts concerned in performing it, is called the breathing, or Respiratory Apparatus.
Remark 2. — There is no opportunity of seeing an entire apparatus during life, because some part, or the whole of each, is hidden below the surface.
Fig. 20 represents a large part of the Digestory Apparatus : the face being turned to one side, in order the better to show how the food passes over the tongue (1), and down through the throat into the tube (6, 7) leading to the Stomach (8, 9, 10, 11). The Stomach is represented as if distended and the front half removed, so that we are supposed to be looking upon its inner back surface. At 6, and for a short distance above, the tube is represented as entire ; the throat is represented as divided on its middle line, the division being carried through the windpipe in front, through the tongue, and up through the head ; everything above the mouth and throat being shaded.
At 14 is the muscle that closes the opening from the Stomach into the long canal (15, 16, 17) called the Second Stomach ; open in a part of its extent above, and below at 27, its connection with a larger canal, the colon open through its whole extent ; 23 is a tube from the pancreas, opening into the upper part of the
171. What is the name of — ? 172. Give example. Each apparatus has what? Remark 2. —Why is there — ? What does Fig. 20 — ? How is the Stomach represented ? What shown at 6? What shown at 14 ?
Into how many parts is the Digestory or Alimentary Canal divisible ? Mouth, throat, or Pharynx ; meat-pipe, swallow, or (Esophagus ; Stomach* Second Stomach, and colon. What is the use of the arrows ?
To prepare the food to enter and become part of the Blood, all these parts — the Mouth, Stomach, Second Stomach, Colon, and their minor adjuncts — -are necessary ; hence, they are all classed together as one — the Digestorv Apparatus, its function of preparing the food being called Digestion. (This word is sometimes limited to mean merely the process that takes place in the Stomach, and the word alimentation used for the whole process of preparing food, in which case the apparatus is called the Alimentary Apparatus.)
173. There are two ways, therefore, in which we may study our subjects : We may seek, first, to learn how many apparatuses there are, and thus learn how many functions there can be ; or we may learn how many functions are needed, and thus perceive what number of apparatuses there must be. The latter is much the most interesting and satisfactory.
174. First, it is evident that the mind must have good, reliable, and ready means of gaining a knowledge of all objects outside the body ; and also a knowledge of the condition of the various parts of which the body itself is constituted. This is obtained by the function called Sensation, of which there are many varieties : those of hearing, seeing, smelling, tasting, touching, and of the muscular sense, being the functions by which we gain a knowledge of what is around us ; while those of hunger, thirst, pain of various kinds, &c., are functions by which we learn something in regard to our bodies themselves.
175. To PRODUCE ALL THESE VARIETIES OF INSTRUCTIVE sensations, is the function of an equal variety of apparatus, each having its appropriate name ; taken together, they are called the Sensatory or the Sensory Apparatus, thus :
176. It is also evident that the mind requires an apparatus for motion, because some kind of motion must be made at every moment of a person’s life.
177. Motion begins where sensation terminates, viz., in the Brain, some parts of which, also called Ganglia, produce an influence that, extending through nerves, terminates in a muscle, and causes it to contract and draw its two ends towards each other, thus moving whatever they are attached to.
THE BRAIN THROUGH NERVES TO THE MUSCLE UPON THE
front part of the upper arm, the muscle will instantly contract, or grow shorter, causing the ends to approach, and moving up the lower arm, to a bone of which the lower end of this muscle grows : try this experiment.
178. Each muscle with its nerve and Ganglion might be called an Apparatus of Motion ; but, usually, all the muscles with their nerves and Ganglia are called the Apparatus of Motion, or the Motory Apparatus, its function being called motion.
179. The skeleton is evidently necessary to a large part of the Motory Apparatus. It is also apparent that more than half of the body is constructed of the Motory Apparatus (plate-page 2).
180. A COMPARISON OF THE MOTORY AND SeNSAtory Apparatus will show that there must be two kinds of nerves connecting between the muscles and the brain, or else the same nerve has two uses (which can be proved not to be the case), for there is one nerve to excite the muscle to contract, and another through which a sensation is caused when the muscle does contract.
both require and produce thinking and emotion.
182. Every one is conscious that he must think, and that he does think whenever he has sensations, and in order to produce motion. If a barefooted boy steps on a thorn he has a sensation of pain, thinks of what caused it, and that he will raise his foot and remove the thorn ; the like effects will be produced if a girl pricks her finger.
183. The emotions of a person are different from his thoughts, though he has thoughts at the same time. The feelings the two produce are different, and so are their effects on the body. Thoughts will not flush the face, but emotions will. This shows that the
emotions are not the same.
184. It is evident, therefore, that the mind needs, in addition to the apparatus for motion and sensation, an apparatus with which to think, and another to assist in producing the emotions.
is called the Emotory Apparatus.
187. Both of these kinds of apparatus are confined to parts, or Ganglia, of the Brain, and are so hidden from sight, that, as yet, it has been impossible to learn how they work ; therefore, about the working of the most important parts of the body the least is known. A noble field of discovery is here yet open to the enthusiastic and interested student, which, if he will thoroughly explore and unfold, he will more bless mankind, than if he should discover an Eldorado.
Motory
189. The four kinds of apparatus have their roots in the Brain : indeed, two kinds — the Intellectory and the Emotory — are wholly constructed from parts of the Brain. How the mind acts upon them, or is acted upon by them, no one knows.
190. It must be remembered that as these four kinds of apparatus taken together are the Mental Mechanism, and it is double, so they must be as they are — right and left. There are, therefore, two Sensatory, two Emotory, two Xntellectory, and two Motory Apparatuses.
REGARD TO ALL THESE FOUR KINDS OF APPARATUS, that
they must grow : must, while growing, and after they are done growing, be warmed, or cooled, as circumstances require, and be kept in repair. For this purpose various substances will be required, which must also be carried to the innermost parts of each apparatus.
192. That the substances required may reach the places requiring them, they must be dissolved in water, thus forming Blood, and poured through a set of tubes in often-returning currents.
193. Fig. 21 represents a very simple plan for pouring the Blood through any part ; h is a pouch or hollow muscle, which by contracting lessens its own cavity, and drives out its contents through a valve,
represented as closed, since the heart ( h ) is represented in the act of distending and filling itself from (^) a vein, or Blood-tube, that receives the blood that comes round through (c) small hair-like tubes called capillary Blood-tubes, or vessels (from capilla — a hair). Thus the Blood is forced out by h into a (the arteries) through c (the capillaries) into v (the veins), by which the Blood is lead into h to be again poured out, and pass-through the same circuit.
magnified.
1, 2 (Fig. 22) are arteries leading from the Heart; their branches can be followed to the net-work at the ends of the fingers. Fig. 23 represents a portion of a frog’s foot magnified. Fig. 24 represents a section of the skin much magnified ; 5 leads Blood into 6 — the capillaries. Fig. 25 beautifully represents a minute portion of the Second Stomach very much magnified.
What do the arrows in Fig. 23 indicate ? Does 5 in Fig. 24 represent a vein or artery ? By what means are 14 and 15 in Fig. 25 connected ? Must arteries and veins always he connected by capillaries?
Fig. 26 — plan of compound circulation ; 1, 2 — two hearts enclosed in one membrane, so that externally they appear as a unit ; a, arteries, leading out of 1, and branching upward and downward, and leading into c , capillaries, through which their contents can pass into v, veins, that open into 2, from which a" lead into c", capillaries, through which their contents can pass into v", opening into 1. Thus a compound circuit is formed, so that when the hearts alternately contract and relax, they can pour their contents through the entire course. All the Blood in this case passes through the eliminating respiratory organs, ry also marked lungs.
A cluster of organs is represented by 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, of which those marked d are digestory ; m (the spleen), modificatory : and e (the kidneys), eliminatory. These receive at each circulation a part of the Blood thrown out by 1 downward, and, after an uncertain number of circulations, each of them must have the opportunity of acting upon all the Blood, if it awaits their action. It is also noticeable that the Blood circulating through 4, 5, 6, 7, circulates through 8 (the liver) before it passes into the veins.
1 is called the Left, Back, and Systemic Heart ; its initials — S H ; a c and v are called Systemic Arteries, Capillaries, and Veins, and have the respective initials : S Ay S Ct S V ; 2 is called the Right, Front, Pulmonary, or Respiratory Heart ; a"y c" v " are called the Pulmonary or Respiratory Arteries, Capillaries, and Veins, having the initials P Ay P Oy P Vy or E Ay BOyBV.
What does Fig. 26 represent ? Mention the parts through which the Blood passes in an entire circuit. What do 4-9 represent ? What is 1 called ? What is 2 called ? YVhat is peculiar in the veins of 4, 5, C, 7 ?
195. Fig. 26 represents a plan of the entire Circulatory Apparatus, 1 and 2 being two hearts united so as to appear but one on the outside, both being enclosed in a heart-case ; but two are necessary, as will be seen.
196. a (Fig. 26) represents the large artery, seen better in Fig. 3 : the arrows show that the Blood is flowing out from the heart through a . Branches are represented as leading off into different parts of the body, all of which it is intended to represent ; from which, again, branches lead together, and at last, from above and from below, open by v into the other heart (2).
197. a " represents another artery, or rather two of them, commencing from the other heart (2), and leading its blood into the lungs, from which it flows through (?;") veins into the heart (1), whence we started to go round the circle, or circuit ; hence the name circulation, and Circulatory Apparatus.
198. Sometimes this Circulatory Apparatus is divided into the lesser and greater, each leading from heart to heart ; but the true circuit, or circulation, can only be accomplished by means of both ; and, if divided, each must be called a part, for neither is a circuit.
199. But it will often occur that a part will need more Blood than it usually requires, or several parts may need an increase at the same time.
200. It is evident then that the circulation of the Blood must be regulated in accordance with the needs of the different parts, and made to move faster or slower, as the case requires.
201. What shall regulate the circulation ? We have found that motion is controlled through nerves ; but the motion of the Blood must take place during the
night as well as during the day, when our minds are asleep as well as when they are awake ; besides, the circulation must take place so regularly and constantly, that it would never do to trust so important a matter to our forgetful minds.
202. To REGULATE THE CIRCULATION, WE SHALL NEED a distinct set of Nervous Apparatus, with its own Ganglia, or Nervous Centres, where influences are produced, and with Nerves through which these influences are exerted.
203. This Nervous Apparatus that controls the circulation of Blood is called by various names ; we will call it the Nervous Circulatory Apparatus, because its highest use is to control the circulation of Blood. (It is also called Organic Nervous System — the Sympathetic, the Ganglionic, &c.)
204. Two KINDS OF NERVOUS CENTRES ARE THUS seen to exist in the body : one is voluntary, associated directly with the mind in the brain ; the other kind is involuntary, viz., not controlled by the mind, and is found below the brain. There are several of the latter, or involuntary nervous centres, some of them being represented by e?, df, d (Fig. 19).
206. As this Involuntary Nervous Apparatus controls the circulation, it can be understood why the Doctor feels the pulse ; for it is not to learn merely how the Blood flows, nor how the Heart beats, but to learn the condition of that which causes the beating; and as it also controls or influences other very important operations, the Doctor learns how they will be affected.
207. The Blood Circulatory Apparatus should include the Nervous Apparatus, as some think, since every apparatus requires a nervous part ; but it seems preferable, on some accounts, to make the distinction that we have done.
208. As the Involuntary Nervous Apparatus
IS SO IMPORTANT ON ACCOUNT OF CONTROLLING THE CIRCULATION of Blood, it would appear that whatever can assist in regulating, controlling, or influencing, the flow of Blood, must be also very important.
tery, Capillary, Vein
210. The Blood Circulatory Apparatus may be arranged in a circuit, as appears below. Go from Heart into Artery, and thus around :
B. Cir. App
207. Wliat — ? 208. What would appear — ? 209. How may — ? 210. How may — ? Will you repeat the names of the parts through which Blood passes, and in the order in which it moves through them ?
derful number of circuits through which the Blood is led into every minute portion of the body, and by the admirable provision for having its visits very frequently repeated.
213. First. — For perfect action the different parts of the body must be kept at a proper temperature, neither too warm nor too cool.
214. Blood is therefore needed to warm the parts if too cool, and to cool them if too warm ; and therefore it seems as if it must partake of two natures.
215. Blood may easily both cool and warm the body, for it must be largely composed of water ; and this, by oozing on to any surface, and evaporating, will cool it ; hence, we perspire freely when too warm ; and a dog when too warm pants rapidly through his very moist mouth, and cools himself by rapidly evaporating the water from his mouth.
216. In the water of the Blood, substances may be dissolved that are adapted to produce heat ; thus, by the water of the Blood, and the substances dissolved in it, the body may be both warmed and cooled.
217. The processes of warming and cooling are, in fact, taking place all the time, and, according as one or the other takes place more rapidly, the body grows warmer, or cooler.
body always renders a portion of the active part useless,
211. How is — ? 212. How will — ? 218. Fiiisf. —must be kept how? 214. Why is the — ? 215. Why may the — ? 216. — for what ? 217. What are — ? Second. — What is the effect of — ?
substance laid down in its place.
Remark. — Every time we raise a finger, or even do so small a thing as wink ; every time we think, or have a sensation ; every time we breathe ; and at every beat of the heart, a certain amount of substance in the part that acts becomes useless : thus are we constantly wearing out, and should soon be gone were it not for renewing ourselves as rapidly. The boy who recites to-day is not precisely the same boy that he was yesterday.
219. The Blood is, therefore, necessary, in the second place, for receiving and floating away useless substances, and for bringing new and good substances to be laid down in place of what has been taken away.
rapid the circulation of Blood ought to be through it.
220. If the Blood receives useless substances, called impurities, as it is circulating, they must be removed from it, or it will become foul ; or these useless substances - must be worked over, in whole or in part, and again made fit for use in the same places they occupied before, or in some other.
Illustration. — In any factory, if a machine, or some part of it, becomes useless, the useless or worn part or pieces are not always thrown away : if of iron, it can be cast over again ; if of wood, it can at least be burned.
AS WE SHALL FIND IT IN THE BODY, IS COMPOSED of
several different kinds of substances : 1st, of impurities to be worked over, or worked out ; 2d, of substances adapted to renew every part and portion of the body ; 3d, of substances adapted to warm the body; and 4th, of water in large quantity to dissolve the other substances, and to cool the body.
222. It is necessary then that the Blood should be circulated rapidly through all the different parts of the body, and also be constantly operated upon in several different ways, for the purpose of keeping it in a condition fit for use.
different kinds of impurities gathered in its course.
224. One kind of impurity in the Blood can be best removed by the action of pure air ; while removed in this way, it will also assist in producing heat.
225. In addition to the Circulatory Apparatus by which the Blood can be carried to the air, there will be needed an apparatus for constantly bringing a large supply of air to the Blood.
226. This refreshing function is called Respiration, or breathing ; and the beautiful apparatus by which it is performed, is called the Respiratory or Breathing Apparatus.
227. Two IMPORTANT EFFECTS ARE PRODUCED AT THE SAME TIME BY THE FUNCTION OF RESPIRATION : the Blood is unloaded of a very bad impurity, and the production of heat is by that very act provided for.
228. We should not fail to notice this one of many different cases in which more than one good result is produced by a single operation.
229. As substances are constantly being removed from the Blood by the air and in other ways, it is necessary that it should be as regularly supplied with renewing material.
230. The function by which new material is supplied to the Blood, is called Digestion ; and the apparatus by which it is performed is called Digestory Apparatus.
desirable means for introducing water into the Blood.
232. It will also be found that some of the processes BY WHICH FOOD IS PREPARED TO ENTER THE BlOOD, require the use of some of the substances that in the Blood are impurities, which in thus passing out of Blood become useful in introducing new substances into it — a very happy exchange for the Blood.
233. If the quantity of water in the Blood is too small, our thirst will induce us to drink more ; but what shall we do if the quantity is too large ?
surplus heat.
235. There will also yet be impurities in the Blood that cannot be removed by the functions of either the Digestory or Respiratory Apparatus.
236. There must therefore be an apparatus for removing, or eliminating, water, heat, and certain impurities from the Blood that can be of no use as they are being removed : this Apparatus is called Eliminatory, and its function is called Elimination.
produced in itself without anything being taken from
230. — wliat? 231. — for what? 232. — what? 233. What result — ? 234. What necessary—? 235. — how can they he removed? 236. — for what purpose ? 237. What does — ?
238. If we should prick a finger, squeeze out a
SINGLE DROP OF BlOOD, AND EXAMINE IT WITH A POWERFUL microscope, we should see in that single drop nearly three thousand Blood-cells ; and such are floating in every drop of Blood in our bodies. They are very thin, and filled with a peculiar substance. The cells give color to the Blood.
239. Every Blood-cell of the millions in our Blood, is constantly at work upon the Blood in which it floats — taking from the Blood, and giving back to it again : other cells, located in parts through which the Blood flows, also change the Blood.
240. The operation or function of changing or modifying the Blood without taking from or adding to it, is called Modification ; and the parts concerned or performing it, are called the Modificatory Apparatus.
Remark. — Of course, if anything is taken from the Blood it is modified ; but the word is not used in that sense, but to denote a particular mode by which the Blood is modified, without anything being permanently taken from it.
Modificatory
242. Each of these kinds of apparatus will require to be connected with the Involuntary Nervous Apparatus, without we consider, as is perhaps most
of apparatus.
243. The connection of the Blood-making Apparatus with the Involuntary Nervous System is necessary, in order to regulate their action in accordance with the wants of all parts of the body : for example, to increase the appetite when exercise is taken ; to cause thirst when the body is too warm, &c.
TO BE PERFORMED BY THE BODY, WE SHALL FIND that the
Mind directly requires four ; and that four are required in Blood-making : they also correspond in more respects than merely in similarity of number, as follows :
Remark 1. — These can be easily remembered by putting them, like thimbles, on the fingers ; beginning with Motory on the forefinger of the right and Respiratory on that of the left hand.
tory Apparatus is double throughout.
245. The two kinds of apparatus needed for circulation must not be unmentioned ; making, in all, ten kinds of apparatus needed to perform all the functions demanded of the body by the mind.
343. Why is *— ? 244. — what to he the case ? How can the names of the apparatus he easily remembered? What kinds of apparatus are double? 245. How many kinds of apparatus if you include — ?
Remark. — It appears evident that the body might be divided into its ten apparatuses without, first, classifying it as composed of members, &c. ; and for some purposes this would be best.
246. The student may have observed, that the name of an apparatus is obtained by changing the - ion of the name of a function into - ory ; and that the name of a function can be had by changing -ory into -ion.
placed on the thumbs.
248. The ten functions and apparatuses are arrangeable in two groups of six apparatuses each, since the Circulatory may be, in one sense, said to belong to each mechanism, or to entwine both mechanisms together.
249. Thus wte again have exhibited the very important fact, that there are two things for us to learn : how to treat the body so as most perfectly to improve the mind, and how to produce the best quality of Blood for the purposes it should fulfil.
251. In this chapter we are to study an exceedingly interesting and very practical subject ; the uses of the organs leading us directly to notice what must be done to keep them in the best condition for use, and how to use them most advantageously ; which is the most instructive lesson a person can learn.
252. It was evident in studying the ten apparatuses, that, though each was, as a whole, properly spoken of as a single thing, the function of each was performed by the joint or successive action of several different parts.
253. The parts of an apparatus are called organs ; what they are adapted to do is called their use ; though often the use of an organ is very improperly spoken of as its function, which word should always be associated with apparatus.
257. It will be best to begin with the Motory Apparatus, since it includes the chief part of the skeleton, and a large part of the muscles.
Remark. — The Motory Apparatus does not include every muscle, but only those adapted to locomotion of the different parts of the skeleton ; other muscles are included in the apparatus to the functions of which they are necessary. Some muscles belong to the Motory, and also to other apparatus — as the muscles of the Chestwalls, which, being Motory, a person can control to a certain extent ; but, as they are also Respiratory, the Mind cannot control them for any great length of time, as they are still more strongly under the influence of an involuntary centre. Such muscles are called mixed ; while, again, there are some muscles, like the Heart, that the mind cannot control at all. This shows that it is not the muscle, but the nervous centre, or centres, with which it is connected, that determines whether the muscle belongs to the voluntary or the involuntary class.
254. — ? 255. What apparatus needs — ? 256. What said of — ? 257. With what — ? Remark.— What said of the Motory App. ? What muscles belong to Motory and Respiratory App. ? What determines the class of muscles ?
is requisite for constructing a skeleton.
260. Three different materials are required — Bone, Gristle or Cartilage, and Sinew. From these three there can be constructed a strong, stiff, elastic, light skeleton, with as many joints as necessary for its most perfect use.
and nerves.
262. If we crack or saw open a bone, we shall find that near its surface it is quite solid, but within it is very sponge-like, and perhaps with a canal in the centre.
are filled with marrow, but in flying birds with air.
264. A very simple and interesting experiment may be tried with two long slender bones : put one in the fire and the other in diluted muriatic acid. Upon removing them, after a time, they will have nearly the same form and size as before ; but the former can be easily crumbled to powder, while the latter can be tied in a knot. (See Fig. 27.)
and muriatic acid eats out the other ; the former is called the animal, gristly, or the cartilaginous part, and the latter is called the earthy part.
gristle generally.
266. The proportions of the two substances of which the bones are constructed, differ in different bones ; and in the same bones, at different periods of life, they differ very much : in early life the animal or flexible part is in greater proportion ; in later life the earthy part predominates.
and recover slowly, if at all.
288. In some children the earthy part is deposited much more rapidly than in others ; hence, some are adapted to walk earlier than others.
269. We can easily make some very important inferences : 1st. Since the bones grow from the Blood which is made from the food, unless the right kind of food is given to a child, its bones cannot grow properly; for as a mason could not build a chimney if we should
INTO ORGANS AND THEIR USES.
withhold either bricks or mortar, so cannot the bones grow perfectly without we furnish the right material. 2d. If a child is set upon its feet before its bones are hard enough, its legs will be apt to bend ; or if a child is carried or laid too frequently in the same position, its bones will be in danger of being curved.
Remark 1. — No child can be taught to walk ; every one walks, not by learning, but as an animal does, controlled by instinct ; and all efforts to induce a child to walk will only do harm. As soon as it is strong enough, it will get upon its feet without assistance. Very serious deformities are caused from want of a knowledge of this fact.
Remark 2. — The position of a young child should be frequently changed during its sleep, as it will sleep the sweeter, and the longer, and with less danger of deformity.
270. We can learn, 3d, that children should not jump from high places, as the weight of the body upon the bones will tend to deform them.
272. It is beneath this periosteum that the very painful felon is seated ; and the pain is chiefly caused because this strong membrane so tightly confines the vessels and nerves beneath it. One way to treat a felon,
2d. Effect of placing a child on its feet too early ? Remark 1.— How does a child walk? Remark 2.— What said of position? 270. What can — ? 271. What found — ? 272. Seat of felon ?
and usually the best, is, when it is first recognized, to cut down upon the bone through the periosteum, and thus relieve the parts below it from pressure.
273. The gristle, or cartilage, also differs in quality in different parts of the body, at the same time and at different a^es. In some parts the gristle changes to bone in advanced life. The gristle at the lower end of the breast-bone changes very early.
Remark. — It is very easy to ascertain if any fowl is young, by feeling the end of the breast-bone : if it yields to pressure easily, the bird is young ; if it is firm, like bone, the bird is old.
274. The chief peculiar quality of cartilage is its elasticity, or springiness. Hence, it very properly is found covering the ends of bones where they move against each other. It is especially thick on the ends of the bones in the lower limbs, thus preventing jars, in walking, from being felt by the organs above.
275. Sinew, or ligament, is the strongest of all known flexible substances. It is therefore admirably adapted to bind together those parts of the skeleton that must move upon each other. The manner in which the ligaments extend across the joints from one portion to another of the skeleton, is very curious and remarkable.
276. Kinds of joints. Most parts of the skeleton must be fastened together so that they can move upon each other, more or less ; but some parts should be fastened together immovably. There will therefore be movable and immovable joints.
279. The brain needs to be protected in a small box, or case, which, to be the strongest with the least materia], must be oval, or egg-shaped.
of the brain in its case, which is called cranium.
281, Through the sides of the cranium must be found a sufficient number of holes to allow the Bloodtubes and nerves to extend, that are to connect the brain with all parts of the body. Of course, the larger part of these holes should be in the lower part of the cranium, so that its upper part should present a nearly smooth, ball-shaped surface to the hand, or eye.
282, To the lower and front part of the cranium should be attached several bones that serve as a framework of the ear, eye, nose, and mouth. These together form the faciura, which, with the cranium, constitutes the skull.
283. Fig. 31 represents the bones of the cranium (1, 2, 3, 4) and those of the facium separated from each other, showing the jagged or notched edges of the skull.
284. In thickness the cranium has three layers called tables. The outer is notched, or serrated, and tough, hence called fibrous. The middle layer is spongeform, called diploe ; the inner table is more brittle, and called vitreous, or glassy ; its edges coming together evenly, making a harmonious joint.
285. The bones of the facium are very irregular, and constructed so as to accommodate their organs, as will be best shown when they are described.
286. The cranium thus encases the brain from all ordinary danger, from blows upon the head, &e. ; but as jars are among the most serious dangers to which the exceedingly delicate brain is exposed, we should take great care to avoid blows upon the head, as it sometimes happens that a small blow will produce a yery serious effect.
Do you observe how the bones of the face are situated below the cranium ? Cover them, and observe the egg-shape of cranium. 2S4. — ; describe them. 285. What said of — ? 286. Why avoid blows on the head ?
287. So SENSITIVE IS THE BRAIN TO JARS, that the cranium must be mounted and carried upon the most delicate structure, yet strong, that can be devised;
288. The back-bone, or spinal column, taken in every aspect, is the most exquisite device that can be found in the wide bounds of creation. It is a strong pillar, and yet exceedingly flexible. A canal extends throughout its whole length, in which is sheathed and protected the great spinal cord, from which, through the sides of the spinal column, extend the spinal nerves, reaching into every part of the body.
289. The spinal canal is directly beneath the large hole in the base of the cranium, through which the spinal cord connects with the brain.
How many curves are there in the spinal column, viewed sidewise, between 14 and 1 ? How many hones are there between 14 and (including) 1 ? The ear is turned forward to show the muscle (6).
column.
292. The spinal column is constructed of bones called vertebrae, of thick cartilages called intervertebral substances, and of numerous ligaments.
to each other, and to the cranium.
294. The upper one (Fig. 35) is called the Atlas, because on its two broad shoulders it supports the head, as the ancients fabled that Atlas supported the world. On this bone the head moves as in nodding. Fig. 35 shows both the upper and lower surfaces of the Atlas.
295. A pivot, or tooth (2, Fig. 36), stands up from the second vertebra, through the atlas, and is fastened by a ligament to the cranium. Round this pivot the atlas turns, and with it the head, of course, as when a person makes the sign for No. This vertebra is called the Dentatus.
296. The vertebrje below the dentatus have a general resemblance to each other, and are jointed alike throughout. They differ in size and thickness, and somewhat in form ; Figs. 37, 38, and 39, representing three from different regions of the column.
297. Each vertebra is constructed of a body in front, from which, on each side, wings curve out around, forming a hole and closing behind it ; from the wings there are several projections, called processes, that serve to form joints, or as levers for the attachment of the ribs, the muscles, &c.
from the Dentatus down to the sacrum (14, Fig. 34), there is inserted an elastic substance, quite firm, yet yielding to sufficient pressure.
299. The intervertebral substance serves at once three uses: it supports' the weight of the parts above ; by yielding, prevents their feeling the full effects of jars; and also allows the flexible motions needed in bending the back.
chiefly upon the intervertebral substances.
301. The spinal column, viewed sidewise, is not naturally straight in any person, but has a double curvature in all. The curvature is much greater in some than in others. From a front or back view, the spinal column appears straight, if it is natural. (See Fig. 43.)
302. The intervertebral substance not only naturally differs in form and thickness in different persons, but also in quality, being very much firmer and more enduring in some than in others ; so that injurious treatment will produce much more effect in some persons than in others. Dark-complexioned persons usually have intervertebral substances firmer than those of light-complexioned persons, and have therefore more erect forms.
303. Fig. 40 represents two vertebras, and 3 the intervertebral substance between them, in its natural condition. Fig. 41 is the same, with 3 compressed, allowing the vertebras to approach, and the back to be bent. On the other hand, when the column is bent backward, the bodies of the vertebras are separated, and 3 is stretched. There is a joint at 4 on which the vertebras turn, or flex.
304. Whenever the back is curved, the cushions are always either compressed or stretched; and their elasticity is therefore always exerted to restore the column to its natural form— and will do it, unless force is constantly exerted to counteract the tendency of the substances.
305. If any part of the intervertebral substance is continuously compressed, it will become permanently thinner : thus deformities are produced. In fact, every person will be found a little shorter at night than in the morning, because the pressure upon the substances during the day has made them thinner. A friend of the author measured himself at eight one morning be-
fore going out to hunt, and again when he came home in the evening, when he found he was three fourths of an inch shorter. He did not regain his ordinary height till after two nights.
306. Clothing, or any occupation, that constrains the back to one position, tends to cause pressure constantly on the same parts of the intervertebral substances, and will therefore produce deformity.
307. Freedom from constraint and frequent change of position, is the only means for promoting a good form of the spinal column.
Remark. — People who do not understand their own structure, nor the effects of tight clothing, will try to produce good forms by using constraints, and endeavoring to constantly preserve the same position.
time together.
309. Fig. 42 represents the shortening that will be produced by compression of several of the intervertebral substances ; the line above showing how high the column would be, if straightened up to its natural position.
of the column.
311. The lowest intervertebral substance rests upon the sacrum — a wedge-shaped bone, so called, because offered by some of the ancients in sacrifice.
called the coxcyx.
313. The spinal canal and the spinal cord extend into the sacrum ; its nerves extending out, through holes, in the front and back parts of the sacrum.
in shape, curve around from the sides of the sacrum till they meet in front ; forming a deep, bony ring, larger above and narrower below, quite smooth and even on the inner surface, but having many inequalities on the outer surface. (See Fig. 43.)
315. The hip-bones, with the sacrum, called the pelvis, form a kind of basin, adapted within to support various organs there located, and on the outside to the attachment of the Motory organs of the lower limbs.
316. The pelvis may be called the fixed point in the body, as above and below it all parts are movable upon it. Upon it, firmly fastened, stands the elastic spinal column, protecting within its bony canal the important spinal cord. The twenty-two elastic joints and twenty-four vertebrae above the sacrum, permit such a curvature that the back can be formed into almost a circle, yet, with so small a curve, at any one point, as not to injure the cord.
317. In the outside of the pelvis are hollowed deep cups, or sockets, adapted to receive the round heads of the thigh-bones, as shown by Fig. 44 — a section of the pelvis through the hip-joints.
315. What are — ? 316. What may — ? How many joints in the spinal column? 317. What found— ? Do you notice tho spongy appearance of the inner^part of bones of the hip and thigh whore they are cut across in Fig. 44 ?
318. From the hip to the knee a single bone, called femur, extends, having a head, neck, and body ; the lower end of which is enlarged for the purpose of forming a strong knee-joint. (See Fig. 45.)
319. In front of the knee-joint a bone, called the knee-pan, or patella, is found. It does not properly belong to the knee-joint, but is to be counted as an appendage' of the muscles that act most powerfully by its assistance.
320. Below the knee-joint, at first, there is but one bone — the shin, or tibia ; but soon another bone is found by the side of it, called the fibula — a long, slender, and, on several accounts, very beautiful bone. (See Fig. 46.)
321. The lower ends of these bones form the inner and outer ankle-joints ; a socket being formed by both leg-bones, in which the ankle-bone of the foot is received, and moves. (See Figs. 46 and 47.)
322. The ankle is formed of seven bones, called the tarsus, curiously united, and arched in several directions so as to form a very strong, but elastic instep.
323. From the tarsus five bones — the metatarsus — extend forward, completing the arches beneath the foot, upon which the body rests in walking.
324. From the metatarsus the phalanges, or bones of the toes, extend, three in each, except in the large toe — and sometimes in the small toe, only two.
tebrae of the spinal column above, the twelve ribs
What does Fig. 47 represent ? What does Fig. 48 represent? 322. Of what is — 1 323. IIow many bones, and for what purpose, extend — ? 324. What built out — ? 325. What said of— ? 326. What attached — ?
327. Thus is formed the elastic framework of the Chest, — elastic on two accounts i because of the elasticity of the dorsal intervertebral substances, and because of the elastic character of the front ends of the ribs, and of their joints with the vertebrae.
328. If therefore the ribs are raised, or lowered, the elastic cartilage tends to restore them to their natural position. The elasticity will assist, therefore, both in inhaling and exhaling air.
329. If the spinal column is curved, the ribs will move accordingly, and the elastic action of the spinal column may therefore assist in breathing.
330. The elastic construction of the Chest will also permit flexure of the spinal column ; but as motion backward, to a very great degree, would be injurious to the organs within the Chest-walls, it will be perceived that motion of the Chest in that direction has been prevented by having the spinous processes incline down so much that they will restrict backward motion, to a very limited degree.
331. One, two, or three of the lowest ribs are not connected by cartilage to the Sternum, or breastbone, and hence are called floating ribs. The cartilages of the next two or three ribs connect with the cartilages of the ribs above.
332. To THE UPPER EXTREMITY OF THE BREAST-BONE two bones, called the collar-bones, or clavicles, are jointed. They extend toward the shoulder, where they are jointed to the shoulder-blade, or scapula. (See Figs. 49 and 50 ; see also Fig. 59, where 2 on one side shows the clavicle bound in its place, and 2 on the other shows it is raised to exhibit the open joint.)
327. — ; why elastic ? 328. What effect — ? What function assisted "by elasticity? 329. What—? 330. What said of — ? 331. What peculiar in regard to — ? 332. What attached — ?
333. The use of the collar-bones is to keep the shoulders out from the ribs ; and also to allow the shoulders, through the collar-bones, to turn on the upper end of the breast-bone, as on a pivot.
334. The blade, or thin expanded part of the scapula, that extends partly across the back, is not the most important part, as is usually thought ; it is merely extended out in this way, to serve for the attachment of muscles that are under, above, and behind it ; and the use of which is to haul backward, downward, and upward the shoulder-joint, which is the most im-
Can you feel that Figs. 49 and 50 are rightly shaped ? Can you feel 10 of Fig. 50? What is the difference between the shoulder and tho elbow-joints? 333. What is-? 334. What said of — ?
335. The blades are not jointed to the ribs, but merely lie and move over them ; nor does the position of the blades affect the form or size of the Chest, though the size and form of the Chest affect the position and appearance of the blades.
Remark. — People make a great mistake in thinking that when the shoulders are drawn back, the Chest is enlarged, because more of it is in front of the shoulders ; and that by drawing and fastening the shoulders back, the Chest is also enlarged, and breathing improved. It is the very reverse : everything that constrains, injures.
336. A shallow socket is wrought in the shoulderend of the scapula, to which is fitted the ball of the upper arm-bone — the humerus ; a single bone extending to the elbow, where it is jointed to the ulna, one of the bones of the lower arm. (See Fig. 52, representing the humerus, or upper arm-bone.)
Fig. 55 — ulna and radius : 4, point of elbow (olecranon) ; 5, process in front of joint (coronoid) ; 2, cavity fitting around lower end of humerus ; 3, joint of 11 with ulna ; 15, surface E that turns over on to 8 of the TT ; 13, attachment of biceps (muscle).
337. Immediately below the elbow, and resting against the humerus, though not jointed to it, is another bone — the radius — that extends, and is jointed to the
wrist. The hand hangs upon the radius ; the ulna hangs upon the humerus ; the radius and ulna lie side by side, and are jointed to each other in such a manner that the radius, particularly its lower end, can roll over and upon the ulna, turning the hand with it. (See Figs. 55 and 56.)
338. This joint of the radius and ulna is very simple, yet one of the most curious in the body, and certainly one of the most useful, and most frequently used.
339. The wrist, or carpus, is constructed of eight small bones, forming a double row : the first row, in a ball-form, is jointed to the radius, and not at ail to the ulna ; so that the wrist hangs wholly on the radius, and the wrist and the hands turn with the radius, which can be rolled over upon the ulna; making the hand prone as quick as thought. (See Fig. 57.)
340. From the carpus the metacarpus, of five bones, extends to the fingers, in which are the phalanges, three in each ; and in the thumb, two.
What bone is attached to the humerus, and to which is the wrist ? 338. What is said of — ? Experiment in turning the hand while feeling the hones in the arm till their motions arc understood. 339. How is — ? 340. What extends — %
341. The friction at all the movable joints, especially those where there is much pressure, makes it necessary that they should be oiled, or lubricated with a very glairy fluid.
342. In any movable joint we may perceive, not only that the parts in contact are finished off very smoothly by means of cartilage, but that they are moistened with a very glairy fluid, like diluted white of egg. While the joint is in health, a very minute quantity of fluid, yet sufficient to moisten the whole joint, is found in it. This fluid is constantly poured into, and as constantly removed from, the joint by a beautiful membrane, or skin, that lines the entire joint.
343. The fluid of the joint is called synovia, or synovial fluid, and the membrane the synovial membrane. In diseases of the joints this fluid sometimes increases or diminishes from the healthy point ; causing a swelling or dryness of the joint, for which rest is the chief remedy.
344. The bones are bound together at the movable joints by sinews, termed ligaments. They sometimes extend from bone to bone in the form of straps, called flat ligaments ; sometimes they entirely surround a joint, when they are called capsular ligaments ; or they are in the form of cords, and called round ligaments. In Figs. 58 and 59 an example of the capsular (12, 13, and 5) and round (8) ligament, is seen in the same joint ; the former being around the hip-joint, and the latter within it.
345. The ligaments are exceedingly numerous, especially in the hand and foot ; extending from one bone to another in a very curious and complexed manner. (See Figs. 58, 59, 60, and 61.)
347. Three substances — bone, cartilage, and ligament— enter into the structure of the skeleton, to which (a fourth) the synovial membrane is added to pre-
What does Fig. 58 represent? What do the figures on Fig. 58 denote? Do you notice 10, called Poupart’s ligament? Between what does it stretch? What does Fig. 59 represent ? 346. What do — ? 347. What said of — ?
348. Of what use can nerves be in the bones ? While the bones are sound their nerves are not painful — indeed, they may then be cut across without causing pain ; but if the bones are broken, or in any way injured, requiring the most perfect quiet for their recovery, they become exceedingly painful ; compelling a motionless state of the part that no splints nor external bandages could produce.
Remark. — Sometimes the bones, when injured, do not become painful, and recovery is retarded, or the parts become displaced and deformed.
Muscles .
349. All parts of the skeleton, except the skull, bear evidence, in their numerous joints, that they are intended for motion ; and the most hasty glance will convince any one, that the production of motion was one of the chief purposes for which the body was constructed.
to us.
351. To move the various parts of the skeleton, it must be clothed with living flesh, that constitutes the chief parts of the muscles. The study of these is one of the most useful, as well as interesting, divisions of our subject.
352. A muscle is constructed of lean meat, sheaths, and tendons : the lean meat is the active part, the sheath envelopes it, and the tendons strongly attach it to the parts it acts upon.
353. The appearance of a muscle is easily observed in the well-cooked “drumstick” of any fowl, since it is easily separated into several muscles, having short tendons above and long ones below, reaching to the claws.
354. Each of these muscles, or any piece of lean meat, when cooked, can be easily separated into delicate strips, or fleshy strings, called fasciculi, that, by the assistance of a microscope, can be subdivided into threads, called fibres and fibrillae, smaller than the finest cobweb, even smaller than can be seen by the naked eye.
355. A FURTHER EXAMINATION OF THE FIBRE SHOWS that it is composed of a delicate sheath, and a substance contained in it, in the form of cells arranged end to end.
356. These muscle-cells are the true contractile substance of the muscle : when in an uncontracted state, called relaxed, they are very soft, weak, and easily torn ; but when they contract, they become endowed with a great deal of power, and one of the strongest of substances, producing motions that are almost irresistible.
351. What necessary — ? 352. How is — ? 353. In what is— ? 354. —can be separated into what ? 355. What does — ? 356. What are — ? "What is their character when contracting ?
-moment becomes so strong in another, is not yet comprehended. What we know is, that one moment the muscular substance is relaxed, quiet, and easily rent; but if through the nerves an influence (that we call nervous, because we know little about it, except that it is exerted through nerves) is exerted upon the muscle-cells, they instantly begin to contract wdth great power.
358. All muscles are essentially alike. The four hundred and fifty in the body differ only in size, form, and position, but they act precisely alike. All that any muscle can do is to produce motion, and by the same simple contraction of one or more cells.
359. The greater the number of cells placed end to end, the longer will be the muscle, and the greater the extent of motion produced.
side, the larger the muscle and the stronger it will be.
361. Wiiat is very wonderful and very admirable is, that so many kinds and so many varieties of motion, as we see in the human body, should be produced by combinations of a number of one simple thing : the muscle-cell, having one simple property — contraction.
362. We will now construct a muscle by arranging muscle-cells end to end, and thus producing fibrillse : a bundle of these we will cover with a sheath projecting, more or less, beyond the cells, and thus produce a muscular fibre ; of which we will take several, and cover them with a thicker sheath producing a fasciculus, which may be a muscle ; but, usually, several fasciculi, taken together, and covered with a sheath, are necessary to form a muscle.
357. Do -we know — ? What do we know about it ? 358. In what respects do — agree? how differ? 359. What effect of — ? 360. What effect of — ? 361. — ? 362. — by doing what ?
363. The sheaths projecting beyond the cells, more or less, are condensed into pearl-colored sinews, called tendons, having properties precisely like the sinews called ligaments, that tie the bones together ; sinew always being very strong and flexible.
densed into a single tendon.
365. The fibres of each fasciculus are always parallel to each other ; but the fasciculi of a muscle are rarely parallel, exhibiting many different and sometimes very curious arrangements (see ^plate-page 2) all, however, for one purpose, viz., to produce motion in the best manner.
366. Fig. 63 represents the muscles of the front part of the thigh : the stripes are the fasciculi, e. g., in 6 nearly parallel. It is the longest muscle in the body, and is called the eartorius, or the tailor’s muscle, because, when it contracts, it draws up the leg as when a tailor sits on his bench. The fasciculi ol the other muscles of the thigh are observed not to be parallel. The arrangement of fasciculi is also seen, in Figs. 64 and 65, not to be parallel to the action of the muscle.
367. The contraction of a fasciculus must take place in the direction of its fibres ; but the contraction of a muscle, as a whole, may not be in the direction of any of its fibres.
Illustration. — If two strings are tied to the leg of a chair, and two boys in front of it a little distance apart pull upon the strings, the chair will not move directly toward either, but will move in a line toward a point between them ; so by the action of the fasciculi of a muscle, it may be shortened, but not in the precise direction of either of them.
368. Sometimes, indeed often, upon the same principle, several different muscles must conjoin their action to produce a given motion not in the direction of the action of either muscle.
often requires that a muscle shall he located in such a position that the direction of its contraction is very different from that of the required motion, that can he produced only by having the tendons of the muscle pass under some band, or round some bone, as seen in Figs. 64 and 65.
ankle at 4, as is also represented in Fig. 64.
371. At 13 (Fig. 65) is represented a band of sinewy fibres, called a ligament 5 extending from one ankle to the other, and binding down upon the instep the tendons that curve under it to extend to the toes : thus the muscles in the leg act under it upon the toes.
372. At 16 (Fig. 67) is represented a ligament that, like a bracelet, encircles the wrist just beneath the skin ; binding down the tendons in their place when the hand is turned upon the wrist-joint or the fingers are opened and shut.
373. The arrangement of the fasciculi of a muscle, is usually such that the muscle acts disadvantageous^, and must be composed of more substance than would be necessary, if the fasciculi could be so arranged as to act most directly.
374. The muscles are also, from necessity, so arranged as a usual thing that they cannot act to the greatest advantage, as it regards power.
375. The muscles are usually so arranged and attached that a given motion will be produced in the least time , no matter what the increased amount of power required.
Illustration. — If we apply our hand to a gate near its hinge, we can shut it, if we use the requisite force, quicker than we can if we apply our hand near the latch.
376. If the muscle on the front part of the arm had been attached near the wrist, less force would have been required to raise the hand, than is now the case, but it could not have been raised so quickly.
great loss of power sometimes.
378. There are three or four other forms in which the fasciculi are found: 1st. In the form of rings, as round the mouth and in the eyelids, when by contraction they close the opening around which they are placed. 2d. Rings are placed side by side, or the fasciculi extend around and diagonally, forming a tube. 3d. The fasciculi are in layers, or interwoven more intimately in the form of a pouch, as in the Stomach and Heart. 4th. The fasciculi are in a membranous form, as in the Diaphragm, making, with the direct, five different forms or plans of muscles.
379. By these five different forms of muscle every perceptible kind of motion can be produced : and all these forms of muscle have been constructed from one kind of element — the simple muscle-cell.
380. To EXCITE THE MUSCLE-CELLS TO CONTRACT, it has been shown that they must be brought under some influence. It is called nervous, because exerted through nerves ; but the nerves are merely cords through which the influence is exerted. The influence must be produced in a Nervous Centre, or Ganglion, and, from the centre, act through the nerves upon the muscle-cells.
381. Every muscle must therefore be connected with at least one Nervous Centre by means of a nerve, or nerves : nerves must be interwoven through every muscle to such an extent that the Nervous Influence can be active upon every muscle-cell in the muscle.
382. Again, whenever a muscle-cell contracts, some part of it becomes useless, and must be removed, and new substance must be laid down in its place, or the muscle will soon be impoverished.
FORE taking place in every active muscle.
384. To ACCOMPLISH THE LIVING CHANGE IN THE muscle, an exquisitely fine net-work of capillary Bloodtubes must be woven throughout the muscle and around all its fibrils : into these capillaries, the arteries must open on one side ; while, on the other, the capillaries open into veins.
385. Thus from and by the arteries the blood is poured into the capillaries, through the delicate sides of which, by a wonderful living action not well understood, the substance which was muscle enters the capillary, and parts of the blood leave the capillary to become living muscle.
386. The blood, more or less changed, flows on, through the capillaries, into the veins to allow its place to be occupied by a fresh pulse from the artery.
387. The more active the muscle, the more blood it will need ; and chiefly by its own action, the muscle supplies itself with a greater amount of blood than it needs.
388. It is very evident that when a muscle contracts, it becomes firm, and will press out the blood contained in its blood-vessels — a part backward into the arteries, but the chief part onward into the veins, in the natural course of the blood.
389. When a muscle relaxes, it is soft and flabby ; and the artery can not only pour back what it received from the muscle contracting, but it can add largely to that : little will return from the veins, as they are plentifully supplied with valves that prevent the blood from flowing back into them.
heart adapted to assist in the circulation of the blood.
391. Several very important facts can now be understood: 1st. If the muscle is contracted for too long a time, it will suffer harm, because its parts are becoming useless all that time.
392. 2d. A HORSE WILL BE IN A BETTER CONDITION if he draw a heavy load and travel slowly, than if he draw a light load and travel rapidly ; because, in the latter case, his muscles are not relaxed so much of the time as to permit a thorough repair of them : for the same reason the rapid movements of sewing women are more exhausting than heavier, slower labors would be.
393. 3d. After a given time, whatever the motion, slow or quick, the muscles will require a period of entire and prolonged repose, or they will become so exhausted that they can never recover — at least not fully.
Illustration 1. — A person, when his house was on fire, worked so earnestly and so long that he was at last exhausted, and has not been able for years even to turn himself in bed.
Illustration 2. — A man wishing to sell a horse, said he had driven him eighty-eight miles between sunrise and sunset. Another replied that he would like to buy a horse that could do that, but not one that had done it.
Illustration 3. — I have known several cases of young children walking so far as to become exhausted, and never after have the power of using their legs : great care should be taken to relieve children when they complain of being tired, or show signs of fatigue.
appetite, because they then use up a large amount of
What may each muscle be called? 391. What said of — ? 392. When will — ? 393. What necessary for the good of tho muscles — ? Illustration 1st ? 2d ? 3d ? 394. Why does — ?
395. 5th. Exercise of the muscles furnishes to the blood a large amount of substance that must be removed from the blood by the appropriate eliminating organs : one of them is called the intestinal canal, the activity of which is therefore promoted by exercise.
396. 6th. The contraction of the muscles by propelling the blood through themselves, also impels it through every part of the body.
Remark. — Thus the muscles, when active, drive a large quantity of blood through the bones, and facilitate their growth, and their increase of strength, precisely correspondent to the increased strength of the muscles.
398. The contraction of the muscles assists in warming the body in two ways : by the direct production of heat, and by the more rapid circulation of blood,
at each circuit.
400. The hearts are caused to beat more rapidly when the muscles contract, by means of nerves commencing in the muscles, and leading to Nervous Centres that act on the heart, and regulate its beats.
Illustration. — If a person lies down, the hearts beat slowest, because the fewest muscles are active ; the instant he sits up, the heart’s action is quickened by several beats per minute, because the muscles need more blood ; standing, the pulses are still more frequent, quicker when walking, and yet more numerous when
apparent.
401. Thus do we learn some of the most important lessons : 1st, that we should not long remain in one position ; if we do, certain muscles are constantly contracted, and thus enfeebled.
402. We learn, 2d, that we should not clothe any part of the body tightly, or in such a manner as to prevent the free contraction and relaxation of the muscles : the tight clothing of the chest, therefore, prevents the free action of its muscles, and they grow weak, and the movements cannot then be graceful.
403. We learn, 3d, that to promote both appetite, and the regular, healthy, eliminating action of the Digestory Canal, we must take an abundance of muscular exercise.
404. We learn, 4th, that one way to promote a free circulation of blood through the brain, and thus clear it of impurities, and give it fresh blood in abundance (enabling the student to return to his work) ; or to give warmth, life, and beauty, to the skin, or any other organ, is to exercise the muscles.
405. There are about 450 involuntary muscles that may be considered as so many voluntary hearts — all at our will to be called into action for the purpose of increasing the circulation of blood. Man is therefore more than half heart — one inside, beating night and day ; the other outside, consisting of the numerous voluntary muscles, as shown by plate-page 2, ready to be called into action whenever necessary.
401. — what are they, 1st ? 402. What do— ? 403. What do — ? 404. What do — ? 405. — as what ? What proportion of a person’s body may be considered as heart, and of use in assisting to circulate the blood?
406. The muscles are never selfish when they act to bring blood into themselves : they also distribute it more rapidly to all parts of the body.
Remark. — The number of the muscles, their position, the parts to which they are attached, and the effect of their action, can be judged by looking at the various Figures representing them.
Nerves of the Muscles .
407. To the eye, a nerve is a very soft or pulpy white cord ; but under the microscope, that which can be seen by the naked eye is shown to be a bundle of delicate threads not as large as a cobweb, composed of a sheath filled with a very delicate substance.
408. When a nerve is said to branch, what is meant is, that the bundle of the little threads, which are in fact the nerves, is divided into two or more bundles ; the trunk of a nerve being composed of the same number of nerves as are found in its branches: thus all the nerves — that is, the elementary nerves — extend from the centres to the parts thus connected with the centres. Therefore, all parts of the body are represented at the brain, and all parts may be said to be constructed in the brain, and present there as much as if they really were included in the skull, in the same manner as in the eye we see all the world brought in by light.
409. Nerves through which the voluntary muscles are acted on, must extend from the head, where the mind has its seat, to the muscles. (See Fig. 2 and plate-page 3.)
410. But the mind must also know precisely how much the muscles are contracted ; and when any muscle is contracting, a knowledge of its condition must be constantly brought to the mind.
406. Why are — ? 407. What is a nerve — ? 408. What is the case — ? Are then all parts of the body represented by the ends of the nerves at the centres ? 409. What said of — ? 410. What must — ?
411 The mind can be informed about the contraction of a muscle only by having another set of nerves (spoken of before as a second set of nerves) extending from the muscles to the head.
412. When the nerves are examined quite near to the spinal cord, they are found to be composed of two parts, or roots, as they are called, which are found to have two uses : if the front root is cut, all control over the muscles to which it belongs, is lost ; if the back root is cut, all sensation in the part is lost ; nor can a person know how much any muscle is contracted.
413. Two kinds of nerves, therefore, connect the muscles with the brain : through one, the influence that causes the contraction of the muscles goes out ; through the other, the influence by which the mind learns the condition of the muscles flows in.
Fig. 68 represents a section of the spinal cord, with 1, 2, the roots, as they are called, of nerves extending from it on each side : 1 is motory ; 2 is sensatory ; beyond 3 they are enclosed in one sheath, and no longer distinguishable. All the spinal nerves are similar ; where they arise from the spinal cord, they are seen to be numerous : they are equally so in their sheath.
414. The influences pass out and in, through the two kinds of nerves, with the rapidity of lightning ; so that the mind hardly notices how it does its work.
415. Again * it is very important to notice, that, through the centripetal or sensatory nerves (viz., those through Avhich the muscles exert an influence on the brain), sensations of pleasure, or of pain, are produced, according to the condition of the muscles.
416. If the muscles are not exercised as much as they should he, very unpleasant sensations are caused ; which is also the case if they are exercised too much ; hut if they are exercised perfectly, they will he the cause of a very high and desirable degree of enjoyment : they will still cause another kind of sensation, if diseased or injured.
417. To exercise properly is, therefore, to enjoy life in a double sense : directly, by the sensations the muscles cause; and, secondarily, by the increased health and comfort, generally, that their exercise produces.
Motory Ganglia .
418. It has been seen that the skeleton has the number and kind of joints that will permit every desirable motion ; that muscles adapted to produce every motion, clothe the skeleton ; that their substance, when perfect, has at all times the property of contracting, but will not contract till a proper influence excites it, which influence is conducted through nerves, themselves passive.
419. To LEARN THE SOURCE OF THE INFLUENCE, We must trace the nerves from the muscles to their inner extremities ; some of which we shall find commencing in the spinal cord, and others extending up the cord to the brain.
420. Nerves always commence
in a grayish, very delicate, pulpy substance, formed, in part, of cells which are supposed to be the source of the Nervous Influence : any collection of such substance is called a Nervous Centre, of Ganglion.
nified view of a part of a Nervous Centre, or Ganglion :
416. What effect — ? What effect if too much ? If perfectly ? If diseased ? 417. — is what ? 418. — that what is necessary to produce motion ? 419. How proceed to — ’? 420. How do — ? 421. What does — ?.
422. The reddish-gray color of the Ganglia is owing to the very great number of minute Blood-tubes which are found there, and which prove that the gray is a very active part ; thus :
423. Nervous substance is classed as the active or gray part, and the passive conducting or white part ; the latter only is found in the nerves, while in the Ganglion both are found.
424. In the Nervous Centres, probably in their cells, Nervous Influence is produced, and thence discharged through or along the nerves to the muscles, that instantly contract : how produced, conducted, or how it acts, or what is its nature in other respects, is not known.
Remark. — Sometimes it is compared to electricity, galvanism, and magnetism, but incorrectly. It is one of the most wonderful things in Nature, but, when understood, will doubtless be found the most simple.
425. How LARGE A NERVOUS CENTRE ANY MUSCLE requires to excite its most powerful contraction, we do not know, as we have no means of measuring the power of a centre : some are very small, and others large.
426. There appears to be no good reason for supposing that the centre for each muscle is distinct. It seems that they are run together in groups, corresponding to the groups of muscles to which they belong ; and that these groups of centres are also so arranged that, when necessary, they can act together ; thus :
427. In the entire length of the central parts of the spinal cord (see Fig. 68) the gray substance exists. Therefore, it must be a continuous Nervous
Centre or series of centres, the lower ones of which belong to the muscles of the lower limbs, the middle ones to the Trunk-walls, and the upper ones to the upper limbs and neck ; while at the very upper and back part of the spinal cord, or of its extension into the cranium, there is a very large centre or Ganglion, usually called the small brain, or cerebellum.
428. The cerebellum extends its influence over all the groups below, or else it acts directly upon all the muscles, since they are all under its influence.
429. Does the mind exist, or exert a direct influence in the spinal cord, or cerebellum ? Certainly not ; and Ihis thought suggests several very interesting facts.
430. In some diseases persons will be troubled by a contraction of certain muscles which they cannot control. The reason is, the centres belonging to those muscles in the spinal cord are diseased, and exert an improper and uncalled for influence. When this disease is extensive, it is called St. Vitus’s dance. This involuntary action of the centres is very easily brought on by imitation of those truly affected ; therefore, children should be careful not to imitate such motions.
431. A LARGE PART OF THE REGULAR MOTIONS OF the Voluntary Apparatus is not controlled by the mind, but takes place regularly, by means of the influence exerted by the centres in the cord.
Illustration. — A carpenter walks upon the highest timbers of a frame as he would on the ground, balanced by the action of his cerebellum and spinal cord. His mind could not do it ; if it tries, it will throw him off" : he learned to walk there by simply learning to mind nothing about it, but leave it to the cerebellum.
IN PART, IN PRODUCING ANY DESIRABLE MOTION, and how
the rest is effected by the Involuntary Centres, we cannot now say ; but we know that the mind is relieved from overseeing the details necessary in producing any motion it directs : details are produced by the associated action of the centres to which the motion belongs.
433. It is of great consequence that ave know, that the promptness and ease with which the involuntary actions of the muscles are produced and associated, depends very much upon habit , and that bad habits are as easily acquired as good ones, and each kind is equally easy when acquired. We must, first, learn to rightly do, then quickly do. A child should at first be taught to speak distinctly, sing correctly, write well, walk properly, move gracefully ; all of which will result from practice long enough and carefully enough continued.
434. Exercise of the muscles requires exercise of the centres that cause their contraction ; therefore, muscular exercise is not only for the purpose of improving and strengthening the muscles, but especially for the purpose of exercising the Nervous Centres, and associating their action so as to produce habits of action.
435. It is also very important to notice in this connection, that the character of the action of the muscles is very much influenced by the state of the mind ; so that the expression of the face, the tones of fhe voice, the gestures of all parts of the body, involuntarily exhibit the emotions.
436. It is therefore important, if we would exhibit any emotion, to really have it, as it will be altogether impossible to perfectly imitate what we do not truly feel.
ticity of the skeleton and its joints, upon the muscles, and their exercise, upon the properly associated action or habits of the Motory Nervous Centres, upon mental control, and particularly upon the activity and state of the emotions, which leads us to a new section.
438. It is desirable to consider these organs under one head, because in describing either we must describe the brain, to which they are confined, and of which they constitute the chief part : indeed, these organs and the cranial parts of the Motory and Sensatory Apparatus are so intimately associated that, to be understood, they must all be spoken of together.
The Bra i n .
439. If the cranium was transparent, or could be removed without affecting its contents, they would appear to be composed of four parts : below the spinal cord they would be found enlarged, forming a part called the medulla oblongata ; from this, backward, a large Ganglion grows out, called cerebellum ; while above the oblongata seems to spread out into two very Jarge Ganglia, called cerebri, separated by a deep fissure on the middle line, and filling all the upper parts of the cranium.
they are covered by a very delicate skin, called arachnoid, or spider’s web ; but when this is removed, their surface is very uneven, looking like the surface of a peach-stone on a large scale.
441. The cerebellum is but slightly uneven ; quite a grove being found at its middle line, indicating that it is to be considered as double ; so is the oblongata.
442. The whole brain is therefore divisible into right and left, often called hemispheres ; though the whole is shaped more like an egg than like a sphere.
cerebellum.
443. The cerebri are separated from each other, and*from the cerebellum, by partitions in the cranium formed by its lining — a strong skin with a smooth moistened inner surface ; it descends from the middle line of the cranium between the cerebri, and extends forward
When do cerebri have an uneven surface ? 441. What is the surface of — ? 442. How is — ? Describe Fig. 70. Is it a view of the under or upper surface of the brain ? 443. How are — ?
from the inner back part of the cranium under the back part of the cerebri, supporting them and preventing them from pressing on the cerebelli. By this means the cavity of the cranium is partially divided into three ; the central part being common to all.
444. Fig. 71 represents the cranium, face, and neck, divided near the middle line (to the left) to show (36) the falx, and (37) the tentorium ; through the oval opening under the falx, 35 is seen on the inner surface of the right side of the cranium. Many interesting facts are beautifully shown by this cut, to which reference will be often made.
Into how many cavities is the cranium partially divided? Where are they situated ? 444. What docs — ? What is shown of the connections of the throat— how many, and with what ?
the division between touching portions of the surface of the gray tissue.
445. Fig. 72 represents the brain sliced down nearly to the bottom of the falx, shown by the line (4) extending over a bridge of fibres that extends across from one cerebrum to the other, connecting the two : 1 represents the fibrous parts of the Ganglia, surrounded by the gray part ; the dots show the Bloodtubes in the white part, while in the gray part they are innumerable.
446. The prominences of the gray part are called convolutions ; the indentations are called anfractuosities ; the black lines in their centres show the depth of the indentation.
447. This arrangement of the gray part is for
445. What does — ? If the gray part should be spread out, how much more extensive would it appear to be? 446. — what? What are anfractuosities ? 447. What necessity for this peculiar — ?
the purpose of allowing a large quantity of it in a small space, to be easily reached by a multitude of Bloodtubes on the one side to bring material, and a large number of nerves on
448. Fig. 7 3 represents the cerebri sliced a little lower down, exhibiting a large number of Ganglia in their central part, which can also be brought to view at the summit of the oblongata by raising the sides of the cerebri, which are laid around or spread over the central Ganglia for the purpose of forming an egg-shaped brain that can be covered more protectingly.
ment OF GRAY AND WHITE SUBSTANCE, AS IN THE CEREBRI
From what is nervous influence produced ? In what ? Sent through what ? 448. What does — ? How can the central Ganglia be also brought into view ? What shape of cranium is best ? 449. Is there needed — ?
amine and slice up the brains of different animals.
451. The nervous substance will be noticed to be very different from muscle ; and it would be natural to suppose that food would be required to supply its needs different from that required by muscles : this is the case.
452. The large quantity of blood constantly flowing through the brain, shows that it is very active, and that it will require much food of the peculiar kind essential to satisfy its necessities.
453. To perfect the brain, and enable it to accomplish the most, we must by appropriate use of the brain gradually cause its Blood-vessels to become enlarged, and a large flow of blood to be poured through them. For this purpose the action of the brain must not, while young, be too long or too urgently produced, but it should be exercised regularly and systematically, day by day, during its entire growth.
454. Do WE KNOW WHAT THE DIFFERENT GANGLIA are for ? Not perfectly well : the use of some, we know; that of some, we conjecture; and of some, say not. We learn the use of some by means of the nerves that terminate or commence in them ; but the nerves are so fine and so delicate that it is very difficult to trace any of them — and in case of most it has not been done ; that of others we learn by experiment and observation.
455. We observe that various muscles “twitch” when we do not wish that they should ; and, again, we control them perfectly, while often their mode of action will be affected very much by our emotions.
456. Certain substances, swallowed or breathed, excite certain emotions : laughing gas has its effect, ether its effect, &c., despite our wish.
tions exhibit themselves with greater or less activity.
459. Many other arguments might be used to show that some of the central Ganglia of the brain are Emotory ; others, Sensatory ; that the cerebri are chiefly Intellectory, and the cerebelli and spinal cord chiefly Motory. We will return to this again.
460. We have already seen the necessity for Sensatory organs, since the mind must be constantly made acquainted with the degree of the contraction of the muscles ; and we have seen that two kinds of nerves have been provided : one for the purpose of exciting contraction in the muscles, and the other for exciting the Nervous Centres.
461. But the mind requires knowledge of the condition not only of the muscles, but of all other parts of the body, the dangers to which they are exposed, &c. ; for which purpose it is necessary to have nerves commence in every part, and, directly or indirectly, connect with the brain : thus all parts can, and in some states do, cause sensations.
are very different.
463. The skin, which is made a watchful outpost to guard the body from every attack, is very painful, however injured ; but if one of the tendons or cords of the hand should be exposed, it might be pricked with a red-hot needle, and a person not feel it, yet if twisted ever so little, it would be painful ; the bone, if sound, may be sawn across without a twinge, while touching a nerve in a tooth produces extreme pain. Dr. Beaumont says, that if he touched the inside of Alexis St. Martin’s stomach, he did not feel or even know it ; and Harvey said he grasped the heart of a living man, so injured as to expose that organ, without his feeling it, while the least particle in the windpipe is very distressing. . The sensations of hunger that different organs produce when they require food, are very different : the sensations produced when food is required to warm the body, and to nourish the muscles, are what we most frequently experience, and are chiefly felt in early years, and are those usually called hunger ; but the sensations caused by the brain when it requires food, though very different from the former, should be equally recognized as hunger — and should be so called — and satisfied by eating the proper food, properly prepared : this is a very important fact.
465. But the mind must also know where the part is that is causing the sensation. Now something very curious is to be noticed : though the sensation is caused in the head, through the nerves, it will usually
been caused.
Illustration. — If at the elbow we should prick a nerve that commences in the finger, a sensation of pain would be experienced in the mind, and it would seem to be in the little finger, just as when we strike the elbow (“funny or crazy bone ”) we seem to feel in the finger. Now, if the hand should be cut off anywhere below the elbow, precisely the same effect would be produced, and it would seem to the person that he had a little finger yet.
466. The illustration proves that sensations are felt and produced in the head wherever they are perceived, or seem to be.^ This is very important to observe ; for the Ganglia being diseased, or the nerve also being diseased, sensations are produced that have their origin in them, yet are attributed to the organs in which the nerves commence, because the pain seems to be, or is perceived, in the organs.
Illustration. — Persons have insisted on having sound teeth drawn, because the Ganglia or nerves, being diseased, have caused severe pain that seemed to be in the teeth.
467. In some cases, strange to say, and for which we cannot give any reason, sensations are produced, and referred to different organs from those which excited them.
Illustration. — Disease of the liver sometimes causes sensations that seem to be under the shoulder-blade. A deranged Stomach will cause a headache. Children often rub the nose when the Digestory canal is irritated.
468. Sensations apparently pelt in a part, taken
Illustration.— If we strike a certain point of the elbow? 466. What does — ? Are sound teeth extracted? 467. Does pain direct attention to the right organs? Illustration. — Mention some eauses. 468. What said of — ?
of the seat of disease.
469. Those organs in which Sensatory nerves commence are called organs of sense ; which, therefore, include all parts of the body, except the nerves themselves, and the Ganglia ; and subjective organs of sense, because they inform the mind in regard to the body itself.
470. But the mind also requires a knowledge of the objects that are around the body, and, for this purpose, must be furnished with objective organs of sense, viz., through which objects can act upon the nerves ; how many ?
471. By means of the skin already furnished as a part of the body, and as its protection, the mind can learn much : the presence of objects in contact with the body and their temperature, and some ideas of their surfaces and form, can be learned.
touch, or, when particularly applied, of tact.
473. By means of the muscles the mind can learn more than by the skin. The muscular sense is one of the earliest in use of all the senses : it enables the mind to judge of the density and firmness of objects, their form and size ; of their distance, weight, force, &c.
sense.
Remark. — Organs of sense and organs of sensations have this distinction : the former are part of the latter ; these also include nerves and Ganglia.
Th e Mouth .
476. To learn the quality of food, a nerve of taste has been added to the nerve of touch in the skin of certain parts of the mouth ; so that, in addition to being an organ for grinding and dissolving the food, it becomes an organ of the sense of taste ; and the necessity for eating is thus wisely made an enjoyment.
OF THE DELICATE LINING OF EACH NOSTRIL, a nerve of
smell commences, and, extending up through the roof of the nose, unites with the Ganglion directly above : in addition to this the nerves of touch are also found there. (See Fig. 74 : 1, Ganglia ; 8, nerves of smell ; 2, 3, nerves of touch.)
478. The air loaded with minute odorous particles drawn through the nose, bears the particles against the surface over the nerves, and they are acted upon, and the sensation of smell caused.
breathing orifice, is an organ of the sense of smell.
480. But it is also desirable that the mind should have means of learning something of objects at a distance from the body, for which something must act between the objects and the body. Now —
481. There are two things around and between us and other objects : the air, that can act between us and near objects ; and light, that can act between the nearest and most distant objects and our bodies ; therefore,
482. We must be furnished with two kinds of organs of sense : one to be acted upon by light, and the other by air ; and as there are no parts of the body to which nerves of sight and hearing could be added, organs, called special organs of sense, must be constructed.
The Eye .
483. Through the eye the mind learns the colors and directions of objects. The use of the eye is dependent on the nature of light, which is of several different varieties, producing different sensations of color. Light always passes in a straight line till obstructed by some object by which it is deadened, through which it passes, and is bent, or by which it is reflected.
Illustration. — The light that enters the eye from the most distant star, has been years travelling in a straight line, nor changed its direction in the least ; and the star appears to be in the direction from which that light entered the eye, though, perhaps, the star has meantime moved millions of miles away.
478. What effect is produced by — ? 479. What is — ? 480. What is also — ? 481. — what are they ? Therefore — with what ? 483. — what ? Illustration.— How long and far will light move in a straight line ?
484. The white of the eye (1, Fig. 76) is a dense sinewy case, called the sclerotic or hard coat, having a window (2), called cornea (horny), inserted in front, and an opening (a) in the back part for the nerve, the sheath (15) of which is continuous with 1, as seen.
485. The iris or colored part (6), with a circular opening (7), is a very delicate and beautiful muscle, or two muscles — a circular one that by contraction lessens the pupil, and a diverging one that enlarges it.
cate transparent membrane.
489. 8 is the retina, chiefly constructed of the nerves (16) spread out upon the vitreous humor to receive the action of the light entering the eye.
Blood-vessels, and is colored a very deep brown, almost black ; its use is to nourish the retina, or nerves, and, as it is thought, destroy the light that has acted on the nerves.
Fig. 76 represents the action of the eye ( a ) upon light coming from one point only of each of the candles (b, y, r). All the light that can enter the pupil is bent or refracted to the points (r, y> b) on the retina (3), connected with the nerve (1). If there had been a thousand more points from which light comes, it would have acted on a thousand more points in 3.
491. If the eye is perfect, all the light from one point of an object that enters the pupil will be bent or refracted to a point, or focus, on the nerves, as shown in Fig. 76 ; but the light from another point of the object will not act on the same, but on another, point of the nerves ; and thus the light from all the points of all the objects before the eye, will be refracted to points in the retina perfectly distinct, however near to each other.
492. When the light acts upon the nerve, two effects are produced through its Ganglia : a sensation of color, according to the kind of light that has acted ; and an idea of the direction from which the light has come, which idea is due to our nature. We have been made so as to believe that when a point of the retina is acted upon, the object producing the effect is in a certain
Do you observe that by the action of the eye (Fig. 76) the light, from one point of each of three candles, acts upon its own point of the retina ? 491. What effect-:? 492. What effect — ?
direction ; it seems to be so, and we unhesitatingly believe it ; and if everything is perfect and natural, the object will be in the line of direction in which we believe it to be.
Illustration. — If we press on the eye, looking at an object, the direction of the object seems to change, because the light from it is made to act on a new point of the retina, and the object will seem to be in the line of direction that belongs to the new point acted on ; but to the other eye there is no change, and the object seems to be in two directions at once, and therefore seems to be double.
493. The larger the pupil, the more light admitted, and the more intense the effect ; hence the iris regulates the size of the pupil to the amount of light.
494. Ip the eye is imperfect, the light may be brought to a focus before it reaches the retina, producing short sight ; or, in other cases, it may not be brought to a focus when it reaches the retina, thus causing long sight : in either case the sight will be indistinct, and can be corrected by glasses. Near sight is frequently brought on by reading much with the page near the eye : this should not be allowed in case of those who can see well. Short sight can often be improved by endeavoring to see objects at a distance ; hence, a voyage often improves near-sightedness.
495. The method of seeing is very simple, and can easily be understood, if a description of it is not confused by drawing attention to images in the eye, and other like incidents of the structure and action of the eye.
496. A visible point, or the point of an object, that is seen, is the smallest point from which light can act upon a distinct point in the eye. How many of these
are to be considered as belonging together to make up one object, depends upon circumstances — as we call a leaf, a limb, a tree, or a forest, an object : what are seen are the points ; and the grouping, of more or less of them, is done by the mind.
497. There are but three simple colors — red (3), yellow (5), blue (8), which, acting together, produce white (16) : the two former produce orange (8) ; the two latter, green (13) ; the first and last, purple (11). The number exhibit the natural proportions of each color. All the thousand different sensations of shades of color, and all the pleasure they excite, are dependent upon the proportions in which these three different colors act upon the nerves, the order in which they act, and the rapidity with which they succeed each other in acting.
498. The eyes are constantly active during the day ; therefore, they should be acted on successively by different kinds of light : looking at one kind soon varies the eye, and the color loses its brightness ; therefore, dress, furniture, &c., should be so colored that the eyes may be acted on by all the colors in due proportion.
499. To arrange colors in good taste, the eye must be so cultivated that it can direct their arrangement in accordance with the constitution of light and of the eye.
500. As the eye can receive light only from objects nearly in front of it, it is desirable to have the power of turning it in various directions : this will call for muscular action.
501. The eye rests on a cushion of fat, and is drawn forward, and also turned in certain directions, by two muscles. Its chief motions are produced by four straight muscles — one on each side, one above, and the
fourth below— (see Fig. 11*). The tendon of 5 must be noticed passing round the loop-tendon 6 ; the direction of the action of that muscle is very different from the motion it .causes, for, while the contraction of the muscle draws the tendon back, it draws the eye forward ; at 8 the lower muscle — inferior oblique — is attached to the side of the socket, so that by contraction it tends to draw the eye forward, and also turns it upon its axis ; 4 is a muscel that extends over the eye into the upper eyelid, and raises it.
Does the superior oblique muscle (9) draw the eye backwards or forwards ? How is the eyelid raised ? Describe Fig. 77. Describe Fig. 77*. 502. — what is used — ? 503. How is the eye supplied with — ?
moist, is poured down into the eye through minute tubes that open upon the inner surface of the upper eyelid, high up, and emit the fluid from a small organ, called the tear-gland, situated just within the socket of the eye, above the outer part of it.
Fig. .78 represents the left eyelids, cut through as far from their opening as possible, and the lachrymal gland drawn from its place, with the lids turned toward the nose, to show the inner surface of the lids, in which the meibomian glands (6) are seen, opening at the edges, between which the lashes are seen : 14, numerous openings of the ducts (9, 10) from the gland (7, 8) ; 12, 13 are the minute openings at the inner corner of the lids., through which the tear-fluid passes to the nose.
504. The fluid is carried from the eye through two channels of very small size, leading from the inner point of each lid to the head of a tube about the size of a crow-quill, the lower end of which is in the nose.
Illustration. — When something irritates the inner surface of the nose, the eye will water ; this fluid will soon disappear, passing down into the nose to wash away the offending substance.
Fig. 79 represents the tubes,
leading from the eye to the nose ; 1 are the openings (12, 13, Fig. 78) into the tubes (2, 3), uniting at 4, and leading the tear-fluid into 5, that terminates at 6 in the cavity of the nose. Hence, by holding the nose, and blowing, the air can sometimes be made to pass up into the eye, or by setting the fluid back cause it to wash from the eye a speck that is injuring it. Above the outer part of the opening for the eye, the tear gland is represented.
Describe Fig. 79. What is the second special organ of sense ? 505. How is — ? Describe Fig. 80. Try the experiment mentioned— blowing the air up into the middle ear (2). How are foi»ce, quality, and pitch produced.?
506. The external ear includes also the tube leading inward for half an inch to an inch when it is closed by the skin extending across it.
507. The middle ear, or drum, is a cavity about the size and form of a kidney-bean, opening below by a long slender tube into the upper and back part of the nose, through which hearing is sometimes effected when a person has a cold, the lining of nose and drum being continuous.
508. Across the middle ear a chain of small bones extends from the external membrane to the internal membrane that covers an opening into
509. The internal ear filled with fluid that can act on the nerves that extend from this part to the Ganglia of hearing in the brain.
ternal membrane, which acts through the chain of bones upon the internal membrane : this acts upon the fluid of the labyrinth, and the nerves of hearing are impressed. There are very delicate muscles to act upon the external membrane and chain of bones, and regulate their tensity.
fully understood.
512. Proper exercise and culture will very much improve all the organs of hearing ; though there is a great natural difference between different persons in this respect — more perhaps than in the other organs of sense.
513. The ears are entirely separate ; and often a person has one ear that is perfect, even a good ear for music, and with which he can hear well, while the other is closed.
514. Hardness of hearing is often caused by the hardening of ear-wax, which can be softened by oil, and then removed by soap and warm water ; often by disease of the throat in childhood, extending up into the ear, or by colds ; in each of which cases great care should be taken to avoid taking cold.
515. The use of the ear is to inform us of the presence of objects, to warn us of impending dangers, to call to each other, to enable us to converse together most readily, and to add to the pleasures of life.
516. Our judgment of the direction of objects from sound, is chiefly the result of experience ; hence, the ear is very easily deceived by jugglers and others, who imitate sounds usually heard at a distance.
an<J two, common (the skin and muscles) — the mind acquires all its knowledge of the properties of objects ; while, of the condition of the body, it is informed by the action of each organ through the nerves that connect between it and the brain.
518. There are, therefore, two grand divisions of the Sensatory Apparatus— into subjective and objective ; and of the latter, there are six subdivisions, each, and all, constructed of three kinds of organs — organs of sense ; nerves ; Ganglia — one of which, the Ganglia, assists in forming the brain, and is intimately associated with the Emotory, the Intellectory, and the M$otosy Ganglia, so as, at times, to act upon all of them.
Illustrations. — Anything coming towards the eye will cause winking and the raising of the hand, involuntarily; indeed, it will require quite an effort to prevent it. The mother soothes the child with her lullaby . even in mature years, nothing quiets irritation so well as a pleasant voice, or the singing of a melody ; indeed, a person’s own disposition is controlled, or excited, by his own voice kept low, or raised to an angry pitch : the voice of Niagara, the deep roll of the ocean, the starry heaven, excite the sublimest emotions ; the gesticulations of anger will excite anger ; those of politeness will soften the feelings ; indigestion will irritate ; sound health will energise, etc. : a thousand more illustrations might be given to show that, through the Sensatory Apparatus, the most important effects are produced.
519. The following table will show the relations of all the organs of the four kinds of Mentory Apparatus, and that there are two kinds of channels from the brain : one, Motory, outward, by which everything is done by the mind, whether for moving the body, influencing people, or operating upon objects ; and an-
518. — ; what are they, and with what Ganglia are the Sensory Ganglia associated ? Illustrate how the Sensory affect the Motory ? the Intellectory ? the Emotory? 519. What will — 3
other channel made up of six varieties, through which the mind can be acted upon by objects and people ; and another, not here shown, by which its own body acts within itself.
520. It is therefore to be seen that, strictly speaking, the Emotory and Intellectory Ganglia may be called the home of the mind ; while the Motory and Sensatory Ganglia are parts of the means it needs for executing its will, or for acquiring knowledge.
521. The Circulatory Apparatus is very simple, being composed of only four kinds of organs — the Hearts, Arteries, Capillaries, and Veins.
since they exist in animals having no other of the four.
523. The size of the capillaries is very small: they cannot be seen by the naked eye; their sides are, of course, very thin, but have a very important
property — that of secreting, and hence called Secretory tissue : by virtue of this property, they change a part of the blood and pass it into that which surrounds them, and also take back into themselves substance from that which surrounds them : for this passage there are no openings* but the substances curiously pass through the sides of the capillaries without leaving any trace.
524. The Secretory action of the capillaries and that which is around them, takes place with considerable force —sufficient, where there is no heart, to keep up the circulation ; and where there is, to do much towards it.
525. The number of the capillaries is very great in all parts, but much more numerous in some than in others : they are arranged in a net-work, the meshes of which correspond to the structure where they are found.
ing as strong tubes, through which the power of the
How do the capillaries act ? 524. What is the force of — ? 525. What said of — ? Describe Fig. 82. How many arteries lead from each heart? How many veins lead into each heart ? 526. What are — ?
Fig. 83 represents the great artery or aorta, commencing at the left heart, and branching into every part of the body, opening into capillaries too small to be represented. Fig. 84 represents the veins still more numerous than the arteries, commencing in the capillaries, and terminating in the right heart. From the right heart, arteries lead to the lungs, and from them veins lead to the left heart : these are not represented, but would be necessary to complete the organs of circulation.
What does Fig. 83 represent ? Where are the capillaries formed What does Fig. 84 represent ? Are capillaries formed in the lung ? Will you name tho parts in their order through which the blood passes in a complete circulation ?
capillaries pours the blood along from one part to another, in cases where only veins and capillaries exist. The veins are usually furnished with valves to prevent the blood from flowing backward.
527. In the case of the human Stomach, Second Stomach, Pancreas, and Spleen, only capillaries and veins exist to pour the blood from those organs into the capillaries of the liver. (See Fig. — .)
528. In case of the blood coming through veins from ALL OTHER parts to go through the lungs, the force of the capillaries is not sufficient, and therefore —
529. A heart is necessary, as a hollow muscle, to add force to the capillary force that is driving the blood towards the lung. This heart must be furnished with two sets of valves — one set at the opening into, and another set at the opening out of, the heart.
530. An artery is needed where there is a heart, because of its force. The artery may be thought of, as a vein thickened by elastic substance that will yield somewhat to the force of the heart, and then, re-acting on the blood, will drive it along when the heart is expanding.
531. The artery called the lung, or pulmonary, leads the blood to the beautiful capillaries of the lung and pours it into them ; the blood having been acted upon by the air, and exchanging substance with it, pours along, through the lung, or pulmonary veins, into the left, back, or systemic heart (2, Fig. 82) ; this is another hollow muscle, like the first, but a little stronger, needed to impel the blood through the great systemic artery called the aorta, and its branches, called by various names, into the capillaries of all parts of the body.
533. Both hearts contract together, throwing out their contents — one, into all parts of the body ; the other, into the lungs alone ; then they relax, and are filled, somewhat enlarged. When they contract, they press the shut valves that open into the heart, and open those that turn from the heart into the arteries ; and when they relax, the blood in the arteries, tending to fall
Describe Fig. 85. How many hearts are represented ? How many openings in each ? 533. IIow do — ? What effects of the contraction of each heart ? How do they relax, and what is the effect ?
the heart are opened by blood pressed against them.
534. Where the veins join each heart, they are somewhat enlarged, and some muscular substance is added, producing a kind of sub-heart that assists in filling the relaxing heart. The sub-heart is frequently counted as part of the heart, being called its auricle, and the other, arterial heart, being called the ventricle.
535. The hearts contract about seventy times per minute, upon an average ; more frequently when the muscles are active, less frequently when they are quiet ; in some persons, however, as few as forty times ; in others, as many as one hundred in perfect health.
536. At each beat, pulse, or contraction, the hearts throw out from one to three ounces of blood ; say one, and that there are sixty-four beats per minute : sixty-four ounces, or four pounds per minute, or 240 per hour, will be thrown out, showing that the blood circulates with a rapidity of which we have little conception. Let each one count his pulses, and calculate at one and two ounces how much labor the heart performs in a day by systematic action, and learn to value systematic labor.
537. As all the blood in the body averages about twenty pounds each person, it will not be difficult to calculate how often the blood passes around its entire circuit in an hour; then we shall be able to judge how very important it is to assist in increasing this frequency by all proper means.
Nervous Organs of Circulation .
538. It is very evident, from the manner in which the circulation is affected by disease, by exercise, by breathing, by digestion, by the states of the mind, that the hearts and capillaries are under the regulating
influence of Nervous Centres, and indirectly, not directly, influenced by the mind ; but it is not yet certain which of the Nervous Centres nor which nerves superintend the circulation, but it is supposed that the sympathetic nervous system has this especial duty.
Illustration. — If the mind is excited, the heart beats more quickly ; why ? to supply the brain with more blood. If the emotions are active, does not the skin grow flush, or pale ? Many illustrations might be made to show the effect of Nervous Influence.
539. The Nervous Centres controlling the circulation in the skin, and elsewhere, are liable to become exhausted by their activity ; hence, continued exposure of the skin to the cold will after a time overcome the Nervous Centres, and the circulation will not be sustained. If a person is sickly, or exhausted by fatigue, want of food, or any cause, cold will the sooner overcome ; and then the greatest care must be taken against exposure to cold, a draft, &c. Whenever chilliness is felt, a warning is given that should be heeded, and exercise, clothing, or a fire, should be resorted to.
540. Nothing is more important than to aid in promoting and preserving a proper circulation of blood, especially in the skin. This is to be done by regulating the action of the mind , particularly the emotions ; by exercise of the muscles / by frequently rubbing the skin , by keeping it clean , and by properly clothing it. The three words that particularly indicate what is to be done in reference to circulation, are : Rub— Clean — Clothe. That is to say : if the action of the mind, the muscles, and that of other parts is properly attended to for other purposes, that same action will be favorable to the circulation ; but for its especial benefit, we should rub, clean, and clothe the skin properly.
541. The Respiratory Apparatus is needed, as has been seen, to cause the air and blood to act freely upon each other ; for which purpose there must be a receptacle where they can meet, and a means for renewing them both very frequently. Those for renewing the blood have been shown : thus,
542. The Respiratory organs are of two classes — the Receptive, or lungs, and the Motory, or chestwalls, diaphragm, abdominal muscles, and larynx.
Th e Lung s.
543. The lungs are constructed of air-tubes and their lining, extended to form air-cells, of blood-tubes, nerves, elastic tissue, and a covering.
544. The frame of the air-tubes is formed of pieces of cartilage equal to four fifths of a ring, attached by sinewy tissue : the branches are much more numerous than represented in Fig. 86.
545. The lining of the air-tubes is the same delicate membrane as that in the nose ; it becomes very thin in the smaller tubes, and, where it forms the aircells, is not thicker than the sides of a soap-bubble.
546. Blood-tubes and nerves enter by the side of the air-tubes, branching with them, the veins being two to each branch ; the capillaries Occupy the sides of the air-cells.
547. The remaining spaces are occupied with sinewy, elastic fibres, that, stretched when the cells are filled, are ready to assist in expelling the air.
ricles.
549. The lungs are very simple organs to understand, both in structure and in their action : indeed, each cell is a lung, and what is so called, is a collection of thousands of such lungs ; and the smaller they are, and the more of them, the better is a person furnished.
diminished : the latter is the case of man.
551. The chest- walls and the diaphragm form a distensible air-tight box, or case, which is divided into three apartments, by partitions extending from the breast to the back-bone, and attached to the diaphragm. The heart fills the centre one, leaving the right and left
to be filled by the lungs.
Fig. J90 represents front walls of chest removed, 2 being upper ribs attached to (1) the upper portion of sternum, of which 7 is the lower portion, to each side of which the gristly ends of the lower ribs are attached ; 3, the spinal column ; 4, the centre, and 5, 6, the side arches of the diaphragm.
ive partition, chiefly muscular, attached by its margin to the lower border of the chest, and arching upward, as seen by the figure of it in Fig. 90. The centre under the heart is tendinous, and of course does not contract, nor tend to enlarge the apartment filled by the heart.
552. The frame of the chest-walls is constructed of the spinal column (elastic), of the ribs (part of elastic cartilage), jointed so as to move up and down, and so curving round that when they move up, they move outward, and increase the diameter across the chest, and from the spinal column to the breast-bone.
553. The muscles of the chest- walls extend between the ribs, and between those and other parts : thus they control the motions of the ribs, while the
551. What is formed by — ? What does Fig. 90 represent ? 552. Of what is — ? 553. What is the situation of — ? What is the form of the diaphragm ? Can each arch be contracted alone ? Yes. Does the centre contract?
great diaphragm enlarges the capacity of the chest by the contraction of its arches. To draw down the ribs, muscles, that pass from the ribs to the pelvis (see platepage 2), are also necessary.
554. Each apartment of the chest is lined by the same kind of membrane as that covering the lungs, which, in each side, is called the right and left pleura of the ribs and diaphragm.
Fig. 91 : 1, section of a lung ; 2, the root, composed of branches and Blood-tubes ; 6, the external covering, or pleura, at the root turning up, extending out, passing down at 5, to turn up over 4 (diaphragm), and again up to 2, where it becomes continuous with 6.
At 5 it is called pleura costalis, because against the ribs. The two pleurae are shown to be merely one continuous serous membrane. The lung is also shown to be attached only at its root, and elsewhere has a free surface ; not hanging from its root, but, filled by air, is sustained by the action of the external walls of the chest and the internal pressure of the air.
555. The lungs exactly fill their apartments, attached only at their roots, and by their surfaces, touch the entire surface of their apartments, in the gentlest manner, except when the windpipe is closed, and the chest-walls compress them. The position occupied by the lungs is well illustrated by the following Figs. 92 and 93, which show a back and front view of the lungs, as they would appear in the entire chest. In reality, when the chest is opened, the lungs, instead of remaining expanded or distended, contract, or, as it is termed, collapse, owing to the elastic tissue of which they are in part constructed. It is this elastic tissue that chiefly is the cause of the expulsion of the air when the lungs are in the chest.
What does Fig. 92 represent ? What does Fig. 93 represent ? How near to the neck do the lungs appear to be ? Does the windpipe enter the top or sides of the lungs ? How are the upper parts of the lungs sustained in place ?
556. The larynx, an enlarged part of the windpipe, composed of several cartilages, with muscles to move them, opens at its upper and back part into the throat, or pharynx ; above its opening a cartilage (see 30, Fig. 94) is attached to the tongue, and against it the larynx is raised when it is desirable to close the airpassages, as when we swallow, sneeze, speak, &c.
556. What is said of the construction of openings of — * ? How is the opening into the larynx closed? When the finger is on the larynx, docs it rise if you swallow ? Can you see it rise then ?
Mode of Br eaihing .
558. The larynx being lowered, the windpipe is thereby opened : then if the chest is enlarged, the air presses into the lung, overcomes its elasticity, distending it as fast as the chest enlarges ; this is inspiration : then the chest is diminished, and the elasticity of the lung throws the air out.
559. When the air is to be poured out suddenly, the larynx is closed, and the expiratory muscles contracted, by which pressure is made upon the air in the lungs : then the larynx is suddenly opened, when the pressure of the expiratory muscles will add to the force of the elastic substance of the lungs, and the air will be expelled with corresponding force.
560. The chest is enlarged by relaxing the opposing muscles, raising the ribs, straightening the column, and contracting the diaphragm, by which the cartilages of the ribs and column will be stretched: the organs below the diaphragm will be pressed down, and, in turn, distend the walls of the abdomen.
561. The chest is diminished by relaxing the inspiratory muscles when the stretched cartilages act to restore the ribs, the downward motion of which is further assisted by the muscles of expiration, especially those of the walls of the abdomen, which also press its organs inward and upward against the arches of the diaphragm, which, relaxed, are easily moved up. The
557. Where is—? Use of elastic tissue? 558. — , what can then take place? 559. — , what must be done? 560. How is—? 561. How is -^? What effect on walls of the abdomen ?
continued action of tlie expiratory muscles draws the ribs and column below their middle point, and bring their cartilages into.a condition to have their elasticity exerted to raise the ribs and draw in the air. Some breathe almost entirely by raising the ribs above their medium point, and restoring them to it ; others, by drawing them below that medium point, and restoring them to it ; while others breathe still better by moving the ribs both above and below the medium point.
Remark. — It must be very evident that perfect breathing cannot take place if bands, clothing, or any thing confines, constricts, or in any way prevents the full motion of the trunk-walls, both of the chest and abdomen : tight dress is certainly one of the worst of evils.
562. As THE ENTIRE USE OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS is to make use of the air, it becomes of the utmost importance that we observe what will affect its quality and its quantity, since upon both must its efficiency depend.
563. Air is composed of nearly four fifths nitrogen, one fifth oxygen, a minute quantity of carbonic acid, a large quantity of watery vapor, more or less ozone, &c.
564. The nitrogen seems of no use except to dilute the other gases ; the oxygen is of vital importance, some of it disappearing at each breath ; the carbonic acid is a decided poison when in considerable quantity ; some of it is expelled from the lungs at each breath ; and, in a short time, such a quantity will be thrown out, that, to breathe the air containing it, is very unhealthy. Only a small increase in the natural proportion of car-
How do different persons breathe ? Remark.— What is the effect of tight dress on the chest ? on the abdomen ? How through the abdomen will tight dress affect breathing? 562. TVhat important as — ? 5C3. Of what is — ?
bonic acid is sufficient to make the air deadly, even if the oxygen is not diminished ; the watery vapor in the air is essential to prevent it from drying the surfaces it acts upon : ozone is but little understood, but is thought to be some form of oxygen ; its presence in proper quantities is essential to health ; an excess or absence of it, especially the latter, causing diseases of the most fatal sort. How to produce it cheaply is a question.
565. To secure pure air, our apartments must be well ventilated, both night and day, both in hot and cold weather ; also the air all about our buildings, and at a distance, must be kept pure ; when the air is dry, as it is likely to be when warmed, water must be evaporated into it ; hence to keep a vessel of water on a stove in winter is judicious.
566. If the pure air is in our rooms, it is still necessary to give attention to have that which is in the lungs well ventilated ; active breathing should frequently be resorted to, for the quietness of ordinary breathing will allow the air to remain a long while in some of the cells undisturbed ; hence, singing is an excellent exercise ; so is reading aloud, and other exercises that cause energetic breathing. Just before retiring, and upon rising when the clothing is removed, some exercise that empties and fills the lungs, viz., causes active breathing, is particularly advisable.
567. To RECEIVE A LARGE QUANTITY OF AIR, it is necessary that the ribs be free to rise, and the walls of the abdomen free to distend : this can never be, if any 'part of the Trunk is tightly clothed ; now as
568. The ready action of the brain, the graceful action of the muscles, the beauty of the skin, the vivacity of the eye, and the health and vigor of all parts, are dependent upon the blood, and its good character
A REVIEW OF THE ORGANS OF THE RESPIRATORY
Apparatus will show that they include the Nose, (sometimes the Mouth,) the Pharynx, Larynx, Trachea, Lungs, Trunk-walls, and Diaphragm ; while the Hearts are necessary to pour blood into the Lungs and receive it from them ; and the various organs filling the abdomen are necessary in their places to facilitate breathing by their action upon the abdominal walls and the diaphragm.
569. The Digestory Apparatus has two distinct functions — one of passing water into the blood, and the other of preparing food and passing it into the blood.
570. To pass water into the blood, is a very simple process; indeed, taking it into the mouth would be sufficient, and is found to be so when the throat is too sore to swallow, since it slowly passes through the sides of the blood-tubes in the mouth into the blood ; but this would usually be inconvenient ; hence, it is swallowed into a pouch (the Stomach), through the sides of which it can and does pass into the blood, as it would through the mouth. It will pass through the air-surfaces in the lungs, or even through the external skin.
568. — will show what ? What is tho use of the Hearts in respiration ? What, in breathing, is the use of the abdominal organs? 569. — ; what are they ? 570. How are we able — ?
571. The rapidity with which water, or any substance, will pass into the blood, depends upon how large a proportion of water there is in the blood ; hence, we shall be safer if we drink before going out in the morning in an unhealthy region, or into a sick room, or wherever there is a liability to take into the blood any unhealthy substances.
572. To PREPARE FOOD FOR PASSING INTO THE stomach, in the first place, it must be ground, and, secondly, at the same time, moistened.
573. To grind the food, the teeth — twenty in the first set and thirty-two in the second set — are inserted in each jaw ; and, as the grinding is very important to health, the teeth should be preserved by taking the utmost care of them : they should not be used to bite hard substances — to crack nuts, bend pins, cut off thread, &c. ; nor should very hot nor very cold substances be allowed to act on them, since they are composed of a thin layer of very hard enamel at the surface and a more bony material within : heat or cold is apt to crack the former. The teeth should also be often cleansed, not by powders or acids, but by brushing or rubbing : many things sold at the shops corrode the teeth.
574. Three organs on each side of the mouth are adapted to form a fluid called saliva : the largest of these, at the back of the jaw, called the Parotid gland, has a tube extending under the skin of the face to the middle of the cheek, where it opens, and can be felt at the inner surface ; this tube, called Steno’s duct, can be easily felt ; another of the glands is between the jaw and tongue ; the third is beneath the tongue.
575. From these glands a large quantity of fluid is constantly poured into the mouth, and very much increased when eating. The fact that this increase some-
times takes place before food is tasted, and sometimes at the mere thought of delicious food, proves that the mind has an influence upon the circulation of the blood, and upon the secretion of fluids.
576. Chewing!- the food thoroughly effects two objects : making the food fine, and mixing it thoroughly with saliva. It is too often neglected, and the food eaten with improper haste; losing us the enjoyment of it, and preventing its perfect digestion, and after a time bringing on disease.
577. When chewed, the food is gathered into a ball and pressed into the throat, being lubricated by the tonsils (23, Fig. 94) on each side of the back part of the tongue ; the veil of the palate (12, Fig. 94) is raised up, closing the back nostrils ; the larynx is raised against 30 (Fig. 94), and the food is pressed on down through the oesophagus into the Stomach (see Figs. 18, 84, 85.)
578. The (esophagus opens into the Stomach a little to the left of the centre of the body, and about one third the distance from the large to the small end of the Stomach (see Fig. 98).
579. The inner surface of the stomach is very delicate and velvety, and, under the microscope, exhibits an immense number of small holes that are the openings of short tubes, in the sides of which at times there is formed a very important fluid, called gastric or stomach juice, because it is found only in the stomach.
580. The gastric juice appears usually when food reaches the stomach, but not then if the food is not needed, and but for a little while if unwholesome food is taken ; it continues to come into the stomach for five minutes to half an hour, more or less freely, according to the need for food, the quantity eaten, and the state of the mind and health of the body.
Fig. 95 (a) represents the diagonal, ( b ) the circular, and ( c ) the longitudinal fibres, formed of muscle-cells, in the oesophagus ; that at 1 (Fig. 96) opens into the stomach of which 5 is the outer coat, dissected and turned back from (7, 8, 9) the muscular fibres, extending, as shown by the lines, in different directions.
cond Stomach.
581. Mouthful after mouthful the food passes into the stomach, gradually distending it ; the juice begins to flow ; the large extremity of the Stomach contracts, slowly pressing the food into, and distending,
What does Fig. 95 represent ? What does Fig. 96 represent ? What does Fig. 97 represent ? How much of the upper part of the Stomach is represented ? At what portion of the Stomach does the food enter ?
the small end, which again contracts, and presses the food back : thus it is mixed together and with the juice, by the action of which after a time it begins to be changed into a grayish paste, called chyme.
582. The length of time required to form chyme is from one to six hours, depending upon the quantity and kind of food, its cooking, mastication, and needed bodily health, and the state of the mind.
583. Some rinds of food are prepared in the stomach to enter the blood, and do pass into the bloodtubes, in the sides of the stomach.
584. The balance of the chyme, as rapidly as it is formed, passes little by little into the long, small canal, called the Second Stomach, or small intestinal canal.
Fig. 98 : 1, liver, turned up ; 2, its fissure ; 3, gall-bladder ; 4, stomach ; 5, oesophagus ; 6, pylorus ; 7, descending 8 transverse duodenum ; 9, pancreas ; 10, spleen ; 11 to 24, arteries.
>581. What takes place as — ? 582. — depends upon what? 583. — for what purpose ? 584. What becomes of — ? Describe Fig. 98. In which side is the liver ? In which side is the spleen ?
585. The walls of the Second Stomach, like those of the stomach, are in three coats : the external, serous, that extends back to the spinal column, forms a kind of ribbon, or ruffle, called the mesentery, in which are found the vessels and nerves extending to and from the canal ; the middle or muscular is in the form of rings ; the velvety, mucous, internal coat is arranged in the form of folds to increase its extent of surface.
586. The Second Stomach varies in length from five to thirty-four feet in different persons, averaging twentyfive feet. It is coiled or curved like the edge of a ribbon, and extends from right to left, and back agaiu to the left, and again back, reaching the right lower portion of the abdomen just within the upper front point of the hip-bone, where it opens into the large intestinal canal, called the colon.
creas opens into 7.
587. A short distance from the stomach the chyme is mixed with a juice, called pancreatic, because formed in the pancreas — a small organ back of the lower part of the stomach.
588. Chyme is here also mixed with the bile from the liver, and the gall from the gall-bladder, by which one portion of the chyme becomes fitted to and does enter the blood-vessels of the Second Stomach ; while another portion appears of a whitish or milk color,
585. What is the structure of — ? What is the mesentery? 586. What the length and position of Second Stomach ? 587. What enters the Second. Stomach — ? 588. — with what is ?
called chyle, and passes out of the Second Stomach into the lacteal vessels that extend from it to the veins in the region of the neck. (See Figs. 100, 103, and 104. *
17, 16, Fig. 25.
589. The small portion of chyme not thus changed, passes on into the colon, which also receives whatever is eliminated from the blood by the Second Stomach, which is ordinarily by far the greater part of what passes into the colon, or large intestine — a canal much like the Second Stomach, only larger.
590. The colon commences just within the upper front point of the hi}>bone ; thence it extends up on the right side underneath the thin edge of the liver, where it turns almost at a right angle, and extends across the abdomen just below, and even across and in front of the lower part of the Stomach ; in the left side of the abdomen and near the spleen, the colon turns again at nearly a right angle, and extends down as low as the hip, the inner surface of which it follows downward and backward, appearing in the form of an S ; below this point it is straight, and hence called
What is chyle, and where found? Describe Fig. 100. 589. What becomes of — ? Where doe the colon commence, and what is its course ? 590. What is the relation of the colon to the other organs of the abdomen ?
the rectum. Its names in its course are coecum, where it commences ; then, ascending, transverse, and descending colon, the sigmoid flexure, rectum.
591. It must be evident that any pressure of clothing on the abdomen must prevent free motion of the contents of its canals ; especially will anything girding the upper or middle part of it interfere with the free passage of substances through the colon : many diseases not only, but deaths, are thus caused.
592. Remark . — It may be thought impossible to know what takes place in the stomach during digestion. In the year 1822, in the State of Michigan, a young man named St. Martin, serving in our army, was injured by the accidental discharge of a gun, the muzzle of which was about a yard from his body. The buckshot tore open his side, lacerating his lung and stomach. He fell into the hands of Dr. Beauipont, by whose aid he recovered, leaving, however, an irregular opening into his stomach, about an inch and a half in diameter, that adhered to his side in such a manner that food could be put into or taken out of the Stomach, and the organ examined under various circumstances. He lived with Dr. B. two years, whose account of the case is deeply interesting and profitable. St. Martin, however, fearing the experiments would affect his health, plunged into the depths of Canada, and was lost sight of till the railroads brought him to light a few years since, when he was alive and well, and went to Europe to exhibit himself, the aperture never having closed. Dr. Beaumont made only a series of physical observations and experiments, yet he conclusively determined many important facts : that different substances, and different methods of cooking them, require different times for digestion ; that partially masticated food is tedious in digesting, and often irritates and inflames the stomach ; that, indeed, thorough mastication is one of the most important steps towards health ; that food not needed is not digested, and soon deranges the stomach ; that a hearty, appetite, combined with moderate distention of the stomach, favor digestion ; that moderate exercise facilitates digestion, while active exercise of either muscles or brain as surely retards it ; that sleep immediately after eating is not advantageous ; that ill-temper or other ill-dispositions check the entire digestcry action, which, after a time, goes on again, but not perfectly ; that too much
liquid with food retards digestion ; that the frequent use of alcoholics, wine, cider, etc., invariably inflames the stomach ; that the stomach is not sensitive when touched, and may even be so diseased as to bleed without exciting pain ! Other experiments and observations upon man and animals, since those of Dr. B., have also still further and more clearly shown the true nature and use of the first process of digestion.
593. Food is for different purposes, and hence should he of different kinds : one purpose is producing heat ; another, cooling the body ; one is to nourish or renew the tissues ; another is to distend the stomach, &c.
ducing heat. Acids are for cooling purposes.
Remark. — Hence, in winter we should eat more of heat-producing food, especially if exposed to the cold, and should have a more healthy appetite for it, which is the case ; while in summer, or at any time when hot, we should prefer lemonade, acid fruits, &c.
595. To nourish the muscles and brain different varieties of food are required, while peculiar varieties are doubtless required by other parts. Precisely what varieties of food will include all those best adapted to the wants of the brain, cannot be told at present, but sometime will be known. The idea is a very important one , and its practical application should be worked out as soon as possible ; but Eggs, Brains themselves, certain kinds of fish, the brown part of grain-food, oats, and beans and peas, are especially adapted to form brain and nervous tissue.
596. Waste food includes that portion of any kind which is more than is needed, but it usually means that which cannot bo of use, except to increase the bulk of the food, enabling the organs to act upon it better. Fruits and vegetables, to a reasonable extent, are almost always wholesome and advisable.
597. All kinds of food should be properly cooked ; some need much cooking — as beans ; others but little — as eggs. All kinds of grains that include starch require much cooking, while tender meats require little ; tough meats much ; sugars none, and gums none. A proper blending of articles of food, so that it is savory, is valuable ; a change of diet tends to furnish the body with the varied nutrition it requires. Some vegetables should be cooked ; others may be eaten raw.
598. All food should be well masticated ; and Dr. Beaumont testifies that, in the case of St. Martin, amiability advanced digestion, while ill-temper retarded or stopped it; also, if there was an appetite, that the thought of food would cause the gastric juice to start, as showing the mind’s influence : so the mouth waters.
599. Food should not be eaten when there is no appetite, nor should things be eaten to cause an appetite ; especially should we be thoughtful not to eat more than appetite craves, and, when unwell, be ever abstemious.
600. To produce a healthy appetite, expose the body to the fresh air, exercise the muscles well, and render the brain active, unless it has been overworked : sometimes persons lose their appetite from over-muscular and brainial exercise, there not being strength enough left to digest food ; then rest is the only remedy.
601. A Review of the organs of the Digestory Apparatus will show that they include the Mouth, (Teeth, Salivary glands), Pharynx, (Esophagus, Stomach (Gastric glands), Second Stomach (Brunner’s, Leiberkuhn’s, Peyer’s glands), Liver, Pancreas, Lacteals, Colon, Blood-vessels, Nerves, and Walls of the Abdomen; while the diaphragm and the walls of the chest assist digestion, their action promoting the movements of the organs of digestion.
602. The Eliminatory Apparatus is not one simple unit, but is constructed of several apparatuses : the Lungs eliminate from the blood, so does the Liver, so does the Second Stomach, and so largely that they may be counted as parts of this apparatus ; the salivary glands, the tear-glands, the pancreas, &c., also, eliminate from the blood ; but to eliminate is not the only nor the chief duty of those parts.
604. Water must be eliminated under two very different circumstances : 1st, that by evaporating it may cool the body, in connection with this elimination, thirst must be excited ; otherwise, the source of the elimination would fail ; and 2d, it must be removed without exciting thirst, and without cooling the body, as the object of removing it in this case is to increase the heat of the body ; so that water is to be eliminated, either when the body is too warm, or too cool, but by two different methods.
Fig. 101 represents a very highly magnified view of a perpendicular section of a small portion of the skin.
It is divided into three parts : 1, the external layer or cuticle, composed of cells starting up from the basement membrane below, and gradually becoming dry and flattened scales as, layer after layer, they approach the surface, from which they are worn, or drop off. Two curved passages — the outlets of the perspiration— are noticeable, communicating below with four tubes in one case, and two in the other, that are coiled at their lower extremities, and form the perspiratory glands (y);
2 is the papillary portion, in which the nerves of touch commence, surrounded by a network of lymphatics and capillaries, supplied with blood through (a) an arterial branch , 3 is the true skin, composed of sinewy fibres woven among the tubes, nerves, and perspiratory glands. In the lower part the meshes are larger, and filled sometimes with clusters of fat-cells, as at e . There are about thirty miles of tubing in the skin.
605. The skin offers an excellent opportunity for removing water to cool the body (see Fig. 101), and an internal organ must be constructed for the other purpose. It is found in the kidneys, situated in the loins, upon each side of the spinal column ; they are constructed of an immense number of tubes, and receive very large branches of arteries, so that they can, when it is necessary, work the water out of the blood with great rapidity, and without loss of heat.
606. The eliminators of the water might also, if needed, be called on to assist in eliminating other substances from the blood, since the water could dissolve and wash them out from the tubes. This is the
case : certain substances thrown into the blood by the brain are removed by the kidneys, while the perspiratory tubes of the skin are constantly exuding a viscid substance that requires frequent bathing to effectually clear it away from the surface of the skin ; — hence,
607. It is exceedingly important that we frequently rub the skin to promote an active circulation of blood through it ; that we clothe it properly, as well as bathe it often. The removal of the viscid, very impure substance is facilitated by the use of soap.
608. The hair is also an elimination fed from the blood ; and to promote the growth of it, the skin should be often rubbed. Glands, or pouches, in the skin, also throw out oil to protect the skin and hair : this will also be found in abundance, if the skin is well rubbed ; by rubbing, the oil in the skin will also be prevented from drying in the pouches, and collecting the dust that produces the appearance of black specks, often disfiguring the complexion very much.
609. A REVIEW OF THE ORGANS OF THE ELIMINATORY apparatus shows that they include two classes : 1st, the common, viz., the Lungs, Liver, Second Stomach, &c., that eliminate in common with the performance of other offices ; and 2d, the special, viz., the Perspiratory glands of the Skin and the Kidneys, the office of which is solely to eliminate.
610. Though all the organs of the body are constantly modifying the blood, it yet needs a different or additional kind of modification : for this purpose organs have been provided, having no other office.
Fig. 102 : 1, 2, 3, a number of Bloodcells, very much magnified. Their shape in various positions is very well shown.
When out of the blood, they are prone to adhere, as at 3 ; 4, 5, 6, 7 are the same, still more highly magnified to show in section the convex (5) and the concave (7) surface that the same cell will exhibit at different times. Their semi-transparent character is shown at 6.
611. 1st. In the blood itself, in part composing it, millions of cells float — nearly 3,000 in a single drop, and about five pounds in the blood : these cells take substance from other parts of the blood, and give it back, changed in a way not understood. It is these cells that give color to the blood ; when they enter the lungs, they are dark-red ; acted on by the air, their form is changed, and they become bright-red ; as they circulate, thus improved, they help give life to all parts, and beauty to the skin : thus pure air will beautify ; and tight clothing , or impure air, will dull the complexion.
612. 2d. The lymphatics are minute tubes commencing in all parts, except the brain and nerves. They gather from the former a watery fluid called lymph; uniting, they form larger, yet small, tubes that open into
small bodies, called lymphatic glands, about the size and form of a grain of wheat, of which great numbers exist in some parts : when these swell, they are easily felt as small, firm lumps, called kernels. The use of the lymph, or the mode in which the glands modify it, is not understood ; the lymph contains white cells, and it is supposed that these are formed in the glands, and have something to do with forming the red cells in the blood ; the lymphatics open into the veins, and the lacteals open into the main, lymphatic trunk, called the thoracic duct, that extends up and opens into the vein of the neck, as is shown by Figs. 103 and 104. In the groin and neck are shown a few of many glands. Fig. — represents the lymphatics near the surface, as they commence in the thumb, though not easily seen by the naked eye.
613. 3d. The spleen is a spongy-feeling organ, full of cells, apparently like the blood-cells. They are probably enmassed here because the blood cannot properly float them all. It is situated in contact with the left of the stomach. As it has no exit-tube but a vein, it must in some way modify the blood that passes through it, since the blood that leaves through the vein differs from that which enters the spleen through the artery. Therefore, the blood must be changed in the spleen.
614. 4th. The thyroid gland must have the office of modifying the blood, as it has no outlet but veins ; but what it does, we do not know. It enlarges very much in some cases, producing what is called swelled neck, bronchocele, or goitre : this is often produced or aggravated by the use of “ hard water,” especially magnesian water, and can be lessened by the use of soft water.
615. A review of the organs of the Modificatory Apparatus will show that they include the Blood-cells, Lymphatics, Spleen, Thyroid-gland, and some minor parts.
616. Thus have we accounted for the existence and the necessity of all the organs of the body. They, each and all, have a use which it is the part of wise men to learn how to promote and facilitate. We have also shown to what Apparatus each organ belongs, what organs work together, and how they work toward gaining the great object for which they were made. (See table of all the organs in the Appendix.)
C13. Describe — ? 614. What is the office of — ? 615. What does a review of Modifying Apparatus show ? 616. We have — for what ? Will you go back and recount all the organs ? Read the organs mentioned in table.
called tissues
618. It is also noticeable that but a very few different kinds of tissues will be necessary in the construction of all the different kinds of organs, because very nearly the same tissues are needed to construct the different organs.
619. In fact there will be needed only six kinds of tissues, since of six different kinds ,#11 the organs can be perfectly constructed, for in no organ will there be need for any property not given either by Bony or Cartilaginous or Sinewy, or Muscular or Nervous or Secretory tissue.
620. Is hardness wanted, as in the skeleton, it is given by Bone ; is firmness and elasticity needed, as in the ear, windpipe, &c., it is conferred by Cartilage ; is strength and flexibility required, as in binding movable parts together, in constructing the skin, &c., they are found in Sinew ; is contraction required, it is bestowed by Muscular tissue ; is any part to be excited to action, sensation caused, or the activity of mind provided for, Nervous tissue will suffice ; is any substance to be secreted, secretion can only be supplied by Secretory
and three are active, as follows
622. The tissues are subdivisible into varieties ; even the Bony differs in different parts and at different periods of life, so does the Gristly ; the Sinewy is white inelastic, or yellow elastic ; while it is woven so as to form ligament, tendon, membrane, sheaths, and also in such various ways as to form the framework of all the soft organs. The Nervous tissue is either white or fibrous, or gray cellular ; the Muscular has also two forms ; the Secretory is in the form of a membrane, a tube, or a cell ; in the latter case the form varies very much in different cases, and the substances secreted are as various as the varieties of the tissue.
623. The secretory is the only tissue that has not been sufficiently described. It can be distinctly seen only through the microscope. It is a peculiar tissue, and has the property of changing the blood, or whatever it operates upon, in such a manner as not merely to separate a substance from it, but often so as to produce a new substance. It is found at all surfaces : it forms the surface of the skin covering the body, the lining of the mouth and digestory canal, the nose and airpassages in the lungs, the surfaces of the brain, bloodtubes, lungs, stomach, joints, &c. ; it is massed in large quantities in the liver, and in smaller quantities in the other glands. Wherever there is any fluid to be formed or separated from the blood, the secretory tissue is to be found, and it also floats in the blood.
621. What is also — ? Repeat the table of tissues. 622. How are — ? How many varieties are there of each kind of tissue ? 623. What is said of the — ? Where is the secretory tissue found ?
ANALYSIS OF ORGANS INTO TISSUES.
624. That good organs may be wrought, there must be good tissues to construct them from, since the organs can only exhibit the properties of the tissues : what their tissues have, they can have ; what their tissues do not have, they cannot have.
625. The Stoiuach is strong and flexible because of its Sinewy tissue ; it can contract by virtue of its Muscular tissue, and secretes because constructed in part of Secretory tissue ; it secretes three varieties of secretion, because it has three varieties of Secretory tissue — the serous, the mucous, and the gastric.
626. The action of tissues will depend upon their quality, quantity, and their proportions ; for though two portions of tissue may be called by the same name, they may differ very much in quality, one being perfect and the other many degrees from it. Again, the quantity of any tissue in any organ may differ, affecting the size of the organ, while the proportions of one tissue to another in the same organ, or in another organ, will affect the character of an organ. For example : there may be more Muscular tissue in one muscle than in another ; and if everything else is similar, the larger muscle will exhibit more strength ; but if there is more Nervous tissue in or connected with one muscle, then the character of that muscle will be very much modified, acting quicker or more powerfully, and being sooner exhausted.
627. The quantity of tissue in an organ will depend partly on inheritance, and partly on training — for the size of an organ, viz., the quantity of tissue, and also the proportionate quantity, is partly limited by inheritance— but up to that point can be controlled by training.
the continued action of an organ must depend upon its tissue being constantly renewed, and this, again, must depend upon a large supply of good blood — for which, again, good material must be supplied to the blood in the air, water, and food — and the active circulation of the blood promoted by proper exercise, rubbing, clothing, &c.
629. If BY INHERITANCE, THEREFORE, THERE IS AN UNDESIRABLE proportion in the tissues, as is frequently the case, a proper training can, to a degree, correct the evil. For example : if a child shows an overproportion of the Nervous tissue, the Muscular tissue should be especially exercised ; if there is too large a proportion of Muscular tissue, the child should have its Nervous tissue exercised more.
630. The quantity and proportions of the tissue are of little consequence without they are of a proper quality ; the most important point of all is to know of what and how they are constituted and perfected, which interesting point we will attend to in the next chapter.
Secretory, Muscular, Nervous.
633. Parts having a structure similar to each other, are with some latitude called system, as venous system, arterial system ; but because parts act together is no reason for calling them a system ; there is not a circulatory nor digestory system : apparatus is the word in this case.
634. The Liquids of the Body are 15 : Blood, Lymph, Flesh-juice ; Serum, Mucus, Oil (called general ; the latter three called also surface-liquids, and are chiefly
lubricating) ; Tear-fluid ; Salivas (two), Gastric-juice, Bile, Gall, and Pancreatic, Brunner’s and Leiberkuhn’s juices. The last seven are digestory.
635. All the LIquids are secreted ; they are composed mostly of water, with which a little solid matter, of the kinds peculiar to each secretion, is combined. The tear-fluid is nearly all water, with a little salt to make it more transparent. The liquid of the joints, called synovia or synovial fluid, is mostly water with a little albumen (like white of egg), making a very glairy liquid. Serum is nearly the same with less albumen.
636. The Gases are Oxygen and Carbonic acid.
637. The Body may therefore be said to be composed of, and analyzable into, Tissues, Liquids and Gases : the three forms of matter — solid, liquid, and gases, and corresponding to air, water, food.
Remark 1. — Fat is not an organ, nor a part of an organ, but merely a deposit, as usually understood. It is constructed of Sinewy tissue for its framework and of Secretory tissue in the form of minute cells, which secrete themselves full of oil. The oil is a store of fuel to be burned when the occasion requires ; hence, a person should fatten in fall, and lose fat in spring. Persons who are lean and healthy produce much heat, and therefore need not the fat. Fat in the bones, in part, prevents the jars produced in walking from reaching the brain.
Remark 2. — The Sinewy tissue binds all the organs together by a kind of network called Areolar tissue, the areolae or spaces of which connect so that fluids can pass from one to another, and the liquid that moistens the areolae sometimes collects in the feet, causing them to swell. Sometimes butchers blow air into the spaces to fill out the meat and make it look fatter. The character of this Areolar tissue may be understood by the fact, that if one end of a tube should be introduced under the skin, and air forced through it, the skin of the whole body could be gradually distended.
638. The Tissues are composed of 13 different substances, called elements because each does not appear to be composed of more than one substance, that also appears to be always the same.
Carbon, Sulphur, Silicon, Chlorine,
639. These Elements may be united together in such proportions as to form the Tissues, yet not in such proportions as to form them most perfectly, and this may be either because the elements are not so abundant as is required, or because the influences that combine them are not as powerful as is necessary.
earth, the water, and the air.
641. What compounds the elements so that they become Tissues ? The Heat and Light and chemical influence of the Sun, and doubtless the electrical influences of the Earth. Some seasons ripen food much more perfectly than other seasons, and it is then more healthy.
AND GASES INTO ELEMENTS.
ed takes from the earth, water, and air, the elements similar to those of which the bean is made, and, under the sun and earth influences, grows, that is, adds to itself the elements in the form of Tissue ; but without the nucleus of bean-tissue, no such effect takes place. Tissue must always be the nucleus around which Tissue forms ; and as this Tissue is, so to a great degree will be what is formed around the nucleus. This is true in animals as well as in plants. The character of the tissue is, to a great degree, determined by inheritance therefore ; though it may be improved or depraved by the treatment the plant, animal, or child receives ; yet, in general, the good or inferior qualities of the nucleus tissue will remain through life.
643. It is therefore of importance that a person should inherit good tissues. Underground, or part underground rooms, are unhealthy, not only because they shut out the sun, but because the earth’s electrical influences below the surface are unhealthy — and it is more healthy to live in an elevated than in a low position on the surface. Persons should not sleep on the first floor. Every room in a house should receive the sunlight ; and when streets are laid out, they should extend from Northeast to Southwest, or from Northwest to Southeast, in order to have the sun shine on all sides of a house, or it should be so located as to gain the great advantage of sunlight pouring into every room ; nor should blinds or trees be allowed to keep out the sun for the whole day, but its wholesome influences should be allowed to stream in.
Is animal tissue necessary for the formation of an animal? Is some of the tissue of each plant and animal necessary to the continued production of the same kind ? 643. What therefore — ? 641. What is said of — ? Of sunlight?
645. To CONSTRUCT THE BODY, WE REQUIRE, first, 13 chemical Elements ; second, the influences of the Sun ; third, the influences of the Earth ; and fourth, the nucleus influence of Tissue — both plant and animal. Thus can be produced Food, Drink, and Air: from these, in the fifth place, may be compounded the 6 Tissues and 15 Liquids ; sixth, from a supply of Tissues, 39 Organs must be woven ; and seventh, arranged in 10 Apparatus ; eighth, these must be grouped in two mechanisms ; having, ninth, 6 members ; forming, tenth, the Body entire ; to which, eleventh, the Mind is to be added, and the potential Man is complete.
646. This Mind is endowed with power of development through the aid afforded by the Body, which is merely an instrument of a double character, or two mechanisms : one adapted to keep itself in good condition, promote its growth, &c. ; the other, directly adapted to the improvement of the Mind ; the proper action of the body in either respect is productive of enjoyment. The preservation of the body being the most imperative, its wants are the most urgent and intense, and are by most thought the most desirable to satisfy ; but once they are satisfied, the enjoyment derived from the improvement of the Mind is of a far higher
645. What do we require — first ? second? third? fourth? fifth? sixth? seventh ? eighth ? ninth ? tenth ? eleventh ? 646. With what is — ? What is the highest and best enjoyment ? (See page 176.)
and he will be in harmony with the laws of the universe designed by the Deity to bless all the works of his creation. He will then perceive that by far the larger part of what a man can enjoy, is gratuitously bestowed upon him, to possess which he has only to develop his mind to the proper degree ; that while he must be selfish in obtaining and enjoying for himself alone whatever is necessary to support his Body, all that pertains to mind may be possessed and enjoyed in common with others. He will then feel the full importance of being educated himself not only, but perceive that his happiness will be increased if all others are also educated. He will perceive that the promotion of Bodily health and the cultivation of every Mental virtue, personal, social, and reverential, are the true sources of enjoyment.
What are golden hint-words ? In how many groups arranged ? How many lines in each group ? If a person observe these, what will be the result ? What is necessary for complete enjoyment ? (See page 176.)
APPENDIX.
Let this leaf and the one following be cut out and pasted or gummed to each other and to the one preceding this at the places indicated by the stars and daggers ; then will be seen a complete abbreviated Analysis of man, when read from left to right, or a Synthesis, if read from right to left ; or the same can be read in the same manner by turning the pages as they stand. The chart should be read by going through with ea?h of the three divisions along the entire length of the three pages.
Example : Analysis : Body — 6 divisions ; 2 Mechanisms = 10 Apparatus = 49 Organs = 6 Tissues + 15 Liquids + 2 gases = 13 Elements. Synthesis : from 13 Elements can be formed = 2 gases + 15 Liquids + 6 Tissues = 49 Organs = 10 Apparatus = 2 Mechanisms = 6 Divisions = Body + Mind = Man. The contents of these pages should be laid off, enlarged, upon a blackboard, or on large sheets, like blank newspapers, not only as an excellent exercise for making the construction of the Body familiar, but as a mental calisthenic, classification being one of the best means of improving the mind that can be used
PEEF ACE.
This book is not presented to Teachers and the Public merely for the benefit of the Author and Publishers. It exhibits a new and improved method of teaching Physiology, viz., by Analysis ; beginning with what is obvious, it progresses through the subject by the easy steps of a systematic classification, clearly showing the why and wherefore of the construction of the Body. The style and mode of thought gradually matures to the close. The study thus conducted will prove one of the very best calisthenics and gymnastics for the youthful mind, while it will also most deeply interest and correctly instruct the pupil in the subject.
This book is therefore progressive in two respects : in its method, and in being in advance of the past. In every other branch there has been progress ; why should Physiology be an exception to the spirit of the age ? Why may it not be modernized, may we not say Americanized ? It is now out of the “ rut.” The old or European system was and is good ; the new or American system is better. None should adopt it because it is new, nor distrust it because it is not transatlantic. Everything useful was at one time new.
To teach this or any subject well, the steps are : secure attention, inform the mind, and impress the feelings. To do each, use illustrations. The book is too small to allow many to be introduced ; besides, a teacher’s mind cannot he imbued with the necessary enthusiasm, unless he does himself become so far an author as to look up, and think out, illustrations of every point taught. Then will he feel and arouse the fire, the spirit, and the enthusiasm, that always mark a successful teacher and scholar. Cause the pupils also to illustrate when they can, no matter how commonplace. Illustrating is the art of a good teacher of pupils of every age and condition, only let the illustrations be adapted to the subject and to the minds of the pupils. Therefore, illustrate to secure attention ; illustrate to inform the mind ; illustrate to impress the feelings ; in short, illustrate at every step, and success is certain.
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ZGmLuDinLVwM8V87 | Biology 2e for Biol 111 and Biol 112 | Chapter Summary
18.1 Understanding Evolution
Evolution is the process of adaptation through mutation which allows more desirable characteristics to pass to the next generation. Over time, organisms evolve more characteristics that are beneficial to their survival. For living organisms to adapt and change to environmental pressures, genetic variation must be present. With genetic variation, individuals have differences in form and function that allow some to survive certain conditions better than others. These organisms pass their favorable traits to their offspring. Eventually, environments change, and what was once a desirable, advantageous trait may become an undesirable trait and organisms may further evolve. Evolution may be convergent with similar traits evolving in multiple species or divergent with diverse traits evolving in multiple species that came from a common ancestor. We can observe evidence of evolution by means of DNA code and the fossil record, and also by the existence of homologous and vestigial structures.
18.2 Formation of New Species
Speciation occurs along two main pathways: geographic separation (allopatric speciation) and through mechanisms that occur within a shared habitat (sympatric speciation). Both pathways isolate a population reproductively in some form. Mechanisms of reproductive isolation act as barriers between closely related species, enabling them to diverge and exist as genetically independent species. Prezygotic barriers block reproduction prior to formation of a zygote; whereas, postzygotic barriers block reproduction after fertilization occurs. For a new species to develop, something must introduce a reproductive barrier. Sympatric speciation can occur through errors in meiosis that form gametes with extra chromosomes (polyploidy). Autopolyploidy occurs within a single species; whereas, allopolyploidy occurs between closely related species.
18.3 Reconnection and Speciation Rates
Speciation is not a precise division: overlap between closely related species can occur in areas called hybrid zones. Organisms reproduce with other similar organisms. The fitness of these hybrid offspring can affect the two species’ evolutionary path. Scientists propose two models for the rate of speciation: one model illustrates how a species can change slowly over time. The other model demonstrates how change can occur quickly from a parent generation to a new species. Both models continue to follow natural selection patterns.
Review Videos
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stW0VzOmdvfxgMtW | Agriculture for southern schools, by John Frederick Duggar ... | PREFACE
This little book has been written with the hope of supplying the need for an elementary text-book on agriculture that shall differ from others in having a definite and limited field, — the South. While many of the principles of agriculture are universal, the application of these principles is somewhat local. By limiting the field of a text-book on agriculture to the Southern states, it becomes possible to treat the subject in a concrete way ; to avoid many generalities inseparable from a book intended for use in all latitudes ; and to employ as object-lessons only those plants that any teacher or pupil in a Southern school can easily obtain. For example, it is better that a Southern pupil study the peach bloom fresh from the tree than to read of the flower of some plant rarely found in the orchards or fields in this latitude. The cotton bloom, too, affords a suitable example of how flowers are constructed. This Southern point of view also makes it possible to give fuller, and hence more teachable, treatment to the most widely grown crops of the South.
than by mere memorizing.
3. To make a teachable book, — one that will present fewest possible difficulties to a teacher who has had no special training in either the theory or practice of agriculture. The effort has been made to lead the pupil by easy steps from the known to the less familiar subjects, and from the concrete example to the general law or principle.
4. To make the language simple enough to be readily understood by a pupil in the sixth grade of the common schools, and yet to present the subject with enough system and substance to suit the pupils in the high school
5. To emphasize, amplify, and illustrate a few principles, which, when understood and practiced, have the power to revolutionize Southern farm practice and to promote the permanent prosperity of the farmer and of the state.
The author's experience as a teacher, his long study and practice of agriculture, and his association with children, lead him to think that all these aims can be realized. He must leave to his fellow-teachers of the South the verdict whether this book approaches his cherished ideals.
Recognizing the fact that provision has not been made for the special instruction of teachers in agriculture and that many are not familiar with farm practice, he adds this message to all such teachers. You can teach this subject effectively even without this acquaintance with
farm work. Your weakness will become your greatest strength if it cause you to step down in this class from the teacher's desk and to be a comrade with your pupils, — a fellow-seeker after the truth that none of us can know completely. Be a leader in raising questions which you need not be ashamed to own that you cannot answer. If you arouse the interest that will make your pupils desire an answer, you arouse in them for the years to come the spirit of inquiry by means of which, as men and women, they will educate themselves. In teaching agriculture, humility is the teacher's proper attitude, and to show it will not forfeit the respect of either pupils or patrons.
The thanks of the writer are due to the many friends who have lent a helping hand in this work. Space does not suffice for acknowledgements to all, but special thanks are here tendered to my associates. Dr. W. E. Hinds, for the sections on insects, and Professor R. S. Mackintosh, for numerous photographs and for critical reading of the chapters on horticulture ; to Miss F. E. Andrews, and other, lovers of flowers, for the sections on flower gardening; to Dr. B. M. Duggar, of Cornell University, for writing the chapter on plant diseases ; to Professor L. N. Duncan for suggestions and photographs for Figs. 2, 136, 139-143, and 215; to Miss C. M. Cook for drawings; to the editor, Dr. L. H. Bailey, for many improvements ; and for illustrations, to the United States Department of Agriculture, and to the Experiment Stations of Georgia, IlHnois, Iowa, Kentucky, Louisiana, Michigan, Minnesota,
Section XVI. Barnyard manure 93
Section XVII. Commercial fertilizers . . . . '97 Section XVIII. Calculating fertilizer formulas . . . 102 Section XIX. Suiting the fertilizers to the soil . . . 108 Section XX. Lime 112
2 AGRICULTURE
things about the very places where we live, and so find the same interest and pleasure that a trip affords us? Some persons have learned to do this. They make discoveries on any day that they spend in the woods or fields. They find flowers that they have not noticed before ; they learn which wild plants and weeds are kin to useful plants that they know ; they observe how plants provide for their seed to be carried by wind, or water, or birds, or by large animals to other parts of the field or pasture. They learn new facts about animals and brooks and the whole out-of-doors. If we try to observe the plants that grow in our woods, or field, or garden, or orchard, we shall always be making interesting discoveries and gaining new plant friends.
There is not only delight in collecting the wild flowers and in observing the trees, but there is also pleasure and profit in learning the nature and habits of our cultivated plants. We will know better how to prune a peach tree, an apple tree, or a grape-vine if we observe whether the fruit is borne on new branches or on those one or two years old. Notice this and tell the teacher what you observe. We shall be able to select better seed com if we learn which shape of ear or of kernel is found in the most productive varieties. Agriculture deals with such questions as these.
A study of agriculture should enable pupils to understand better the common plants and animals of the farm and cause them to take more interest in them. A book like this can give only a few of the most important principles of plant and animal growth. A knowledge of these
Agriculture is the practice of producing useful plants and animals. It is based on physiology, botany, chemistry, and other natural sciences. It is also an art because success in agriculture requires skill and experience and business methods. In agricultural books, papers, and pamphlets is recorded much of the experience of the best farmers. In studying agriculture we shall learn something about flowers, fruits, vegetables, and animals, as well as about crops that grow in the fields.
Reasons for studying agriculture. — Agriculture is worthy of our most earnest study. It is the industry that furnishes food to all mankind and on which many arts and industries are built. Its study teaches us how plants feed, grow, and multiply ; how man may take common plants and greatly increase their productiveness, beauty, or hardiness ; how he may rear animals ; how a farmer may make his poor soil rich, his scant crops bountiful, and his Ufe and the life of his family full of comfort and pleasure. Surely, it is worth while to learn how to make the crops larger, the farm animals more useful and profitable ; how to make the garden and orchard yield a continuous supply of vegetables and fruits ; and how to beautify the grounds around the home and the school.
It is worth while, too, for all of us to know how to protect our plants from disease and how to conquer our insect foes. If blights, smuts, and mildews destroy the crops of field, orchard, or garden, knowledge suggests ways of preventing or destroying them. If caterpillars, bugs, weevils, and a host of other insect pests strip bare the growing crops and despoil the stored grain, knowledge
conquers them.
Wherever farming has proved to be profitable, we may expect to find good roads, good schools, churches, libraries, telephones, and much else that helps to make life in the country pleasant and attractive. Even a child may do his part in bringing these things to pass. Some of the agri-
of a similar tree not thxis protected.
culture that he learns at school he can promptly make use of at home. Still more of it will be helpful to him in later years if he becomes a farmer. Best of all, the study of agriculture should enable him to find a keener pleasure in observing the ways of plants and animals, and thus enrich his entire life, whatever may be his future occupation.
Even from this book we may learn how to make the soil richer year by year. If we should remember only this, and forget all else, we should be able to help our neighborhood and our country as well as ourselves. He serves his
country well who transforms a poor and unprofitable soil into a fertile and wealth-producing farm. He serves it also who aids in introducing a better class of live-stock or in producing better milk and butter.
Exercise. — Secure a small notebook with a hack that will not easily break. Tic to it a pencil. U.se this for your agricultural exercises, and for no other purpose. Before the end of the .session this little notebook will be more interesting to you than any printed book, — and you will be an author.
As you study this chapter, write in your notebook a numbered list of the plants you know. Write down the names of all the field crops cultivated near your home. Opposite each write all of its uses. Likewise write a list of the names and uses of as many kinds as you can of farm animals and poultry.
Note to the Teacher. — Question pupils on the text of every chapter. Encourage answers in the language of the child rather than in the exact language of the book. Grade pupils as much on the exercises at the end of each chapter, and on independent observation, as on the text. By grades or other means stimulate the pupils to bring to the class in agriculture object lessons appropriate to the subject in hand. Require notebooks and examine these often. You will be helped in teaching agriculture by having at hand " Exercises in Elementary Agriculture ; Plant Production," by Dick J. Crosby. This bulletin is sent free (on application) by the United .States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. Procure bulletins from the Experiment Station in your own state.
PLANT FAMILIES
The chief effort of the plant is to produce seed. A flower must be formed before the seed can be produced. Its beautiful colors, its nectar, and its delicious perfume are means to attract insects whose help it may require in making seed.
Mustard of Mustard Flower
center of this flower is a column, at the top of which is a rounded knob {o, Fig. 5). The whole central column is called the pistil. Its important parts are the ovule case, near the base, in which the seeds develop ; and the stigma, or knob at the top. In some plants the stigma is divided into several parts. The surface of a full-grown stigma is sticky or rough, so that pollen, which is the yellow dust of the flower, may stick to it. The ovule case, or ovary,
contains little, immature, seed-like bodies, called ovuUs. Each ovule may become a seed. But before an ovule can change into a seed, it must be fertilized; that is, a grain of pollen must fall upon the stigma and grow down into the ovule, after which the latter becomes a seed.
In a circle just outside of the pistil are a number of slender stalks (six on the mustard flower) called the stamens (1,4, Fig. 5 ). The most important part of a stamen is the cap at the top. This is the anther, or pollen case. When the anther is mature, it bursts and frees a yellow powder, called pollen. Soon after this powder or pollen is shed, the stamen, now useless, dies. The pollen must be carried by insects or wind or otherwise to the sticky or rough surface of the stigma in the same or in a different flower. If pollen is not brought to the stigma, no seeds develop.
In a layer just outside of the stamens is the brightcolored part of the flower (2, Fig. 5). This is called the corolla. In many plants, as in the mustard, it is divided into a number of distinct pieces, each being really a colored leaf, called a petal. Fig. 4 shows that there are four petals in the mustard flower. In a layer just outside of these are the green parts of the flower, called sepals (3, Fig. 5). Let us see whether most flowers have their parts arranged in the same order, the pistil in the center, the stamens around the pistil, the petals next to these, and outside of all, the sepals.
rounding the pistil.
Plant families. — Plants that produce blooms are divided into more than two hundred families. A family of plants generally includes the kinds that form their flowers in the same general way. For example, the Bean family includes the garden pea, the sweet-pea, the field or cowpea, the locust tree, all kinds of clovers, and many others. If you will pick from a clover head a single tiny flower, you will see that its parts have the same general shape and arrangement as the large flowers of the garden pea, of the cowpea, or of the beautiful sweet-pea.
Perhaps you can find out what resemblances there are between the flowers of the blackberry, the strawberry, the apple, the pear, the peach, the plum, and the wild rose. These all belong to the very large Rose family, which includes most of our fruits and berries.
It will be easy for you to find scores of plants that belong to the immense family of the Grasses. After carefully examining several well-known grasses, like crab grass, examine plants of corn and oats and see how many resemblances to grasses you find in these useful crop plants. These and other grains are grasses (Fig. lo). "^^^^i^l^fV^ ' ^^at
Exercise. — In every large flower you find, point out (i) the pistil, (2) the stamens, (3) the petals, and (4) the sepals. Find the pollen in all the flowers you examine. Does it show in young flower-buds ? Why is there little or no pollen in flowers that are nearly ready to wither or drop?
Collect all the cultivated and wild plants that you can find having blossoms shaped like those of the sweet-pea or bean. In your note- ^^^ 10. — Oat Flower, book write the names of all these pea-like opened to show Staplants that you know. Leave a long blank space and keep adding to this list all through the season. Examine every kind of plant that you have ever heard called a clover to see whether its separate blossoms have the shape of a pea or sweet-pea bloom.
Note to the Teacher. — Devote as much time as possible to having pupils point out the parts of each flower that may be brought to the class. Have them place in separate piles (i) all the pea-like flowers, (2) all the flowers that seem to them kin to the roses and blackberries, and (3) all the grasses. Probably one or two reviews of this chapter must be given so as to afford time for examination of every flower that is brought in.
SECTION III. POLLINATION
While you have been learning the names of the different parts of the flowers, you have perhaps been thinking about the uses of each part. The sepals and petals serve to protect the more important parts inside. For example, the peach sepals and petals while still folded together in the bud keep the pistil from being killed by slight frosts in the early spring ; thus the peach crop is sometimes saved. That the stamens and pistils, however, are more important than the sepals and petals can be proved by carefully removing all of the petals from a flower of cotton or from a peach blossom. In spite of this injury, a boll or a peach will form if pollen is applied to the stigma.
Flowers without petals. — Since the flower makes seed or fruit by means of the stamens and pistil alone, these two parts are called the necessary or essential parts. The flowers of many plants have no showy sepals and petals. The sepals and the petals are not strictly necessary. When you see the flowers of corn and wheat you may not think of them as flowers, because they have no gay colors. The bees and other insects do not often visit such flowers.
is destroyed.
Function or use of pollen. — The part of the stamen that is most important is the pollen or plant dust. This is a fine powder and is set free by the opening of the little pollen case, or anther, at the tip end of the stamen. Pollen must adhere to and grow into the pistil
mens of a nearly open flower bud of cotton or peach or other plant. Then tie a small paper sack over the injured bloom to keep the pollen of other flowers from being brought in by wind or insects. In a few days you will find that the pistil to which no pollen can gain access does not grow, but generally dies and falls. If it lives it produces no perfect seed. At the same time, other pistils, on whose stigmas you have noticed tiny grains adhering, will be growing (Figs. 12, 13, 14).
before the silks show, and keep it there, no grains will form on that cob. This is because no pollen falls on the silks, which are the pistils of an car of corn. For the same reason, if you cut the young silks from one side of an ear shoot, no grains will grow on that side. Every silk is connected with a grain space on the cob, and if that silk
where this silk arises.
Pollen does not cause fruit or seed to grow or be produced unless the plant that bore it is of the same kind as, or closely related to, the plant on whose pistil it is placed. Thus peach pollen is useless on apple blossoms. The pollen may come from the same flower of which the pistil is a part, from another flower of the same plant, or from a different plant.
POLLINATION 1 5
Self -pollinated plants. — In the flowers of wheat, oats, and peas, the pistil is usually pollinated by the pollen that is produced in the same flower. Such plants are said to be self-pollinated. Self-pollinated plants do not mix with other kinds in the field.
Cross-pollinated plants. — On the other hand, the pistils of some kinds of plants generally receive pollen that grows on a different plant. Such plants are said to be crosspollinated. If a farmer grows a white and a yellow variety of corn side by side, these will be mixed in a few years. This is because the light pollen dust from one kind is carried by the wind to the silks of the other kind. Many a boy has had his patch of popcorn ruined by planting it near field corn that bloomed at the same time as the popcorn. You have perhaps noticed the pollen of corn as it was carried by the wind, like fine dust. You have probably also noticed in the spring clouds of yellowish dust blown from the pine trees. This dust is light pollen carried by the wind.
How insects help the flowers to form seed. — Some plants have heavy pollen, which the wind cannot so easily carry. Cotton is one of these. Such plants generally have gayly colored petals that attract the insects. Even children like to taste nectar by touching the tongue to a blossom of honeysuckle after its petals are removed. The flower offers nectar to insects and in return the insects usually bring pollen from a blossom of the same kind and place this on the pistil. If we notice a bee as it enters a flower, we observe that much yellow dust adheres to its body. This is pollen that it rubs against while visiting other
flowers. While it is in the blossoms, it usually happens to brush against the sticky or rough stigma, which catches some of the pollen it brings. It is interesting to watch the movements of the insects when they are thus helping the flower to form seed.
Gardeners who grow tomatoes in the greenhouse collect the pollen and place it on the flowers by using a brush (Fig. 15). If they fail to do so, they get very few
on the left from pistils receiving but little pollen.
tomatoes. If there were many large insects in the greenhouse, they might not need to take this trouble. We do not need to practice this hand pollination when tomatoes are grown in the garden, for then insects might do this useful work instead of human hands.
In one locality the fruit-growers thought that bees were injuring their ripe fruits, and accordingly made the keepers of bees remove their hives. As a result, the fruit crop decreased. Then the bees were brought back, and the crop
at once increased. If the weather, when fruit trees are in bloom, is so cold or rainy that the bees do not fly from flower to flower, the crop of fruits is usually small.
Cross-pollinated plants (those that need to get pollen from other plants of the same kind) can be divided into two classes, first, those whose pollen is carried from one plant to another by wind ; second, those whose pollen is carried by insects.
From this you see it pays to know something about how plants are supplied with pollen. Imperfect varieties of strawberries are called pistillate varieties, because they have pistils only, and the perfect kinds are called statninate or perfect varieties, because they have stamens as well as pistils (Fig. i6).
Why the fruit crop sometimes fails. — Even when the flowers contain both stamens and pistils, there is often a failure to produce fruit. This is likely to happen when a single variety of grapes, pears, or apples is planted alone and away from all other varieties of the same fruit. Some varieties of these fruits must get pollen that has
on the pistils of another Duchess tree. Trees or grapevines that act thus are said to have pollen that is impotent (powerless) on blossoms of the same variety. Im-
In planting an orchard or vineyard for home use it is a good rule to plant several varieties of apples, several of pears, and several of grapes, so that one variety may supply pollen for the blossoms of the others.
Pistils and stamens in different parts of the same plants. — We have called the pistils and the stamens the essential parts of a flower because both are necessary to the formation of the seeds. When one flower bears both stamens and pistil, it is called a perfect flower. But the pistil and the stamens are not always found in the same flower. In the corn plant, for example, the silks are the pistils, while the stamens from which comes the pollen are found in the tassel, another part of the same plant. Thus you see that in corn the
melon the pistillate
blossom may be known by the little squash or melon which shows below its yellow petals. These blossoms have pistils but no stamens. In other parts of the same plants are staminate blossoms, that have stamens, but no pistils and no swollen part. Among other plants having stamens
This is the case with hemp, willows, and poplars.
Exercise. — Tie paper bags or pieces of tough paper snugly around the unopened buds of any kind of plants that may be blooming when you study this lesson. In a week notice whether the pistil is growing and seeds are forming If so, these plants do not need visits from insects, but are self-pollinated. Notice what flowers are being visited by insects and especially by honey bees. Notice the kind of insect. Watch them to learn whether they brush off" any pollen of another flower against the pistil.
Note to the Teacher. — If a catalogue of some nursery company can be had, examine its list of strawberries and by questioning the pupils learn which of these varieties arc grown near the school. Have they fruited well? If not, are they marked in the catalogue as pistHlate varieties? Blooms of pumpkins or of any kind of melon make a good subject for examination and discussion in this lesson. The questioning on all lessons should be more to encourage observation and understanding than to measure memory work.
SECTION IV. GERMINATION OF SEEDS
The seeds have been called the children of the plant. The parent plant provides the seeds with food enough to serve them until the young plants have formed roots and leaves with which to gather their own food.
Food for the young plant. — Let us examine a grain of corn to see how the plant packs up the good things for its seed children. Soak a few dozen grains of corn in water over night so that for to-morrow's lesson you may be better able to separate their parts. Outside is the tough coat, which you will remove from the soaked kernels. You will probably be able to see a, germ; h, hard starchy
starch.
The germ is the only part of the grain that sprouts. It may be called the baby plant. The two layers of starch and other materials are placed near at hand only to supply the germ with food when it first wakes to begin its
learn how the young plant grows.
Roots grow near the tip end. — The sprouting of seeds is called germination. When you dig up seeds that have begun to sprout, you find that a little root has started downward, and that a little shoot has grown upward to make the above-ground part of the plant
E\PERi.MENT. — Each day the root and shoot become longer. Find whether the root grows only near the tip, or whether all parts of it lengthen. To learn this, make two marks with India or drawing ink or other "fast" color on a white root that is alx>ut an inch or an inch and a half long. Lay a ruler by the side of the root and make the first mark a quarter of an inch from the tip of the root ; make the other mark half an inch nearer the grain. A black thread may be tied
around the root as a marker instead of using drawing ink. Keep the sprouted grain moist by placing it in damp sand or between moist blotting papers kept either in a small tight box or between two saucers. After a day or two measure the distance between the two marks, which you will find to be unchanged. Now measure from the outer mark to the tip of the root and you will find that this portion has grown rapidly.
Roots of all plants increase in length only near the tips. However, if you make measurements of the stems of young plants, you will find that all parts of the young stem, as well as the tip, increase in length until a certain age is reached.
Moisture necessary to make seed sprout. — Did anybody in this class ever plant seed when the ground was dry and when no rain fell soon afterwards ? Did any seed come up .'' You can prove that seeds need moisture in order to germinate, by planting some seeds in two tomato cans in the window ; keep the soil in one can very dry and in the other barely moist. What happens ?
Heat required for germination. — Oats that were sown during very cold weather have sometimes remained unsprouted for a month. When the sowing was done in warmer weather, they came up in about one third of that time. Seeds of different plants require very different amounts of heat to wake them and make them sprout or germinate. Seeds of wheat, oats, rye, and barley germinate when the soil is quite cool, and so the farmer sows these crops during the colder part of the year. Corn grains require more heat than oats, but less than the seeds of cotton, cowpeas, or peanuts. A farmer never plants these last crops until the soil has become somewhat warm.
Sprouting seeds need air. — Corn planted in a field that was afterwards overflowed by a creek for several days failed to come up. It was because the water kept the air away from the seeds.
and the proper amount of heat.
How food is stored for the young bean. — You may soak or plant peanuts, beans, or cowpeas to learn another way in which parents pack plant-food for the use of the infant plants. By carefully removing the seed-coat from the soaked seed you find that all the seeds are made up chiefly of two thick " halves," which later will become the seedleaves, or first pair of leaves. These " halves " are storage places or pantries for the food hidden away by the parent plant for its seed-children while too young to get food from the soil and the air. Mankind's supply of bread comes chiefly from tiny pantries stored in the seeds by grain plants. By carefully opening the halves of the seed of bean or cowpea, you will find the germ, which appears as a very small, flattened, white bud near the point where the two fleshy halves are joined together.
"Coming up." — When germination occurs, this bud of the bean, squash, and many other plants is pulled to the surface of the ground in an interesting way. That part of the stem just below the seed-leaves rapidly increases in length, humping itself into the shape of a wire staple. Hence the first thing seen above ground is a part of the stem shaped like the center of a wire staple. One end of this staple is formed by the roots, while the other end
off by the growth of the bud.
On the other hand, the garden or English pea keeps its two seed-leaves underground (Fig. 25), because the part of its stem that grows rapidly is the part above the seed-leaves and between them and the bud. The young pea stem also humps its back and pulls its real leaves out of the soil backward.
The seed-leaves of all these plants, whether coming above ground like those of beans, cowpeas, squash, and cotton, or remaining in the soil, serve to feed the young plant before its own roots and leaves can support it. At first these seed-leaves are thick, but as the food in these pantries is given to the growing plant, the seedleaves shrivel and finally disappear. Since these seedleaves have to do a very different work from that done by the later or true leaves, they naturally look very different.
from the others by using sieves or screens.
Testing the germination of seeds. — Seeds of some plants lose the power to germinate after they are a year or two old ; others are good when a number of years old.
If seeds become moist and go through a " heat," they lose their power to germinate. Children can often help their parents by testing the field or garden seeds they expect to plant in order to discover what percentage of them can grow. All that is needed is a plate ; a piece of thick, clean, dark cloth, to be dampened and
to be dampened and used as a cover for the seeds; and a second plate to place over it all (Fig. 24). Keep this home-made seed tester in a warm room. Examine the seed on the fifth and eighth days, and as much oftener as you wish.
Exercise. — With a sharp knife, cut through grains of com that are soft and dented and through others that are flinty and not dented. Make a drawing to show the difference between the two grains in the thickness of the several layers. Select six grains of corn having the largast possible germs, as shown by the size of the depressed area. Select six others with the smallest possible germs. Which grains would you expect to make the largest, strongest young plants and to be best able to push up if covered rather deep ?
Shell ten good ears and measure the shelled corn, so as to calculate how many ears make a bushel (56 lb. of shelled corn). Write in your notebook the number of ears per bushel.
gather the corn from a carefully measured area (at least ^V acre). First weigh the ear corn and then compare your estimates with the actual yields. Be sure to record your estimates in your notebook, where you can later write the actual yields.
Note to the Teacher. — Have the pupils make a home-made seed tester by following the directions in the text or by dampening many folds of old newspapers kept in a small tight box. In it let them place fifty or one hundred seeds of as many kinds as they can find near home. Let them pick out the largest and smallest seeds of wheat, radish, or peas. Place both sizes in different parts of the germinating box or plate and notice which produces the largest shoots. The interest of parents may be enlisted by having the pupils make tests to determine the percentage of germination of the seeds of vegetables or field crops that their parents expect to plant.
SECTION V. WATER FOR THE PLANT
In order that plants may grow, they must obtain water from the soil, and food from both the soil and the air. They must form all parts of the plant out of these materials. We shall first consider how plants get their supply of water.
The need for water, — There is a constant stream of w^cr flowing upward towards the leaves from the roots, which gather it from the soil. The leaves use some of this water and then throw off into the air that which they do not need. We cannot see this current, but careful measurements show that plants send upward through their stems to the leaves an immense amount of water. A clover plant has been found to give off in one day twice its weight of water. A crop of hay on one acre producing two tons has been found to use during its growing season more than six hundred tons or wagon loads of water. Speaking generally, a crop requires about four hundred times as much water in a season as the weight of the dry substance in the crop.
Experiment. — What becomes of the water? A part of the water that passes into plants is kept there to make the plant plump and stiff and to help in carrying food. Most of the water merely passes through the plant. The roots take it in and send it up to the leaves. The leaves throw it off as water vapor. You can watch leaves getting rid of their surplus water by turning a glass upside down over a plant that is growing rapidly in the sunshine (Fig. 26). Every minute water is coming from
the leaves as vapor. As soon as the air under the glass receives more moisture than it can hold in the form of a vapor or gas, the extra moisture gathers in drops on the inside of the glass.
How plants lift water. — What force enables plants to collect water from the ground and lift it into the roots and stems .'' To understand this, we need to study the tiny parts or cells of which the plant consists. We may think of a plant cell as a tiny room, too small even to be seen without a powerful microscope. But this little room or cell has no doors nor windows nor other openings into it. It is completely lined on the inside with a layer of living jelly-like material. This layer lets water and the material dissolved in water soak through it and thus pass to the inside of the cell. An important fact to remember is that the water passes in, but will not pass out into the soil again while the plant is healthy. This is partly because the water in the soil is more dilute than the sap which fills the plant cell ; and also because the dilute soil water can flow in through the cell hning more rapidly than the denser sap inside can flow out into the soil. This flow of water towards the sap or denser liquid helps to force water upward from the roots. The leaves assist in the upward flow, for water must rise to take the place of that which the leaves give off into the air.
The water current. — The current of liquid rising from the roots and soil soaks through tiny canals in the stem up to the leaves. In trees, the tubes that carry water from the soil upward are located in the sap-wood, while those that bring the sap downward from the leaves to build up
Root-hairs. — The large roots which you easily see when you pull up a plant are not the ones that absorb water from the soil. If you will carefully dig up the smallest roots of a very young plant, you will notice that the slenderest roots are covered near their ends with a white coating like velvet. These white threads are root-hairs (Fig. 27). It is the business of each of these short, velvety threads, or root-hairs, to absorb moisture and
WATER FOR THE PLANT 3 1
dissolve plant-food from the soil. You can see the roothairs plainly by causing grains of corn or any other seeds to sprout between moist blotting paper and by examining after a few days the roots that have grown out.
Root-hairs are tiny workers that have to furnish all the water a large plant needs. There are thousands of them on every large growing plant. Root-hairs can be found only near the tips of young roots. They are so slender that they can push in between the particles of sand or clay and absorb moisture from all the soil grains that touch them. It is important therefore to retain the small or young roots on trees or other plants that are to be transplanted.
Leaves do not supply water. — The dew and rain keep the leaves from wasting moisture, but do not enter the leaves themselves. Leaves do not supply the plant with water.
Note to the Teacher. — Crosby's Exercise 2 (see note to Section I) illustrates how water enters the roots of plants. You may well use Crosby's Exercise 5 to show the rising of water in plants. You can substitute the joint of a reed for his glass tube. Have the pupils place seed in moist newspapers, cloth, or soil to germinate. As soon as the root-hairs develop require every one to hand you a drawing showing these.
SOIL AND AIR
No solid matter can enter a plant. The living matter that lines the inside of each cell-wall will not let even the finest solid particles pass, though they be as fine as those of flour or of phosphate. No part of the soil can act as food until it has been dissolved.
Sugar and salt, as you know, dissolve in water, and just so do certain substances in the soil dissolve in the water. In ordinary soil this solution is very weak, so weak that it will usually take several thousand pounds of water to carry to the plant one pound of lime, phosphate, or any other single plant-food. In later chapters, you will learn what food certain plants require and also how the farmer adds this to any soil that is too poor to supply to the plant the needed nourishment.
Plants are made largely from the air. — Fortunately for the farmer and for the food supply of the world, the plant obtains more material for its solid substance from the air than from the soil. In every hundred pounds of dry plants there are usually less than three pounds that come from the soil. The grains of wheat, corn, and rice consist chiefly of starch. Other plants are rich in sugar, while the seeds of still others contain much oil or fat Starch, sugar, oil, and many other substances in plants are made
HOW PLANTS GET FOOD FROM SOIL AND AIR 33
by the leaves largely from one form of carbon, which occurs as a gas in the air. However, there will be no abundant growth of leaves to make this starch, sugar, or oil unless the roots provide the small but necessary amounts of certain other substances.
Food taken from the soiL — There are at least ten elements that plants draw from the soil alone. All but four of these are nearly always present in the soil in quantities sufficient to supply our crops for hundreds of years. The only plant-foods that are taken from the soil and that we need talk about in this book are those four that are sometimes so scarce that the farmer may have to add them to the soil in order to get a good crop.
Precious forms of plant-food. — The four plant-foods or elements that are often not sufficiently abundant in the soil are ni'trd gen, phos'pho rus, p5 tas'si um, and cal'91 iim. We call these the precious elements, for they are more important to the plant and to the farmer than the precious metals, silver and gold. Besides, the farmer often has to buy them, paying silver and gold for them.
One cause of poor crops. — These four elements exist in the soil in combinations ; we speak of the potassium combinations as potash, and of the calcium combinations as lime. In some soils only one of these four may be insufficient ; in another soil there may be a lack of two of them ; in a third three of them may be wanting ; and in yet another soil all four of them may need to be supplied. If a single one is lacking or insufficient in quantity, there will be a failure of the crop, no matter how abundant the other three may be. So it happens that a farmer may buy
may be lacking.
These precious elements and all other materials that go from the soil into the plant must first be dissolved in water. This solution of plant-food is then drawn into the cells of the plant and carried up through the stem, the greater part directly to the leaves, where it is used and mixed with
called sap. This sap is slowly
distributed to all parts of the Fig. a8.— Showing how a Cut Edge plant, to be used in enlargOF A Leaf LOOKS WHEN HIGHLY MAG- ' ^^j making ncw Icavcs,
Roots help to dissolve soil.
— Roots give off small amounts of a weak acid which dissolves more of the plant-food in the soil that the roots touch than pure water can. This food dissolved by acid is added to that already dissolved from the soil by water, and the mixture is drawn into the plant and started towards the leaves. The leaves prepare this solution still further and make it into sap before it can nourish and build up the plant.
Plants need air. — You have doubtless learned in studying physiology how persons and animals breathe. They take the air into the lungs and the oxygen gas which it
contains is there taken from it for use in the body. If persons and land animals remain long under water they drown, because the supply of air is cut off. Likewise ordinary plants die when their leaves or roots are kept long under water, because they are thus deprived of sufficient air.
How air enters the leaf. — Why do you suppose that the leaf is made so thin and broad instead of being rolled up into a compact, round little bundle .■* Leaves, even the thinnest, are made up of several very thin layers, each one of which consists of a great number of cells. In the outer layers of the leaf these cells lie close together, making a tight thin sheet which covers layers of more loosely arranged inner cells (Fig. 28). In these thin outer layers are great numbers of tiny openings. These are gateways for the entrance of air into the inside of the leaf. They are also the gates through which leaves get rid of the surplus water sent up by the roots. They are too small to be seen with the naked eye, and exist in large numbers on every square inch of the under side of every leaf. The plant can open and close these by means of special cells called guard-cells. When the weather is very dry, these gateways partly close, to keep moisture from passing too rapidly out of the leaves.
Use of air by plants. — Plants and animals are alike in "breathing" fresh air, containing oxygen. Man and animals take oxygen from the air to use in their lungs and give back a gas called carbon dioxid, which consists of carbon and oxygen united together. Plants, too, use oxygen, although they have no lungs. In making food for
themselves green plants use also the carbon dioxid of the air, such as the animals give ofif. In fact, through the pores or little gateways the air enters and comes in contact with the inside cells of the leaves. These cells take from the air the carbon it is holding in the form of a gas. This gas is called carbon dioxid. Out of this carbon dio.xid gas and water the leaf cells form starch, sugar, and other substances of which plants are made.
Leaves need light. — An interesting fact connected with this latter use of air by plants is that the leaf cannot use this carbon dioxid unless the leaf contains green coloring matter. This green coloring matter usually forms only when there is light. It disappears from plants when the light is cut off.
Experiment. — Examine grass covered by a board or straw, or a potato shoot grown in a dark room, and notice that the absence of light has prevented the formation of the green color and left the leaves and stems white. Such plants cannot grow to maturity because they cannot feed on the carbon in the air. So if we accidentally throw dirt over all the leaves of a little corn or cotton plant when cultivating the crop, we cut off the light and stop the growth of the plant. This is one of the ways by which the farmer kills weeds, namely, by covering them with earth.
In the middle of a hot, dry day what shape does a large green leaf of corn take ? Do the edges roll upward or downward ? Do you think this position increases or decreases the loss of water from the leaves ? There are special cells in the corn whose work it is to roll the leaf when water is scarce. They are different from the guard-cells, but likewise help the plant to economize water. Obser\*e whether leaves are most abundant on the tips of the branches of trees or nearer
Note to the Teacher. Optional Exercise. — Tincture of iodine maizes starch change to a purple color. Add a few drops of this to a teaspoonful of water ; with this moisten a thin slice of Irish potato, sweet potato, bread, cut corn grain, plant stems, or lettuce leaves. Before staining green leaves with iodine you should dissolve out the leaf green with alcohol very carefully heated in a vessel of hot water. A substance not colored purple by iodine solution lacks starch. Test a slice of meat ; a cut stem of whitened grass from under a board ; the white inner leaves of cabbage ; or the white or white-variegated leaves of coleus, etc. ; and any leaf that has been kept in darkness for several days.
PROPAGATED
Most of our field crops are increased or propagated by means of seed. One plant, because of the seeds it forms, may become the parent of hundreds or of thousands of others of the same kind. This method of increasing plants is well understood.
There are some plants the seed of which must be sown every year, for example, oats and corn. These are called annuals, because they live during only one growing season. Plants that live two years are known as biennials. A third class consists of X\\q fcrcnniais, that is, plants tliat live for more than two years. Bermuda grass, alfalfa, and all trees are examples of perennial plants.
Most cultivated plants, including the perennials, develop from seeds. With most fruit trees and with many other plants, it is best to provide for the increase by budding, grafting, and the like. These and other methods of multiplying plants without the use of seeds are called propagation by division.
Some plants propagated by buds. — Did you ever see seeds on sugar cane or sweet potatoes.' In tropical countries these plants make seed, but not usually in our country. Since these plants as a rule form no seed here,
HOW PLANTS ARE PROPAGATED 39
we must find some other part of them that will grow. The part of the plant that can most nearly take the place of a seed is a bud. The sugar planter places long sugar canes in the ground, expecting the buds on them to grow. In place of the sugar cane he may plant a piece of an Irish potato containing one or more eyes, or clusters of buds. But if he so cuts the potato that one piece has no bud in it, no plant will grow from it and he will have a vacant hill.
Most fruits do not ** come true " from seed. — One reason why the grower uses buds of sugar cane, sweet potatoes, and seedless oranges is because he cannot get seeds to plant. There are advantages in using buds instead of seed in some cases even when the seed can easily be obtained.
By planting the seed of the peach we do not get peaches just Hke the one from which the seed came. The same thing is true with apples, pears, strawberries, and most of our fruits. Of such fruits we say, they do not " come true " from the seed.
Budding. — The method of growing fruit like that on the parent tree is by budding or grafting. If we grow peach, apple, or other trees from buds, we may be quite sure that the fruit on the young tree will be like its parent and much like all other perfect fruit in the same variety. If you take a hundred buds from one peach tree and cause these to grow into a hundred young trees, they will all bear fruit practically alike. In this case, the trees would be more closely akin to each other than would be a hundred trees grown from the seeds from one tree. This is so because a
bud is a part of only one plant. A seed is often made by tivo plants, and the different seedlings may resemble either parent, while each budded tree has only one parent.
Cuttings. — Plants are increased either by planting seeds or buds. If, however, you should plant in the ground a detached bud from a grape-vine or from }k any fruit tree, it would not grow. It would
such a bud has not much food stored up to nourish it until it forms roots of its own. But you may so plant it that it will have much ready-made food convenient. Before the leaves start, cut off pieces of fig trees or grape-vine of last year's growth six or eight inches long and containing at least three buds (Fig. 30). These pieces of stem or branch are called cuttings. Plant these in sandy soil, the upper bud just above the surface and the lower bud deep in the soil. If you have done this as a skilful gardener does, you will see after Fro. 30.— A Cut- ^ £g^ weeks that the upper bud has begun
to develop into a branch, which in time will be a real bearing grape-vine. If you dig up one of these little grape sticks that has thus begun to grow, you will find that tiny roots have grown. It was the food material stored in the stem or cutting that enabled the buds to grow.
increasing grapes, figs, poplars, and many other kinds of plants. The cuttings should have two or more joints. Grape cuttings usually have two or three buds. The usual time to put them in the ground is late winter. Under a cover of glass, and sometimes without this covering, many kinds of flowers can be increased by means of cuttings, for example, roses and geraniums. The chief use of the cover is to keep moisture in the leaf, the soil, and the air.
Uses of budding and grafting. — So if we wish to make a grape, or peach, or apple bud grow, we must plant it, not by itself in the soil, but joined to enough of the wood and bark to furnish it with a supply of ready-made food. This is what the fruit-grower does when he plants cuttings of the grape or when he buds his peach or grafts his apple trees.
You can learn how to bud and graft fruit trees and roses if you will study the pictures and directions and will practice a little every day for a week or two. By budding or grafting the poorer varieties in your parents' orchards with the buds or twigs from the best variety in some neighbor's orchard, you will be of real help at home and will probably be able to enjoy some of the improved fruit yourself.
Directions for grafting. — Grafting consists in making a short piece of twig of one plant unite with the branch or root of another. The plant that furnishes the twig (called a ^t'dn) must be very closely akin to the plant upon whose branch or root the cion is to grow. The plant or piece from which the roots spring is called the stock. Generally, stocks are common young plants that have been grown from seed. The stock may be a young piece of root, a young or an old branch. Grafting is generally done in the late winter or very early in spring, while the plant is resting.
In Figure 31 is shown one way of cutting the cions and the stocks in grafting apple cions on small branches or small pieces of apple root. Your knife must be sharp and thin, so as not to split the cion or stock in making the slit. After cutting the two pieces as shown in the figure, place their
one side the bark of
the two pieces comes together evenly. The union is caused by the layer just under the bark of the cion growing against the similar layer in the stock. These growing layers must touch on at least one side of the fio. 3a. -Showing how graft. In setting in the ground cions that have been grafted on roots, the joint or union is placed below the surface of the ground. Grafting on large branches. — When a small cion is grafted on a branch that is one or two inches through, the
slender piece of bark and wood about three fourths' of an inch long, leaving a part of the leaf stem for use as a handle. This is the way in which peach and most other fruit trees are increased. Budding is usually done in
the stock, the strings
should be cut. Next spring the top of the stock above the inserted bud should be cut off, so as to let the inserted bud become the leading branch of the tree. Fig. 35 shows the budding of trees in the nursery row.
Exercise. — Practice grafting short pieces of twigs of plum, persimmon, apple, or other trees and shrubs. Then graft a twig of any of these, that have dropped their leaves, on a slender shoot of the same
kind. See who can cause the greatest percentage of the grafts to live. In warm weather practice budding on any of these plants. Grafting wax may be made by melting together 5 parts of resin, 2^ of beeswax, and I of tallow. When heated, pour the mixture into cold water, grease your hands, and " pull " it as you would " pull " molasses candy.
Teacher's Note. — Crosby's Exercises Nos. 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, and 23 treat the subjects of this section in much more detail than is possible here. After the pupils have practiced on detached twigs, they may graft on standing plants, provided it is in winter. If no fruit trees or roses can be risked, they may at first practice in grafting wild cherry, wild plums, and others. After growth has been going on long enough for the bark to slip well, budding of wild cherries, peaches, etc., may be attempted.
SECTION VIII. IMPROVEMENT OF PLANTS
Our valuable cultivated plants have been changed from poor or useless wild plants. The tomato, for example, bore very small and worthless fruits, and the cultivated rose was once a wild rose with few petals. Greatly as man has improved plants in the past, recent discoveries of some of the laws of improvement should make future progress still more rapid.
Selection. — By selection, or choosing seeds from the most desirable individuals, plants may be slowly changed. Selection is the easiest, surest, and usual method of improvement. In plants and animals the general rule is that the offspring resembles the parents and grandparents. But among the five hundred or more stalks grown by planting the kernels of a single ear of com, there may usually be found several that have larger ears than others from the same ear. All crops can be made more productive by using seeds from a small seed-plot that is planted every year with the seeds from the best plants of the year before.
In selecting, we may, for example, take a variety of corn that has usually produced only one ear and select the few plants that have several ears. If we plant these seed by themselves and in that crop again select the stalks with most ears, and so on every season, in a few years we shall
IMPROVEMENT OF PLANTS 47
have a new variety in which most of the plants will bear several ears. This is improvement by selection. Even plants such as potatoes, that do not generally produce seeds, have been improved by selecting the best hills for planting the next year.
Different Colors
chiefly for one thing at a time. That is, we must decide, say with corn, whether we would rather increase the length of ear, or the length of kernels, or the number of ears per plant. We might desire all three of these qualities in our new variety, but it would take many years to make the desired improvement, if we chose one plant for number of ears, another for length of ear, and a third for length of kernel, and planted these seeds together. The better way is to find some variety of corn already existing that is
really good enough to suit us in all qualities except one. Suppose it is desired to increase the number of ears on one stalk. Rapid increase, in this case, would come from selecting our seed ears only from plants bearing several ears. Among these several-eared plants preference would be given to those that have the other desirable qualities in the greatest degree.
Mixture of pollen from inferior plants. — This improvement by selection could not be made if the ear selected were planted where the pollen from a field of poor, unimproved corn would reach the silks (Fig. 37). If some of the stalks in the field are poor or barren, as shown by having no ear-shoot, the tassels of such plants should be pulled off before the pollen has begun to fall.
The improvement by selection goes on more rapidly if the offspring of each of the best plants is planted separately. It is best to plant each set of seeds in a separate row. Selection should be made for planting the seedpatch the next year by choosing the ears from the most productive plants on the best row, or the choice cotton plants in the best row of cotton. Unfortunately the plants of field corn, of cotton, and of most cultivated plants do not show resemblance to the pollen-bearing parent the first season. The crop of common field corn does not suffer in yield the first season from a cross with inferior pollen. The next season, however, the corn from such crosses is poor, and even the best ears thus produced will not bear uniform offspring. Popcorn and sweet com may show the change the first year.
to distinguish between temporary improvement, and that which will be permanent through later generations. Usually an increase in the size of a plant due simply to one year of special fertilizing, watering, or extra space is temporary. The large size, it seems, is not inherited by the offspring. Improvement due to years of selection is, however, inherited (Fig. 39). The most valuable plant for seed purposes is not always the plant that happens to be the largest, but rather the one that will produce productive offspring of good quality. This is the reason why in a seed-patch it is better to plant all the descendants of one parent plant together in one row, so that the farmer may judge the parent by the average character of the offspring.
The farmer who would improve or " breed up " his com, cotton, wheat, oats, or other crop, should have a special breeding plot or seed-patch and should carefully observe each plant grown there. Sometimes it happens that there is a single plant that is decidedly superior to all the others, and seed of this "sport," or very unusual plant, may start a new and more valuable variety.
Home-grown seed often the best. — If seed of corn grown for many years in a colder country is brought to the Southern states and seed from this variety planted for several years in the South, each year the variety gets later and later and the stalks larger and larger.
If early vegetables are desired, make them earlier by getting seed grown far North where the plant has learned to be in a hurry to get ripe in a short season. Field corn from north of the Ohio River is earlier and smaller, and in
most parts of the South yields less, than our native corn. Likewise, when the cotton-boll weevil invades any region, early varieties of cotton grown on the northern edge of the cotton belt ripen a considerable part of their crop before the weevils destroy the squares and blossoms.
on right, pstil from around which stamens have been removed.
tained. A crop suited to the South does not " run out " or grow worthless if properly managed. A plant usually becomes better fitted for its new home by being grown there for a number of years. Seed grown from our own field crops in nearly the same climate should be preferred.
Improvement by crossing plants. — Sometimes the plantbreeder must resort to crossing in order to unite in one plant the good qualities of two different varieties. Suppose, for example, he wishes to improve a variety of com the ears of which are too smajl, by using the pollen from
a large-eared variety. Before the silk is seen on the mother plant, he must tie a paper bag over the ear shoot. Soon after the silks show, the plant-breeder carefully pulls a tassel from a plant of the large-eared variety. The pollen should be just ready to fly. He dusts this over the silks of a selected plant and repeats this next day, keeping the shoot under the bag until the silks dry.
He may wish also to cause a big-boll variety of cotton to grow a longer staple. Before the cotton-bud or young bloom of the big-boll variety is ready to open, or about sunset or sunrise, the plant-breeder opens or cuts away the upper parts of the white petals, and with a knife, small scissors, or fingers, removes every anther or pollen case (Fig. 38). This is done before these cases have opened and spilled their pollen on the pistil of the same flower. A small paper bag is then tied over the injured flower to keep insects from bringing any pollen to it. Pollen from a selected long-staple plant can now be used, after the pistil is more mature. After most of the cotton blossoms have opened, or between eight and ten o'clock in the morning, our plant-breeder comes back, removes the paper bag, and gently rubs over the top of the pistil a flower from a plant of the long-staple variety, on which the pollen is beginning to shed. The particles of pollen now cHng to the sticky surface on the stigma and grow there. The bag is replaced and removed five days later, when, if all is well, a young boll is found. The seeds produced in that boll are the offspring of both varieties.
will not be all alike. Some will resemble the big-boll mother plant ; some will be like the long-staple father plant; some will be unlike either; and some may combine the likeness of both parents. The plant-breeder must plant the seed, giving a separate row to the seed of each plant ; for several years in succession he must select for seed the plants that come nearest to uniting the qualities that he wishes — large bolls and long lint. It will usually be best for the farmer to rely for improvement on selection alone, rather than on crossing.
Cross-pollination generally better than self-pollination. — Generally, pollen is most effective in causing seed to develop when the pollen and the pistil are borne on different plants. When the pollen of a corn plant standing alone falls on the silks of the same plants, grains develop. But the plants grown from such corn grains are less vigorous and productive than plants from seed having two parents not closely related. It is to avoid self-pollination that some seed-breeders pull the immature tassels from the com plants on the rows from which they intend to select their best seed corn.
crop by selecting a few bushels of seed from the best plants.
When wheat or oats are ripe, remember, if you live on a farm, to watch for the best plants and to save seeds from a few of them for planting by themselves next year.
plant or flower into use.
Note to the Teacher. — Emphasize the great opportunity for good in selecting seed from the best plants. Weighing the product of good and very poor plants of com, cotton, potatoes, etc., will help
in yield from an acre of each of the two types of plants.
If any large flowers, like cotton, tobacco, or morning-glory, are blooming, let the pupils carefully remove every stamen from a bud in which the pollen sacks have not yet burst. Tie cloth or paper over the injured flower. Grocers' small paper bags are good. After a number of hours collect pollen from other flowers of the same kind and dust this pollen over the tip of the pistil in the injured flower. Cover it again. In a week or two see whether seeds have formed.
KINDS OF SOILS
If wc hammer a small piece of stone, we can usually change it into a powder. The tiny particles that make up this powder arc often like some of the grains of the soil that may be found near the stone. What is now soil, in ages past was solid rock. Far mightier forces than the heaviest of hammers cracked and ground these ancient rocks for thousands of years, until they crumbled into sand and soil. As the earth's surface cooled, and shrunk, and wrinkled, the rocks cracked. Water standing in these cracks and tiny rough places froze. In freezing, the water expanded, and thus broke off great and tiny pieces of rock.
Air and water, just as they eat slowly into iron, forming iron rust, so changed and dissolved some of the cementing material in the rock. Then the remaining parts of the large rocks crumbled.
Water grinds rocks into soil. — Streams of water rolled the sharp-edged pieces of rock against each other, grinding off the sharp points, making sand of the fragments, and leaving rounded stones and pebbles. When a boy wishes nice, smooth stones for his sling shot, he knows he will find them in the bed of a stream. While searching for smooth stones, he walks over a sand-bar. This sand-bar shows how soil was formed. It is made partly of fine gravel, partly
of similar material ground into coarse sand, and of still finer material which is called soil. When the stream overflows, it sometimes forms a similar sand-bar in the lowlands along its banks (Fig. 40).
to live there. When these decay they serve as fertilizers, so that the next generation of plants is larger. After some years this may become fertile soil.
Tiny plants called mosses and llc'j^ens sometimes grow on bare rock. The roots of these not only dissolve the softer parts of the rock, but by their decay fertilize later generations of higher plants, until in time a shallow soil is formed in the pockets in the surface of the rock.
Soil and subsoil. — We see that the soil is the finely divided surface layer of the earth in which higher plants can g^ow. It consists of two portions, which are not always alike, (i) the looser, upper layer, or soil proper, and (2) the more compact layer under this, called the subsoil.
The soil consists chiefly of sand and clay, but neither one of these is food for plants. Sand is useful in keeping soil from packing too closely, and from being too wet and sticky. Clay is useful in holding moisture and cementing the sand grains together. A small part of the clay, under proper conditions, can finally be changed into plant-food.
Much more useful to plants as food are the decaying remains of earlier generations of plants. These remains of plants are usually spoken of as vegetable, or organic matter, or humus. There is much more vegetable matter in the soil than in the subsoil. Hence the soil produces much larger crops than the subsoil can when it is first brought to the surface. This is because the vegetable matter in the soil supplies plant-food, holds moisture, and makes the soil loose and mellow, permitting the roots and air to penetrate it. The subsoil, when first thrown up from the bottom of a ditch, is unsuitable for plant growth, but after it has been exposed to the air for several years, plants grow on this changed subsoil as well as anywhere else.
Available and unavailable plant-food in the soil. — The soil contains all of the chemical elements found in plants, and many more besides. All cultivated soils are rich enough in most of these elements, so only those elements or compounds which are sometimes scarce need be considered.
HOW THE SOIL WAS FORMED 57
These are nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash, and lime. In a soil that brings poor crops there may sometimes be enough of all of these, but they may be held so tightly by the iron or clay that water cannot dissolve and carry them into plants. Such insoluble substances are spoken of as unavailable. These can be changed into soluble forms, or available plant-food, by the oxygen of the air, and the decay of vegetable matter. To make the plant-food in the stiff soil or subsoil useful, therefore, the soil must be loosened with the plow, and the surplus water drained, thus letting in the oxygen of the air. Oxygen is called the restless element, because it is continually seeking change, and causing other elements in the soil to change also.
How decay of vegetable matter prepares plant-food. — The decay of vegetable matter in the soil helps to make the soil elements more soluble, partly by loosening the soil, so that the oxygen of the air can reach all parts of it. It also helps because the carbonic acid formed during its decay is absorbed by the water in the soil ; this mixture of water and carbonic acid has a much stronger dissolving power than pure 'water alone. The rotting of vegetable matter helps to soften or rot the hardest rock and stiffest soil. Of course the decay of former generations of plants also furnishes plant-food directly to later generations.
Soils not permanently exhausted. — Even in a rich soil only a small part of the nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash, and lime is in a soluble condition. They become soluble very slowly and gradually, so that roots have near them a small but continuous supply of newly prepared food. This is well, for if all of these elements in the soil were in
a soluble condition, a succession of heavy rains would dissolve and wash all of the plant-food out of the soil and carry it to the ocean. But since only a small part of the phosphoric acid and potash of the soil are in a soluble condition, no soil can be permanently or completely exhausted. It is possible to restore the fertility of any soil that has a fair proportion of clay in it.
Clay and sand. — Examine a little sample of clay soil and another of sandy soil. When you rub them between your fingers the clay soil feels smooth, while the sandy soil feels coarse and gritty. Sand grains are hundreds of times larger than the tiny grains of clay. They are so large that they do not settle closely together, and the spaces between them allow water to run very rapidly through. Sandy soil, therefore, will not hold water well.
We can scarcely understand how small the separate particles of clay are. It would require more than fifty thousand fine particles of clay side by side to cover a line one inch long. Since the grains or particles of clay are so small, they can be packed tightly together, leaving very little space between. It is difficult, therefore, for air and water to penetrate a clay soil.
Granulation. — Fortunately, in well-cultivated, welldrained, clay soils, supplied with vegetable matter, a number of the tiny particles cling together in one group or granule. Each of these groups acts like a single sand grain, leaving spaces between granules open enough for water to drain through and for air to enter. This granu lation, or grouping into granules, is the condition the farmer wishes his clay soil to assume. If, however, he plows when
the soil is too wet, the plow breaks up these groups and packs close together the tiny particles that before formed the granule. Great clods are then formed, so that a single plowing when the clay soil is too wet may injure the field for many years.
Coarse- and fine-grained soils. — Soils may be arranged in the following order, according to the coarseness of the particles of which they consist, beginning with the coarsest and ending with the finest : —
The most satisfactory soils are those consisting of a mixture of sand and clay. These are called loatn soils. They have enough sand to make them pulverize easily and drain well, together with enough clay to hold sufficient moisture for plants and furnish a gradual supply of certain kinds of plant-food. The coarsest soils become "worn out" soonest. Clay soils usually last longer because they contain the largest amount of total plant-food. They require more tillage, however, to make this plant-food available.
Treatment of sandy and clay soils. — You have just learned that a clay soil must not be plowed when wet. But if a soil consists almost wholly of sand, plowing it when rather wet does little harm. After plowing a clay soil the large lumps must be broken with a harrow before they dry and become hard clods. Live-stock should not be allowed to pass over clay soil while it
the bare rock in some shaded spot.
Dig into several fields to learn how deep is the mellow soil. What differences do you find between the soil and the harder subsoil ? Do annual crop plants send their roots deep into most kinds of subsoil ? Find a tree that has been blown down, or from around the roots of which the earth has been washed away, and see how deep its roots went into the subsoil.
Note to the Teacher. — Samples of several soils, as clay, sandy loam, and woods' earth, each on a separate newspaper, where they can be moistened and worked into mud pies, will impress the varying degrees of adhesiveness, grittiness, fineness, and their probable relation to (i) ease of plowing, (2) drainage, and (3) wear on implements during plowing.
Fig. 41. — A Good School Exekcisb Two kinds of soil that have bern wrt and then dried. The loamy soil remains loose and capable of growing plants ; the day soil below has baked and cracked.
The proportion of sand to clay or silt in the soil and subsoil determines not only how much water the soil will hold, but also for what crops it is best suited. It is important to learn the character of the subsoil by digging down below the layer usually plowed. A sandy soil with a gravelly or sandy, open subsoil may be almost worthless ; but a soil which, when plowed, looks exactly like this, but is underlaid by a clay or clay-loam subsoil, may be a productive and durable soil. In choosing a farm or a field, a farmer must look below the surface.
Best uses for sandy soils. — A sandy soil is usually a warm soil for the reason that sand absorbs heat rapidly. Another reason is because it is well drained, there being but little water left in it to be heated, thus allowing the sun's heat to be used to warm the soil grains. This kind of soil, therefore, is one well suited to early vegetables. Peaches also thrive on sandy soils and cotton is better suited to them than is corn. This is because cotton is less injured than corn by a scarcity of soil moisture. A sandy soil is usually not good for wheat nor for hay grasses, but the finer grades of tobacco are grown on it. For certain kinds of tobacco the soils of the Southern states shown on soil maps as " Orangeburg fine sandy
loam " are especially suited. Peanuts, sweet-potatoes, cowpeas, and watermelons are good crops for sandy soils. Best uses for clay soils. — Since clay soils contain so much water, they are slow in warming in the spring. You know that if you dip your hand in water, even in rather
warm water, and then expose it to the air, the skin becomes cool. This is because evaporation of water (that is, the changing of water from a liquid into the form of a gas or water vapor) has required heat and has drawn this heat from the skin. In a stiff clay soil much of the water must be evaporated from the surface. This uses the heat that ought to be used in warming the soil. Hence a clay soil is a cold soil, and crops growing in it start late.
SUITING THE CROP TO THE SOIL 63
Clay soils are moist, and therefore the best crops for them are those requiring much water. As shown in an earlier chapter, a crop of hay requires an immense amount of water. Timothy grass, Johnson grass, red clover, and most hay plants, therefore, do well on clay soils. Apples neea plenty of water and accordingly thrive on the best grades of clay soil. Certain kinds of clay soils afford the best summer pastures.
Hilly, rolling, and level land. — Fields that consist of steep hillsides have a tendency to wash. They must be terraced ; but then the terraces and the original steepness of the hill prevent the use of labor-saving implements. For this reason it costs more to cultivate such fields than rolling or nearly level land. The tendency to wash is reduced if the hillsides are covered with a uniform coat of pasture plants, such as Japan clover and Bermuda grass (Fig. 42).
Level lands are often poorly drained and in the spring are slow to get in condition for plowing. When drained, either by man or naturally, such lands can be very economically cultivated. For this reason, drainage ought to be the first thing to receive attention. The best labor-saving implements can be used and, if desired, the crop can be cultivated in hills or checks so as to be plowed in two directions, thus almost avoiding hoeing.
are more easily drained.
Crops for lime soils. — Most cultivated plants grow well on a lime soil, while a few are suited only to such a soil. Alfalfa and red clover, both of them forage plants belong-
Thus alfalfa succeeds finely on the best grades of the black lime or prairie lands in Alabama and Mississippi, and on the similar " black waxy " lands of Texas. On the same class of soil, Johnson grass hay is grown for market. Red clover is adapted to the lime lands found in many of the valleys in the northern parts of some of the Gulf states and to limestone soils common in Tennessee, Kentucky, and the sections to the north.
Color of soils. — If two soils are made up of particles of the same size, the darker one is usually the warmer. This is because dark soils, like dark clothes, absorb the sun's heat. A light-colored, sandy soil, however, may be warmer than a dark clay soil.
the presence of much humus.
Exercise. — In your neighborhood what crops are generally grown on the most sandy soil ? What use is made of the wettest land ? How are clay lands utilized .•• Hilly lands ? Very black lands ? What are the favorite grass lands ? Orchard lands ?
Note to the Teacher. —Write to the Bureau of Soils. Washington, D.C., asking for a report on a soil survey of your county, or of the region most like yours. Explain to the pupils the nuiin features of the colored map in that report.
SECTION XL MOISTURE IN THE SOIL
The difference between a rich and a poor soil consists largely in the fact that a rich soil is usually able to maintain enough moisture, but not too much ; while the unproductive soil does not hold enough water for the use of the plant during periods of dry weather, and becomes too completely saturated during wet weather.
Clay soils hold water. — Soils differ widely in the amount of moisture that they can hold. Test this by filling two tomato cans of equal size with thoroughly dried soil, one of them with nearly pure sand and the other with the stiffest clay you can find. Pack both soils thoroughly, and gradually add equal amounts of water to each. Before any dripping from the clay occurs, water will have begun to drip freely from the sandy soil through the holes in the bottom of the tin can. Thus it is seen that clay will hold much more water than sandy soil.
Capillary moisture. — The water that drains away from the soil is called free water. It is spoken of as free because it always flows toward the lowest point. If cans of soil are allowed to drain for a day or two, although most of the free water will be removed, the soils will still be moist. The moisture remaining in the soil is called c&p^il la ry moisture. It is spread out over the surface of the soil grains in such thin layers or films that it cannot collect in drops and drain away. If a bag of pebbles i§
dipped into a bowl of water, the water which adheres to their surfaces is capillary moisture. It forms a very thin layer. There may be millions upon millions of soil grains in every cubic inch of soil, and to cover every one of these
Fio. 43. — Showi.ng the Amounts of Liquid required to moisten the Surface OF Every Pebble in the Tumbler on the Left and or Every Grain of Sand in that on the Right
Movements of free and of capillary moisture. — The farmer endeavors to remove a part of the free water from the soil by drainage and to retain in the soil as much capillary moisture as possible. He desires the free water to drain away, because it occupies the spaces between the soil grains and thus keeps out the air, which is needed by the roots. Free water moves only toward a lower level ;
but capillary moisture on the other hand moves in any direction, but always very slowly. This is an advantage, for if this moisture moved as rapidly as the free water it would rise to the surface and evaporate.
RISES IN Soils
moisture moves toward the dryest soil. Thus root-hairs lying in contact with the sheet of water that wraps up one soil grain, absorb a large part of this moisture, but its
Air-spaces check the movement of capillary water. — The farmer's part in preparing the ground and cultivating the soil consists chiefly in controlling the movement of capillary moisture. This moisture moves about only when the soil particles touch each other, so that the dry can
are planted.
The farmer first loosens his soil, then permits the lower layers to become settled, and later, after the crop begins to grow, he stirs the surface. The surface layer is stirred in order to make large air-spaces, that will prevent the moisture a little deeper down from coming to the surface and being evaporated and carried off by the wind. Earthworms are found under logs, boards, and stones because these places are moist, while the ground around is dry. The moisture in the soil cannot easily rise up through the logs, boards, or stones and evaporate. The gardener makes
Fig. 45. — Moisture on Root-hairs AND Soil Grains, greatly enlarged e, main root; h, root-hair, i, air-space; 3, soil grain ; 3, film of water surrounding soil grains.
use of this principle when he places a layer of leaves over strawberries, potatoes, or any crop that he wishes to keep well supplied with moisture. He calls such a layer of leaves a mulch, which simply means a cover to protect the soil against evaporation. The farmer cannot afford to place layers of leaves over his fields, but he can afford to make a mulch by using material that is already? there. He can make a mulch of the soil itself, proviaed the top layer can be made loose and dry. How Xhh is done will be learned in the next chapter.
Note to the Teacher. — If practicable, let pupils weigh cans of two different soils, before adding water and after dripping ceases. How much water does each retain? Emphasize the difference in the water-holding power of the two soils. If possible, compactly fill two lamp chimneys, or bottles with the bottoms off, with rather dry soil, one a coarse sand, and the other a clay (Fig. 46). Tie ^^^ X^howing the'h^ht to cloth over one end of each to re- which Moisture rises in differtain the soil. Several hours be- ent Soils
TION OF THE SOIL
Before the seed is sown the land is plowed. The main object of early plowing is to form a loose, mellow layer of soil through which the roots can spread in any direction.
When to plow. — When the plowing is well done, the soil is broken into small particles. This will not result, however, if the soil is very dry when plowed, for then great lumps and clods are turned over. On the other hand, the soil does not pulverize well if plowed when wet enough for it to stick together and to show a shiny, polished surface on the furrow slice. Only experience will tell just how wet or how dry the soil should be when plowed. Extremes should be avoided. Plowing when the land is very dry means poor plowing, but it does the land no permanent harm. But to plow land when it is too wet may injure the soil for several years, especially if it contains much clay.
A good seed-bed. — In the previous section it was learned that capillary moisture moves toward the roots best when the soil has no very large air-spaces. It is often well, therefore, to plow land a number of weeks before it is to be occupied by the roots of the crop. An opportunity is thus given the soil to settle and become compact.
PREPARATION AND CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL 71
the best seed-bed is one compact enough to permit the capillary moisture to move toward the seed, and yet loose enough to permit air also to come in contact with the seed. Roots, as well as seeds, require enough compactness of soil for the easy movement of capillary water toward the thirsty root hairs, and likewise sufficient looseness of soil to admit a little air and to allow the roots to grow freely in any direction.
this purpose, especially the harrow, the plank drag, or the roller. Clods are most easily broken when first plowed. Let the harrow therefore follow close behind the plow. After plowing or rolling, the harrow should be used immediately so as to leave on the surface a loose layer of dry soil. This loose surface layer contains so many and such large air-spaces that the moisture from the compacted layer below cannot easily cross these and rise to the surface, where it would be evaporated. Air-spaces in the loose surface layer do good by imprisoning the moisture in the lower layers.
shows that it is best to plow deep unless there are reasons for not doing so. If land is plowed two or three inches deeper than it has ever been plowed before, there is danger that the first crop after such deep plowing will be injured by the subsoil which is brought to the surface. This subsoil often dries and forms a hard crust that interferes with plant growth. Moreover, the plant-food in this layer of subsoil may not be in such a form that the plant can immediately use it. But the longer it lies on the surface exposed to the air, the more' fertile it becomes. Generally, deep plowing is beneficial to the second and the third crops, even if not to the first crop.
Subsoil plowing. — The depth of plowing can be increased without any danger of injuring the first crop if each year the plowing is about one inch deeper than the year before. The depth of the plowed soil can be suddenly increased by the use of a subsoil plow, which simply loosens the subsoil, but does not bring it to the surface. In using a subsoil plow we must make sure that the lower layers of soil are dry enough to be pulverized. Subsoiling is usually best done in the fall, because at this time the subsoil is apt to be dry and capable of crumbling. Harm and no good comes from plowing the subsoil when it is very damp.
When to cultivate. — Most cultivation consists in destroying the plants not needed and in forming a shallow layer of loose soil at the surface of the ground. It is just as important to form this mulch, or loose, light layer of soil, as it is to destroy the weeds. Cultivation is often needed when there are no weeds. We may be sure that it
as after a rain.
By breaking this crust and the adjacent parts of the soil with a cultivating implement, a layer of loose soil is formed that contains many large air-spaces. Across these air-spaces moisture cannot move, but must remain in the lower layers near the root. A crust must not be allowed to form ; cultivation will prevent it.
Exercise. — Take two pieces of chalk of the same length. Break one in half. Pour a thin layer of ink into a shallow tin ckn or can top. At the same moment stand upright in this ink on their flat ends the unbroken and the broken piece of chalk. Carefully place the upper portion of the broken piece on its lower part, in the position it occupied before being broken. Watch the ink rise upward into both. Notice that when the liquid reaches the crack, its rise is checked by the airspace between the two broken pieces of chalk. This shows how airspaces in cultivated soil keep moisture from rising rapidly to the surface, where it would be evaporated.
Fill five similar open cans with the same amount of damp soil, packed in equally. Leave one as it is, thoroughly cultivate one to a depth of one inch, cover the others respectively with mulches (one inch deep) of leaves, dry sand, and dust from under the house. As soon as prepared, and again after a few days, weigh all cans and see how much water each has lost, so as to learn which best retains the moisture in the lower layer of soil. See also Crosby's Exercises 42 and 44.
SECTION XIII. TERRACING AND DRAINING
After a heavy rainfall the water in the ditches and the furrows is muddy. This mud is soil — the best kind of soil, too — that the currents of water have washed away.
The heavy rains not only bear away the fine particles of soil, but in low places where much water collects and where the little currents are strong, grains of sand and
TERRACING AND DRAINING 75
fine gravel are torn loose and hurried along. The removal of the soil leaves a wash or scar in the field. Every rain repeats the process, so that in time a gully or ditch deep" enough to hide a horse and rider is formed. Soon the water in each row that crosses this wash cuts a little channel down to the main gully and, in time, the field becomes unfit for cultivation (Fig. 48). If the first break is mended the field will continue to produce good crops instead of becoming worthless. The old saying that " a stitch in time saves nine " is very true in preventing the washing away of the soil.
against washing. A terrace is a low bank or ridge, winding around a hill or slope, but always maintaining nearly a perfect level. To keep on a level the terrace often has to wind about with many an inconvenient curve and crook.
When the top of a terrace is kept even and level, it reduces the amount of washing. The level top-Hne permits the water to run over the top of the terrace bank along
its entire length in the form of a very thin sheet. Water moving in a very thin sheet meets with so much friction from the ground that it has to move slowly and therefore cannot exert much force to tear away particles of soil.
UP the Hill
How a terrace is made. — By means of either a terracing level, or a home-made terracing triangle (Fig. 51), a curving line is marked out near the top of the hillside by placing stakes at intervals of about ten steps, all of the stakes being on the same level. In the same way stake the next terrace line at a vertical distance of three feet lower down the hill on gentle slopes, or five feet lower on very steep slopes. Repeat the operation until all the terraces are staked out. Now mark each line of stakes by means of a furrow, not passing exactly under the stakes but very near them, trying to make the curves in the terrace as slight and gradual
as possible. Below this furrow leave a strip of hard, unbroken ground of about two feet wide. On this throw furrows from above and below, forming a slight ridge or bank. If at first this bank is not level or not high enough, the work must be completed with shovel and hoe.
A terrace on sandy, porous soil will hold back all the water that falls except during and after very heavy rains. Deep plowing will aid terraces to do this and will often keep them from breaking, even after heavy downpours. Breaks, however, will sometimes occur, especially before
weeds and grass have covered the terrace and bound it together with their roots. Such breaks should be mended promptly, using neither logs, stones, nor trash, but soil taken from just below the terrace and some distance from the break.
A crop of cowpeas or cotton on the terrace bank keeps the field much neater and more free from weeds. Terraces may be covered with some winter-growing plant, the living roots of which strengthen them in winter. Among the best plants for this purpose are bur clover, vetch, of Texas blue-grass.
Terraces often inconvenient, but necessary. — Terraces decrease washing, but make many short rows, increase the cost of cultivation, and interfere with the use of improved implements. They are needed only in hilly regions. In Virginia and Tennessee and northward they are seldom used, partly because wheat or oats, pasture or hay plants, alternate with hoed crops and the fields are not cultivated so continuously as in the cotton belt. Farmers in the Gulf states who do likewise, and who plow deep, can often do without terraces as long as no washes appear in the fields.
What lands need drainage. — Drainage is needed on fields where water stands in ponds for a long time after a rain, where water oozes to the surface making seepy spots, and on land where swamp plants grow freely or where water stands in a post hole within several feet of the surface, during the growing season. Fortunately the greater part of the hill lands of the Gulf and South Atlantic states needs little or no artificial drainage except that intended to prevent washing. On bottom land and on some very stiff or seepy upland fields, however, drainage is generally needed.
Drainage makes roots go deeper into the soil. — While the purpose of terracing is to cause porous soils to absorb most of the water that falls on them, in order to prevent washing, the object of drainage is to remove the excess of water from soils that otherwise would hold too much water.
Strange as it may seem at first, plants are better able to endure a drought on drained than on undrained land. This is because the roots go only as deep into the soil as the air penetrates freely. Drainage opens channels for the air to
penetrate farther, and in drained soils therefore plant roots are deeper than in soil that has ordinarily been saturated. When the upper soil dries, the shallow-rooted plants in undrained lands are no longer able to obtain moisture ; but the deep-rooted plants in drained soil, being nearer the ever moist subsoil, are uninjured.
Other benefits from drainage. — Drainage makes soils more crumbly and less inclined to be cloddy. It increases in the soil the number of helpful germs, or tiny living plants, that change vegetable matter into available plantfood. This it does by supplying an abundance of air, without which they cannot live. Moreover, drainage makes the land ready for plowing earlier. Plants start to grow earlier on drained than on wet soil, for drainage warms the soil by drawing off a part of the water that would otherwise evaporate, and which, in evaporating, would cool the soil.
Two classes of drains. — The usual drain is an open ditch. Another kind is the covered or underdrain. A field in which there are underdrains shows no sign of them, for they ate two to four feet below the surface and completely covered over. One of their advantages over open ditches is that crops can be grown above the drains.
Underdrains. — These are usually made of tiles, which are hollow tubes of burnt clay one foot long, laid end to end. The water runs into them at the joints, which do not fit together tightly, and trickles in through the porous walls (Figs. 52, 53). Sometimes underdrains are made of four narrow planks nailed together like a long box, with numerous holes for water to enter. In other cases they are made of three largfe poles in a triangular pile, and
sometimes of old bricks or stones. Although these arc buried several feet in the ground, water flows down to them, thus deepening and airing the soil. They usually
The water in open ditches often carries much mud and other fine material. When the current is rapid, this soil material is carried onward by the water, and is not deposited. But if any part of the ditch is less steep than the portion above it, the water must necessarily travel more slowly. A sand-bar generally forms where the current is thus checked, for the slower current is unable to carry its
burden of fine sand and other soil particles. These are thrown down and fill the ditch, making work for the farmer in opening it again. The banks of a deep open ditch should not be upright nor nearly upright, for they invariably cave in, and the earth fills the ditch.
It is a good rule for a ditch to have a uniform grade, steep enough to carry off the water without filling the ditch with soil, and yet not so steep that the current will cut deep into the bottom of the ditch. This grade varies with the dimensions of the ditch, as you will learn in larger books on drainage. For small ditches there is usually from three to five inches of fall in every one hundred feet.
Exercise. — Walk over a field and notice the little washes just beginning. Think of a way by which each one could be stopped. When a ditch or river makes a sand-bar at a curve, is the sand-bar on the inner or on the outer side of curve ? Why ? Watch a winding brook as it flows and learn why a ditch or river tends to become more and more crooked (Fig. 40) . Look at one of the ditches on a farm that you know and plan how it could be improved.
Note to the Teacher. — If a rain occurs soon after this lesson has been studied, point out that the current is strong and washing is possible only in those places on the school yard or an adjoining field where water collects, and not where it is spread in a thin sheet. Does washing occur on the bare or on the grass-covered parts of the school yard? Perhaps some pupil's father has a drainage-level and will bring it to school and show the class how to use it. If he will lend it, the directions above will be sufficient guide for you to use it in locating terrace lines. Why not have a short excursion for using the level and for inspecting ditches and streams?
Surface washing is one of the means by which land becomes poor, and it is one that can be prevented by proper use of ditches and terraces and by better methods of farming. If any fields are so steep that terraces or ditches will not protect them against surface washing, they should be allowed to grow up in useful trees. Otherwise they should be planted to some grass or grazing plant, the matted roots of which will do much to hold the soil in place. Bermuda grass is one of the best of these soilbinding plants. When this is not wanted, other grasses or clovers can be used instead.
Leaching. — On all soils there is a loss of fertility that cannot be seen and is often not suspected. This is leaching or the dissolving of plant-food by the rain water and the draining of this water and of the dissolved plant-food in it through the soil, and into the streams. This loss is greater than any other in our Southern climate. It occurs chiefly during the winter, when rains are heaviest and when there are no living roots to use the soluble plant-food. It can be prevented by causing living plants to occupy the fields during the winter. Wheat, rye, crimson clover, or any other plants in active growth during the winter send their roots throughout the soil. These roots
absorb the soluble plant-food, leaving very little that can be dissolved by the rain water as it drains through the soil. Even weeds that keep green during the winter do this much good.
Loss of vegetable matter. — Another cause responsible for much of the poor soil in the South is the loss of vegetable matter. This occurs whenever the farmer grows corn, cotton, or any other crop that is kept thoroughly cultivated, and does not leave on the land a large amount of roots, leaves, or stems. Fire is one of the farmer's worst enemies, because it destroys vegetable matter needed to improve the soil.
When vegetable matter in the soil disappears, the soil becomes lighter in color, drier in dry weather, more cloddy, and harder to work. Clay soils then become too compact for roots to thrive in them. In dry weather the crop on such land is parched and stunted or ruined, while on similar land, well supplied with rotted vegetable matter, the crop is much better able to withstand drought. This is partly because rotted vegetable matter is somewhat like a sponge in having the power to hold moisture. When the roots come in contact with this decayed vegetable matter, they absorb its moisture and also use a part of it for food.
The farmer can replace the vegetable matter that disappears where clean cultivated crops are continually grown by producing an occasional crop that leaves large amounts of roots or foliage and stems on the ground. Some of the crops that thus increase the supply of vegetable matter are the clovers, cowpeas, and kin-
dred plants, and the grasses that form a sod or dense covering over the entire surface. The surest and cheapest way for the fanner to enrich his land and to make larger profits in fanning is by constantly adding vegetable matter.
Sale of plant-food in crops. — If a farmer every year hauls crops of grain, or hay, or potatoes from his field without putting anything back, there will come a time when he will say that the field is too poor to cultivate. Crops differ greatly in the kind and amount of plant-food they remove from the soil. The lint of cotton and the sugar of sugar cane consist almost entirely of materials drawn from the air, and so these products remove almost no plant-food. Yet cotton may make the soil poorer because its clean cultivation causes the loss of vegetable matter; because its seed removes considerable plant-food ; and most of all, because it leaves the land without living roots during the winter, and thus permits the rain to leach and to rob the soil. Sugar cane may be an exhausting crop because the stalks that are carried trom the field contain much plantfood and because the leaves are generally burned. This does not mean that exhausting crops should not be grown, but that something must be returned to the land in exchange for what is removed.
Lack of drainage makes soils unproductive- — All the causes of soil-impoverishment mentioned are due to substances taken from the soil. They have all been forms of subtraction. There is, however, an addition to the soil that may make it poor. Too much water injures the soil and the crop if it is not drained away either by
the farmer. This subject was discussed in the last section.
Note to the Teacher. — Ask your pupils to explain how lye is made from ashes kept in hoppers. Point out that this process is leaching.- Leaching does more harm to rich than to poor soils. This process removes from the soil chiefly nitrogen and little or no phosphate and potash. The loss of plant-food due to the sale of lint cotton and of cotton seed is shown in Fig. 94.
NOUS PLANTS IMPROVE THE SOIL
In a forest, year after year, the trees drop their leaves; the decayed leaves and roots make the soil very loose and rich. When the trees are removed, the "new-ground" produces good crops that use the vegetable matter as food. The crops are good on " new-ground " also, Wcause the humus in dry weather holds moisture like a sponge. Drought, therefore, is not much felt by crops on land containing much humus. When plowed, the dark, loose soil crumbles readily, for the reason that vegetable matter in the soil keeps the particles of clay from sticking together and from turning up in great useless clods.
Resting land not the quickest way to enrich it — Farmers have learned that even a crop of weeds adds vegetable matter, and so they sometimes leave certain poor fields uncultivated for a year or two to "rest" or improve. Such improvement of the land is slow under any conditions.
Making land fertile by growing certain crops. — Different plants are very unlike in the value of the vegetable matter they add to the soil. Those that make the best fertilizer are the plants rich in nitrogen. Look carefully at the picture (Fig. i lo) and notice how much more com grew on a square yard where vetch plants had grown the year before. Twice as large a crop of oats, wheat, or hay has
that are most valuable for plowing under to enrich the land
Fig. 55. — Leaves of Leguminous Plants I, bean; 2, hairy vetch; 3, pea; 4, Akike clover; 5, red clover; 6, white clover; 7, sweet-pea; 8, peanut; 9, black locust ; 10, sweet clover: 11, alfalfa; 12, soybean.
are all closely akin. The clovers, cowpeas, vetches, and similar plants belong to the bean family. Legumes, or leguminous plants, is the name given to them. All of the legumes the farmer makes use of have flowers shaped like the flower of the garden pea, sweet-pea, and cowpea. The
flower of each of these consists of (i) a broad petal standing up somewhat like the wings of a butterfly at rest, (2) a folded portion that reminds us of the butterfly's body, and (3) a petal standing up straight and alone on each side of the folded part. The leaves of common
Each of the little flowers
has the same general shape as the pea blossom. Plants on which the flowers are of this shape are found to make the soil richer. These plants have bean-like pods (Fig. 59). Tubercles or nodules on the roots of legumes. — Carefully dig up cowpea, clover, and other legumes without stripping off the smaller roots. Do you not find little round or pear-shaped knots attached to the roots ? This
workshop inhabited by multitudes of germs, so small that 25,cxx) of them could be placed side by side on a line one inch long. These germs are actively at work helping the farmer. The tubercle in which they live serves as a house for them. It is really a fertilizer factory, and the germs are the workmen, busy making fertilizer that will be used by the plant on the roots of which the tubercle grows. The plant on which the tubercle forms is called the host plant. It furnishes the germs in the tubercle with starchy food made by the leaves. In exchange the tubercles send up through the sap a fertilizer rich in nitrogen. This fertilizer nitrogen is constantly being made by the germs in the tubercle from the nitrogen gas in the air. The farmer can help the germs to manufacture fertilizer nitrogen by plowing the land before sowing legumes. Plowing or cultivation permits an abundance of air, with the nitrogen gas which it contains, to pass through the loose soil to the tubercle, where the tiny workmen are ready to use it for the farmer's benefit.
What the cowpea or clover plant does with nitrogen. — Let us consider what becomes of the nitrogen a tubercle sends up in the sap current to the cowpea or clover plant on which it is growing. A part of it is deposited in the roots of the cowpea, another part in the stem, another portion goes to make the leaves, and still another part helps to make the seeds. All clovers and most other legumes use their fertilizer nitrogen manufactured in the tubercles just as the cowpea does, and they enrich the soil in the same way.
HOW TREES AND PLANTS IMPROVE THE LAND 91
hay, there is still left in the land the nitrogen that was stored in the roots and lower part of the stem and in the fallen leaves. Even the roots and stubble of legumes, therefore, can enrich the land, both in nitrogen and in vegetable matter. The enrichment is much greater if the
Plants
tops, as well as the roots, are plowed into the soil, either as soon as growth is finished or after being eaten byanimals pasturing on the field.
Shall the tops of soil-improving plants be plowed into the ground? — The plants that most enrich the land are those that make the richest hay and pasturage for horses, cattle, sheep, hogs, and poultry. The farmer often asks, " Does it pay better to use the vines or tops of cowpeas or clover as food for live-stock or to plow them into the
ground as fertilizer?" The best answer is that letting these crops pass through an animal does not greatly lessen their value as fertilizer. The starch, sugar, and fat that the animal takes out of its food have no value as a fertilizer. Enough live-stock ought to be kept on all farms to consume the legumes that are grown. The farmer can, therefore, make a double use of the leguminous crops : he can use them as stock-food, and later for fertilizer. The roots and stubble of legumes enrich the land. The little fertilizer factories on the roots of leguminous plants are worth more to mankind than all the gold in the whole world. Nearly every farm that to-day is too poor to keep the farmer's family in comfort can be made fertile by the wise use of cowpeas, crimson clover, and related legumes.
Exercise. — Make a mud ball of stiff, poor clay and put it away to dry. Make another of half clay and half dark, fine woods' earth. Let it dr}'. Try to make a firm mud ball of dark woods' earth alone. After drying, which of the first two crumbles most easily ? Why ? Find all the plants that you think may be legumes. Learn all you can about the leaves, flowers, pods, and about the size and shape of the fertilizer factories on their roots. How many stamens in a pea or cowpea bloom? Are all of them partly grown together?
Note to the Teacher. — Objects needed: (i) soils of different colors, due to different amounts of vegetable matter ; (2) seed, flowers, plants, or roots of any legume, as garden pea, cowjjea (Southern field pea), sweet-pea, clover, etc.
A FARM with many animals is generally rich and productive because of the supply of manure. Experience in all countries shows that this material is an excellent means for enriching all kinds of soil. Some chemical fertilizers, however, are beneficial only on certain soils.
Manure has these good effects : (i) It makes the earth loose and mellow, allowing the roots and air to come into contact with all parts of the soil. (2) After it has rotted, it enables the soil to hold moisture in dry weather. (3) It furnishes plant-food to the roots of growing crops. (4) It adds needed germs and causes the beneficial ones already in the soil to thrive and multiply, thus helping the crop.
Richest manure from richest food. — Barnyard manure is composed largely of ground-up parts of plants, and contains very nearly what the plants contained. The richest is made by feeding cotton-seed meal and other foods rich in nitrogen. Hay from cowpeas and other legumes makes better manure than that from shucks, straw, or grass.
Fertilizing crops by buying food for live-stock. — A farmer may buy 100 pounds of cotton-seed meal and place it in the ground as fertilizer. It would pay him better first to feed it to cattle and then to use the manure. If all of this, solid and liquid, were carefully saved, it would have the same value as a fertilizer as 80 pounds of cotton-seed
meal. Animals take from the food fed them chiefly those substances that arc worthless as fertilizers, such as starch and fat. The farmer, therefore, who buys cotton-seed meal to use as a fertilizer for his crop can make two profits by first feeding it and then using the manure as fertilizer.
stroys much of the fertilizing value. Manure that has been exposed to rain for a number of months is sometimes worth less than half as much for fertilizing crops as it was at first. Most of the plant-food has been dissolved and carried off by water ; some of the nitrogen has changed into ammonia and passed off into the air as a strong-smelling gas ; and a large part of the soil-loosening material
BARNYARD MANURE 95
has disappeared or been slowly " burned," for rotting is a kind of slow burning. A roof over the manure pile prevents the great loss caused by water, but the other losses go on even with the roof. The best plan, therefore, is to put manure into the ground as soon as possible and before any waste has occurred.
Composts. — Compost heaps are piles of manure mixed with other materials, such as leaves or cotton seed, with sometimes phosphate added. Partial rotting makes the manure less coarse and makes it act more quickly on the crop. The same materials can be mixed in the furrow in the field. When they rot there, the soil prevents loss. Moreover, when organic matter rots in the soil, it causes the soil touching it to "rot" too, that is, to change some of its compounds into substances that plants can use as food. It is generally best to plow manure under so that the soil will absorb the ammonia that might otherwise be lost.
Barnyard manure is dilute. The farmer must get it to the field with as little labor as possible, for fully three fourths of its weight is water, that has no value. Large amounts must be used on an acre. In a ton of manure there are only about 25 to 35 pounds of the three precious forms of plant-food (nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash), or about as much as in 200 pounds of a high-grade complete commercial fertilizer. The plant-food in a -ton of manure could generally be bought in the form of commercial fertilizers for between 1^1.50 and $$. But a ton of manure contains, besides direct plant-food, billions of helpful germs and about a quarter of a ton of organic matter that is very
beneficial in making the soil mellow and able to hold moisture. These cannot be bought in commercial fertilizers, which increase the crops chiefly in the year in which they are used. Stable manure makes the soil richer for a number of years.
SECTION XVII. COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS
Soils have abundance of all necessary plant-food materials except nitrogen, phosphates, potash, and lime, which may be deficient in some lands. When one or more of these valuable forms of plant-food is deficient, poor crops result unless
ficient. It is important
to find out which of these is wanting, and to use on each field a fertilizer that contains just the kind of plant-food that is needed in that soil. Plants, if denied nitrogen or phosphates, but given an abundance of everything else needed, would die.
Nitrogen and ammonia. — Commercial fertilizers (so named from the word commerce, meaning trade) are those prepared and furnished by merchants or manufacturers. When they contain only nitrogen, they are called nitroge-
nous fertilizers. The most important commercial fertilizers that arc rich in nitrogen arc cotton-seed meal and nitrate of soda. If nitrogen occurs in mixtures with other precious plant-foods, the fertilizer may be called an ammoniated fertilizer, or "guano." Ammonia is a combination of fourteen parts by weight of nitrogen with three parts of hydrogen (Fig. 63). Fourteen pounds of nitrogen, the most precious of plant-foods, may become seventeen pounds of ammonia. Hence, if there is printed on a bag
mg the amount of
nitrogen by 17 and dividing the product by 14. On the other hand, if the printing on the bag shows that cottonseed meal contains eight and one-half per cent of ammonia, change this to nitrogen by dividing by 17 and multiplying by 14. The amount of ammonia is always larger, because it contains all the nitrogen and another element besides.
Cotton-seed meal. — Cotton-seed meal is a yellowish, powdery material made from the kernels of cotton seed after removing most of the oil and hulls. Cotton-seed meal is more than twice as rich in nitrogen as the whole cotton seed from which it is made.
Cotton-seed meal usually contains between six and seven pounds of nitrogen in each hundred pounds of meal and is therefore expensive. It also contains some phosphate
and potash. There are several grades of this meal, those that contain the largest proportion of hulls being the least valuable. This meal cannot be used by plants until it has decayed. It is more suitable, therefore, for crops that occupy the land in the warm weather than for very early crops which make their growth in cool weather.
ward to the roots of plants.
Within a week after this fertilizer is sown, wheat and oat plants become much greener and more luxuriant. It is especially suitable for plants that make their growth during the cool months (wheat, oats, etc.) and for vege-
Fig. 64. — Corn from Equal Areas On right, no nitrogen in fertilizer; on left, fertilized with 240 pounds of nitrate of soda per acre. Yield per acre without nitrogen, 3.2 tons; with nitrate of soda, 6.7 tons.
desired.
Three kinds of phosphates. — Phosphates are those fertilizers that contain the element phosphorus, in the form of phosphoric acid. There arc three kinds of phosphate, that are of very different value. The first is natural or raiv phosphate, sometimes called Tennessee phosphate, Florida phosphate, or floats. It is simply the phosphate rock just as it is dug or brought up by dredges from its place in phosphate beds, except that it has been ground into a very fine powder. Since roots generally cannot absorb much of this form of phosphate because it will not dissolve in pure water, it is called insoluble phosphate.
Acid phosphate is so called because it is made by adding sulfuric acid to the raw or natural phosphate. This acid so changes the phosphate that roots can immediately absorb it. The phosphate in acid phosphate is called soluble. There is a third or intermediate form that plants can use. This and the soluble phosphate are added together and called the available phosphoric, that is, the kind that plants can use promptly.
Acid phosphate usually contains from 12 to 16 per cent of available phosphoric acid, that is from 24 to 32 pounds of available phosphoric acid in every 200-pound bag. The farmer can afford to pay fully one third more for the acid phosphate with 16 per cent than for that with only 12 per cent of available plant-food. He will need less of the high-grade than of the low-grade fertilizer, and thus will save freight and expense of hauling and handling.
COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS lOI
in pure water and cannot be used immediately by the roots, nevertheless it has some value as fertilizer for some soils and crops. When ravv phosphate is kept for some time in contact with decaying vegetable matter or mixed with manure, a part of its phosphate changes into a form which roots can use.
Fertilizers containing potash. -;- The commonest of these is kainit. It is dug from deep mines in Germany. It contains about twelve per cent of potash. Muriate of potash is obtained from the same source. About half its weight, or fifty per cent, is potash. Kainit and muriate of potash are nearly white, resembUng somewhat coarse table salt.
Exercise. — Try to get samples of as many as possible of the fertilizers mentioned above for the teacher to show during class. In your notebook describe them. Be ready to report the effects of any fertilizer test you may know about.
Note to the Teacher. — If possible, exhibit small samples of any of the fertilizers mentioned in the lesson. Which ones dissolve quickly ? Which ones get lumpy? Exhibition of ordinary mixed or manufactured fertilizers will be of doubtful profit to the class, and may involve personal interests.
FORMULAS
Fertilizers are sometimes spoken of as chemicals. Those made by mixing any two such chemicals are called mixed, manufactured, or manipulated fertilizers. The laws of most states require that there shall be printed on the outside of each bag of fertilizer a statement showing the percentage of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash it contains. No fertilizer should be bought until the buyer has calculated its commercial value from these figures on the bag, using the method shown on page 103. After he has calculated the commercial value, he should compare this figure with the cash price asked by the seller. The two figures should differ by only enough to pay the dealer a fair profit and the cost of freight.
The commercial value of a pound of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash is the average wholesale selling price of these substances in the largest fertilizer markets. Chemists average these prices every year, and publish the figures as the commercial values for that year. Generally the commercial value is about 15 cents per pound of nitrogen, 5 cents per pound of available phosphoric acid, and 5 cents per pound of potash.
How to calculate the commercial value. — Multiply the prices given above by the number of pounds of nitrogen, available phosphoric acid, and potash respectively in a ton
mercial value of the fertilizer.
Example. — What is the commercial value of one ton of complete fertilizer which the printing on the bags guarantees to contain 1.65 per cent of nitrogen, 10 per cent of available phosphoric acid, and 2 per cent of potash ?
If the cash price asked by the dealer is many dollars per ton above the estimated commercial value for that year, a calculation should be made to learn what it would cost for the farmer to make his own fertilizer by mixing together acid phosphate, cotton-seed meal, and kainit, or other chemicals.
Example. — What will it cost to make a home-mixed fertilizer, having the same composition as the fertilizer given in the table, with cotton-seed meal at $22 per ton, acid phosphate (with 16 per cent available phosphoric acid) at $15 per ton, and kainit at $14 per ton? The price asked for the ready-mixed fertilizer is $21 per ton. How much meal, phosphate, and kainit must be mixed in order to obtain an equivalent, but less expensive, fertilizer?
1 These figures will answer for practice. To get the exact prices of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash for any particular year, write to the State Commissioner of Agriculture at the state capital.
Potash 2 lbs. per cwt. x 20 cwt. s 40 lbs.
First find how much cotton-seed meal is needed to aflford 33 pounds of nitrogen. The table on page 106 gives the per cent of nitrogen in cotton-seed meal as 6^ ; this means that each hundredweight of meal contains 6i lb. of nitrogen. Evidently to supply 33 lb. of nitrogen, as many hundredweight of meal are needed as 6} is contained times in 33. Thus 33 -^ 6i = 5.07 cwt., or 507 lbs., of cotton-seed meal are needed.
Next find how much phosphoric acid and potash this amount of meal will supply. From the tables below it is seen that i cwt. of cotton-seed meal contains 2.8 lbs. of phosphoric acid ; therefore, 5.07 cwt. contain (5.07 X 2.8) 14.196 lbs. Likewise for potash, 5.07 cwt cotton-seed meal contain 5.07 x 1.8 = 10.126 lbs. of potash.
Lbs. phosphoric acid to be supplied in phosphate 185.8
How many pounds of phosphate containing 16% of available phosphoric acid are needed to furnish 185.8 lbs. of phosphoric acid? Evidently as many hundred as 16 is contained times in 185.8. Thus, 185.8 -T- 16 = 11.61 cwt., or 1161 lbs. of acid phosphate are required.
Lbs. potash to be supplied in kainit 39.8
To furnish 29.8 lbs. of kainit requires as many hundredweight of kainit as 12 (the number of pounds of potash which the table shows is contained in 1 cwt.of kainit) is contained times in 29.8. Thus 29.8 -t- 12 = 2.46 cwt., or 246 lbs. of kainit are needed.
Fillers in fertilizers. — A full ton of the mixture is not always needed to afford the desired amount of plant- food. If a full ton having the given percentage composition is wanted, add the necessary amount of some worthless material, such as ground stone or cinders. Such worthless additions to fertilizers are called fillers. If manufacturers add them it is for the purpose of making a fertilizer that they can afford to sell at a low price. To avoid buying and hauling useless filler, use only the highest grades of manufactured fertilizers. These are higher in price, but generally furnish nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash at a lower cost per pound than do low-grade, cheap fertilizers. In choosing fertilizers, select that one in which a pound of plant-food costs the least.
Exercise. — Copy in your notebook the two examples given in this section and understand them so that you can work similar examples on the blackboard, or for some farmer.
Note to the Teacher. — If the sixth grade studies agriculture, this section may be omitted. It should be required, together wiih the additional problems, when the class in agriculture consists of the seventh
or some higher grade. It is suggested that several problems like the preceding be worked in class, either by dwelling long enough on this lesson, or by substituting this class of problems for the usual lesson in arithmetic.
(4) How much 16 7„ phosphate, cotton-seed meal, and muriate of potash would afford the same number of pounds of each plant-food as one ton of the fertilizer mentioned in first problem ?
(6) Which should a farmer buy, acid phosphate containing i67o available phosphoric acid, costing $14 per ton, or a lower grade containing 12 7o? costing $12 per ton? What does a pound of available phosphoric acid in each cqst?
The amount of fertilizer per acre varies with the land and with the crop. Vegetables and cotton generally pay better for large amounts of fertilizer than does corn. For cotton, many farmers use only 200 pounds per acre. Good farmers often use 400 to 600 pounds. Growers of vegetables increase this to as much as one half or one ton of commercial fertilizer per acre. As labor and land become scarcer or higher it pays to increase the amount of fertilizer. Some land may be too poor for very large amounts of fertilizer to be very profitable. This is because a poor soil may be so shallow or sq deficient in vegetable matter that in dry weather it can hold just enough water to make good use of only 300 pounds of fertilizer per acre. When this same soil is made deeper and supplied with vegetable matter, it may hold enough moisture to use profitably double this amount.
Experienced farmers often apply more phosphate than the crop will remove from the land because the clay or iron in the soil changes some of it into a form that plants cannot use. This cannot be prevented and fortunately phosphate is not very expensive. Nitrogen, however, is about three times as expensive as phosphoric acid, hence
however, some helpful
rules. Generally, a soil that is black or very dark contains much vegetable matter, which in turn contains much nitrogen. On the other hand, if the stalks of crops cul-
tivated on a field are small, there is probably need of nitrogen in the soil. A crop of cowpeas or clover usually leaves the soil rich in nitrogen. Clay soils generally contain more potash than sandy soils. Whether a soil is rich in phosphoric acid cannot be told by looking at it.
he cannot tell how much of every precious element is in a condition for plants to use. The chemist's analysis does not, therefore, show what fertilizer to apply.
fertilizers.
It will pay to make this experiment with the principal crop of any farm. The following diagram shows how to make such a test. The areas must be of exactly the same
The plots must be on the same kind of soil and equally well drained. If it is not convenient to harvest the crop separately on so many plots, use only plots i, 2, 3, 4, and 5.
Fertilizers that do not work well together. — Two fertilizers that must not be mixed are lime and phosphate. The lime changes the phosphate into a less soluble form and thus reduces its value as a fertilizer. Now, ashes contain much lime ; therefore ashes and phosphate should not be used together.
Exercise. — Learn from a farmer in the neighborhood, or from the printing on fertilizer sacks, the composition of the fertilizer most used in your neighborhood. Is it used on all sorts of soils? If it suits poor clay soils, is it apt to be the best for sandy land? By making the fertilizer experiment described in this Section, you may be able to inr crease greatly the profits of some farm the next year.
Note to the Teacher. — The calculation of the commercial values of fertilizers and practice in calculating fertilizer formulas of definite composition should be continued.
SECTION XX. LIME
Chalk is one form of lime. Another form is quicklime, which consists of large lumps, from which bricklayers make their mortar. If a bricklayer pours only a small amount of water on a lump of quicklime, the lump absorbs the water and falls into a powder. This lime that has been slacked or changed into a powder by water is the fofm generally used when the farmer employs lime as a fertilizer. He buys the quicklime and lets it slack or absorb water after it reaches the farm.
Lime overcomes sourness of soils. — All of these forms of lime are alkaline, that is, the opposite of acid. Quicklime is more alkaline than the other kinds of lime and fresh-slacked lime ranks next. If either of these forms of lime is placed in contact with an acid, the lime unites with the acid and by forming a substance different from either, that is, neither alkaline nor acid, it destroys the acidity. If, therefore, lime is put on sour soil, it unites with the acids that made the soil sour, changing them into harmless substances.
How to know that a soil is sour. — A doctor cannot well cure sickness until he determines the nature of the disease. When he has done this, he knows what medicines to give. Likewise it is important for the farmer to know the condition of his soil. If sourness is the principal trouble, lime will aid some crops to grow much better on this soil To
test soil for sourness or acidity strips of blue litmus paper are used (purchase at drug store). Acid turns the paper pink or red. Since the acid in a sour soil is weak, it will change the color of blue litmus paper not to red, but to pink.
Cut a slit with a knife in the moist soil to be tested and place the blue paper in this slit. Press the damp soil against both sides of the paper for about two minutes. If the paper becomes pink where it has been moistened by the earth, the soil is acid. The deeper or redder the color, the more acid is the soil.
Large areas of acid soils in the South. — In regions where the long-leaf or yellow pine is the principal forest tree, much acid soil is usually found, especially in the low places. Farther from the coast sandy soils are sometimes found to be acid even on the tops of mountain plateaus. Spots of poorly drained bottom lands, known as " crawfish land," are often sour.
plants grow fairly well in such land. Some of the crops that can endure slight acidity of the soil are cotton, corn, cowpeas, and watermelons (Fig. 70). It may not pay to
buy lime for these. There are other plants, however, which will not thrive on a sour soil until lime is applied as a fertilizing material. Among these are red clover and alfalfa. Wheat, peanuts, sorghum, onions, beets, and cabbages yield much better when lime is used on a soil that previously was acid.
How to use lime as a fertilizer. — Quicklime (or lump lime) must be slacked before being spread. This can be done either by pouring water over it while in boxes or in the wagon body, or by covering piles of a few bushels of quicklime with a layer of damp earth. Within a few days or weeks the water in the earth will reduce the lumps of lime to powder, and it is then ready to be spread broadcast on the plowed ground and harrowed in. From six to twelve barrels of quicklime (which will occupy much more space and weigh more after slacking) are used on one acre. Lime need not be applied oftener than once in three or five years.
Other uses of lime when added to the soil. — Lime is a plant-food. Besides overcoming the acidity of certain soils, lime causes the beneficial nitrate-forming germs to increase. It is useful also in hastening the rotting of vegetable matter, such as leaves or weeds which have been plowed under. This rotting must occur before roots can use such vegetable matter.
Lime makes stiff clay soils more porous, and more easily worked. Like cultivation, it is a stimulant. It changes some of the potash in the soil into a form that plants can use. It may cause a poor, sandy soil to become exhausted rapidly by putting into crops the little fertility
Do not mix lime with barnyard manure or acid phosphate, nor add it to a manure pile or compost heap. It rots these materials so rapidly that it drives off into the air a part of the nitrogen or ammonia of the manure, the* loss of which is rhade known by the strong smell of the escaping ammonia gas. A covering of soil over the compost pile would absorb and hold the ammonia ; hence lime in the soil would not do the harm it might when mixed above the ground with manures or fertilizers.
Note to the Teacher. — It will be worth while to buy from a wholesale druggist a 15-cent bottle of blue litmus paper. Obtain in addition a bottle of red litmus paper, which is turned blue by lime. Have pupils test a number of soils with the blue litmus paper, afterwards showing to the class the paper used and describing the kind of soil found, acid, neutral, or alkaline. Test with blue and red litmus all obtainable fertilizers, also salt, soda, various well-waters, etc.
Rotation means change in some regular order. Rotation of crops is the exact opposite of the growth of the same crop year after year on the same land. It has been found that when one kind of plant is grown year after year on the same land, the yield decreases. If a different kind of crop, peanuts or cowpeas for example, comes in between two cotton crops or two wheat crops, the yield of the cotton or wheat is greatly increased. The different crops ought not only "to take time about" on any one field, but should follow each other in a somewhat definite order. It is impossible in this limited space to arrange tables showing the best order for all crops on the different soils. However, some reasons for rotation are given in the following pages.
Rotation to get rid of weeds. — A corn field generally contains more grass and weeds than a cotton field, because the cultivation of the corn is usually stopped earlier in the summer, thus giving grass a chance to spring up. Cotton is cultivated so late into the summer that in the fall a well-kept cotton field is nearly clean. If a field produces several crops of oats or wheat in succession, it becomes quite weedy. The wise farmer will grow on that field one or two crops of cotton or of some other plant that he cultivates very tlioroughly, in order to get rid of the weeds.
ROTATION OF CROPS
Rotation to add vegetable matter. — No soil can be kept fertile unless vegetable matter is added to it, either by the decay of large amounts of plants grown on the land or by other means. Place must be made in any rotation for an occasional crop that leaves much vegetable matter to be plowed under. Such crops are hay plants, which completely cover the surface and leave a mass of roots and fallen leaves. The stubble of wheat and oats, together with the growth of weeds
quently as can well be done,
of some leguminous crop, such as cowpeas, clover, peanuts, or velvet beans. When oats or wheat are grown, cowpeas ought usually to be sown in June after the grain crop is removed. • Cowpeas ought generally to be sown among
IN EACH Bundle
On left, grown after plowing under the stubble of mixed vetch and oats; on right, after oat stubble. Weights, 33 and 18 pounds.
the growing corn plants to improve the soil. Figure 72 shows that the nitrogen in the stubble of a previous crop of vetch, a leguminous plant, increased the yield of com planted as soon as the vetch was cut.
Another reason for rotating crops is to diversify the farm products. The farmer who grows several crops has his labor better distributed over the entire year than the farmer who grows only one or two crops and is less injured if storm, accidents, or low prices cut off his profit on one crop.
Rotation to avoid diseases and insect pests. — Every cultivated plant has its own special diseases and insect enemies that do not attack most other farm crops. Many kinds of disease germs and insects remain alive in the soil for one or more years, ready to do injury when the proper plant is grown on that field. If the plants that would be attacked by these pests are kept away from that field for a few years, all or most of the germs or insects die of starvation. If, however, the plant subject to attack is put on the same le.nd again, the pest increases and does more and more harm.
Examples of rotation. — Rotation must vary with the kinds of crops to be grown and with the number of acres given to each. Here is a rotation in which about one third of the land is to be used for producing cotton : —
Plant one third of the land in cotton ; one third in corn, with cowpeas sown later between the corn rows (Fig. 73); and one third in oats or wheat, planting cowpeas in June after the grain is harvested. This is called a threeyear rotation, because at the end of three years each
peas ; and plant cotton every year where oats or wheat (and afterwards cowpeas) grew the year before. Study the following diagrams until this order of cropping is understood.
Under this rotation the soil bears a soil-improving crop two years out of every three and the farm becomes richer year by year. A soil-improving crop can be grown every year by sowing crimson clover, vetch, or bur clover in September among the cotton plants.
If a farmer wishes half his cultivated area to be in cotton, he can easily do this by growing cotton two years in succession, changing the three-year to a four-year rotation. In a four-year rotation each field bears the same crop in the fifth year as in the first. The smaller areas used for peanuts, sweet potatoes, vetches, sorghum, watermelons, and other minor crops are rotated on different parts of a single field near the barn, letting crops that add nitrogen to the soil rotate with those that do not have this power.
A good rotation for sugar cane in regions where the cane stubble lives through the winter is : — first year, corn, with cowpeas grown between for fertilizing the cane ; second year, sugar cane ; third year, or third and fourth years, sugar cane from the stubble. In climates where a good stand of sugar cane does not spring up from the stubble, a rotation for sugar cane is : first year, cowpeas or velvet beans ; second year, sugar cane. In the region just north of the cotton-belt a satisfactory rotation is: first year, wheat, among which red clover or grass seeds are sown ; second year, clover or timothy hay ;
The soil will be enriched still more rapidly if crimson clover is added to a rotation for a cotton farm. This three-year rotation then takes the following form : —
In three years under this rotation a field bears three fiber and grain crops (cotton, oats, and corn) and four crops of soil-improving forage plants (cowpcas and crimsoQ clover, each twice).
Exercise. — What farm or garden crops, that are extensively grown in your neighborhood, leave the field most free from weed^ ? Which one permits weeds to grow ? Can the corn crop be harvested in time for wheat or fall-sown oats to be sown ?
Note to the Teacher. — Encourage pupils who have grown up on farms to write on the blackboard a statement of the best rotation in use by any farmer of their acquaintance, and to decide whether any of the teachings of this Section and of Section XXX suggest a possible improvement in the local rotation of crops.
Corn belongs to the grass family. Some of the plants to which it is related are all true grasses, as sugar cane, wheat, oats, rye, barley, and rice. Corn differs from most of its relatives in having both a tassel and an ear, and in having these located on different parts of the plant.
A corn plant in full tassel gives off a cloud of dust-like particles when shaken. There are estimated to be about 18,000,000 tiny pollen grains formed by each tassel. Most of these are wasted, but those that fall on the silks are useful. There are as many silks as spaces for grains of corn on the ear.
Races of corn. — There are only a few races of corn, the most important being pop, sweet, dent (or common), and flint corn. In each race there are many varieties.
Mixing of races of corn. — Some ears of popcorn have some kernels like those of field corn. These have been crossed with common com. Hence popcorn should not be planted near other kinds that will tassel at the same time. If it is impossible to plant it away from all other kinds, arrange the date of planting so as to have it silk and tassel before the other corn, or after the tassels on the common corn have shed their pollen and dried. Sweet corn readily crosses with field corn, and some of its grains are then smooth instead of wrinkled, as dry kernels of sweet corn ought to be. When these races cross, the
cause crossing between two varieties of dent corn does not always change the character of the grains the first year. The growing of two varieties of corn close together (unless they are planted at such dates as to cause them to tassel at different times) should be avoided.
Corn is a plant easily improved by the method given in Section VIII. It is also a plant that quickly becomes mixed, and hence inferior, if great care is not taken in the
soil, then keep it pure and improve it.
Corn roots and the preparation they require. — A corn plant may have 20 to 50 roots, many of them as long as the plant itself. These, with their branches and roothairs, are always busy taking water from the soil. Hence corn yields best on a soil that is always moist (but not wet). It needs land so deeply plowed before planting and so well drained that some of its roots can grow deep down where there is moisture even when the weather is dry. Plow deep in preparing a field, if you can plow early.
Corn is planted either in elevated ridges or beds, in depressions or water furrows, or in level ground (Fig, 78), according to the soil and the farmer's judgment. Plant corn just deep enough to make sure that it will continually be in moist soil until germinated. Usually a depth between one and three inches is best.
Distance between plants. — The poorer and drier the land, the greater must be the distance between plants. But land on which corn requires more than three feet between plants, in rows five feet apart, is probably too poor and dry for corn. The richer and moister the land, the more the plants can be crowded ; the rows on some bottom lands are only three and a half feet apart. In the South, corn is usually planted from the first of March to the middle of June.
Cultivation. — Corn roots are long and near the surface ; this shows that cultivation ought to be shallow. Heavy rains after planting make some clay lands very compact. This causes some farmers to give one deep cultivation while the plants are very small. Avoid this unless sure that it is necessary, and then make this deep cultivation only when the plants are very young. A corn plant six inches high may have roots twelve to eighteen inches long. Many of them would be cut by deep cultivation.
It is possible and wise to cultivate corn before it comes up. This is done by running a spike-tooth harrow or a weeder over the field, either across or along the rows. In this way millions of tiny weeds and grass plants are killed just after they have come up. This early cultivation also forms a loose layer of earth all over the field, which holds
CORN 127
the moisture in the ground, thus making the corn come up more completely and quickly and causing the young plants to grow more rapidly. This cultivation with the weeder can be kept up until the corn plants are several inches or even a foot high. One man with a horse or mule can thus cultivate 10 to 12 acres in a day.
In the cotton belt, upland corn is usually thinned to one plant in a hill. Corn should be cultivated as soon after every rain as the soil is dry enough. A cheap implement much used in the South for cultivating corn is the " heel scrape." Various styles of one-horse and two-horse cultivators are used. Cultivation usually ceases before all the silks appear. In cultivating corn avoid ridging the land very much, because this takes earth from the middle of the row and because ridging increases the amount of surface that evaporates moisture.
Fertilizers. — Corn grows best on rich, moist land, and it pays better to enrich the land by growing cowpeas or other soil-improving plants in previous years than to use large amounts of commercial fertilizers. Manure, applied early, is the best fertilizing material for corn. When this cannot be had, moderate amounts of commercial fertilizers rich in nitrogen may be used on land needing fertilizer. A mixture of 200 pounds of cotton-seed meal and 100 pounds of acid phosphate per acre is often satisfactory.
Stripping the leaves. — Many farmers in the South strip off the corn leaves to obtain " fodder " with which to feed their teams. When the farmer strips the green leaves from the corn plant he stops the accumulation of carbon, the material of which the corn grain chiefly consists.
Thus he reduces the yield of corn grain several bushels per acre. The same amount of labor employed in making hay as in " pulling fodder " would produce much more food for stock. The practice of cutting and shocking the corn plants just after most of the shucks have turned brownish does not greatly reduce the yield.
Exercise. — Find ears or even kernels of sweet com and popcorn, and bring these, as well as dent-corn ears, to the class. Write in your notebook a description of the shape, size, etc., of grains of each. Examine a com plant and locate the brace roots. Examine ten ears of corn and record in your notebook the number of rows on each. Can you find any ear with fifteen rows? Can you discover any law or rule about the number of rows?
Note to the Teacher. — Helpful object lessons for this chapter are : Dried or fresh corn tassels ; unhusked ears of corn with adhering silks ; ears of sweet, pop, flint, and dent corn, and ears of pop or sweet com with a few dent grains. Com kernels planted close to the glass side of a box (Fig. 22 ) or near the glass inside of a tumbler permit a study of com roots. Keep the glass covered with black pai)er or cloth except when making observations. Washing the soil from the roots of a growing corn plant, by the use of a small stream of water from an elevated barrel or bucket, will reveal the length and position of the roots and thus enforce the lesson of shallow cultivation.
By careful selection of seed-corn, five bushels or more per acre can be added to the usual yield. It pays well, therefore, to learn to select or judge corn. It is important to select seed from good plants, and also from the best ears.
Selecting the best ear. — On p. 131 is the score-card adopted by the corn-growers of one state. It gives all the points to be taken into consideration in judging corn. Experience is needed to bring skill in this.
General Directions. Begin with the second horizontal line in the table, which is for "shape of ear." Carefully examine the ear to discover whether or not the shape is perfect. Among defects may be slight crookedness, too much taper, or rows of kernels twisting around the cob instead of being straight. A shape that is very good may be scored "9"; a perfect shape, 10, is rare. If there are very great defects in shape, give it some lower number, say " 8," if its only weak point is a moderate twisting of the rows of kernels.
After deciding on the score for each quality, write the figure or grade in the proper blank column in the table. When all the other qualities have been noted, score the first one.
The color of the cob should not be different from the usual color for that variety. White cobs are preferred if the grain is white, and red cobs if the grain is yellow. The yield, however, is not affected, whether the cob be uniformly white or uniformly red. Cobs of different colors in one variety indicate impurity or crossing, and such ears should be rejected.
the tips of the grains often indicates how they may germinate. Poor or low germination results when the tips of the grains are either (i) black or brownish, (2) shriveled,
medium-sized depression where the ear stalk or shank was attached to the cob. Stand the ear on end. If the butt is even, as it should be, the ear will stand erect or vertical. An ear with butt much larger than the remainder of the ear, or with several extra, short rows of grains, is badly shaped.
Uniformity of kernels. — Except the grains near the ends of the ear, the kernels on one ear and in one variety should be nearly similar in shape, size, and degree of denting on the top. When corn is planted by machinery, it is important for the grains to be of one size, so that the same number may be dropped in each hill.
Shape of kernels. — The grains are most compactly arranged when they are almost square-shouldered, both at the crown or top, and next the cob. A grain rounded at the top wastes space and is apt to be short. A well-shaped kernel is well filled next to the cob, giving room for a large germ. The larger the germ, the better. The grain should be large, and it is best when the shape is like numbers i, 2, 8, 9 (Fig. 82).
Length of ear. — The best length differs for different varieties. If the ears are short, the yield is reduced. If they are unusually long, there is danger that the ear may not be well covered by the shuck. In varieties bearing only one ear to the plant, the ear should generally be more than nine inches long.
Circumference of ear. — The measure around an ear is taken with a tape-line a: a point one third the distance from the larger end. The usual rule is for the circumference to be three fourths the length of the same ear. An ear much larger around than this may have too large a cob, and may dry out too slowly. A very slender ear may have too small a cob, and grains that are much too short.
Space between rows. — If these furrows are deep and wide, they indicate a poorly shaped, round-shouldered kernel. Such ears yield a low percentage of grain (Fig. 83).
Space between kernels at cob. — Spaces between the flat sides of the kernels, near the cob, show that the grains are not occupying all the room they might (Fig. 84). On right, too much On such ears, the tips of the kernels are
ear is twisted.
Proportion of com to cob. — This is determined by shelling the ear (or half the ears in an exhibit of ten ears), and weighing the shelled corn and the cob. The weight of the shelled grain is then divided by the weight of cob and grain. The quotient gives the per cent of g^ain on the husked ear. With most highly bred varieties the selected ears arc expected to show at least 86 or 88 per cent of grain.
ears on which the germs in the grains are dead or injured. A very even stand may be obtained by testing between moist blotting-paper six grains from every ear of seedcorn. Do not plant the ears whose grains fail to sprout or that make small, weak sprouts.
Exercise. — Every pupil should bring to school at least one ear of com for use in reciting this lesson. After one ear has been scored under the teacher's direction pupils may by themselves practice scoring or comparing other ears.
Note to the Teacher. — The first day let every pupil carefully score one ear. Repeat this exercise from two to four times, being carefol that each day every pupil scores a different ear or ears. Encourage every one to give the reasons why he scored each quality of a certain ear high or low, and by consensus of opinion try to decide which are really the best ears.
When the class shows some proficiency in scoring single ears, and before interest wanes, endeavor to have every pupil bring from home either five, or better ten, selected ears. Let them first place the ears quickly from left to right in supposed order of merit ; then score every ear, re-arranging the ears according to the scores now given. Two or more days may well be spent on each set of ten ears. Then new sets may be brought or the different sets may be exchanged.
It will stimulate interest and proficiency to promise that when the class has had five to ten days of practice in corn judging, it may give a public exhibition of corn and of corn judging.
The public exercises should consist of (i) the placing in order of merit of five or ten ears, (2) the careful scoring of some of these ears, and (3) in answer to the teacher's questions, a statement of reasons why certain ears are scored or arranged low down.
This may be supplemented by a display of sets of ten ears of corn brought on invitation by neighbors ; by the display of the results of a germination test; by the reading of a short composition on some phase of corn growing ; and by the reading of extracts from bulletins on. corn published bv some experiment station.
BARLEY
These four crops are called the small-grains. Each one of them is an important human food in some part of the world. Oats and barley are largely used as hay or pasturage. Their straw is fed to live-stock or used for bedding. Wheat makes better bread than any other grain.
Resemblances between the small-grains. — Wheat, oats, rye, and barley all bear seeds or grains at the top of a hollow stem or straw. Although the walls of the straw are thin, the hollow form gives great strength to a small amount of stem material.
These small-grain plants are alike in having no taproot, but only a great number of fine roots springing from a center or crown. This crown, or starting-place for the permanent roots, is usually about one inch below the surface of the ground, whether the seed be planted deep or shallow. The seeds are sown one to three inches deep.
Some differences between the plants of wheat, oats, rye, and barley. — The heads of oats are branched and open, but those of wheat, rye, and barley have grain clusters or spikelets closely joined to the main stem. The heads of rye are long, somewhat flattened, and have long beards. Common barley and bearded wheat have shorter heads with stiff spreading beards. Some of the best varieties of wheat, however, do not have beards.
How to recognize the young
plants. — It is possible to distinguish between fields of these plants when they are small. This can be done by the width of the leaves, and the erect or spreading growth. It is sometimes puzzling to decide whether a single young plant is wheat, oats, rye, or barley. On the leaves of young barley, wheat, and rye plants there are tiny growths like little horns, clasping the stem. These may be called " clasps." They
next largest, or medium-sized clasps. They are unlike those of barley and rye, and bear on their edges a few very fine, short hairs. Rye has smaller clasps than either wheat or barley. The oat plant has no clasps at all.
Oats, wheat, and barley do not
need bright colors and nectar in their flowers to attract insects, because they are self-pollinated. That is, the pollen in any one flower fertilizes the pistil in that same flower. Self-pollination does not seem to injure plants that are accustomed to it. It keeps varieties of wheat or of oats from mixing with each other through the carrying of pollen by wind or insects. Thus red oats do not naturally cross with Burt or Turf oats. However, rye may be cross-pollinated.
WHEAT, OATS, RYE, AND BARLEY 139
Preparation of land. — Good preparation should be given to the land intended for wheat. This grain requires a seed-bed that at the time of planting is compact or settled in the lower layers but loose and fine in the upper ones. This is best secured by plowing land for wheat a number of weeks before sowing the seed. Then pulverize the clods with a harrow.
Unfortunately, some farmers seem to think that any kind of preparation or none at all is good enough for oats. An oat seed is well protected by its hull and can lie for weeks uninjured among dry clods. But, nevertheless, oats should not be deeply buried under large clods, for this makes the plants come up at different dates and ripen unevenly, and makes the stand thinner than it would otherwise be.
Thickness of sowing small-grains. — When planted at the usual distance, a wheat or an oat plant generally ripens from two to six heads on an equal number of stems or branches. But a plant well fertilized, planted early, and given abundant space, may form more than a score of stems and heads.
This habit of branching from buds at the crown permits the plants of these crops to occupy as much or more than the usual space. It explains why sometimes just as large a crop comes from sowing two bushels of oats as from sowing three bushels per acre. About five pecks of wheat or rye per acre are generally sown.
Varieties. — Among the standard varieties of wheat for the Southern states are Blue Stem and Fultz, which are beardless or smooth, and Fuicaster, which has beards. Red oats is the standard Southern kind. It is called rustproof because it is less injured by rust than most other
varieties. The Burt oat is an early Southern variety and is sown after Christmas. Southern rye affords more forage than does rye seed brought south from higher latitudes.
BY Oats sown in the Fall than by those sown in February
Time to sow small-grains. — Rye and wheat are usually unhurt by the coldest weather that occurs in the Southern states. Hence they are always sown in the fall. Barley and winter, or Turf, oats are usually sown in the same season. In the southern part of the cotton-belt, Red oats can be sown either in the fall or after Christmas. Wher-
ever oats can live through the winter, the yield is much larger from sowing the seed in the fall than from sowing oats after Christmas (Fig. 89).
the ice is forced up
above ground. In rising it lifts a little earth, and with the earth the young and slightly rooted plant is carried. When the ground thaws, the uplifted earth, being heavy, falls back into place, but the plant remains in its raised position. This heaving may be repeated several times.
inches apart.
Improvement of seed. — Large seeds generally produce larger crops than do light seeds (Figs. 90, 91). Both wheat and oats can be greatly improved by selecting the best plants and sowing their seed in a small seed-plot. Any improvement once made is apt to be permanent, because wheat and oats do not cross with inferior kinds. On any farm where oats or wheat mature large, plump grains, it is better to use home-grown seeds than those from other
parts of the country. When properly cared for, wheat and oats do not " run out " and do not require change of seed. Fertilizers for small grains. — These plants make much of their growth during the cooler part of the year. Then the vegetable matter in the soil is not then rotting very rapidly so as to furnish the plant with available nitrogen. For this reason the fertiHzer for the small grains ought to be rich in nitrogen. Nitrate of soda is especially suited to the small grains. This can be sown on the growing plants in spring and need not be covered. Acid phosphate, applied when the seed are sown, is often a profitable fertilizer for small grains On very poor soils, it may be necessary to add also some form of potash, making a complete fertilizer.
Exercise. — If this chapter is studied just after rye has formed heads, notice the abundance of pollen. What does this suggest? Examine a head of oats to learn how many grains in each spikelet or cluster ; which one is the larger ; and where the beards, if any, start. In the same way examine a head of wheat. Resolve to save seeds of the best plants of oats or wheat, when ripe, for a seed-row where the seeds can be improved by continued selection of the best plants.
Note to the Teacher. — A comparison of heads (or of grains of young plants) of the four small-grains will suggest many points of similarity and of contrast. Be sure to give practice in identifying the plants by means of the clasps. If any of the small-grains are in bloom, have each pupil examine a flower and describe the stamens and pistils.
Every nation depends largely upon the southern part of the United States for cotton. The Chinaman, as well as the Englishman, is clothed in American cotton. All classes of people, from beggars to princes, make use of it, and the world is continually calling for more. Foreign countries send more gold into the United States in payment for our cotton than for any other American crop.
c, Indian.
The cotton crop of the Southern states, which is usually between ii,cxx),cxx) and 13,000,000 bales per year, generally sells for an amount between ^600,000,000 and $750,000,000, including the seed.
The next largest producer of cotton is India. Most Indian cotton, however, is of poorer quality and lower price than the American. Egypt stands third as a cotton-producing country. Its product has a very long staple, and sells for a higher price than American cotton.
COTTON
Some of it is imported into the United States for use in making goods where a long staple is required. In length, the staple of Egyptian is between that of American longstaple and Sea Island cotton. Egyptian and Indian cottons are not nearly so productive in America as are the varieties generally grown in the Southern states.
The cotton plant. — Cotton belongs to the Mallow family, which includes not only all kinds of cotton, but also okra, hollyhocks, and a number of common weeds and flowers.
The several kinds of cotton differ greatly in their stalks, leaves, blooms, and lint. In tropical countries, cotton is a tree-like plant, not dying in winter. In the southern part of Texas cotton plants springing from roots that live over winter are troublesome because they give food to the cotton-boll weevil early in the spring.
Why cotton makes strong thread and cloth. — Cotton is popular for making thread, cloth, and rope, in spite of the fact that a single fiber of the common kind is generally not over one inch long. This is because a cotton fiber is a twisted, hollow tube (Fig. 94). The twist makes the separate cotton fibers cling tightly to each other, just as two chains would do if twisted together. The fibers are so small that 1200 to 1500 of them could be laid side by side in the space of one inch.
States. These are, (i) common or short-staple, (2) longstaple upland, and (3) Sea Island cotton. Long-staple upland cotton resembles common cotton very much in appearance and has the same shape of leaf; but its bolls are usually more slender and the lint longer, usually being one and one eighth to one and one half inches
Each dot stands for an annual yield of 500 bales.
long. This extra length makes it worth several cents more per pound. However, long-staple cotton is not so productive of lint as the best varieties of short-staple and is a little later in maturing. It prefers bottom land. Among the popular varieties are Allen, Florodora, and Griffin.
and long-staple upland cotton. The lint is very long and fine, and commands a price more than double that of common cotton. There is, however, much less lint per acre. Sea Island cotton is largely grown on and near the seacoast in South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida, and is not a profitable crop very far from the coast (Fig. 95).
Varieties of short-staple upland cotton. — There are several hundred separate names, but many of these are merely new names for well-known old varieties. The following are the main groups of varieties : —
The cluster varieties bear a part of their bolls in clusters, several bolls being near together, and many near the main stem. The plant is slender and the upper limbs very short. A well-known cluster variety is Jackson. These varieties drop many of the squares or blossoms when weather or cultivation is unfavorable (Fig. 97).
Semi-cluster varieties resemble cluster varieties in shape of plant, but the bolls are not borne in clusters. The middle and upper limbs, though short, are a little longer than in the cluster varieties. A popular semi-cluster cotton is Hawkins (Fig. 98).
The King group consists of low plants with numerous crooked limbs of medium length. On many of the blossoms there is a red spot near the base of each petal and inside
the flower. The bolls are small. This is the earliest wellknown American kind, and hence has been used as a means of insuring a crop of open cotton against boll weevils, which become numerous late in the season. The lint is short and readily falls from the bolls. The early varieties of cotton, and indeed of most crops, are not usually so productive as those that take a longer time to complete their growth (Fig. 99).
The Peterkin group consists of varieties having small seed, some of which are black and nearly free from fuzz. A quality much liked about this variety is the fact that there is a greater weight of lint in proportion to seed than usual. For example, sometimes as much as 37 to 40 per cent of the seed-cotton consists of lint, so that a full bale (500 pounds) is often made from only 1350 pounds of seedcotton. Among the best-known varieties are Peterkin and Layton. Unfortunately, the bolls are small (Fig. 102).
The big- boll group takes its name from the large size of the bolls. It requires only 45 to 68 of these to yield one pound of seed-cotton. Much more can be picked in a day than from varieties having smaller bolls. Most of the bigboll varieties are late in maturing, but some of them are medium in maturity. This group needs to be improved by being made earlier, and by an increase in the number of bolls per plant. Among the best known and most productive varieties of this group are Russell (which has large g^een seed), Truitt, Cleveland, and Cook Improved (Fig. 101).
Desirable qualities. — The ability to yield the greatest number of pounds of lint cotton per acre is the quality most desired. A high percentage of lint is often a means
of securing this large yield of lint. Large bolls are very desirable, since they make picking easier and quicker. Earliness is needed in the northern part of the cotton belt and is a most important quality wherever the boll weevil is present. The " storm-proof " quality, or ability of the seed-cotton to cling in the boll rather than to fall on the ground, is desirable, if it does not go to the point of making picking very difficult. The fiber must not be very short. In sandy soils, where cotton-wilt is common, ability to live in spite of this disease is an important character that has been developed in some varieties, as Dixie, some strains of Jackson, and certain Sea Island varieties.
Examples of very satisfactory varieties. — There is no one variety best for all soils and seasons. A productive one is Cook Improved. This has rather large bolls, a high percentage of lint, and is rather early for a big-boll kind. Cleveland is another productive kind, with big bolls. Both of these have the disadvantage of easily falling out of the boll. Cook Improved is especially liable to rotting of the bolls. Almost equally productive are Toole and Layton. Both have a high percentage of lint, but small bolls. For earliness, no well-known variety stands ahead of King.
The varieties most extensively grown at present are probably Peterkin, Russell, and Truitt. Triumph is adapted to the western region, where the boll weevil is present. It has a large boll and a high percentage of lint. Generally a storm-proof variety is preferred in Texas.
all may have had an equal chance. Hence, it is very easy to improve cotton by selecting seed from the best plants. The yield of lint and the percentage of lint in the seedcotton can be increased, the bolls made larger, the lint longer, and the plants earlier or shorter-jointed. But all of these cannot be attained at the same time. It is best to start with a pure variety that is satisfactory in all but one
squares show the large amount in the seed.
quality, and then select from good plants that make the nearest approach to this desired quality. The first rule in cotton-breeding is to select chiefly for one quality at a time and to keep up this selection for the same quality every year. The second rule is to keep separate the seed of each of the best twenty or more mother plants and to grow each in a separate row the next year. The seeds from the best rows should be saved. Always locate the breeding-patch as far from other cotton as possible. Insects carry cotton
soil, the proportion of nitrogen should be increased.
Exercise. — Write in your notebook the names of the varieties of cotton grown in the neighborhood. Which of these have large bolls? Small bolls? Long staple? Very green seed? Partly sleek or very dark seed ? Small seed ? Examine ten plants or even ten dead cotton stalks and notice how widely they differ. Would there be any advantage in selecting seed from uniform plants? Decide which kind of plant you would select from. Why ? When the next cotton crop is mature, begin to select and improve cotton by the method described in this section.
Note to the Teacher. — If possible, make one or more excursions into the cotton fields. Bend every effort to make the pupil see more in a cotton plant than ever before ; for example, variations in leaves and bolls on the same plant, ribs of leaves, the relation between earliness and form of plant, etc. If this lesson is studied after the stalks have been plowed under, let the practice be largely a study of the seed, — sizes, colors, fuzz, shape, hull and kernel, germination, etc. Dampen seeds slightly with extremely thin flour paste, stir, then dry. Do the seeds stick together? What is the practical advantage of this treatment in planting? Advise pupils to try it at home on a bushel of seed, using one cup of flour in two quarts of water.
Sugar cane and corn both belong to the grass family. Safely hidden under the clasping or tube-like lower portion of each leaf are buds or eyes, one at each joint. These serve instead of seed to multiply the plant.
When a stalk of sugar cane is planted, the moist, warm soil causes the buds to grow into young sprouts, which for a little while feed on the juice of the mother cane.
Roots and suckers. — At each bud or eye and extending entirely around the stalk are several rows of small, whitish dots. If cane is planted and a few weeks later dug up, it will be found that the roots have grown out from these spots.
Unfortunately these dots, especially in some varieties, also throw out roots when the cane is blown down and lies touching the damp ground. Roots from the joints above ground are not wanted. In a row where only one continuous line of cane has been planted, there may be single hills from each of which three or more canes may grow. The first grew from the bud ; the others from buds on the base of the young cane. Stalks that grow from a bud on a young plant, rather than directly from a bud on the planted cane, are called suckers. Suckers that start early add to the yield, but those that form late are useless.
SUGAR CANE 1 55
The plant changed by climate. — Sugar cane, like cotton, first grew in countries warmer than the Southern states. Like cotton also, it has greatly changed its habit of growth as it has been carried northward. In the tropics it continues to grow fifteen months or more before being cut.
In Louisiana the tops cannot live through the winter, but the stubble and roots remain alive and furnish a supply of shoots for a second and sometimes for a third crop. Planting, therefore, is necessary only every second or third year. Only once in a number of years is planting necessary in tropical countries. In the central part of the Gulf states, and farther north, the roots usually do not live through the winter, so that stalks of cane have to be planted every year.
Varieties of sugar cane. — Sugar cane forms seeds in very warm countries, but not in the Southern states. The chief use of these seeds is to start new varieties. Plants grown from seeds are more unlike their parents than are plants grown from buds. When a seedling is better than its parent, it is prized as a new variety and is increased by planting canes (Fig. 103).
The variety most generally grown is the red or purple cane, so named from the color of the stem. The striped or ribbon cane that is sometimes grown is so named because it is streaked with irregular stripes of white. Green cane is also grown to some extent. Some of the newer varieties introduced by the Louisiana Experiment Station are proving superior to all of the old varieties and are displacing them in Louisiana. Japanese cane is one of the hardiest varieties and can be grown for syrup farther north
In this way new varieties originate.
than the other kinds. It throws up many slender canes or suckers from every joint. It is sometimes profitably used as a food for hogs and other live-stock.
canes planted, these buds must be kept through the winter in such condition that they will neither freeze, dry, nor shrivel. In Louisiana a part of the cane is planted in the fall, the
soil protecting the buds until the warm, growing weather in the spring, when another part of the crop is planted. In the fall the canes intended for planting in the spring are placed with their leaves overlapping like shingles in
the water furrow of certain rows and covered with earth. In the spring these are taken up and planted (Fig. 104). Farther north cane for planting is kept over winter in beds or heaps covered with earth. In these cooler regions it is usual to dig, rather than to cut, cane intended for planting.
Preparation and cultivation. — In Louisiana a field to be planted in cane the ne.xt year is planted this year in corn, and cowpeas are sown thickly among the corn. The entire growth of cowpeas is turned under by the use of immense plows. This enriches the land by furnishing vegetable matter and nitrogen. Sugar cane is then grown on that field two or three years. On the sandy soils of the southern portion of Georgia and Alabama, a crop of velvet bean vines is sometimes plowed under to enrich the soil for the succeeding crop of sugar cane.
On the stiff soils of the sugar cane plantations of Louisiana the main need is drainage. The land there is plowed into high ridges 5 to 6 feet wide, and rather deep parallel ditches are dug a few rods apart. In other states sugar cane is grown chiefly on sandy bottom land. North of the sugar belt the cane is planted early in spring, using either a single or a double line of canes in each row. Cultivation must be shallow and frequent.
Soils and fertilizers for sugar cane. — Every green leaf throws off into the air moisture brought up from the soil. Hence to supply enough water for such a large leaf surface as a cane field presents, the soil must be well supplied with moisture. No common crop needs more water. Bottom lands, therefore, are generally best for cane.
lizer for this crop should be rich in nitrogen, and should usually contain also phosphoric acid and potash. Four hundred to seven hundred pounds or more of a complete commercial fertilizer is an ordinary amount for an acre.
Yields of sugar cane. — In Hawaii, where the canes are allowed to grow much longer than in the United States before being cut, the yield has been as high as lOO tons of cane per acre. Irrigation is largely responsible for the large yields in those islands. This greatly increases the yield on well-drained laud in the Southern states. A good average yield for an entire sugar estate in Louisiana is 20 to 30 tons per acre ; for sandy pine lands, 1 5 to 20 tons. A good yield of syrup is from 300 to 600 gallons per acre. Large steam mills press the juice from the cane much more completely than do the small mills worked by horse power. The large plantations are equipped with very large and expensive mills.
Making syrup. — The usual outfit for a small cane mill and evaporator is not expensive. In this the juice is boiled until thick enough for syrup. It is usually placed just above a fijrnace. Sometimes boiling is done by steam carried through coils of pipes laid in the bottom of the usual evaporator pan.
Even experienced syrup-makers can make a more uniform article by placing in a bottle of the hot syrup a simple instrument (Baum6 hydr6m'eter) for showing how thick it is. When this sinks to a point between the marks 34 and 35 degrees on the instrument, the boiling is stopped.
To prevent a part of the syrup turning to sugar, it may be put in cans or jugs while still very hot and tightly sealed to exclude the air. The heat kills the germs and thus keeps the syrup from fermenting.
Exercise. — If growing sugar cane or stubble is available, ask permission to examine it. Notice location of bud.s, " root dots," point where suckers originate, position of leaves, etc.
Note to the Teacher. — In regions where sugar cane is one of the chief crops, it will be well for the teacher to write for bulletins on sugar cane to Louisiana Experiment Station, Baton Rouge. Selections from these may well be read to the class.
SECTION XXVII. SWEET POTATOES
Sweet potatoes. — This is another of the crops that grow from buds instead of from seeds. These buds can be seen after the potato has been kept moist and warm for a number of days. Sweet potatoes are placed in a potato bed to make the buds grow into shoots, which are called slips. The bed is made warm by spreading a layer of manure on the ground and covering this with a few inches of soil. The potatoes are pressed into the soft earth and covered with another layer of soil. As the manure rots or ferments it forms heat, which warms the soil above.
the time when the slips are to be placed in the field.
Setting the slips. — When there is danger of frost, the bed must be covered. After all danger has passed or after the time when cotton comes up, the slips are gently pulled from the mother potato and transplanted to the field. They are usually placed about two feet apart in rows or beds three to four feet wide. They must be quickly put into the ground so that their roots may not dry.
If the soil is dry, a little water should be poured around each slip, thus settling the earth about its roots. Then be sure to cover the wet spot with a layer of dry soil, so that the water added may not pass off into the air. After the slips have made vines more than two feet long, these may
Press the middle of the cut vine into the soil.
Varieties. — The flowers of the sweet potato are large and pretty, very similar to a morning-glory. They do not often form, however. If perfect seeds develop, these, when planted, start new varieties, some of which may be better than the parent variety.
Potato Leaf Sweet Potato Leaf
There are a number of varieties. These differ in flavor, earliness, yield, shape of leaf (Figs. 107, 108), and length of vines. Southern consumers like those which, when cooked, become soft and very sweet. Among such varieties are the Sugar Yam and the Dooley. For shipping to Northern markets a grower must select varieties having a firm and mealy character when cooked.
Fertilizers for sweet potatoes. — The sweet potato needs a complete fertilizer. There is not much danger of having the land too rich, provided enough phosphate and potash are used to balance the nitrogen that may be in the rich soil.
keep down weeds and to check the evaporation of moisture. If the beds arc thrown up very high, they dry out rapidly and make the crop smaller. Several diseases attack sweet potatoes, and the germs that cause them remain in the soil. Hence sweet potatoes ought not to be grown on the land where a diseased crop grew the year before.
Storing. — Sweet potatoes must be dug before frost or immediately after the first frost. The utmost care should be taken in handling them to prevent bruises. Cuts and bruises admit germs, which cause rotting.
Sweet potatoes are generally stored in banks under shelter. They are heaped on straw or leaves on a welldrained spot. Straw, hay, or corn stalks are placed in a thin layer around the heap. A covering of earth nearly to the top of the pile is then put on, leaving the extreme top of the pile uncovered with earth for better ventilation. When freezing weather threatens, the top of the pile should be covered more completely.
A house built for the purpose of storing is more satisfactory for large amounts of sweet potatoes. It should have double walls, filled in with sawdust. There should be slatted bins, open on all sides, ventilators for the house, and a stove for heating and drying the air when needed.
Note to the Teacher. — If this lesson is studied before frost, pupils should bring in sweet potato leaves for comparison and for drawing. If sweet potatoes are extensively grown in your neighborhood, write to Experiment Stations and the Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C., for bulletins on that crop.
WATERMELONS
Peanuts. — The soil should be loose, sandy, and well prepared. It need not be very rich, because the peanut is a legume and therefore gets its nitrogen from the air. It must, however, get phosphoric acid and potash from the soil or from fertilizers. If fertilizers are not obtainable, wood ashes may be used. The newly burnt ashes from oak and hickory are richer than those from pine wood. Lime often increases the yield of peanuts and its use is believed to reduce the number of "pops," or empty hulls.
Shell the peanuts without spUtting the two halves of the kernel and plant after cotton comes up in a place where the chickens and pigs cannot get them. The plant forms its nuts by sticking its sharp, needle-like pistils into the ground. The seeds are borne underground.
The peanut is an important sale crop in Virginia, North Carolina, and Tennessee. It is grown for home use and for hog food throughout the cotton belt. A good yield is 40 to 60 bushels per acre. Peanuts for planting should be hand-picked, so that only sound seed may be planted.
Peanuts should be dug as soon as mature, and cured in rather tall slender shocks (Fig. 109). The peanut makes the land rich if the vines are allowed to decay in the ground.
There are two principal kinds of peanuts, the Spanish and the running. The Spanish variety has short, upright stems and small nuts, which are firmly attached to the plant. The running peanuts have larger nuts and require more labor in harvesting.
Watef melons. — Every Southern farm needs its watermelon patch for producing melons for home consumption. The watermelon is also an important sale crop. From some localities thousands of car loads are shipped each year. Varieties for shipping should have a firm rind, which often accompanies rather inferior quality. For home use there are numbers of good varieties.
The watermelon likes a warm, sandy, well-drained soil. If the soil is poor, manure should be freely used. The field should be thoroughly plowed and then marked off into checks lo by lo or lo by 8 feet. Where these check furrows cross, work into the soil one or two shovelfuls of well-rotted compost, made of manure and wood mold or of manure and cotton seed. On the manure, sprinkle a handful of complete commercial fertilizer or guano. With a hoe mark two trenches one inch deep across each hill. Plant at least six seeds in one of the trenches. A week later plant a like number in the other trench in each hill. Thus if frost kills the earlier plants there will be later ones to take their place.
Thin to two plants in a hill and cultivate shallow, frequently, and in both directions. Avoid unnecessary moving of the vines, or cultivation while the leaves are wet Before cultivation ceases sow a row of cowpeas between the rows of watermelon hills.
PEANUTS AND WATERMELONS
Do not plant watermelons for more than one year on or near the same field. A very fatal disease, watermelon wilt, is especially liable to attack watermelons planted on land on which the same crop has recently grown. Where this disease occurs, it may be necessary to fertilize only with wood mold and commercial fertilizers, omitting the manure. This is because manure frequently contains and carries the germs of the disease. Wilt-resistant varieties of watermelons are now being perfected.
Exercise. — When peanuts begin next season to form nuts, examine them carefully and find the flower, the pistil, and the seed. Notice the position of the leaves of peanuts at night. Are there tubercles on the roots of peanuts ? Are they as large as those on the roots of cowpeas ? Is any of the soil from the field where peanuts last grew brought to the new peanut field ?
INOCULATION
In former times learned men thought that mankind would finally starve to death because there is not enough nitrogen in the ground to produce food suflficient to feed the growing population of the world. There is no longer any fear of this, for it is known that certain plants called legumes can make use of the limitless amounts of nitrogen in the air. There are about 36,000 tons of this nitrogen gas in the air above every acre. Yet cotton, corn, wheat, and most plants cannot use a pound of this nitrogen gas until legumes have changed it into fertilizer nitrogen. Any of the legumes, for example, the cowpea or clover, by the aid of the tubercles on its roots (Fig. 112), can grow on ground where cotton, corn, or wheat would starve for want of nitrogen. Not only do legumes get from the air enough nitrogen to enable them to make luxuriant growth on a poor field, but they also enrich the soil with a part of this nitrogen. When the roots and fallen leaves decay, the nitrogen in them is added to the soil. Still more is added if the stems and leaves, as well as the roots, are left on the field where the plants grew. That crops often grow much larger after a legume is shown in Fig. 1 10.
LEGUMES AND INOCULATION
inhabited by thousands of useful germs, or plants too small to be seen by the naked eye. When the tubercle decays, these germs are set free, and spread through the
on a soil where there have been no clover tubercles, he must place the clover germs there (Fig. iii). He can do this by sowing in that place soil from a field where clover has turned loose its millions of germs. If he wishes to grow alfalfa, he must likewise sow on the new field soil from an old alfalfa field.
to be grown.
Using the proper soil. — This is a reliable method of inoculating the soil. Care must be taken not to use soil that has in it seeds of bad weeds or that contains the germs of serious plant diseases. Promptly cover inoculated seed or soil used for inoculating legumes, for much sunshine will kill the germs.
Note to the Teacher. — Much time can here be given to a study of the tubercles on different plants. Assign drawings from nature of the tubercles on several legumes, as on garden pea, clover, and on any others that may be available. Write to your state Experiment Station and to the United States Department of Agriculture at Washington for any bulletins on soil-improving plants ; also ask that the library of your school be put on their permanent mailing lists, so that the school may receive their future publications.
Cowpea. — There are more than a score of varieties of cowpeas. Some, like the Speckled, grow almost upright, make a good crop of seed, and are easy to mow. Others make long runners that sometimes lie almost flat on the ground and are hard to mow because they tangle. Still others, like the New Era, make ripe pods so quickly that two crops of them can be made in the Gulf states in one year, by sowing the second crop with seed ripened by the first crop in July. This is helpful when seed for planting is scarce. Bushy, upright cowpeas form "runners" and tangle, if the seed is sown very early. Late sowing, say in July, makes the branches, or " runners," of a running variety shorter.
Cowpeas may be planted at any time in May or June and even later. Almost every acre of corn ought to have cowpeas sown between the rows, so as to enrich the land. After oats and wheat are cut, cowpeas should be sown on the stubble land either to be used for hay, for grazing, or only for fertilizer. In corn fields and when sown alone, cowpeas may be sown either broadcast or in drills. The fertilizer most frequently needed is acid phosphate, or on some very sandy soils both phosphate and potash.
Crimson clover. — This plant (Fig. 114) is as useful as it is beautiful. It prevents leaching and loss of fertility in winter. It adds to the soil about as much nitrogen as
acre may be sown broadcast in the cotton in September and covered by passing a one-horse cultivator between each pair of rows. It is easy to fail with crimson clover if the land is not inoculated. To inoculate land for crimson clover, sow with the seed soil from a field where crimson clover, red clover, low white clover, or other true clover has grown.
Vetches. — These plants (Figs. 115, 116) have slender stems or branches, too weak to stand alone. Hence they need to be sown with oats or wheat, so that the weak vines may climb up the grain plants and be high enough for mowing in May. Vetches are useful for hay, for pasturage, and for enriching the soil. Hairy vetch is the most popular kind. The seed should be sown broadcast about Septem-
ber, 2 to 4 pecks of vetch seed per acre being mixed with the usual amount of seed of wheat or oats. Vetch has an advantage over crimson clover, for, unlike clover, it can re-seed the land. If the farmer will let vetch plants form seed, these seed, dropped in May, will remain sound in the ground all summer while a crop of cowpeas or sorghum is growing on the field. In the fall they sprout and grow without requiring that the land be plowed. To make sure that seeds are dropped on the ground, vetch should not be closely grazed after the middle of April in the Gulf states. If it is mixed with an early variety of beardless wheat, the hay may be mown so early that enough second growth of vetch will afterwards be made to mature seed. Vetch may be inoculated either with soil from a field of any kind of vetch or with soil from a spot where garden peas have grown. This is because vetch and garden peas are very closely related.
Alfalfa. — This is a clover-like legume, the roots of which may live for many years. Alfalfa seed may be sown in the cotton belt either early in the fall or early in the spring. Three to five cuttings of hay can be made each year. It is, therefore, the most valuable of all forage plants for soils that suit it. Unfortunately, it does not generally do well in most sandy soils in the Southern states. Sometimes fertile, sandy land will grow it well if the farmer can get rid of the seeds of crab grass and weeds, and if he uses much lime, besides manure or fertilizer. Favorite soils for alfalfa are the stiff, waxy lime lands of Alabama, Mississippi, and Texas, and stiff, rich, but well-drained river bottom lands.
SOME FORAGE PLANTS
One of the worst enemies of alfalfa is love vine or dodder. This is a vine like the one that twines around blackberries and weeds in swampy places. Dodder seeds are bought with the poorer grades of alfalfa seed. It ruins alfalfa
On the left a complete fertilizer was used, but the plants were not inoculated; on the right clover germs supplied all the nitrogen ; in the center the plants received no nitrogen and were not inoculated. (Grown at 111. Expt. Station.)
by wrapping its small yellow threads around the host plant and sucking its sap. The spots where it appears should be covered with trash and burned.
Red clover (Fig. 117). — Except in the extreme Southern and Western states this is the most widely grown legume. It lives for two years, the seed usually being sown in the spring, on growing wheat or grass, or alone. The seed may be sown in the fall. Red clover affords two or more cuttings the second year, sometimes even the first year on
the Carolinas to Louisiana.
Japan clover. — This is a soil-improving plant, but not a true clover ; hence soil from near its roots will not inoculate crimson or red clover. Its true name is Lespedeza. It is the best pasture plant among the legumes for the poorest Southern soils. It grows wild over the greater part of the Southern states. Although an annual, it comes up every spring from seed shed the preceding fall. The seed may be sown in early spring alone or on a field of oats or wheat. On rich, moist land it sometimes grows tall enough to be used for hay. The pasturage and the hay are very nutritious.
Soy bean. — This annual legume (Figs. ii8, 119, 120) is used like the cowpea for hay, seed, and soil improvement. It has the advantage over cowpeas that the hay does not tangle and that the seed are threshed out instead of being picked. It is sown in May or early in June in rows about three feet apart.
Grass plants used as food for live-stock. — Common grasses all have slender, pointed leaves, which wrap partly around the stem. Those that creep along the ground and form roots from the joints, like Bermuda grass and carpet grass, are generally good for pasturage. North of the Gulf states favorite pasture grasses are blue grass, orchard grass, and red-top. Those that stand erect, like Johnson grass, sorghum, and millet, are chiefly useful for hay.
other suitable forage plants. Land improves while being used for pasture chiefly because much vegetable matter is formed near the surface and because some of the wild
Fio. lao.-PoDs OF Soy Beans farmers fear to introduce this grass because it is difficult to destroy. There will seldom be any desire to destroy it if pastures of it are started in the right location. With Bermuda grass may be mixed Japan clover for summer grazing and either bur clover or vetch for winter grazing. Another excellent grass for pasture is carpet grass, which is not difficult to destroy. Portions of the plants or roots must be set, or the seed of carpet grass must be saved from the low spots.
Sorghum. — This annual plant will grow on almost any soil. It is useful for green forage or for hay, and for making syrup. The seed must be sown thick to make good
hay. Sorghum endures drought better than most annual grasses. It greatly exhausts the soil and hence should generally be followed by a legume.
Kafir. — This plant, also called kafir corn, is a kind of sorghum without sweet juice. It is used in Oklahoma and Texas, both as a grain crop and for forage. It endures drought better than corn, and hence in dry climates it largely takes the place of corn.
and cured in shocks.
Exercise. — Write in your notebook a list of names of all varieties of cowpeas (southern " field pea ") grown near your home. Write a description of the seed of varieties of cowpeas that you know or that you can examine. If you can find specimens of any of the plants mentioned in this section, carry them to the teacher. Would you like to make an acre of land rich by sowing on it inoculated crimson clover seed .-*
Note to the Teacher. — Most experiment stations, as well as the U. S. Department of Agriculture, have published bulletins on some of these forage plants, and these bulletins are generally sent free to applicants. If you succeed in interesting your pupils in these soilimproving plants, you may be the means of greatly increasing the prosperity of the community.
A WEED is simply a plant growing where it is not wanted. Hence a kind of plant that is useful in some fields may be a weed in other fields because it interferes with the growth of some crop. Among the plants that are sometimes weeds and at other times useful are Johnson grass, crab grass, and beggarweed.
How weeds injure the farmer. — Weeds are injurious because (i) they use plant-food and fertilizer needed by the more valuable crop plants; (2) they rob the cultivated plants of water by taking up the moisture of the soil for their own use; (3) they greatly increase the expense of cultivating the crops. Weeds are robber plants and must not be allowed to become large and strong, for then the crop will be ruined. Poor farmers cultivate their crops only as much as weeds compel them to, but good farmers cultivate the ground when there are no weeds, so as to keep the lower layers of the soil moist.
Study the habits of weeds. — To get rid of weeds in the easiest and cheapest way, study their habits. First make sure whether they are annuals. If they are annuals, such as crab grass, foxtail, ragweeds, and bitterweed, all that has to be done is to keep them from maturing seed. If they are biennials, like sweet clover, no seeds should be allowed to form for two years. If they are perennials, ' like Johnson grass, nut grass, thistles, and dock, the forma-
tion of seeds should be prevented by cutting the tops down for a number of years. Even if the growth of seed is prevented, there is still more work to be done to rid the land of the roots of these long-lived, robbers.
Plowing them with a sharp plow sometimes destroys them if the roots are all brought to the surface and thus dried. This is one of the easiest ways to kill Bermuda grass. Shallow plowing is best for killing this grass because the shallow furrow-slice dries out more completely than a thicker layer of upturned soil. Any plant is more easily killed l^te in its growing season, for then it cannot so easily
mend an injury. Johnson grass is more easily killed in August or September than earlier. In killing biennial or perennial weeds, they must be cut off below the crown.
Smothering weeds. — Sometimes the farmer can hire other plants to kill weeds. A crop of cowpeas or of velvet beans will sometimes smother Bermuda grass so that very little of it is left at the end of the season. The cowpeas or velvet beans kill the grass by shading it and by taking up the soil water which the grass needs.
Keeping weeds off the farm. — Good plowing and careful preparation may greatly reduce the number of weeds on the farm. But their seed or those of worse weeds may be brought back mixed with purchased seed of grain, clover, or grass. Weed seeds are sure to be present in the cheaper grades of grass and clover seeds. It pays to buy the best of these in spite of their e.xtra cost.
Exercise. — Learn to recognize the seeds of some of the worst weeds. A collection that is interesting and useful consists of small bottles of weed seeds, properly labeled.
Note to the Teacher. — Let pupils make a list of weeds of which they can find the seeds and ask them to obser\'e whether these are spread by (i) wind, (2) adhering to men or animals, (3) by the popping of the pods or seed cases, or (4) otherwise. If Bailey's " Lessons with Plants" (Macmillan) is at hand, read pp. 336-341.
SECTION XXXII. THE VEGETABLE GARDEN
The products that a half-acre garden affords are generally worth more than those produced on several acres of common field. From a half acre of land a man whose business is gardening sometimes sells enough vegetables to bring him ^loo to ;^200 or more. To make a garden productive, treat it as follows : —
(i) Manure it heavily, using 20 to 40 wagon loads of compost or manure per acre each year. (2) Keep every part of it busy, growing two or three crops a year on the same rows. (3) Plant such vegetables as will furnish something for the table every week in the year. (4) Plow the garden deep in the late fall or winter and keep it always so clean that a crop of rank weeds and weed seeds will not need to be plowed under. The garden will pay well for all the manure put on it. Vegetables are more tender and better, as well as earlier and more abundant, when grown on rich land.
Planting seed. — In planting garden seed, cover the large seeds, like beans and peas, with several inches of earth. The small seeds must be covered very lightly. Seeds will not readily germinate in rather dry, loose soil unless it be pressed closely against them, so that it may bring up moisture, just as a wick brings oil to the lamp flame. Many gardeners tread on nearly every seed they plant, walking on the open drill on top of the seeds. The
same packing of the seeds against the soil in the bottom of the furrow can be secured by rolling an empty wheelbarrow over them before they are covered. The ground must not be wet when packed. Loose soil should cover the footprints or the track of the wheelbarrow. This loose layer of soil keeps the moisture from rising above the seeds and evaporating.
How to set a young plant. — Many kinds of vegetable seeds, such as those of cabbage and tomatoes, are sown in boxes or hotbeds before they are safely planted out of doors. In these boxes or hotbeds the seeds should be planted thickly in tiny trenches several inches apart. If possible, the plants should be thinned as soon as they show the first well-developed true leaf. The surplus plants should be transplanted to other boxes or to other parts of the coldframe. Plants that have been moved once while still in boxes or coldframes are stronger, better shaped, have a better root system, and grow better when placed in the garden. Let the plant grow several inches high in the seed-box if it must be transplanted directly from the box to the garden.
In transplanting, avoid doubling the roots. If the ground is so dry that the young plants must be watered when transplanted, first punch the hole ; next insert the plant; then pour in a cupful of water, which will settle the soil snugly around the roots. Every time a young plant is watered, the wet spot should afterwards be covered with loose, dry soil to hold the moisture and to keep a crust from forming. When rather large plants are transplanted, it is best to
water faster than the broken roots can supply it.
A succession of vegetables. — A little work and a little planning every week are worth more to a garden than twice as much work every two weeks. By thus planning, it is possible to have vegetables every week in the year. Most well-cultivated gardens in the Southern states afford an abundance of vegetables during May, June, and July. To be sure of a continuous supply through August, September, and October, make late plantings of tomatoes, butter beans, okra, corn, eggplants, and other vegetables that thrive in hot weather.
The period when fresh vegetables are scarce is from November to March. During this time, there should be a stored-up supply of sweet potatoes, fall-grown Irish potatoes, cushaws, pumpkins, dried beans, dried sliced okra, and ruta-baga turnips. Fresh vegetables can also be had during most of this time by planting in July, August, or September seeds of collards, cabbage, rutabaga turnips, beets, beans, and turnips. The planting of onion sets in the fall and the sowing of seed of kale and spinach for winter " greens " should not be forgotten. Salsify is a delicious vegetable available for fall use.
Hotbed or coldframe. — To obtain early vegetables a hotbed or coldframe will be helpful, because under this the young plants can be started during the winter. The frame is made as shown in Figure 125. It has no bottom, but rests over a shallow pit into which a layer of damp manure has been placed, and covered with several inches of soil. The purpose of this manure is to afford, by
fermentation, heat to warm the soil in which the seeds are to be planted. Place the seeds in drills a few inches apart. When the frame is placed over such a layer of heating manure, the whole is called a hotbed. A similar frame is called a coldframe if no manure is used under it. The cover usually consists of several glass sashes. On a coldframe the cover may be of white cloth.
To make a small hotbed or coldframe to be covered by a single sash construct a wooden frame six feet long and at least three feet wide. The back should be twelve inches high and the front eight inches. It is better to make it at least six feet wide, thus requiring two sashes. The glass sashes slide on strips nailed to the sides or on crosspieces, as shown in Fig. 125. The earth should be banked around the outside of the frame.
The slope of the glass sash should be towards the south. The sun's rays strike through the glass, which serves as a trap for the heat. In this heated air and soil young cabbage, tomatoes, and other plants grow rapidly. On mild days, the glass must be lifted so as to prevent disease and to accustom the plants to cool weather. A box kept near a window indoors, or covered with a few panes of glass, may take the place of a hotbed.
Vegetables that may be planted in cool weather. — Among the plants of the garden that can endure rather cold weather are peas, kale, mustard, radish, spinach, and lettuce. The seeds of these plants are therefore usually the first to be planted, in February or earlier. Young cabbage plants endure much cold. In the central part of the Gulf states they often live through the winter
of the season and comes each spring from the old roots. It may be grown from seed sown in early spring. The next winter the roots of the young plants are transplanted (Fig. 124) to rows that have been plowed very
deep and made very rich with well-rotted manure. A quicker crop is secured by buying the roots instead of growing them. Onions are among the hardiest of vegetables. Onion sets are placed in the ground in the fall, or in January or February. Some varieties of onions grow well from seeds planted in the fall or late winter, the young plants being afterwards transplanted. Garden peas are planted three or four inches deep, usually in January, February, and March.
Tender vegetables. — Among the plants easily killed by frost are beans, tomatoes, eggplants, squash, and all the other members of the gourd or melon family. These cannot safely show above ground until danger of frost is past ; so they are usually planted about the same time as the earliest cotton. Tomatoes are generally started under glass and transplanted as soon as the danger of frost is past.
Vegetables that suffer from hot weather. — Peas and lettuce do not thrive during hot weather. Cabbages and turnips are usually ruined by the harlequin cabbage-bug and by other insects after midsummer ; they should, therefore, be grown either as very early crops or in the fall.
Exerci.se. — Write the names of all plants the leaves of which you know to be cooked for "greens." During what months can each one be used ? Make a list of all the vegetables you have ever .seen growing in your home garden. What vegetables besides these have you seen growing elsewhere? If you have never grown any plants that were really your own. ask at home if you may not have one row in the garden for yourself. Among the plants that can be mast quickly grown in it ire radishes, turnips, lettuce, and in warm weather, bunch snap beans.
Note to the Teacher. — Let the pupils examine and compare all obtainable garden seeds, as to size, color, germination, etc. Write to the Department of Agriculture, Washington. D.C., for Farmers* Bulletin
THE VEGETABLE GARDEN
No. 255 on vegetables, also for publications on school-gardens, and consider whether your school should have one, or whether pupils should be encouraged to have their own small gardens at home. In any way get every pupil to grow some useful or ornamental plants that shall really be his own. By questions draw out from the oldest members of the class the month in which every vegetable mentioned in this chapter is usually planted. Similarly secure a statement of the months during which each is eaten. Write for similar bulletins to the Experiment Station in your own state ; use the seed catalogues also.
By Miss F. E. Andrews
Nature's adornment of shrubs and flowers is more beautiful than the most costly paintings. Yet flowers may be had at very slight expense. The care of a small
cially to a young person.
In general, the best way to lay off a flower garden is not to lay it off at all. It should not be cut up into stiff beds. The space directly in front of the house should be left open (Fig. 126). Bermuda grass makes the best summer covering for Southern lawns. By sowing white clover
with its carpet of green before winter has wholly passed.
There may be a border of low flowering plants on each side of the walk, while against the walls of the house may be grouped taller plants and shrubs as a background for beds of smaller, bright-blooming flowers. The colors of flowers
show better if many of the same kind are massed together. The place for shrubs. — Against the fence on either side, and in the corners by the steps, may be planted shrubs, while between the front and back yards, and wherever there is any unsightly object in view, there should be a screen of tall shrubs or vines. The Japan honeysuckle and the Cherokee rose are good evergreen vines for this purpose. The purple wistaria is a hardy climbing shrub that quickly covers unsightly objects or shades sunny porches. For ornamental hedges, privet and pomegranate are good
(Fig. 127). Some of the many beautiful native wild shrubs serve well as screens. What to plant in the garden. — In the first place, hardyt
self-reliant plants are needed. Choose bouncing clusters of phlox and sweet william, and ever-blooming roses, sturdy ranks of sunflowers, hollyhocks, and prince's feather, that
succession of flowers all the year round.
Winter and early spring flowers. — White hyacinths, jonquils, sweet violets, and Japan quince bloom early in the year. Then, when the red maple begins to glow in the woods, come the periwinkles, the early narcissus, daffodils, spireas (bridal wreaths), and the blue hyacinths. With March, the early lilacs and the late spireas begin to open their eyes. April brings, along with dogwood, redbud, and haw blossoms and wild azaleas in the woods, a troop of early roses, the wistaria, snowball (Fig. 128), white iris or flag, and some of the lilies. On through May and June the bright throng comes trooping by.
Flowers for the hot dry season. — During the hot months of m.idsummer and early autum, nature generally calls a halt to this gay procession, and so the gardens must be provided with plants that are hardy to sun and drought. For this purpose choice lies between ever blooming roses, hollyhocks, larkspurs and mallows, four-o'clocks, phlox, " snowon-the-mountain," bear's grass, Spanish bayonet, " old maids " and " bachelor's buttons," " black-eyed Susans," and the whole great sunflower family.
Fall and winter bloomers. — In our climate, many of the summer flowers linger into late fall and early winter. This is especially true of the roses. The chrys an'the mums, too, linger till long after frost ; the verbenas and scarlet sage and the canna last late into the year. The fall months are brightened by the yellow and brown of the
Beautifying the school grounds. — The same principles, in the main, will apply to the school as to the home garden. As a general thing, more hardy plants should be chosen for the school grounds for the reason that during the part of the year when the school is not in session they will probably receive no attention whatever. Hence it is well to choose native shrubs and flowers for planting around the schoolhouse. Many wild plants grown in the woods are quite as beautiful as the most expensive productions of the florist. An ideal location for a schoolhouse is in a grove, for then there is no need for flowers, except, perhaps, in a special school garden beyond the shade of the trees. The school garden should be a plot of ground near the school, in which each pupil has his own little collection of flowers, vegetables, and crop plants.
Exercise. — Write in your notebook the common names of all the wild or cultivated shrubs that you think would make the school grounds look better. Think about the best place to plant them. Do you know where they could be obtained without cost ?
Note to the Teacher. — This section affords an opportunity to impress the advantages of improving the school grounds, as does also the section on trees. Could not some of the pupils, working together, make a map of the school grounds, showing location of buildings, fences, trees, shrubs, etc. ? Let other pupils copy this. Then let each, after a few days, hand in his or her map, indicating on it where a hedge or screen of vines should be located and where trees and shrubs ought to be planted. Tell them to keep these maps. After they have studied the sections on trees let them write on the maps the kinds of trees that they would choose for any spot needing trees.
plants and endure for many years.
There are roses of very many colors, and they are among the most beautiful of cultivated flowers. Roses are grown from cuttings, which are started either out of
doors or under glass, depending on the kind of rose, the climate, and the soil. On these points you will need the advice of those neighbors who grow roses. Where practicable to start your rose out of doors proceed as follows: during the winter take a portion of a slender ro.se branch less than one year old on which the wood has recently become firm. Cut this six to eight inches long and remove the leaves. Be sure that a smooth cut is made. If the cuttings are to be started in moist sand under glass, they may be much shorter and of younger wood. Part of the upper leaf may be left. Place the longer cuttings in a sloping position in a trench in the flower garden and cover them up to the top bud with earth. Where tha winters are cold a thin layer of leaves may be added. Roots may form in four to six weeks. When one year old or less, the plants may be transplanted to the place where they are to remain. Roses like good soil, and the ground around them ought each year to receive a coating of manure, which serves as fertilizer and a millch. On sour soils a little lime is helpful.
the year.
Bulbs, tubers, etc. — The onion and the lily are examples of bulbs. A bulb consists of a number of thickened, tightly wrapped leaves. Bulbs that grow form new bulbs, and by planting these the plant is multiplied. Plants grown from bulbs need rich soil. Most of them afford very early flowers. In cold climates bulbs are dug, dried, and stored indoors during the winter.
GROWING FLOWERS I99
The canna affords a wealth of blooms — red, pink, yellow, and other gay colors — during the heat of summer. It is increased by planting portions of the roots. In the Gulf states no winter protection is needed except to cut off the tops as soon as frost occurs and to place these over the roots, covering all with a light coat of earth. Violets for winter and early spring, and hardy chrysanthemums for late fall flowering, are increased by dividing the roots of old clusters of plants.
Flowers easily grown from seed. — Most of these are annual plants, living less than one year. Some are longerlived, for example, the foxglove, the hollyhock, and the larkspur.
The California poppy is a fine-leaved plant, with large, brilliant flowers. The seeds of this plant, and also of the common poppies, are sown as soon as danger of severe freezes is past. At the same time the seeds of pinks or carnations are sown.
hardy towards heat.
The annual phloxes are among the best flowers for children to grow, because they afford such a mass of varied and bright colors so soon after the seeds are sown in early spring. They need good soil and abundance of water.
Pansies are general favorites for early flowers. They combine two or more rich colors in the same flower. Among the most beautiful of all are the shades of purple. The pansy, and, indeed, most of these very early annuals, can be sown in boxes indoors (Fig. 130), and transplanted to
the flower garden as soon as freezing has ceased. Pansies, like sweet peas, are cool-weather bloomers ; both require moist soil and are unable to withstand much heat.
Verbenas are the favorite flowers of many children and of many grown people as well. They grow either from seed or cuttings. There are few more beautiful sights in
the flower garden than a border thickly bedecked with the purple and crimson or other various colors of the verbena. Among the annuals most able to continue blooming during the heat of summer are the petunia and the nasturtium. There are both dwarf and climbing nasturtiums, all having large, bright flowers. The seeds of petunias are so small that, like many other flower seeds, they need either the shallowest possible covering, or none. A good way to plant such seeds is to sow them, and then with a board press them against the surface ; sprinkle over them the thinnest possible layer of very fine sifted forest soiL This holds moisture and docs not easily form a crust.
Among the plants that do not need to be sown until the weather becomes warm are the marigolds and cosmos. Their blooms are wanted in late summer and fall, after most flowers have ceased blooming. Scarlet sage is also one of the most brilliant of the autumn flowering plants, its tall stems being crowded with bright red flowers. Hollyhocks are tall plants grown from seed, but not showing their large, gaudy flowers until the second year.
Window gardens. — Many persons who have not room for an outdoor flower garden find pleasure in a little window garden. The flowers may be grown in pots or boxes, inside a sunny window or on a shelf outside (Fig. 131). Most of the smaller outdoor flowering plants may be thus grown from seeds, bulbs, roots, and cuttings, and in addition, many less hardy plants, such as begonias, crab cactus, and geraniums. To start geraniums or other softwood cuttings, place the lower portions of the cuttings in clean sand kept constantly wet, and in a sunny window. If necessary, a pane of glass can be placed over them to retain the heat, and thus make a tiny greenhouse.
Exercise. — Ask some grower of flowers whether the present is a suitable time to start cuttings of roses and other flowers. If so, make some cuttings and set them. Ask at home or at some neighbor's if there is any flower from which you can get a start of bulbs, roots, or cuttings. Before using them make sure they are free from disease or insect injury. Write in your notebook a list of five of your favorite flowers.
Note TO the Teacher. — Catalogues are sent free by most seedsmen. The illustrations in them and their descriptions of varieties will be of greatest service to you in enlisting the pupil's interest in flowers. An especially helpful publication is Farmers' Bulletin No. 195, United States Department of Agriculture on Annual Flowering Plants. If not already obtained, write to the United States Department of Agriculture for bul-
letins on school gardens, and consider whether your school can longer afford to do without one. See also note to Section XXX II and Appen* dix. In city schools or elsewhere, boxes of flowers in the windows serve a useful purpose. Let the main aim be to make the pupils closer observers and more appreciative of flowers. Urge them to bring flowers to the class now and later to be used as object lessons. Familiarize the pupils with the foliage as well as with the blooms of the flowers that can be inspected. Is an excursion to some greenhouse or flower pit practicable ?
The true value of trees is scarcely realized until we consider the sufferings of people who live in countries that are almost without trees. Parts of India, Egypt, China, and Korea are in this treeless condition. In winter the people suffer intensely from cold and have to work very hard to supply themselves with even a little fuel. A day's hard work may be rewarded with only a basket of the roots of shrubs. Every bit of refuse in the streets and stables is collected and dried for fuel.
Rapid destruction of the forest. — Our own country is in danger of becoming a country that will lack trees enough to furnish lumber for our homes and to supply our factories. Those who have studied the matter state that in the United States each year three times as much wood is consumed as is supplied by one year's growth of all the trees in the country. Some even declare that unless this waste is promptly stopped, in twenty-five years there will be practically no forests east of the Mississippi River. This misfortune can be prevented by every one's quickly realizing the true value of a tree. There is no time to be lost, for it takes most kinds of trees 50 to 100 years to grow large enough to make the best lumber.
life. It is the patriarch among plants. The life of a young tree ought not to be taken except for good cause. The farmer who makes firewood out of saplings is destroying the property of his children. When trees mature or reach the point where their growth is very slow, they should be cut and used, so that they may yield a profit and make room for younger and more rapid-growing trees. Saplings or young trees should be removed only where the growth is too thick.
Started by some careless hunter or other thoughtless person " to burn off the grass," may kill a thousand of these and other valuable kinds of trees on every acre that it invades (Fig. 132). Besides this, fires make the soil of
FOREST TREES
the forest poorer by destroying the vegetable matter and thus retard the growth of the surviving trees. The old method of boxing young pine trees in order to make turpentine (as in Fig. 133) causes them to catch fire more easily than they otherwise
Telling the age of a tree. — The age of a tree may be discovered by examining the log or the stump left after it has been felled. On the smoothly cut end of the log there are a number of light-colored rings with layers of darker color between (Fig. 135). Generally one lightcolored ring and one dark-colored layer were formed each year. The number of light rings tells in years the age of that part of the body of the tree. The age of each limb is told in the same way.
There is another way to tell how long it has been since the pine and some other trees were only as high as their lowest limbs now are. This is done by counting the number of sets of lim.bs or sets of knots where limbs once grew. Every set of limbs, growing out of the trunk at about the same place, means one year ; for each set represents the buds or young branches which form on the twig near the place where the new and the old growth join (Fig. 136).
Exercise. — Report to the teacher the age of the following by counting the annual rings: (i) a log, or stump, or piece of firewood, all from an old-field pine, (2) a similar piece from a long-leaf pine, (3) a branch of either old-field or long-leaf pine. Which has the thicker annual rings? Judging by this, which tree grows more rapidly? Select a pine tree 10 to 20 feet high and, without cutting it, count the sets of limbs and tell how long it has been since that tree was only as high as its lowest limb now is. Think about this subject for your next composition, " How Much Harm One Forest Fire Did." Is the heartwood or the sapwood the best for lumber?
If a wire is stapled to a tree, it will not be pushed outwards as the tree grows larger, but will be buried under the new layer of wood (Fig. 137). It thus cuts into and injures the lumber. Fig. 138 shows a better way to attach a fence wire to a tree.
Planting trees on the school grounds. — When the school ground needs shade and beauty, plant trees and pretty shrubs taken from the woods. Set aside one day as " Arbor Day " for the planting of these trees. In the Southern states a good time for this is in December, January, and February. Plan what kinds of trees and shrubs to plant and where to put every one in order to make the school grounds as beautiful as possible. They will live better if not planted on the playground, where the shaking will dry the roots. The directions given in Section XXXVII for setting fruit trees will help in setting shade trees.
Choose some of the following for planting on the school grounds : the water or willow-leaved oak as a round-topped shade tree, suited even to poor, dry .soils ; the sweet gum, for its rapid growth, graceful shape, its willingness to grow on almost any soil, and for its red and purple leaves in autumn ; the mulberry for its rapid gjrowth, good
shade, and sweet fruits ; the elm for its rapid growth, great size, and graceful shape ; the hackberry for its ability to grow on stiff, wet soils ; the black gum for its thick
Fic. 139. — Find ik thb Above Ficcses the Following Leaves White oak, hickory, prran, red oak, black gum, sweet gum, chinqurpin, water oak, sycamore, maple, " yellow poplar " (tulip tree), dogwood, elm, pereimmon, post oak.
rounded top and the beautiful color of its leaves in autumn ; the red maple for its red flowers and seeds and its brightly colored leaves in the fall. These trees and many other
catalpa, black locust, osage orange, and mulberry. Posts made from these trees last for a long time. Cedar makes excellent posts and is very valuable for making pencils. It grows slowly and should not be set out on a farm where apples are grown. The wood of the walnut is very valuable for furniture. To make shade quickly in the pastures, where beauty is not important, the cottonwood, chinaberry, and catalpa are suitable.
hills and which in the wet bottoms. Observe how they struggle up toward the light. Notice the difference in the forms of those that stand alone, flooded with sunshine (Fig. 142), and those starved for light in the deep shadow of the crowded forest. Even in winter the trees are interesting. The different trees may be recognized in the distance by the differences in their habits of branching. For example, notice the continuous central stem in the pine and hickory (Figs. 140 and 141), and observe that in the walnut (Fig. 143) and elm this is usually lost.
Exercise. — Compare the leaves in Fig. 139 with the leaves found in the woods, and write in your notebook the name that corresponds to each letter. You will find it interesting and instructive to make a map of the trees growing on a small area of woodland, representing the position of each tree by a figure on the map ; then on the next page of your notebook write the name of the tree corresponding to each number. You may be surprised to find which pupil knows the greatest number of trees in such a contest.
Note to the Teacher. — Strive to inculcate in the pupils the habit of carefully observing trees. Among the means to this end are the collecting and identifying of the leaves of trees, excursions to the woods, and recognition of trees by their bark. The mode of branching of different kinds and with different surroundings may be taught by requiring pupils to draw outlines of trees. A drawing exercise may take the place of a recitation. Let the pupils complete the maps of the school grounds begun as an exercise in Section XXXI 1 1 and write on it, on each spot where a tree is needed, the kind of tree that each pupil prefers.
SECTION XXXVII. FRUITS
It is possible to have a constant succession of fruit at very little expense by taking the best possible care of a few rows of strawberries, grapes, and a small orchard of
fruit trees. In the collection of fruits there could be strawberries, raspberries, grapes, scuppernong grapes, peaches, plums, apples, pears, Japanese persimmons,
pomegranates, and pecans. It costs but little to buy the trees and other plants needed. Make selections from the catalogues of reliable nurserymen, not too far away.
and intelligent pruning, (4) cultivation and fertilization, and (5) spraying to destroy injurious insects and plant diseases. A small orchard for home use should contain a number of varieties, so that there may be early, medium, and late fruit.
Cultivation and fertilization. — Before planting fruit trees the land must be deeply plowed and well harrowed. Peach trees are generally set about 16 feet apart each
FRUITS
way and apple trees 25 to 40 feet. On rather poor land fruit trees ought to be fertilized when set and each year afterwards. For young trees a complete fertilizer is best. In later years a mixture of phosphate and some form of potash may be sufficient. Nitrogen should then be supplied by cow-
ever, the trees get
larger, they need all the space; and the orchard should be kept well cultivated until July, when Iron cowpeas may be sown as a fertilizing crop to be plowed under the next spring.
young plants are set about two feet apart, in rows about three feet apart. They may be set in the Southern states any time between November and the last of February. Those set after Christmas make only a few berries the
first year. Those set in the fall bear a few more berries, but there is only a fraction of a crop the first spring. The main crop is borne the second year.
Some varieties of strawberries produce flowers containing pistils, but no perfect stamens. Among these imperfect or pistillate varieties, every third or fourth row should be planted with perfect kinds to furnish pollen. Perfect varieties are marked in most catalogues with the letter "s," meaning that the variety bears stamens as well as pistils, or by the letter " d," meaning bi-sexual, or having two sexes. The names of the imperfect varieties are followed by the letter "/," which here stands for the word " pistillate." • For home use there should be both early and late varieties. The following are all among the staminate or perfect varieties : Excelsior (early), Lady Thompson and Klondike (rather early and hardy), Gandy (large and late).
Strawberry plants need to be well fertilized with a complete fertilizer. The bed should be renewed every few years because young plants bear more fruit than old ones. To start ' a new bed set the young plants that form where the runners take root.
When a fruit tree is old enough to transplant. — A nurseryman does not count the age of a tree from the time the seed is planted, but from the time of budding or grafting it. Peach trees are ready to transplant one year after the budding has been done. The apple tree is transplanted when either one, two, or three years old.
spring to form new leaves. The period from November to February is the usual time for setting fruit trees in the Southern states. The holes should be so dug that the
Packino Peaches in Bollock County, Ala.
roots will not need to be bent. All bruised or broken roots should be cut off with a smooth cut, which heals more quickly than a ragged break.
The very long roots may also be cut back. In setting trees keep all roots straight. The earth taken from near the top of the hole is generally the richest, so this soil should be placed near the roots. The earth must be firmly packed around the roots so as to keep them thoroughly moist. If the soil were put in without packing, air-spaces would be left and the roots would become dry. The upper layer of soil, however, must be left loose as a mulch to retain the water in the lower layers. If a tree is loosened before it has formed a full set of roots, it is apt to die because the shaking causes air-spaces to be left around the roots instead of moist soil. The tree ought to be set in the ground at least as deep as it grew in the nursery row.
Pruning at the time of transplanting. — When a young tree is dug up, a large proportion of its fine roots and root-hairs are broken or stripped off. When it is transplanted, there will not be at first enough feeding roots to supply food and water to all the leaves. The top of the tree should, therefore, be cut back to balance the loss of roots. The cutting off of some of the limbs is called pruning. Most fruit trees at the time of transplanting have to be severely pruned in order (i) to keep the leaf surface balanced with the feeding roots, and (2) to cause the tree to grow in the desired shape.
Shaping the young tree. — When young apple and peach trees are not pruned the central shoot grows more rapidly than the side branches. This forms a tall, slender tree, with few limbs, which bend and break when heavily loaded with fruit. Much of the fruit on unpruned trees is borne too high to be easily gathered. To prevent these troubles,
the young apple or peach tree is cut off at a height of 16 to 24 inches above the ground. The cutting of the central shoot makes the side branches grow more rapidly and nearer to the ground. The lower limbs should be close to the ground in order to shade the body or trunk. If the tree is very young and small when transplanted, all the side branches are also cut off close to the main
should be allowed to grow
into limbs. The buds selected to grow should be evenly distributed around the stem. If the young tree is well grown when ::tP^ transplanted, its branches are cut off six to
three to five side branches already selected for growth should be cut back until only about eight to twelve inches of their new growth is left (Fig. 151). At the end of each year the new peach twigs, if they have made much growth, will need to be cut back to about half their length. Every winter cut out from any kind of fruit tree all the branches that are partly broken, too close together, or growing across the center of the tree, and all twigs that are diseased.
The later pruning of trees is chiefly (i) to regulate the shape, (2) to make the center of the tree open enough to admit the light, and (3) to thin the fruit. Wherever a branch is removed, the cut surface must be left smooth and as close to the parent branch as possible. No projection or stub must be left. A smooth, close wound is soon healed and covered over ; but a stub is not easily covered, and decay starts in such a wound (Fig. 152). When a large branch is cut off, the wound should be covered with thick white lead paint, to keep the germs of decay from getting into the tree.
In pruning a fruit tree the bud left farthest out on the branch is the one that will grow most rapidly and become the leader. The limbs can be made to bend downward more than they naturally would by making the cut just beyond a bud which points downward. Likewise the growth can be
made more upright by cutting so as to leave as the last remaining bud one that points upward (Fig. 153). In the same way you can often fill in an unoccupied space on one side of a tree by selecting for leaders the buds that point towards that space.
Fruits that most need pruning. — Peach trees, grapevines, raspberries, and cultivated blackberries need pruning every year. Apple trees need less after the first few years, and shade and nut trees require very little pruning.
DIKECT THE GROWTH
Exercise. — Perhaps you can find a young peach tree growing wild and can practice pruning on this. Ask some one at
prune, and why.
Note to the Teacher. — If there is near the school a carefully pruned orchard, it may be well worth an excursion to see it. and doubtless its owner will give an exhibition of pruning. Farmers' Bulletin No. 181 of the United States Department of Agriculture, on pruning, will be useful to the teacher and to any pupils who desire to improve the orchard at home.
Most plants have a green color and thrive in the light. Certain very small plants, called ftin'gl, however, have no green color. Among them are the tiny plants that cause rotting of fruit, spotting and dying of leaves, rust, and smut of grain. Since they have no green substance enabling them to use the carbon from the air, they cannot make their own living. Instead they draw their nourishment from the sap and substances already made by green plants. Therefore they rob the plants on which they grow and cause various diseases, which may affect the leaves, stems, or fruits of useful plants.
Molds. — Among the fungi are certain molds. Fruit mold, or bread mold, is made up of a mass of fine white threads, some of the short branches of which bear tiny black heads. These contain the spores, dust-like bodies from which another crop of fungi grows. Spores are to fungi what seeds are to plants. The spores of mold and of most fungi are so small and light that they are blown everywhere by the wind. This explains why plant diseases are so "catching," or contagious.
Some fungi cannot grow through the skin of fruits, but need to have their spores planted in cuts or bruises. Other kinds are able to force their way through the skin. Very often they push in through the " gateways " or
Killing fungi with poisons. — Fortunately the spores of most kinds of plant diseases will not grow in contact with certain substances. Two of the best of these chemicals used to destroy fungus spores are bluestone (copper sulfate) and formalin. The buds, the fruit, or the leaves are sprayed with a mixture containing bluestone. If this is done before the fungus plant has passed through the skin of the fruit, the crop is often saved. Seeds of oats from a smutty crop are dampened with formalin to kill the spores on the seed. The white mildew on the leaves of the rose is easily killed by sprinkhng on it a solution of one ounce of liver of sulfur to two gallons of water.
Prevention of plant diseases easier than cure. — In most cases, however, it is useless to try to cure plant diseases by treatment after the fungi have entered the green plant, where no poisons can reach them. Spraying fruit trees is done to prevent, and not to cure, diseases. The poison generally used to ward off diseases of fruit trees, Irish potatoes, and others is Bordeaux mixture, which contains bluestone (see Appendix).
Weak plants become diseased. — Plants that are thrifty and well nourished are less apt to catch certain plant diseases than those that are weak, starved, or unwisely fertilized. There are many diseases of plants that are not due to germs. These are generally due to poor drainage or other unfavorable conditions of soil or climate. Such diseases are not contagious.
Fungous diseases spread rapidly because of the light spores, which are blown or carried great distances. Nearly all the peaches in an orchard may be ruined by rot
during a few weeks of damp weather, which makes most germs of plant diseases grow more rapidly. No matter how damp the weather, there will be no peach-rot unless the spores or seed bodies arc first sown. A few fungi are useful. Some kinds sour milk so that it can be churned into butter ; others, called yeasts, cause flour bread to rise ; while still other kinds are necessary in making vinegar.
Exercise. — Secure some half-ripe sound peaches and place two or three of these under tumblers. At the same time find one which is decayed and shows upon the surface tufts of a gray mold. Now with a pocket knife touch the mold tufts of the diseased fruit and make cuts in the healthy peaches. Wrap the scratched peaches in a damp newspaper and put them under a can or cup in a warm place. Do they rot?
One day a brown spot may appear on a fruit, and the next the whole fruit may be browned and decayed. Meantime there may appear on the surface numerous gray tufts of the mold-like fungus spores (Fig. 156). These light spores are carried by
These mummies hang on ^^°' ^56the tree and there the fungus remains until the next season, ready then to start a new outbreak of the disease. Then spray the trees carefully with Bordeaux mixture before the buds open, to kill all germs. Finally, spray during the growing season.
Peach leaf-curl. — This disease can be recognized by the curling and arching of the leaves, which later turn dark and fall. The fruit shrivels and becomes almost
ence of this disease will
be shown by the scabby spots that do not resemble rot. There is an olive-colored growth around these. Scabby spots may also occur on the leaves. The apple-scab causes an enormous loss, making the apples misshaped and dwarfed and often reducing their selling price by half. When the scab begins, it may kill the bloom or
SOME DISEASES OF FRUITS
it may cause the little apples to fall. In ordinary seasons this disease is well controlled by spraying at intervals of two weeks with Bordeaux mixture.
on the branches of the apple tree.
It is estimated that bitter-rot of apples has repeatedly caused damage to the extent of ten million dollars a year. It may be controlled by the use of Bordeaux mixture.
Fire-blight of the pear and apple tree. — The common blight of pear and apple trees, which kills and blackens the leaves and sometimes kills the pear tree, is caused by germs, called bacteria. This disease also .kills the bios-
soms. The germ is usually carried by bees from a diseased tree to a healthy flower of pear or apple. The fungus grows into the flower and on into the twigs. The diseased twigs die. Pear-blight, unlike most diseases, does least harm to trees that are growing slowly and thus forming tough, short twigs. Hence, when a grown pear tree is attacked, cultivation may be stopped, and no fertilizer rich in nitrogen should then be used.
Spraying is not a cure, but cutting in winter and throughout the growing season all the diseased twigs helps to control the disease. Cut the twigs about one foot below the diseased portion. After making each cut kill any germs that may have lodged on the blade of the pruning shears or knife. Do this by dipping the blade into a solution of formalin or of carbolic acid or by wiping it on a cloth dampened in a poisonous solution. Thus you will avoid spreading the disease.
Exercise. — Find, examine, and show to your classmates specimens of jjeach '* mummies," rotting peaches or plums, diseased apples, curled peach leaves, or spotted leaves of any fruit tree. Do the appearances suggest that you are looking at the diseases here described?
Note to the Teacher. — Most State Experiment Stations will identify diseased leaves or other specimens addressed to their botanists and will furnish bulletins on plant diseases or tell you where to get the bulletins that you may desire.
In a field of ripening oats we can generally find some blackened smutty heads. The black dust which flies when these are touched consists of spores, whose only business is to cause more smut in next year's crop. They lodge on healthy oat grains in the field or while the crop is being thrashed. Healthy grains on which smut spores lodge do not become unhealthy, but when planted they carry the smut spores close to the sprouting plants.
Oat-smut. — The only time when the smut fungus of oats can enter into the oat plant is just at the time of sprouting. If the smut spores can be destroyed on the seed to be planted, not a single head of smut will appear in the field, and the yield of oats will be increased six to twenty-five per cent. These germs on the seed can be killed either with scalding water or with formalin. Do this by. soaking the seed for ten minutes in hot water that a thermometer shows to be between 132 and 135 degrees. Or smut may be entirely prevented by thoroughly wetting the seed oats in water to which one ounce of formalin has been added for every three gallons of water. After treating seeds with formalin keep them moist and covered with cloth for about two hours, so that gases from the formalin
shown in Fig. 159.
Concealed smut of wheat. — The wheat smut which is most injurious is not readily observed. Here, too, the spores of the fungus replace the kernel, but the seed-coats, or kernel coverings, conceal the disease. On crushing one of the diseased " kernels " the spores will be found and the unpleasant odor that arises will not be forgotten. Concealed smut may be prevented by dipping or soaking the seeds in a solution of bluestone.
Other diseases. — Among other diseases of wheat and oats are several forms of rust, also due to fungi. You may be able to find specimens of rust and to compare them with the smuts.
No treatment has been found to prevent the rusts of grain. Some varieties are more injured by rust than others. Those that ripen early oftenest escape severe injury. If you should find a wheat or oat plant that is free from rust while all others around it are diseased, your Fic. IS9. discovery may give rise to a genuine rust-proof
Exercise. — When wheat or oats have formed heads, count the number of smutted heads on a square foot or square yard of surface. Estimate how much the yield will probably be reduced by smut. Are the other stems ever stunted on a plant having one diseased head ? Look for rusted leaves or stems of wheat or oats.
DISEASES OF OATS AND WHEAT 235
Note to the Teacher. — If you can get the promise of some farmer to sow half an acre of smutty oat seed and an acre alongside with seeds that have been treated for smut, your State Experiment Station may possibly be able to send you the necessary formalin. Or you can ask certain pupils simply with the aid of a borrowed thermometer to scald the seed for this test. If you have a sciiool garden, plant in it treated and untreated oat seed. Let different pupils plant the two kinds of seed, so that disease germs may not be carried from the untreated to the treated seed.
SWEET POTATOES
The scab of Irish potatoes. — Irish potatoes often have a surface covered with rough scabs. This is a fungous disease. If a scabby potato is planted, both fungus and potato are sown and the harvest will consist of both. Moreover, the fungus spores are apt to be present in a soil which has recently produced scabby potatoes, ready to injure the next crop of potatoes. Fortunately this disease is easily prevented. A sound crop comes from smooth, healthy potatoes in a soil where scabby potatoes have never grown. For safety treat seed potatoes by soaking them two hours in a formalin solution containing one ounce of formalin to two gallons of water.
The early blight. — This is a common disease of the leaves of the Irish potato. Round brown spots appear upon the leaves, or irregular spots show on the margins. This disease is readily prevented by spraying the foliage with Hordeaux mixture. Paris green may be added to the mixture so as to poison the potato beetle at the same time.
The soft-rot of sweet potatoes. — Sweet potatoes in storage are sometimes injured by the same little black mold often found growing on bread or on preserves. When the potatoes are stored where it is too moist and warm, this fungus grows upon them and produces what is known as
the soft-rot, which has an unpleasant odor. This fungus takes advantage of the so-called sweating period, which occurs a short time after the sweet potatoes are dug. It then finds an easy entrance through the injuries on the surface or through the broken end of the root. From a single diseased or bruised spot it may spread with alarming rapidity. This disease is readily prevented by proper drying of the potatoes for a few days after they are dug, before placing them in the lower temperature at which they are to be stored. Infected potatoes should be destroyed.
The black-rot of sweet potatoes. — This disease is really a soil rot. The fungus doubtless enters through the young rootlets of the growing plant. It finally becomes estabUshed in the potatoes themselves, producing circular black patches. The disease may even extend its injuries after the potatoes are stored. Black-rot is the most destructive fungous enemy of the sweet potato, but fortunately it has not been found in all localities. In order to control it, the potatoes should not be grown on any field where sweet potatoes grew for one or two years before. Moreover, the seed or slip bed should be carefully watched, for this disease may make its appearance there, producing upon the shoots dark-colored spots known as "black shank." Set out no slips from a badly diseased seed-bed.
cotton is produced.
The first year that wilt occurs on a field it attacks only a single plant or a small spot here and there. The next year the spots where the plants die are larger. In a very few years the fungus may become so very widespread as to make it impossible to maintain a stand of cotton on any part of the field (Fig. 160).
In the stem of a cotton plant that has been attacked by wilt, the woody portion is darkened or streaked with very fine black lines. These black lines are the water-carrying vessels that have become stopped up by the growth of the fungus. Their stoppage causes the plant to wilt for lack of water. A dark layer occurs just under the bark (Fig. 161). The germs of the disease enter the plant through the roots. Cotton wilt is generally considered worse on land where the tiny worms that produce knots on the roots are present. The germs probably enter more readily through the wounds made by these root-knot worms on the roots of the plant.
not contract the disease. If so, they are blackened by cotton resistant and their seeds may transmit this ^'^*natural resistance. Mark them and very carefully preserve their seeds for planting purposes. Different varieties of cotton show marked differences in their ability to
withstand the attacks of this fungus. The Dixie (Fig. 162), some strains of the Jackson variety, and some varieties of Sea Island cotton have been made quite resistant to cotton wilt by years of selection.
nary varieties of cowpeas be grown in such a rotation, for the root-knot worms, if present, increase rapidly on the cowpea roots. This increases the number of wounds on the cotton roots the next year, and hence probably the number of wilt fungi entering the cotton plant. But in a rotation of crops on such a field, the variety of cowpeas called Iron, and also the velvet bean, may well be grown, because the root-knot worms do not rapidly increase on the roots of these plants.
DISEASES OF COTTON
often suffers from another disease, which, in appearance, is very similar to the wilt. This is the well-known root rot, or " dying " of cotton. The symptoms of this disease also are sudden wilting followed by the death and browning of the whole stalk. Plants die from this disease about the time that the first
bark and even extend
into the wood of the roots; the younger roots are promptly killed (Fig. 163). Wilting is due to the failure of the roots to furnish the usual supply of water.
The fungus has been found on practically all varieties of cotton, but methods have been discovered for lessening the loss. It grows best and injures cotton most
where the soil contains little air, that is, where the soil packs down heavily, or where the land has been poorly prepared for the growth of cotton. Therefore, better circulation of air in the soil is needed. This can be attained by deep plowing, thorough cultivation, and the addition of stable manure or vegetable matter. Rotation of crops is necessary. Such a rotation should not include alfalfa, sweet potatoes, or other plants on which this fungus can live. On land where cotton root rot occurs, corn, the small grains, sorghum, the true grasses, and many other similar crops may be grown.
Cotton boll rot. — The boll rot is a very common disease in moist seasons. It is most severe in moist bottom lands where the large plants shade the ground and the bolls. The careful observer will notice first upon the boll small water-soaked spots, and as these spots increase in size they become gray at the center and finally pink, with a purple border. The pink or gray coating is evidence of the abundant production of fungus spores. These spores are blown about, or spread by insects, thus planting the disease wherever they fall upon cotton bolls surrounded by sufficient moisture and warmth to make the spores develop. The boll rots and the contents are ruined. Varieties differ somewhat in the extent to which they take the disease. Wide spaces between rows may decrease boll rot by letting in more sunlight.
Black rust. — This is the disease that so generally causes the cotton plant gradually to drop its leaves. The leaves turn pale or yellow, and then blacken and die. Black rust is not started by germs. After a plant
has been made weak and unhealthy by unfavorable soil or other surroundings, the rust fungus enters the leaves and completes their destruction. Rust is largely a disease of poor land, and can be prevented on some soils by adding vegetable matter or potash.
Exercise. — Ask your parents which of these diseases occur near your home. On what kinds of soil is each one worst ? If diseased plants are found, exa.mine them in the field where they grow. Do not take them to school for fear of spreading the disease.
The farmer could not grow profitable crops without the help of several kinds of germs that live in the soil. Some of these live in the tubercles on the roots of leguminous plants and change the nitrogen of the air into fertilizer nitrogen. These might be called the nitrogen-trapping germs because they catch or trap the nitrogen gas.
Nitrate-forming germs. — Other kinds of bacteria that work faithfully for the farmer may be called the nitrateforming germs. These finally change certain compounds in vegetable matter in the soil into nitrates^ the only form in which most plants can use nitrogen. The heaviest growth of cowpeas or clover might be plowed under as fertilizer, and the plants growing on that field the next season could not use a pound of its nitrogen if there were no nitrate-forming germs. These germs are too small to see, so small indeed that many millions have been found in a thimbleful of soil. The farmer should care for these tiny useful plants that are helping him to grow larger crops.
Helping our friends in the soil. — Men who have spent their lives in studying these tiny plants under powerful microscopes have found that what the nitrate-forming germs need in order to increase rapidly and to help the soil and the crop are the following : —
Germ enemies in the soil. — The soil is not dead. It swarms with living creatures. Some are friends, some foes. If the farmer helps the friendly germs, they rapidly increase and almost drive out some of the harmful germs. But if he allows his land to remain long very wet or very compact or very deficient in vegetable matter, his enemies in the soil will increase to enormous numbers and his friends will be banished.
Nitrate destroyers. — For example, there are germs that are harmful because they change the valuable nitrates into useless nitrogen gas. Thus they undo the good work that the nitrate-forming germs have done. These harmful kinds, or nitrate destroyers, do not thrive in a soil where there is plenty of air. The farmer must fight these by the means that help the friendly germs, by drainage, plowing, cultivation, and by the addition of vegetable matter.
Many persons regard insects only as troublesome pests, always to be considered as enemies. To the farmer, however, a large majority of the insects are really not enemies. Many of them are his friends, although others are serious enemies of health and crops. All of them are interesting, and some of them very beautiful. A few general facts about aiding our insect friends and destroying our insect enemies will be of value.
What an insect is. — Thrde great divisions are made to include all natural things, that is, the animal^ the vegetable^ and the mineral kingdoms. All insects belong to the animal kingdom. They are, therefore, animals, of which class they form much the largest group. In fact, there are more kinds of insects than of all other animals and of all plants put together. It is the abundance of insects and their close relationship to our health and welfare that make it so important for us to study them.
Insects are never very large and rarely exceed a few inches in length or breadth. Many of them are so small that a magnifying glass or lens is needed to see them clearly. Most insects have wings when they are in the full-grown or adult stage, but some never have these in any
WHAT AN INSECT IS 247
Stage of their existence. When wings are present, there may be either one or two pairs. Nearly all insects have legs ; six is the usual number. These two characteristics, the presence of wings and of six legs, are sufficient to identify an insect. There are insects, however, that lack wings and legs.
Spiders and mites not insects. — The only creatures likely to be mistaken for insects are the spiders and mites. These never have wings and always have eight legs. By simply counting legs, then, spiders may be separated from the wingless insects.
The principal parts of an insect. — The body is divided into three parts: the liead, the thorax, and the abdo'men (Fig. 164). The head bears the eyes, the antcn'ncB, or feelers, and the mouth parts. To the tho'rax, or chest, of the insect are attached the wings and the legs, but both wings and legs are entirely wanting in some insects.
because the insects really seem to use them in that way. Insects do not have a nose or ears as we have, but some of them have the sense of smell very wonderfully developed, and doubtless they hear many sounds that never reach our ears. There are many interesting differences in the form of the antenna in different insects.
Wings and legs. — The wings serve to carry their owners over long distances. They are very important aids in enabling insects to find their food. A bee could not get enough to eat if it had no wings to carry it from flower to flower. The legs are arranged so as to balance the body in walking. Having si.x legs, the insect always has three on the ground while it is moving the other three forward.
Note to the Teacher. — The United States Department of Agriculture and most of the experiment stations have issued bulletins on injurious insects. The text and illustrations in these will be useful to you in teaching the sections on insects.
SECTION XLV. HOW INSECTS GROW
One difference between the structure of insects and four-legged animals is that the insects have their skeleton or bones, as we may call them, on the outside of their bodies. This is what makes an insect hard. For this reason, insects cannot grow slowly and steadily, as animals do that have their skeletons inside and covered with the soft and easily stretched muscles and skin. When insects grow they do so by sudden jumps, as it were. When they have grown so that they fill their outside skins very tightly, a new skeleton is formed inside of the old; the old skeleton bursts and is shed by the insect. While the new skeleton is yet soft it allows a considerable growth of the insect. This process is repeated several times in the life of every insect before it becomes fully grown. Having the skeleton on the outside is a great protection to the insect.
With some insects these changes of skeleton are accompanied only by a change in the size from the newly hatched form to the adult ; but with others there are great changes in structure and appearance during the last two changes of skin. We must know something of these changes in order to recognize the different stages in the life of the same insect.
the grasshoppers and the true bugs. Those who study insects use the name "bug" only for a certain large group of insects, just as one would speak of the "flies," "bees," and "grasshoppers." Grasshoppers and bugs have the same general form of body when young, but acquire wings as they become adult. Most of the other common insects undergo very remarkable changes. It is important to know this, since it may be very difficult to destroy an insect in one stage, but very easy to do so in another. Among those that make great changes in form are all of the caterpillars, which become butterflies or moths when full grown ; the maggots,
Stages in an insect's life. — In the life of most insects there are four well-defined stages. The first is the egg, the second is the lan^a, the third is the pupa, and the fourth
stage is the adult (Figs. 165, 171). With a few insects there is no visible egg stage, as the young are born alive. This is the case with the plant-Hce. The larval stage is the growing stage in every insect's life. If it is not well fed, the adult insect coming from it will be smaller in size than usual. The pupa, qx pupal stage, occurs only among insects in which the larva is very different from the adult. It is purely a trans-
days, the caterpillar sheds
its larval skin and becomes the pretty, shining chrysalis, or pupal case, of the butterfly. This is generally attached to some twig or stem. The surface is marked with delicate lines which really indicate the outlines of the
sheaths within which the wings, legs, and antennae are developing. The body of the caterpillar is made over into an entirely new set of structures especially fitted for the different life the adult will lead. A wonderful change takes place in both the structure and the habits during the two stages of these insects' lives. A new butterfly is formed out of the body of the old caterpillar without destroying its life. This is just what happens with most insects. With moths the changes are very similar, only they are hidden from view by the cocoon^ or silken case, that the caterpillar spins around itself for protection during this critical time of life. The change with wasps and bees and beetles is just as great as with butterflies and moths.
Exercise. — Bring some jxjtato beetles to the school and confine them in a cage such as shown in Fig. i66, with some of the potato vines. Watch the adult beetles lay their eggs and the young hatch and grow. Have some earth in the bottom of the cage for the lar\'se to enter when they are ready to transform. After a few days dig out some of the pupje and see how differently they are formed from the mature insects that were put in.
either biting or for sucking food.
Insects have a number of parts to their jaws, and these are so arranged that they work sidewise against each other. The biting insects consume the entire substance of the leaves, flowers, fruit, or wood on which they feed. This is the reason that it is possible to kill such insects by applying some poison to the plants on which they are feeding.
Some biting insects, however, feed in protected places where it is impossible to reach their food with a poison application. This is the case with the wood-boring insects as a rule and with the cotton-boll weevil. Many of the leaf-feeding insects, even, feed in the buds or some other protected position that makes it hard to control them. It is, therefore, necessary to know both the structure of the mouth and something of the general feeding habits of each insect before it can be destroyed.
Different uses of biting mouth-parts. — Among the biting insects the jaws are arranged in two principal positions, either pointing downward toward the surface upon which the insect rests, or forward, straight ahead of the insect. These positions indicate a different use. When the jaws point downward it means, as a rule, that the insect feeds
upon the surface or substance upon which it rests. This is the case with the grasshoppers, caterpillars, and most other leaf-feeding insects. Where the jaws point forward, it indicates that they are used for catching prey or for boring into wood. Those insects which catch others are as a rule useful and should not be destroyed. The tiget beetles and the ladybirds are two important groups of such useful insects.
Sucking insects. — In the second large group are included all insects that take their food ty sucking. The mosquitoes, flies, butterflies, moths, and bugs are insects of this class. The food of sucking insects is generally either plant sap or animal blood. The butterflies and moths, however, use neither of these ^oods, but live on the nectar, or sweet liquid, which is formed in flowers. Some adult insects never feed at all. The larvae from which they are developed have stored up so much strength and a surplus of food materials in their body tissues that the adult simply lives upon that reserve. In such cases the adult may have entirely lost the use of its mouth and the parts may not be developed. Such insects are usually short-lived while in the adult stage. It is possible for them to live on some other food as well as upon blood.
Perhaps the most interesting form of sucking mouth is that of the butterflies and moths. All caterpillars have biting mouths. The tongue of the butterfly is often longer than its body. It would be very much in the way if it were not possible for its owner to coil it up like a watchspring and carry it closely packed away under its head.
HOW INSECTS FEED 255
There is a narrow channel extending through the entire length of this tongue through which the butterfly sucks the liquids that serve it as food.
With most sucking insects the mouth-parts are strong enough to enable them to pierce the tissues of plants, animals, or other insects, so that their food is obtained entirely from beneath the surface. This is the reason that it is impossible to kill sucking- insects by applying poisons to the plants on which they are feeding.
Different treatments for biting and for sucking insects. — These types of mouth-parts must be well understood in deciding just what treatment should be given for any insect pest. With the biting leaf -eating insects, any poison spread on the surface of the leaves will be taken into the insect's stomach with its food and cause its death. Paris green is the principal poison that is used in this way. It is generally mixed with water and the poisoned solution sprayed all over the trees or plants on which leaf-eating insects are feeding. Other poisons may be used in the same way. Such a treatment will have no effect upon the sap-sucking insects that take nothing from the surface of the leaves. It has never been found possible to introduce any poison into the sap of a plant so as to destroy the sucking insects upon it. The principal thing that can be done to destroy such insects is to apply something which will not injure the plant, but which, coming into contact with the insect's body, will cause its death. There are two kinds of such treatment that can be used. The first kind includes many substances which cause death by covering with soap or with oil the openings through which
the insect breathes, which keep out the air and really suffocate it. These are called contact insecticides. Kerosene emulsion is one of the most common of such substances. (See Appendix.) The second class includes those gases that are either poisonous in themselves or cause the death of the insect by replacing the air and thus causing suffocation.
FARMER
While the injurious kinds number but a very small fraction of the great group of insects, they are exceedingly important both to our wealth and health. Perhaps more than a tenth of all the crops raised each year in our entire country is eaten or destroyed by insects. This damage amounts to a direct cost of about ten dollars for every man, woman, and child in the United States.
The Hessian fly. — Perhaps the most injurious species of all is the Hessian fly, a minute insect which lives on the stems of wheat and other grains. In some places wheat cannot be grown because of the presence of this insect and the injury it causes. The only remedy consists in burning over the stubble after the crop has been harvested and in delaying the planting of the fall wheat until after frosts have occurred.
The chinch-bug. — This is another very important insect that attacks grains. It is especially injurious to wheat and corn. It is a true bug and hardly more than a fifth of an inch long. Chinch-bugs often occur in such numbers as to cause the death of the plants because of the enormous amount of sap they withdraw. After the crops of smallgrain are harvested, these bugs move on foot in countless numbers to the corn-fields. The fields can be protected
by running a deep furrow across the path of the bugs and destroying them as they fall into it. The fields should be cleaned by burning all rubbish which can shelter the adult bugs through the winter. With many such pests, it is advisable to change the crop on a field each year, so that the pests may not so readily find an abundance of their food.
larva or worm.
The apple worm or codling -moth. — A widespread pest of apples is the worm (Fig. 168) that works into the core and makes the fruit "wormy." This is the larva of a pretty moth that lays its eggs on the leaves of the apple soon after tJu blossoming time. The young larvae feed on the leaves before they enter the fruit, into which they bore their way. This is the reason why it is possible to kill nearly all of the young worms by applying a poisonous
INSECT ENEMIES OF THE FARMER 259
spray, which usually contains Paris green, at about the time that the petals drop from the blossoms, A second spraying in from ten days to three weeks after the first is an almost complete remedy for this pest. The expense is very slight in comparison with the value of the crop saved.
The peach borer. — One of the most important peach insects is the peach borer, which works, not upon the fruit, but in the trees. If constant care be not taken, these borers may destroy a valuable orchard in a few years. The adult is a beautiful little moth, resembling some of the wasps in its appearance. The eggs are laid by the parent moths during the summer upon the bark near the surface of the ground. After hatching, the larva begins to bore into the bark, working downward a little below the surface. It lives thereafter in the sap-carrying layers just under the bark. Its presence is marked by an abundant formation of gum. The usual and best remedy is to dig around the base of each tree early in the fall or winter, and if any signs of gum are found, to dig out and destroy the larvae or worms. This must be done carefully so as not to miss any of the worms or injure the trees more by digging than the worms would do if left alone.
The San Jose scale. — This is one of the most important enemies of all fruit trees that shed their leaves. It is called the San Jos6 (H5'sa) scale because it was first found in the United States near a place in California by that name. The adult female scales are hardly as large as pin heads, but they may occur so abundantly as to cover the bark completely, and to cause the death of large trees in a
few years (Fig. 169). The best treatment is to spray the trees thoroughly just before the leaves start in the spring with a solution made by boiling lime and sulfur together. This is known as the /itnesulfur wash. (See Appendix.)
The potato beetle. — This insect occurs so commonly that it is probably well known to all of you. The adult beetle is marked with ten light and dark stripes. The young are thick-bodied, soft, red grubs. They eat the vines of the Irish potato and the mature beetles do likewise. The beetle lives over winter and lays its eggs upon the potato plants early in the season. The eggs hatch ^ ___ into small reddish grubs and in a few weeks r wH ^^ vines may be eaten bare. The remedy V • • ^^"^ ^^'^ P^^' *^ Paris green, sprayed or dusted on the leaves. Lime should generally be used with Paris green to prevent its injuring the leaves.
The plum curculio. — This is another beetle that does great damage to the plum and peach crops. The adult is one of the snout beetles, or weevils. After the fruit has set, Fio 160 —San ^^ mother weevil lays her eggs in it and Jos^ Scales, then eats a crescent-shaped cut half around ENLARGED ^^^y^ ^^^ j^^ ordcr that the growth of the fruit may not crush the egg before it hatches. This always marks the location of the egg. The larva eats its way into the fruit and around the stone. When fully
grown, it leaves the fruit and goes into the ground to transform. The adult weevil comes out early in the spring and feeds for a time on the buds before the fruit is set. During this period it may be destroyed by spraying the opening buds with poison. If sprayed just after bios-, soming, many weevils will be killed before they injure the fruit.
The cotton-boll worm (Fig. 171). — These worms prefer corn ears to cotton bolls. That is, if corn that has not become hard or mature is near, the boll worm moths will place nearly all of their eggs on the corn. By planting a few rows of corn at intervals of two weeks it is
possible to have the corn silking and in condition to attract the moths when they are most abundant in July and August The cotton is left almost uninjured. This practice is in addition to that of plowing the ground early in
foliage from the
plants. They may quite easily be reduced in numbers by dusting the cotton plants with Paris green mixed with flour. Strange as it may seem, this worm has recently come to be considered as beneficial to those sections of the cotton belt where the boll weevil occurs. It deprives the boll weevil of food by practically killing the cotton plant.
Exercise. — Ask the owner's permission to examine the roots of peach trees for borers. In your notebooic write a description of what you find. If specimens of the other insects mentioned in this section can be found, place them in bottles and present them to the teacher for examination by the class.
Note to the Teacher. — Bulletins on each of these separate insects have been issued by the United States Department of Agriculture and by many of the experiment stations. You may render a great service in preventing the destruction of fruit trees by obtaining one or more of these bulletins and, with its help, collecting twigs that seem to be attacked by scale insects. Specimens forwarded to the entomologist at your state experiment station will generally be identified without charge and detailed information will be furnished for the treatment of the insect found.
small, and are laid in a hole which the female eats in the square or boll. After placing the egg at the bottom of the hole, the opening to it is sealed air-tight by the mother weevil so that the egg will not dry up and fail to hatch. Each female may lay more than a hundred and some even
quired for these to hatch.
The larva. — Upon hatching, the little larva, or grub, finds itself surrounded by the tender parts of the bud or boll and then proceeds to feed and grow. When the larva
has become about half grown, the injury to the square is usually so severe that the little leaf-like parts surrounding the bud spread outward and the square turns yellow. In about ten days from the time the egg is laid the square usually falls to the ground, where the larva continues to
feed within it until fully grown (Fig. 173). This requires only about ten to fifteen days. Dry, hot weather may kill the insects within the fallen squares, especially if the rows of cotton be far enough apart to let in the sunshine.
bud or square, or within the boll (which is more likely to remain hanging upon the plant), the larva changes to a pupa. After only about three days more it becomes a fullgrown weevil. The weevil then cuts a hole in the surrounding walls that is just the size of its body, and through this makes its escape to the outside world (Fig. 175). All of its life from the time the egg is laid until the mature weevil comes forth is passed in the interior of the square or boll. This fact makes it impossible to apply any poisons so as to destroy the insect in its early stages.
The adult. — The mature weevil (Fig. 172) is a gray or reddish brown insect about a quarter of an inch long, not including the long snout. The mouth-parts are very small and are at the extreme tip of the long snout. This enables the weevil to bore deep into the squares and bolls. Squares, blooms, and bolls are destroyed by the attacks of the mature weevils, by the injury caused by the growing grub, and by the decay which starts in such wounds. The adults, or weevils, may live for a number of months. The development is so rapid that fully five generations may reach maturity in a season. Hence the insects are most abundant in the late summer and in the fall. The only check to the increase of weevils is the absence of squares, blooms, and bolls. When the weevils are very numerous, they destroy the squares so completely that no blooms are formed.
Spread. — The weevils may be spread in a number of ways, especially by seed carried from the gins on the border of the region where the weevil is present. To prevent
cotton seed or other materials that might carry the weevils.
The boll weevil spreads chiefly by flying. This flight and rapid spread occur during the fall months. In this way, the weevil spreads into about fifty miles of new territory each season. It is expected to spread over the entire cotton belt within a comparatively few years.
How it passes the winter. — The weevils which reach maturity late in the fall are the ones that are most likely to live through the winter. Fortunately, only from one to ten weevils live through the winter out of every hundred that attempt to do so. The weevils that mature in the late fall find shelter in the old cotton bolls on the stalk, or under any rubbish in or around the fields. The few that survive the winter leave their places of shelter gradually during a period of from ten to fourteen weeks, as a rule between the last of March and the first of July. This gradual coming out from winter quarters makes it very difficult to do much to control the weevil early in the spring.
Treatment for the weevil. — This has proved to be a very difficult insect to control. No poisons have proved of much value in fighting it. It has been found that the direct rays of the sun will destroy large numbers of the insects while in the immature stages in the fallen squares, when they are exposed to it. Some of our native ants, which occur all through the cotton-growing area, are very valuable helps, because they destroy large numbers of the pest in its immature stages. A number of other insects attack the immature insects in the squares and bolls and destroy them. More than forty species of birds are known
meadow larks in winter.
The best way to fight the boll weevil is to make certain improvements in farm practice. The most important step is to hasten the cotton plant to early maturity, so that the bolls formed early in the summer may become well grown by the time the weevils become very numerous, — the middle of July or first of August. The boll weevil does not do much damage to well-grown bolls while there is an abundance of squares in which eggs have not already been laid.
The maturity of cotton may be hastened — (i) By planting varieties or selections that mature early, or that form bolls early in the summer.
phosphate hastens the maturing of cotton.
The farmer who adopts the intensive system of cotton culture and who produces two thirds of a bale or more of cotton to the acre before the boll weevil reaches him will probably be able to grow cotton profitably after this insect comes. But the farmer, who before the coming of the boll weevil gets only a third of a bale or less from an acre, will scarcely be able to continue to grow cotton in the old way after the pest reaches him.
The second step in fighting the boll weevil consists in destroying the green parts of the plants or in plowing under the cotton stalks as early as possible in the fall. This
Is done in order to deprive the weevils of their only foodsupply, to stop their increase, and to reduce the number of hiding places in which they may spend the winter. The best preparation for farmers to make for the coming of the boll weevil is (i) to become accustomed to growing a greater variety of crops and more live-stock, and (2) to practice intensive cultivation of cotton, that is, to cultivate fewer acres of cotton so thoroughly as to make them produce as many bales as were grown on the larger area. The only safety lies in diversified farming and intensive cotton culture.
Exercise. — Let those who live outside of the region already invaded by the boll weevil try to estimate by the aid of the maps in some geography, how many years will probably pass before the boll weevil will reach their county, if it moves forward about fifty miles each year, assuming that it starts eastward from the Mississippi River in 1908. Do you think that farmers living near you realize that the boll weevil is certainly coming? Are any of them making preparations for its coming by raising a variety of farm products, — live-stock, truck crops, fruit, etc., — and by raising cotton under the intensive system ? Ask your parents what additional crops or live-stock, or live-stock products, could be produced to advantage in your own neighborhood.
the part that insects play in the spread of various diseases.
Flies carry disease. — It has been found that flies are frequently very important agents in the spreading of typhoid fever. They do this by carrying to human food on their feet or mouth-parts the germs that cause the disease. These germs are brought from the infected matter which flies visit. This has been proved by allowing a fly which had been on diseased matter to walk across the surface of a specially prepared material in which the germs of the disease could live. In a few days it was found that the typhoid germs were multiplying at every spot the fly had touched. The danger of the spread of such a disease by flies can be decreased as follows: (i) the frequent use of lime where needed about the premises, so as to reduce the number of flies and thus protect food ; (2) frequently cleaning stables and lots to keep flies from breeding there; and (3) thorough screening of houses.
Mosquitoes and yellow fever. — It has been proved very positively that a certain kind of mosquito is the agent in carrying this disease from one person to another. It is probable that it is spread in no other way. This mosquito is the common black-and-white-banded day mosquito of the Southern states. Before the connection of the mosquito with the spread of this disease became known,
INSECTS AND HEALTH 273
frightful outbreaks of the fever sometimes occurred in the South. In Havana, Cuba, it was always present. Even there the disease has been stamped out by destroying the mosquitoes (Fig. 178).
As these mosquitoes breed very extensively in the cisterns, rain barrels, or other water-holding vessels, the remedy evidently consists in removing every unnecessary water vessel and in screening those which must remain with wire screening or cheese cloth so tightly that the mosquitoes cannot get to the water to breed.
Mosquitoes and malaria. — More important than either of the cases which have been mentioned is the relation of mosquitoes to the spreading of malaria. That they do this has been most positively proved, and it is certain that malaria is never spread in any other way.
of man.
In the body of the mosquito certain of them undergo a development which they never do in man. After about ten or twelve days in the mosquito these parasites pass through the stomach walls and gather in its throat. At any time after this occurs, when this mosquito bites a well person, she is likely to force some of the parasites into the person's body along with the saliva which she injects into the wound. In this way, after a few days or weeks, a new case of malaria develops. This is considered as one of the most important recent discoveries in medicine.
Knowing how the disease is spread, it becomes possible to prevent it entirely. The malarial regions are simply those where the malarial mosquitoes are abundant It has been positively proved that it is possible for people to live even in the worst of such regions and yet to keep entirely well by guarding against being bitten by the mosquitoes. Their bites can be escaped, for the malarial mosquitoes are active only between sunset and sunrise.
The thorough screening of the
houses is the most certain means of preventing the spread of the disease. In addition the draining or filling of the standing water pools in which the mosquitoes
quitoes.— Whether we desire to destroy or to avoid these mosquitoes, we should know how to tell them from harmless kinds and also be able to tell the larvae or wigglers, in their breeding places. All of the mosquitoes that are concerned in spreading this disease belong to a single group and are closely related. The adults are rather long-legged as compared with other kinds ; when at rest, they stand with their bodies pointing head first to the surface to which they are clinging (Fig. 176). Other mosquitoes
they touch.
Among the larvae, or wigglers, these positions are quite reversed, as the malarial kinds are usually found with their bodies just under the surface of the water and parallel to it, while the other kinds hang, head downward, nearly at right angles to the surface (Fig. 177). Green scum is usually present where malarial mosquitoes abound.
only necessary to thoroughly
screen the houses, to avoid being bitten by the mosquitoes, and to Fig. 177— Wigglerof Malafill or drain the places where they ^^^^ Mosquito above
breed to stop completely the spread of this disease. Care should be taken to empty the water at least once a week from drinking troughs, barrels, etc., where the mosquitoes might breed. Tin cans, or similar water holders, should be buried or placed so that they cannot hold water. Cisterns and wells should be covered and everything possible done to prevent the multiplication of mosquitoes of any kind. The reward for such work will be a largely increased measure of comfort and health.
Note to the Teacher. — Bulletins on mosquitoes have been published especially by the United States Department of Agriculture and the state experiment stations at the following post offices : Berkeley, Cal. ; Lexington, Ky. ; College Park, Md. ; Agricultural College Post Office, Miss., and New Brunswick, N. J.
Exercise. — Catch some of the mosquito wigglera which you may find in standing water and keep them in a glass partly filled with water, under a lantern globe covered with cheese cloth. Watch the habits of the larv* and pupae. If you can find any of the boat-shaped egg masses of the common house mosquito or the single eggs of the malarial mosquito, put them into a tumbler of water by themselves and watch them until they become full-grown mosquitoes.
SECTION L. THE HONEYBEE
The keeping of bees for the production of honey is an important industry in many sections of the country and is practiced to some extent nearly everywhere. The occurrence of nectar in flowers and the visits of the bees and other insects to the flowers to secure it are well-known facts. Many wild bees store honey, but the few kinds kept and cared for by man have developed pic 179.— worker a wonderful ability to do this. Bees are ^^^
provided with powerful stings which they are likely to use if anything threatens their home and honey supplies. But bees are not dangerous to one who knows how to handle them Fig. 180. — Drone Bee properly.
The members of a colony. — The workers number from 25,000 to 35,000 in a hive. These do all of the work of collecting and storing the honey and all of the housekeeping in the hive. Besides the workers there are a few male bees or drones, and usually only one queen (Figs. 179, 180, 181). If more than fig. 181. one queen is present, there will be warfare between the two until one is killed ; or if the colony is strong and the honey supply abundant, part of the
found another colony. This is called swarming.
The work of the queen. — The queen bee is very carefully cared for by the workers, for upon her depends the very life of the colony. They feed her and do everything else possible for her comfort and safety. The reason for all of this an.xiety about the queen is that she alone lays all of the many thousands of eggs for the colony. Her strength is saved for that work.
The bee nursery. — The worker bees build the honeycomb in which the honey is stored and in which the young bees are reared. Separate combs are used for these two purposes. While the honey is stored for food, the young bees are not fed upon it directly. They are not brought up in the cells with the honey. This is how it is possible to have the fine solid combs of pure honey.
When a comb is prepared for the rearing of the young, the queen is taken to it by the workers. She places one egg in the bottom, or rather in the inner end, of each cell. With that her work is done. But during the summer time, she may have to lay several hundreds or even thousands of eggs every day. Whether the young bee is to become a worker, a drone, or a queen depends largely upon the kind of cell in which the egg is placed and also upon the kind of food that the young bee is fed. The workers are developed in the ordinary sized, horizontal cells. The drone cells are much larger, but also horizontal, and the eggs deposited in these are supposed to be infertile. The workers can produce a queen when they desire by forming a larger vertical cell, placing in it an
upon a special kind of food which is called royal jelly.
The bee larvae are little legless creatures and are fed and cared for entirely by the workers. Their food is a mixture of honey with pollen. After they become adult they do not leave the hive for some days, but serve as nurses for the larvae still in the cells. In about two weeks they also begin the collection of honey.
How honey is made. — When collecting honey, a bee usually visits only one kind of flower on a trip. The sweet nectar is carried in a special stomach from which the bee is able to expel it again for storage in the honeycomb. Upon its legs and body the bee carries pollen from the flowers it has visited. Bees really gather nectar, not honey. After the nectar has been stored in the comb, the bees fan it with their wings and dry out much of the water, and in due time it ripens into real honey.
There are so many things to be known in order to manage bees successfully that it has become a special business to which many people give all of their time. Upon the amount of honey produced each year depends the value of a colony of bees. From well-managed hives of selected bees and during seasons favorable for the growth of the honey-producing plants as much as several hundred pounds of honey may be stored by a single hive.
Length of life of bees. — The life of a colony of bees may be continued indefinitely, but the life of the individual workers is short in the summer time when they are flying a great deal. They wear their wings out and thus really work themselves to death, in a few weeks. The drones
never live over winter and are usually killed by the workers during the fall. But the queen may live for several years. When a queen becomes old or exhausted, a new one takes her place and the life of the colony goes on steadily.
Producing select hives of bees. — The best kinds of bees have been developed in Italy. Among these are the Italian and the Carniolan bees. In some respects the latter are the best bees known. By placing a single fertile queen of one of these choice kinds in a hive of common bees, it will happen that in a few weeks or months all of the bees in the hive will be of her kind because she lays all of the eggs. This is the way colonies of choice bees are produced. Such queens are raised for sale by some beekeepers and can be sent long distances by mail.
Honey-producing plants. — For the best results with bees it is important that there be an abundance of good honeyproducing plants in the vicinity of the hives. Among the best plants for this are some of the clovers, alfalfa, vetches, and many of the common fruit trees. Sweet clover, which grows wild and which is also cultivated on lime soils in the Southern states, is an excellent bee plant. Many of the wild flowers and weeds are sources of abundant honeysupply. Cotton, cowpeas, and buckwheat are good. The magnolia, palmetto, tulip or yellow poplar, and sourwood are valuable sources of supply. Desirable honey-producing crops may be grown to help out the natural sources of supply.
The principal animals that add to farmers' profits are horses, mules, cattle, sheep, and swine. All of these animals have been greatly changed by man in order that they may better serve his uses. The active, slender, longlegged wild hog has been changed into the round-bodied, short-legged Berkshire or Poland-China. The angular, long-horned wild cattle of earlier days have been transformed into immense masses of flesh.
The changes that have occurred in domestic animals have been brought about chiefly by selection of the ones best suited to their owner's main purpose. Improvement in the kind and amount of food has also helped to make these changes.
Improving common or scrub live-stock. — A breed is a large group of animals that resemble each other and whose offspring inherit the same qualities. A pure-bred animal is one both of whose parents belong to the same breed. Scrubs or natives are animals having no ancestors that belonged to any distinct breed. Grades are animals descended from both pure-bred and scrub ancestors.
Fortunately for the farmer, the pure-bred parent has more influence than the scrub parent in determining the form, color, and useful qualities of the grade offspring.
Hence, the best way to improve cattle or other live-atock cheaply is to purchase pure-bred sires, or males, and to use cheaper females. Starting with a pure-bred sire and scrub females the first generation are half-bloods. The second generation (or the offspring of these half-blood females and of a pure-bred sire) are three quarters pure ; the members of the fourth generation are seven eighths pure, or high grades. The process of improving inferior animals by the use of pure-bred sires is called grading up. It is the cheapest way for most farmers to improve their herds. The cheaper females intended as a foundation for the herd or flock ought to be selected from the best of their kind.
The high grades may be just as good for butter or beef or other special use as are the pure-bred animals, but for purposes of increase they are less valuable. This is because some of their offspring may resemble their scrub ancestors. It is unwise, therefore, to use either a grade or a scrub sire. A cross-bred animal is one having one parent belonging to one breed and the other parent to another. When the parents are thus widely unlike, the character of the offspring is uncertain. Such violent crosses are generally unwise.
Advantages of raising live-stock. — There are advantages in raising some live-stock even on farms devoted chiefly to cotton, sugar cane, tobacco, or grain. Some of the main reasons why live-stock ought to be raised on most farms are : —
HORSES 285
Scotland. Draft horses are immense animals, generally weighing from 1 500 to 2000 pounds. Their legs are rather short, very strong, and placed wide apart. Their bodies are rounded ; their backs are broad, showing great development of muscles. Their shoulders are rather upright instead of sloping. This upright position enables them to
throw their weight and strength squarely against the collar. Their feet are large. In the Southern states where the mule is a favorite work animal on the farm, the draft horses are used much less on the farms than in the cities.
Percherons. — The Pcrch'e ron breed originated in France. It has become very popular in the United States. The colors that most frequently occur are black and all shades of gray. The Percheron horse is a very heavy, compactly built animal, with short legs free from long hairs (Fig.
there is white on the face and feet (Fig. 184). A fringe of long hair grows out behind the lower portion of each leg. Coach or carriage horses, — A coach horse is a large, stylish animal, lighter and more active than the draft horse, but larger than light riding and driving horses (Fig. 185).
Light driving and riding horses. — These are formed for speed and hence have slender bodies, sloping shoulders, and long legs with sloping pasterns. Thoroughbred is the name of a breed of horses that are very speedy at the running gait. Thoroughbreds have been useful in giving
horses descended from them.
Atnerican trotters owe their speed largely to their thoroughbred or running ancestors. They are largely used as buggy horses. The colors are various.
The American saddle horse is prized for its easy riding gaits. The best saddle horses are expected to have five gaits; namely, (i) walk, (2) trot, (3) canter, (4) rack (another name for single foot), and (5) either the running walk
or slow pace or fox trot. The saddle horse should be of medium size, graceful proportions, and should have stylish action and a good disposition (Fig. 186).
Shetland ponies. — These very small ponies are useful for children to ride and drive. They are usually gentle and make delightful pets. The height is oftenest from 36 to 42 inches (Fig. 187). Some ponies have been only 30 inches high. Most Shetland ponies are compact or " blocky " in
form and stronger than their small size would suggest. Common colors are black, bay, and brown ; grays, chestnuts, roans, and spotted ponies are not unusual.
Mules. — Mules are preferred to horses on Southern farms. They pull more steadily, are less high-spirited, and are put to work at an earlier age. Southern farmers can easily and profitably raise their own mules.
Exercise. — Compare several horses with regard to the following points : slope of shoulders ; slope of pasterns (the part of the leg just above the foot) ; size or fineness of the bones in the lower part of the leg.
Have you read " Black Beauty," a book that tells a very interesting tale about a horse? In reading it you will find not only pleasure, but also many useful hints about the proper management of horses.
SECTION LIII. BEEF CATTLE
The beef type. — The chief use of the beef breeds is to furnish meat. The form that is desirable in a beef animal is one that affords the largest proportion of valuable meat and the smallest proportion of inferior meat and waste. Hence, the neck and legs should be short and the body full, deep, and rounded. The shape of a beef animal's body is "blocky "
Views from behind and from the side.
and somewhat like that of a brick set on edge with the edges and corners rounded off (Fig. i88). The best cuts are those from the upper part of the body, especially in the region of the loins. The back and loins of a beef animal, therefore, should be broad and deeply covered with flesh.
breeds usually give only enough milk for their calves.
Most beef breeds that are popular in the United States originated in England and Scotland. A mature cow of the beef breeds often weighs 15CX) pounds or more, or nearly twice the weight of a scrub or Jersey cow. The males sometimes weigh more than 2500 pounds.
Even grade animals of the beef breeds are better than scrubs because they grow larger, mature earlier, and afford a larger proportion of valuable meat. All these advantages can be obtained by the purchase of a pure-bred sire.
BEEF CATTLE 293
The Hereford breed. — These cattle are sometimes called "White Faces" (Fig. 189). The face, breast, legs, underportion, and part of the neck are white ; most of the body is red. The Hereford is a very valuable and popular breed and has been found especially satisfactory for the Western ranges.
The Aberdeen- Angus breed. — Other popular names for this breed are Polled Angus and Black Polled. The color is black over the entire body. There are no horns ; even among the half-blood Angus grades very few animals have horns. In size, the Angus is slightly below the Hereford and Shorthorn. It has a very blocky, rounded body. The Galloway (Fig. 191) is another black, hornless breed.
The Shorthorn breed. — The horns are short, and in the cow they are gracefully curved. The principal colors are (i) solid red, (2) red and white mixed, and (3) roan, that is, a mottling of red and white. The Shorthorns are widely distributed over the United States. They are most valuable for beef, but in some families of Shorthorns the milkproducing quality has been maintained.
The Red Polled breed. — These hornless red cattle stand between the beef breeds and the dairy breeds. Red Polled cattle are smaller and generally less " blocky " than the beef breeds mentioned above. Their bodies, however, are rounded and plump. The breed includes many excellent milkers, and also many animals of the beef type.
Exercise. — At home or on the farms of neighbors select the most " blocky " cow you can find. Compare every part of her body with that of some more angular animal ; also compare her shape with those shown in the pictures of the beef breeds. If especially interested in beef
publication showing how to judge beef cattle.
Note to the Teacher. — Encourage pupils to describe specimens of any of these beef breeds that they have seen. If the class can inspect some animal of the beef type, whether pure-bred, grade, or native, require them to locate the parts of the body where the greatest amounts of valuable meat are found. Compare the shape of this animal with the shapes shown in the pictures of beef cattle.
The dairy type of cattle. — The form of a good dairy cow should be almost the opposite to that of a good beef cow. She should have a thin back, wide, prominent, bony hips, and lean hind-quarters (Fig. 192). If there is much flesh on the back, loins, and hind-quarters of a dairy cow,
been changed into milk or butter.
The barrel, or rear portion of the body, must be large, so that in it she may store away much food while conv.erting it into milk and butter. Viewed from the side, her body should be deeper at the hind flank than at the fore flank, giving a wedge-shaped appearance. Viewed from above, the dairy cow should also be wedge-shaped, having the narrow part at the withers on top of the shoulder blades and the wide part at the hips.
The udder should be large and should extend well for* ward. The loose skin forming its rear portion should extend as high as possible. The milk veins in front of the udder should be large and crooked, and the " milk well " where they enter the chest cavity should be large.
The milk veins carry blood from the udder where it has helped make milk. If they are large, it shows that much blood flows past the udder for use in making milk.
The Jersey breed. — This breed originated on the little island of Jersey between England and France (Fig. 193). The laws of that island do not permit any other breed to be introduced. The Jersey is now the most popular dairy breed in the United States. This is because its milk is so rich. A Jersey cow often produces more than
records of more than twice that amount.
The Jersey cow has a small, angular, lean body, a fine and beautiful head with short crumpled horns, and usually a rich, yellowish skin. Common colors among Jerseys
are silver-gray and fawn color. White markings are frequent. The legs and nose are often black. A Jersey or even a Jersey grade can generally be distinguished from most other cattle by the " mustache." This is a ring of light-colored hair around the muzzle or nose.
The Guernsey breed. — This breed is very similar to the Jersey, but the form is somewhat larger and coarser, and light colors are less common. Guernsey milk is quite as rich as Jersey. These two breeds are entitled to be called the two principal butter breeds. The Guernsey
sea-coast in Holland (Fig. 194). They are large, angular, black-and-white cattle, and give larger amounts of milk than any other breed. Some cows have given more than 10 gallons of milk in one day. However, the milk is not rich.
Note to the Teacher. — Doubtless a good dairy cow can be inspected by teacher and class. If so, instruct pupils in locating parts of body and in noting their correspondence with the " dairy shape," as suggested in text and illustrations. This exercise will liear frequent repetition. Then compare, in all points, any two cows placed together.
Long before cotton was known, men and women wore garments made of wool. The sheep still furnishes a large part of our clothing. This animal is as useful for its flesh, called mutton, as for its wool.
mal. They live chiefly on coarse feed that would otherwise be wasted and eat weeds which horses, cattle, and hogs will not touch. Thus they help to keep the farm clean and neat and improve the land on which they pasture. This explains the true proverb that "The hoof of the sheep
is golden." Every farm ought to have its flock of sheep. The wool generally pays the cost of keeping them. The lambs are clear profit, and usually a flock produces more lambs than there are ewes. A lamb will often sell when a few months old for as much or more than its mother. Unfortunately, sheep are subject to injury and death
these troubles.
There are three types of sheep, fine-wool, mediumwool, and long-wool. The long-wool breeds, which are used both for mutton and wool, have not been extensively raised in warm climates.
SHEEP 301
Medium-wool breeds. — The medium-wool breeds include the Dorset, Shropshire, Southdown, and others. They afford good mutton and a fair amount of wool.
The Dorset is a sheep of medium size. Both sexes have horns. Dorsets are prized for the early date at which their lambs come and for the frequent occurrence of twin lambs (Fig. 196).
It is a popular breed in all parts of the United States. The color of the face, ears, and legs is very dark brown or black. The Shropshire has no horns.
The Southdown (Fig. 198) is a favorite mutton breed over almost the whole world. Its face, ears, and legs are of a brownish color, but of a lighter shade than those of the Shropshire. The Southdown is a little smaller than the Shropshire and affords somewhat less wool.
than that of other breeds.
Exercise. — Write in your notebook the month in which shearing is done, asking older persons if you do not know. If any member of the class has seen sheep sheared by machinery, he should be prepared to tell how it was done. If there is a flock of sheep near you, watch them while grazing and notice the weeds that they consume which other live-stock would not eat.
It costs so little to make a start in improving the hogs on any farm that scrubs, or razorbacks, ought soon to disappear. Pure-bred hogs and grades mature at a much earlier age than scrubs and grow to a much larger size.
Hogs are healthier and much more profitable when they live partly on pasturage. But even with the best pastures of grass or clover, it pays to feed them some grain. In the Southern states, hogs can be raised on very little corn by growing artichokes, chufas, vetches, clovers, and alfalfa for them to eat in cool weather. When the weather becomes warm, there should be ready for them fields of sorghum, cowpeas, peanuts, and soy beans, besides pastures.
than on one more than a year old.
Hog cholera and swine plague destroy great numbers of hogs every year. They are due to germs that have been brought from other places where the diseases have occurred. They are carried by means of running water, by loose animals, by buzzards, and even by the shoes of men. These diseases can generally be prevented by not allowing the hogs to range outside of their pasture, and by keeping out of the hog pasture and lots everything that has been
on a farm where these troubles have recently occurred. It is safest for hogs not to drink water from a stream that originates beyond one's own property.
Breeds of hogs. — There are many breeds of hogs. Among the most popular are the Berkshire, Poland-China, Duroc-Jersey, and Chester White.
back, noting especially differences in nose, neck, back, and hams.
Note to the Teacher. — Write to the Agricultural College in your state for score-card for judging hogs. These sheets contain sufficient directions. It is instructive and interesting, after some practice in judging fairly good hogs, to have pupils engage in a judging contest.
POULTRY
The poultry products of the United States are estimated to be worth about five hundred million dollars each year. The hen has even a stronger claim than this on our care. In her eggs and in the flesh of her chickens she furnishes the most nutritious kind of human food. Fowls are still further useful on the farm because of the large numbers of injurious insects that they destroy. They also make profitable use of waste material, such as grass, surplus vegetables, bruised fruit, and spilled grain. Some kinds of fowls afford valuable feathers.
Improving the flock. — By saving eggs from only the best layers for hatching there will be every year an increase in the number of eggs laid by the flock. Hens have been raised that produced more than two hundred eggs in a year (Fig. 202). This was done by selecting through several generations the best layers and the roosters hatched from eggs laid by the best hens. Those who cannot at once have pure-bred fowls should improve the flock by using only pure-bred cocks.
Food for poultry. — Fowls lay best and grow best when allowed some exercise. The insects that they catch while ranging in orchard or pasture or field form a most nutritious diet. When fowls are not permitted to range,
THE MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY
the food given them must be rich in nitrogen. Foods suitable for supplying nitrogen to poultry are the seeds of cowpeas and soy beans, leaves of clover and of all legumes,
corn, wheat, or oats.
Poultry thrives best when furnished with a variety of food and when constantly supplied with green food. A field of rape, alfalfa, or clover should be grown especially for poultry. When fowls are confined, green food ought to furnish part of the daily ration.
Grit — Fowls prepare their food, not by chewing it like larger animals, but by grinding it against grit in the gizzard. Hence, fowls must have an abundance of grit, which may be sand, gravel, cinders, pounded glass or oyster shells, or any finely divided hard substance. If they range, fowls can pick up enough of this. If confined, they should be supplied with some form of grit, as clean sand or crushed oyster shells. The oyster shells are especially useful to laying hens because, besides serving in the gizzard to grind the food, they furnish lime. Much lime is needed to form the shell of the egg.
Destroying vermin. — The profits from poultry are much reduced by the discomfort caused by lice and mites. When fowls can scratch and roll in the dust, the dust often suffocates the lice. A box of fine dry road-dust, or sifted ashes, should be kept in the poultry-house so that the fowls can regularly take their dust baths and thus destroy many vermin. Chicken mites are not all thus killed. Many leave the fowls after tormenting them all night, and spend the daytime on the roosts and walls of the poultry-house. Hence, the house ought to be whitewashed frequently with a lime wash to which crude carbolic acid has been added. The orchard spray pump may be used and the walls and roosts sprayed either with this kind of whitewash or with kerosene emulsion. Directions for making this mixture, so useful for killing insects, are given in the Appendix.
By having the nests movable, these can be brought out of the hen-house at frequent intervals and the straw burned, thus ridding them of vermin. Some poultrymen dip their
a, o e in inner tin — ^ good poultry-house should be ventilated, but not crossed by draughts of air. Sunshine should be let in to keep it dry and to destroy germs of certain diseases. The roosts should be movable and smooth, so as not to afford hiding places for vermin. Some careful poultry-breeders build a platform under the roost and a foot or two below. This keeps the floor clean and saves all the manure, which is much richer than that from the larger farm animals.
Exercise. — Weigh a dozen eggs ; write the weight in your notebook. Are they all of the same size? Of the same color? Try to think why eggs that have become greasy do not hatch well.
Note to the Teacher. — Encourage statements from pupils about familiar facts connected with the management of poultry, kinds of foods used, best location of nests for different fowls, etc. If any one can find an old can and pan, let him or her make a drinking fountain, and show in class how it operates. See whether any pupil would like to make one for use at home. Parents would appreciate one.
CHICKENS
It has been found easy to create new breeds of chickens by selection and by crossing. As a result, there are now more than one hundred varieties of chickens. These may be divided into four general classes, according to the use to which each is best suited. These classes are : —
The egg breeds. — The breeds of this class are so named because they lay more eggs than those of the other classes. The fowls are small and active. They are poor sitters. Among the leading egg breeds are the Leghorns, Minorcas, Spanish, Red Caps, Andalusians, and the Hamburgs. The eggs of this class are generally pure white.
Most breeds of each class are again subdivided into varieties named according to color of plumage or shape of comb. In other respects, these varieties of each breed are alike. The Leghorns include eight varieties ; among them are the White, Brown, and Buff Leghorns. A Leghorn hen should lay between 150 and 200 eggs in a year (Fig.
BREEDS AND VARIETIES OF CHICKENS
Reds, and Orpingtons. There are three varieties or colors of Plymouth Rocks, Barred (Fig. 205), White, and Buff. Wyandottes are divided into eight varieties, including the White (Fig. 206) and the Silver-laced (Fig. 207).
All three breeds
Exercise. — Write in your notebook the names of all the breeds of chickens you know. What is the color of each ? What is the color of the leg or shank ? How many toes have chickens ? Why are the feet of ducks and geese different from those of chickens and turkeys ?
ANIMALS
Animals cannot feed on the minerals in the soil nor on the carbon dioxid in the air. The plant lives upon both. The chief use of the plant to man is in changing the minerals from the soil and the carbon dioxid from the air into substances fit to nourish man and his servants, the domestic animals. Plants form the natural food of the animals of the farm.
The same classes of substances are found in the bodies of plants and animals. These are water, ash, and protein (that is, materials containing nitrogen). Each of these substances in the plant goes to form somewhat similar matter in the animal body. But plants contain substances not found in the flesh of animals ; these are starch and sugar. Yet starch and sugar are among the most important foods of animals. Instead of adding these to its own body unchai)ged, the animal converts starch and sugar into animal fat, or uses them as fuel.
Ash. — This is the part of the dry matter of plants or animals that will not burn. There is generally an abundance of ash in the common foods to supply all that animals need. But pigs fed on com alone without any pasturage may be helped by giving them wood ashes, which aid in the formation of their bones and in other ways. Fowls
of ground bone and the like.
Protein. — In plants and animals most substances containing nitrogen are called protein (pronounced pro'te In). Forms of protein are the white of eggs and the curd in soured milk. The protein of plants is used by the animal to make lean meat, muscles, blood, and curd in milk. Men or farm animals doing heavy work require an abundance of this substance. So do cows when giving much milk. Among the foods richest in protein are cotton-seed meal and both the hay and the seeds of leguminous plants. Indeed, seeds of all kinds contain a considerable proportion of protein.
Fuel for heat and force. — The animal body is a machine with much work to do. Even an idle horse expends some force or work in the circulation of the blood and the digestion of food. All the work the horse has to do increases the force or energy he must expend. Hence, the horse needs to use a part of his food to produce force or motion just as much as a steam engine needs burning coal to furnish power. An animal needs some food to serve as fuel to keep the body warm. Thus a part of the food is consumed, or slowly " burned," in the body in order to be changed into heat and force. Among the substances that serve as fuel to produce heat and force are starch and sugar. Starch, sugar, and the coarse fiber of plants are called car bo hy'drates. This is because they consist of carbon and hydrogen, in addition to oxygen.
fat, whfch it stores in its body, or adds to its milk. No fattening can occur until after all food necessary to do the work of the animal's body has first been provided. Fat. — Fat or oil is abundant in the seeds of some plants, as in cotton seed, flaxseed, soy beans, and peanuts. KIND OF FOOD USED IN
ash in lean meat, milk,etc.
animal body. Fat in the food is also used for fuel to produce heat and force. Indeed, one pound of fat when burned makes about two and one fourth times as much heat as one pound of carbohydrates.
If it does not have enough protein, the animal will suffer, because nothing else can take the place of protein in making lean meat, muscles, blood, bone, eggs, wool, and curd in milk. However, if fats or carbohydrates are omitted
unwise and unprofitable.
Animals differ in the use of food. — Young animals require less food than older ones to increase their weights equally. It is much more profitable to fatten a hog less than a year old than one nearly two years old.
Hogs and chickens require most of their food in condensed or concentrated form. Horses need about half concentrated food and half bulky food, like hay. Cattle and sheep may do well on a ration that consists chiefly of bulky foods.
Animals of the same breed differ greatly in the use they make of their food. One fattens on much less food than another does. Experience and study enable good judges of animals to select those that fatten most readily.
Exercise. — Weigh an exact quart or gallon of corn, corn meal, wheat bran, cotton-seed meal, and any other common " grain feeds " that are convenient. Write the weights in your notebook and compare them with the weights that your classmates find. Ask your parents what are the cheapest foods for feeding cows.
Note to the Teacher. — No portion of the tables following is to be memorized. They are for reference in working problems suggested in the next section. In case the sixth grade studies this book, or in case the class is backward in arithmetic, the whole of the next section may be omitted. Do not, however, omit Section LIX. If the class has studied an elementary book on physiology, require the pupils to read now those parts of it bearing on digestion and food.
A RATION is a supply of food for an animal for one day. It is called a balanced ration when it contains just the proportion of digestible protein to the carbohydrates and fat that tests have shown to be best for that particular kind of animal. A balanced ration for most animals contains five or six times as much digestible carbohydrates and fat as digestible protein. The proportion between digestible protein and carbohydrates and fat is called the nutritive ratio. It is obtained by multiplying the fat by 2j, adding this product to the carbohydrates, and dividing the sum by the quantity of protein.
The table on page 321 shows what amounts of each of these substances have been found best for different kinds of animals. The longer table on page 322 shows how many pounds of digestible substances there are in 100 pounds of the most common foods. From these two tables can be calculated a ration that is best for a cow giving milk, for a work horse, or for other animals.
Examine both tables to learn whether a ration for a horse at medium work could be made from corn and oat straw. The shorter table shows that a ration for a horse ought to contain about 6.2 times as many pounds of di-
gestible carbohydrates and fat as of protein. The longer table shows that corn has 9.8 and oat straw 33.8 times as much carbohydrates and fat as protein. Evidently a mixture of corn and oat straw contains too large a proportion of carbohydrates, which means that it contains too little protein. This protein can be supplied by using cowpea or clover hay in place of the straw.
In feeding animals first be sure that enough protein and carbohydrates are supplied. It may be proper to give a slight excess of protein if this does not increase the cost. The more protein fed, the richer is the fertilizer.
Example. — Calculate a ration for a cow producing 22 pounds of milk per day, using grass hay, cotton-seed meal, and corn. The table on page 321 shows that a cow needs 2.5 pounds digestible protein, 13 pounds of carbohydrates, and .5 of a pound of fat. Start by guessing how much of each food might perhaps serve. Take 1 5 pounds of hay, 5 pounds of corn or corn meal, and 3 pounds of cotton-seed meal. By dividing the figures in the table on page 322 by 100 so as to find the weight of protein, fat, etc., in every pound of grass hay, cotton-seed meal, and corn respectively, the calculations in the first table can be made. (See page 320.)
The calculated ration contains more than enough protein and fat, but lacks about one pound of carbohydrates. Its excess of fat, .31 of a pound (after being multiplied by 2\) makes up most of this deficiency. The calculated ration need not contain the exac/ amounts required in the standard rations in the short table.
Exercise. — In preparing this lesson pupils should rule their notebooks as in the next table ; copy the example ; understand how every figure is obtained ; and perform the suggested multiplications. To work the optional problems, the notebook should be ruled in the same way as in the example worked.
Note to the Teacher. — The following problems are optional, and, if assigned, they should be divided into several lessons. They are solved in the same way as the example just given, and may be supplemented by original problems requiring calculations of rations for any class of animals, using the foods most common in any locality. Rations consisting largely of cotton seed and cotton-seed meal cannot be made to approach very closely to the standards. But they are satisfactory in the South, where the extra protein is cheap.
If it should be desired to increase the number of problems and to make them apply to larger or smaller animals, the proportions of protein, fat, etc., would be unchanged, but the total amount of each food would be, for example, four fifths as much for an animal weighing 800 pounds as for one weighing 1000 pound.s.
United States Department of Agriculture, especially (torn Farmers' Bulletin No. 22. You may expect the figures in different books showing the composition of foods to vary slightly.
ratio between 3 and 6.
Problem 7. Calculate the composition of the following Southern ration and compare it with standard for a cow giving milk : 6 pounds cotton seed, 5 pounds corn meal, 15 pounds cowpea hay.
The most accurate way to
decide which are the best among a number of cows is to weigh the milk at regular intervals, once or twice a month, and then to test its richness. By using a Babcock milk-tester (Fig. 209), it is possible to tell just how much fa{ or butter-making material there is in the milk of any cow. Dairymen who try this plan sometimes find that half the cows in their herd are not paying for pic 209. — A Small
doubles his net profits.
Milking time. — Avoid exciting a cow at milking time. Fear and excitement check the formation and flow of milk. Be regular and milk at the same time every day. Feed at regular hours also.
Keeping the milk pure. — Milk is formed from the blood which circulates through the udder in exceedingly small blood vessels. While forming in the udder, milk of a healthy cow contains no germs. But as soon as it is drawn,
germs fall into it. A dirty udder, a dusty stable, dirty hands, and poorly cleaned milk vessels are the most common means of adding unwelcome germs to milk.
Before milking, the dust and loose hairs on and around the udder should be removed by wiping with a damp cloth. The stables must be kept clean and well littered so that the cow's udder and body may not be soiled. To avoid getting dust and germs in the milk, it is better to feed hay or other dusty food after milking or else a long time before.
The milk pails, strainers, and all other vessels must be kept clean by careful washing and the use of scalding water or steam after each milking. Be sure to clean thoroughly the seams and rough places in metal milkvessels. These hiding places may be crowded with germs if any of the dried milk is allowed to adhere. Sunning helps to clean milk-vessels, for sunshine is a great enemy of germs. Neither milk nor empty milk-vessels should ever be left in a room where there is sickness. Germs of human diseases sometimes enter milk by this means or by the use of impure water used in washing the milk-vessels. If the milk pails have partially covered tops and are held in a slanting position, much of the germ-laden dust will be excluded (Fig. 210).
Cooling. — Milk or cream should be cooled as soon as possible, for germs do not multiply so rapidly in a cold temperature as in a warm one. One means of quickly cooling milk or cream consists in putting it in tall slender cans and placing these in cold water. Because these cans are deep, this method is called the deep-setting system of
THE PRODUCTION AND CARE OF MILK
raising cream. The most common method in Southern homes where only one or two cows are kept is to pour the milk as soon as drawn into shallow pans.
Note to the Teacher. — Let pupils test with blue litmus paper samples of buttermilk and whole milk of various ages or kept 12 to 30 hours at different temperatures. Samples of first- and last-drawn milk, and of milk from several cows, can be prepared in advance for testing. If a very small amount of formalin or other disinfectant is added, the samples can be kept for a number of days. If there is any money for school equipment, consider the purchase of a Babcock milk-tester, costing $4.00 or more. Write the Agricultural College of your state, asking which pattern to buy and from whom to order. Farmers will be pleased to have pupils test their cows.
ticles, called globules. They
rise more completely if the milk is cooled promptly after milking. Hence, milk is generally promptly poured into shallow pans, or quickly cooled in deep cans placed in cold water. But any method of removing the fat globules that depends upon their rising to the surface leaves many of them entangled in the skimmed milk. When shallow pans are used, about one fourth of the fat may be lost in the skimmed milk. However, the cream separator (Fig. 211) removes nearly all of the fat. It does this by the rapid revolution of the metal bowl through which the milk is passing. The bowl revolves six thousand times or more per minute. The rapid motion throws Fkj. ait. — ahavd the heavier part of milk to the outer Creau Separator g^gg of the bowl, from which it runs out as skimmed milk. The cream, being lighter, collects nearer the center of the bowl, and overflows.
Ripening cream for churning. — While many kinds of germs are harmful to milk, there is one kind of germ which the dairyman needs in milk or cream intended for
MAKING BUTTER 327
making butter. This is the lactic germ, or the one that produces the ordinary souring of milk or cream. When numbers of these germs get into milk kept at a mild temperature, they change the sugar in it into a pleasant acid, called lactic acid, the flavor of which is found in buttermilk. This acid changes that part of the milk which contains nitrogen into the somewhat solid curd, and makes it easier for the churn to separate the fat. Cream is soured or ripened before it is churned.
If the milk or cream is kept too cold before churning, other germs that can endure more cold increase more rapidly than the helpful lactic germs, thus giving an unpleasant flavor to the butter and buttermilk. On the other hand, if the cream is kept very warm, souring occurs very quickly and the butter is soft and inferior. A good temperature at which to ripen or sour cream at home is 60 to 70 degrees Fahrenheit. This is a little cooler than the air of a comfortably heated living room in winter. In some dairies, the cream is cooled to about 50 degrees. Since the lactic germs multiply slowly in cold milk or cream, it may be necessary in cold weather to add an extra supply of these germs. The addition of a little well-flavored buttermilk from a previous churning is one way to hasten the ripening of milk or cream in cold weather.
The flavor of butter is chiefly due to the kind of germs in the ripening cream. To make sure that every lot of butter shall have a good, uniform flavor, some dairymen add a prepared starter, containing the particular germs that will produce the desired flavor.
Churning. — A good temperature for the cream in the churn is about 60 degrees Fahrenheit if the cows are fresh in milk and are not fed on cotton seed or cotton-seed meal. If these foods are fed, raise the temperature within the churn to some point between 63 and 68 degrees. Much warmer cream can be churned, but the butter is then soft and mixed with the curd of the milk. Such butter sells for a very low price and soon becomes rancid. Moreover, if the cream is warm when churned, much of the fat is left in the buttermilk. A dairy thermometer costs little and often saves many an hour of work and many a pound of butter.
Sometimes, when butter will not come, it is because the cream is not sour enough, or because the churn is too full. The best churns are those that revolve, and these should not be more than one-third or one-half full. Green feed for the cows makes the cream easier to churn and gives to the butter an attractive yellow color. Sometimes, when the butter comes but will not gather, churning can be hastened, but the buttermilk ruined, by adding a little salt.
Handling the butter. — The churn should be stopped when the grains of butter are about as large as kernels of wheat. Then draw off most of the buttermilk and add cold water to harden the butter. Later, wash the grains of butter thoroughly in cold water. Add fine dairy salt while working it on the butter-worker. It is generally best to work it twice. When coloring is added, it should be placed in the churn before churning begins. A uniform color, neat prints, and careful wrapping in special oiled paper greatly increase the selling price.
Exercise. — Who has seen and can describe a cream separator? Obtain two small clean bottles of the same size and shape and fill both with milk as soon as it comes from the cow. Shake one of them about every half hour. Leave the other perfectly still. On which does the cream rise best ? Another day fill one of the these same bottles with • the milk first drawn from the udder and the other with strippings. After the cream rises, try to estimate how much more cream there is in strippings.
Note to the Teacher. — Ask the pupils to take the temperature of the well or spring water at home and of the contents of the churn. Could a can of milk be kept advantageously in water of this temperature? Would such water chill and harden butter? Ask for experiences in churning when the butter would not come. What were the conditions?
Optional Problems in Dairying.— (i) In one year cow A gives 4000 pounds of milk and cow B gives 5000 pounds ; the Babcock test shows that A's milk contains 4.5 per cent of butter fat and B's milk 3.5 per cent ; how many pounds of butter fat are produced by each in a year ?
(2) Assuming that one pound of butter fat is mixed with enough water, curd, and salt to make ij pounds of butter, what is the number of pounds of butter produced annually by each cow? What is the value of the yearly butter product of each cow, with butter at 25 cents per pound ?
(3) How many more pounds of butter fat would cow A produce in a year (see problem i) if the cream from her milk were separated in a cream separator than if it were raised in shallow pans, assuming that there is left in the skim milk from the separator ^^ of the fat in the whole milk and in the skimmed milk ^ of the fat that was present in the whole milk?
(4) What would be the value of this increased production of butter fat in problem 3^ at 25 cents per pound of butter, assuming that each pound of butter fat would tiake i^ pounds of butter ?
(5) Use the answer to problem 4 to determine how many months or years it would require for the extra amount 01 butter made by the separator from a herd of 6 cows like A to pay for a small hand-power separator costing $75. Can any one point out an additional saving (in feeding the calves) when a separator is used ?
In somewhat the same way that the mosquito spreads malaria among mankind, the cattle tick spreads a very fatal disease among cattle. This is the tick fever, which causes more deaths and other losses among Southern cattle than all other diseases combined. It has been estimated that in this and in other ways the cattle tick causes a loss every year of more than $40,000,000 to the South. The government maintains a quarantine line to prevent the spread of ticks and tick fever.
The cause of tick fever is a tiny parasite, or harmful living thing, that can be seen only by the use of a good miscroscope. It destroys the red blood-cells of the diseased animals.
The mother tick conveys these to her eggs, and these pass them on to the young ticks. When these latter insert their mouth-parts into a cow that has not had tick fever, the parasites pass from the tick into the animal, and cause it to sicken and often to die. Hence cattle brought south from north of the quarantine line often die with this disease, which is carried to them by ticks. Experiments have recently shown that the cattle tick can be entirely destroyed over large areas of country.
THE CATTLE TICK 33 1
learn how it lives. In warm weather these eggs soon hatch into tiny ticks, each about the size of a chicken mite. They crawl up on tall grass or bushes, waiting for a cow to rub them off. Neither old nor young ticks can live on anything but blood. Hence, if no animal comes along, the young ticks starve. But they do not starve quickly. Without food they may live as long as three months in summer and much longer in cool weather.
Destroying ticks on cattle. — Ticks are killed by grease, kerosene, crude petroleum, and other poisons. These substances are applied to cattle either by hand, by spraying, or by dipping the cattle.
Starving the ticks in fields, pastures, and woodlands. — When the owner has cleared his cattle of ticks, he can get entirely and permanently rid of ticks on his whole farm. He can starve the ticks in his fields, pastures, or woodlands by keeping cattle, horses, and sheep out of them for a time. The time to starve all the ticks is the period from May i to about September 10. In cool weather the ticks must be starved for a longer period, from September until April.
Land is generally free from ticks where no cattle have been during the months of hot weather. Thus most cultivated fields are free from ticks. By having two pastures, one used only during the hot season, and the other during the other part of the year, both can be kept free from the ticks. The cultivated fields, after the crops are harvested, may be used as the cool-weather pastures. Of course, it is necessary, in changing the cattle from one pasture to
MACHINERY
Machinery now does much of the work on the farm once performed by human hands. Especially in grain growing the work has been lightened and the cost of production greatly decreased.
Machinery for the grain-grower. — The seeds and fertilizers are sown with a grain drill. The self-binder cuts and binds as much in a day as many men with cradles could have done fifty years ago. While the grain cradle is still used on farms where only a few acres of grain are grown, or where the fields are too rolling for the use of laborsaving machinery, yet the cost of producing grain by this system is greatly increased.
On some of the extensive grain fields of the West even a self-binder is displaced, and its work is done by still more powerful and effective machinery. The grain header, drawn by steam or many horses, cuts the heads from many acres in a day, and as it moves along threshes and sacks the cut grain.
Haymaking machinery. — In hay growing also invention has made the labor much less burdensome than it was in earlier years. There are horse-rakes for collecting the hay into windrows, tedders for lifting and more rapidly drying it, and sweep rakes (Fig. 213), drawn or pushed by
horses, for collecting hay from the windrows and carrying it short distances to the barn or stack. These sweep rakes save the work of loading a wagon. Where the distance is greater, so that hauling on wagons becomes necessary,
Sweep rake and stacker.
there are hay loaders which save pitching the hay.These are hitched behind the wagon, and as the wagon and loader arc drawn along, the hay is elevated from the windrow to the wagon.
At the bam or stack one or two horses, hitched to a hay carrier, may lift the hay from the wagon to its place in the barn. Where sweep rakes arc used to bring the hay to the stack, these deliver their burdens to a hay stacker (Fig. 213). Then the stacker, by means of horse power, raises the load to its position on the stack. Thus no lifting by human force need be done until the hay is on the stack.
FARM IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY 335
grower, too, has profited by the mechanic's art. He uses com harvesters to cut and to tie his corn, shredders to separate the ears from the stalks, to remove the shucks, and to tear the forage into bits suitable for most convenient use
as food or bedding. Even a bundle-carrying corn harvester, or shocking machine (Fig. 214), and a machine for pulling the ears, have been invented.
The rice-grower uses the grain-drill, the self-binder, and other machinery like that used in grain-farming. The sugar-planter is testing cane loaders, and cane harvesters are engaging the inventor's attention.
farmer has made less general use of labor-saving machin> cry than the grain and hay-grower. It is possible to grow cotton profitably with a few very inexpensive implements, a!nd hence a beginning may be made in cotton culture by one who has very little capital. But here, too, it pays to utilize labor-saving machinery and the implements which make possible the most thorough preparation and cultiva-
tion. Most cotton farms on which several horses or mules are worked need a disk plow, large " turning plows," a spike-tooth harrow (and often others), a weeder, and the best cultivators. Riding on one of these labor-saving implements, one intelligent man often does well the work that two or more men would do while walking behind smaller implements.
The invention of the cotton gin was the greatest factor in building up the cotton industry of the South. Likewise a great cheapening of the cost of producing cotton will
result when a cheap, simple, and durable cotton-picker shall be on the market. Recent successful public tests of at least two very different cotton-pickers point to the day of cotton-picking by machinery.
Farm buildings. — Not only are implements needed in farming, but also convenient farm buildings for sheltering implements, live-stock, and crops. A building too often absent from a cotton farm is a shed under which to store bales of cotton. If cotton is left exposed in winter, as in Fig. 215, there is a considerable loss in the quality and price of the lint.
Exercise. — Write in your notebook a list of tlie kinds of plows you have seen. How many kinds of harrows have you seen? Ask your parents to tell you some of the farm implements that they consider most useful. Write this list in your notebook and also what each is used for. What farm or household work needs some new inventions to make it hghter?
Note to the Teacher. — Pictures of farm implements shown during the recitation will interest the class. By writing a postal to some hardware companies or to manufacturers of farm implements, you will often find them willing to send free catalogues containing pictures of farm machinery. Addresses of manufacturers can be obtained frpm the advertising columns of almost any agricultural paper, an old copy of which some pupil can probably bring you from home.
Good roads make country life more attractive. They also make possible in the country good schools, churches, and social gatherings. They soon pay for their cost in the labor of men and teams saved by hauling with a few loads over good roads the same weight that requires many loads over bad roads. Good roads pay, too, because they save wear and tear on teams and vehicles. Improving a road increases the value of the land near it.
Location of roads. — A road is no better than its worst part. The load hauled is as large as the team can pull up the steepest hill or most boggy part of the road. Hence, the first work in improving a road ought to be to improve the worst places. It pays to change the location of a road to avoid the worst hills. Roads ought not to go straight up steep hills, but should curve arriund their sides.
The best roads are made of a thick layer of broken stone or gravel. Stone roads cost several thousand dollars for each mile, and an engineer is needed to plan or build them. At slight expense earth roads can be much improved by proper grading, rounding, and draining.
Avoid a steep rise or grade. — A road ought to be as nearly level as possible. The grade or slope of an earth road ought not to be more than six feet rise in each hundred feet of length, though steeper grades are sometimes necessary. The load that one horse can pull on a level
feet in each hundred feet.
Keep the center highest. — The center of a road should be arched so as to be at least five to eight inches above the sides. Whenever ruts or depressions remain long unfilled, mud-holes or washes occur.
A cheap road drag. — Ruts should be filled as soon as formed. This can be done by running a split-log drag along one side of the road and back on the other side. The drag shown (Fig. 216) is made from a split log and costs very little.
A little work in filling ruts as soon as they form is worth much more than the same amount of work after the ruts have caused washes in the road. The best way to keep earth roads good is not by having many men to work them once or twice a year, but by having a few men, with team and split-log drag, ready to fill the ruts as soon as they form. This use of the drag arches the center, fills ruts and low places, and hastens drying. There should be a ditch on each side to carry off the water and to keep the road-bed dry.
Sand-clay roads. — Deep sand-beds make the roads bad in many parts of the South. Some counties have changed these sand-beds into good firm roads by hauling clay and thoroughly mixing it with the upper six inches of sand. The clay and sand are mixed while wet by means of plows and harrows, or by the wheels of vehicles. Then the road is kept constantly rounded, so that water does not stand on it
Exercise. — Are sandy roads best when dry or wet ? Are clay roads best when dry or wet ? Watch the teams struggle up some steep hill and then consider whether the road could easily be changed to avoid that hill or to climb it more gradually.
The nitrogen in is about the same as in
I pound nitrate of soda = 7.\ pounds cotton-seed meal. I pound cotton-seed meal = i\ pounds cotton seed. I pound sulfate of ammonia = \\ pounds nitrate of soda. I pound sulfate of ammonia = 3 pounds cotton-seed meal. I pound (h.g.) dried blood =15 pounds cotton-seed meal.
II. SOME FERTILIZER FORMULAS
As pointed out in the text, the only positive means of finding the best fertilizer for a certain crop on a given soil is by making a field test of fertilizers. Until such a test is made, the following formulas may be used as suggestive and general, rather than as suiting every soil. Many other formulas having the same composition can be calculated as directed in Section XVIII. Acid phosphate is assumed below to contain 14 per cent of available phosphoric acid.
Acid phosphate, 1 50 to 300 pounds per acre. Cotton-seed meal, 150 to 300 pounds per acre. Kainit, 75 to too pounds per acre.
4. For cotton on sandy soil somewhat improved by previous crops of
cowpeas, or other legumes, but on which cotton-rust occurs : — Acid phosphate, 150 to 300 pounds per acre. Cotton-seed meal, up to 150 pounds per acre. Kainit, 75 to 100 pounds per acre, or
5. Acid phosphate, 150 to 300 pounds per acre. Nitrate of soda, 50 pounds per acre. Kainit, 75 to 100 pounds per acre.
Acid phosphate, 200 to 300 pounds per acre. Cotton-seed meal, 200 to 300 pounds per acre. Nitrate of soda, 50 to 75 pounds per acre. High-grade sulfate of potash, 50 to 75 pounds per acre.
Acid phosphate, 300 to 600 pounds per acre. Cotton-seed meal, 1 50 to 300 pounds per acre. Nitrate of soda, 75 to 225 pounds p>er acre. Muriate of potash, 50 to 1 50 pounds per acre.
tight cribs or bins.
About one teaspoonful of liquid to each one or two cubic feet of space ; pour the liquid into an open shallow can placed on top of the grain ; cover the grain with cloth. The liquid evaporates and the heavy fumes settle downward. The fumes are very inflammable ; hence, keep all lights and all smokers away until the odor has disappeared.
Dissolve the shavings of soap in the water while it boils. Remove the water from the fire ; add the kerosene, and churn the mixture by pumping it through a spraying pump until a creamy liquid, without free oil, is formed. This mixture contains 66 per cent of kerosene. Dilute it with from 6 to 10 gallons of water for scale insects, and with 10 to 20 gallons for softer insects.
50 gallons of water.
(15 pounds of salt is sometimes added.) Mix the sulfur with a very small amount of water. Slack the lime in 5 to 10 gallons of hot water ; add the sulfur; dilute to 25 gallons ; boil
Water, 50 gallons.
Slack the lime with enough water to make a creamy wash. Add the lime and the bluestone to separate lots of water. Dilute each as much as convenient before pouring the two liquids together. Strain through a coarse cloth before using. Consult your exp>eriment station regarding further details about mixing and testing Bordeaux mixture, etc. When applied to the foliage of peaches, plums, or cherries, double the amount of water mentioned above.
Apply Bordeaux mixture in a fine spray. It is used to prevent or decrease molds and most fungi attacking fruit trees and vegetables. Paris green can be added just before using the mixture, \ pound of Paris green to 50 gallons, thus destroying both fungi and leaf-eating insects at the same time.
potatoes.
For wheat or oats, pour one ounce of formalin into three gallons of water. Dip or thoroughly moisten the seed-grain, and leave it moist and covered for two hours. Then dry the grain, and sow it before it comes in contact with more smut germs.
V. TO MEASURE GRAIN APPROXIMATELY
Multiply the average depth by the average width, and the product by the average length of the pile, crib, or bin. To get the number of bushels of shelled grain, divide this figure (number of cubic feet) by ij; to find the number of "bushels" of shucked ear com, divide by 2} ; to find the numbei of " bushels " of unshucked ear corn, divide by 4
VIII. SCHOOL GARDENS
Below are given simple plans for planting inexpensively the individual plot or bed assigned to each pupil. A length of 12 feet and a width of 5 feet are convenient dimensions to accommodate 6 rows across each bed. Select and modify as convenient that one of the suggested plans that most nearly corres|X)nds to the time when the planting can be done most conveniently. The plan for planting in the fall, and the one for planting in April or May, can be conducted on the same bed.
It is better to have two or more plans or sets of seed, so as to give each pupil some choice, and so as to increase the variety of plants under observation. In addition to small, individual beds, there should be rows or plots of the common field-crops of the locality, which require more room than can well be spared for them in the individual beds. These rows or plots should be considered the projjerty of the whole school* and observed, cultivated, and protected by all.
Write to United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C., for Farmers' Bulletin No. 218, on "School Gardens." As subjects for compositions, drawing lessons, etc., make frequent use of the school garden.
A list giving definitions of words is not needed in this book. As few unusual words as possible have been employed, and these have been explained or defined when first used. The index will enable the pupil to turn to the definition of technical words.
Copper sulphate, iv.
Com, ta, ai, 38, 46, ir9, lai, 133, las; composition of, 3aa; crossing, 133, I as; culture of, ia6; fertilizers for, 137; germination test, 134; harvesting machinery, 335 ; judging 1 29 ; races of, 133; score-card, 131; selection of, 46; show, 13s; silage, 33a; stover, 333.
Cosmos, 196.
Cotton, 33, 61, 113, 119, 131, 144, ai7; black rust of, 343; bloom, 9; boll rot, 343; boll weevil, 364; boll
■ worm, 361; breeding, 149; cultivation of, 151; diseases of, 338; hastening maturity of, 370; fertilizer for, 153; leaf worm, 363; long -staple, 146; machinery for, 336; pickers, 337; plant-food removed in, 84; root rot of, 340; Sea Island, 146; short -staple, 147; varieties of, 147; wilt, 338.
fillers in, 106; for fruit trees, si 6; formulas, to calculate, loa; for strawberries, 319; for sugar rane, 158; for sweet potatoes, 163; home mixing of, 105; commercial, 97;
Milk vessels, cleaning, 334.
Milk, composition of, 333; impurities in, 324; keeping pure, 333; production of, 333; souring of, 338; testing, 333.
suiting fertilizer to, 109.
Soils, 54, 56, 59, 61, 62, 65, 70, 244; acid, 112; properties of, 58; rules for fertilizing, 109; testing for acidity, 113.
ture of, 139; diseases of, 333. Wheat bran, composition of, 333. Wheat shorts, composition of, 3aa. Wheat straw, composition of, 333. Window gardens, aoi .
Elwood Mead's Irrigation Institutions . . .1.25 net F. H. King's Irrigation and Drainage . . . 1.50 net Wm. E. Smythe's The Conquest of Arid America . 1.50 net Edward B. Voorhees' Fertilizers . . . .1.25 net
| 82,650 | common-pile/pre_1929_books_filtered | agricultureforso00duggiala | public_library | public_library_1929_dolma-0021.json.gz:3533 | https://archive.org/download/agricultureforso00duggiala/agricultureforso00duggiala_djvu.txt |
eQ1Oy8-rO2lG_uP9 | 1.10.30: Gibbs Energies- General Equations | 1.10.30: Gibbs Energies- General Equations
For binary liquid mixtures at fixed \(\mathrm{T}\) and \(\mathrm{p}\), an important task is to fit the dependence of \({\mathrm{G}_{\mathrm{m}}}^{\mathrm{E}}\) on \(x_{2}\) to an equation in order to calculate the derivative \(\mathrm{dG}_{\mathrm{m}}^{\mathrm{E}} / \mathrm{dx}_{2}\) at required mole fractions. The Guggenheim - Scatchard [1,2] (commonly called the Redlich - Kister [3] ) equation is one such equation. This equation has the following general form.
\[\mathrm{X}_{\mathrm{m}}^{\mathrm{E}}=\mathrm{x}_{2} \,\left(1-\mathrm{x}_{2}\right) \, \sum_{\mathrm{i}=1}^{\mathrm{i}=\mathrm{k}} \mathrm{A}_{\mathrm{i}} \,\left(1-2 \, \mathrm{x}_{2}\right)^{\mathrm{i}-1} \nonumber \]
\(\mathrm{A}_{\mathrm{i}}\) are coefficients obtained from a least squares analysis of the dependence of \({\mathrm{G}_{\mathrm{m}}}^{\mathrm{E}}\) on \(x_{2}\).The equation clearly satisfies the condition that \({\mathrm{G}_{\mathrm{m}}}^{\mathrm{E}}\) is zero at \(x_{2} = 0\) and at \(x_{2} = 1\). In fact the first term in the \(\mathrm{G} - \mathrm{S}\) equation has the following form.
\[X_{m}^{E}=X_{2} \,\left(1-X_{2}\right) \, A_{1} \nonumber \]
According to equation (b) \({\mathrm{X}_{\mathrm{m}}}^{\mathrm{E}}\) is an extremum at \(x_{2} = 0.5\), the plot being symmetric about the line from \({\mathrm{X}_{\mathrm{m}}}^{\mathrm{E}}\) to ‘\(x_{2} = 0.5\)’. In fact for most systems the \(\mathrm{A}_{1}\) term is dominant. For the derivative \(\mathrm{dG}_{\mathrm{m}}^{\mathrm{E}} / \mathrm{dx} \mathrm{x}_{2}\), we write equation (a) in the following general form.
\[\mathrm{X}_{\mathrm{m}}^{\mathrm{E}}=\left(\mathrm{x}_{2}-\mathrm{x}_{2}^{2}\right) \, \mathrm{Q} \nonumber \]
Then
\[\mathrm{dX}_{\mathrm{m}}^{\mathrm{E}} / \mathrm{dx} \mathrm{x}_{2}=\mathrm{x}_{2} \,\left(1-\mathrm{x}_{2}\right) \, \mathrm{dQ} / \mathrm{dx} \mathrm{x}_{2}+\left(1-2 \, \mathrm{x}_{2}\right) \, \mathrm{Q} \nonumber \]
where
\[\mathrm{dQ} / \mathrm{dx}_{2}=-2 \, \sum_{\mathrm{i}=2}^{\mathrm{i}=\mathrm{k}}(\mathrm{i}-1) \, \mathrm{A}_{\mathrm{i}} \,\left(1-2 \, \mathrm{x}_{2}\right)^{\mathrm{i}-2} \nonumber \]
Equation (a) fits the dependence with a set of contributing curves which all pass through points, \({\mathrm{X}_{\mathrm{m}}}^{\mathrm{E}}=0\) at \(x_{1} = 0\) and \(x_{1} =1\). The usual procedure involves fitting the recorded dependence using increasing number of terms in the series, testing the statistical significance of including a further term. Although equation (a) has been applied to many systems and although the equation is easy to incorporate into computer programs using packaged least square and graphical routines, the equation suffers from the following disadvantage. As one incorporates a further term in the series, (e.g. \(\mathrm{A}_{j}\)) estimates of all the previously calculated parameters (i.e. \(\mathrm{A}_{2}, \mathrm{~A}_{3 \ldots} \ldots \mathrm{A}_{\mathrm{j}-1}\)) change. For this reason orthogonal polynomials have been increasingly favoured especially where the appropriate computer software is available. The only slight reservation is that derivation of explicit equations for the required derivative \(\mathrm{d}\mathrm{X}_{\mathrm{m}}{ }^{\mathrm{E}}\) is not straightforward. The problem becomes rather more formidable when the second and higher derivatives are required. The derivative \(\mathrm{d}^{2} \mathrm{X}_{\mathrm{m}}{ }^{\mathrm{E}}\) is sometimes required by calculations concerning the properties of binary liquid mixtures.
The derivative \(\mathrm{dG}_{\mathrm{m}}^{\mathrm{E}} / \mathrm{dx} \mathrm{x}_{1}\) and \({\mathrm{G}_{\mathrm{m}}}^{\mathrm{E}}\) are combined to yield an equation for \(\ln\left(\mathrm{f}_{1}\right)\).
\[\ln \left(f_{1}\right)=\frac{G_{m}^{E}}{R \, T}+\frac{\left(1-x_{1}\right)}{R \, T} \, \frac{d G_{m}^{E}}{d x_{1}} \nonumber \]
A similar equation leads to estimates of \(\ln\left(\mathrm{f}_{2}\right)\). Hence the dependences are obtained of both \(\ln\left(\mathrm{f}_{1}\right)\) and \(\ln\left(\mathrm{f}_{2}\right)\) on mixture composition. It is of interest to explore the case where the coefficients \(\mathrm{A}_{2}, \mathrm{~A}_{3} \ldots\) in equation (a) are zero. Then
\[\mathrm{X}_{\mathrm{m}}^{\mathrm{E}}=\mathrm{x}_{2} \,\left(1-\mathrm{x}_{2}\right) \, \mathrm{A}_{1} \nonumber \]
and
\[\mathrm{dX}_{\mathrm{m}}^{\mathrm{E}} / \mathrm{dx_{2 }}=\left(1-2 \, \mathrm{X}_{2}\right) \, \mathrm{A}_{1} \nonumber \]
With reference to the Gibbs energies,
\[\ln \left(\mathrm{f}_{2}\right)=(1 / \mathrm{R} \, \mathrm{T}) \,\left[\mathrm{x}_{2} \,\left(1-\mathrm{x}_{2}\right)+\left(1-\mathrm{x}_{2}\right) \,\left(1-2 \, \mathrm{x}_{2}\right)\right] \, \mathrm{A}_{1}^{\mathrm{G}} \nonumber \]
\[\ln \left(\mathrm{f}_{2}\right)=\left(\mathrm{A}_{1}^{\mathrm{G}} / \mathrm{R} \, \mathrm{T}\right) \,\left[1-2 \, \mathrm{x}_{2}+\mathrm{x}_{2}^{2}\right] \nonumber \]
or,
\[\ln \left(\mathrm{f}_{2}\right)=\left(\mathrm{A}_{1}^{\mathrm{G}} / \mathrm{R} \, \mathrm{T}\right) \,\left[1-\mathrm{x}_{2}\right]^{2} \nonumber \]
In fact the equation reported by Jost et al. [4] has this form.
Rather than using the Redlich-Kister equation, recently attention has been directed to the Wilson equation [5] written in equation (l) for a two-component liquid [6].
\[\mathrm{G}_{\mathrm{m}}^{\mathrm{E}} / \mathrm{R} \, \mathrm{T}=-\mathrm{x}_{1} \, \ln \left(\mathrm{x}_{1}+\Lambda_{12} \, \mathrm{x}_{2}\right)-\mathrm{x}_{2} \, \ln \left(\mathrm{x}_{2}+\Lambda_{21} \, \mathrm{x}_{1}\right) \nonumber \]
Then , for example [7],
\[\ln \left(\mathrm{f}_{1}\right)=-\ln \left(\mathrm{x}_{1}+\Lambda_{12} \, \mathrm{x}_{2}\right)+\mathrm{x}_{2} \,\left(\frac{\Lambda_{12}}{\mathrm{x}_{1}+\Lambda_{12} \, \mathrm{x}_{2}}-\frac{\Lambda_{21}}{\Lambda_{21} \, \mathrm{x}_{1}+\mathrm{x}_{2}}\right) \nonumber \]
The Wilson equation forms the basis for two further developments, described as the NRTL (non-random, two-liquid) equation [8-10] and the UNIQUAC equation [9-10]. Nevertheless Douheret et al. [11] show how an excess property must be carefully defined. Davis et al. have explored how excess molar properties for liquid mixtures can be analysed in terms of different mole fraction domains [12].
Footnotes
[1] E. A. Guggenheim, Trans. Faraday Soc.,1937, 33 ,151; equation 4.1.
[2] G. Scatchard, Chem. Rev.,1949, 44 ,7;see page 9.
[3] O. Redlich and A. Kister, Ind. Eng. Chem.,1948, 40 ,345; equation 8.
[4] F. Jost, H. Leiter and M. J. Schwuger, Colloid Polymer Sci., 1988, 266 , 554.
[5] G. M. Wilson, J. Am. Chem. Soc.,1964, 86 ,127.
[6] See also
- R. V. Orye and J. M. Prausnitz, Ind. Eng. Chem.,1965, 57 ,19.
- S. Ohe, Vapour-Liquid Equilibrium Data, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1989.
- C. W. Bale and A. D. Pelton, Metallurg. Trans.,1974, 5 ,2323.
- R. Schuhmann, Metallurg. Trans.,B,1985, 16 ,807.
- M. Prehal, V. Dohnal and F. Versely, Collect. Czech. Chem.Commun.,1982, 47 ,3171.
[7] From equation (l),
\[\begin{aligned}
\frac{1}{\mathrm{R} \, \mathrm{T}} \, \frac{\mathrm{dG}_{\mathrm{m}}^{\mathrm{E}}}{\mathrm{dx}_{1}}=&-\ln \left(\mathrm{x}_{1}+\Lambda_{12} \, \mathrm{x}_{2}\right)-\frac{\mathrm{x}_{1} \,\left(1-\Lambda_{12}\right)}{\mathrm{x}_{1}+\Lambda_{12} \, \mathrm{x}_{2}} \\
&+\ln \left(\Lambda_{21} \, \mathrm{x}_{1}+\mathrm{x}_{2}\right)-\frac{\mathrm{x}_{2} \,\left(\Lambda_{21}-1\right)}{\Lambda_{21} \, \mathrm{x}_{1}+\mathrm{x}_{2}}
\end{aligned} \nonumber \]
Then using equation (f) with \(1 − x_{1} = x_{2}\),
\[\begin{aligned}
\ln \left(\mathrm{f}_{1}\right)=&-\mathrm{x}_{1} \, \ln \left(\mathrm{x}_{1}+\Lambda_{12} \, \mathrm{x}_{2}\right)-\mathrm{x}_{2} \, \ln \left(\Lambda_{21} \, \mathrm{x}_{1}+\mathrm{x}_{2}\right) \\
&-\mathrm{x}_{2} \, \ln \left(\mathrm{x}_{1}+\Lambda_{12} \, \mathrm{x}_{2}\right)-\frac{\mathrm{x}_{1} \, \mathrm{x}_{2} \,\left(1-\Lambda_{12}\right)}{\mathrm{x}_{1}+\Lambda_{12} \, \mathrm{x}_{2}} \\
&+\mathrm{x}_{2} \, \ln \left(\Lambda_{21} \, \mathrm{x}_{1}+\mathrm{x}_{2}\right)+\frac{\left(\mathrm{x}_{2}\right)^{2} \,\left(1-\Lambda_{21}\right)}{\Lambda_{21} \, \mathrm{x}_{1}+\mathrm{x}_{2}}
\end{aligned} \nonumber \]
Or,
\[\begin{aligned}
\ln \left(f_{1}\right) &=-\left(x_{1}+x_{2}\right) \, \ln \left(x_{1}+\Lambda_{12} \, x_{2}\right) \\
+x_{2} \,\left[\frac{\Lambda_{12} \, x_{1}-x_{1}}{x_{1}+\Lambda_{12} \, x_{2}}-\frac{\Lambda_{21} \, x_{2}-x_{2}}{\Lambda_{21} \, x_{1}+x_{2}}\right]
\end{aligned} \nonumber \]
But
\[\Lambda_{12} \, \mathrm{x}_{1}-\mathrm{x}_{1}=\Lambda_{12} \,\left(1-\mathrm{x}_{2}\right)-\mathrm{x}_{1}=\Lambda_{12}-\left(\mathrm{x}_{1}+\Lambda_{12} \, \mathrm{x}_{2}\right) \nonumber \]
Hence,
\[\begin{aligned}
\ln \left(\mathrm{f}_{1}\right) &=-\ln \left(\mathrm{x}_{1}+\Lambda_{12} \, \mathrm{x}_{2}\right) \\
&+\mathrm{x}_{2} \,\left[\frac{\Lambda_{12}-\left(\mathrm{x}_{1}+\Lambda_{12} \, \mathrm{x}_{2}\right)}{\mathrm{x}_{1}+\Lambda_{12} \, \mathrm{x}_{2}}-\frac{\Lambda_{21}-\left(\Lambda_{21} \, \mathrm{x}_{1}+\mathrm{x}_{2}\right)}{\Lambda_{21} \, \mathrm{x}_{1}+\mathrm{x}_{2}}\right]
\end{aligned} \nonumber \]
Or,
\[\ln \left(f_{1}\right)=-\ln \left(x_{1}+\Lambda_{12} \, x_{2}\right)+x_{2} \,\left[\frac{\Lambda_{12}}{x_{1}+\Lambda_{12} \, x_{2}}-\frac{\Lambda_{21}}{\Lambda_{21} \, x_{1}+x_{2}}\right] \nonumber \]
[8] D. Abrams and J. M. Prausnitz, AIChE J.,1975, 21 ,116.
[9] R. C. Reid, J. M. Prausnitz and E. B. Poling, The Properties of Gases and Liquids, McGraw-Hill, New York, 4th edn.,1987, chapter 8.
[10] J. M. Prausnitz, R. N. Lichtenthaler and E. G. de Azevedo, Molecular Thermodynamics of Fluid Phase Equilibria, Prentice –Hall, Upper Saddle River, N.J., 3rd edn.,1999,chapter 6.
[11] G. Douheret, C. Moreau and A. Viallard, Fluid Phase Equilib.,1985, 22 ,277,287.
[12]
- M. I. Davis, Thermochim. Acta, 1984, 77 ,421; 1985, 90 ,313;1987, 120 ,299; 1990, 157 ,295.
- M. I. Davis, M. C. Molina and G. Douheret, Thermochim Acta, 1988, 131 ,153.
- G. Douheret, A. Pal and M. I. Davis, J.Chem.Thermodyn.,1990, 22 ,99.
- G. Douheret, A. H. Roux, M. I. Davis, M. E .Hernandez, H. Hoiland and E. Hogseth, J. Solution Chem.,1993, 22 ,1041.
- G. Douheret, M. I. Davis., J. C. R. Reis , I. J. Fjellanger, M. B. Vaage and H. Hoiland, Phys.Chem.Chem.Phys.,2002, 4 ,6034.
[13] Finally we note that the Redlich-Kister equation can be expressed in the following form.
\[\mathrm{X}_{\mathrm{m}}^{\mathrm{E}}=\mathrm{x}_{1} \,\left(1-\mathrm{x}_{1}\right) \, \sum_{\mathrm{i}=1}^{\mathrm{i}=\mathrm{k}} \mathrm{B}_{\mathrm{i}} \,\left(1-2 \, \mathrm{x}_{1}\right)^{i-1} \nonumber \]
Then \(\mathrm{A}_{\mathrm{i}}=\mathrm{B}_{\mathrm{i}} \,(-1)^{i}\)
J. D. G. de Oliveira and J. C. R.Reis, Thermochim. Acta 2008,468, 119 | 1,454 | common-pile/libretexts_filtered | https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Topics_in_Thermodynamics_of_Solutions_and_Liquid_Mixtures/01%3A_Modules/1.10%3A_Gibbs_Energies/1.10.30%3A_Gibbs_Energies-_General_Equations | libretexts | libretexts-0000.json.gz:44748 | https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Topics_in_Thermodynamics_of_Solutions_and_Liquid_Mixtures/01%3A_Modules/1.10%3A_Gibbs_Energies/1.10.30%3A_Gibbs_Energies-_General_Equations |
ZOz2W9cEmDHj5KTX | Problem Solving in Teams and Groups | 23 Intercultural and Plane Crashes
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Cultural differences in aviation
Geert Hofstede classified national cultures into four dimensions, two of which can be applied to the flight deck: power distance, which defines the “nature of relations between subordinates and superiors”, or “how often subordinates are afraid to express disagreement”; and whether the culture is collectivist or individualist in nature. Western cultures are individualistic and have a low power distance, whereas most Asian and Latin cultures are on the other side of the spectrum.
Past incidents
Tenerife Disaster
On March 27, 1977, two Boeing 747 passenger jets, KLM Flight 4805 and Pan Am Flight 1736, collided on the foggy runway at Los Rodeos Airport (now Tenerife North Airport), on the Spanish island of Tenerife, Canary Islands, killing 583 people, making it the deadliest accident in aviation history. Before takeoff, the KLM flight engineer expressed his concern about the Pan Am not being clear of the runway by asking the pilots in his own cockpit, “Is he not clear, that Pan American?” The KLM captain emphatically replied “Oh, yes” and continued with the takeoff, snubbing the junior officer’s concern. This event led to widespread establishment of crew resource management as a fundamental part of airline pilots’ training.
Korean Air Flight 801
On approach to Guam in 1997, Korean 801 crashed, mainly due to pilot fatigue and poor communication between the flight crew. The captain made the decision to land despite the junior officer’s disagreements, eventually bringing the plane down short of the runway, highlighting how a pilot can contribute to a disaster. In high power distance cultures, it is uncommon for subordinates to question their superiors. “Leaders may be autocratic”. High power distance can be seen as the willingness to be in an unequal position, making it a challenge for an officer lower in the hierarchy to question the decisions of the one in power. At the same time, even in a high uncertainty avoidance culture, with the crew more likely to follow standard operating procedures (SOPs), the crew might react less efficiently to a novel situation.
Avianca Flight 52
Avianca 52 from Bogota to New York crashed after running out of fuel, a problem caused by language and cultural barriers. Both crew spoke Spanish as their primary language, but the first officer had better proficiency in English. “Colombia is a highly masculine, high power distance, and collectivist country”, which might have led to the crew’s reluctance to ask for help from the New York controllers when they knew they were in trouble. In 1977, a cargo aircraft crashed shortly after takeoff from Anchorage en route to Tokyo, killing all 3 crew. The captain was a US national, with the other two being Japanese. Neither Japanese pilot mentioned the captain’s intoxication or stopped him from flying the plane. They were reluctant to do so, and given Japan’s moderately high power-distance index, their deference to authority could have been a major contributing factor. Had they done so, it would have humiliated the captain, who was clearly their superior, and from there on, it was impossible “to prevent the captain from taking control of the aircraft, even at the cost of an accident.”
Other impacts of culture in airline safety
Although crew resource management (CRM) can improve safety in the aviation industry, it is not widely accepted across all cultures. This is likely due to differences in uncertainty avoidance, or “the need for rule-governed behavior and clearly defined procedures”. Standard operating procedures are more easily accepted in high uncertainty avoidance cultures, such as Greece, Korea, and some Latin cultures. In the United States, however, where flexibility is emphasized, pilots may not be as accepting of CRM culture.
Improvements can be made to CRM by drawing on the strengths of both individualistic and collectivisic cultures. Western assertiveness can be helpful in developing a low power-distance cockpit, while the Eastern interdependence brings cooperation, interdependence, and communication to create a safer flying environment.
Ideally, “CRM represents low power distance (free exchange of information among the crew) and collectivism (recognition and acceptance of crew interdependence), a rare cultural combination.”
References
Aircraft accident report- Korean air flight 801 (PDF). NTSB. Jan 13, 2000. https://www.ntsb.gov/investigations/AccidentReports/Reports/AAR0001.pdf
Baron, R. (2011). The Cockpit, the Cabin, and Social Psychology. Global Operators Flight Information Resource. Retrieved May 11, 2011
Engle, M. (2000). Culture in the cockpit—CRM in a multicultural world. Journal of Air Transportation World Wide. 5.
Harris, D., & Li, W.-C. (2008). Cockpit Design and Cross-Cultural Issues Underlying Failures in Crew Resource Management. Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine, 79, 537–538. https://doi.org/10.3357/asem.2271.2008
Hayward, B. (1997). Culture, CRM and aviation safety. The Australian Aviation Psychology Association.
Helmreich, R. (2004). Culture, threat, and error: lessons from aviation. Canadian Journal of Anesthesia, 51, R1–R4. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf03018331
Helmreich, R., Merritt, A., & Wilhelm, J. (2009). The Evolution of Crew Resource Management Training in Commercial Aviation. The International Journal of Aviation Psychology, 9, 19–32.
Hofstede, G. (1991). Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind. Mcgraw-Hill.
Li, W.-C., Harris, D., & Chen, A. (2007). Eastern Minds in Western Cockpits: Meta-Analysis of Human Factors in Mishaps from Three Nations. Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine, 78 (4).
Merriti, A. (1996). Human Factors on the Flight Deck The Influence of National Culture. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 27, 5–24. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022196271001
Merritt, A. (2000). Culture in the Cockpit Do Hofstede’s Dimensions Replicate?. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology. 31, 283–301. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022100031003001
Strauch, B. (2010). Can Cultural Differences Lead to Accidents? Team Cultural Differences and Sociotechnical System Operations. Human Factors. 52, 246–263. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018720810362238.
the customs, arts, social institutions, and achievements of a particular nation, people, or other social group.
cultures that place greater importance on individual freedom and personal independence
cultures that place more value on the needs and goals of the group, family, community or nation | 1,249 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://opentext.ku.edu/teams/chapter/intercultural-and-plane-crashes/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:85729 | https://opentext.ku.edu/teams/chapter/intercultural-and-plane-crashes/ |
NWlA9_APsF07PC1e | 2.1.5: Cell Biology and Basic Genetics | 2.1.5: Cell Biology and Basic Genetics
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When Darwin developed his theory, there are two main things that he did not know: (1)where the variation comes from, and (2) how the traits are passed from one generation to the next. In the decades since On the Origin of Species was published, subsequent generations of biologists, natural scientists, geneticists, paleoanthropologists, etc., have conducted research that has refined our knowledge about evolution. We now can address the things that Darwin did not know. Cell biology and genetics explain where variation comes from and how those traits are inherited.
Cell biology
All living organisms are made of cells . Some organisms are single-celled and spend their life made of just one cell and some organisms, like humans, are multi-cellular (have many cells). Here are some basic points that you always have to remember about cells:
- cells are the structural and functional units of all living things
- all cells come from pre-existing cells
- cells contain hereditary information (which is passed from "parent" cells to "daughter" cells during cell division).
Cell function
Cells are often called "the building blocks of life". Not only are all living things made of cells (the 'building block' part), they also are living functional units themselves. This is because cells do the following:
- obtain nutrients and other molecules through the cellular membrane (or cell wall) and convert that to biologically useful energy and useful molecules for building new cells (such as proteins and nucleic acids)
- make more cells (reproduction)
Types of cells
There are two types of cells: prokaryotic and eukaryotic. Prokaryotes include bacteria and blue-green algae. These are single-celled organisms in which the genetic material is not distinctly separated from the other components of the cell. Eukaryotes include everyone else. These can be single-celled, but are more often multi-celled organisms in which the genetic material is separated from all of the other cellular components (by something called the nucleus ). Because our focus is on humans, the rest of our discussion will center on eukaryotes and eukaryotic cells.
Cell structure
Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\) - A typical animal cell and its parts
Each animal cell consists of a selectively permeable membrane (plants have cell walls) which contains the cytoplasm.
Organelles are like "little organs" within the cytoplasm, each performing a different vital cellular function. These are some of the more important (to us) organelles.
- Mitochondria: These are the "powerhouses" of the cell, responsible for production of the energy-rich molecule, ATP (adenine triphosphate), which powers the activities of the cell. Each cell has hundreds to thousands of mitochondria. Mitochondria have their own DNA, known as mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), which is different from nuclear DNA (see below). Mitochondrial DNA has become an important tool in evolutionary research.
- Endoplasmic reticulum: This is a transport network for molecules that have specific destinations or require certain modifications. It comes in two types: smooth and rough. Rough endoplasmic reticulum has ribosomes (see below) on the surface.
- Golgi apparatus: Processes and packages large molecules such as proteins and lipids (fats) that are produced by the cell.
- Lysosomes: Breaks down non-usable organelles, food, viruses, and bacteria using enzymes.
- Ribosomes: Protein synthesis
- Nucleus: This is where you'll find the hereditary material, DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid).
Exercise \(\PageIndex{1}\)
Explore the cell!!
In this interactive exercise, you can identify the parts of a typical animal cell and review the functions of the various organelles.
Typical animal cell
DNA
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is the genetic blueprint of the cell. The structure of DNA is what's known as a "double helix", which looks much like a twisted ladder. The basic unit of DNA is a molecule called a nucleotide. Nucleotides are made of a sugar (deoxyribonucleic acid), a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base. There are 4 different types of nucleotides, depending on what type of nitrogenous base they have.
Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\) - DNA structure
- adenine (A)
- thymine (T)
- cytosine (C)
- guanine (G)
These are separated into 2 groups:
- purines: adenine and guanine
- pyrimidines: cytosine and thymine
On the DNA "rungs", the bases must go in pairs: adenine (A) always bonds with thymine (T) and cytosine (C) with guanine (G). So, for base-pairs remember it's always A+T and C+G! (That rule is sometimes called "The base-pair rule".) If you want to explore further, check out what the Human Genome Project has learned about the human DNA sequence
RNA structure
RNA (ribonucleic acid) has a very similar structure to DNA, except that it's single-stranded, has a different sugar (ribonucleic acid, rather than deoxyribonucleic acid), and does not contain thymine (T). Instead, it contains uracil (U), which like thymine, bonds with adenine (A). So, in this case, the base-pair rule is A+U and C+G.
DNA function
For our purposes, we will concern ourselves with two of DNA's functions: replication and protein synthesis.
DNA replication
In this case, the goal is to replicate a DNA double helix to produce more DNA. DNA replication occurs in the nucleus of the cell.
The basic steps of DNA replication are:
1) The DNA is "unzipped" into two single strands.
2) Each unzipped strand acts as a template for reproduction of the complimentary strand.
3) The product is two copies of the original DNA, each containing one strand from the original DNA and one strand that has been added on.
Here's a slightly more thorough illustration of the process: DNA replication - simple.
And for those who are really curious about the details of the process: DNA replication - complex.
And for those who are looking for a little fun with their DNA replication: DNA - the double helix game
Important note: The important thing to remember about DNA replication is that when the complimentary strand is created, sometimes accidents or mistakes happen. For example, a G gets matched up with a T instead of the proper A. This is where some of the variation in hereditary information comes from.
Protein synthesis
Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\) - Protein synthesis
Proteins are the most common large molecules in cells. Bones, muscles, and red blood cells (among lots of other body parts) are made mostly of proteins. Therefore, the production of proteins is obviously a very important process in the body.
Proteins are made of smaller units called amino acids. There are 20 different amino acids, 9 of which are "essential amino acids", which means that they must be consumed through the diet, rather than being synthesized by the body. The sequence of amino acids in a protein determines its structure and function.
The base pair sequence of the DNA molecule is known as the genetic code . The genetic code consists of 3-base sequences called codons .(Remember our friends A, T, G, and C -- the nitrogenous bases? That's what we're talking about here.) Each codon either codes for an amino acid, or signals that the protein chain is starting (an initiation codon) or stopping (a termination codon). The table on the right shows which codons code for which amino acids.
Each DNA molecule contains the information to make up many different proteins. A portion of a DNA molecule responsible for making up a single protein (or sometimes just part of a protein, called a polypeptide) is a gene . Therefore, each DNA molecule consists of many genes, that code for many proteins.
Protein synthesis has two basic steps: (1) transcription and (2) translation.
Definitions
Transcription
1) The gene (DNA) is copied onto RNA. The RNA copy of the gene is called the messenger RNA (or mRNA).
2) The mRNA leaves the nucleus and goes to the rough endoplasmic reticulum. (Remember this organelle from the cell structure section above?)
Translation
1) The mRNA goes into the ribosomes, where tRNA (translation RNA) reads the mRNA.
2) As the tRNA reads the mRNA, it attaches complementary amino acids to the newly synthesized amino acid chain (AKA the growing protein chain).
Note
Important note: The important thing to remember about protein synthesis is that when a protein is synthesized, sometimes accidents or mistakes happen. This is where some of the variation in protein synthesis comes from. Additionally, remember the possible mistakes in DNA replication? If the original DNA strand is changed so that a gene is altered, that can affect protein synthesis as well.
This video has fantastic digital animations illustrating DNA replication and protein synthesis.
Cell replication
To make more cells, we not only have to have replicated DNA, we have to replicate the rest of the cell as well in order to physically divide that replicated DNA. For body cells (AKA somatic cells), this process is called mitosis . For sex cells (AKA sperm and eggs), this process is called meiosis . But first, a little bit about DNA and chromosomes.
Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\) - Chromosome
Chromosomes
Most of the time, DNA in cells is in loosely arranged, dispersed strands. When DNA is like this, it's called chromatin . However, during cell replication DNA condenses into structures called chromosomes .
Each chromosome is made of (the numbers reference the illustration to the right): 1) two "sister" chromatids, 2) a centromere, which is a highly condensed area on the chromosome, 3) the "short arm" of the chromatid, 4) the "long arm" of the chromatid, and the 5) telomere, which is the end of a chromosome and is involved in both replication and chromosomal stability. In this diagram, the different colors represent genes on the chromosome.
Each somatic cell (sex cells are different) has the same number of chromosomes. This number is consistent within species, but often differs between species. The number of chromosomes in each body cell is called the diploid number . Sex cells have half as many chromosomes as do somatic cells. This number is called the haploid number .
Most species have two copies of each chromosome in each somatic cell. The member-chromosomes of each pair are called homologous chromosomes .
Figure \(\PageIndex{5}\) - A typical human (male) karyotype
On the left is a karyotype , which is an image of the full diploid complement of chromosomes from an individual. Above each number is each pair of homologous chromosomes. This is from a human, who typically have 23 pairs of chromosomes in each somatic cell, for a diploid total of 46 chromosomes. For humans, sex cells normally have 23 chromosomes.
Genes are found on each chromosome at a particular location called a locus (sing.) or loci (pl.). Different versions of the same gene are called alleles . If someone has the same version of a gene (the same alleles) on both of their homologous chromosomes, they have homozygous alleles . If, however, someone has two different versions of a gene (different alleles) on their homologous chromosomes, they have heterozygous alleles . For example, if on this person's chromosome 9 pair they have one allele for blood type A and one allele for blood type B, we would say that they are heterozygous for blood type (AB). If they have two alleles for blood type O, we would say that they are homozygous for blood type (OO).
Note
Explore human chromosomes
Mitosis
Somatic cells (AKA body cells) are replicated via the process of mitosis. This is where all new body cells come from. So, when you scratch yourself on something, mitosis is what makes new skin cells for healing that scratch.
Figure \(\PageIndex{6}\) - Mitosis
Mitosis has 4 phases (note that DNA has already replicated when mitosis starts):
1) Prophase:
- the nuclear envelope disappears
- chromatin condenses and forms chromosomes
- the chromosomes move toward the equator of the cell
2) Metaphase
- the chromosomes are lined up along the equator of the cell
3) Anaphase
- the sister chromatids split up and move toward the opposite ends of the cell
4) Telophase
- the cytoplasm divides between the two cells
- the chromosomes turn back into chromatin
The result is two identical "daughter" somatic cells, each of which contains one chromosome from the "parent" cell and one replicated chromosome.
Here's a video that illustrates the process: mitosis in action.
Meiosis
Sex cells (eggs and sperm) are replicated via the process of meiosis. For human females this process occurs and is completed before birth, but for males meiosis begins at puberty and continues throughout their lifespans. Meiosis is more complicated than mitosis in that it has two "cycles".
Figure \(\PageIndex{7}\) - Meiosis
1) Prophase 1
- chromatin condenses and forms chromosomes
- DNA is exchanged between homologous chromosomes. This is called homologus recombination . Recombination is an important source of genetic variation.
- the chromosomes start to line up at the equator of the cell
2) Metaphase 1
- the chromosomes are lined up along the equator of the cell
3) Anaphase 1
- the homologous chromosomes move toward the opposite ends of the cell
4) Telophase 1
- the cytoplasm divides between the two cells
- the chromosomes uncoil and turn back into chromatin
5) Prophase 2
- nuclear envelope disappears
- chromatin condenses into chromosomes
- the chromosomes start to line up at the equator of the cell
6) Metaphase 2
- the chromosomes are lined up along the equator of the cell
7) Anaphase 2
- the sister chromatids split apart at the centromeres and move toward the opposite ends of the cell
8) Telophase 2
- chromosomes turn back into chromatin
- the cytoplasm divides between the two cells
Here's a video that illustrates the process: meiosis in action
Errors during mitosis and meiosis
Figure \(\PageIndex{8}\) - The karyotype of an individual with Down syndrome
The chromosomes separate during meiosis 1 and the sister chromatids separate in meiosis 2 and mitosis. If this proceeds normally, it's called disjunction . If the separations occur abnormally, it's called nondisjunction . What results is an abnormal number of chromosomes (either too many, AKA trisomy OR too few, AKA monosomy).
Some of the more familiar nondisjunctions include:
Down Syndrome - trisomy of chromosome 21 (a karyotype of this is to the right)
Klinefelter Syndrome - extra X chromosomes in males (ex. XXY)
Turner Syndrome - lacking an X chromosome in females (XO) | 3,074 | common-pile/libretexts_filtered | https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Courses/Yuba_College/Physical_Anthropology_Anthro-1/02%3A_Mechanisms_and_Evolutionary_Thought/2.01%3A_Evolutionary_Theory/2.1.05%3A_Cell_Biology_and_Basic_Genetics | libretexts | libretexts-0000.json.gz:32769 | https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Courses/Yuba_College/Physical_Anthropology_Anthro-1/02%3A_Mechanisms_and_Evolutionary_Thought/2.01%3A_Evolutionary_Theory/2.1.05%3A_Cell_Biology_and_Basic_Genetics |
uYH2PhNGKhVLVBn3 | Art History I | 162 The Alhambra
The Alhambra in Granada, Spain, is distinct among Medieval palaces for its sophisticated planning, complex decorative programs, and its many enchanting gardens and fountains. Its intimate spaces are built at a human scale that visitors find elegant and inviting.
The Alhambra, an abbreviation of the Arabic: Qal’at al-Hamra, or red fort, was built by the Nasrid Dynasty (1232–1492)—the last Muslims to rule in Spain. Muhammad ibn Yusuf ibn Nasr (known as Muhammad I, r. 1237–1273) founded the Nasrid Dynasty and secured this region in 1237. He began construction of his court complex, the Alhambra, on Sabika hill the following year.
Three Parts
1,730 meters (1 mile) of walls and thirty towers of varying size enclose this city within a city. Access was restricted to four main gates. The Alhambra’s nearly 26 acres include structures with three distinct purposes, a residence for the ruler and close family, the citadel, Alcazaba—barracks for the elite guard who were responsible for the safety of the complex, and an area called medina (or city), near the Puerta del Vino (Wine Gate), where court officials lived and worked.
The different parts of the complex are connected by paths, gardens and gates but each part of the complex could be blocked in the event of a threat. The exquisitely detailed structures with their highly ornate interior spaces and patios contrast with the plain walls of the fortress exterior.
Three Palaces
The Alhambra’s most celebrated structures are the three original royal palaces. These are the Comares Palace, the Palace of the Lions, and the Partal Palace, each of which was built during fourteenth century. A large fourth palace was later begun by the Christian ruler, Carlos V.
The Comares Palace
El Mexuar is an audience chamber near the Torre de Comares at the northern edge of the complex. It was built by Ismail I (1314–1325) as a throne room, but became a reception and meeting hall when the palaces were expanded in the 1330s. The room has complex geometric tile dadoes (lower wall panels distinct from the area above) and carved stucco panels that give it a formality suitable for receiving dignitaries.
Behind El Mexuar stands the formal and elaborate Comares façade set back from a courtyard and fountain. The façade is built on a raised three-stepped platform that might have served as a kind of outdoor stage for the ruler. The carved stucco façade was once painted in brilliant colors, though only traces remain. A dark winding passage beyond the Comares façade leads to a covered patio surrounding a large courtyard with a pool, now known as the Court of the Myrtles (figure 5). This was the focal point of the Comares Palace, which is reflected in the cool tranquil water.
The Alhambra’s largest tower, the Comares Tower, contains the Salón de Comares (Hall of the Ambassadors), a throne room built by Yusuf I (1333–1354). This room exhibits the most diverse decorative and architectural arts contained in the Alhambra.
The double arched windows illuminate the room and provide breathtaking views. Additional light is provided by arched grille (lattice) windows set high in the walls. At eye level, the walls are lavishly decorated with tiles laid in intricate geometric patterns. The remaining surfaces are covered with intricately carved stucco motifs organized in bands and panels of curvilinear patterns and calligraphy.
Palace of the Lions
The Palacio de los Leones (Palace of the Lions) stands next to the Comares Palace but should be considered an independent building. The two structures were connected after Granada fell to the Christians. Muhammad V (1362–1391) built the Palace of the Lions’ most celebrated feature, a fountain with a complex hydraulic system consisting of a marble basin on the backs of twelve carved stone lions situated at the intersection of two water channels that form a cross in the rectilinear courtyard (figure 6). An arched covered patio encircles the courtyard and displays fine stucco carvings held up by a series of slender columns. Two decorative pavilions protrude into the courtyard on an East–West axis (at the narrow sides of the courtyard), accentuating the royal spaces behind them.
To the West, the Sala de los Mocárabes (Muqarnas Chamber), may have functioned as an antechamber and was near the original entrance to the palace. It takes its name from the intricately carved system of brackets called “muqarnas” that hold up the vaulted ceiling. Across the courtyard, to the East, is the Sala de los Reyes (Hall of the Kings), an elongated space divided into sections using a series of arches leading up to a vaulted muqarnas ceiling; the room has multiple alcoves, some with an unobstructed view of the courtyard, but with no known function.
This room contains paintings on the ceiling representing courtly life. The images were first painted on tanned sheepskins, in the tradition of miniature painting. They use brilliant colors and fine details and are attached to the ceiling rather than painted on it. There are two other halls in the Palace of the Lions on the northern and southern ends; they are the Sala de las Dos Hermanas (the Hall of the Two Sisters) and the Hall of Abencerrajas. Both were residential apartments with rooms on the second floor. Each also have a large domed room sumptuously decorated with carved and painted stucco in muqarnas forms with elaborate and varying star motifs.
The Partal Palace
The Palacio del Partal (Partal Palace) was built in the early fourteenth century and is also known as del Pórtico (Portico Palace) because of the portico formed by a five-arched arcade at one end of a large pool. It is one of the oldest palace structures in the Alhambra complex.
Generalife
The Nasrid rulers did not limit themselves to building within the wall of the Alhambra. One of the best preserved Nasrid estates, just beyond the walls, is called Generalife (from the Arabic, Jannat al-arifa). The word jannat means paradise and by association, garden, or a place of cultivation which Generalife has in abundance. Its water channels, fountains and greenery can be understood in relation to passage 2:25 in the Koran, “gardens, underneath which running waters flow.”
In one of the most spectacular Generalife gardens, a long narrow patio is ornamented with a water channel and two rows of water fountains. Generalife also contains a palace built in the same decorative manner as those within the Alhambra but its elaborate vegetable and ornamental gardens made this lush complex a welcome retreat for the rulers of Granada.
Interior and Exterior Reimagined
To be sure, gardens and water fountains, canals, and pools are a recurring theme in construction across the Muslim dominion. Water is both practical and beautiful in architecture and in this respect the Alhambra and Generalife are no exception. But the Nasrid rulers of Granada made water integral. They brought the sound, sight and cooling qualities of water into close proximity, in gardens, courtyards, marble canals, and even directly indoors.
The Alhambra’s architecture shares many characteristics with other examples of Islamic architecture, but is singular in the way it complicates the relationship between interior and exterior. Its buildings feature shaded patios and covered walkways that pass from well-lit interior spaces onto shaded courtyards and sun-filled gardens all enlivened by the reflection of water and intricately carved stucco decoration.
More profoundly however, this is a place to reflect. Given the beauty, care and detail found at the Alhambra, it is tempting to imagine that the Nasrids planned to remain here forever; it is ironic then to see throughout the complex in the carved stucco, the words, “No conqueror, but God” left by those that had once conquered Granada, and would themselves be conquered. It is a testament to the Alhambra that the Catholic monarchs who besieged and ultimately took the city left this complex largely intact. | 1,691 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://library.achievingthedream.org/herkimerarthistory1/chapter/the-alhambra/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:58956 | https://library.achievingthedream.org/herkimerarthistory1/chapter/the-alhambra/ |
5PlXT8Jey7jeiMB0 | Fighting the whales, or, Doings and dangers on a fishing cruise by R.M. Ballantyne. | The Institute has attempted to obtain the best original copy available for filming. Features of this copy which may be bibliographically unique, which may alter any of the images in the reproduction, or which may significantly change the usual method of filming, are checked below.
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FIGHTING THE WHALES.
That a fish, more than sixty feet long, and thirty feet round the body ; with the bulk of three hundred fat oxen rolled into one ; with the strength of many hundreds of horses ; able to swim at a rate that would carry it right round the world in twenty -three days ; that can smash a boat to atoms with one slap of its tail; and stave in the planks of a ship with one blow of its ,'hick skull ; — that such a monster can be caught and killed by man, is most wonderful to hear of, but I can tell from experience that it is much more wonderful to see.
is power.*' Man is but a feeble creature, and if he had to depend on his own bodily strength alone, he could make no head against even the ordinary brutes in this world. But the knowledge which has been given to him by his Maker has clothed man with great power, so that he is more than a match for the fiercest beast in the forest, or the largest fish in the sea. Yet, with all his knowledge, with all his experience, and all his power, the killing of a great old sperm whale costs man a long, tough battle, sometimes it even costs him his life.
It is a long time now since I took to fighting the whales. I have been at it, man and boy, for nigh forty years, and many a wonderful sight have I seen ; many a desperate battle have I fought in the fisheries of the North and South Seas.
Sometimes, when I sit in the chimneycorner, of a winter evening, smoking my pipe with my old messmate Tom Lokins, I stare into the fire and think of the days gone by till I forget where I am, and go on thinking so hard that the flames seem to turn into melting-fires, and the bars of the grate into
dead fish, and the smoke into sails and rigging, and I go to work cutting up the blubber and stirring the oil-pots, or pulling the bowoar and driving the harpoon at such a rate that I can't help giving a shout, which causes Tom to start and cry : —
tage now.
And then I chuckle and tell him I was only thinking of old times, and so he falls to smoking again, and I to staring at the fire, and thinking as hard as ever.
it happened.
About forty years ago, when I was a boy of nearly fifteen years of age, I lived with my mother in one of the sea-port towns of England. There was great distress in the town at that time, and many of the hands were out of work. My employer, a black-
smith, had just died, and for more than six weeks I had not been able to get employment or to earn a farthing. This caused me great distress, for my father had died without leaving a penny in the world, and m}^ mother depended on me entirely. The money I had saved out of my wages was soon spent, and one morning when I sat down to breakfast, my mother looked across the table and said in a thoughtful voice,
"It will be harder for you, mother," j cried, striking the table with my fist ; then a lum|3 rose in my throat and almost choked me. I could not utter another word.
It was with difficulty I managed to eat the little food that was before me. After breakfast I rose hastily and rushed out of the
house, determined that I would get my mothe? her dinner, even if I should have to beg for it. But I must confess that a sick feeling came over me when I thought of begging.
Hurrying along the crowded streets without knowing vary well what I meant to do, I at last came to an abrupt halt at the end of the pier. Here I went up to several people and offered my services in a wild sort of way. They must have thought that I was drunk, for nearly all of them said gruffly that they did not want me.
Dinner time drew near, but no one had given me a job, and no wonder, for the way in which I tried to get one was not likely to be successful. At last I resolved to beg. Observing a fat, red-faced old gentleman coming along the pier, I made up to him boldlv. He carried a cane with a lur^e "rold knob on the top of it. That gave me hope, '' for uf course," thought T, " he must be rich." His nose, which was exactly the color and shape of the gold knob on his cane, was stuck in the centre of a round good-natured countenance, the mouth of which was large and firm ; the eyes bright and blue. He frowned
as I went forward hat in hand ; but I was not to be driven back ; the thought of my starving mother gave me power to crush down my rising shame. Yet I had no reason to be ashamed. I was willing to work, if only I could have got employment.
Stopping in front of the old gentleman, I was about to speak when I observed him quietly button up his breeches pocket. The blood rushed to my face, and turning quickly on my heel, I walked away without uttering a word.
was moving away.
I turned and observed that the shout was uttered by a broad rough-looking jack-tar, a man of about two or three and thirty, who had been sitting all the forenoon on an old cask smoking his pipe and basking in the sun.
" Wot d^e mean, youngster, by goin' on in that there fashion all the mornin,' a-both-erin' everybody, and makin' a fool o' yourself like that? eh?"
''What's that to you?" said I savagely, for my heart was sore and heavy, and I could not stand the interference of a stranger.
"Oh! it's nothiu' to me of course," said the sailor, picking his pipe quietly with his clasp-knife; ''but come here, boy, I've somethin' to say to ye."
him somewhat sulkily.
The man looked at me gravely through the smoke of his pipe, and said, " Your'e in a passion, my young back, that's ail ; and in case you didn't know it, I thought I'd tell ye."
"Ah ! that's rigliL," said the sailor with an approving nod of his head, "always confess when you're in the wrong. Kow,. younker, let me give you a bit of advice. Never get into a passion if you can help it, and if you can't help it get out of it as fast as possible, and if you can't get out of it, just give a great roar to let off the steam and turn about and run. There's nothing like that. Passion han't got legs. It can't hold on to a foUer when heV
runnin'. If you keep it up till you almost split your timbers, passion has no chance. It must go a starn. Now, lad, I've been watchin' ye all the mornin,' and I see there's a screw loose somewhere. If you'll tell me wot it is, see if I don't help you I"
The kind frank way in which this was said quite won my heart, so I sat down on the old cask, and told the sailor all my sorrows.
'* Ah! that's a puzzler," he replied, knocking the ashes out of his pipe. " Will you take me to your mother's house, lad ?"
" Willingly," said I, and jumping up, I led the way. As we turned to go, I observed that the old gentleman with the gold-headed cane was leaning over the rail of the pier .at a short distance from us. A feeling of
I thought I observed a frown on the sailor's brow as I said this, but he made no remark, and in a few minutes we were walking rapidly through the streets. My companion stopped at one of those stores so common in seaport towns, whore one can buy almost ai]ything, from a tallow candle to a brass cannon. Here he purchased a pound of tea, a pound of sugar, a pound of butter, and a small loaf, — all of which he thrust into the huge pockets of his coat. He had evidently no idea of proportion or of household aftairs. It was a simple, easy way of settling the matter, to get a pound of everything.
In a short time we reached our house, a very old one, in a poor neighborhood, and entered my mother's room. She was sitting at the table when we went in, with a large Bible before her, and a pair of horn-spectacles on her nose. I could see that she had been out gathering coals and cinders during my absence, for a good fire burned in the grate
said I.
'^ Good-day, mistress," said the sailor, bluntly, sitting down on a stool near the fire. " You seem to be goin' to have your tea."
My mother took off' her spectacles, looked calmly in the man's face, laid her hand on the Bible, and said, " Because I have been a widow woman these three years, and never once in all that time have I gone a single day without a meal. When the usual hour name I put on my kettle to boil, for this Word tells me that 'the Lord will provide.' [ expect my tea to-night."
The sailor's face expressed puzzled astonishment at these words, and he continued to reirard my mother with a look of wonder as be drew ibrtli his supplies of food and laid them on tlie table.
In a short time we were all enjoying a cup of tea, and talking about the wliale fishery, and the difHeulty of my going away while my mother was dependent on me. At last the sailor rose to leave us. Taking a fivepound note from his pocket, he laid it on the table and said —
" Mistress, this is all I have in the world, but I've got neither family nor friends, and I'm bound for the South Seas in six days; 80, if you'll take it, you're welcome to it, and if your son Bob can manage to cast loose from you without leaving you to sink, I'll take him aboard the ship that I sail in. He'll always find me at the Bull and Griffin, in the High Street, or at the end of the pier."
While the sailor was speaking, I observed a figure standing in a dark corner of the room near the door, and on looking more closely, I found that it was the old gentleman with the nose like his cane knob. Seeing that he was observed, he came forward and said — 2*
"I trust that you will forgive my coming here without invitation; but I happened to overhear part of the conversation between your son and this seaman, and I am willing to help you over your little difficulty if you will allow me."
, The old gentleman said this in a very quick, abrupt way, and looked as if he were afraid his offer might be refused. He was much heated, with climbing our long stair no d(jubt, and as he stood in the middle of the room, puffing and wiping his bald head with a handkerchief, my mother rose hastily and offered him a chair.
'' You are very kind, sir," she said ; "do sit down, sir. I'm sure I don't know why you should take so much trouble. But, dear me, you are very warm ; will you take a cup of tea to cool you ?"
"Thank you, thank you. With much pleasure, unless, indeed, your son objects to a 'stingy old chap^ sitting beside him."
I blushed when he repeated my words, and Httempted to make some apology ; bat the old gentleman stopped me by commencing to explain his intentions in short, rapid sen tences.
To mfike a long story short, he oiTered to look after my mother while I was away, and to prove his sincerity, hiid down five shilling's, and said he would call with tliat sum every week as long as I was absent. My motlier, after some trouble, agreed to let me go, and, bef(^re tliat evening closed, everything was arranged, and the gentleman, leaving bis address, went away.
The sailor had been so much filled with surprise at the suddenness of all this, that he could scarcely speak. Immediately after the departure of the old gentleman, he said, ''Well, good-bye, mistress, good-bye. Bob,'* and throwing on his hat in a careless way, left the room.
AT SEA.
TV/TY first few days on the ocean were so -^^J- miserable, tliat I oftentimes repented of having left ni}^ native land. I was, as my new friend Tom Lokins said, as sick as a dog. But in course of time I grew well, and began to rejoice in the cool fresh breezes and the great rolling billows of the sea.
Many and many a time I used to creep out to the end of the bowsprit, when the weather was calm, and sit, with my legs dangling over the deep blue water, and my eyes fixed on the great masses of rolling clouds in the sky, thinking of the new course of life I had just begun. At such times the thought of my mother was sure to come into my mind, and I thought of her parting words, "Put youi
trust in the Lord, lloLcrt, and read His Word." T resolved to try to obey lu^r, but this I found was no easy rnntter, lor tlio sailors were a rougli lot of fellows, who eared little for the Bible. But, I must say, they were a hearty good-natured set, and much better, upon the whole, than many a ship's crew that I afterwards sailed with.
We were fortunate in having fair winds this voyage, and soon found oursidves on the other side of the line, as we jaek-tars call the Equator.
Of course the crew did not forget the old custom of shaving all the men who had never crossed the line before. Our captain was a jolly old man, and uncommonly fond of " sky-larking." lie gave us leave to do what we liked the day we crossed tlie line; so, as there were a number of wild spirits among us, we broke through all the ordinary rules, or, rather we added on new rules to thern.
The old haixls had kept the matter quiet from us greenhorns, so that, although we knew they were going to do some sort of mischief, we didn't exactly understand what it was to be.
About noon of tint day I was called on deck and told that old father Neptune was coming aboard, and we were to be ready to receive hiin. A minute after I saw a tremendous monster come up over the side of tlie ship and jump on the deck. ELe was crowned with sea-weed, and painted in a wonderful fashion ; liis clothes were dripping wet, as if he had just come from the bottom of the sea. After him came another monster with a petticoat made of sailcloth and a tippet of a bit of old tarpaulin. This was Neptune's wife, and these two carried on the most remarkable antics T ever saw. I laughed heartily, and soon discovered, from the tones of their voices, which of my shipmates Neptune and his wife were. But my mirth v/as quickly stopped Avhen I was suddenly seized by several men, and my face was covered over with a horrible mixture of tar and grease!
Six of us youngsters were treated in this way ; then the lather was scraped oil* with a piece of old hoop-iron, and after being thus shaved, buckets of cold water were ihrown over us.
rived at our fishing-ground m the South Seas, and a feeling of excitement and expectation beoran to show itself amonjy tlie men, insomuch that our very eyes seemed brighter than usual.
One night those of us who had just been relieved from watch on deck, were sitting on the lockers down below telling ghost stories.
It was a dead calm, and one of those intensely dark, hot nights, tliat cause sailors to feel uneasy, they scarce know why. I began to feel so uncomfortable at last, listening to the horrible tales which Tom Tjokins was relating to tlie men, that I slipped away from them with the intention of going on deck. I moved so quietly that no one observed me ; besides, every eye was fixed earnestly on Tom, whose deep low voice was the only sound that broke the stillness of all around. As I was going very cautit)usly up the ladder leading to the deck, Tom had reached that part of his story where the ghost was just appearing in a dark churchyard, dressed in white, and coming slowly forward, one step at a time, towards the terrified man who Baw it. The men held their breath, and one or two of their faces turned pale as Tom went
on witli his description, lowering his voice to a hoarse whisper. Just as I put my head up the hatchway the sheet of one of the sails, which was hanging loose in the still air, passed gently over my head and knocked my hat off. At any other time I would have thought nothing of this, but Tom's story had thrown me into such an excited and nervous condition that I gave a start, missed my footing, uttered a loud cry, and fell down the ladder right in among the men with a tremendous crash, knocking over two or three oil-cans and a tin bread-basket in my fall, and upsetting the lantern, so that the place was instantly pitch dark.
I never heard such a howl of terror as these men gave vent to when this misfortune befell me. They rushed upon deck with their hearts in their mouths, tumbling, and peeling the skin oft' their shins and knuckles in their haste ; and it was not until they heard the laughter of the watch on deck that they breathed freely, and, joining in the laugh, called themselves fools for being frightened by a ghost story. I noticed, however, that, for all their D"etended indifference, there was
not one man among them — not even Tom Lokins himself — who would go down below to re-light the lantern for at least a quarter of an Lour afterwards !
Feeling none the worse for m}^ fall, I went forward and leaned over the bow of the ship, where I was much astonished by the appearance of the sea. It seemed as if the water was on fire. Every time the ship's bow rose and fell, the little belt of foam made in the water seemed like a belt of blue flame with bright sparkles in it, like stars or diamonds. I had seen this curious appearance before, but never so bright as it was on that night.
smoked his pipe calmly.
" Come, you know I can't swallow that," said I, " everybody knows that fire, either blue or red, can't burn in the water."
doubt, but he bad never given bimself the trouble to find out what it could be. Fortunately the captain came up just as I put the question, and he enlightened me on the subject.
'' Ay, many parts of the sea are full of creatures so small and so thin and colorless, that you can hardly see them even in a clear glass tumbler. Many of them are larger than others, but the most of them are very small."
asked.
" That I do not know, boy. God has given them the power to shine, just as he has givea us the power to walk or speak ; and they do shine brightly, as you see ; but how they do it is more than I can tell. I think, myself, it mu.^t be anger that makes them shine, for they generally do it when they are stirred up or knocked about by oars, or^ ship's keels, or tumbling waves. But 1 am not sure that that's the reason cither, because, you know,
"Perhaps!" answered the captain, laugh ing. " But then again, at other times, I have seen them shining over the whole sea when it was quite calm, making it like an ocean of milk ; and nothing was disturbing them at that time, d'ye see."
"More than a breeze," muttered the captain, while a look of grave anxiety overspread his countenance; "I'll go below and take a squint at the glass." ' >«'
I, when tbe captain was gone; "I never saw a calmer or a finer night. Surely there is no chance of a storm just now."
"Ay, that shows that you're a young feller, and ha'nt got much experience o' them seas," replied my companion. " Why, boy, sometimes the fiercest storm is brewin' behind the greatest calm. An' the worst o the thing is that it comes so sudden at times, that the masts are torn out o' the ship before you can say Jack Robinson."
'*Ay, almost without warnin', but not altogether without it. You heer'd the captain say he'd go an' take a squint at the glass?"
"It's not a glass o' grog, yon may be sure; nor yet a lookin'-glass. It's the weather-glass, boy. Shore-goin' chaps call it a barometer."
ship that question, and says he to me, 'Tom,* says he, ' a barometer is a ghass tube filled with quicksilver or mercury, which is a metal in a soft or fluid state, like water, you know, and it's meant for tellin' the state o* the weather.' "
''The doctor he looked grave at that, and shook his head. 'Tom,' says he, 'if I was to go for to explain that word, and all about the instrument in a scientific surt o' way, d'ye see, I'd have to sit here an' speak to you right on end for six hours or more.'
'^'No more I will,' says he; 'but it'll serve your turn to know that a barometer is a glass for measurin' the weight o' the air, and, somehow or other, that lets you know wot's a-coming. If the mercury in th j glass rises high, all's right. If it falls unc rmmon 3*
low very sudden, look out for squalls ; that's all. No matter how smooth the sea may be, or how sweetly all natur' may smile, don't you believe it; take in every inch o' cmvas at once.'
As I looked out upon the calm sea, which lay like a sheet of glass, without a ripple on its surface, I could scarcely believe what he had said. But before many minutes had passed, I was convinced of my error.
I was quite stunned for a moment by this, and by the sudden tumult that followed. The men, who seemed never to take thought about anything, and who had but one duty, namely, to obey orders, ran upon deck, and leaped up the rigging like cats; the sheets of nearly all the principal sails were clewed
up, and ere long, the canvas was maac fast to the yards. A few of the smaller sails only were left exposed, and even these were closereefed. Before long a loud roar was heard, and in another minute the storm burst upon us with terrific violence. The ship at first lay over so much that the masts were almost in the water, and it was as impossible for anv one to walk the deck as to walk alon;r the side of a wall. At the same time, the sea was lashed into white foam, and the blinding spray flew over us in bitter fury.
"Take in the topsails!" roared the captain. But his voice was drowned in the shriek of the gale. The men were saved the risk of going out on the yards, however, for in a few moments more all the sails, except the storm-try-sail, were burst and blown to ribbons.
We now tried to put the ship's head to the wind and " lay to,^^ by which landsmen will understand that we tried to face the storm, and remain stationary. But the gale was so fierce that this was impossible. The last rag of sail was blown away, and then there was nothinor left for us but tc show
The great danger now was that we might be "pooped," which means that a huge wave might curl over our stern, fall with terrible fujy on our deck, and sink us.
Many and many a good ship has gone down in this way ; but we were mercifully spared. As our safety depended very much on good steering, the captain himself took the wheel, and managed the ship so well, that we weathered the gale without damage, farther than the loss of a few sails and light spars. For two days the storm howled furiously, the sky and sea were like ink^ wHh sheets of rain and foam driving through the air, and raging billows tossing our ship about like a cork.
During all this time my shipmates were quiet and grave, but active and full of energy, so that every order was at once obeyed without noise or confusion. Every man watched the slightest motion of the captain. We all felt that everything depended on him.
thing that man could build could withstand so terrible a storm. I do not pretend to say that I was not afraid. The near prospect of a violent death caused my heart to sink more than once ; but my feelings did not unman me. I did my duty quietly, but quickly, like the rest ; and when I had no work to do, I stood holding on to the weather stanchions, looking at the raging sea, and think of my mother, and of the words of kindness and counsel she had so often bestowed upon me in vain.
The storm ceased almost as quickly as it began, and although the sea did not all at once stop the heavings of its angry bosom, the wind fell entirely in the course of a few hours, the dark clouds broke up into great masses that were piled up high into the sky, and out of the midst of these the glorious sun shone in bright rays down on the ocean, like comfort from heaven, gladdening our hearts as we busily repaired the damage that we had suffered from the storm.
the first time I saw a wliale.
It was in the forenoon of a most splendid daj; about a week after we arrived at that part of the ocean where we might expect to find fish. A light nor'-east breeze was blowing, but it scarcely rufQed the sea, as we crept slowly through the water with every stitch of canvas set.
As we had been looking out for fish for some time past, everything was in readiness for them. The boats were hanging over the side ready to lower, tubs for coiling away the ropes, harpoons, lances, &c., all were ready to throw in, and start away at a moment's notice. The man in the '* crow's nest," as they call the cask fixed up at the masthead, was looking anxiously out for whales, and the crew were idling about the deck. Tom Lokins was seated on the windlass smoking his pipe, and I was sitting beside him on an empty cask, sharpening a blubber-knife.
" They're of all sizes, lad. I've seen one that was exactly equal to three hundred fat bulls, and its rate of goin' would take it round the whole world in twenty-three days."
" Don't you ?" cried Tom ; " it's a fact notwithstandin', for the captain himself said so, and that's how I came to know it."
That was the signal that a whale was in sight, and as it was the first time we had heard it that season, every man in the ship was thrown into a state of tremendous excitement.
In another moment the utmost excitement prevailed on board. Suddenly, while I waa looking over the side, straining my eyes to catch a sight of the whale, which could not yet be seen by the men on deck, I saw a brown object appear in the sea, not twenty yards from the side of the ship ; before I had time to ask what i% was, a whale's head rose to the surface, and shot up out of the water. The part of the fish that was visible above water could not have been less than thirty feet in length. It just looked as if our long-boat had jumped out of the sea, and he was so near that I could see his great mouth quite plainly. I could have tossed a biscuit on his back easily. Sending two thick spouts of frothy water out of his blow-holes forty feet into the air with tremendous noise, he fell flat upon the sea with a clap like thunder, tossed his flukes or tail high into the air, and disappeared.
I was so amazed at this sight that I could not speak. I could only stare at the place where the huge moi/Ster had gone down.
"Ay, ay, sir," replied the men, leaping to their appointed stations ; for every man in a whale-ship has his post of duty appointed to him, and knows what to do when an order
face was now bhizing with excitement.
In a moment more three boats were in the water ; the tubs, harpoons, kc, were thrown in, th.e men seized the oars, and away they went with a cheer. I was in such a state of flutter that I scarce Itnew what I did; but I managed somehow or other to get into a boat, and as I was a strong fellow, and a good rower, I was allowed to pull.
" There she blows !" cried the man in the crow's nest, just as we shot from the side of the ship. There was no need to ask, " where away" this time. Another whale rose and spouted not more than three lumdred yards off, and before we could speak a third fish roso in another direction, and we found ourselves in the middle of what is called a school of whales."
the boat in wliicli I rowed, " bend your backs, my hearties ; that fish right a- head of us is a hundred-barrel whale for certain. Give way. boys ; we must have that fish."
There was no need to urge the men, for their backs were strained to the utmost, their faces were flushed, and the big veins in their necks swelled almost to bursting, with the tremendous exertion.
"Hold hard," said the captain in a low Toice, for now that we were getting near our prey, we made as little noise as possible
The men at once threw their oars " apeak," as they say ; that is, raised them straight up in the air, and waited for further orders. We 'expected the whale would rise near to where -we were, and thought it best to rest and look -out.
While we were waiting, Tom Lokins, who was harpooner of the boat, sat just behind me with all his irons ready. He took th:opportunity to explain to me that by a "hundred-barrel fish " is meant a fish that 'will yield a hundred barrels of oil. He further informed me that such a fish was a big •one, though he had seen a few in the North-
hundred barrels.
I now ob.ierved that the other boats had separated, and each had gone after a different whale. In a few minutes the fish we were in chase of rose a short distance off, and sent up two splendid water-spouts high into the air, thus showing that he was what the whalers call a " right" whale. It is diflerent from the sperm whale, which has only on© blow-hole, and that a little one.
We rowed towards it with all our might, and as we drew near the captain ordered Tom Lokins to " stand up," so he at once laid in his oar, and took up the harpoon. The harpoon is an iron lance with a barbed point. A whale-line is attached to it, and this line is coiled away in a tub. When we were within a few yards of the fish, which was going slowly through the water, all ignorant of the terrible foes who were pursuing him, Tom Lokins raised the harpoon high above his head, and darted it deep into its fat side just behind the left fin, and next moment the boat ran aground on the whale's back.
captain, who, before his o rder was obeyed, managed to give the creature two deep wounds with his lance. The lance has no barbs to its point, and is used oulj for wounding after the harpoon is fixed.
The boat was backed off at once, but it had scarcely got a few yards away when the astonished fish whirled its huge body half out of the water, and, coming down with a tremendous clap, made off like lightning.
The line was passed round a strong piece of wood called the " logger-head," and, in running out, it began to smoke, and nearly set the wood on fire. Indeed, it would have done so, if a man had not kept constantly pouring water upon it. It was needful to be very cautious in managing the line, for the duty is attended with great danger. If any hitch should take place, the line is apt to catch the boat and drag it down bodily under the waves. Sometimes a coil of it gets round a leg or an arm of the man who attends to it, in which case his destruction is almost certain. Many a poor fellow has lost his life in this way.
line." This was done, and in a moment our boat was cleaving the blue water like an arrow, while the white foam curled from her bows. I thought every moment we should be dragged under; but whenever this seemed likely to happen, tlie line was let run a bit, and the strain eased. At last the fish grew tired of dragging us, the line ceased to run out, and Tom hauled in the slack, which another man coiled away in its tub. Presently the fish rose to the surface, a short distance ofl' our weather-bow.
The boat shot ahead, and we were about to dart a second harpoon into the whale's side, when it took to ''sounding," — which means, that it went straight down, head foremost, into the depths of the sea. At that moment Tom Lokins uttered a cry of mingled anger and disappointment. We all turned round and saw our shipmate standing with the slack line in his hand, and such an expression on his weather-beaten face, that I could scarce help laughing. The harpoon i*
groan.
I remember even yet the feeling of awful disappointment that came over me when I understood that we had lost the fish after all our trouble I I could almost have wept with bitter vexation. As for my comrades, they sat starino^ at each other for some moments quite speechless. Before we could recover from the state into which this misfortune had thrown us, one of the men suddenly shouted, " Hallo ! there's the mate's boat in distress."
We turned at once, and truly, there was no doubt of the truth of this, for about half a mile off, we beheld our first mate's boat tearing over the sea like a small steamer. It was fast to a fish, and two oars were set up on end to attract our attention.
When a whale is struck, it sometimes happens that the whole of the line in a boat is run out. When this is about to occur, it becomes necessary to hold on as much as can be done without running the boat under the
water, and an oar is set up on end to show t)iat assistance is required, either from the ship or from the other boats. As the line grows less and less, another and another oar is hoisted to show that help must be sent quickly. If no assistance can be sent, the only thing that remains to be done is to cut the line and lose the fish; but a whale line, with its harpoon, is a very heavy loss, in addition to that of the fish, so that whalers are tempted to hold on a little too long sometimes.
When we saw the mate's boat dashing away in this style, we forgot our grief at the loss of our whale in anxiety to render assistance to our comrades, and we rowed towards them as fast as we could. Fortunately the whale changed its course and came straight towards us, so that we ceased pulling, and waited till they came up. As the boat came on I saw the foam curling up on her bows as she leaped and flew over the sea. I could scarcely believe it possible that wood and iron could bear such a strain. In a few minutes they were almost abreast of us.
They were past almost before these short sentences could be spoken. But they had not gone twenty yards ahead of us when the water rushed in over the bow, and before we could utter a word the boat and crew were gone. Not a t^ace of them remained ! The horror of the moment had not been fully felt, however, when the boat rose to the surface keel u}), and, one after another, the heads of the men appeared. The line had fortunately broken, otherwise the boat would have been lost, and the entire crew probably would have gone to the bottom with her.
We instantly pulled to the rescue, and were thankful to find that not a man was killed, though some of them were a little hurt, and all had received a terrible fright. We next Bet to work to right the upset boat, an operation which was not accomplished v ithout much labor and difficulty.
Now, while we were thus employed, our third boat, which was in charge of the second mate, had gone after the whale that had caused
us so much trouble, and when we had got the boat righted and began to look about us, we found that she was fast to the fish about a mile to leeward.
'' Hurrah, lads ! " cried the captain, " luck has not left us yet. Give way, my hearties, pull like Britons ! we'll get that fish yet."
We were all dreadfully done up by this time, but the sight of a boat fast to a whale restor«^d us at once, and we pulled away as stoutly as if we had only begun the day's work. The whale was heading in the direction of the ship, and when we came up to the scene of action the second mate had just "touched the life;" in other words, he had driven the lance deep down into the whak's vitals. This was quickly known by jets of blood being spouted up through the blowholes. Soon after, our victim went into its dying agonies, or, as whalemen say, 'Miis flurry."
This did not last long. In a short time he rolled over dead. We fastened a line to his tail, the three boats took the carcass in tow, and, singing a lively song, we rowed away to the ship.
OUT THE OIL.
^piIE scene that took place on board ship -■- after we caught our first fish was most wonderful. We commenced the operation of what is called "cutting in," that is, cutting up the whale, and getting the fat or blubber hoisted in. The next thing we did was to ''try out" the oil, or melt down the fat in large iron pots brought with us for this purpose ; and the change that took place in the appearance of the ship and the men when this began was very remarkable.
When we left port our decks were clean, our sails white, our masts well scraped; the brass-work about the quarter-deck was well polished, and the men looked tidy and clean. A few hours after our first whale had been secured alongside all this was changed. The cutting up of the huge carcass covered the decks with oil and blood, makins: them so slippery that they had to be covered with sand to enable the men to walk about. Then
the smoke of the great fires under the melting-pots begrimed the masts, sails, and cordage with soot. The faces and hands of the men got so covered with oil and soot that it would have puzzled any one to say whether they were white or black. Their clothes, too, became so dirty that it was impossible to cleun them. But, indeed, whalemen do not much mind this. In fact, thev take a pleasure in all the dirt that surrounds them, because it is a sign of success in the main object of their voyage. The men in a clean whale ship are never happy. When everything is filthy, and dirty, and greasy, and smoky, and black — decks, rigging, clotheS; and persons — it is then that the hearty laugh and jest and song are heard as the crew work busily, night and day, at their rough but profitable labor.
After having towed our whale to the ship, cutting in w?s immediately begun. First, the carcass was secured near the head and tail with chains, and made fast to the ship ;
then the great blocks and ropes fastened to the main and foremast for hoisting in the blubber were brought into play. When all was ready, the captain and the two mates with Tom Lokins got upon the whale's body, with long-handled sharp spades or diggingknives. With these they fell to work cutting off the blubber.
I was stationed at one of the hoisting-ropes, and while we were waiting for the signal to "hoist away," I peeped over the side, and for the first time had a good look at the great fish. When we killed it, so much of its body was down in the water that I cc 1 not see it very clearly, but now that it was uished at full length alongside the ship, and I could look right down upon it, I began to understand more clearly what a large creature it was. One thing surprised me much ; the top of its head, which was rough and knotty like the bark of an old tree, was swarming with little crabs and barnacles, and other small creatures. The whale's head seemed to be their regular home! This fish was by no means one of the largest kind, but being the first I had seen, I fancied it must be the largest fish in the sea.
Its body was forty feet long, and twenty icet round at the thickest part. Its head, which seemed to be a great, blunt, shapeless thing, like a clumsy old boat, was eight feet long from the tip to the blow-holes or nostrils ; and these holes were situated on the back of the head, which at that part was nearly four feet broad. The entire head measured about twenty-one feet round. Its ears were two small holes, so small that it was difficult to discover them, and the eyes were also very small for so large a body, being about the same size as those of an ox. The mouth was Yery large, and the under jaw had great ugly lips. When it was dying, I saw these lips close in once or twice on its fat cheeks, which it bulged out like the leather sides of a pair of gigantic bellows. It had two fins, one on each side, just behind the head. With these, and with its tail, the whale swims and fights. Its tail is its most deadly weapon. The flukes of this one measured thirteen feet ticross, and with one stroke of this it could have smashed our largest boat in pieces. Many a boat has been sent to the bottom in this way.
I remember hearing our first mate tell of a wonderful escape a comrade of his had Ie the Greenland Sea fishery. A whale had been struck, and, after its first run, they hauled up to it again, and rowed so hard thai they ran the boat right against it. The harpooner was standing on the bow all ready, and sent his iron cleverly into the blubber. In its agony the whale reared its tail high out of the water, and the flukes whirled for a moment like a orreat fan iust above the harpooner^s head. In an instant he dived over the side and disappeared. Next moment the flukes came down on the part of the boat he had just left, and cut it clean off; the other part was driven into the waves, and the men were left swimming in the water. They were all picked up, however, by another boat that was in company, and the harpooner was recovered with the rest. His quick dive had been the saving of his life.
I had not much time given me to study the appearance of this whale before the ordei was given to " hoist away 1" so we went to
work with a will. The first part that oame up was the huge lip, fastened to a large iron hook, called the blubber-hook. It was lowered into the blubber-room between decks, where a couple of men were stationed to stow the blubber away. Then came the fins, and after them the upper jaw, with the whalebone attached to it. The " right" whale has no teeth like the sperm whale. In place of teeth it has the well-known substance called whalebone, which grows from the roof of its mouth, in a number of broad thin plates, extending from the back of the head to the snout. The lower edges of these plates of whalebone are split into thousands of hairs like bristles, so that the inside roof of a whale's mouth resembles an enormous blacking brush ! The object of this curious arrangement is to enable the whale to catch the little shrimps and small sea-blubbers, called *' medusas," on which it feeds. I have spoken before of these last as being the little creatures that gave out such a beautiful pale-blue light at night. The whale feeds on them. When he desires a meal he opens his great mouth and rushes into the midst of a shoal
of medusae ; tlie little things get entangled in thousands among the haii y ends of the whalebone, and when the monster has got a large enough mouthful, he shuts his lower jaw and swallows what his net has caught.
The wisdom as well as the necessity of this arrangement is very plain. Of course, while dashing through the sea in this fashion, with his mouth agape, the whale must keep his throat closed, else the water would rush down it and choke him. Shutting his throat then, as he does, the water is obliged to flow out of his mouth as fast as it flows in ; it is also spouted up through his blow-holes, and this with such violence that many of the little creatures would be swept out along with it but for the hairy -ended whalebone which lets the sea-water out, but keeps the medusae in.
Well, let us return to our "cutting in.'' After the upper-jaw came the lower-jaw and throat, with the tongue. This last was an enormous mass of fat, about as large as an ox, and it weighed fifteen hundred or two thousand pounds. After this was got in, the rest of the work was simple. The blubber
of the body was peeled off in great strips, beginning at the neck and being cut spirally towards the tail. It was hoisted on board by the blocks, the captain and mates cutting, and the men at the windlass hoisting, and the carcass slowly turning round until we got an unbroken piece of blubber, reaching from the water to nearly as high as the mainyard-arm. This mass was nearly a foot thick, and it looked like fat pork. It was cut off close to the deck, and lowered into the blubber-room, where the two men stationed there attacked it with knives, cut it into smaller pieces, and stowed it away. Then another piece was hoisted on board in the same fashion, and so on we went till every bit of blubber was cut off; and I heard the captain remark to the mate when the work was done, that the fi^h was a good fat one, and he wouldn't wonder if it turned out to be worth £300.
Now, when this process was going on, a new point of interest arose which I had not thought of before, although my messmate, Tom Lokins, had often spoken of it on the voyage out. This was the arrival of great
Tom bad often told me of the birds that always keep company with whalers; but I had forgotten al) about it until I saw an enormous albatross come sailing majestically through the air towards us. This was the largest bird I ever saw, and no wonder, for it is the largest bird that flies. Soon after that, another arrived, and although we were more than a thousand miles from any shore, we were speedily scented out and surrounded by hosts of gonies, stinkards, haglets, gulls, pigeons, petrels, and other sea-birds, which commenced to feed on pieces of the whale's carcass with the most savage gluttony. These birds were dreadfully greedy. They had stuffed themselves so full in the course of a short time, that they flew heavily and with great dif&culty. No doubt they would have to take three or four days to digest that meal !
Sharks, too, came to get their share of what was going. But these savage monsters did not content themselves with what was thrown away ; they were so bold as to come before Dur faces and take bites out of the whale's bo(f y. Some of these sharks were
eiglit and nine feet long, and when I saw them open their horrid jaws, armed with three rows of glistening white sharp teeth, I could well understand how easily they could bite off the leg of a man, as they often do when they get the chance. Sometimes they would come right up on the whale's body with a wave, bite out great pieces of the flesh, turn over on their bellies, and roll off.
While I was looking over the side during the early part of that day, I saw a very large shark come rolling up in this way close to Tom Lokins's legs. Tom made a cut at him with his blubber-spade, but the shark rolled off in time to escape the blow. And after all it would not havv3 done him much damage, for it is not easy to frighten or take the life out of a shark.
" Hand me an iron and lino, Bob," said Tom, looking up at me. " I've got a spite agin tha"- feller. He's been up twice already. Ah ! hand it down here, and two or three of ye stand by to hold on by the line. There he comes, the big villain 1"
"Ay, ay," replied several of the men as ihey held on to the line, their arms jerking violently as the savage fish tried to free itself. We quickly reeved a line through a block at the fore yard arm, and hauled it on deck with much difficulty. The scene that followed was very horrible, for there was no killing the brute.* It threshed the deck with its tail, and snapped so fiercely with its tremendous jaws, that we had to keep a sharp look out lest it should catch hold of a leg. At last its tail was cut off, the body cut open, and all the entrails taken out, yet even after this it continued to flap and thresh about the deck for some time, and the heart continued to contract for twenty minutes after it was taken out and pierced with a knife.
I would not have believed this had I not seen it with my own eyes. In case some of my readers may doubt its truth, I would remind them how difficult it is to kill some of those creatures with which we are all familiar. The common worm, for instance, may be out
piece remains alive for some time after.
The skin of the shark is valued by the whalemen, because, when cleaned and dry, it is as good as sand-paper, and is much used in polishing the various things they make out of whales' bones and teeth.
A STORM, A MAN OVERBOARD, AND A RESCUE.
'T^HE scenes in a whaleman's life are varied -■- and very stirring. Sometimes he is floating on the calm ocean, idling about the deck and whistling for a breeze, when all of a sudden the loud cry is heard, " There she blows !" and in a moment the boats are in the water, and he is engaged in all the toils of an exciting chase. Then comes the battle with the great leviathan of the deep, with all its risks and dangers. Sometimes he is unfortunate, the decks are clean, he has nothing to do. At other times he is lucky, ''cutting in" and "trying out" engage all his energies and attention. Frequently storms toss him on the angry deep, and show him, if he will but learn the lesson, how helpless a creature he is, and how thoroughly dependent at all times for life, safety, and success, upon the arm of God.
"Trying out" the oil, although not so thrilling a scene as many a one in his career, is, nevertheless, extremely interesting, espe-
cially at night, when the glare of the fires in the try-works casts a deep red glow on the faces of the men, on the masts and sails, and even out upon the sea.
The try- works consisted of two huge melting-pots fixed upon brick-work fireplaces between the fore and main masts. While some of the men were down in the blubberroom cutting the ^'blanket- pieces/' as the largest masses are called, others were pitching the smaller pieces on deck, where they were seized by two men who stood near a block of wood, called "a horse," with a mincing knife, to slash the junks so as to make them melt easily. These were then thrown into the melting-pots by one of the mates, who kept feeding the fire with such "scraps" of blubber as remain after the oil is taken out. Once the fires were fairly set agoing no other kind of fuel was required than "scraps" of blubber. As the boiling oil rose it was baled into copper coolingtanks. It was the duty of two other men to dip it out of these tanks into casks, which were then headed up by our cooper, and stowed away in the hold.
As the II i gilt advanced tlie fires became redder and brighter by contrast, the liglit shone and glittered on tlie bK)ody decks, and, as we plied our dirty work, I coiikl not hel|) thinking, "what wouhl my mother say, if she coLikl get a peep at me now?"
Tlie ship's crew worked and slept by watches, for the fires were not allowed to go out all night. About midnight I sat down on the windlass to take a short rest, and began talking to one of the men, Fred Borders by name, lie was one of the quietest and most active men in the ship, and being quite a young man, not more than nineteen, he and I drew to one another, and became very intimate.
"I think we're goin' to have a breeze, Bob," said he, as a sharp pufi'of wind crossed the deck, driving the black smoke to leeward, and making the fire flare up in the try- works.
Just then Tom Lokins came up, ordered Fred to go and attend to the fires, sat down opposite to me on the windlass, and began tc '' lay down the law" in regard to storms.
'* You see, Boo Ledbury," said he, beginning to fill his pipe, " young fellers like you don't know nothin' about the weather — 'cause why ? you've got no experience. Now, I'll put you up to a dodge consarning this very thing."
I never found out what was the dodge that Tom, in his wisdom, was to have put me up to, for at that moment the captain came on deck, and gave orders to furl the top-gallant sails.
were lashed to the yards.
The wind now began to blow steadily from the nor'-west ; but not so hard as to stop our try-works for more than an hour. After that it blew stift' enough to raise a heavy sea, and we were compelled to slack the fires. This was all the harm it did to us, however, for although the breeze was stiffish, it was nothing like a gale.
As the captain and the first mate walked the quarter-deck together, I heard the former say to the latter, "T think we had as well take in 9 reef in the to^ils. All here-
The order was given to reduce sail, and ' the men lay out on the topsail yards. I noticed that my friend Fred Borders was the first man to spring up the shrouds and lay out on the maintop-sail yard. It was so dark that I could scarcely see the masts, While I was gazing up, I thought I observed a dark object drop from the yard ; at the same moment there was a loud shriek, followed by a plunge in the sea. This was succeeded by the sudden cry, "Man overboard!" and instantly the whole ship was in an uproar.
No one who has not heard that cry can understand the dreadful feelings that are raised in the human breast by it. My heart at first seemed to leap into my mouth, and almost choke me. Then a terrible fear, which I cannot describe, shot through me, when I thought it might be my comrade Fred Borders. But these thoughts and feelings passed like lightning — in a far shorter time than it takes to write them down. The shriek was still ringing in my ears, when the captain roared
At tlie same moment he seized a light hencoop and tossed it overboard, and the mate did the same with an oar in the twinkling of an eye. Almost without knowing what I did, or why I did it, I seized a great mass of oakuip and rubbish that lay on the deck saturate 1 with oiL I thrust it into the embers of the fire in the try-works, and hurled it blazing into the sea.
The ship's head was thrown into the wind, and we were brought to as quickly as possible. A gleam of hope arose within me on observing that the mass I had thrown overboard continued still to burn ; but when I saw how quickly it went astern, notwithstandirg our vigorous efforts to stop the ship, my heart bci. m to sink, and when, a few moments after, ihe light suddenly disappeared, despair seized upon me, and I gave my friend up for lost.
At that moment, strange to sny, thoughts of my mother came into my mind, I remembered her words, '' Call upon the Lord, my dear boy when you are in trouble." Al-
tliougli I had given but little heed to prayer, or to my Maker, up to that time, I did pray, then and there, most earnestly that my messmate might be saved. I cannot say that I had much hope that my prayer would be answered — indeed I think I had none — still the mere act of crying in my distress to the Almighty afforded me a little relief, and it was with a good deal of energy that I threw myself into the first boat that was lowered, and pulled at the oar as if my own life depended on it.
A lantern had been fastened to the end of an oar and set up in the boat, and by its faint light I could see that the men looked very grave. Tom Lokins was steering, and I sat near him, pulling the aft oar.
A shake of the head was his only reply.
"It must have been here away," said the mate, who stood up in the bow with a coil of rope at his feet, and a boat-hook in his hand. "Hold on, lads, did any one hear a cry ?"
The single word '^ Hurrah I" burst from our throats with all the power of our lungs, and we bent to our oars till we wellnigh tore the rollicks out of the boat.
"Hold hard! stern all!" roared the mate, as we went flying down to leeward, and almost ran over the hen- coop, to which a human form was seen to be clinging v/ith the tenacity of a drowning man. We had swept down so quickly, that we shot past it. In an agony of fear lest my friend should be again lost in the darkness, I leaped up and sprang into the sea. Tom Lokins, however, had noticed what I was about ; he seized me by the collar of my jacket just as I reached 6*
the water, and held me with a grip like a vice till one of the men came to his assistance, and dragged me back into the boat. In a few moments more we reached the hen-coop, and Fred was saved !
He was half dead with cold and exhaustion, poor fellow, but in a few minutes he began to recover and before we reached the ship he could speak. His first words were to thank God for his deliverance. Then he added —
'* And thanks to the man that flung that light overboard. I should have gone down but for that. It showed me where the hencoop was."
In five minutes Fred Borders was passed up the side and taken down below. In two minutes more we had him stripped naked,
rubbed dry, wrapped in hot blankets, and set down on one of the lockers, with a hot brick at his feet, and a stiff can of hot rum and water in his hand.
AS the reader may, perhaps, have been asking a few questions about the whale in his own mind, I shall try to answer them, by telling a few things concerning that creature which, I think, are worth knowing. In the first place, the whale is not a fish ! I have applied that name to it, no doubt, because it is the custom to do so ; but there are great differences between the whales and the fishes. The mere fact that the whale lives in water is not sufficient to prove it to be a fish. The frog lives very much in water — he is born in the water, and, when very young, he lives in it altogether — would die, in fact, if he were taken out of it ; yet a frog is not a fish.
The following are some of the differences existing between a whale and a fish : — The whale is a warm-blooded animal ; the fish is cold-blooded. The whale brings forth its young alive ; while most fishes lay eggs or spawn. Moreover, ,the fish lives entirely under water, but the whale cannot do so. He breathes air through enormous lungs, not gills. If you were to hold a whalers head under water for much longer than an hour, it would certainly be drowned ; and this is the reason why it comes so frequently to the surface of the sea to take breath. Whales seldom stay more than an hour under water, and when they come up to breathe, they discharge the last breath they took through their nostrils or blow-holes, mixed with large quantities of water which they have taken in while feeding. But the m<jst remarkable point of difference betM^een the whale and fishes of all kinds is, that it suckles its young.
The calf of one kind of whale is about fourteen feet long when it is born, and it weighs about a ton. The cow-whale usually brings forth only one calf at a time, and the manner in which she behaves to her gigantic
baby shows that she is affected by feelings of anxiet}r and affection such as are never seen in fishes, which heartless creatures forsake their eggs when they are laid, and I am pretty sure they would not know their own children if they happened to meet with them.
The whale, on the contrary, takes care of her little one, gives it suck, and sports playfully with it in the waves; its enormous heart throbbing all the while, no doubt, with satisfaction.
I have heard of a whale which was once driven into shoal water with its calf and nearly stranded. The huge dam seemed to become anxious for the safety of her child, for she was seen to swim eagerly round it, embrace it with her fins, and roll it over in the waves, trying to make it follow her into deep water. But the calf was obstinate ; it would not go, and the result was that the boat of a whaler pulled up and harpooned it. The poor little whale darted away like lightning on receiving the terrible iron, and ran out a hundred fathoms of line ; but it was soon overhauled and killed. All this time the dam kept close to the side of its calf,
and not until a harpoon was plunged into her own side would she move away. Two boats were alter her. With a single mp of her tail she cut one of tlie boats in two, and then darted off. But in a short time she turned and came back. Her feelings of anxiety had returned, no doubt, after the first sting of pain was over, and slie died at last close to the side of her young one.
There are various kinds of whales, but thu two sorts that ai most sought after are the common whale of the Greenland Seas, which is called the " r' ,ht whale," and the sperm whale of the South Sea. Both kinds are found in the south ; but the sperm whale never goes to the North Seas. Both kinds grow to an enormous size — sometimes to seventy feet in length, but there is considerable differt nee in their appearance, especially bout the head. In a former chapter I have partly described the head of a rigid whale, which has whalebone instead of teeth, with its blow-holes on the back of the head. The sperm whale has large white teeth in its lower jaw and none at all in the upper. It has only one blow-hole, and that a little one,
mucli farther forward on its head, so that sailors can tell, at a great distance, what kind of whales they see simply by their manner of spouting.
The mosL remarkable feature about the sperm whale is the bluntncss of its clumsy head, which looks somewhat like a big log with the end sawn square off, and this head is about one third of its entire body.
The sperm whale feeds differently from the right whale. He seizes his prey with his powerful teeth, and lives, to a great extent, on large cuttle fish. Some of them have been seen to vomit lumps of these cuttle-fish as long as a whale-boat. He is much fiercer, too, than the right whale, which almost always takes to flight when struck, but the sperm whale will sometimes turn on its foes and smash their boat with a blow of his blunt hep " r tail.
i^ighting whales, as they are called, are not uncommon. These are generally old bulls, which have become wise from experience, and give the whalers great trouble — • sometimes carrying away several harpoons and lines. The lower jaw of one old bull of
this kind was found to be sixteen feet long, and it had forty-eight teeth, some of them a foot long. A number of scars about his head showed tliat this fellow had been in the wars. When two bull-whales take to fighting, their great effort is to catch each other by the lower jaw, and, when locked together, they struggle with a degree of fury that cannot be described.
It is not often that the sperm whale actually attacks a ship; but there are a few cases of this kind which cannot be doubted. The following story is certainly true ; and while it shows how powerful a creature the whale is, it also shows what terrible risk and sufferings the whaleman has frequently to encounter.
In the month of August 1819, the American whaleahip "Essex" sailed from Nantucket for the Pacific Ocean. She was commanded by Captain Pollard. Late in the autumn of the same year, when in latitude 40° of the South Pacific, a shoal, or " school," of sperm whales were discovered, and three boats were immediately lowered and sent in pursuit. The mate's boat was struck by one
damages.
While the nnen were employed at this, an enormous wliale suddenly rose quite close to tlie ship. He was going at nearly the same rate with the ship — about three miles an hour; and the men, who were good judges of the size of whales, thought that it could not have been less than eighty-five feet long. All at once he ran against ilie ship, striking her bows, and causing hei' to tremble liko a leaf. The whale immediately dived and passed under the ship, and grazed her keel in doing so. This evidently hurt his back, for he suddenly rose to the surface about fifty yards oft", and commenced lashing tlie sea with his tail and fins as if suffering great agony. It was truly an awful sight to behold that great monster lashing the sea into foam at so short a distance.
In a short time he seemed to recover,, and started off at great speed to windward, ^leanwhile the men discovered that the blow received by the ship had done her so much damage, that she began to fill and settle
This was too true. The whale had turned, and was now bearing down on them at full speed, leaving a white track of foam behind him. Eushing at the ship like a batteringram, he hit her fair on the weather bow and •stove it in, after which he dived and disappeared. The horrified men took to their boats at once, and in ten minutes tlie ship ivent down.
The condition of the men thus left in three •open boats far out upon the sea, without provisions or slielter, was terrible indeed. ;Some of them perished, and the rest, after suffering the severest hardships, reached a low island called Ducies, on the 20th of December. It was a mere sand-bank, which supplied them only with water and sea-fcAvl. .Still even this was a inercy, for which they had reason to thank God ; for in cases of this kind one of the evils that seamen have most cause to drea,d is the want of water.
this sand-bank, for, dreary and uninhabited though it was, they preferred to take tlieir chance of being picked up by a passing ship rather than run tlie risks of crossing the wide ocean in open boats, so their companions bade them a sorrowful farewell, and left them. But this isL'ind is far out of the usual track of ships. The poor fellows have never since been heard >)£
It was the 27th of December when the three boats left the sand-bank witli the remainder of the men, and began a voyage of two thousand miles, towards the ishmd of Juan Fernandez. The mate's boat was picked up. about three months after, by the ship " Indian" of London, with only three living men in it. About tue same time the captain's boat was discovered, by the ''Dauphin" of Nantucket, with only two men living; and these unhappy beings had only sustained life bv feedinL? on the flesh of their dead comrades. The third boat must have been lost, for it was never heard of; and out of the Vv^hole crew of twenty men, only five returned home to tell their eventful story.
tive, I must not omit to mention, that in the head of the sperm whale there is a large cavity or hole called the "case," which contains pure oil that does not require to be melted, but can be baled at once into casks and stowed away. This is the valuable spermacoti from which the finest candles are made. One whale will sometimes yield fifteen barrels of spermaceti oil from the "case" of its head. A large fish will produce from eighty to a hundred barrels of oil altogether, sometimes much more; and when whalemen converse with each other about the size of whales, they speak of " eighty-barrel fish," and so on.
Although I have written much about the fighting powers of the sperm wliale, it must not be supposed that whales are by nature fond of fighting. On the contrary, the " right" whale is a timid creature, and never shows fight except in defence of its young. And the sperm whale generally takes to flight when pursued. In fact, most of the accidents that happen to whalemen occur vvlien the wounded monster is lashing the water in blind terror and agony.
The whale has three bitter enemies, much smaller, but much bolder than himself, and of these he is terribly afraid. They are — the sword-fish, the thrasher, and the killer. The first of these, the sword-fish, has a strong straight horn or sword projecting from his snout, witli which he boldly attacks and pierces the whale. The thrasher is a strong fish, twenty feet long, and of great weight. Its metliod of attack is to leap out of the water on the whale's back, and deal it a tremendous blow with its powerful tail.
The sword-fish and thrasher sometimes act together in the attack ; the first stabbing him below, and the second belaboring him above, while the whale, unable, or too frightened to fight, rushes through the water, and even leaps its whole gigantic length into the air in its endeavors to escape. When a whale tlms leaps his whole length out of the water, the sailors say he '* breaches," and breaching is a common practice. They seem to do it often for amusement as well as from terror.
and bold. When one of the killers gets into the middle of a school of whales, the frightened creatures are seen flying in all directions. His mode of attack is to seize his big enemy by the jaw, and hold on uqtil he is exhausted and dies.
i^^NE day I was standing beside the wind^^ lass, listening to the conversation of five or six of the men, who were busy si. oening harpoons and cutting-knives, or making all kinds of toys and things out of whale's bones. We had just finished cutting in and trying out our third whale, and as it was not long since we reached the fishing-ground, we were in high hopes of making a good thing of it that season ; so that every one was in good spirits, from the captain down to the youngest man in the ship.
Tom's pipe was an uncommonly black one, for he smoked it very often. Moreover, Tom's pipe was uncommonly short, so short that I always wondered how he escaped burning the end of li--' nose. Indeed, some of the men said that the redness of the end of Tom's nose was owing to its being baked like a brick by the heat of his pipe. Tom took this pipe from his mouth, and while he wa» pushing down the tobacco with the end of his little finger he said —
"No, have ye?" cried one of. the men, interrupting him with a look of pretended surprise. " Well, now, I do think, messmates, that we should ax the mate to make a note o' that in the log, for it's not often that Tom Lokins takes to thinkin'."
"I\^ tell vou wot it is, Bill Blunt, if all the thoughts that you think, ard especially the jokes that you utter, y^Oii put down in the log, they'd be so heavy that I do believe they would sink the ship!"
" "Well, well," cried Bill, join ng in the laugh against himself, "if they did, your jokes would be so light and triflin' that I do believe they'd float her again. But what have you been a-thinkin' of, Tom ?"
"I've been thinkin','' said Tom, slowly, "that if a whale makes his breakfast entirely off them little things that you can hardly see when you get 'em into a tumbler — I forget how the captain calls 'em — what a treemendous heap of 'em he must eat in the course of a year !"
"I don't know," answered Tom. "Never could find out. You see it's heaps upon heaps of thousands, for the thousands come first and the billions afterwards; but when I've thouglit uncommon hard, for a long spell at a time, I always get confused, because millions comes in between, d'ye see, and that's puzzlin'."
"I think I could give you some notion about these things," said Fred Borders, who had been quietly listening all the time, but never putting in a word, for, as I have said, Fred was a modest, bashful nan, and seldom spoke much. But we had all come to notice that when Fred spoke, he had always something to say worth hearing ; and when he did speak he spoke out boldly enough. "We had come to have feelings of respect for our young shipmate; for he was a kindhearted lad, and we saw by his conversation that he had been better educated than the most of us, so all our tongues stopped as the eyes -"f the party turned on him.
''It's not much I have to tell," began Fred, ''but it may help to make your minds clearer on this subject. On my first voyage to the whale fishery (you know, lads, this is my second voyage), I went to the Greenland seas. We had a young doctor aboaF'd with us — quite a youth; indeed lie liad not, finished his studies at college, but he was cleverer, for all thac, than m.'iny an oldef :?ian that had gone through his wliole course
I do believe that the reason of his being so clever was, that he was for ever observing things, and studying them, and muking notes, and- trying to find out reasons. He was never satisfied with knowing a tiling; he must always find out ivhy it was. One day I heard him ask the captain what it was that made the sea so green in some parts of those seas. So long as he got plenty oil he didn't care two straws for the reason of anything. The young doctor had been bothering him that morning with a good many questions, so when he asked him what made the sea green, he answered sharply, 'I suppose it makes itself green, young man,' and then he turned from him with a fling.
"The doctor laughed, and came forward among the men, and began to tell us stories and ask questions. Ah ! he was a real hearty fellow; he would tc^ll you all kinds of queer things, and would })ump you dry of all ymi knew in no time. Well, but the thing I was going to it'll you was this. One of the men said to liim lu^ had hoard that the gi'eennnH« of the (rreenland sea was caused by the little
things like small bits of jelly on wliicli the whales feed. As soon as he heard this he got a bueket and hauled some sea-water aboard, and for the next ten days he was never done working away with tlie seawater; pouring it into tumi>lers and glasses; looking tlirough it by daylight luid by lamplight; tasting it, and boiling it, and examining it with a microscope."
the men.
"Don't vou know?" said Tom Lokins; "why it's a glass that makes little things seem big, when ye look through it. I've heerd say that beasts that are so uncommon small that you can't see them at all, are made to come into sight, and look (paite big by means o' this glass. But I can't myself say that it's true."
" But I can," said Fred, "for I have seen it with my own eyes. Well, after a good while, I made bold to ask the young doctor what he had found out?
"I've found," said he, "that the green ness of these seas is in truth caused by unac countable numbers of medusae — "
''Well, then," continued Fred, "the young doctor went on to tell me that he had been counting the matter to himself very carefully, and he found that in every square mile of sea- water there were living about eleven quadrillions nine hundred and ninety-nine trillions of these little creatures !"
Tom Lokins.
" Ah ! that's just what I said to the young doctor, and he said to me, ' I'll tell you what, Fred Borders, no man alive understands how much that is, and what's more, no man ever will ; but I'll give you some notion of what it means; and so he told me how long it would take forty thousand men to count that number of eleven quadrillions nine hundred and ninety-nine trillions, each man of the forty thousand beginning 'one,' 'two,' 'three,' and going on till the sum of the whole added together would make it up. Now, how long, d'ye think, it would take them ? — guess."
sure it couldn't be done in much less than six months; workin' hard all day, and makin' allowanf'c for only one hour oft* for dinner."
"You're all wrong, shijunates," said Fred Borders. "That young doctor told me that if they'd begun work at the day of creation they would only have just finished the job last year !"
Every man was at his station in a moment ; for, after being some months out, we became so used to the work, that we acted together like a piece of machinery. But our excitement never abated in the least.
' While we were all looking eagerly out ahead we heard a thundering snore behind us, followed by a heavy splash. Turning quickly round, we saw the flukes of an enormous whale sweeping through the air, not more than six hundred yards astern of us.
''All hands ahoy!" roared Bill Blunt, in a voice of thunder, and in another moment every man in the ship was on deck.
Down went the boats into the water ; the men were into their places almost before you could wink, and we pulled away from the ship just as the whale rose the second time, about half a mile away to leeward.
From the appearance of this whale, we felt certain that it was one of the largest we had yet seen, so we pulled after it with right good will. I occupied my usual place in the captain's boat, next the bow -oar, just, beside Tom Lok^ns, who was ready with his harpoons in the bow. Young Borders pulled the oar directly in front of me. The captain himself steered, and, as our crew was a picked one, we soon left the other two boats behind us.
boat, went down in a pool of foam. Before we had time to speak, another whale rose on the opposite side of the boat, and then another on our starboard bow. We had got into the middle of a shoal of whales, which commenced leaping and spouting all round us, little aware of the dangerous enemy that was so near.
In a few minutes more up comes the big one again that we had first seen. He seemed very active and wild. After blowing on the surface once or twice, about a quarter of a mile off, he peaked his flukes, and pitched down head foremost.
" Now, then, lads, he's down for a long dive," said the captain; ''spring your oars like men, we'll get that fish for certain, if you'll only pull."
The captain was mistaken ; the whale had only gone down deep in order to come up and breach, or spring out of the water, for the next minute he came up not a hundred yards from us, and leaped his whole length into the air.
I ever saw or heard of, and he oame up so clear of tlie water that we could see him from head to tail as he turned over, in the air, exposing his white belly to view, and came down on his great side with a crash like thunder, that might have been heard six miles off. A splendid mass of pure white spray burst from the spot where he fell, and in another moment he was gone.
'' I do Vjelieve it's New Zealand Tom,'''' cried Bill Blunt, referring to an old bull- whale that had become famous among the men who frequented those seas for its immense size and fierceness, and for the great trouble it had given them, smashing some of their boats, and carrying away many of their bar poons.
'* I don't know whether it's New Zealand Tom or not," sa!i the captain, ''but it is pretty clear that he's an old sperm bull. Give way, lads, we must get that whale, whatever it should cost us."
almost pulled the boat out of the water. The other boats had got separated, chasing the little whales, so we had this one all to ourselves.
tance astern of us.
We had overshot our mark, so, turning about, we made for the whale, which kept for a considerable time near the top of the water, spouting now and then, and going slowly to windward. We at last got within a few feet of the monster, and the captain suddenly gave the word, '' Stand up."
This was to our harpooner, Tom Lokins, w^ho jumped up on the instant, and buried two harpoons deep in the blubber.
" Stern all !" was the next word, and we backed off with all our might. It was just in time, for, in his agony, the whale tossed his tail right over our heads, the flukes were so big that they could have completely covered the boat, and he brought them down fliit on the sea with a clap that made our ears tingle, while a shower of spray drenched us to the skin. For one moment I thought it
was all over with us, but we were soon out of immediate danger, and lay on our oars watching the writhings of the wounded monster as he lashed the ocean into foam. The water all round us soon became white, like milk, and the foam near the whale was red with blood.
Suddenly this ceased, and, before we could pull up to lance him, he went down, taking the line out at such a rate that the boat spun round, and sparks of fire flew from the loggerhead from the chafing of the rope.
'* Hold on !" cried the captain, and next moment we were tearing over the sea at a fearful rate, with a bank of white foam rolling before us, high above our bows, and away on each side of us like the track of a steamer, so that we expected it every moment to rush in-board and swamp us. I had never seen anything like this before. From the first I had a kind of feeling that some evil would befall us.
While we were tearinor over the water in this way, we saw the other whales coming up every now and then and blowing quite near to us, ar.d presently we passed close
enough to the first mate's boat to see that he was fast to a fish, and unable, therefore, to render us help if we should need it.
In a short time the line began to slaek, so we hauled it in hand over hand, and Tom Lokins coiled it away in the tub in the stern of the boat, while the captain took his place in the bow to be ready with the lance. The whale soon came up, and we pulled with all our might towards him. Instead of making off again, however, he turned round and made straight at the boat. I now thought that destruction was certain, for when I saw his great blunt forehead coming down on u^ like a steamboat, I felt that we could not escape. I was mistaken. The captain received him on the point of his lance, and the whale has such a dislike to pain, that even a small prick will sometimes turn him.
For some time we kept dodging round this fellow ; but he was so old and wise, that he always turned his head to us, and prevented us from getting a chance to lance him. At last he turned a little to one side, and the captain plunged the lance deep into his vitals.
as a stream of blood flew up from his blowholes, a sure sign that he was mortally wounded. But he was not yet conquered. After receiving the cruel stab with the lance, he pitched right down, head foremost, and once more the line began to fly out over the bow. We tried to hold on, but he was going so straight down that the boat was almost swamped, and we had to slack off to prevent our being pulled under water.
one of the coils in the tub became entangled.
'^Look out, lads," cried Tom, and at once throwing the turn off the logger-head, he made an attempt to clear it. The captain, in trying to do the same thing, slipped and fell. Seeing this, I sprang up, and grasping the coil as it flew past, tried to clear it. Before I could think, a turn whipped round my left wrist. I felt a wrench as if my arm had been torn out of the socket, and in a moment I was overboard, going down with almost lightning speed into the depths of the sea. Strange to say, I did not lose my presence of mind. I knew exactly what had happened. I felt myself rusliingdown, down, down, with
terrific speed ; a stream of fire seemed to be wliizzing past my eyes ; tliere was a dreadful pressure on my brain, and a roaring as if of thunder in my ears. Yet, even in tliat dread moment, thouglits of eternity, of my sins, and of meeting with my God, flashed into my mind, for tliought is quicker than the lightning flash.
Of a sudden the roaring ceased, and I felt myself buffeting the water fiercely in my efforts to reach the surface. I know not how I got free, but I suppose the turn of tlie line must have slackened off' somehow. All this happened within the space of a few brief moments ; but, oh ! they seemed fearfully long to me. I do not think I could have held my breath a second longer.
When I came to the surface, and tried to look about me, I saw the boat not more than fifty yards off', and, being a good swimmer, I struck out for it, although I felt terribly exhausted. In a few minutes my comrades saw me, and, with a cheer, put out the oars and began to row towards me. I saw that the line was slack, and that they were hauling it in — a sign that the whale had ceased
running and would soon come to the surliu'c again. Before they had pulled halfa-dozen strokes I saw tlie water open close beside the boat, and the monstrous head of the whale shot up like a great rock rising out of the deep.
He was not more than three feet from the boat, and he came up with such force, that more than half his gigantic length came out of the water right over the boat. I heard the captain's loud cry — " Stern allP^ But it was too late, the whole weight of the monster's body fell upon the boat ; there was a crash and a terrible cry, as the whale and boat went down togjether.
For a few moments he continued to lash the sea in his fury, and the fragments of the boat floated all round him. I thought that every man, of course, had been killed ; but one after another their heads appeared in the midst of blood and foam, and they struck out for oars and pieces of the wreck.
Providentially, the whale, in his tossings, had shot a little away from the spot, else every man must certainly have been killed.
beheld all this, and thought upon my position, importunately, I had succeeded in reaching a broken piank; for my strength was now so much exhausted, that I could not have kept my head above water any longer .without its assistance. Just then I heard a cheer, and the next time I rose on the swell, I looked quickly round and saw the mate's boat making for the scene of action as fast as a stout and willing crew could pull. In a few minutes more I was clutched by the arm and hauled into it. My comrades were next rescued, and we thanked God when we found that none were killed, although one of them had got a leg broken, and another an arm twisted out of joini;. They all, however, seemed to think that my escape was much more wonderful than theirs ; but I cannot say that I agreed with them in this.
We p.ow turned our attention to the whale, which had dived again. As it was now loose, we did not know, of course, where it would come up ; so we lay still a while. Very soon up he came, not far from us, and as fierce as ever.
The order was obeyed. The boat almost leaped over the swell, and, before long, another harpoon was in the whale's back.
He gave the monster two deep stabs while . he spoke, and it vomited up great clots of blood, besides spouting the red stream of life as it rolled on the sea in its agony, obliging us to keep well out of its way.
I could not look upon the dying struggles of this enormous fish without feelinors of regret and self-reproach for helping to destroy it. I felt almost as if I were a murderer, and that the Creator would call me to account for taking part in the destruction of one of his grandest living creatures. But the thought passed quickly from my mind as the whale became more violent and went into its flurry. It began to lash the sea with such astonishing violence, that all the previous struggles seemed as nothing. The water all round became white like milk, with great streaks of red blood running through it, and the sound of the quick blows of its tail and fins resembled that of dull hollow thunder. We
beating hearts.
All at once the struggles ceased. The grijat carcass rolled over belly up, and lay extended on the sea in death. To me it seemed as if a dead calm had suddenly fallen around us, after a long and furious storm, so great was the change when that whale at length parted with its huge life. The silence was suddenly broken by three hearty cheers, and then, fastening a rope to our prize, we commenced towing it to the ship, which operation occupied us the greater part of the night, for we had no fewer than eight miles to pull. ^
related in the last chapter, was our largest fish of that season. It produced ninety barrels of oil, and was worth about £500, so that we did not grieve much over the loss of our boat.
' But our next loss was of a kind that could not be made up for by oil or money, for it was the loss of a human life. In the whalefishery men must, like soldiers, expect to risk their lives frequently, and they have too often, alas ! to mourn over the loss of a shipmate or friend. Up to this time our voyage had gone prosperously. We had caught so man}'- fish that nearly half our cargo was already completed, and if we should be as lucky the remainder of the voyage, we should be able to return home to Old England much sooner than we had expected.
Of course durinsj all this time we had met with some disappointments, for I am not describing everything that happened on that Yoyage, It would require a much thicker volume than this to tell the half of our adventures. We lost five or six fish by their sinking before we could get them made fast to the ship, and one or two bolted so fast that they broke loose and carried away a number of harpoons and many a fathom of line. But such misfortunes were what we had to look for. Every whaler meets with similar changes of luck, and we did not expect to
fare differently from our neiglibors. These things did not cause us much regret beyond the time of their occurrence. But it was far otherwise with the loss that now befell us.
It happened on a Sunday forenoon. I was standing close to the starboard gangway early that morning, looking over the side into the calm water, for there was not a breath of wind, and talking to the first mate, who was a gruff, surly man, but a good officer, and kind enough in his way when everything went smooth with him. But things don't go very smooth generally in whaling life, so the mate was oftener gruff than sweet.
*' Bob Ledbury," said he, " have you got your cutting-in gear in order ? I've got a notion that we'll ' raise the oil' this day."
" All right, sir," said I ; ^'you might shave yourself with the blubber-spades. That was a good fish we got last, sir, wasn't it ?"
'' Not so much as I've seen others give," eaid he. " When I was fishing in the Greenland seas we made fast to a whale that cost lis I don't know how many hundred dollars.'*
'' Well, it was something in this fashion. We were floating about in the North Atlantic one calm, hot day, just something like this, only it was the afternoon, not the morning. We were doing nothing, and whistling for a breeze, when, all of a sudden, up cl ues five or six whales all round the ship, as if they had spied her from the bottom of the sea, and had come up to have a squint at her. Of course the boats were manned at once, and in less than no time we were tearing after them like all alive. But them whales were pretty wildish, I guess. They feept us pullin' the best part of five hours before we got a chance at them. My boat was out of sight of the ship before we made fast to a regular snorer, a hundred-barreller at the least. The moment he felt the iron, away he went, like the shot out of a gun ; but he didn't keep it up long, for soon after another of our boats came up and made fast.
lance, for tlie moment we came close up alongside of his tail he peaked flukes and dived; then up again, and away as. fast as ever. It was about noon before we touched him again ; bat by that time two more harpoons were made fast, and two other boats cast tow-lines aboard of us, and were hauled along. That was four boats, and more than sixteen hundred fathoms of line, besides four harpoons that was fast to that whale, and yet, for all that, he went ahead as fast as we could have rowed, takin' us along with him quite easy.
^'A breeze having sprung up, our ship overhauled us in the course of the afternoon, and towards evening we sent a line on board, to see if that would stop the big fish, and the topsails were lowered, so as to throw some of the ship's weight on liim^ but the irons drew out with the strain. However, we determined to try it again. Another line was sent aboard about eight o'clock, and the topsails were lowered, but the line snapped immediately. Well, we held on to that whale the whole of that night, and at four o'clock next morning, just thirty-six hours after he
was first struck, two fn.st lines were taken aboard the ship. The breeze was fresh, and against us, so the top-gallant sails were taken in, the courses hauled up, and the topsails clewed down, yet, I assure you, that whale towed the ship dead against the wind for an hour and a half at the rate of two miles an hour, and all the while beating the water with his fins and tail, so that the sea was in a continual foam. We did not kill that fish till after forty hours of the hardest work I ever went through."
Some of my shipmates seemed to doubt the truth of this story; but, for my part, I believed it, because the mate was a grave, truthful man, though he was gruff, and never told lies, as far as I knew. Moreover, a case of the same kind happened some years afterwards, to a messiiiate of mine, while he was serving aboard the "Eoyal Bounty," on the 28th of May 1817.
I know that some of the stories which I now tell must seem very wild and unlikely to landsmen ; but those who have been to the whale-fishery will admit that I tell nothing but the truth, and if there are any of my
readers who are still doubtful, I would say, go and read the works of Captain Scoresby. It is well known that this whaling captain was a truly religious man, who gave up the fishing, though it turned him in plenty of money, and became a minister of the gospel with a small income, so it is not likely that he would have told what was untrue. Well, in his works we find stories that are quite as remarkable as the one I have just told, some of them more so.
For instance, he tells us of one whale, in the Greenland seas, which was not killed till it had drawn out ten thousand four hundred and forty yards, or about six miles of line, fastened to fifteen harpoons, besides taking one of the boats entirely under water, which boat was never seen again.
The mate told us two or three more stories, and a lot of us were gathered round him listening eagerly, for there is nothing Jack likes so much as a good yarn, when, all of a sudden, the man at the mast-head sang out that a large sperm whale was spouting away two points off' the leebow. Of course we were at our posts in a moment, for whalers,
with their work.
Now it happened that this was the first time we had chanced to see whales on a Sunday. Up to that time it had never entered into my head to think of objecting to do work on that day. It was the custom to obey orders, whatever these should be, on every day of the week alike, so I went like the rest to my usual st'ation, without a thought upon the subject. To the surprise of every one, Fred Borders, instead of going to his post, went up to the captain, with a very red face, and, touching his c'ap, said —
Those of us who were within hearing opened our eyes in amazement, and some of the men laughed right out; but the captain looked sternly round, and ordered silence.
Now, although the captain was a kind man, and all through the voyage had let us do as little work as possible on F'-nday, still he was not a religious man. In fact, he did not pretend to believe in the Bible at all ; so when
answered Fred, quietly.
I knew poor Fred's spirit well, and I could see from the expression of his face, and the heaving of his breast, how deeply he felt the sneers of his shipmates, and the contempt of his captain.
" Did you not know when you shipped with me, that you would have to work on Sunday as well as on any other day ?" demanded the captain.
" Yes, sir, I did ; but I did not think so seriously as I now do. My life has been saved, as you know, but a short time ago, and God has opened my eyes to see that, as He is my Maker, and is constantly doing me good, and watching over me, the least that I can do for Him is to consider His wishes, and obey His orders." >
The captain was a little softened by this ; but another laugh from one or two of the worst of our men RreA him up again.
" Go, sir," said he, sternly, " go to your duty. It will be time enough for you to preach when you are appointed chaplain to this ship. Disobey my orders, if you dare !"
Young Borders hung his head, and turning slowly away, went to his usual station, where the crew of the boat he belonged to were already standing.
The boats were in the water, and the men on their seats in a moment ; but Fred hesitated. He knew the stern laws that exist for the punishment of mutineers; but he thought of the far more terrible laws that exist for the punishment of sinners. God helped him, and "he turned boldly round, and said respectfully—
Before he could say another word, the captain, who was a very strong man, rushed at him, seized him by the neck, and hurled
him over tlie side into tlie l)oat. In anotbcr niomciit wo wore away, and Frod, seeing tliat escape was now impossible, took his oar like the I'est.
There was an attem]>t made by some of the men to laiigli at the i)oor fellow, but it was quite plain that the most of them regarded their young shii)niate with greater respect than ever. As for me, I felt my heart drawn out to him more than ever, and only wished that I had the })luck to side with him openly. But although brave enough for fighting men and whales at that time, I had not courage to fight against my own cowardly spirit. However^ the excitement of the chase soon turned all our thoughts away from what had just passed.
The whale we were after was a very large one, we could see that, for after two hours' hard pulling we got near enough to throw a harpoon, and after it was fixed he jumped clean out of the water. Then there was the usual battle. It was fierce and long ; so long that I began to fear we would have to return empty-handed to the ship. We put ten harpoons into him, one after another, and had a stiff run between the fixing of each.
It is astonisliing the difteronco betwooii the fish. One will give you no trouhle at all. I have often seen a good big I'ellow killed in hall-an-hour. Another will take you half a day, and perhaps you may lose him after all. The whale we were now after at last took to showing light, lie made two or three runs at the boat, but the mate, wlio was in command, pricked him oil* with the lance cleverly. At last we gave him a severe wound, and immediately he dived.
"Thatw^as into his life," remarked Tom Lokins, as we sat waiting for him to come up again. The captain's boat was close to ours, about ten yards off. We had not to wait long. The sudden stoppage and slacking off of all the lines showed that the whale was coming up. All at once I saw a dark object rising directly under the captain's boat. Before I '^-ould make out what it was, almost before I could think, the boat flew up into the air, as if a powder magazine had exploded beneath it. The whale had come up, and hit it with his head right on the keel, so that it was knocked into pieces, and the men, oars, harpoons, lances, and tackle shot up in confusion into the air.
Immediately afior that the whale went into his flurry, but we paid no attention to him^ in onr anxiety to pick up our companions They all came to the surface quickly enough, but while some made for the boats vigorously, others swam slowly and with pain, showing that they were hurt, while one or two floated, as if dead, upon the water.
Most of the men had escaped with only a ■few cuts and bruises, but one poor fellow was hauled out of the water with a leg broken, and another was so badly knocked about the head that it was a Ion 2^ time before he was a<?ain fit for dutv. The worst case, however, was that of poor Fred Borders. He had a leg broken, and a severe wound in the side from a harpoon which had been forced into the flesh over the barbs, so that we could hardly get it drawn out. We laid him in the stern of the boat, where he lay for some time insensible ; but in a short time he revived, and spoke to us in a faint voice. His first words were : —
to reply.
We had killed a big fish that day, and we knew that when he was '' tried in" we should have completed our cargo ; but there was no cheer given when the monster turned over on his side,, and the pull to the ship that evening seemed to us the longest and heaviest we ever had, for our hearts were very sad.
Next day Fred was worse, and wo all saw that his words would come true, — he was dying. I never saw a man so cast down in all my life as our captain was when he came to see that all hope was over*. He was completely broken down. He walked about the deck, muttering to himself, as if he were deranged, and I overheard him once or twice in the cabin groaning, and saying to himself that he "had been the death of that lad, body and soul."
ing the Bible to him, at his own request. Many and many a time did the captain come down to see him, and to implore his forgiveness; but although Fred said that he did forgive him, he would not utter aLother word. The captain thought this must be owing to weakness, but I felt sure there must be some other reason.
One day (for he lived about a week after the accident) — one day I said to him, "Fred, why don't you speak to the captain when he comes to see you? I'm sure it would do him good, and he needs comfort, poor man, for he's desperately down about you, and blames himself more than you think."
*' I know it, Bob," said he, in a faint, low voice, *' but I can't speak to him somehow. I want to speak to him about his soul, but I don't know how to begin, and before I can make up my mind he's away."
Just as he said this the captain came be low, and, going to the cot where Fred lay, took his hand in his, and said, tenderly —
by the wrist.
At that moment a sudden paleness overspread his face, and he sank on the pillow with a deep sigh. I thought the end had come, but he turned to me, and said in a low voice : *' Find the sixteenth chapter of the Acts, thirty-first verse; also find Exodus, twentieth chapter, eighth verse. Bead both — read both.''^
"I will, I will," replied the other, while big tears rolled over his rugged cheeks, and fell upon the hand thsk grasped his wrist so firmly.
Fred smiled faintly, but he did not speak again. He seemed to have received just strength to make this one effort to save a human soul, and then he died. We buried our shipmate in the usual sailor fashion. We wrapped him in his hammock, with a cannon-ball at his feet, to sink him. The captain read the burial-service at the gangway, and then, in deep silence, we committed his corpse to the deep.
KEEPING THE SABBATH.
npHE death of poor Fred Borders cast a -*- gloom over the ship for many days. Every one had respected, and many of us had loved the lad, so that we mourned for him long and truly. But a sailor's life is such a rough one, requiring so much energy and hearty good-will to his work, that he cannot afford to allow the sorrows of his heart to sit long on his countenance In a day or two after no one would have supposed we had lost one of our best men. Whales appeared in great numbers around us. The old cry of " There she blows !" rang out frequently from the mast-head, and the answering cry from the captain, " Where away ?" was followed by the "Stand by to lower ! — lower away." Then came the chase, with all its dangers and excitement — the driving of the harpoon, the sudden rush of the struck fish, the smoke and sparks of fire from the logger-head, the plunging of the lance, the
spouting blood, the ''flurry" at the end, and tlie wild cheer as we beheld our prize floating calmly on the sea. And in the midst of such work we forgot for a time the solemn scene we had so recently witnessed. But our hearts were not so light as before, and although we did not show it, I knew full well that many a joke was checked, and many a laugh repressed, for the memory of our dead shipmate.
But the man who was most affected by his death was the captain. This was natural, and did not surprise us; but we were not prepared for the great change that soon appeared in hir manner and conduct. After a time he laughed with the rest of us at a good joke, and cheered as loud as the best when a big fish turned belly up, but his behavior to us became more gentle and kind, and he entirely gave up the habit of swearing. He also forbade working on Si iay. Many a whale have I seen sporting and spouting near us on that day, but never again after our shipmate's death did we lower a boat or touch a harpoon on Sunday. Some of the grumblers used to swear at this, and Cv^m-
plain of it 'to each other, but they never spoke so as to let the captain hear, and they soon gave up their grumbling, for the most of us were well pleased with the change, and all of us had agreed to it.
deck and spoke to us about it.
'' My lads," said he, " I've called you aft to make a proposal thd,t may perhaps surprise some of you. Up to this time, you know very well, there has been little difference aboard this ship between Saturday and Sunday. Since our poor shipmate died I have been thinkin' much on tliis matter, and I've come to the conclusion that we shall rest from all work on the Lord's-day, except such as must be done to work the ship. Now, lads, you know me well enough by this time. I iiave never been a religious man all my life, and I don't pretend to say that I'm one now. I'm not very learned on this matter, and can't explain myself very well ; but this I know, that in time past I have neglected and despised my Maker, and in time to come I mean to try to respect him and obey his
commandments. When poor Fred way dying, he asked me to promii^e that I would 'believe on the Lord Jesus Christ, and remember the Sabbath day, to keep it holy.' I did promise, and, with the blessing of God, I mean to try. Now, what think you, lads, shall we give the whales a rest on Sundays ?"
We all agreed to this at once, for the effect of the captain's speech was great upon us. It was not so much what he said, as the way in which he said it. He was by nature a bold, determined man, who never flinched from danger or duty, and when we heard him talking in that way we could scarcely believe our ears.
This was all that was said about the matter between us and the captain, but we had many , a hot discussion in the forecastle amongst ourselves after that. Some were in favor of the new move, and said, stoutly, that the captain was a sensible fellow. Others said he was becoming an old wife, and that no luck would follow the ship if the captain became a parson or a Methodist. In the course of time, however, we found the benefit of the change lu every way ; and the
grumblers were silenced, because, in spite of their wise shakings of the head, we filled the ship with oil as full as she could hold, much sooner than we had expected.
And now that I am on this subject, I would like to say a few words, to show that I am not merely inventing a tale to drag in a discussion on the keeping of the Sabbath day. To manly and straightforward minds it is a pleasure to inquire into truth, whenever it presents itself in a natural way. The keeping of Sunday while engaged in the whale-fishery is a difficulty. Men have found it so, and have said that the thing is impossible. Other men have found it difficult, but have said — and have proved — that the thing is possible. This is-not the place to discuss the great Questions, — "Is the Sabbath binding on men ?" and " How should it be kept ?" I leave that to abler hands. The best men in the land have said '' Yes" to the first question. That is sufficient to state here. But this is the place to tell of what whalemen have said on this great question.
There is nothing like experience. Let us consider what has been said by one of the greatest whaling captains that ever lived, in
hear of this good man.
Captain Scoresby, who died at a ripe old «ge a few years ago, went to the Greenland whale-fishery when quite a boy, in his father's ship. He continued in that fishery for many years, and was very successful. His schooling when young was thus somewhat interrupted, but he was one of those strong-minded, sturdy-hearted men, who will educate themselves in spite of all difficulties. He seized every opportunity of acquiring knowledge, and at last became one of the great and learned men of his day. From early boyhood he was seriously minded, and he afterwards became a decided Christian. He had always felt a strong regard for the Sabbath day, and, after obtaining command of a ship in the whale-fishery, he resolved to keep that day holy.
The following are nearly his own words on this subject, and they are well worthy of the attention of all thinking men, for the man who uttered them was a hard-working practical seaman, who knew his business well, and did his work thoroughly.
Captain Scoresby says : — " Though for several of the latter voyages which I undertook to the northern seas, it had been our rule to cease as much as possible from fishing on the Sabbath, it was not until the year 1820 that I was enabled regularly to carry the principle into effect. But in that year we did not once attempt the fishing on the sacred day. Several of the harpooners were much displeased with this rule at the beginning of the voyage, for they had such a stake in the success of the fishery that the capture of a single large whale would yield them each six or eight pounds. They thought it a great hardship that, whilst other ships took advantage of the seven days of the week, we should be reduced to six. The chief officer, at the outset, was very much annoyed at having to waste one day every week in idleness, and he was heard to say that if we, under such disadvantages, should make a successful voyage, he would then believe there was indeed something like a blessing on the keeping of the Sabbath.
close of the season our principles -were severely tested, for on these Sundays, one after the other, a number of fine whales appeared most invitingly around us. But in spite of this temptation to ' hungry fishermen,' we were enabled to stick to our principles, and the success which followed was, I believe, looked on by all on board as a special blessing from God. On the following Wednesday, a fine fish was struck, and soon secured. The next Lord's- day was one of sanctified and happy repose, though fish were astir near us. Early in the week we were again fortunate. Strengthened in body and spirits by rest, and blessed, I firmly believe, by Him who has promised His blessing to those who ' call the Sabbath a delight, the holy of the Lord, honorable,'' we killed several whales under great difficulties. Two were taken on Tuesriay, and another on Friday — the value of the three being about £1600.
" A day of sweet and welcome repose was the succeeding Sabbath. A genial and cloudless atmosphere cheered the spirits, whilst all nature, sparkling under the sun's bright beams, seemed to participate in the gladness. Several whales sported around usj but, as
far as we were concerned, tliey were allowed a Sabbath-day's privilege to sport undisturbed. The men were now accustomed to look for a blessing on the keeping of the Sabbath."
I have given Mr. Scoresby's opinion on this point at some length, because, coming from such a man, it ought to have much weight. But, after all, what does it come to? It only proves the old truth, that God's ways are better than man's ways, and that man finds his greatest success and his highest happiness in keeping the commandments of his wise and good Creator.
Having made this slight but earnest attempt to commend this subject to the attention of my readers, I turn again to our voyage, which was now drawing rapidly to a close.
of a jack-tar is made to rejoice when he is out on a long voyage. His pleasures and amusements are so few that he is thankful to make the most of whatever is thrown in his way. In the whale-fisheries, no doubt, he has more than enough of excitement, but after a time he gets used to this, and begins to long for a little variety — and of all the pleasures that fall to his lot, that which delights him most is to have a gam with another ship.
Now, a gam is the meeting of two or more whale-ships, their keeping company for a time, and the exchanging of visits by the crews. It is neither more nor less than a jollification on the sea, — the inviting of your friends to feast and make merry in your floating house. There is this difference, however, between a gam at sea and a party on land, that jonr friends on the ocean are men whom yoil perhaps never saw before, and whom you will likely never meet again. There is also another difference — there are no ladies at a gam. This is a great want, for man is but a rugged creature when away from the refining influence of woman ; but
helped.
We had a gam one day, on this voyage, with a Yankee whale-ship, and a first-rate gam it was, for, as the Yankee had gammed three days before with another English ship, we got a lot of news second-hand ; and, as we had not seen a new face for many months, we felt towards those Yankees like brothers, and swallowed all they had to tell us like men starvini)^ for news.
It was on a fine, calm morning, Just after breakfast, that we fell in with th's ship. We had seen no whales for a day or two, but we did not mind that, for our hold was almost full of oil-barrels. Tom Logins and I were leaning over the starboard bulwarks, watching the small fish that every now and then darted through the clear-blue water like arrows, and smoking our pipes in silence, Tom looked uncommonly grave, and I knew that he was having some deep and knowing thoughts of his own which would leak out in time. All at once he took his pipe from his mouth, and stared earnestly at the horizon.
a feeling of excitement.
Before another word could be uttered, the cry of " Sail ho !" came ringing down from the mast-head. Instantly the quiet of the morning was broken ; sleepers sprang up and rubbed their eyes, the men below rushed wildly up the hatchway, the cook came tearing out of his own private den, flourish iug a soup-ladle in one hand and his tormentors in the other, the steward came tumbling up with a lump of dough in his fist that he had forgot to throw down in his haste, and the captain bolted up from the cabin without his hat.
''Square the yards! Look alive, my hearties," was the next order; for although the calm sea was like a sheet of glass, a light air, just sufficient to fill our top-gallant sails, enabled us to creep through the water.
''A big ship^ sir, I think,'' replied the look-out ; ^* but I can only just make out the top of her main t-gallan' s'l." — (Sailors scorn to speak of top-gallant sails.) < ' ■^■.
Gradually, one by one, the white sails of the stranger rose up like cloudlets out of the sea, a our hearts beat high with hope and expectation, as we beheld the towering canvas of a full-rigged ship rise ^owly into view.
In a moment the Union Jack of Old England was waving at the mast-head in the gentle breeze, and we watched anxiously for a reply. The stranger was polite ; his colors flew up a moment after, and displayed the Stripes and Sta^s of America.
in a tone of slight disappointment.
I may remark, that our disappointment arose simply from the fact that there was no chance, as we supposed, of getting news from *^ home" out of a ship that must have sailed last from America. For the rest, we cared
not whether they were Yankees or Britons — they were men who could speak the English tongue, that was enough for us.
"So we will," said another, ''and I'll get news of my mad Irish cousin, Terrence O'Flannagan, who went out to seek his fortin in "Ameriky with two shillin's and a broken knife in his pocket, and it's been said he's got into a government situation o' some sort connected with the jails, — whether as captain or leftenant o^ police, or turnkey, I'm not rightly sure." . .' . ^^
"Don't speak ill of a better man than yerself behind his back," retorted the owner of the Irish cousin. • r^ . ;' • •«
In a few minutes we were leaping over the calm sea in the direction of the strange ship, for the breeze had died down, and we
To our joy we found that the Yankee had had a gam (as I have already said) with an English ship a few days before, so we returned to our vessel loaded with old newspapers from England, having invited the captain and crew of the Yankee to come aboard of us and spend the day.
While preparation was being made for the reception of our friends, we got hold of two of the old newspapers, and Tom Lokins seized one, while Bill Blunt got the other, and both men sat down on the windlass to retail the news to a crowd of eager men who tried hard to listen to both at once, and so could make nothing out of either.
" The Emperor of Roosia,'' said Bill Blunt reading slowly, and with difficulty, "is — stop a bit, messmates, wot can this word be I — the Emperor of Roosia is — "
tored to a thousand pieces," said Tom Lokins, raising his voice with excitement, as he read from his paper an account of the blowing up of a mountain fortress in India,
"Oh ! come, I say, one at a time, if you please," cried a harpooner ; '' a feller can^t git a word of sense out of sich a jumble."
"Come, messmates," cried two or three voices, as Tom stopped suddenly, and looked hard at the paper, "go ahead! wot have ye got there that makes ye look as wise as an owl ? Has war been and broke out with the French ?"
" That's a fact," said Bill, looking up from his paper, " and who has got a word to say agin the prettiest lass in all Liverpool ?"
Bill Blunt leaped up as if be had been shot, and the blood rushed to his face, as he seized the paper, and tried to find the place.
^^ Married, at Liverpool, on the 5th inst., by the Kev. Charles Manson, Edward Gordon, Esq., to Susan, youngest daughter of Admiral Croft — "
remainder of the sentence.
'' All right, my hearties, chaff away !" said Bill, fetching a deep sigh of relief, while a broad grin played on his weather-beaten visage. ** There's two Susan Crofts, that's all ; but I wouldn't give my Susan for all the admiral's daughters that ever walked in shoe-leather."
ment. ,
Our newspapers were thrown down at once, and we prepared to receive our guests, who, we could see, had just put off from their ship in two boats. But before they had come within a mile of us, their attention, as well as ours, was riveted on a most extraordinary sight.
Not more than a hundred yards ahead of our ship, a whale came suddenly to the surface of the water, seeming, by its wild motions, to be in a state of terror. It continued for some time to struggle, and lash the whole sea around it into a white foam.
At once the boats were lowered from both ships, and we went after this fish, but his motions were so violent that we found it utterly impossible to get near enough to throw a harpoon. When we had approached somewhat closely, we discovered that it had been attacked by a killer fish, which was fully twenty feet long, and stuck to it like a leech. The monster's struggles were made in trying to shake itself free of this tremendous enemy, but it could not accomplish
this. The killer held him by the under jaw, and hung on there, while the whale threw himself out of the water in his agony, with his great mouth open, like a huge cavern, and the blood flowing so fast from the wound that the sea was dyed for a long distance round. This killer fought like a bull-dog. It held on until the whale was exhausted, but they passed away from us in such a confused struggle that a harpoon could not be fixed for an hour after we first saw them.
The Yankee boats were the first to come up with this fish, so the prize belongec^ to them. We were well pleased at this, as we could afford to let them have it, seeing that we could scarcely have found room to stow away the oil in our hold. It was the Yankees' first fish, too, so they were in great spirits about it, and towed it to their ship, singing " Yankee-doodle" with all their might.
said he to the Yankee captain.
" Thank you, stranger. I guess Wv^'re in luck, though it aint a big one. I say, what sort o' brute was that that had hold of him? Never seed sich a crittur in all my life."
" To eat him, but I'm told he only eats the tongue. You'll not forget that you've promised to gam with us to-night," cried our captain, as they were about to commence pulling again.
"All right, stranger, one half will come to-night, before sundown; t'other half tomorrow, if the calm holds, (jood-day. Give way, lads."
The men dipped their oars, and resumed their song, while we pulled back to our ship. We did not offer to help them, because the fish was a small one, and the distance they had to go not great.
It was near sunset wlien, according to promise, the Yankees came on board, and spent a long evening with us. They were a free, open-hearted, boastful, conceited, goodhumoured set of fellows, and a jolly night we had of it in the forecastle, while the mates and captains were enjoying themselves, and spinning their yarns in the cabin.
Of course, we began with demands for home news, and, when we had pumped out of them every drop they had, we began to songs and spinning yarns. And it was now that my friend Tom Lokins came out strong, and went on at such a rate, that he quite won the hearts of our guests. Tom was not noisy, and he was slow in his talk, but he had the knack of telling a good story ; he never used a wrong word, or a word too many, and, having a great deal of humor, men could not help listening when he began to ta\k.
After this we had a dance, and here I became useful, being able to play Scotch reels and Irish jigs on the fiddle. Then we had songs and yarns again. Some could tell of furious fights with whales that made our
blood boil ; others could talk of the green fields at home, until we almost fancied we were boys again ; and some could not tell stories at all. They had little to sa}^ and that little they said ill ; and I noticed that many of those who were perfect bores would cry loudest to be heard, though none of us wanted to hear them. We used to quench such fellows by calling loudly for a song with a rousing chorus.
It was not till the night was far spent, and the silver moon was sailing through the starry sky, that the Yankees left us, and rowed aw':y with a parting cheer.
RETURN HOME.
STX months after our ''gam" with tho Yankees Tom Lokins and I found ourselves seated onee more in the little garret beside my dear old mother.
" Ay, mother, He has preserved my life in the midst of many dangers," said I, " for which I am most thankful ; but he has done more than that. He has preserved my soul in the midst of dangers of a far wors^ kind 12*
There was a short silence after this, during which my mother and i gazed earnestly at each other, and Tom Lokins smoked his pipe and stared at the fire.
''Joking, mother, I was never more in earnest in my life. Why, I tell you that I've seen, ay, and helped to cut up, whales • that were more than sixty feet long, with heads so big that their mouths could have* taken in a boat. Isn't
his head twice very decidedly.
*' Moreover," said I, "a whale is so big and strong that it can knock a boat right up into the air, and break in the sides of a ship. One day a whale fell right on top of one of our boats and smashed it all to bits. Now, that's a real truth !"
Again my mother looked at Tom Lokins, and again that worthy man puffed an immense cloud of smoke, and nodded his head more decidedly than before. Being anxious to put to flight all her doubts at once, he said, solemnly, '* Old ooman, that's a fact I"
Just as she said this the door opened, and in came the good old gentleman with the nose like nis cane-knob, and with as kind a heart as ever beat in a human breast. My mother had already told me that he came to see her regularly once a week, ever since I went to sea, except in summer, when he was away ^n the country, and that he had never allowed her to want for anything. My mother one day said to him, " I wonder, sir,
why ye take so much thought for a poor olc body like me;" to which he replied, "God tells me. 'Blessed are they that consider the poor.' As I want God's blessing, this is one of the means I take to get it ; so you see," said he, with a smile, " I'm a selfish old fellow, for I'm thinking of myself as well aft you."
I need scarcely say that there was a hearty meeting between us three, and that we had much to say to each other. But in the midsl of it all, my mother turned to the old gentleman, and said —
Being thus invited, I consented to spin them a yarn. The old gentleman settled himself in his chair, my rpother smoothed her apron, folded her hands, and looked meekly into my face.
Thus ended my first voyage to the South Seas. Many and many a trip have I made since then, and many a wonderful sight have I seen, both in the south and in the north. But if I were to write an account of all my adventures, my little book would grow into a big one ; I must therefore come to a close.
The profits^ of this voyage were so great, that I was enabled to place my mother in a position of comfort for the rest of her life, which, alas ! was very short. She died about six months after my return. I nursed her to the end, and closed her eyes. The last word she uttered was her Saviour's name. She died, as she had lived, trusting in the Lord ; and when I laid her dear head in the grave my heart seemed to die within me, for I felt that I had lost one of God's most precious gifts — an honest, gentle, pious mother.
able and bappy. As I bave more tnati enougb of tbis world's goods, and no family to care for, my cbief occupation is to look after tbe poor, and particularly tbe old women wbo live in my neigbborhood After tbe work of tbe day is done, I generally go and spend tbe evening witb Tom Lokins, wbo lives near by, and is stout and bearty still ; or be comes and spends it witb me, and wbile we smoke our pipes togetber, we often fall to talking about tbose stirring days wben, in tbe strengtb and bope of youtb, we sailed togetber to tbe Soutb Seas, and took to — -fighting the Whales,
| 31,737 | common-pile/pre_1929_books_filtered | cihm_26468 | public_library | public_library_1929_dolma-0016.json.gz:2525 | https://archive.org/download/cihm_26468/cihm_26468_djvu.txt |
vonhchL3pNCbhqFn | A sketch of the tobacco interests in North Carolina : an account of the culture, handling and manufacture of the staple : together with some information respecting the principal farmers, manufacturing establishments and warehouses, with statistics exhibiting the growth of tobacco in the western counties, and also in the other tobacco producing regions of the state, as shown by comparison of the crop of 1880 with those of preceding years / by J.D. Cameron. | NORTH CAROLINA.
BEING AN ACCOUNT OF THE CULTURE, HANDLING AND MANUFACTURE OF THE STAPLE; TOGETHER WITH SOME INFORMATION RESPECTING THE PRINCIPAL FARMERS, MANUFACTURING ESTABLISHMENTS AND WAREHOUSES; WITH STATISTICS EXHIBITING THE GROWTH OF TOBACCO IN THE WESTERN COUNTIES, AND ALSO IN THE OTHER TOBACCO PRODUCING REGIONS OF THE STATE, AS SHOWN BY COM-
INTRODUCTION
The caprices of human taste and appetite present most interesting subjects for consideration, for those caprices are connected most intimately with human progress ; with the spread of civilization, by the influence they exert upon the intercourse of nations ; and they define most distinctly the dividing line between the creature of intellect and the creature of instinct; the one, in the gratification of appetite, or the satisfaction of cravings, plunging boldly into the mysteries of nature, and snatching new pleasures almost from the very jaws of death ; coming out triumphant with new treasures, and adding to the resources of human enjoyment, stores of solace or of excitement, drawn from those things that pure animal instinct rejects as noxious or hurtful. On the other hand, the habits and the tastes of the brute creation remain unchanged throughout all time. The same food and the same drink that satisfied their original progenitors, suffice for the wants of their descendants, with the exception of certain limited modifications, enforced by soil, climate or locality.
Man is called to account, by the philosopher of his own race, for the presentation of such contrast, and condemned for his departure from the simple rule of nature. But what we are pleased to call the simplicity of nature, in our commendation of the superior wisdom of the brute, is, in reality, the approval of a blind, inflexible law, imposed and enforced by Creative Wisdom upon creatures without wisdom, beyond the limit of the narrow but safe law of instinct. For mere physical perfection, the provision for the brute may be the happier.
The liberty of man is unlimited. Set as lord and master over terrestrial creation, his reason is his guide or his prompter to good and to evil. To evil most largely ; for as the animal part of his nature predominates, so does it impel him to gratify animal appetites, and search out new secrets of animal enjoyment. Investigating, exploring, subjugating in the domain of appetite, he is no less inquisitive and tyrannical than he has been in his other conquests.
It is very remarkable, in the notice of human habits, to find of how recent origin or application is much of what is now inseparably associated with the comfort and even the necessities of social existence. Almost all the appliances of domestic luxury and of artificial stimulants are of modern
discovery, extraction or application. The ancients were, in their way, as self-indulgent as the moderns, far more extravagant in their devotion to appetite. They ate of the most costly viands, and they drank beverages that might turn their feasts into riots. But in the preparation of the first they knew nothing of the spices and condiments which give the zest to the modern table, and the latter they received almost ready-made from the hand of nature. The ready grape was prompt to convert its abundant juices into the generous wine, potent to cheer or to inebriate. But the more fiery beverages, owing their power to the artificial creation of alcohol, waited for modern chemical skill to call them into existence. The milder stimulus of tea and coffee was unknown to the luxury of the Roman and the Greek ; nor was their food made grateful to the palate by the use of the sugar so indispensable to the modern cuisine. But in nothing was their ignorance so profound and so pitiable as in their want of knowledge of Tobacco, the discovery of which marks a boundary between the past and the present of human habit, as sharp as might be presented by a contrast of the naked Pict and his modern successor, the enlightened and luxurious Briton. In the universality of its present use it is difficult to conceive of a time when it was not, as now, the common refuge and solace for all mankind, from the philosopher to the clown, from the refined Caucasian to the dusky savage, all greeting with avidity this new gift of heaven, and accepting with joy this new boon of geographical researches.
Perhaps nothing has proved so great a stimulus to the greed of conquest, the expansion of empire, the grasp of colonization, the spread of civilization and the activity of commerce, as the spur of appetite awaked by the knowledge of these newly found modern luxuries. The remotest regions of the earth were penetrated to procure them ; the most active traffic was begotten to exchange for them, or the most determined wars were originated to secure them. And now, since regular channels have been provided for their procurement, or systematic cultivation adopted to supply them, they have become the great mainsprings of modern commercial enterprise and the great mainstays of modern manufacturing energies.
Giving to each one of the luxuries referred to its due share of consequence, and all its peculiar honors, there is no one of them which exacts so universal a tribute from the whole human race as
TOBACCO,
which throws its spell of enchantment over all mankind, and compels submission from all alike — from the peasant and the peer, from the millionaire and the mendicant ; which elevates the philosopher, inspires the poet, animates the man of business, and cheers the slaves of toil ; the chosen companion of the cheerful and the comforter of the sorrowful ; alike sought after by all men, in all conditions and circumstances of life ; a friend so
general and so genial as to justify the poetic yet philosophical Bulwer in saying that, " He who doth not smoke, hath either known no great grief, or refuseth himself the softest consolation next to that which cometh from heaven."
Occupying so important a relation to the mental comfort of mankind, it is not surprising that it has stimulated industry and skill to minister to the universal demand upon its capabilities ; that it has awakened the energies of agriculture, fanned the wings of commerce, and given birth to active manufacturing enterprise ; that it has subdued the wilderness in its search for new fields of culture, created populations where silence had been wont to hold dominion, and called flourishing towns and cities into existence to demonstrate the power of an inanimate agency.}
It is not proposed in these introductory pages to go into a minute history of tobacco. If that is done, it will be in connection with the consideration of its varieties, its culture and its uses. A brief reference to its origin must here suffice. Nothing is more conclusive of its modern discovery and its American origin than the utter silence of all writers in regard to its existence previous to the discovery of America. Its almost instant adoption by the whole human race as soon as its virtues were made known, proves that the use of tobacco would not have been foregone had it been within reach. It was first heard of through the followers of Columbus, who noticed that the natives puffed smoke through their mouths and nostrils ; and that they used a dried leaf which they placed in small clay pipes in which was inserted a hollow reed. The leaf was tobacco, and the pipe was the predecessor of the costly meerschaum. Not only was the use of the weed observed on the islands, but subsequently it was found in universal habit on both the northern and southern continents of America. To this day it may be found growing wild in the Western and Southern States of the American Union ; and very recently a new and distinct variety has been discovered in Southern California among the ruins of the towns and habitations of a people long extinct, perpetuating itself from year to year by seeds dropped from each annual crop, and showing the uses to which it was once applied by being found in close proximity to large quantities of antiquated pipes, which could have had no other application. This is another proof of its American origin.
Sir Francis Drake, perhaps in his voyage of 1573, brought samples of tobacco into England. Sir Walter Raleigh had much to do with making it fashionable, and smoking became sufficiently popular and sufficiently general to draw forth that fierce counterblast of King James, who was as impotent in his royal wrath to drive back the tide of the new and seductive habit as his predecessor, Canute, had been to control by royal mandate the onward progress of the waves of the sea. This novel tide was to submerge not only England, but all the parts of the earth.
It has often been observed how many of human plans lead to results
widely different and far remote from what was originally designed. Almost the sole incentive to the colonization of the new American shores was the discovery of gold, believed to exist in fabulous quantity in some as yet undiscovered part of the continent. When the sanguine colonists of Jamestown heard the result of their first shipment of the golden sands of James river, and learned that it was nothing more than worthless mica spangles, they may have consoled themselves under their bitter chagrin in the oblivious cloud of smoke from the soothing pipe, and learned at length that in the tobacco fields they had really, if unwittingly, found a true El Dorado. For, despairing of the discovery of the metallic gold, they sought it in the culture and sale of the weed which a new habit had made indispensable to human luxury or comfort, and which made returns that filled the coffers of the planters as effectively and substantially as the metallic representative. Gold was found above the soil, not under it ; and henceforward the southern colonies went on to grow and to prosper, to become populous, wealthy and refined, and to reach that social and political height which gave them preeminent influence with the other colonies, and which has never been lost through the lapse of time, the shocks of war or the reverses of fortune. And this is all directly traceable to tobacco.
Tobacco was soon made to perform also the functions of gold in another form. Its culture once firmly established, and markets opened for its disposal, it became the common medium of exchange, the standard of value, and almost the sole currency of Virginia at least. It paid the taxes of the farmer, it liquidated his debts to the merchant, it satisfied the parson for his ministrations, and it measured the dowry of the bride. It was made in its earliest colonial days, as it has been made to do in the maturity of modern commonwealths, to bear a most important relation to the subject of revenue. King James, and his successor, King Charles, both strove to obtain a monopoly of the sale of tobacco raised in Virginia, which the Governor and Council compromised, by agreeing to contract with their sovereign for at least 500,000 pounds, at 3s. and 6d. per pound, to be inspected and guaranteed to be of uniform good quality, which is the origin of the present system of inspection. But this contract carried with it another burden opposed to the liberties of agriculture. That the sovereign might be freed from competition, and obtain full prices for the amount of tobacco delivered to him, the planter was required to gather only twelve leaves from each plant. In its early history, as in its modern experience, tobacco has been the sport of legislation, the subject of vexatious laws and tyrannical exactions, as if law-makers had conspired to punish mankind for the facility with which they had yielded to its seductive dominion.
North Carolina lagged many years behind Virginia in the extent of the culture of tobacco ; for whereas all the tide-water region of the latter State became almost exclusively devoted to this staple, long before the Revolutionary War, but comparatively a small portion of the former was given up
to it. The counties of Warren and Granville, and the counties along Dan, with portions of Orange and Chatham, under their former limits, were probably the only counties in which tobacco was extensively cultivated for market.
With the progress of settlement and with the acquisition of the territories beyond the Alleghanies and the Mississippi, lands and climate were both found by the Virginia and the North Carolina emigrant to induce experimental trials in those regions. How successfully, the vast production of Kentucky and Missouri has long furnished satisfactory proof. The other new western States and Territories, as they came into being, made the same ventures. The colder northern and northwestern States made the trial, and they too succeeded. The result is that there is scarcely a State in the Union which is not tobacco-growing to some extent.
In such wide diversity of soil and climate there must of necessity have been developed many varieties of quality ; and as a consequence we find the seed-leaf of Pennsylvania and Connecticut with a fragrance almost equal to the famous product of Cuba ; the rich and fragrant leaf of Virginia and North Carolina, unapproachable anywhere in the world as a chewing tobacco, and the foundation of those brands of smoking tobacco which find consumers everywhere in the reach of commerce. The heavier and darker qualities of Kentucky and Missouri have their peculiar excellencies and always find ready markets. The same may be said of Tennessee.
It is undeniable that North Carolina is the producer of tobacco unequalled even in Virginia ; and yet owing to the course trade has almost always taken, she is deprived of her due credit both for quantity and quality. Until within a few years, when she has built up some interior markets, Virginia has absorbed her fame as well as her products. The statistical tables of 1875 put North Carolina as the fourth State in extent of crop, yet foreign commercial tables take no note of this, and the forty or more millions of leaf tobacco that go out of North Carolina, go upon the world as Virginia tobacco. It is no reproach to Virginia that this is so. She has systematized her business by the experience of two centuries, and shipments from Richmond and Petersburg had a guarantee for their excellence in the fidelity, knowledge and skill of those who controlled the market. And Virginia had given North Carolina the only market within reach of her producing regions until that change in the system of sales, established since the war, has given her markets of her own. It is now her duty to show to the world what she does, and vindicate her fame and the magnitude of her resources.
How can she part with her property in the fame of her " bright yellow tobacco," a fame based upon its North Carolina origin and broadened by its almost exclusive North Carolina production ? The name of Marshall, who opened up the golden treasure of California, and gave birth, as it were, to the Empire State of the Pacific, ought not to be held in higher
a color marvellous to the uninitiated ; a color that inspires the seller to hold on to his wares with a kind of covetous greed ; a color that fascinates and excites the buyer as if he could not pay too much for this beautiful sem-s blance of the product of the mine.
Now all this treasure is almost exclusively in possession of our State. Until recently it was confined to the narrow belt running from southeast to northwest — embracing portions of the counties of Warren, Granville, Orange, Person, Caswell, Alamance and Rockingham, and reaching a little way over into Virginia. Now that area has been extended by the addition of the extreme eastern counties of Wayne and Lenoir, of the middle counties of Stokes and Forsythe, of the western counties of Catawba, Iredell and McDowell, and the trans-montane counties of Buncombe, Madison, Haywood, Henderson, Yancey and Transylvania.
It is a monopoly of the most magnificent kind ; a monopoly of a production without a rival and of a market without a competitor ; yet it goes abroad in its crude form as Virginia tobacco, and the world hears nothing of North Carolina in connection with it.
Without doing injustice to our sister State, or prejudicing her just claims to priority in so much that concerns tobacco in all its relations to agriculture, to commerce, to manufacture and to legislation, the just claims of North Carolina will be presented in these pages, with the hope that a State pride, defective in so much else, may be aroused to vindicate her reputation in this, one of her most important interests.
WHILE tobacco, as a native plant of America, will readily grow in almost all parts of North Carolina, it has long been well known that the finer qualities are restricted to certain limits defined by characteristic geological peculiarity. And it is curious to notice that this limit is fixed by one geological formation ; and that in all parts of that system the results prove to be the same. For years after the discovery of the mode of curing the "bright yellow tobacco," custom, and at length steady belief, had restricted those limits within the narrow bounds of a few favored counties ; and the favorable results of experiments made beyond that zone were ascribed rather to accident than to similarity in the elements of soil essential to the perfect development of such product ; or such product was disparaged as wanting in all, if possessing some, of the merits of the fruits of the favored region. One of the beneficent results of the State Geological Survey, a work yet incomplete, derided, opposed and threatened with summary suppression, was to demonstrate the wide extent of the Laurentian System. Practical experience had proved the special adaptation of certain soils to the production of the finer kinds of tobacco. Science stepped in to confirm the judgment of experience, and to give confidence to the bold adventurer who might dare to step beyond prescribed limitations.
The characteristics of this system, one of the oldest of the series of stratified rocks, are, that they contain most of the metamorphic rocks of North Carolina, " consisting of granite, syenite and other horn-blendic rocks, dionite and crystalline limestone ; and these contain much magnetic and specular iron ore, frequently in many large beds ; and beds of graphite are also common." *
and also the wide separation of this system by the interposition of other formations. It makes its appearance about the centre of the State, embracing a portion of the counties of Wake, Granville, Orange, Alamance, Caswell, Person, and Rockingham, and extending some distance over into Virginia into the counties of Halifax and Pittsylvania. This has been preeminently the treasure-house of the bright yellow tobacco. But again, it makes its appearance, after a separation by broad belts of miocene and taconic formation, at a point beginning near Wentworth, in Rockingham County, and extending in a southwestern course nearly to the South Carolina line, and reaching nearly to the foot of the Blue Ridge ; and here again is found another field for the production of "bright yellow " tobacco. Again it reappears beyond the Blue Ridge, occupying most of the mountain plateau between that range and the Smoky Mountains ; and in the counties of Buncombe, Madison, Yancey, Haywood, and others adjacent, is found a new field for this valuable production.
It is thus evident that a special subject of industry must expand far beyond the limits to which it was believed to be rigidly restricted ; with this difference, that while that portion of the geologic system beyond the Blue Ridge is adapted apparently only to light and highly colored tobaccos, those portions to the east of it have a wider latitude of variety, and produce with equal excellence the dark and heavy grades in demand for the worker of plug stock, and the bright and highly priced finer qualities in request for smokers and wrappers.
In this treatise it is proposed to consider these sections in the order in which they present themselves, beginning at the eastern limit of the western section, and giving information in detail so far as obtained.
The Winston Section.
This properly embraces the counties of Stokes and Forsythe, of Davie and Davidson, and involves to large extent those of Guilford and Rockingham. The surface is undulating, sometimes boldly so ; again stretching out in broad, comparatively level areas. The native growth includes many varieties of oak, hickory, chestnut, walnut, dogwood and chinquepin ; the woods in parts being quite open, in others filled with dense undergrowth. The soil varies more in color than in chemical structure. In portions of Forsythe, for instance, it is gray, light and friable ; while in another it is dark or reddish, and heavier and more compact ; but all exhibiting the same results, analyses probably showing large percentages of potash or of alkali and alkaline earth, the darker portions tinged with the oxides of iron, but all proving their adaptability to the production of tobacco in its most perfect form.
The cultivation of tobacco in this section is no new thing. For many years it had been pursued on the richer and heavier lands, with the only aim of application to the coarse grades of plug tobacco, much of which
was manufactured at home by the farmer in a very primitive method, the presses being in the open air, worked by a screw operated by the long wing-levers xmce familiar to the eye in the cotton regions. The curing was in the same primitive style, air or sun curing being universal. It may be a question if the lover of good chewing tobacco has not lost by the modern processes, which sacrifice flavor to color, and which give to the eye that which they deny to the palate.
But in this section there was no expansion in cultivation, because the production being die fruits of a rich, rank soil, could not come in competition with those of a soil yet richer and ranker and more extended in area, such as is abundantly found in Virginia and Maryland, in Kentucky and Missouri. It was after the discovery of the process of curing tobacco to a bright yellow was introduced, that experiment proved these lands as well suited to the production of that as well as to a high grade of dark tobacco suitable to dark wrappers and fillers as any other in the State ; and with the facility of markets built up in the centre of the producing region, and manufactories springing into existence to keep alive a permanent demand, the industry now engages the interest of many counties until lately wholly ignorant of the culture or even of the various qualities of tobacco.
Winston.
Forsythe County, cut off from the county of Stokes, was formed in 1848, and Winston, immediately contiguous to the somewhat venerable town of Salem, was made county-seat. For more than twenty years after its designation as the county capital, it had no other importance. Salem overshadowed it by its older population, its large mercantile transactions and its educational reputation. Winston lived in humble obscurity as a courthouse village, until suddenly the spring was touched which gave her life and energy, and made her a name more widely and interestedly known than that of her venerable sister. She has now a population of little less than four thousand, a town handsomely and substantially built, and a business, based upon the sales and manufacture of tobacco, which makes it one of the most important centres of that stupendous interest.
In the town of Winston there are three sales warehouses, fourteen plug factories, one smoking factory, not at present in operation, and one plug factory, so immediately in the vicinity as properly may be included in the interests of the town. A brief sketch of each will be given in detail, together with information, as far as could be obtained, of such points and establishments as are practically tributary to the business of Winston. And first of the warehouses,
of tobacco in this section, to venture upon the enterprise of opening a,
warehouse in Winston, which he did in an old barn of small size, 30x40 feet. The sales were advertised to take place daily, but supplies were irregular and small, and sale days were few and far between. There was then only one plug factory in the place, whose yearly output was not more than twenty thousand pounds. The culture in the surrounding country was small, conducted in primitive methods, without the use of artificial fertilizers, and curing was effected by the air or the sun or by wood fires. The introduction of coal curing, and more recently of flues, has completely revolutionized the whole system, the result of which is the abundant production of fine yellow tobacco, as well as a very superior article of dark grades. The increase of production compelled an increase of accommodations, and Brown's warehouse is now a building 70x200, with full skylight and abundant conveniences within and without. The sales take place daily during the season. The house is known under the name of T. J. Brown & Co., and is formed by Messrs. T. J. Brown, W. B. Carter and J. R. Pearce. Mr. R. D. Moseley is auctioneer and Mr. P. A. Wilson bookkeeper.
Mr. Brown reports that the condition of the growing crop is very superior, and greatly increased in quantity. Many new men have gone into the business this year, and older planters have enlarged their operations. In characterizing peculiarities, he describes the tobacco of Stokes County as remarkably rich and waxy. He estimates the sales of Winston for the current year at seven millions of pounds, of which home manufacturers take about one-half; the remainder is bought on orders for Canada, the Western cities, Baltimore, etc., some large houses in the latter city, such as Gail & Ax, obtaining a large proportion of their stock hefe.
Mr. Brown adds that when he embarked in business in 1872 there were ho banks in Winston, and no facilities whatever to aid a struggling enterprise. All this is now changed, there being ample bank accommodations, and also the convenient addition of a revenue office. The growth of the town in size and in business is more marked within the past five years than at any previous period.
The house, built in 1874 by W. A. Lash, was known as " Lash's Warehouse." It was subsequently occupied by Norwood & Pearce, who were succeeded by Haines & Brown, then by Cabell & Hairston, then by Sheppard & Wiles; and about July 1st of the present year (1880) it passed into the possession of the present proprietors, Phol & Stockton. The building is of wood, 70x200, well lighted, and with ample accommodations ; those for wagons and horses being now largely increased. Mr. John Sheppard, formerly of Richmond, afterwards of Danville, is general business manager. He has been a warehouseman since 1865, and inherits a family instinct which has given to Richmond so many men distinguished in tobacco life.
Mr. Sheppard reports the estimated annual sales at this warehouse at two million of pounds. The bulk of receipts are fine wrappers, both bright and mahogany, and fillers. The counties in North Carolina tributary to Winston are Forsythe, Stokes, Surry, Yadkin, Rowan, Davie, Davidson, Iredell, Wilkes, Guilford, and Rockingham ; and Virginia is largely represented by Patrick Henry and Grayson counties. Stokes and Davie stand at the head of the market for superiority in all grades ; the fine tobaccos of these counties, and of Guilford, compare favorably with the best made in Granville. Mr. Sheppard thinks the tobacco of this section better suited to all general purposes than any other part of the country ; and there is eager and steady demand from the North, the West, and from Canada, which has the effect of maintaining always a firm market.
The soil of the lower or southern part of Forsythe is light sandy loam ; the upper part and that of Stokes, red and heavier ; the growth oak, hickory, chestnut, etc., with undergrowth of chinquepin ; in some parts the woods open and covered with grass. The lands in Davie and Davidson are chocolate-colored loam, and almost entirely free from rock.
The Piedmont Warehouse
was established by Hobson & Scales as the Planter's Warehouse. Mr. M. W. Norfleet took charge of the house in 1876, and gave it its present title, and increased its capacity to 14,200 square feet, with ample accommodations ; wagons unload inside of the building, and there is a wagon-shed 190x20. The sales are held daily. The first year's sales did not exceed half a million pounds. They are now more than four times as great, and the increase this year is from 50 to 75 per cent, over that of the last.
Large orders are made to this house from distant points — from Detroit, from Louisville, Cincinnati, St. Louis, Baltimore, and from Canada. The large house of Gail & Ax, Baltimore, has been purchasing here for the past five years.
Fillers as fine as any made in the United States can be abundantly had here ; the best from Stokes, which, in addition to some peculiar virtue of soil, has had the benefit of the longest experience. Mahogany wrappers of superior excellence, and lugs and smokers of remarkable sweetness and flavor, fill the market ; and there is a fair proportion of bright wrappers and smokers.
Mr. M. W. Norfleet is the head of this house and general supervisor, Mr. W. A. S. Pearce is bookkeeper, Mr. James S. Scales floor manager, and Mr. J. Q. A. Barham auctioneer.
Factories.
Culture and manufactures react the one upon the other. The first, finding a ready demand for its product, is stimulated to increased industry and encouraged to the application of higher skill. The other, obtaining its supplies with certainty and convenience, ventures to enlarge its operations, and becomes ambitious to expand its profits and its reputation. Such has been emphatically the case in Winston, where supply and demand have gone hand in hand ; where the producer found a market when his products were ready for it, and where the consumer obtained his supplies without going far beyond his own doors to seek them. And that these supplies have been of superior excellence is proven by the fact that the fabrics of the Winston factories have so impressed their good qualities upon purchasers that the factories there have been spared during this year the mortification of suspended operations or short time, such as rival towns have been forced to submit to. On the contrary, the Winston factories have been worked to their utmost capacity to meet a constantly increasing demand. This is the testimony of the whole of them, as will be seen in the notice given of each one, and is the result of skill in manufacture, and of the perfect adaptation of the raw material used to the end sought to be attained.
who worked under the same firm name in Mocksville, N. C, as far back as 1858, but who subsequently removed to Winston. It is perfectly arranged for the business, with every possible appliance for convenience and for safety ; the large "dry rooms" being separated from the other part of the working space by fire-proof partitions. Hydraulic power in connection with steam is used for the press work. Two hundred and twenty-five hands are employed, during eight months of the year, in making all styles and grades of plug and twist ; the latter being a specialty for the Southern and Western trade.
The production for the current year will reach five hundred thousand pounds, and, with continued proportionate increase of business, is expected to reach one million pounds next year.
The Messrs. Brown report that Winston is not so good a market in which to obtain brights as fillers ; in which last there has been in recent years marked improvement, and they are little, if at all, inferior to the noted Henry (Va.) County fillers. For fine wrappers, Davie, Davidson, and Rockingham counties are most approved.
began work in 1874. They occupy a brick building 118x55, with an extension wing 105 feet long, the main building being four stories high. Hydraulic power, applied by steam, is used. One hundred and seventy-five hands, including forty-five rollers, are employed, who will turn out half a million of pounds this season, with a constantly increasing demand ; and there is an expectation of a much larger production next year. The usual sizes of plug and twist are made for a large trade extending from Baltimore to Texas, including all the intermediate States South and West. Last year a considerable quantity of the manufacture of this house was sent to Kansas, and it gains favor wherever used.
This house is composed of energetic and sagacious young men, intelligent and sagacious in their business, and shrewd and enterprising to adopt every possible improvement, thus maintaining and advancing a reputation gained by attentive skill — keeping abreast with all rivalry, resulting in operations the extent of which is not surpassed by any similar establishment in North Carolina.
opened in 1879, the firm being composed of Taylor Byrum, Robert Cotton and E. D. Jones. They occupy a brick building three and half stories high, and 40x100, and use hydraulic power in pressing. They employ about sixty hands, including fifteen rollers, and make plug and twist ; of the former, from 6x3 to 1 2x3 ; and of the latter, six and twelve inch. Among their prominent brands are Wachowa, Silver Wave, Smart Aleck, Mamie Lee, Shoe Heel, and Oneida. The amount annually made is about one hundred and twenty- five thousand pounds, with a steadily progressive increase. The trade of this house is now spread over ten. States : Ohio, Maryland, Virginia, the two Carolinas, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi and Florida. All stock for this factory is obtained on the (
successors to C. Hamlin, began business in 1872. Their building is brick, two and a half stories, and is 40x100. They employ about sixty hands, including twelve rollers, using improved machinery, and turn out annually about one hundred and twenty-five thousand pounds of the usual sizes and grades of plug and twist. Their trade is principally with Baltimore and the South. Like all the other houses in Winston, this one shows a constantly increasing business.
brick, the whole two and a half stories high, and is practically three stories
high. One hundred and twenty-five hands are employed, including twenty-eight rollers, who produce annually two hundred and fifty thousand pounds of the usual sizes and grades of plug and twist. The trade is principally with the South, though large shipments are made to Cincinnati and Memphis. The business of this firm is also increasing, and the product next year is expected to exceed largely that of the present one.
in the extent of their operations, and in the repute of their product, are second to no house in Winston. They began work in that town in 1876, and occupy a building of wood, four stories high and 40x116. The annual capacity of the house is five hundred thousand pounds, which will probably be exceeded this year, and certainly so the next. It employs about two hundred and twenty- five hands, who turn out all grades of plug and twist, for which an active demand is found, principally in the South and Southwest, and also in Baltimore and Cincinnati. This firm are the manufacturers of the brands celebrated as " Lucille," " Empress," and " Sprig of Acacia."
W. W. Wood
built his factory in 1877, and began work in 1878. His building is of brick, four stories high, and is 40x140. He employs one hundred and twenty-five hands, who this year will produce two hundred and fifty thousand pounds nett tobacco'. The first year his products were sixty-five thousand pounds, the second year two hundred thousand, and the current year as above stated. But Mr. Wood, by a happy invention, will hereafter largely surpass, in all probability, any result he has as yet attained. With high inventive genius, he has patented a mill which is designed to pack tobacco in new and very attractive forms, the mill pressing into the " shapes " the Jumps, which form a central decagon, from which extend the corresponding radical pieces, the diameter over all being about twelve inches, and the whole neatly packed in an oaken bucket containing forty-five pounds, and appropriately branded " The Old Oaken Bucket." The style is so novel and beautiful that the eyes of the trade have been strongly drawn toward it ; and the demand for the new style is already so great that Mr. Wood will probably abandon altogether the hardly less " celebrated brands of " Mark Twain " and " Maud Muller," and devote his efforts exclusively to " The Old Oaken Bucket." Mr. Wood has been engaged in the tobacco business in many of its various branches throughout his business life.
Hamilton Scales,
better known as Ham. Scales, began the manufacture of tobacco in Winston in 1S70, and was the pioneer of the business. There being no sales warehouse in the place at that time, his supplies were obtained by direct transactions with the planters on their farms. He erected his present factory
of wood in 1S75. It is 22 stories high, 60x34, with a cooling room 34x18, and dry-house 16x16. He works on an average fifty hands, producing annually one hundred and twenty-five thousand pounds of plug altogether, the most prominent brands of which are " Aleck Stephens," " No. 1," in 30 pound packages, " Bob Toombs " and " Piedmont." His trade is principally with the South, with uniform steady increase.
Bailey Brothers,
consisting of W. D. Bailey and P. N. Bailey, removed from Statesville, where they had worked as manufacturers since 1874, to Winston during the year 1880. They occupy a building of wood, three stories high, 35x70, and employ fifty hands, turning out one hundred thousand pounds of plug and twist. Their trade, constantly increasing, is mostly with the Southern States.
the firm being composed of P. W. Dalton, W. J. Cooper and Lee Hendricks. They began work during the current year, 1880, in a building of wood, two and one-half stories high, and 40x50, with a dry-house 20 feet in length. They employ on an average through the working season fifty hands, who will make this year one hundred and fifty thousand pounds of nett tobacco of all the styles and grades of plug and twist. Owing to the steady increase of demand, this house expects next year to increase its production to two hundred and fifty thousand pounds. Its trade is mostly with South Carolina, Georgia and Alabama, with scattering transactions with all the territory from Virginia to Texas. A. A. A."
R. J. Reynolds
began business at his present location in 1874, gradually enlarging his building as his business increased, until he now occupies a brick building, 38x128, three stories high, and employing one hundred and twenty-five hands, with a nett result of two hundred and seventy-five thousand pounds fcr the current working year. The steady increase of business will compel additions to the buildings next year. The trade is partly with the South, but more extensive with the North and West, exacting a great variety of styles and grades for so many different markets. The prominent brands are " Strawberry," twist ; " Oronoko," pounds ; " World's Choice," pounds ; and Reynolds' " Bright 7 ounce twist."
and seventy hands, making one hundred thousand pounds nett tobacco,, exclusively twist. The trade is with both North and South and is exclusively wholesale, and the attention of this house is largely given to working up jobbers' brands.
Mr. Reynolds reports as a general feature of the business in Winston, that the " Little Oronoko " is mostly used for fillers, and the " Broad Oronoko " and " Silky Pryor " for wrappers. A new and apparently accidental variety locally known as " Sea " is coming into use in the countiesalong the Virginia border. It prizes a dark rich color.
From two other factories in Winston, and from one in the vicinity, no information was obtained. Their aggregate annual production of plug and twist is estimated at three hundred and fifty thousand pounds.
Besides the factories in the town of Winston, there are many points within a comparatively short distance, and most of which purchase their stocks in the Winston market. Chief among these is
Mount Airy,
in Surry County, which is in the centre of a fine tobacco country, the products of which are " brights " of fine color and quality, and very superior " mahogany." Curing is effected by coal and by flues, the latter coming ' into more favor, and there is a great demand for Lyon's sheet-iron flue.
A warehouse was opened at Mount Airy a few years ago, but was soon abandoned as such and converted into a factory. There are three factories in the town, to wit : those of Messrs. Brower, Banner, and Ashley ; and within a radius of four miles of the town four more, those of Messrs. Sparker, Patterson, R. L. Gwynn, and Fulton. The nett aggregate product of the whole of the above is about five hundred thousand pounds.
Kernersville,
in Forsythe County, has five factories, producing in the aggregate about three. hundred thousand pounds of plug and twist. The manufacturers are Messrs. King, Leake, Beard, Roberts & Co., and Kerner, all with good and increasing business.
Bethania,
in Forsythe County, was long ago widely known as the seat of the extensive cigar factory of Lash & Bros. That has long been closed, but has been succeeded by the plug and twist factory of O. J. Lehman & Co., who make about one hundred thousand pounds yearly ; and in the vicinity is the factory of C. H. Orender, who makes about seventy-five thousand pounds of the same.
plug and twist about one hundred thousand pounds.
N. D. Sullivan, at Walkertown, in Forsythe County, is one of the most noted manufacturers in the county, his work being uniformly fine. He is remarkable for his strict adherence to his prices, not permitting his agents
Aggregate Production.
This can only be ascertained approximately. The three warehouses in Winston only estimate their sales ; but suppose them to reach seven millions of pounds for the crop season closing with the month of September, 1880, the manufacture of nett tobacco in the Winston factories reaches 3,275,000 lbs., to which may be added ten per cent, for stems, which gives 3,602,500.
The factories at Mount Airy, Kernersville and elsewhere in the surrounding country, obtain most of their stock in Winston, and this will add , at least one million more to the receipts of the Winston warehouses. To this must be added the very large amount bought on orders and shipped in the leaf, and also the large quantitv shipped on speculation. The aggregate will therefore exceed, rather than fall below, the estimated receipts ol the warehousemen.
All accounts coincide as to the excellent condition of the growing crop, and the large increase in area planted. No account places it less than twenty-five per cent., and therefore the receipts on the Winston market for the next year will fall little short of ten million pounds.
Revenue Receipts.
Dr. W. H. Wheeler, the Collector for the 5th District, kindly furnishes the following amounts paid on Tobacco for the vear ending June 30th, 1880, in the different counties composing the district :
STATESVILLE SECTION.
ALTHOUGH no market has been permanently opened at this point, its relation to the rapidly developing culture of tobacco in Iredell and adjoining counties, naturally tributary to a point commanding such superior facilities for transportation as Statesville, makes the existence of one only a question of time.
The geological structure of this section is also the Upper Laurentian ; and its similarity in general features attracted the attention of tobacco planters from the counties of Person and Caswell, who foresaw the fruit that awaited judicious experiment. That experiment has been made and with success,, and the culture of tobacco now engages the attention of the farmers of Iredell, as well as those of Alexander, Caldwell, Mitchell, Wilkes, Yancey, and others who possess like characteristics of soil and climate.
following information :
The culture of tobacco in this section as a market crop was undertaken since the war. The inducement to it was the similarity in soil to that of the lands in Caswell County which produced the bright yellow tobacco. Settlers from that and other similarly situated counties came to Iredell, some as instructors in the mysteries of curing, but the majority as permanent citizens of a virgin territory. Thirty or forty families from these counties are engaged in the cultivation. Their success has been marked, the result being a rich, large, bright yellow tobacco, inferior to the best Caswell tobacco only in texture. Fine dark wrappers and good rich fillers are made.
The production this year in Iredell County is estimated at a million and a half of pounds, the increase over last year being several hundred per cent., and success will lead to a future wide expansion of the crop. The market for this has been divided between Hickory and Winston, but Hickory will be the chief market for the incoming crop. Shipments have been made to Danville, aad more or less of the crop will always seek distant markets.
Little or no tobacco is raised in the southern part of the county, but in all other parts the culture is rapidly increasing. One immediate effect has been the increased value of lands, which have risen from three dollars an acre to ten dollars and upwards. ,
The counties tributary to Statesville are reported to be making rapid strides in tobacco culture. In Caldwell and Alexander Counties the lands are thought even better than in Iredell, and Wilkes County is represented
estimated at at least one thousand per cent.
In Mitchell County, which is north of the Blue Ridge, and which is broken and mountainous, the area north of the North Toe (properly Estato) River is considered specially adapted to fine yellow tobacco, being identical, in fact, with the lands of Madison County, hereafter to be referred to.
Much attention is paid to the improvement of the plant. The Messrs. Deake, of Bakersville, introduced the Yellow Oronoko and Silky Pryor. Tobacco of low grade had been cultivated for many years, but it was not until the introduction of better seed that attention was given to curing. This is as yet imperfect, but a crop from this county, sold in the Lynchburg market, was pronounced by French and Italian buyers the best they had ever seen. The prominent farmers in this county, who may be regarded as the pioneers of its tobacco interests, are Selden and Garrett Bailey, and others of that name in Hollow Poplar township. Albert Slagle in Red Hill township has the largest crop in the county ; John Peterson has a large crop, and M'Kinney one which is described as "extra fine."
In Yancey County, west of and adjoining Mitchell, and identical with it in natural .features, there is a considerable quantity of tobacco raised on Jack and Pig Pen Creeks, and also on Carey River, which finds favor in the Marshall and Ackerville markets. In this county the production of tobacco increases with marvellous rapidity, and will soon absorb all agricultural interest, as it is the only crop which will profitably bear transportation in the absence of all railroad facilities.
Warehouse and Factory in Statesville.
There has not been in this place the energy of enterprise to meet the industry of the planter which distinguished Winston. One warehouse, of full capacity and excellent arrangement, was suffered to be closed through bad management ; it is probable that it will be opened the coming season. There is only one factory in operation, that of Mr. McElwee, which makes both plug and smoking tobacco, both on a small scale. Mr. Thomas J. Bennett, from Franklin County, Va., is foreman, and worked a plug factory in Charlotte in 1858, and was subsequently with the factory of Dr. Keene at Salisbury.
necticut tobacco exclusively.
It is impossible that such advantages of position and proximity to so large and excellent a source of supply can be neglected by the business men of Statesville, who in all else are models of energy and sagacity ; therefore their shortcomings are noted, not in condemnation, but with surprise.
HICKORY AND ITS TRIBUTARY INTERESTS.
HICKORY, in Catawba County, is a railroad creation, springing up on the site of the " Old Hickory Tavern," the ruins of which, in the centre of the busy life and fresh-looking buildings of the new town, are reverently preserved, both as a memento of humble origin and as an eloquent note of progress. The situation of Hickory on the Western North Carolina Railroad is a commanding one, being the convenient shipping point for part of the adjoining county of Burke, of Caldwell, Alexander, the upper part of Iredell, parts of Wilkes, Watauga, and McDowell ; and it became the centre of the large miscellaneous trade which developed it rapidly into the dimensions of a very thrifty town. Tobacco is soon destined to rank as its most important subject of business.
The country around Hickory is rolling, falling away somewhat boldly on the south and southwest towards the outlying spurs of the South Mountains ; less boldly towards the north and northwest, where it expands itself in gently undulating folds ; the whole covered with a not very dense growth of oak, hickory, chestnut and pine, with an undergrowth of dogwood, gumwood and chinquepin. The soil is sandy or gravelly loam, gray, with yellow or reddish clayey subsoil ; with few rocks, and they in process of disintegration. The general appearance of soil and growth readily suggests to the practised eye a perfect adaptability to the culture of superior tobacco, and experience has confirmed such judgment.
He removed from Granville in 1875, and settled in the county of Burke, near the Catawba line, and within a few miles of Hickory ; his object being to make fine yellow tobacco on lands he believed equal to the choicest lands in Granville County. His success has been complete ; his crop last year averaged $22.50, and he made thirteen hundred and seventy-nine pounds On one and a half acres. He thinks that the plant has a quicker growth and more perfect maturity than in Caswell or Granville ; is subject to few diseases, and is altogether free from " spot," which he ascribes to cooler and moister nights ; but worms are as troublesome here as elsewhere. He also thinks tobacco is more readily cured bright here than in Granville, and that it possesses equal weight. More matured experience in culture, curing and handling, he thinks, will make it equal to the best.
In this vicinity the progress of culture is readily traced. In 1878, those who made a crop for market were Captain R. B. Davis, Addison Morgan and John D. Morgan. In 1879, in addition to these were L. A. Boiling, J. A. Hartsell, F. A. Wiley, C. M.White, Mrs. Holden, M.Martin, P. B.Summers, Huffman, and perhaps others. In 1880 there is a large addition
to the number of planters, as well as a large increase in the crop planted by each ; among whom are D. W. Rowe, 20 acres; D. Abernathy, 12 acres; R. B. Davis, 10 acres ; R. W. McComb, 10 acres ; and J. A. Hartsell has doubled his crop. F. A. Wiley, this year, as last, has 5 acres planted within the corporate limits of Hickory. In addition to the above are A. Morgan, 15 acres ; J. D. Morgan, 5 acres, and P. K. Morgan, 6 acres; all within four miles of Hickory, in which area there are altogether 240 acres planted in tobacco this year.
The counties tributary to Hickory are all increasing their production in like proportion. In Caldwell County, north of the Catawba river, it is estimated that two-thirds of the land is suitable to fine" tobacco, and the cultivation is rapidly increasing. Among the principal planters are W. P. Mangum and W. O. Mangum, 10 acres each; Charles Satterthwaite, 15 acres; Sam Scheares and Chris. Satterthwaite, together, 20 acres ; the widow Scheares, 10 acres ; Daniel Hickman, 7 acres ; A. Martin, 5 acres ; Babel Sherrill, 5 acres, and many others ; and most of the above are from the counties of Granville, Caswell and Person.
acres ; Wm. Adams, 3 acres ; Epnraim Aby, 4 acres ; Aaron Cook, 2 acres, and others ; these being also mostly from the counties east. Beyond the Catawba river, in the northern portion of Burke, the tobacco impulse is general ; and the greater portion of the county will eventually be cultivated in that staple, a course justified by analysis of soils having a large percentage of lime and potash, elements favorable to the production of good tobacco.
Wilkes County increases its crop this year by several hundred per cent., with a quality of tobacco said to be equal to that of Granville. The same is said of Alexander Count)'. McDowell County makes a very fine bright tobacco, but there has not been the same increase as in the counties already named. A considerable interest has been roused in Lincoln County, on the south, and the product is a very good bright.
Mr. J. K. Bobbitt claims to have been the first to erect a tobacco-barn in the county of Burke, and deserves honor for an example since so extensively followed. The increase in the value of lands in this county has been very decided, the advance being from three and five dollars to ten, fifteen dollars and upwards per acre.
tion furnished by Mr. J. G. Hall, of Hickory, a manufacturer, and also warehouse proprietor, a man of intelligence and active enterprise, to whose energies the new town of Hickory owes much of its rapid advance. He says: "The progress of tobacco culture in Catawba and adjoining counties, with their centre of trade at Hickory, has not been rapid, but continuous. Prior to 1877, little or no attention had been paid to it. It is true that, up to that time, the firm of Marshall, Lancie & Co., afterwards A. W. Marshall, . had engaged in the manufacture of tobacco at Hickory, and here and there over the county might be found a man who, coming from the central tobacco regions of the State, attracted here, rfo doubt, by the finest climate i?i North , Carolina, would cling to his first love and endeavor to raise tobacco. These first planters may rightfully be styled the ' Pioneers of Tobacco ' upon the eastern slopes of the Blue Ridge, the true Piedmont region. Their success, limited as it was, was sufficient to attract attention, and to give good foundation for the belief of a few of our citizens that ' the culture of tobacco ' actually belonged to this section of the State, and continuously through the past three years this faith in our soil and climate has been proved by works, and all our most intelligent planters ask is a little more time and experience to place them side by side with the most successful agriculturists in North Carolina. ....
" We shall give the practical result of this confidence. In January, 1877, Messrs. Hall Bros., merchants in Hickory, N, C, conceived the idea of stimulating the culture of tobacco by the erection of a sales warehouse, which was made ready for business in February of the same year. The sales of this warehouse, the first in Nortn Carolina west of Salisbury, were of necessity small, reaching only sixty thousand pounds during the season of 1877, and then followed in 1878 the block up of all the tobacco markets with the very large crop produced in the old tobacco regions in 1877. The immense production of that year, largely of a very common article, depressed prices to a greater degree than known for many years before or since, and had a depressing effect upon those among us who had hoped for a. home market, t4ie result of which was a partial abandonment of the culture the next year in some counties, particularly in McDowell, though since then it has been resumed.
" In 1878 the sales at Hall's warehouse amounted to about one hundred thousand pounds ; but this did not properly represent the amount of production, for any one familiar with the history of new tobacco markets is aware that none can control at once. more than a portion of the crop of the surrounding country. Our market entered the lists against such formidable rivals as Danville, Winston, Durham, and Lynchburg. Against such competition we are happy to say, to-day, that with five factories in Hickory, and the possibility of others next spring, we shall have a good demand for all the manufacturing stock that the season will produce.
In February of the present year (1880) another warehouse was erected here, and the proprietors, Messrs. Wiley & Clinard, have handled during the season about sixty thousand pounds, with the expectation, during the next crop season, to increase that amount to several hundred thousand pounds. It is estimated that these two warehouses will handle during the coining season one million pounds, and this estimate is based upon the following data :
" The stimulus given within the last three years to tobacco culture in this section will result in a crop this season of not less than fifteen hundred thousand pounds from the counties of Catawba, Lincoln, Cleaveland, Rutherford, McDowell, Burke, Caldwell, Wilkes, and Iredell. Some of these counties will continue, more or lees, to ship to other markets ; but it is safe to say that out of these Hickory will -receive one million pounds, the result of the demand of its factories, which consult their interests by laying in their stocks at home. . . .
" Having given some idea of the increase of production since 1877, I may properly add something about the improvement in quality. In 1877 the great bulk of the crop was poor and trashy to an extent that defied classification. It was an almost valueless nondescript. Every year witnesses improvement, and now sweet fillers and good mahogany wrappers are made as perfectly as can be desired. Many of the new planters have not yet acquired the skill in culture and cure needed to bring out the full perfection of the ' fine gold-leaf tobacco which sells at its fabulous prices ; but these same planters have also demonstrated the possibilities of this section for the highest excellence of that beautiful article. . . .
fillers. . . .
" In regard to prices at Hickory, it is just to our manufacturers to say that a noble public spirit to sustain and build up a home market has led them sometimes to pay for their stocks more than they would have paid in other markets ; at all events paying the prices obtained at distant leading markets with freight charges added. For the fine grades buyers have paid twenty to seventy-five dollars. At these prices it must be admitted that no great margin for speculation is left. These facts should convince our planters that we have a good market, second to no other.
" Our manufacturers will use of the present crop as follows : Hall & Daniel, five hundred thousand pounds; A. W. Marshall, fifty thousand pounds; A. Martin, fifty thousand pounds; H. C. Latta, fifty thousand pounds, and Cobb & Son twenty-five thousand. Other manufacturers will be added to the list before the beginning of the working season of 1881, and it may therefore be safely assumed that the Hickory manufacturers will use in 1881 seven hundred thousand pounds."
known as "the Farmer's Warehouse," was opened on the 4th of February, 1880. It is a modern building 100x50. It is well constructed and lighted, and has excellent accommodations and conveniences for the planter and his teams. The operations of this house have been given in the preceding statement. Mr. R.J. West is the auctioneer.
are manufacturers of plug, eleven, ten and six inch twist. The estimate of their production, as well as that of other factories in Hickory, is given in the statement of Mr. J. G. Hall.
J. S. Tomlinson
is the proprietor of the very popular brand " Sweet Sixteen " of smoking tobacco, manufactured for him by A. W. Marshall, which is made of home stock, and commands ready sales, growing steadily in favor.
Climatic Influences of this Section.
Success has invariably attended skill and industry in the cultivation of tobacco in this section. The very considerable number of planters who have come hither from the older counties of Granville, Caswell, and others, are uniform in their testimony that they regard their transfer as an advantageous one ; making tobacco, they think, equally as fine, under certain aids from soil and climate they had not before enjoyed. Mr. R. B. Davis, an old planter from Halifax County, Va., but for a number of years a resident and planter of Catawba County, N. C, in his Manual discusses this question at some length, a few extracts from which are given.
referred to have to contend, Mr. Davis says :
" Now the planters of Granville (and not of Granville only, but of all the border counties of Virginia and North Carolina) know that it is becoming yearly a thing of increasing difficulty to grow a ripe and sound crop. And this for the reason that the plant will not usually stand long enough on the hill to ripen and bleach sufficiently to be easily cured yellow. For, if on the one hand the crop be too long delayed by drought, a fine cure is out of the question ; while on the other hand, if there is rain enough, there is apt to be excess of it ; and then begin all the diseases to which the plant is heir — such as frenching, and firing, and spotting, and rusting, and shedding of the leaves. And with this fear constantly before him, the planter is under the necessity of cutting while the plant is already wasting, but before it is fully and uniformly ripe, giving him, as a result, withered sand lugs at the bottom and green tips at the top, while the middle portion may be such as* he desires.
"But in this section of the State the planter is under no such necessity; for here the plant will stand upon the hill until it has ripened a clear lemon color from top to bottom, without waste, or spot, or blemish. . . . How is this, then, to be accounted for ? The true explanation, I undertake to say, is to be found in the elevation of the Piedmont as compared with the central portion of the State. For it is to this greater elevation that we are indebted for our cool nights ; and cool nights, in my opinion, are the salvation of the tobacco crop.''
CROSSING the Blue Ridge at the Swannanoa Gap at an elevation of 2657 feet above the sea, a broken plateau spreads out to the limits of the State northwest, west and south, from which spring numerous mountain chains, culminating in the lofty peaks of the Black Mountain, the highest of which is 6707 feet above sea level. There is no level land except narrow strips of valley along the abundant streams. The only lands left to the cultivator are the numerous hills, rising often into the magnitude of mountains, bold and steep, but covered with deep, rich, gray, friable soil, universally clothed, in a state of nature, with a growth of majestic oak, chestnut, walnut, locust, buckeye, maple, black birch (or mahogany), with frequent appearance in ravines of spruce pine and heavy undergrowth of laurel, and frequently of white pine of great height. Rock is not frequent, though sometimes outcropping in the form of cliffs of moderate height, or in veins which stand in vertical strata down the sides of the hills, and occasionally occurring in broad sheets of an acre or more, naked and bare, and asserting a genuine mountain character, which otherwise is contradicted by the luxuriant foliage and giant size of the trees and the richness and beauty of the flowers.
The geological formation is also of the Upper Laurentian. The soil has long been noted for its fertility ; producing the cereals in great perfection, and admirably adapted to the grasses. At the time when the turnpike along the French Broad river was the great thoroughfare of travel from the west to east, and when that road was filled with an endless throng of hogs and sheep and cattle driven from the officina animalium of East Tennessee and Kentucky, the steep hillsides and tops along the road were cultivated in corn for the supply of the stock on the way to the markets of North and South Carolina. The demand was constant and the business remunerative. But the construction of the railroad lines across the eastern end of Tennessee, connecting with both the northern and southern markets, at the gain both of time and economy, brought the business of the farmer to a sudden end, except as demanded by the necessities of his family. The turnpike became almost as deserted as one of the old Roman Ways, only trod by the tourist or traversed by the weary mail-coach dragging its slow course over a highway torn by freshets and abandoned to decay.
There was little that the farmer could do to better his fortunes, until the fact dawned by slow degrees that these bold and beautiful hills had an adaptability to the production of very fine tobacco almost without equal in the whole State of North Carolina.
Mr. S. C. Shelton, from Henry County, Va., and Mr. W. T. Dickinson, from Pittsylvania County, Va., may justly claim to be the pioneers of tobacco culture in this section, and to have prepared the way by which home markets were at last opened, or by which the fame of Buncombe and Madison tobaccos was wafted to the more distant markets of Lynchburg and Richmond. 0( these gentlemen more will be said in its proper connection.
The increased production of tobacco in the county of Buncombe, and the certainty that adjoining counties would speedily engage in the same industry, suggested the enterprise of a
Sales Warehouse
in Asheville, which was undertaken by Mr. J. D. Wilder, of Danville, Va., who had had large experience in the warehouse business with Capt. W. P. Graves, of that town; and in November, 1879, the first warehouse west of the Blue Ridge was opened for the use and encouragement of a home market.
The sales during the season of the current year, 1880, amounted to about six hundred thousand pounds. The supplies were drawn from the four counties of Buncombe, Madison, Haywood aad Yancey. The attention of planters has been turned almost exclusively to the production of brights. Nearly everything sold in this warehouse during the season were wrappers and smokers. Not over one thousand pounds of good fillers were offered. In quality, Mr. Wilder reports that the tobacco is somewhat wanting in body, but surpassingly fine in color. From want of experience, the curing has not been as perfect as it ought to be, nor are the appliances for curing the most approved in kind ; and the farmers, from the same want of experience, are deficient in the arts of handling. Sorting is carelessly attended to, and injustice to the finer kinds is done by injudicious intermingling of qualities and colors. But this will be corrected as experience is gained. The average price for the season was from $16 to $17 per hundred; 90 cents a pound was frequently obtained, and for small lots $2.50 per pound has been given.
The mode of curing in common use is with coal or rock flues. In cultivation farmers are beginning to use fertilizers. The lands are fertile, but the seasons are short, and the maturity of the crop is found to be hastened by the aid of artificial manures.
J. E. Ray
has been in operation since 1875, and now obtains all its supplies at home. Its operations are yet somewhat contracted, six or eight hands being employed. Its brands are in high repute — smoking tobacco alone being made. They are " Asheville's Best," made of the best bright leaf, exceedingly beautiful. The next in order is " Black Mountain " and " Swannanoa," both of which are fine grades. Mr. Ray uses some flavoring, principally " deer tongue," obtained from the North Carolina coast counties.
Mr. S. C. Shelton
is both manufacturer and planter. In the latter capacity he came to Buncombe County from Henry County, Va., with the view of testing the soil and climate of this mountain region. He began his experiments with three acres, with results so satisfactory that he gradually enlarged his operations to one hundred and fifty acres. This, however, he has much reduced, having engaged in manufacture.
He thinks soil and climate both better suited to fine wrappers and smokers, though good fillers can be and are produced in limited supply. The use of fertilizers on fresh lands has not been deemed necessary, but Mr. Shelton approves their use, and this year applied them liberally.
The causes which favor the production of fine tobacco so especially are the elevation of the country, the dryness of the climate by day, and the coolness and moisture of the nights. Tobacco " yellows" on the hill much more readily and uniformly than in the country east of the mountains, and the curing, done by flues or coal, is effected more quickly. The variety planted principally is the broad-leaved Oronoko ; the Silky Pryor is the next best. The climate or soil, or both, does not appear to suit the Connecticut seed leaf.
Since Mr. Shelton came to Buncombe the culture of tobacco has rapidly developed, and he thinks it destined to be the finest section in the United States for the finer and fancy qualities. It is becoming the chief industry of the county. Mr. Shelton is the patentee of a new process of curing, which will be spoken of in its proper place.
He took the first premium at the State Fair in 1871 for bright wrappers, and the same at the Virginia State Fair at Richmond in 1872. At the Vienna Exposition he was awarded a silver medal for his brand " Speckled Trout " of manufactured tobacco, and, at the Paris Exposition, had honorable mention for the same brand.
His factory, in Asheville, is engaged in making a favorite brand of twist, put up in very novel and attractive form, and also in the manufacture of superior and much admired smoking tobacco, for which there is already a steady demand.
E. J. Holmes
began the manufacture of smoking tobacco in Asheville on the 15th of January, 1880. He employs at present eight hands, and makes three brands : " Golden Leaf," which is remarkably beautiful, unequalled in brilliancy of color, and much admired for fine flavor. " Land of the Sky " and " Pisgah " are lower grades, but both of excellent quality. The raw material is bought on the Asheville market. The natural leaf alone is used ; no flavoring whatever being added. These brands are in great demand for the South Carolina and Alabama markets.
Arden.
One and a half miles from the Henderson County line and ten miles south of Asheville is Arden Park, at which lives Mr. C. W. Beale. He has in operation a cigarette factory, the material for which is obtained in the vicinity. Tobacco is cultivated all around and in the adjoining county of Henderson, and extensive preparations are now being made by clearing the mountain sides to engage largely in the cultivation next year. The country on the south of Asheville contains much gently undulating land, with broader valleys than are found to the north ; these are flanked by mountains of moderate height, and with an inclination gentle enough to invite to cultivation. The soil is darker, with a greater admixture of clay, than the north side of the county. Mr. Beale thinks both climate and soil develop in the tobacco grown here peculiar characteristics of flavor, giving it a marked resemblance to Turkish tobacco. Samples sent to Constantinople have compared favorably with the celebrated Latakia of Asia Minor. This tobacco ripens early, and cures bright with great readiness.
The cigarette factory at this point is the first of its kind west of the mountains, and the peculiar excellence .of its product is giving it a wide repute. It was commenced during the year 1880, and is under the management of Mr. James Riley, recently from Buckinghamshire, England.
DOWN THE FRENCH BROAD, BUNCOMBE AND MADISON.
1AHE road down the French Broad leaves Asheville at some distance from the river, at liberty to divert itself for a while through a country hilly but not mountainous. But the license is soon withdrawn, and four miles from Asheville the road is compelled to come to the river side, and between the broad and boisterous torrent on the one hand and the obtrusive and rugged hills on the other, is glad to compromise for the narrow passway left between its rude antagonists. Here and there, at long intervals, the hills retreat far enough to permit the erection of such comfortable mansions as that of General Vance, or such hospitable hostelries as that of Mr. Alexander, or such typical farm-houses as that of Mr. Brown. With these exceptions, there is scarcely room enough between river and mountain for house to stand, until the "Midway House," a mile from Marshall, twenty-one miles from Asheville, is reached.
But because the gorge is narrow and because the hills are bold, it does not follow that nature holds unbroken sway. These hills are covered with deep, rich soil, and crowned with grand forest growth. They are easily brought into cultivation, and respond generously to the demand upon them. Once, as before stated, they were devoted, where cleared, to corn and other grain ; now they are coming into more profitable use for tobacco. Occasionally, fine crops are seen almost overhanging the' roadside ; but it is farther back from the river that the new enterprise is more largely engaged in.
Mr. A. M. Alexander
is one of the largest cultivators along the river. He lives ten miles north of Asheville, at French Broad Post-office ; at which point is that delightful summer resort so well known to the eastern tourist. He has been engaged in the culture of tobacco about eight years, increasing his crop each year, and in 1S80 having a crop of thirty acres. Crops here are estimated by the acre, not by the number of hills as in the eastern counties.
For bright wrappers Mr. Alexander relies exclusively on new ground. In clearing such the timber is merely deadened, the undergrowth cleared or burnt off, the ground then coultered, then ploughed with a narrow bull tongue, then harrowed and raked, and then the hills are made.
ist to the ioth of June. Last year Mr. A. planted some as late as the 22d
of July, and for the proceeds of that planting received $14 per hundred. He works his tobacco about four times. He tops first to eight leaves, reducing them subsequently to six. More care is being taken with grading than before, and tobacco is now divided into six classes. Curing as a rule is by flues, Ragland's plan being followed.
troublesome.
Mr. Alexander's system of farming is to clear his steep hillsides and put them the first year in tobacco. The next year he seeds these down to grass — timothy, orchard and clover — and has now one hundred 'acres heavily covered. This is not the universal practice. Every farmer now cultivates tobacco, but often uses the same land to the fourth year. The increase this year in the vicinity of French Broad Post-office is about 35 per cent, over last year. Lands have advanced in price, and are valued at from $5 to $10 per acre. 50 cents to $1 an acre not long ago was the general valuation of mountain lands.
The prosperity of the people is rapidly increasing. Tobacco brings money into every household. Last year Mr. Alexander had a female tenant who cultivated two and a half acres with her own hands, and her crop was sold in the Richmond market for $680.
Mr. J. M. Smith
lives in Madison County, immediately across the Buncombe line, and between the waters of the French Broad and Big Ivy. His lands are a continued succession of bold rolling hills, rising to an elevation of from four hundred to five hundred feet above the level of Big Ivy, with absolutely no level ground, the hills rising abruptly from the course of the small streams which intersect them, compelling the use of the hillsides, however steep they may be. The soil is a rich gray loam, with yellowish sandy subsoil. When cleared the land is easily worked, and does not readily wash, owing to the depth and porousness of the superincumbent stratum. Mr. Smith has land in tobacco which he has been cultivating for the fourth year ; but he relies for his best results on new ground. These, like Mr. A. M. Alexander, he is seeding to grass, to which he has now devoted about one hundred acres. .
He uses fertilizers on the older lands, beginning with the third year. He plants the broad-leaved Oronoko, about five thousand plants to the acre. He has been engaged in tobacco culture since 1870, beginning with fifteen acres, but subsequently reducing his crop until he had acqufred experience, and then gradually enlarging until now he has fifty-four acres in cultivation, which, like all the crops seen in this section, were in perfect condition.
Approving the tenant system, he puts it largely into practice, to his advantage and that of his tenant. A tenant was pointed out who came to him the year before last absolutely penniless, but willing to work ; telling
Mr. Smith if he would erect him a cabin and put him in charge of a fewacres, he would marry and make a crop of tobacco. Mr. Smith built the cabin and assigned him a portion of a ten-acre field sloping abruptly towards the north, and in which the girdled trees were still standing. His first year's crop brought him $650, after paying one-third of the proceeds of sale to his landlord.
This is the country for the poor but industrious man. Mr. Smith has ten tenants who cultivate each from four to ten acres. One tenant last year, from one and a half acres, cured and sold eight hundred and thirty-nine pounds, for which he received $345.94.' Another from four and one-quarter acres last year made two thousand nine hundred and eighty pounds, for which he received $985.72 ; and from the same extent of ground, the year previous, made two thousand eight hundred and ninety-four pounds, for which he was paid $824.20.
In cultivation, Mr. Smith gives one thorough working with the plough and goes through three times with the hoe. He tops to eight leaves as soon as can be done without injury to the top leaves. He cures altogether with reference to wrappers and smokers, using flues, both iron and rock. Coal is not much used.
He plants the last of May or first of June. Tobacco ripens by the first of September, yellowing well on the hill, curing in the barns, which he makes eighteen feet square, with five and a half tiers, being perfected in sixty or seventy hours. He thinks both climate and soil exactly adapted to the fullest development of a superior article of tobacco. The latter contains all the necessary elements ; and the former, through the influence of cool nights, and the nightly appearance of fogs, which not only supply moisture but protect against early frost, supplying all the conditions for a perfect plant.
the most advantageous.
Mr. Smith and his neighbors sell mostly in the Lynchburg market. The esteem in which the Madison tobacco is held is demonstrated by the following account sales of ten thousand seven hundred and sixty-five pounds sold by Lee,, Taylor and Payne, Lynchburg, last winter for Mr. Smith, the original of which is in the possession of the writer of this. The prices paid seem to indicate that all the requisites of color, body, size and perfectness of leaf were fully met:
W. T. Dickinson
lives in Buncombe County, near Weaversville, ten miles northeast of Asheville, and is largely engaged in the culture of tobacco. He is one of the most experienced farmers in the county, having acquired his knowledge in Pittsylvania County, Va.«, from which he removed to Buncombe in 1854. He is therefore fully competent to form an accurate judgment upon the quality of the mountain tobacco. His crop this year is forty-four acres, of which thirty-two are in one body.
His lands are gray, with red clay subsoil, soil much broken and heavily timbered. Planting is done late in May or early in June, and the plants grow off readily, yellowing finely in the field, and ready for cutting early in September.
From the ease with which curing is effected, Mr. Dickinson thinks both soil and climate peculiarly adapted to fine tobacco. He thinks it matures earlier than in Virginia, through the influence of cool nights and heavy dews. In curing he uses the ordinary sheet-iron flues. The time of curing is shortened by the maturity of the leaf as it comes from the fields. He uses fertilizers, the Anchor brand, on all his lands, old and new, with a product of about twelve hundred pounds to the acre.
The cultivation is rapidly extending. Yellow tobacco is almost the sole object. The lands, which are cheap and abundant, and held at an average of five dollars per acre, are taken up by the citizens of the vicinity, and, as yet, there is little immigration into this part of the county.
He describes the lands in Yancey County, adjoining Buncombe and Madison, as identical in character, and coming rapidly into use for the same purposes. In all these counties he estimates the increase of the crop of this year over that of the last at from one hundred to three hundred per cent.
Marshall and Vicinity.
Marshall, the county seat of Madison County, is compressed into one of those narrow recesses which rarely open in this -part of the French Broad, the open ground being not more than eighty yards wide and extending about four hundred yards along the river. A small island in front once formed part of the town, but was overflowed in the great flood of 1877, and has now reverted to nature. Back of the steep and toppling hills which overhang the town lies a country broken and mountainous indeed, but very fertile. These are reached from the river through the narrow gorges which occasionally divide the hills, and furnish roadways roughly available for vehicles. These furnish the roads to market.
fine tobacco, they have come rapidly into use.
The superior fertility of the Madison County lands makes itself known to the most careless observation. The great size of the trees, their greater variety, the luxuriousness of foliage, and the density of the undergrowth, all indicate wonderful exuberance of soil, increasing in richness with the descent of the French Broad ; and Madison County may justly claim to possess advantages surpassed by no other, if equalled by any county.
The course of the French Broad is generally north. All the lands on the east side are finely adapted to tobacco, those on the west largely so, but to less extent. The culture within the past three years has become a part of the business of almost every farmer. The increase this year in acreage is about fifty per cent.
Marshall are given.
Wallace Rollins adopts the tenant system, and has this year one hundred acres in cultivation ; I. Nichols has 30 acres; H. Rice, 28 acres ; James M. Gudger, 27 acres; H. A. White, 25 acres; P. H. Kilpatrick, 20 acres; M. A. Robinson, 20 acres; Z. Henderson, 15 acres; J. M. Robinson, 15 acres.
Sams, and E. Carter, average about fifteen acres each.
Last year Z. Henderson, from two and three-quarter acres, netted $1027 ; Lee- Henderson, from one hundred and forty rods, sold four hundred and fifty pounds at 75 cents per pound ; renters from fifty acres averaged $2 12 per acre.
Morning fogs along the river are of almost daily and nightly occurrence, with the singular exception of the area embracing the Warm Springs, sixteen miles below Marshall, which is said never to be obscured by fog. This njay be the result of the thermal influences, which give heat to the Warm Springs and which equalize temperature. These fogs are considered highly advantageous to tobacco in giving moisture and in retarding frosts. The season of maturity being prolonged, that for planting may be postponed. Last year Z. Roberts planted on the 29th of June and obtained an average of $30 for his crop, making seven hundred and fifty pounds to the acre. Geo. Gohagan planted late. In ninety days from planting his crop was cut, for which he was paid, at the barn, $25 for the crop, round.
MARKETS.
Most of the tobacco of the county is carried off to Richmond, Lynchburg, and some to Danville. A fair proportion is sold at home. Mr. D. F. Davis, merchant at Marshall, is a considerable handler, having taken last year direct from the farmers about sixty thousand pounds, acting as their agent, and he finds from the number of sellers that nearly every farmer in the county to a greater or less extent raises tobacco.
daily sales in proper season.
From a report of sales made January 26th, 1880, it appears that during the preceding fortnight sales of 6,194 pounds were made for $2,041.25, being an average of $33.00 per hundred ; a very high average, and one seldom exceeded. The business of this warehouse during the coming season is expected vastly to increase, both on account of the good prices obtained there and the very large increase of production in the surrounding country.
In addition to the counties west of the mountains already named as engaged in the culture of tobacco, very encouraging progress has been made in Haywood, which possesses equal excellencies of soil and climate. During this season many very considerable crops have been planted, and are reported in good condition. Transylvania County, equally favored by nature, has undertaken the culture, and so have some of the counties west of Haywood. The whole country west of the mountains, at all adapted to tillage, may be expected to strive after the same prize that is enriching the others. . -
CHAPTER VI.
IT thus appears from the preceding statements that a new and very large territory is added to the production of that beautiful substance, fine yellow tobacco, which, confined hitherto to somewhat well defined limits, has commanded prices which might almost appear fabulous or fanciful had they not been sustained by healthy and unwavering demand. The question may arise whether, with greatly increased supply, prices will not necessarily be reduced. This undoubtedly will be the case inevitably were the demand confined to the United States, which, until within a few years, and for special uses; has been the sole consumer. But within those few years Europe has become somewhat familiar with the merits of bright yellow tobacco. One of the beneficent results of the Philadelphia Exposition was to bring the world together ; to bring its peoples into close contact, and present their varied industries and products to comparison or contrast. The bright yellow tobacco was favorably made known, almost for the first time, to England and France. The former has become a consumer to a considerable and growing extent, the exports having increased within two years four or five-fold. But for the antiquated restrictions imposed under the Continental regie system, the French, a nation of smokers, and constitutionally nice and delicate in taste, would also become large consumers. Italy and Austria also would be glad to exchange their heavy nicotized native leaf for the fragrant and innocent weed of North Carolina.
International legislation should be invoked to destroy a system which carries with it the ignorance of political economy which characterized the dark ages, and banish from the commercial code modes fashioned on the principles of monopolies, the rewards of venal favorites, or the desperate resorts of impoverished monarchs.
upon future creation.
The American people lie under the grievous error that they are the principal producers of tobacco, and that, as with cotton, the whole world is tributary to them. Hence the)' are impatient under the fluctuations of the market, ascribing them to the combinations among dealers by which prices are regulated by interested caprice. It is well that Americans should know that tobaccco is the production of almost every country on the globe ; that its flexibility exceeds that of almost any other agricultural product ; that it ranges from the equator to from 40 to 45 degrees on either side ; that it is of universal consumption ; and that therefore, as a foreign product, American tobacco can enter upon the markets of Europe in successful competition only by some incontestible excellencies of quality and with some favorable conditions of price.
The total crop of the United States for the four years ending in 1874 was 1,775,000,000 pounds; the total exports abroad for the same period were 982,697,476 pounds. Now, the United States come into competition with the following countries, whose products are given for the year 1874 :
The German Empire produced 99,516,501 lbs., Hungary 45,000,000, the average price of which was 3s. 6d., the tobacco being bright, and used for cigars and cutting. The Austrian Empire, including Hungary, produced 58,000,000 lbs. Turkey produced 43,000,000 lbs. of light yellow tobacco, used for cigars and cutting, the best coming from Macedonia and Syria. The prices varied from 3d. to from 3s. to 4s. There were no exports to the United States, all being to other parts of Europe. North Brazil produces a tobacco used for cigars and cutting, at a price from 3d. to is. 6d. The exports from Bahia, which were mainly to England, France, Germany and Holland, were, in 1869, 19,914,523 lbs.; in 1870, 23,864,909 lbs.; in 1873, 34,419,385. The export duty is 9 per cent, imperial and 6 per cent, provincial. Cuba produces exclusively cigar tobacco, at prices ranging from is. to 12s. A Cuba plantation consists of thirty-three acres, and produces 9,000 lbs. The Philippine Islands produce 23,000,000 lbs, one-half of which is exported to Europe, at prices from 6d. to 5s. The business is a government monopoly. Japan of late years has largely increased its production, which is a light brown leaf, used for cutting, and sold at from 3d. to 8d. The plant is not cut like American, but pulled at intervals. It is largely used by English manufacturers when American is high. China produces a large quantity of light brown and bright yellow, mostly consumed at home, except when exported under the stimulus of high prices abroad. Prices range from 3d. to 6d. New Grenada produces a cigar tobacco valued at6d. to 2s. ; exports in 186S-9, 12,571,805 lbs. Java exports 33,000,000 lbs. light cutting and cigar tobacco, valued at 8d. to 45. — all to Holland. Ecuador exports 1,120,000 of light cigar wrappers, worth is. to 2s. Venezuela, Guayaquil and Guatemala export to Germany and England about 4.000,000 lbs. of a poor, light cigar tobacco which burns badly. Mexico produces a light quality, suitable for cigars, to the extent
of 6,000,000 lbs., at a price of from 8d. to is. 6d. The business is subject to government restrictions. Tobasco produces a tobacco equal to Cuba, but the amount is not accurately known. Porto Rico produces a small, light tobacco worth 6d. ; the exports in 1871 were 1,489,490 lbs. to Germany and 206,000 to England. San Domingo produces a large, light tobacco valued at 6d. to is. 6d. ; the crop is estimated at 8,960,000 lbs., which is evidently too little. Jamaica produces a small crop, similar in quality to Cuba. Greece produces a light yellow cutting tobacco, at a valuation of from 3d. to 4d., exporting in 1873, 339,712 lbs., mostly to Great Britain. France produced from 1854 to 1868, inclusive, 45,843,920. The control of tobacco in France is a monopoly, as will be elsewhere noticed. Russia raises, mostly in the Crimea, about 23,000,000 lbs., a tobacco resembling American brights, mahoganies and blacks, which is air cured. None is exported, and there is an import demand. British India produces large crops of both light and heavy tobacco, mostly common cutting, and worth only from i?d. to 3d.; but earnest efforts are being made to improve the quality. Australia produces a coarse tobacco, suitable for plug fillers, which is protected by a duty of 25 per cent, on manufactured tobacco and 15 per cent, on leaf. The quality of the product is improving. The yield is 1300 lbs. per acre. In New South Wales the product is 976 per acre, in Tasmania 2016 per acre. In Melbourne 112 shillings has been obtained per ton for good colonial leaf; but good is rare, owing to difficulty of curing. Spain produces largely a coarse tobacco. The import is a government monopoly.
It will thus be seen that nearly every nation under the sun is a producer of tobacco, and that all, or nearly all, seek a European market. The United States thus find themselves faced by a universal competition. Nor is this all. High duties in Great Britain and Germany and government monopolies in France, Austria, Spain and Italy, close the gates to only such amount of imports as it is the pleasure of those governments to admit. To aggravate their disadvantages, the Americans persist in the production of low grades, throwing everything, good or bad, on the market, overstocking it, and keeping alive, as stock on hand, thousands of hogsheads which it would be wise economy to destroy, but whose existence excuses holders in pleading in justification of low prices an excess of supply over demand.
The Report of the Commissioner of Agriculture for 1878 says : " The fact is, that in 1869, the crop of the United States amounted to but 324 million pounds against, in round numbers, 424 millions in 1870, 410 millions in 1871 ; 505 millions in 1S72, 502 millions in 1873, 358 millions in 1874, 520 millions in 1875, 482 millions in 1876, and 581 millions in 1877, until the planters have gone on, year by year, increasing the crop, until they have glutted the markets of the world. . . . Over-production — that is, the production oi poor tobacco — is the controlling, cause of the unhappy
And again : " The production of good tobacco, of whatever kind, has never been too large. It is the production of poor tobacco that has caused the mischief. Like every other farm product of poor quality, whether poor cotton, poor rice, poor wheat or poor corn, poor tobacco has a weary way to travel to find a purchaser. ... In Liverpool, Bremen, New Orleans, Baltimore and New York alone, the stock had accumulated Nov. i, 1878, (and the proportion is kept up to this day) to 159,761 hhds. against 89,606 hhds. for the same day of 1875."
always result in low prices for the entire .commodity.
" 2. That the planters of the United States have the remedy in their own hands, that remedy being the reduction of area ; this reduction to result, from increased attention to cultivation and cure, in largely increased crops, to be sold at greatly enhanced prices.
" In a word, one acre must be made to yield what it has hitherto taken two or three to produce ; and this quantity must be made immeasurably superior in quality to that grown on the greater number of acres.
THE GREAT CENTRAL BELT.
BY far the most important tobacco region of the State is that which is near its geographical centre. It is in this that this crop has been the great staple for several generations. It is here that the greatest experience has been acquired ; and it is here that, in certain grades, the very highest excellence has been attained. This region embraces the counties of Warren, Granville, Orange, Alamance, Person, Caswell, and Rockingham, and portions of Chatham and Guilford. Most of it lies in the Laurentian formation, in which is included the light gray lands known as " chinquepin land," which has been found so suitable to the perfect production of " bright yellow tobacco." Other portions of it are embraced in the Huronian system, in which are produced the darker tobaccos suitable for fillers and mahogany or dark wrappers. The whole surface of this region is generally gently undulating, but occasionally broken by lines of bold, steep hills. The soil was originally covered with a growth of many varieties of oak, hickory, poplar, walnut, maple and pine, with heavy undergrowth of dogwood, chinquepin, sour wood, and other shrubby trees.
Tobacco culture has been, in most parts of these counties, the industry of generations ; and skill, become hereditary in white and black farmers, has given the production a character for excellence which is sustained in every market, and which is equally prominent in both the lighter and darker qualities. Hence the markets dependent upon these counties can obtain supplies of whatever grade that is desirable, giving them, when the claim of North Carolina to an independent position in relation to the tobacco trade is recognized, a pre-eminence of choice over almost all others.
The wasteful habits of past generations, in possession of abundant labor needing constant employment, and owning unlimited bodies of forest land inviting to clearance, has long since exhausted the virgin freshness of the soil. " New grounds " are rarely to be had, second growth lands become their substitute ; but when these do not occur, recourse must be had to artificial fertilizers. These are universally relied upon as indispensable to the production of " bright yellow " on lands not absolutely fresh. They are effective in imparting vitality to the still unexhausted original elements of the soil, and giving the tobacco of this section a character which is the wonder of the agricultural chemist, as well as the envy of less fortunate rivals.
The yellow tobacco familiar on the Durham, Danville and other large markets, and the material of the famous brands of Blackwell & Co. and others, was analyzed by the celebrated agricultural chemist, Dr. Augustus
in ether and alcohol 6.68
{Digestible woody fibre 14-43 ) Indigestible woody fibre 12.42 > 32.18 Mineral matter, insoluble in water.. 4.33 J
" I find merely traces of nitrates in the ' fancy bright tobaccos,' which, perhaps, is one of the reasons why the tobacco has a very mild taste ; for in all biting and strong tobacco I find the nitrates present in very considerable quantities." And again he says: "Another and most important fact which my investigations have brought to light is that the Granville County tobacco which you (Mr. Ott) sent me contains little nicotine, which I am inclined to regard as a good feature in this tobacco. The coarse, strong tobacco such as grown in the Palatinate, and some of the coarse, highly manured Virginia tobacco, contain three or four times as much nicotine." (Note — the strongest Virginia and Kentucky tobacco contains from 6 to 7 per cent, of nicotine.) And Dr. Voelcker adds : " ' Granville Bright ' is one of the finest flavored mild tobaccos I ever smoked ; poor in nicotine and albuminous compounds, the absence of which is a good and distinguishing character. Albuminous and nitrogenous compounds, when largely present, give off the odor of singed feathers or burnt bone."
It will be noted that Dr. Voelcker uses the term " Granville Bright " as a general name, in the absence of any classification for North Carolina tobacco. It is almost the same as the bright yellow of the whole State, that of the west varying slightly in composition, and should be recognized on the markets of the world by the rightful and distinctive classification of North Carolina Brights. Its identity and its origin are concealed under the deceptive and unmeaning misnomer of Virginia Strips /
While these bright yellow tobaccos are the distinctive feature of the products of this Great Central Belt, the aim and ambition of all planters to produce, and the great source of reward for their labors, the great variety of soils in this belt offers inducement to the equal perfection of the richer and darker qualities suitable for chewing, little inferior to the best leaf of the favored counties of Virginia, which is undoubtedly, for its purpose, the best in the world. Hence, in Durham, in Henderson, in Oxford, and in Danville, Va., which is largely dependent on this North Carolina " Middle Belt," the manufacturer at home, the buyer on orders, or the contractor for foreign governments, can on any one market make his selections, his orders, his contracts complete, in North Carolina warehouses, of North Carolina tobacco. It is a wrong, it is an injustice, for which North Carolinians themselves are mainly responsible through their ignorance of the extent of their resources, or apathy in asserting their power, or ignoble deference to the influence of an accepted classification. Is it right that a State, which this year will produce fifty million of pounds of tobacco; which for some years has fallen not very far short of this amount ; which produces almost exclusively one variety, the best of its kind in the world, and abundantly of other grades which Virginia is not ashamed to adopt as her own, should go abroad under the protecting shadow of another name, and seek sale and favor under the patronage of a false classification ?
In a review of this middle belt it is not proposed, as in the western section, to note the operations of individual planters. In the latter section the business is new, and the pioneers in it are readily designated. In the other, it is the universal avocation of whole counties, and the individuals far too numerous for specification. But information will be given of the most important manufacturing and sales points, such as will illustrate the magnitude of an industry which animates the town and the country alike, which invigorates agricultural life, and gives vigor to the energies of commerce and manufactures ; and which, in addition, gives North Carolina a powerful motive and occasion to assert and maintain a commercial autonomy, merged, in the past, in the life of a venerated sister State.
MARKETS. OF THIS SECTION.
N the centre and along the margins of this belt are markets, sprung into existence by a demand for their agency, and operating as an active stimulus to the larger expansion of tobacco culture. Danville, in Virginia, and Milton, in North Carolina, were established markets, in minor degree, before the war ; Durham and Reidsville, in North Carolina, have been called into being by the trade in tobacco, while Hillsboro, Henderson, and Oxford have enlarged greatly their original means of prosperity by adding this to their other branches of business.
DURHAM,
in Orange County. It is situated on the North Carolina Railroad, twentyfive miles west of Raleigh, the capital of North Carolina. Designated originally as a railroad station, and known at first only for its connection with the State University, for which it was the point of transfer, it lingered in undisturbed obscurity until the chance operations of the latter days of the war gave it notoriety as the halting-place of the victorious army of Sherman in its pursuit of the retreating Johnson ; halted, that negotiations for peace might be entered into between the chiefs of the hostile armies. These negotiations ended in terms honorable to Sherman and favorable to the ruined South ; terms, unfortunately for the wellbeing of the whole country, not endorsed by the Government at Washington, and postponing for many a long and miserable year that pacification for which the South earnestly and honestly longed.
This halt of Sherman's army was fruitful of unlooked-for consequences upon the destiny of Durham. The soldiery, idle in their camps and oppressed by the sudden contrast of active hostility and indolent inaction, sought relief in such solace as accident might present. The little tobacco factory of J. R. Green had wafted its cheer through the war among the comfortless and half-starved ranks of the Confederate army. There was no more welcome visitor from home than a present of Green's tobacco, and sisters and sweethearts made it a pious and a pleasant duty to express their affection through these little mementos, decorated with all the skill which taste or affection might suggest. The Federal army struck at its fountainhead the source of the cheer which lightened the hours of the weary Confederate. Durham proved no Capua to it ; but it made impressions and it
begat tastes which became ineradicable. Durham Smoking Tobacco became a national necessity. The returned and disbanded soldiery turned wistful and longing eyes back to the scene which had relieved the monotony of peaceful camp-life by its grateful and luxurious resources, and impatient hands were stretched out from every part of the American Union for a modicum of the fragrant compound. The effect on the fortunes of Durham was immediate and surprising. Factories sprang rapidly into existence, warehouses were established, population flocked in, a town grew up around the once obscure station, and now Durham is known throughout the wide world wherever the grateful incense of its tobacco ascends. Its six warehouses sell annually from ten to twelve million pounds of the planter's tobacco. Its ten or twelve factories manufacture from four to six million pounds of a fabric which finds its way to every part of the habitable globe. The population, the real growth of the last six years, has now reached 3,600, and continuously increases. And if, as it may be hoped when the magnitude of the tobacco interests of North Carolina are acknowledged, the State is recognized as a commercial factor in the great transactions incident to the traffic, then Durham must hold a more commanding position than it even now possesses.
In connection with the warehouse business of Durham, it is proper to ascribe to H. A. Reams the honor of pioneership in the business. He sold the first leaf ever sold at auction in Durham, on the 18th day of May, 187 1. His first sale was in a small factory building, in which he continued until the fall of 1872; the business having increased so rapidly, much larger floor capacity was required, and in that year he opened in a warehouse building" erected by W. T. Blackwell & Co., in which he continued until the fall of 1877 ; in that year he erected his present warehouse, a building 40x175 feet, on one of the most elegible lots in the town, being in its centre on Main street, and near the depot. In 1879 his trade had so largely increased that he was compelled to enlarge his buildings to double their former capacity, giving them now a floorage capacity of 14,000 feet of salesroom, with a basement of the same size. The warehouse is lit by 32 skylights, containing sixty-four 10x20 glass to each skylight, making 2,048 square feet of light, with 435 feet of shelter for wagons ; making the whole warehouse one of the largest and best arranged in North Carolina. "
are the successors of E. J. Parrish, who presents one of the most remarkable instances of successful enterprise in a town where all is life and energy. He commenced the tobacco business in 1871 as auctioneer, in the first tobacco warehouse established in Durham, and continued as such until 1873, when he became proprietor of the new warehouse just finished, and known as "The Farmer's." In 1876 he was the successful bidder for the " Durham Warehouse," which he occupied at an annual rental of $2,000 for three years, and his business increased rapidly; and in 1879 he erected the present fine building, occupied now by the firm of Parrish and Blackwell, at a cost of $32,000, and which is confessedly the best structure of its kind in North Carolina. It is of brick, 56x225 feet, with a deep and commodious basement used for storage, and with apartments for farmers. The roof is a suspension structure, pierced along its whole length by four rows of solid glass skylights. Along the sides run covered sheds the whole length ot the building, on one side 225x16, and on the other 225x10, with a park-shed 41x150, with two rows of skylights, large enough to hold one hundred wagons. Elegantly appointed offices give pleasant places of business to the eight or ten young men necessary for the duties of the house ; these offices, "like all other parts of the building, being lighted with gas.
The opening day of the house, September 29th, 1879, was a prominent x>ne in the annals of Durham, many hundred farmers with their wagons loaded with the tobacco of the adjoining counties congregating to take advantage of the animation of the auspicious day. Upwards of 80,000 pounds were sold at this warehouse on that day, for an aggregate sum of $15,000; and the happy fortune of so favorable a beginning has never deserted the house. Mr. J. W. Blackwell was admitted as a partner in the business of Mr. Parrish in April, 1880 ; and under the firm name of Parrish & Blackwell, the house continues to enlarge in its operations, and claims, and with reason, to transact a larger amount of business than any similar house in North Carolina, and has established a national reputation among the leaf- tobacco markets of the country for the uniformity of its classification and the honesty of its prizing and other essentials to good repute.
was originally " Parrish's Warehouse." In 1876 it was taken charge ot by Walker, Lyon & Co. In 1879 a change was made and the firm is now known as Walker & Burton. The warehouse is of wood, 40x150. Receipts are from the adjoining counties, together with large quantities of shipped tobacco. Receipts include all varieties.
In regard to the crop ot 1880, the senior member of this firm, a very experienced tobacconist in all branches of the avocation, reports that in quantity the crop is an average one, but in quality inferior, owing to wet weather in August. The cure of fine bright was made with difficulty. The crop was cut about the usual time. Bright and smokers predominate, including nice bright wrappers, nice bright cutters, bright fillers and bright smokers. There is little sun-cured and little dark, the aim of planters being brights exclusively.
was opened April 9th, 1879, by Lea, Corbett & Co. In 1880 the firm name of the house was changed to Lea Bros., Mr. Corbett going out, and Messrs. W. A. and J. T. Lea succeeding to the business. The warehouse is of \vood, 40x175, with extensive lots for teams and wagons. Their sales take place daily. J. Q. A. Barham is auctioneer. The supplies are from Alamance, Orange, Caswell, Person, and Granville. The character of the tobacco includes all grades of bright wrappers and smokers, with a proportionate supply of fillers.
was opened by Stokes & Thomas in 1874, who continued business for a year, and then sold their interest to W. A. Wahab & Co. They continued in business for, three or four years, and in the fall of 1878 sold to Cooper, Blackwell & Co., who in turn were succeeded in February, 1880, by Cooper & Lunsford.
The proprietors are L. E. Cooper of Granville County, and Jos. G. Lunsford of Person County. C. E. Crab tree is principal clerk, W. H Osborne of Granville auctioneer, and John W. Pope of Orange floor manager.
The sales for the past year were large and show progressive increase, and embrace supplies from all adjacent counties, from Virginia, and from the new producing counties of western North Carolina.
The total sales of the warehouses in Durham during the season of 1880 are estimated at twelve million pounds, a large majority of which was farmer's tobacco sold from the wagons. A larger quantity of package tobacco than usual was received from other markets. The characteristic excellence of the higher grades of smoking tobacco has been maintained by
This house has no merely local name. It is known the wide world over,, as familiar and as welcomed in the antipodes as in the little town to which it gave impetus and fame. For the fortunes of Durham and Blackwell & Co. are one and inseparable ; as one has expanded in business, so has the other enlarged and flourished. And while other and prospering houses have achieved fortune and reputation in the same pursuit, it is no disparagement to them to assign to Blackwell & Co. the undisputed pre-eminence in. magnitude of operations and widespread diversity of market and demand.. And this house has so grown up to its dimensions that each successive step of progress may be traced by the contemporaneous eye. Within a few steps of the present large factory is to be seen the little wooden building, with somewhat pretentious front, which, within the past decade, sufficed the wants of the proprietors ; that, in turn, giving way to the large brick edifice,, five years ago thought the creation of a vain ambition ; it in turn subjected to the large additions which dwarfed all previous effort, possibly not yet filling the measure which continual growth of business may exact.
Reference has been made elsewhere to the origin of the demand for Durham smoking tobacco, of which Mr. J. R. Green sagaciously took advantage, increasing his facilities for manufacturing, and adopting a distinguishing brand and device, making the " Durham Bull " thenceforth immortal.
It was in 1868 that W. T. Blackwell and J. R. Day, then tobacco jobbers, bought a half interest in the business of II. R. Green; and this partnership was continued until the death of Mr. Green, which took place the next year, when the other partners purchased his interest from the heirs. In 1870, /' Mr. Julian S. Carr, of Chapel Hill, N. C, bought a third interest in the business. In 1878 Mr.\J>. R. Day sold his share to the other partners, and the present firm name was assumed.
To the long and vexatious, but finally triumphant litigation by which the right to the undisputed use of the " Durham Bull " brand was established, reference can only be made. It is sufficient to say that the settlement of controversy removed the barriers to that expansion of operations forced by the spread of well-earned reputation.
erected. It was a brick building, four stories high, and one hundred feet
square, of fair architectural claims, and a striking object, with its many windows adorned with cream-colored mouldings, contrasting well with the red brick of the walls ; with its rich, deep cornice, and with the large panel over the central entrance, on which was emblazoned in colossal proportions the typical idea of the business — the great Durham Bull, rampant and triumphant.
Last year, enlargements became imperative ; and additions were made which now give a building with a north frontage of two hundred feet, with a height of four stories ; with two wings of the same height extending back one hundred and sixty feet. Mr. Blackwell himself supervised the whole work of enlargement. He designed all the interior arrangements/ rigidly inspected every piece of timber that went into the structure, and scrutinized almost every brick that was laid ; and this intelligent and watchful supervision pervades every operation of the firm.
The interior is systematically apportioned to the many and varied operations. On the first floor are the elegantly furnished offices for the clerical force, and also for the heads of the house. On the same floor is the
Shipping Room,
to which are brought the packages after they have been filled and stamped, to be marked for their destination, whether it be to New York or Galveston, to Boston or San Francisco, to Quebec or Rio de Janeiro, to Liverpool or Berlin, to Melbourne or Hokodadi — for it goes to all these places and many besides; and more than six hundred boxes, representing 17,000 pounds, are daily borne from this room to the railroad depot near by, by files of negro porters, in merry and picturesque despatch. These packages are partly of wood, partly of paper encased in canvas ; and there is also a full .supply of handsome tin cases to be used for special purposes.
The Stamping Room
is immediately above the shipping room, and is 90x120 feet. Here ninety persons are busily at work stamping and casing the little packages which are brought in from the packing room. The celerity and dexterity in handling and affixing the stamps, a work done principally by small negro boys, is somewhat marvellous. There are ten stamping tables, the stamps running from eighths to pounds. The cancelling room, the room also from which stamps are delivered, is separate from but connected with the stamping room. The monthly average of stamps used by this firm is in value about $45,000.
above the stamping room, is of the same size. Here about seventy hands are employed, filling the sacks by means of presses worked by steam, which is the motive-power for all the operations of the factory, the engine being in a remote part of the building, power being communicated by shafts and
belts. Each of these presses is attended by five persons, who weigh, feedr fill, tie and case with remarkable rapidity and accuracy. There are now thirteen of these presses in use. The bags are no small item of expense. They are made by contract with parties in Durham, who in the aggregate furnish a daily supply of from 70,000 to 80,000, representing a monthly consumption of cotton cloth amounting to 92,000 yards.
Connected with this room is the Flavoring Department, where an important, part of the series of processes by which the tobacco of Blackwell & Co. has acquired its character is performed. Eighty gallons of rum are daily used in flavoring, and ten thousand pounds of tonqua beans are required ; supplemented by the " deer tongue," a native of the county of New Hanover,. N. C, with a very delicate vanilla-like aroma.
The Manufacture
in all its processes is too familiar to be detailed in full. It is sufficient to' say that the raw leaf, which is selected and graded with the utmost care, is stored in the drying-room in the fourth story, where it is spread on lattice shelves, and heated to dryness by steam pipes. This makes the tobacco very friable. When wanted, the dried leaf is passed by the shute to the ground floor, to a room in which six or eight cutting machines, similar in construction to wheat-threshers, reduce it to fragments. From the cuttingmachines, the tobacco, leaf, dust, stems and all, goes to the basement below,, and is then carried by " elevators " to the third story, where it falls upon sieves by which the stems are removed. The residuum, granulated tobacco, pieces of leaf and dust, is then passed by automatic machinery to the floor below and " bolted," and the granulated tobacco comes out pure and clean, ready for the final operation of flavoring. The dust is bagged and shipped to the North as a component of fertilizers.
huge embankments awaiting transfer.
Under the roof, throughout the building, are a series of iron tanks, each holding one thousand gallons of water, filled by steam power operating through a length of two hundred and fifty yards of pipe, elevating the water to a height of seventy-five feet. Connected with each tank is a hose pipe, conveniently coiled upon the upright supports of the roof, with all the appliances for immediate use close at hand, so that on an alarm of fire the whole could be instantly flooded. Barrels filled with water also stand ready in every room.
110x45 feet, and 82 hands are now employed. Work was begun in August,,
1880, and the first shipment was made on the first of September; and the demand at once exceeded the supply. The stock used is very superior, and the cigarettes are put up in very tasteful packages.
is also a new industry of this factory, and the quality of the article made is excellent. It is made of the best bright cutters, and like all the stock used in the factory, is bought on the Durham market.
Blackwell & Co.'s establishment is complete in itself. It has its workshops of wood and iron where machinery is made or repaired ; it has its saw mill and planing machines where all its immense supply of boxes is made, using for them 75,000 feet per month ; it has its paper box factory to supply its fancy work ; it has its printing office to print its myriads of labels, posters, circulars, etc. ; and it has its army of employees, numbering upwards of six hundred within the building and one hundred and fifty without, together with a stable of forty or fifty horses constantly in active use. In extent, in completeness, in exact system, and in widespread business, few houses on the American continent compare with it. Besides shipments to every State and Territory of the American Union, the firm has constant transactions with England, Norway, Belgium, South America, Canada, Africa, China, Australia, and to all countries where importation of tobacco is not prohibited; and in all these countries they have regularly established agencies.
E. H. Pogue,
a manufacturer of plug tobacco at Hillsboro since 1873, transferred his business to Durham in April 1879, occupying a new building of wood, 40x100, with a deep brick basement, making a house of, practically, four stories high. At the beginning of his work in Durham, Mr. Pogue manufactured " plug" extensively, but has recently abandoned it, and in a measure substituted for it his " cut plug chewing tobacco," which is rapidly coming into use and favor. He also makes " twist " of superior excellence. But his specialties are his granulated " Sitting Bull " smoking tobacco, which has a wide sale and reputation, and his " Original and Genuine Durham Long Cut," branded according to grade No'. 1 and 2 ; this is made out of the choicest stock and commands large sales, the principal demand being from St. Louis and Chicago, which are also made distributing points for contiguous territory. A large trade for this variety has also been established in New York, Philadelphia, and Baltimore.
The granulated "Sitting Bull" is known all over the United States, and upholds the reputation of Durham as a manufacturing point for smoking tobacco. The stock for this factory is all bought on the Durham market, and is exclusively the product of Orange and adjacent counties. The marked characteristics of the tobacco of this immediate section are exemplified in all the manufactures of Durham, and to a very large extent in
drawn from this favored region.
The products of the year ending with May, 1880, were two hundred thousand pounds, since which time there has been a large increase of trade, especially in the " Long Cut," which has at once become a much-desired article of consumption ; but in all branches of his business Mr. Pogue exhibits a large and steady increase.
have grown from very modest beginnings to be among the largest and most successful manufacturers of Durham. The humble peddler of manufactured tobacco, ruined by the war, and compelled for subsistence to travel through the country selling from his wagon the small stock drawn by a pair of mules, all the ravages of war had left him, now presides over next to the largest business in the place.
Mr. W. Duke began the manufacture of smoking tobacco in the vicinity of Durham in the fall of the year 1865, removing to Durham during 1872 or 1873. Prospering by his transfer of locality, his business has expanded, requiring increase of room and facilities for manufacture. He, or rather the firm of W. Duke, Sons & Co., for he has associated with him three enterprising and experienced members of his family, now occupy a building of wood, three stories high, seventy feet long, with a frontage of eighty feet, with which is connected a house containing a steam engine which furnishes the power for grinding and cleaning the tobacco for market. The product is " granulated," the most widely known brand made being " The Duke of Durham." " Pro Bono Publico" is another fine brand, but " High Grab," unsurpassed in quality and selling readily at $1.00 per pound, is also largely made. The trade of this house extends throughout the United States, unconfined by section. Some shipments are made to London, and some to Cape Town, in Africa.
The stock is bought altogether on the Durham market. The annual product of the house is about seven hundred thousand pounds, but is so steadily and largely increasing that it promises far to exceed that point. •
Lucius Green
began business in 1877, occupying a building of wood two and a half stories high and 70x30 in extent. Granulated tobacco of superior quality is the sole manufacture of this house. The standard brand is their " Indian Girl," but a more common brand, " O K," is also made, of both of which about fifty thousand pounds are annually mad,e, with increasing business. The markets on which these brands are principally sold are New York, San Francisco, and Chicago, with growing reputation and increasing demand.
Isaac N. Link
succeeded W. R. Hughes & Co. in 1876 as a manufacturer of smoking tobacco, and has worked continuously under the above name since engaging in the business. He manufactures exclusively granulated tobacco, his sole brand being the " Dime Durham," of which his factory has a capacity of one thousand pounds a day, of a most superior fabric. This factory stands third in productiveness, as claimed by the proprietor, on the list of Durham factories. The work is continued through the year to meet a demand which is well sustained by the New York, Philadelphia, Cincinnati, and Chicago markets. f
The firm comprising Z. T. and J. Ed. Lyon began the manufacture of tobacco in 1874, in a building of wood, two and a half stories high, and 32x70 feet. They use steam power, and employ sixteen hands on an average, making granulated exclusively, the annual product of which is about one hundred and seventy-eight thousand pounds. Their only brand is the " Pride of Durham," which finds markets in the Northern and New England States, with also some Southern and Western trade. In connection with this establishment is a box factory which supplies the trade of the place generally.
R. T. Faucett
began business in 187 1, but was burned out in 1877, and rebuilt in another location the succeeding year. He now occupies a building of wood, two and a half stories high, and 80x40 feet in dimension. His product is granulated smoking tobacco, his brands being " Favorite Durham " and " Ten Cent Durham," with a trade extending all over the United States. The yearly product of the factory is about one hundred and eighty thousand pounds. Steam is used for grinding, cleaning, etc.
were the real pioneers of tobacco manufacture in Durham, while J. R. Green was the originator of the brand that first gave it celebrity. R. F. Morris & Son began their manufacture in 1865, continuing it until the death of the senior partner, when a transfer was made, and the business is now conducted by W. H. Willard as president and S. F. Tomlinson as superintendent. The principal brand of this house is the " Bear," a granulated smoking tobacco of good repute which has an extensive general demand. This house is also a large manufacturer of Scotch snuff, the only one of the kind in the State, and sustain their claim to make an article prepared with great care and skill, and free from adulterations prejudicial to health, and is made from pure clean stock, selected with careful reference to a good quality of snuff. A higher grade, Maccaboy, is also made, and both of them are in large demand.
are manufacturers of the " Tiger " brand of granulated smoking tobacco. W. S. Roulhac began the business in Hillsboro in 1871, under the firm of Webb & Roulhac, but removed to Durham in 1873, with the same firm name, which was changed in 1876 to its present title. The house does a good business, principally with the North and Northwest, and its product is held in high repute.
established their business in Nov. 1878, the firm having been composed of J. R. and W. P. Day. The former was one of the copartners of W. T. Blackwell & Co., and acquired large experience as a manufacturer, which at once gave the new association an impetus so great as to rival in amount of sales during the first year of their business the operations of any other house in Durham.
In January, 1880, the business was sold to H. K. and F. B. Thurber, of New York, who propose largely to increase the work of the house. The business is still carried on under the original name of the firm. Granulated tobacco is exclusively made, and the house has but one brand, that of " Standard of the World." >
HILLSBORO.
THIS point in Orange County, N. C, has been the seat of very considerable manufacturing- industry for more than twenty years. Situated very conveniently to the tobacco -producing regions of Orange, Person, Caswell, and Alamance counties, it occupied a position sufficiently commanding to have become a controlling power. There has been no development of enterprise commensurate with the advantages of situation. Yet the manufactures of Hillsboro have always been held in high repute ; and it is believed now that the success of some already at work will have a beneficial effect upon others, who, until now, have held back through timidity or indolence. Here the warehouse business, as in some other places, was not the creator of manufactures. It followed after the necessities for a supply at home became clamorous for satisfaction. Almost at once, in 1869-70, three warehouses came into existence. Two soon perished ; but
built in 1870, still survives, and with now good hope of permanent existence. It is a wooden building 125x40, and was originally conducted by J. C. Webb. He was succeeded by J. R. Gattis ; he by E. H. Pogue ; and Mr. C. B. Taylor is now proprietor. He opened the house on the nth of March, 1880, and his sales to the 1st of October reached 250,000 pounds. In 1878, at which time E. H. Pogue was in charge, the sales reached 500,000 pounds. In 1879 the house was closed.
J. Y. Whitted began work in 1859 under the firm name of Webb & Whitted, and was at the head of a large and growing business at the opening of the war, when the house ceased operations. Business was resumed in 1867 by J. Y. Whitted under the firm name of J. Y. Whitted & Co., which firm has worked continuously ever since. Mr. Whitted occupies a building of wood, 110x40, two stories high, furnished with the most approved machinery. The product is plug and twist ; and recently a fine brand of smoking tobacco, " Harry Lee," which is becoming widely and popularly known. The choicest brands of plug are " Gold Ambrosia," which has taken the first premiums and medals at four of the North Carolina State Fairs, the first premium at the Alabama State Fair, and the same at the Atlanta, Savannah and Wilmington Agricultural Fairs. It was exhibited at Vienna, but arrived after the awards had been made.
Next in order is " Harry Lee," " North State," " Walter Raleigh " and <(J. Y. Whitted's Sun Cured." The markets for these brands are in North and South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Texas, Florida and Louisiana, also Tennessee and Virginia. The annual product is now one hundred thousand pounds, with increasing business.
is the firm name conducting the factory known as Webb's, the firm being composed of James Webb, Jr., J. C. Webb and Geo. C. Corbin. They began work in 1878 in a wooden building, but in 1880 erected a brick edifice, four stories high and 40x60, using this in connection with the old premises. The product is twist and plug, the latter largely in excess of the former. Their best brands are "Superb," "Choice Bright," "Choice Red." Their stocks are bought on all markets. The product this year is about one hundred and fifty thousand pounds, with a large prospective increase. Their markets are mostly in North Carolina and the Southern States generally. Their twist is sent mostly to Cincinnati and Nashville. The brands are " Berkshire " and " Victory."
organized their business in 1872. They occupy a wooden building two stories high, 150x50. Their operations are conducted by steam power. This is exclusively " a smoking " factory. The only brands made are "Occonneechee" and "Tar Heel," both granulated, and a superior article of " long cut," also branded " Tar Heel." The product is about fifty thousand pounds, with decided indications of very large future increase.
These tobaccos are very popular wherever known, and are growing steadily in favor. At present, the markets are New York, Georgia and the Western States. Occasional shipments are made to Liverpool, Berlin and the Coast of Africa. A large trade has been opened with Cincinnati for •,' Occonneechee," and active agencies established in the city of New York, besides important business with Chicago. All the stock used by this house is bought on the Hillsboro market.
succeed to the business initiated by J. W. Corbin in 1871, who worked until 1873, when the factory was worked under the name of Corbin & Pogue for one year, and then again for one year by J. W. Corbin. He suspended for one year, and operations were resumed by J. M. Corbin, who was succeeded during 1880 by the present firm. This occupies a wooden building two stories high, 30x60. The product is plug and twist of all styles. The best brands are " No. 1," " No. 2," " No. 3 " and "No. 4," and "J. W. Corbin," plug, and " Little Carrie," twist. The shipments are principally to Nashville, Memphis, Cincinnati, Chicago, St. Joseph, and to
in Rockingham County, is situated on the line of the Richmond and Danville Railroad, equidistant from Greensboro in North Carolina and Danville in Virginia, twenty-five miles from each. It is, like Durham, the creation of the tobacco interest. Rockingham County had long been devoted largely to the cultivation of tobacco, which was cultivated mostly on the rich and heavy lands along Dan river and its tributaries, the product being either the dark rich mahogany suitable for wrappers and fillers or the coarser shipping tobacco, all of which found sale in the markets of Virginia. But the newly designated station was also convenient to the county of Caswell, more famous than Rockingham because of the finer quality of its tobacco, and not far remote from the counties of Person and Alamance in North Carolina, and from some of the best producing counties in Virginia, and manufactories and warehouses were established and rapidly increased in number, until Reidsville is now an important point both of receipt and manufacture. Of the former, the warehouse sales for the season ending October 1st, 1880, reached about four million pounds, and there were manufactured for the same period about two million pounds. There are three warehouses in Reidsville.
was opened on the 19th of April, 1875, by J. S. Redd and J. F. Wooten. The present proprietors are J. S. Redd, J. F. Wooten, J. Willie Smith and J. A. Roach. The building is of wood on a brick basement, and is 50x125 feet, well lighted, conveniently arranged, with extensive adjoining lots for stabling, etc. The sales are held daily. The supplies of tobacco are drawn from the surrounding counties of both Virginia and North Carolina. There is a steady annual increase in the business of this house, which is somewhat more than a third of that of the Reidsville market.
the proprietor of which is A. J. Ellington, was established in 1871, and is a brick building 50x120, of excellent arrangement within and without. The sales are daily ; the receipts, like those of Redd's, are from the surrounding counties. A large amount of shipped tobacco is also sold here.
who began business in 1880, working during that year on a scale somewhat smaller than will mark their operations hereafter. They manufacture a granulated smoking tobacco, their only brand being the " Monogram," which has gained high favor in the markets into which it has been introduced. It is sold principally in the South and also in St. Louis. The business of this house shows such steady and healthy increase as to justify the purpose largely to increase the size of the buildings during the coming winter.
began business under the above style in 1879, occupying two buildings in different parts of the town, the one of wood and brick, three stories high, 40x90 feet, and supplied with the most perfect machinery. In this an average of one hundred and twenty-five hands are employed, who made during the past season three hundred and fifty thousand pounds of plug and twist. The other building is fifty feet square, three stories high, and employs from eighty to ninety hands, who will make during the season ending with November 1st, 1880, one hundred and seventy-five thousand pounds twist. The supplies of material are obtained on the Reidsville market.
were engaged in manufacturing in Wentworth, in Rockingham County, North Carolina, for several years, and transferred their business to Reidsville in 1880, occupying a wooden building with stone basement, 40x80 feet, and three stories high. About sixty hands are employed, who make annually one hundred thousand pounds of plug and twist, which is shipped largely to Eastern Carolina and to Georgia and Alabama. The proprietors say their business increases steadily.
began business in 1879. They occupy a brick building four stories high and 133x44 feet. Their machinery is of the most approved construction and their hydraulic presses are acted on by steam power. They employ about two hundred hands and produce five hundred thousand pounds of plug and twist. Next year they propose to manufacture eight hundred thousand pounds. Their trade is with Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana and Texas.
entered into their present business in 1872-3 as Barnes & Crofts. The present firm is composed of D. Barnes, John D. Staples and P. H. Williamson, organized in 1879. They occupy a building of wood, two and a half stories high, 80x40. They use the most perfect machinery and produce plug exclusively, of which they make during the current year one
The firm, being composed of F. R. & S. C. Penn, engaged in their present business in 1874, occupying now a building partly of wood, partly of brick, four stories high and 40x126 feet. They employ one hundred and twenty-five hands, who will produce during the present working season three hundred and seventy-five thousand pounds of plug and twist, which is sold mostly in the Southern States. Their business steadily develops, their first year's product being seventy-five thousand pounds. They doubled the capacity of their building last winter, and propose during the coming winter to apply steam in their operations.
organized as a firm in May, 1880, manufacturing plug and twist to the extent of about one hundred and twenty-five thousand pounds yearly. They work principally for jobbers for Atlanta, Montgomery, Savannah, Macon and Mobile, making both twist and plug. They report their business increasing beyond expectation, with bright future prospects.
working season of 188 1.
In the county of Rockingham, in which Reidsville is situated, there are other factories at Leaksville, Madison and Wentworth, some of which are closed during this year. The whole amount of revenue collected on tobacco for this county in the year 1879 was $244,930.67.
OXFORD.
This beautiful town is in the centre of a fine agricultural country, where the production of the cereals, of cotton and of tobacco, is combined in equal excellence in a rare contiguity. Around the town and along the roads leading to it may be found farms upon which all these staples are embraced in one glance of the eye, and the appearance of all indicative of soil and climate happily adapted to the utmost perfection of each and all of them. Tobacco in this county attains its very highest excellence. The experienced dealer in tobacco can tell at a glance or detect by the touch the celebrated Dutchville leaf — a bright yellow that has never found an equal. Other sections of the county are scarcely inferior, and the quality of the land and the nice experience of the planters have given, for a number of years, a distinguished prominence to Granville.
though Richmond retains a firm hold upon the preferences of many.
In 1878 Mr. H. G. Cooper, of Oxford, sagaciously saw the opportunity to found a business which would retain a portion of the trade at home, and erected a warehouse, which speedily proved the wisdom of the movement. During the first year the sales reached three hundred thousand pounds.
Messrs. Kingsbury, Minor & Lassiter and Mr. E. H. Crew opened warehouses in 1880, and during that year the aggregate sales were two million pounds of farmer's tobacco, which is bought on order or- on speculation.
HENDERSON,
situated on the Raleigh and Gaston Railroad, in the county of Granville, within a few years has acquired prominence as a tobacco market. In the centre of a fertile agricultural region, it had grown steadily, from its foundation in 1838, to considerable importance as the market, or at least shipping point, for the cotton and the cereals raised in the adjacent counties ; and in turn the distributing centre for the merchandise, the fertilizers and other supplies needed for the agricultural classes ; and was also the shipping and receiving point for Oxford, the flourishing county-seat of Granville. Nearly destroyed by fire in 1870, it had been rebuilt, and was ready for the impetus given to its growth by the addition of the tobacco business.
In addition to Granville, the adjacent counties of Warren and Franklin soon found Henderson their most convenient market ; and the enterprise of warehousemen and manufacturers was evoked to supply such convenience. Warehouses and factories both now meet every demand, and Henderson is now one of the large tobacco markets in the State.
seller.
The supplies for these houses come from the counties of Granville, Warren and Franklin in North Carolina and Mecklenburg in Virginia. The supply is altogether farmer's tobacco. There is little or no shipped tobacco on the market ; and this, together with a uniformly high grade, leads to the claim of the Henderson market that the averages here are higher than on any other market.
The sales of the year ending October ist, 1879, were six million pounds. It is thought that the sales to October ist, 1880, reached ten millions. They are stated elsewhere in these pages at seven millions.
JOS. E. POGUE
manufactures plug exclusively. His tobacco has gained large reputation. At the State Fair in 1879 he took the first premium for quality, and at the Fair of 1880 the premium for the best and largest exhibit of manufactured tobacco. Markets mostly in North Carolina.
PRIZE HOUSES.
Of these there are several, occupied by leaf dealers who buy and ship on their own account. S. & C. Watkins occupy a building of wood, 40x98, with five floors; C. Hunter, a building 40x80; J. D. Cooper, one 30x100 ; J. H. Lassiter one 30x60, and R. M. Powell one of the same size.
ROXBORO,
in Person County, is the centre of large tobacco culture. The planters have always stood high for skill in culture. From absence of railroad facilities, manufacture became almost a necessity, and, at Roxboro, Woodsdale, Blue Wing, and other points in the county, before the war many factories existed. Under changed conditions, Roxboro alone continues to manufacture. A warehouse was indispensable, and therefore Messrs. Webb & Co. opened one in 1875. It is a commodious wooden buiMing, 40x80 feet, with skylight and every accommodation for the farmer. The tobacco sold here is almost all of home production. The sales for the year will reach three hundred thousand pounds.
J. P. Satterfield began the enterprise of the cigar manufacture in 1878. He uses Pennsylvania and Connecticut leaf. His brands have achieved a high reputation: " Little Mamie," " Odd Fellow," and " Pride of America." He also manufactures the "South Down" smoking tobacco.
W. H. Long established his factory in 1874, for plug and twist. His building is of wood, 30x124, two and a half stories high. The product of the factory is one hundred thousand pounds annually. He works sixty hands, using hydraulic machinery.
W. C. Satterfield
manufactures plug and fancy twist, making sixty thousand pounds per annum. His building is of wood, 40x70, two and a half stories high. He works forty-five hands, using hydraulic power.
DANVILLE,
in Pittsylvania County, Virginia, is so intimately associated with the tobacco interests of North Carolina that it must unavoidably be named in the same connection, for it was the exclusive market for many years for the border counties of the latter State, affording facilities not to be had at " home, and, from its proximity to the border, the large influx of North Carolina merchants, manufacturers, and residents, becoming to all intents and purposes a North Carolina town, identical in habits, interests, and pursuits. Its growth is largely due to the tobacco business, which is now, as it always has been, the paramount interest, stimulated and developed by the construction of the railroad to Richmond, about the year 1847, still further stimulated by the connection with the North Carolina railroad system during the existence of the war, awaiting still wider development by the narrow-gauge roads now under construction to Henry County, and anticipating still greater advantages from the building of the Midland Road into regions not yet penetrated by her enterprise. With every advantage of water power, Danville has confined the use of its capital and enterprise almost exclusively to the sale and manufacture of tobacco — potent elements' of prosperity, however, which prove their influence by the growth of a town in a few years from a court-house seat of small population to a city of ten thousand inhabitants, well built, well paved, lighted with gas, supplied with abundant water, and having eight sales-warehouses and nearly thirty tobacco factories, all of them large and commodious brick buildings, and producing annually about fifteen million pounds of manufactured tobacco. The Warehouse system was established before the war by Mr. Neal, for the convenience both of the manufacturer and the farmer, the former having
previously to go into the country and purchase his stock at the barns, and the latter, if he brought his crop to market, making his sales in the streets, with all the inconvenience of exposure to weather and unfavorable presentation of the qualities of his products. No development, however, of the warehouse system was made until the superior advantages of bringing buyer and seller face to face, and under the stimulus of competition, was demonstrated, hastened also by some of the requirements of the newlyenacted revenue laws, which enforced greater exactness in the transfer of an article become so important a subject of taxation. Sales otherwise are now not usually made, though buyers frequently make their contracts with the farmers at the barns, a mode which is only justified by the sagacious experience of the purchaser and the perfect integrity and good faith of the seller.
The increase in the sales in the warehouses has been steadily progressive, as is shown by the exhibits of a few years. In 1873-4, they were about 12,000,000 pounds; in 1874-5, 14,679,421, of the average value of $20.45 per hundred pounds : in 1875-6, 23,466,413, averaging $13.32 ; in 1876-7, 16,426,296, with an average of $12.38; in 1877-8, 27,698,828; in 1878-9, 26,827,924; and in 1879-80, 33,151,310.
To handle this large amount, eight warehouses are now engaged, and the stability of the business is evinced by the elegant and substantial buildings devoted to the purpose, in strong contrast to the structures originally used, one or two of which still survive as mementos of the infancy of a now fully developed institution.
exists as one of the oldest in construction in Danville. Capt. W. P. Graves, the proprietor, is from Caswell County, a veteran of the Mexican war, and began the sales business in Neal's, the first warehouse opened in Danville, in 1858, where he remained until he went into the service of the Southern Confederacy as commander of the Danville Blues in 1861. In April, 1867, he built the original building of Holland's warehouse, which he occupied one year. In 1868 he erected his present warehouse, where he has ever since remained. This building is 175x80, of wood, and is conveniently arranged. W. P. Graves is proprietor ; George E. Coleman, auctioneer ; Joseph H. Blackwell, floor manager ; F. L. Walker, clerk ; Col. O. L. Bailey and P. H. Tredway, assistant clerks. The supplies, as with all other warehouses in Danville, are from the adjacent counties of Virginia and North Carolina, and with receipts from very distant points in those States, the mountain counties in both of late making many shipments to Danville. Of these receipts, brights predominate. The sales in this house fluctuate. In 1872-73 they were 2,986,449 pounds, with an average of $12.13 Per cent. ; in 1873-74 they were 2,136,249, average $10; in 1874-75, 4-II2»748» average $18.94; m I875-76, 4,084,811, average $10.10; in 1876-77, 2,601,426, average $10.60; in 1877-78, 2,596,235, and in 1879-80 about 3,000,000.
was established in 1867. Originally of wood, it has given place to a commodious and admirably arranged structure of brick which was erected in 1878, and which is 100x208, with ample storage rooms in the basement. The salesroom is well lighted with solid skylights. The proprietors are S. H. Holland, Daniel Coleman and Peter B. Law, who constitute the oldest warehouse firm in Danville. The officers are J. W. Guerrant, of Rockingham County, N. C, floor manager ; Daniel Coleman and J. J. Hill, auctioneers, and P. B. Law, book-keeper. The annual sales are over five million pounds. The sales were made up, for the past year, mostly of brights, peculiar to this section, and a small proportion of fine and fancy wrappers, or what are called first-class fillers. Between Virginia and North Carolina there is little difference in supplies, with possibly an excess in favor of the former.
was established in 1874 by Pace Bros., now of Lynchburg, who had previously occupied a large but roughly constructed wooden building. In that year they erected the large brick building now occupied by Hutchings, Thomas & Co., the first of those substantial and conveniently arranged warehouses so marked a feature of Danville. This building is 150x160, with an area of twenty-four thousand square feet of floor surface, with a large basement for the storage of tobacco. The sales of this house are now largely in excess of five million pounds yearly, as by following table : Sold by Hutchings, Thomas & Co., from 1st October, 1872, to
by Redd & Jordan, is a large and commodious brick building, erected on the site of the wooden structure burned the preceding year. The present building is 190x80, with an L 40x50, with excellent arrangements for planters and teams. The receipts of this house, embracing everything but shippirlg tobacco, are from Henry, Halifax and Pittsylvania counties in Virginia and from the border counties of North Carolina. Brights predominate. The sales of the crop of 1879-80 are estimated at four million pounds.
was erected in November, 1877, and is a wooden building 190x110, with a lot extending from Bridge to Craghead and Main streets, with extensive accommodations for teams, one hundred and fifty stalls, a camp-house of brick, two stories high, and a three-story storage house for tobacco held for sale. The heaviest receipts are from Halifax County, in Virginia, and the border counties of North Carolina, chiefly Caswell and Rockingham. Brights predominate, but the receipts of mahogany wrappers and fillers from Henry and Rockingham are large. The receipts from the crop of 1879-80 are estimated at five millions.
by Thomas L. Poindexter & Son, was erected in 1877 and is of wood, 170x70, with a wing 40x60. Receipts of all grades are from the neighboring counties of Virginia and North Carolina. Large sales are made on orders, and the sales this year will exceed five million pounds.
was opened on the 19th of November, 1879, the proprietors being J. B. Anderson & Co. The building is of brick, 160x80, and is admirably lighted and is altogether one of the most perfect structures of its kind in use. A new feature in it is that baggage and harness are checked as in hotels.
No information furnished.
The Annual Report of the President of the Tobacco Association of Danville (Mr. Ferrall), made for the year closing September 30, 1880, shows that the receipts of leaf for the year amounted to 33,151,310 pounds, selling on the warehouse floors for $3,775,500.79, or an average of $11.38 per hundred.
Of this it is estimated that North Carolina furnished nearly, if not quite, one-half — the location of Danville being such that it commands the North Carolina trade as much as she does that of Virginia.
Danville is a very important manufacturing point, there being about thirty factories of the largest and most substantial character used for the manufacture of plug tobacco ; but these are only referred to, not being essential to the objects of this publication.
BURDENS ON TOBACCO.
GOVERNMENTS may fairly be permitted, in provision for their main-tenance, to select such objects for the imposition of the burden of taxation, from which essential revenue is derived, as may justly fall under the head of luxuries. The common sense of mankind assigns to superfluities responsibilities from which necessaries of life should be freed. But in the changed subjects of modern tastes and habits, it is difficult to draw the distinction between what are luxuries and what are necessaries. What was once accessible only to the rich and grateful only to the refined, the larger intercourse of nations has brought within the reach of all. High prices may no longer erect a barrier between the rich and the poor ; and the favored taste of a special class has become the common relish of the masses. And there would be no restriction upon the common enjoyment of so-called luxuries did not Government step in, and, by the imposition of duties of taxes, revive a distinction which time had almost effaced. In nothing has this distinction been more arbitrarily asserted and enforced than in the article of tobacco, scarcely to be called a luxury, since it has become so indispensable to the comfort of the human race. And in nothing is this distinction so unjust, because it is enforced upon a solitary subject of agricultural toil. Foreign governments may be pardoned for their exactions upon articles of distant growth. A home government shows deficiency in parental interest, rather displays the animosity of a foster parent, when it singles out tobacco alone of all agricultural produce as the mark for heavy discrimination and vindictive oppression. The results of the war made the South sensible that it had many of its after burdens to bear, but the terms of settlement could not lead her to expect so unequal an apportionment of them. They were imposed, however, when the Southern States had no voice in acts of national legislation, when the voice of the victor clamorously dictated the policy of the Government, and when prostrate provinces offered a rich and ready sp'oil in the wealth of special objects of universal consumption. The civilized world, the North itself, called a halt when the heavy hand of taxation was laid on cotton, because that staple had interwoven itself into the interests and sympathies of every industrial community. But tobacco, the special subject of Southern culture and manufacture^ has found no friends with any administration, and though the tax has fluctuated from forty cents down to sixteen cents upon the pound, it endures even at this lowest rate a burden on the most abundant grades, of from one to four hundred per cent. No such burden has ever oppressed an AngloSaxon agricultural class ; and it is one amazing to the newly created African citizens, large producers of tobacco, who, in all other particulars, have been the signal recipients of governmental favors.
In the imposition of the tax on tobacco, certain axioms have been disregarded. " In a free government taxes are laid by the representatives of the people, and of course with the consent of those who are to pay them." If ours is now a free government, which it certainly was not in respect to an important section at the time the revenue laws were enacted, it is theoretically proper and justly right that that revenue be now revised to approximate equality in burdens. It can never be just, however it may be temporarily productive, to oppress one special industry. Again : " every tax ought to be so apportioned as to take out, and keep out, of the pockets of the people as little as possible over and above of what it brings into the public treasury of the State." The revenue law of the United States disregards this absolutely. It takes out, and it putt nothing back. It robs the producer, and affects all others. To use the language of the Hon. Geo. C. Cabell, M. C. from Virginia : /" " The producer suffers because his, of all other agricultural products, is singled out for taxation ; that his industrial pursuit, to which he is compelled by the peculiarities of climate, soil and habit, is heavily burdened, his bone and muscle, his energy, his toil, his poverty, are all made to pay tribute to the Government, while other sections, other industries, and other productions go free of tax, and, indeed, are made to prosper by reason of the very impositions upon tobacco.
" The manufacturer suffers because he must carry, at vast outlay, not only his stock but his stamps ; because he is hedged about by annoying regulations, and is subjected not only to the ordinary vicissitudes of trade, but to the constant agitation which ever attends an onerous tax.
" The consumer suffers because, having contracted the free use of tobacco, he regards it more as a necessity than a luxury ; because many of the poorer classes, the greatest consumers, by the enhanced price consequent upon the tax are driven in great degree from the market, and forced to the use of the meaner grades of tobacco, while the rich alone can indulge in the luxury of the fine.
" The Government suffers because the tax rate is so high that it discourages production, manufacture, and consumption, promotes fraud, paralyzes trade, and, in short, by its oppressiveness defeats in great degree the ends and objects of the whole revenue system."
The product of North Carolina for the year 1880 is not less than forty-six million of pounds. The average value of this is about twelve cents, or $5,552,000. The tax is sixteen cents a pound, or $7,360,000.
The tax is the more onerous because the imposition of an authority which will not be convinced of unwisdom or injustice, and because, in many parts of the South, it is the only money crop, the only profitable crop adapted to many soils — a crop made and perfected by hereditary habit and skill, and one, therefore, not readily abandoned.
thirteen of her many ports against it, and in these thirteen graciously permits its reception upon the payment of a duty of 3s. per pound without regard to quality, and if it contains less than 10 per cent, of moisture 3s. 6d. — the shilling being about 23 cents. France, Austria, Spain and Italy all control a monopoly of tobacco through the agency of the Regie system. These governments enter into contracts with certain of their subjects who engage to furnish a certain quantity at a stipulated price. These contractors naturally pay as little as they can to make as much as they can out of their contract. The amount contracted for is restricted, therefore over-production, or even the normal crop of the United States, finds no Continental market open to the caprices or changes of demand. The quality purchased is inferior, therefore the producer has no encouragement for the increased culture of superior grades. The contractor may lose by his contract; but his government, using its power of monopoly with relentless force, adds largely to its revenues.
To illustrate the operations of the Regie system in France the following, from the New York Commercial Bulletin of July, 1880, is quoted, premising that the reports of the Regie for 1874 had only recently been published and the statistics of that year only are available.
Total, kilos 30,666,251 38,412,285
The average price of the home crop of France in 1875 was 9of. 66c. per 100 kilos, and Algerian brought 62f. 79c. In 1874 the averages were respectively 8gf. 89c. and 75f. 34c. The production of tobacco in France was in 1874 13,828,486 kilos and in Algeria 4,850,043 kilos. The purchases in 1874 and in 1875, with the average price paid per 100 kilos (in francs), were as follows :
. 73
The average price was 1,007.99^ per 100 kilos. The profits of the French government monopoly ranged from 177,920,000^ in 1865 to 254,557,ooof. in 1875, which is one of the easiest ways of making revenue for a government we know of.
In other foreign countries the duties are as follows :
In Germany the duty on leaf tobacco and stems is 85 marks per 100 kilogrammes, equal to 10.40 cents per pound; on strips and scraps, 180 marks per 100 kilogrammes, equal to 22.05 cents per pound ; on manufactured tobacco and cigars, 170 marks per 100 kilogrammes, equal to 33.08 cents per pound. On tobacco produced in Germany, the tax taking effect after April 1, 1880: From April 1, 1880, to March 31, 1881, 10 marks per 180 kilogrammes, equal to 2.45 cents per pound ; from April 1, 1881, to March 31, 1882, 30 marks per 100 kilogrammes, equal to 3.67 cents per pound; from April 1, 1882, and thereafter 45 marks per 100 kilogrammes, equal to 5.50 cents per pound. In Belgium the impost is reckoned after deducting 15 per cent, for tare. The duty is 2of. ($3.86 gold) per 100 kilogrammes (100 American pounds equal to 45J kilogrammes). In Holland the duty is 28 cents gold per 100 kilogrammes (280 American pounds being equal to 127 kilogrammes). In Russia the duty on leaf tobacco is 4 roubles 10 kopecks per pud ; on smoking tobacco 26 roubles 40 kopecks per pud (the pud is about 36 American pounds). In Turkey the duty is 50 cents gold per ni American ounces. In England the duties are, on unmanufactured : Stemmed or stripped and unstemmed, containing 10 pounds or more of moisture in every 100 pounds weight thereof, 3s. 6d. per pound ; containing less than 10 pounds of moisture, 3s. iod. per pound. On manufactured tobacco : Cavendish and Negrohead, 4s. iod. per pound ; all other sorts, including cigarettes, 4s. 6d. per pound. In addition to the above duties there is a charge of £ per cent, warehouse charges on all descriptions. — Western Tobacco fairnal.
Canadian Tobacco Duties and Excise.
The following are the rates of duty now imposed in Canada on the various manufactures of tobacco : Cigars and cigarettes, 50 cents per pound and 20 per cent, ad valorem. Manufactured tobacco, 25 cents per pound and 12^ per cent, ad valorem. Snuff, 25 cents per pound and 12$ per cent, ad valorem. In lieu of all excise duties — except license fees — now imposed on tobacco known as " common Canadian twist," otherwise called " tabac blanc en torquette," being the unpressed leaf rolled and twisted, and made wholly from raw tobacco, the growth of Canada, and upon raw leaf, the growth of Canada, there shall be imposed, levied and collected on every pound or less quantity than a pound an excise duty of four cents.
burden upon tobacco. The following are the taxes laid, which produced to the government, in 1879, a revenue on 170,722,000 pounds consumed at home/ and including tax on cigars, cigarettes, snuff, special tax on manufacturers, dealers, etc., $41,115,528.
The tax on all kinds of manufactured tobacco is 16 cents per pound ; snuff, 16 cents per pound; cigars, $6 per thousand; cigarettes weighing not over three pounds per thousand, $1.75 per thousand; cigarettes and cheroots weighing over three pounds per thousand, $6 per thousand. The duty on foreign cigars is $2.50 per pound and 25 per cent, ad valorem. Cigarettes same duty as cigars. Imported cigars, cigarettes and cheroots also bear the prescribed internal revenue taxes, to be paid by stamps at the custom house. The import duty on leaf tobacco is 35 cents per pound; leaf tobacco, stemmed, 50 cents per pound ; manufactured tobacco, 50 cents per pound ; scraps, 50 cents per pound. Manufactured tobacco and scraps are also subject to the internal revenue tax of 16 cents per pound, and must be packed in conformity with internal revenue laws and regulations. Scraps and cuttings, however, may be withdrawn in bulk for use in a tobacco, snuff or cigar manufactory without payment of the internal revenue tax. — Western Tobacco Journal.
Retail dealers in leaf tobacco are required to pay a special tax of $500, and if their annual sales amount to over $1,000 they must pay an additional tax of fifty cents for every dollar in excess of $1,000 of their sales. The tax upon dealers in leaf tobacco, those who buy and sell on commission original and unbroken hogsheads, bales and cases, is $25.00; but merchants may buy from planters, upon the payment of a license tax of $5, to an extent not exceeding 25,000 pounds per annum.
Farmers and planters are not required to pay any tax on tobacco of their own raising, or that received by them as rent from tenants who have produced the same on their land. Neither will the farmer be required to pack or prize his tobacco before offering it for sale, in hogsheads or otherwise, but he may sell it loose as he has heretofore been in the habit of selling, irrespective of taxation. If, however, he sells direct to consumers, or if he sells, assigns, consigns, transfers or disposes of his tobacco to persons other than those who have paid special taxes, either as leaf dealers or as manufacturers of tobacco, snuff or cigars, or to persons purchasing leaf for export, he becomes liable, as a retail dealer in leaf tobacco, to the special tax of $500, and to the additional tax of fifty cents on every dollar in excess of $1000 of his sales. It is the duty of every farmer producing and selling leaf tobacco, on demand of any revenue officer, to furnish a complete statement, verified by oath, of the amount of his sales, to whom sold, and where shipped.
Chewing and smoking tobaccos, 16 cents per pound.
The producer is at the mercy of systems which combine against him at home and abroad. At home, in the presence of a great national debt, diminishing by slow degrees, and in pursuance of a policy which practically operates upon the South as upon conquered territory, there is small hope of relief. Abroad, the same necessity is laid upon Great Brkain and upon most of the continental powers. The abolition of the Regie system may be effected by interested negotiation. Should that be done, then a wide market would be thrown open to such grades of American tobacco as would bear the imposition of high duties. For it may be assumed that such measures would be followed by imposts somewhat akin to those of Great Britain. Fine qualities alone could bear those imposts. It would, therefore, be the policy of the North Carolina planter to direct his attention mainly to the production of such. The enlarging field for the production of " bright yellow tobacco " must have larger opening for continued profitable demand. That may follow when the Regie system gives place to something conformable to modern ideas of commerce.
TOTAL CROP OF NORTH CAROLINA.
IT is evident that no accurate account of the crop of North Carolina has ever been given. The U. S. statistician, in his report to the Department of Agriculture for the year 1878, the last that has been made public, excuses his inaccuracies by the difficulty of finding persons who are capable and willing to furnish reliable estimates, and remarks, that " the National census never agrees with State returns." There have never been accurate returns from this State, either National or State. But the returns from the Department at Washington are accepted abroad as authentic. The effect, of course, is to diminish North Carolina as a tobacco-producing State, and to confirm the secondary position she has been made to assume.
The report for 1878 assigns to North Carolina even a lower place than it occupied in i860. In the former year, it is credited with only 12,896,000 pounds on an acreage of 20,800, with a total valuation of crop of $773,760.
Surely there have been no steps backward, and though tobacco has been so heavily oppressed by the exactions of onerous taxation, the soils and climates of certain sections, the habits of the planters, and the necessities of the people, have compelled an adherence to the culture of this staple. And the opening of markets at home, and the expansion of the warehouse system, have stimulated production so largely that even in 1878 the report of the statistician was enormously inaccurate.
It is not possible to give exact information, even from the source most to be relied on for accuracy — the warehouses, both in North Carolina and Virginia, in which the crop of the former is sold — because, in addition to what is technically called " farmer's tobacco," that is, tobacco delivered on the floors of the warehouses by the planters in person, there is always a large amount of "package tobacco" — that is, tobacco bought on one market and transhipped for sale to another market — sold in every warehouse, which goes to make up the aggregate amount of sales.
inquiry :
The markets in North Carolina are : Durham, Winston, Reidsville, Henderson, Oxford, Milton, Hickory, Asheville, Hillsboro, and Marshall. The sales of farmer's tobacco were as follows : Durham, 8,000,000 pounds ; Winston, 7,000,000; Reidsville, 4,500,000; Henderson, 6,500,000; Oxford, 2,000,000; Milton, 2,000,000; Hickory, 250,000; Hillsboro, 250,000, and Marshall, 200,000 — total 30,500,000.
The sales at Danville for the season of 1880 were, in round numbers,
34)000,ooo pounds, of which one-half, at least, is to be credited to North Carolina. The sales of North Carolina tobacco in Richmond far exceed 20,000,000 of pounds, two million of which, at least, is farmer's tobacco ; Lynchburg sells at least one million pounds of North Carolina farmer's tobacco ; South Boston as much, and Petersburg about the same — a total of 22,000,000 pounds sold in Virginia, which, added to the 30,500,000 sold in the North Carolina markets, gives a total of 52,500,000 pounds.
Even if over-estimated, which is not believed to be the case, the facts are sufficient to justify the demand that North Carolina shall have its recognition by foreign markets as a tobacco centre equally with Virginia, Kentucky, Maryland and Missouri, and should be entitled to a distinct classification for her distinctive qualities. She is almost the sole producer — a small portion of Virginia being the only exception — of the bright yellow tobacco. There is an injustice and an impropriety in classing this grade in Europe as " Virginia Strips " which might make the ears of a North Carolinian tingle with shame that no effort had ever been made to free his State from its humiliating insignificance. The present classification of the London market may be retained ; but it is right that the agency of the State that almost monopolizes the production of this beautiful and valuable grade should have recognition, and that " North Carolina Brights" take their deserved place alongside of " Virginia Strips." Such recognition would elevate the State from its commercial obscurity; would give it a distinct name and place in the markets of the world ; would transfer the attention of buyers and contractors to a new centre of supply ; would fill our own markets with foreign orders ; would stimulate our own internal transactions ; would give new spirit to our manufactories, and would infuse new life into all our business by bringing us in contact with new men and new systems. Importance would be given to our own markets, which is now lost from the practice of dealing through secondary agencies. Importance may be added to our own seaports by giving to them the business which is now absorbed by others. The reproach which attaches to North Carolina — that she is " a strip of land between two States " — would be removed, and she would become recognized in her own right as the most abundant producer of the best tobacco in the United States, as she is the producer of everything else known to the soil and climate of the United States, from Maine to Texas.
In this connection other new sources of supply may be referred to, which promise to become very important in their relation to the crop of brights, adding, like the transmontane section, an unexpected field for the production of that quality of tobacco. These new fields are portions of the counties of Wayne, Lenoir and Sampson — all lying in the eastern belt — and may be much enlarged over present experiment, since the Laurentian formation, overlaid with the quaternary sands, characterizes a very large area.
The Messrs. Borden and Mr. Grant, of Wayne County, have both planted on a large scale — the former having had last year one hundred and five acres in cultivation near Goldsboro. Their success was satisfactory. Their cures of bright were much admired on the Durham and Danville markets, and were assigned a high character. The same may be said of Mr. Parrott, of Lenoir County.
Mr. L. B. Colman, who removed from Person County to Sampson County in 1879, and who bought a farm near Clinton, gives some details of his operations during the crop season of 1880. The soil of his land*is a gray, sandy loam, with a growth of long leaf pine and undergrowth of dogwood, sour wood, etc. His experience assures him that the land is very suitable to the production of fine yellow tobacco. Tobacco " yellows " well on the hill and cures readily. Mr. C. cures by flue system. The cultivation is much less laborious than in the upper counties, the ploughing more shallow and much less work required. He had twenty-five acres in cultivation in 1880, but will put in forty acres next year, as he regards his success as unmistakable. He planted on the 29th of April, cutting on the 27th ' of July. His crop was sold in Danville The quality was superior, the color excellent, and the body good and heavy, comparing favorably with the best from other sections.
tobacco, and others in the vicinity will engage in the same culture.
In view of the large crop of North Carolina, of the large crop of the United States, of the immense production of the whole world, and also in view of the burdens imposed through revenue systems upon tobacco, the planter is beset with difficulties from which extrication is troublesome. But, as the first step to release, his effort must be to add to the intrinsic value of the article produced. Taxation makes no discrimination in favor of bad tobacco ; it is laid with equal hand on good and bad alike, unintentionally, perhaps, putting a premium upon the former and repressing the other by wholesome warning. Common sense teaches the impolicy of persisting in a profitless course, yet every crop is of such character that the bad is out of all proportion to the good, and the average sales of the warehouses show that prices fall twenty-five per cent, below the tax levied per pound on the subject of sale.
The remedy is greatly in the hands of the planter. He must direct his efforts to raise nothing but fine grades. "Against our low grades the world at large can furnish substitutes enough, and at prices that drive us from the market ; for our fine grades there is no substitute. We are unwise then if we do not profit by this advantage."*
These fine grades embrace both the bright yellow and the dark manufacturing, both unequalled in their kind, and both dependent for perfection upon culture and cure, and also largely upon subsequent handling. In
culture, both repel gross manures, which are inconsistent with the delicacy of texture and the richness of color characteristic of both in their degree; hence, artificial fertilizers become imperatively necessary in lands of the second year. These fertilizers hold competing repute between the Anchor brand, the Star, the Pacific, Ober's and others, all having their advocates, perhaps with equal justice, variation between them being determined, probably, by local peculiarity.
Culture and cure may be perfect, yet the duties and troubles of the planter are not ended until it is sold, and to do this profitably he must not disregard certain absolute essentials. In getting ready for market, tobacco must be well assorted in respect to size, color and condition. This is a very important matter, because, in mixed grades, the quality of the lowest determines the value of the whole.
Tobacco must not be smoked after it is cured. This is a process which always betrays itself and at once reduces the selling price of the leaf, whatever its color or texture. Transmontane planters have been apt to fall into this practice, owing to the slow introduction of the more approved processes which have come in vogue in late years in the eastern counties.
Tobacco when brought to the warehouses by planters in their wagons, should be brought in as large parcels as possible. Buyers in search of large quantities of like grades prefer to buy in as large parcels as possible, to avoid the necessity of making up their supplies through the accumulation of many small lots. Better prices are paid for large than for small parcels.
Next to assorting, it is important that tobacco be brought to market in "good order," a technicality understood by the farmer, but sometimes neglected in the haste to make sales. There is no instruction that warehousemen are more earnest in impressing than this. Tobacco handled too " high" or too dry is equally objectionable.
Good Seed.
Major R. L. Ragland, of Halifax County, Virginia, one of the most extensive planters of that State, one of the most observing, intelligent and successful cultivators of tobacco, says in a letter addressed to the writer, "the importance of good seed is under-estimated by agriculturists generally," and submits the following valuable views :
"An extended and critical examination of the tobacco fields of Virginia, West Virginia and Maryland, has revealed not only great dissimilarity in the culture, cure and management of this crop, the varying character of the soils and the multitude of the varieties planted, but in far too many instances the lack of adaptation of varieties to soils and types, and the loss consequent from planting degenerated seed of no distinct variety.
"The tobacco seed, like others, is susceptible of improvement or degeneration. It will hybridize, some of our best varieties being the result of cross fertilization of the blooms of our old varieties. These last have been
greatly improved by continuous selection — selecting the best as seed plants, and priming off all the seed sprays except the three crown shoots, and clipping the ends of these, thus throwing the whole force of the plant into a small number of seed pods, and taking the seed from the best of these for a series of years.
" In this way pedigree seed are raised that are as sure to transmit their valuable qualities to fbeir product as a thoroughbred animal may be relied upon to transmit his or her fine traits to their offspring.
"The loss consequent upon using inferior seed is nowhere more apparent than in the tobacco crop. The remedy is plain and cheap, for the cost of the best seed to plant a large crop is so small an item that all who desire may, without inconvenience, secure the best.
" The Oronokos and Pryors are good varieties when pure and genuine, and are the sources from which our best plants have come ; some of the new are decided improvements upon the old ones. But care must betaken and judgment displayed in the selection, so as to get what is suited to soil and type. The ' Gold Leaf,' which is a hybrid between the Oronoko and Pryor, is a new variety of good promise. It produces an orange or mahogany-colored leaf rather than a lemon color, but will turn out generally a more salable tobacco than either of its progenitors.
"The ' Flannagan,' a high-bred variety of the old ' Narrow Leaf Oronoko,' but broader and finer in texture, is growing in favor, and deservedly, for the best grades of fillers and wrappers.
VARIETIES OF TOBACCO, CLASSIFICATION, ETC.
TOBACCO, spread now as a subject of cultivation over all the habitable globe, may be assumed to have acquired characteristics derived from soil, climate, or modes of culture, so as to present as many varieties as there are countries in which it is cultivated. Botanists claim to recognize several species of the plant, and also to ally tobacco by a botanical consanguinity with other plants differing totally in appearance, properties and uses ; connecting it with some containing powerful narcotic poisonous properties, such as belladonna, stramonium and hyoscyamus, and also with the innocent tomato and potato. But while several species are recognized, most of the tobacco of commerce comes from the Nicotiana tabacum, the common tobacco of the United States. The Nicotiana rustica is mostly cultivated in Europe, and also in parts of Asia and Africa, now naturalized in those countries, but coming originally from America. Some of the European tobaccos contain an excess of nicotine. The Levant tobaccos are mild and pleasant, and the Latakia, among the Turkish tobaccos, has a broad yellowleaf of admired fragrance. The Luzon or Manilla tobacco, used for cheroots, is dark and somewhat strong, and is thought to approach the character of the Cuban. This last in exquisiteness of flavor stands first in the esteem of all consumers : used exclusively for cigars, these last were only known to commerce since the opening of the present century. The west end of Cuba, the Vuelta Abajo, produces the most highly prized, combining good color, flavor, and perfect leaves ; this tobacco has many classifications not necessary to notice. Another well-known Cuba tobacco is the Yara, grown in the Vuelta Arriba, lying east of the city of Havana.
Other West India Islands, notably Trinidad, which produces a very highflavored tobacco ; Mexico, which makes enough for home consumption ; Brazil, which exports largely, and other American States, produce tobaccos, all perhaps with some distinctive features.
The varieties in the United States owe their peculiarities perhaps altogether to soil. The heavy dark tobacco of Kentucky is not essentially different from the bright yellow of North Carolina. The seed leaf of Pennsylvania had the same original. But process of time has brought about changes so great that the superficial eye might infer radical differences. So far the different qualities in North Carolina refer to the same stock. The Oronoko, broad and narrow, and the Silky Pryor, furnish alike the dark mahogany wrappers, the sun-cured fillers, and the bright leaf for wrappers or smokers. Other seed, it is true, have their advocates, but they constitute only sub-varieties. These are the subjects of the active traffic
classification according to merit.
First, there are the Lugs, which are the ground or inferior leaves, used for smokers and fillers, and which are graded as " common red lugs," " common bright," " good bright," and " fancy bright," the value increasing upwards from the lowest grade.
fillers.
" Cutting tobacco," a rich, waxy tobacco of medium bright, is graded as "good" and "extra." A very superior article of this class, claimed to be the best in the world, is sold on the Durham (N. C.) market, the product of the adjacent counties, and is now largely used by Blackwell & Co. and E. H. Pogue for " Long Cut."
"Wrappers " are "common," "medium," "good," and "extra, or fancy," and include dark or mahogany wrappers, and the beautiful bright yellow, the subject of such extravagant prices, reaching two dollars and two dollars and a half a pound. This, as its name implies, is used for the covering of the more costly brands of plug tobacco.
mentioned are most frequently heard.
Previous to the war, the medium of warehouses to facilitate the business of the planter and buyer was so little known as to be exceptional. Danville in Virginia and Milton in North Carolina had each made a step in the direction of consolidation of the business. But the common practice was to sell to merchants, manufacturers, or buyers, of any class, in modes most convenient to all parties. Much was shipped to factors in Richmond and Petersburg. A great deal was bought by merchants, who were in the habit of keeping annual accounts with the planters, furnishing them with plantation supplies, and making settlements at the end of the year. The war interfered with this system, and the return of peace destroyed it. Neither merchant nor farmer could wait a whole year. The capital of the first could not endure it ; the credit of the other was destroyed by the loss of his slave property. He was compelled to live, as it were, from hand to mouth. He had to make frequent small sales to meet family necessities, to pay his laborers or to pay his taxes. He had to find a market often. This demand was met by the opening of sales houses at points on railroads principally, because on railroads could more readily be met the requisitions of the revenue service, the ready and convenient supply of stamps being essential to manufacturers, and these becoming the great patrons of the warehouses. The two have become indispensable complements of each other, as illustrated by Danville, Durham, Reidsville, Winston, Henderson, Oxford, and other points, the centres of the tobacco industry.
The warehouses are invariably large buildings with great floor capacity, and perfectly lighted by ample skylights, so that the color and quality of the tobacco are faithfully exposed. The tobacco, taken from the wagons, where it had been packed down while in "good order," is carefully placed in piles, after having been weighed, each pile of uniform grade. A tag fixed upon a cleft stick is placed upon each pile, on which is the name of the owner of the tobacco, and also the weight. At the hour of sale, outcry is made at each pile, the price bid attached to the tag, and also entered upon a book, and so until the whole is sold. A planter, dissatisfied with a bid, is entitled to "take in" his tobacco. The compensation of the warehousemen is a commission of from 2\ to 3 per cent, on sales. Where there are several warehouses in a market, by arrangement each one is entitled to the first sale in turn. In most of the markets the sales are held daily except in the duller months of the season.
After the sales the buyers are required to remove their purchases within a certain designated time in order that the floors may be clear for another sale. The same rules apply to hogshead or package tobacco as to the loose leaf. The former are shipments from other markets ; the latter is the form in which the producer brings his crop to market.
No insignificant feature of a tobacco market are the "prize houses," where tobacco is prepared for shipment or transfer to other markets. These prize houses perform the functions necessary to put the tobacco in convenient shape for transportation, which is done in the hogsheads or tierces, in which the leaf, selected according to grade and most carefully and systematically packed, is subjected to heavy pressure by means of screws, and the packages, closely headed up, are ready for their destination.
CULTURE AND CURE OF TOBACCO.
IN a matter so important as the management of a crop of such magnitude and value, the writer must rely upon those whose large and successful experience entitles them to be accepted as safe guides by those who are venturing upon a new enterprise. In the older portions of North Carolina and Virginia experience is old enough to confirm the planters in their own plans and systems. In the newly opened tobacco sections experience is what is wanted. Among the many excellent treatises there is none more reliable and ample than that of Major Robert L. Ragland, of Halifax County, Va., a practical farmer on a very large scale, and a gentleman of culture and intelligence.
Preparation of Plant Beds.
There are two modes for raising plants — in hot-bed or cold frame, or in the open air — one or the other of which has preference according to locality ; the former being more practiced north of forty degrees latitude, while the latter is preferred south of that line. We will here give both, that planters may choose.
The Hot Bed. — Select a southern or southeastern exposure, sheltered on the north, dig and shovel out a space five by twelve feet, or any required length, to the depth of eighteen inches. Place straw to the depth of three or four inches in the bottom of this trench and cover with fresh unrotted manure from the stable to the depth of six or eight inches ; then cover the manure with soil — woods-mould is best— five inches deep, and surround the bed with planks twelve inches wide on north side and six inches wide on the south.- These will make a frame over which sections of canvas covering should be placed to keep the bed warm, promote growth and protect the plants. These sections may be made of frames five feet long and three feet wide, with common domestic cloth tacked thereon as a covering, and they answer every purpose as glazed sash, are cheaper and less destructible, and may be used for several years to grow tobacco or horticultural plants. Once used, you will be loth to do without them for the latter purpose. But to return. Tobacco seed is sown on the bed thus prepared at the rate of two teaspoonfuls to a bed five by twelve feet. To sow regularly, mix the seed with a fertilizer, ashes or plaster, and sow in drills three inches apart. A bed twelve feet long will require four sections of canvas covering, which are light and handy and may be put on or off or adjusted at pleasure. When the plants have pretty well covered the surface of the bed, remove
the canvas during the day, and only replace them when there is danger of frost, or to keep off the flea-bugs. There is the advantage of having earlier plants by this mode and perfect security against the plant-bug, which will repay for the additional cost of raising at least a portion of the plants needed for the crop, by this safe mode.
Open Air Beds. — But there is no question that open air beds are cheapest. And, where this mode of raising plants is practicable, it is greatly to be preferred for the main supply of plants. It is a well established opinion that plants raised in the open air stand transplanting better and usually grow off quicker than plants raised in hot-bed or cold frame.
Selection of Locality.— On the selection of a proper locality for a plant bed, and its preparation, largely depends the timely supply of strong healthy plants ; without which it is impossible to raise a crop of fine grade. The planter therefore cannot be too careful in choosing a sheltered spot, neither too wet nor too dry, as rich naturally as can be found, and located so as to possess different degrees of moisture.
Go into the woods, original forest if possible, and select a spot near a branch or stream of water, embracing both hillside and flat, and having a southern or southeastern exposure, protected by woods on the north. Burn over the plat intended for plants, either by the old or new method. The first consists in placing down a bed of wood on small skids three to four feet apart on the ground, well cleared and raked. Then fire this bed of wood, and permit it to remain burning long enough to cook the soil brown for half an inch deep. With hooks, or old hoes fastened to long poles, pull the burning mass of brands a distance of four and a half or five feet, throw on brush and wood, and continue burning and moving the fire until the bed is burned over. Never burn when the land is wet. It will require from one and a half to two hours to cook the soil properly.
Or better still : Rake over nicely the plat to be burned, then place down poles from two to four inches in diameter, three and a half to four feet apart, over the entire surface to be burned.
But any mode of burning the plat will suffice, provided that it is effectually done. After the plat has been burned and has cooled, rake off the large coals and brands, but let the ashes remain, as they are essentially a firstclass manure. Then coulter over the plat deeply or break with grub hoes, and make fine the soil by repeated chopping and raking, observing not to bring the subsoil to the surface, and remove all roots and tufts. Manure from the stable, hog pen or poultry house, or some reliable commercial fertilizer should be chopped into and thoroughly incorporated with the soil while preparing the bed to be sown. Experience has demonstrated that it is better to use both. But beware of using manure containing grass seed.
The judgment of the planter must guide him in the amount of fertilizing material to be applied at this stage ; but it were well to remind him that the tobacco plant rarely responds to homoeopathic doses of plant food, but that the allopathic usage suits it best.
Sow at the rate of a tablespoonful on every fifty square yards at first sowing, and later resow with a heaping teaspoonful over same surface, to secure a good stand. Injury by frost or bugs may require a third or fourth sowing. Sow a little thick rather than too thin, to meet contingencies and secure a good stand in time.
The best way to sow the seed is to mix them thoroughly with a fertilizer or dry ashes, and sow once regularly over the bed, reserving seed enough to cross sow to promote regularity. The tobacco seed is the smallest of all farm seeds, and consequently requires a light covering. If the seed are sown before the 20th of February, the best way is to firm the surface of the bed by treading it over closely, but if sown later, sweep lightly over with a brush or light rake. To do this properly run them off four or five feet apart with the foot, then open with a narrow grubbing-hoe to the depth of three or four inches. Then trench deeply around the outside of the bed, to ward off surface water and prevent washing.
Mulching and Covering. — Hog hair whipped fine and scattered over the bed attracts and retains moisture, protects the plants from frost and acts as a manure. There is no better covering for a plant- bed, but unfortunately it is rarely ever in full supply. Fine brush should be placed thickly over the bed, or if not handy, cover with straw or chaff free from grain. A covering of some such material is necessary, or the young plants are likely to be killed by frost or suffer from drought, and they thrive better from some protection.
A Standing Plant-Bed. — Every planter ought to have a standing plant-bed, which may be secured in the following way : Some time in July or August select one of the best of the old plant-beds, and with hoes shave down the green plants over its entire surface, and cover over thickly with straw or leaves, then place green brush thickly over the bed and weight down with wood. When the whole is dry, some time in the late fall or early winter, set on fire, and thus reburn over the bed. Then chop and rake fine, sow and trench as when first prepared. Repeat the same operation every year, and if the bed is manured properly it will improve and prove a stand-by for many years.
Unburned Beds. — Plants may be raised by going into the forest, selecting a moist rich plat, after raking off the leaves, coultering or chopping the surface fine, manuring heavily and sowing the seed. But such beds rarely hold out well if the season is dry. They never " repeat " well after the first " drawing " like burnt beds ; which are more reliable for a successive supply of plants as the season advances.
Time of Sowing Seed. — The time for sowing varies with the latitude, variety and season. Between the parallels of 35 and 40 degrees north, compassing the great tobacco belt, beds may be sown any time between the 1st of January and 20th of March, and the sooner the better for the bright grades, which ought to be planted early to mature, ripen and yellow, preparatory to being cured early in the fall, when more successful curings are usually made. Yellow tobacco ought to be planted out in May, but June plantings usually do best in heavy dark grades. The planter will consult his interest by sowing at the proper time to suit the grade he desires to raise.
potatoes or something else.
Hastening the Growth of Plants. — As soon as the plants become "square," i.e., have four leaves, you may begin to force their growth if necessary. Nothing is better at this stage of their growth than to apply dry stable manure, rubbed fine and sowed over the bed, applying at the rate of five bushels to every one hundred square yards. Be sure to have it dry and fine, and apply when the plants are dry. This is a favorable time to apply a good fertilizer, and the best time to apply it is during a shower, or when it is apparent that one is impending.
Look out for the " Flea Bug." — If the "fly," as it is called, begins to devour the young plants, apply plaster in which rags saturated with kerosene oil have lain for a few hours, covering the plants with the plaster, if necessary, to keep the little pests from devouring them. Repeat the application after every rain unless the flies have left.
A covering of green cedar brush has driven off the fly when other remedies failed, and saved the plants. If the flies are numerous, the planter can save his plants only by vigilant and constant attention. Hard burning, early and thick sowing, liberal and frequent applications of manure, are the best safeguards, which rarely fail to reward the planter with an early and full supply of stocky plants, and with some left for his less provident neighbors.
Selection of Soil, Preparation and Manuring.
The tobacco plant thrives best in a deep, mellow, loamy soil, rich or made so with manures. The subsoil ought to be sufficiently porous to permit the water falling on the surface to pass downward readily, and not to accumulate to drown and stagnate.
If old land is selected, it ought to be fallowed deep in the fall or early winter, that the frosts may pulverize it. Turn under, if possible, some coarse farm manure, for its decay will greatly help to loosen the soil, while furnishing pabulum for the crop. As a coarse manure for yellow tobacco, nothing is better than wheat straw turned under in the fall and winter. The plants rarely fail to ripen yellow in color on land thus treated.
In the early spring more manure may be applied, but it is better that this should come from the compost heap. Follow the application of the compost with one-horse turning ploughs, crossing the previous ploughing, turning not exceeding four or five inches deep — about half the depth of the first ploughing. Then, just before it is time to plant, run double-shovel ploughs over the lot, crossing the previous furrows, and follow with harrow or drag, crossing again to make thoroughly fine. These repeated ploughings, crossing each time every previous one, never fail, if the work is done when the land is in proper condition, to put it in proper tilth.
and not stop until the land is in proper condition.
Having put the land in nice " order," lay off the rows with a shovel plough three feet three inches apart, and follow, drilling along the furrow some reliable tried fertilizer at the rate of some one hundred and fifty to three hundred pounds per acre, according to the natural strength of the soil and the quantity of manure previously applied. Then follow with onehorse turning ploughs, lapping four furrows on the fertilized trench, and when finished in this manner your lot is ready to be planted, when the beds have been " patted " with hoes, with " pats " two feet ten inches apart, to mark points for setting the plants.
New ground, or old field that has grown up and been cut down, will require different preparation from old smooth land. But on the former our best brights are raised. Any preparation that will put the soil in fine condition, clear of roots, tufts and trash, is all that is required. Experience teaches that if land is cut down two or three years previous to its being prepared for tobacco, it greatly facilitates the preparation and helps its fertility. Much of the vegetable material both in and upon the soil rots, the roots break easily, and the soil is altogether lighter and finer.
While it is economy to dispense with the hand hoe in making hills on old land — the plough doing all the work as it ought, when it can be well done — yet, on stumpy, rooty and rough land, the hoe is indispensable in the preparation of a hill as it should be made to receive the plant. But before the hills are made it may be well, unless the soil is naturally rich, and such is not often the case with soils best adapted to yellow tobacco, to apply some fertilizing material to hasten forward the plants and mature them properly and early. Here commercial fertilizers have done and are doing their best work. Bulky, coarse manures often do more harm than good on new and puffy soils. The smaller the bulk and the more concentrated the fertilizing elements, the more readily they are appropriated and assimilated by the plants, if of the right material and in the most available form. Nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash, lime and soda are most necessary for the tobacco plant, and a fertilizer which supplies the relative quantity of each will never fail to show good effects therefrom, if the rainfall is sufficient to quicken their action.
Mode of Applying Fertilizers. — Planters differ in the manner of applying fertilizers, whether in the hill, drill or broadcast. That the same quantity will go further and produce larger results the first year for the quantity used when applied in the hill or drill, is generally conceded. But advocates for broadcasting claim that when the crop to which the fertilizer is applied is to be followed by another in quick succession — to be sown in wheat as soon as the tobacco is removed — then broadcasting is best, for reasons which seem too apparent to need explanation.
Having prepared the land for hilling, apply the fertilizer by whichever mode the planter prefers, and in such quantity as the natural strength of the soil indicates, laying off the rows three feet three inches apart, and make the hills about two feet ten inches distant from centre to centre. Mark the measure on the hoe handle, and require the hillers to apply it frequently as a guide. The rows should be wider apart than the hills, to afford proper cultivation without breaking and bruising the plants at the final ploughing, a matter of no small importance, as the least blemish on a fine leaf nearly destroys its value as a wrapper.
Planting. — Having prepared the hills, you are ready to plant any time after the first of May. Planting is often most effectually done when the hills are being made in May, and .the land is moist with the winter's sap, by planting in the afternoon the hills made the same day. If properly planted, very few of the plants will fail to live. Observe to draw the plants one by one from the bed, and handle so as not to bruise them. It is a wa^te of time and plants to set out very small plants, but wait until they are of proper size — the largest leaves about two and a half to three inches wide. Put a basket of plants in the hands of a boy or girl, who drops a plant on each hill, dropping in one or two rows according to age or expertness. The men follow, with each a planting peg made of hard wood, six inches long, one and a quarter inch in diameter at large end, and tapering to a point. Each planter takes a " hand-plant " to start with (unless the dropper has learned to drop two plants on the first hill), and pushing his planting peg some two inches into the hill, withdraws the peg, inserts the plant, and by a dexterous movement of the peg and the knuckles of the left hand, closes the dirt gently but compactly around the roots. He then picks up the plant on the hill as he moves forward, and by the time he reaches the next hill has adjusted the plant in his hand to insert into the hole in the next hill. Thus the " hand-plant" facilitates the work. Try it and you wfll be convinced. There is art in planting properly, as is shown in the increased number of living monuments that test superior work. But why enter into such minute details ? say some. That you may start right, shun the errors of inexperience, and practice at the start the best methods as demonstrated by successful practice.
for planting. The best come with showers. It is not well to plant soon
after a soaking rain, but wait until the land settles. If the plants are good, seasons favorable, and the planting well done, very few will die, if transplanted before the ioth of July. After that time all is uncertainty. Hence the importance of getting a stand before that time.
After planting over, it will be necessary to replant from time to time as seasons occur, embracing every opportunity to fill up the missing hills. If cut-worms are troublesome, hunt for and destroy every one as far as possible, for it is useless to put a plant in a hill where one of these pests has taken up quarters, and expect it to live and grow.
Cultivating. — It is important to commence cultivation soon after planting, to loosen the soil and start the plants growing. Just at this point many planters fail to do their duty, which no subsequent work can atone for. Early, rapid and thorough cultivation is necessary to produce firstclass goods. If the preparation has been thorough, thrice ploughing, followed each time with the hand hoe, will suffice for the crop.
For the first ploughing, no implement is better than the wing coulter, the next best the cultivator. The second ploughing may be effectually done with the turning plough or cultivator ; if grassy, use the first. The last ploughing is most effectually done with three furrows with the single shovel — a furrow on each side, then splitting the middle with the third and last furrow.
Never " scrape down" tobacco with the hoe without putting back on hill or bed as much dirt as is scraped down. This will prevent baking, and save many plants, should a dry spell follow the hand hoe working.
Any process which stirs the soil effectually and often and keeps the plants free from grass and weeds, will constitute good cultivation, no matter how or with what implement done. Old land will require more work in cultivation than new, and dark grades more than bright. Short singletrees should be used after the plants are half grown, to prevent tearing and breaking the leaves.
The yellow grades should be cleared of grass and weeds before the first of August, and not ploughed thereafter ; but the hoes may be used at any time to clear out the crop till the leaves commence graining. The longer tobacco is ploughed the later the plants will be in ripening, therefore the importance of giving early and thorough cultivation. Any one who can raise good cabbage ought to know how to cultivate tobacco, as the cultivation is very similar.
Priming and Topping.
Under this head there is a wide difference of opinion. Breaking off the small and inferior leaves of the plant near the ground is called "priming," which operation is done along with the " topping," if done at all. There are advantages for and against priming, but all resort to topping — plucking out the seed bud and adjacent small leaves with the thumb and finger.
Some contend that pulling off the lower leaves saps the plants and retards growth, if the weather is dry. That permitting the lower leaves to remain on the stalk protects the upper ones from sand and grit, makes them cleaner and therefore more salable. On the other hand it is contended by some that by pulling off the lower leaves, which are generally useless, the remaining leaves receive more nutriment and contain more wax, oil and gum. That the lower leaves harbor worms and make the worming process more tedious.
It is best to wait until a considerable number of plants begin to button for seed before commencing to top. Topping should be the work of experienced and trusty hands — men who can top, leaving any required number of leaves on a plant without counting. The secret of this — no longer a secret to the initiated — is, that the topper soon learns to know that counting the bottom leaf and the leaf that hangs over it in the third tier going upward, makes nine leaves, including both top and bottom leaves. Fixing this in his mind the topper has only to add to or deduct from this index leaj marking nine, to leave any desired number of leaves on each plant with certainty and without counting. Young man, if you don't know how, get some old negro to show you. Topping you will find is a slow business if you have to count the leaves on all the plants topped. If the plants are not "primed" then the " bottom " leaf must be fixed by the eye, looking upward for the leaf in third tier which hangs over it to catch the cue as before. If priming is done, don't err in pulling off too many leaves. No regular rule can be given, so the planter must judge for himself. The reason given for waiting until many plants are ready to be topped is mainly that more plants may ripen together and be ready for the knife at the same time. This is an advantage that applies with strong force to all tobacco intended for flue curing.
The number of leaves to be left on each plant varies according to the time the work is done, early or late, the appearance and prospective development of the plant, the season, whether propitious or unfavorable, strength of the soil and amount of fertilizing material applied. On medium soils, in ordinary seasons, the first topping should be from ten to thirteen leaves — rarely more — for brights. For sweet fillers from nine to ten, and for dark rich shipping from eight to nine leaves are enough. As the season advances reduce the number of leaves accordingly ; remembering that quality more than quantity regulates returns.
Worming and Suckering.
Many devices have been resorted to in order to lessen the number and mitigate the ravages of the horn-worm, but the lack of general and continued efforts from year to year has brought only partial relief. Some years they come in great numbers, and despite the best efforts of the planter, seriously damage his crop. Perhaps the next year they are few
and give him no trouble. It is the nature of this insect to raise at least two broods during the year. The hawk-moth or tobacco fly usually makes its appearance in Virginia in the month of May. The eggs, deposited by the first moths, hatch out in from five to seven days, larvae or worms. The worm sheds its outer skin twice before it gets its growth. The growing stage of the worm lasts from twenty-five to thirty days, and after it has attained its growth, it gorges itself a few days longer, and then crawls or burrows into the ground, where it soon passes into the pupa state ; and after some twenty*three or twenty-five days from the time of its crawling into the ground the pupa sends forth a moth to lay more eggs and hatch out more worms. Each moth is capable of laying on an average two hundred eggs. So that for every moth in May we may reasonably expect at least one hundred worms of the first brood ; and if none of these are destroyed but all allowed to change to moths and these latter to raise a horde of worms, what wonder that the second brood sometimes appears in such countless numbers as to defy all efforts to destroy them before they have ruined the crop. Every moth ought to be destroyed as they appear; and this may be done to great extent by injecting a few drops of sweetened Cobalt into the flowers of the Petunia, Honey-Suckle or Jamestown (Jimpson) weed, which will give them their final quietus. But this hunt for the moth is not general, and if it were some would escape. But if every planter would wage a war of extermination on the first brood of worms — unfortunately a thing rarely done— they would never appear in such unconquerable hordes later in the season. The suckers should be pulled off every week as they appear, and ought never to be permitted to get over two inches long ; for if permitted to grow large they abstract much that would otherwise go to perfect a rich, silky leaf. No planter need expect a crop of fine grade who does not pull off the suckers while small, and prevent the horn worms from riddling the leaves.
Cutting and Housing.
Do not be in a hurry to begin cutting your tobacco until it is ripe, and enough fully and uniformly ripe to fill a barn. A thin butcher or shoe knife, well sharpened, and wrapt with a soft cloth around the handle and extending an inch along the blade, will do the work effectually and be easy to the hand. Try it. Put knives into the hands of experienced cutters only — men who know ripe tobacco, and will select plants uniform in color and texture, and will cut no other. Have your sticks all ready in the field, and placed in piles convenient - sticking a stick vertically in the ground over each pile that they may be more easily found when wanted. Pine sticks, rived three-fourths of an inch by one and one-fourth inch, and four and one-half feet long, drawn smooth, are best.
takes hold of the plant with his left hand at the top near where the knife enters the stalk ; with his right he splits the stalk down the centre (observing to guide the knife so as not to sever the leaves,) to within three inches of the point he intends to sever the stalk from the hill ; and as-the knife descends, his left hand follows the slit or opening, and when the plant is severed from the hill, by a dexterous movement of the left hand the plant is straddled across the stick in the hands of the holder. When the stick has received about six medium plants, if intended for brights, it is ready to go to the barn, either carried by hand if near, or hauled on a wagon if distant. If it is necessary to use the wagon, prepare a bed sixteen feet long to hold three coops or piles, on which place the tobacco as cut, and after placing twenty-five or thirty sticks of cut tobacco on each coop, drive to the barn to be unloaded.
Tobacco suitable for brights is best handled in this way, as it is bruised less than if handled by any other mode. Try it, planters ; and know for yourselves. Very heavy tobacco will break less if, after being cut by the above mode, the sticks are placed gently on the ground and the plants allowed to wilt before being removed to the barn. But tobacco of medium size bruises less to handle it without wilting. Cutting and housing by this mode, you never have any sun-burned tobacco. For brights, it has been found best to commence curing at once, as soon as the barn can be filled.
There are two modes for curing yellow tobacco : one with charcoal and the other with flues. The first is the primitive mode, but is gradually giving place to the latter, which is cheaper and more efficient, and is being adopted by most of our best planters. The chief agent in either mode is heat — a dry, "curing heat — to expel the sap from the leaves, stems and stalks of the plants, and catch the color, yellow, next to Nature's color, green, and to fix it indelibly. This is the science of curing yellow tobacco. There are seven prismatic colors — that of tobacco occupying the middle of the prism. By the process of nature, leaves in drying descend in color from green, first to yellow, then orange, then red, and finally lose all color as they go to decay. Now a quick dry heat, so regulated as to dry out the leaf and catch the yellow and fix it, is the modus operandi of curing fancy tobacco.
A barn containing seven hundred sticks of green tobacco, six medium plants on each stick, holds along with the tobacco four thousand five hundred to five thousand pounds of water, which must be expelled in from eighty-five to one hundred hours.
Charcoal produces an open, dry heat, well suited for the purpose ; but its preparation is costly, its use tedious, dirty and laborious, and it deposits a black dust on the leaf that is objectionable. With flues constructed of stone or brick, and covered with sheet iron, or patent ones with furnace and
pipes, the wood is burned as cut in the forest or old field, and the whole process of curing is less costly and less laborious, and the tobacco cured therewith free from dust, and has a sweeter flavor. The flue process possesses so many advantages over all other modes of curing tobacco, is so safe, if properly constructed, and free from smoke, that when its merits become better known it will come into general use and supersede all other modes.
The first step in curing is called the steaming or yellowing process. Medium tobacco will require from twenty-four to thirty hours steaming at about ninety degrees to yellow sufficiently ; but tobacco with more or less sap, larger or smaller, will require a longer or shorter time to yellow. Here the judgment of the curer must be his guide. Inexperienced planters would do well to procure the services of an expert curer, if they have tobacco suitable for fine yellow. The planter saves in the enhanced value of his crop many times the money paid to the curer, and besides, by close attention, he may learn in one season to cure well himself. Theory alone, however good, and directions, however minute, will not do here, but it is practice that must qualify one to. cure well.
When it is remembered that no two plants are exactly alike, no two barns precisely similar in every particular, and that the weather may change every hour, is it reasonable that a fixed programme can be followed for every curing with any reasonable hope of success ? The experienced know better. On work so variable, only general directions can be given.
The next step is called fixing the color. When the tobacco is sufficiently yellowed, the best leaves of a uniform yellow, and the greener ones of a light pea-green color, it is time to advance the heat to one hundred degrees ; observing the leaves closely to detect sweating, which will soon redden and spoil the color, unless driven off. To do this, open the door and let it stand open, and if after an hour or more the sweat has not disappeared, open a space between the logs on opposite sides of the barn to let in more air, and permit it to remain open until the tobacco has dried off all appearance of the sweat. Right at this point more curings are spoiled than at any other stage of the process. It may be well to remember what is a fact, that at least five curings are spoiled by proceeding too fast, to one failure from going too slow. Now stick a pin here.
But to go back to the barn where we have just dried the leaf, and where the thermometer indicates a fall of five to ten degrees — but this need not concern the curer to put him out of hope, for a little cooling under, the circumstances was necessary — we close up the opening and raise the heat to one hundred degrees. But a skillful curer detects the first indications of sweat and prevents it by regulating the heat.
Keep the heat at one hundred degrees for four hours, and then advance two and a half degrees every two hours until one hundred and ten degrees are reached. Here you have reached the most critical point in the difficult
process of curing bright tobacco. The condition and appearance of the tobacco must now be the curer's guide. No one can successfully cure tobacco until he can distinguish the effects of too much or too little heat in the appearance of the leaf. Too little heat, in fixing the color, operates to stain the face side of the leaf a dull brown Qolor, and is called " sponging," and may be known to the novice by its appearance only on the. face side of the leaf. Too much heat reddens the leaf, first around the edge and then in spots, which are visible on both sides. Now, to prevent sponging on the one hand and spotting on the other, is the aim of the experienced curer. No definite time can be laid down to run from one hundred and ten to one hundred and twenty degrees. Sometimes four hours will suffice, then again eight hours is fast enough. While it is usual at this stage to advance about five degrees every two hours for medium tobacco, the condition of the tobacco often indicates to the practised eye the necessity for slower or faster movement. But it is safe not to advance above one hundred and ten degrees until the tails begin to curl up at the ends. Arrived at one hundred and twenty or one hundred and twenty-five degrees, this is the curing process. The heat should remain at or near these figures until the leaf is cured, which will require from six to eight hours, according to the amount of sap in the leaf to be expelled. When the leaf appears to be cured, advance five degrees every hour up to one hundred and seventy degrees and remain until stalk and stem are thoroughly cured. To run above one hundred and eighty degrees is to endanger scorching the tobacco, and perhaps burning barn and tobacco.
Third. Curing the leaf, 120 or 125, 6 to 8 hours.
Fourth. Curing stalk and stem, 125 to 170, 5 degrees an hour. And continue at one hundred and seventy degrees until stalk and stem are thoroughly killed and dry, which usually requires from twelve to fifteen hours.
After curing, as soon as the tobacco is sufficiently soft to move, you may run it up in the roof of the barn and crowd it close, or if the barn is needed for other curings, the tobacco may be carried to the storage barn or bulked down in any dry house on the premises. But be sure that nothing is bulked with green stalks or swelled stems, for if such are placed down in bulk it will be sure to heat and utterly ruin.
soft readily, so that it can be moved, it may be brought in order in the
following way : Place green bushes with the leaves on over the floor and sprinkle water over them copiously; if the tobacco is very dry and the atmosphere contains but little moisture, and if the weather is cool, a little fire kindled in the flues will assist in making the tobacco soft. Straw wet or made so will answer the same purpose. If the weather is damp there will be no necessity to use either straw, brush or water. But when it is necessary to use any means to order tobacco, it is best to apply them in the afternoon, that the tobacco may be removed the next morning.
If the weather remains warm and damp or rainy, tobacco that remains hanging will be apt to change color unless dried out by flues or charcoal. When this becomes necessary, build small fires at first and raise the heat gradually.
Stripping.
Tobacco should never be stripped from the stalks except in pliable order, and the leaves on every plant should be carefully assorted and every grade tied up separately. Usually there will be three grades of leaf, assorted with reference to color and size, and two of lugs. Of leaf tie six to eight leaves in the bundle, and of lugs eight to ten. As fast as you strip either, hang the " hands " on sticks — twenty-five to each stick — and hang up or bulk downln two layers, the heads of hands or bundles facing outward. The latter mode is best if you intend to sell in winter order, loose on the warehouse floors. If bulked down, watch frequently to see that it does not heat. If the bulk becomes warm it must be broken up, aired and rebulked, or hung up if too soft. It is safer always to hang up as soon as stripped, unless you design to sell soon, and strike down in " safe keeping order" in spring or summer. It is considered in "safe order" when the leaf is pliable and the stem will crack half way down from the tie.
Packing.
If you sell loose, deliver in large uniform piles ; such will cost less and your tobacco bring more in price. But to sell in a distant market pack in tierces — half hogsheads make the best and cheapest — to weigh about four hundred pounds net, taking care not to press the tobacco so as to bruise it or pack it too closely together. The best leaf is wanted for wrappers, and it must open easily when shaken in the hand. Pack one grade only in each tierce, uniform in color and length ; but if it becomes necessary to put more than one grade in a tierce, place strips of paper or straw between to mark and separate them. Pack honestly, for honesty is always the best policy.
If your tobacco is fine, sound and nicely handled, you'll have the satisfaction of getting at the least a remunerating price for it, although poor and nondescript stock may be selling for less than the cost of production. The world is now full of low grades of tobacco. We must plant less surface, manure heavier, and cultivate and^ manage better, if we would get better prices.
The site selected for the barn should, when practicable, be ground that slopes to the east with an inclination of two feet in twenty, in order to admit the furnaces readily, which should always be placed in the eastern side of the barn, for the reason that during the curing season the prevailing winds are from the west. When there are more barns than one, they should, for the convenience of moving and storing the tobacco after it is cured, be grouped together, but not nearer to each other than ioo feet.
The dimensions of the barn is next to be determined. I am aware that the size approved by the majority of fine curers is only sixteen feet square, divided by tier-poles into four equal compartments or rooms, each room having perpendicularly only four firing tiers in the body including the joists. Another convenient size, although not so generally approved, is one twenty feet square, similarly divided into five rooms with five firing tiers to each. The comparative housing capacity of the two is about as four is to seven, the smaller barn holding 352 sticks and the larger 650 sticks, when placed one foot apart. Between them the reader is left to his own choice, while in point of economy I must decide in favor of the larger size, it being obvious that the size of the barn can have nothing to do with the success of a cure, provided always that the capacity of the furnace and flue is in proportion to the size of the barn, which in one twenty feet square is easily attainable.
The body of the barn should be always of logs of an average thickness of six inches, notched down closely, the ground sills being much larger and invariably of oak and well underpinned. The roof should be framed and what is called square, and covered with shingles or two foot boards, the board roof being preferable if the barn is one for curing only, while the shingle roof is to be preferred if it is one for storing as well as curing. The gables should be tightly weather-boarded, each having a small window with shutters just below its centre, together with a small opening at its upper angle, which serve as escapes for the heated vapor.
When the barn has been raised a height of five feet, a set of six tier-poles should be laid on horizontally, resting upon the northern and southern walls of the barn, and dividing it accurately into five equal parts, the two outside ones resting against its eastern and western walls. This first set are called the ground tiers, and are not used in curing but only in unloading and hoisting the tobacco. These, like all the other tier-poles to be used, had best be of pine, and of an average thickness of four inches, to prevent their springing and sagging while the barn is being filled. As fast as three additional logs to each wall have been raised, another set of six tier-poles should be laid on as before, and directly above the first, and so on until the sixth set have been laid on, which serve also for the joists. Directly above and in line with these joists, rafters should be placed when the roof is being
framed, upon which collar-beams are to be nailed two and a half feet above each other, which also serve for tier-poles, thus adding about one and a half full tiers to each room. When completed, the walls should contain about twenty logs each, including plates, and be about sixteen feet high. And after they have been roofed they should be tightly chinked and daubed with mud, inside and out, into which a sufficient quantity of lime, when convenient, should have been worked to make it adhere well, the mud being laid in with a trowel. The object is to have the walls practically air-tight, whatever fresh air that may be needed in curing being admitted from below. In the northern and southern walls of the barn, and at their centres, closely fitting doors four feet square should be cut.
reason that they cannot be heated sufficiently.
The directions which remain to be added have reference to flue-curing, as contradistinguished from coal-curing, the latter having pretty well gone out of use, because of its greater cost and discomfort to the curer, as well as the inferior quality of the work done by that process, the flavor and color of the coal-cured leaf being invariably injured by the soot of the burning charcoal.
And the flue to which I have reference is the well known Smith patent, which is constructed on the principle of the return draft, and with the model of which most tinners are familiar. It communicates with two furnaces built in the corners of the barn, by pipes laid along three of its walls, and one foot from them, and uniting in a single return pipe through its centre. The piping should be gently and uniformally elevated, say 6 inches in 20 feet, so that there shall not be more than eighteen inches perpendicular between the points where it leaves the furnaces and where it comes out through the wall of the barn. If greater elevation is given, the draft will be increased, but at the expense of too much heat, which will be wasted through the smoke-stack, which is a short elbow joint fitted on the outer end of the return pipe.
For a barn of the given dimensions, the piping should be of No. 24 iron (except the two joints which enter the furnaces, and which should be of No. 18,) and not less than 12 inches in diameter, 15 inches being still better — the one I use is 13 inches. Such a flue is portable and easily carried from one barn to another.
commonly the best.
The construction of the furnaces remains to be noticed. If the ground plot is properly inclined it will be necessary to remove only a single log in order to admit them, which should be done by sawing it out 4 inches from the corners. The furnaces should be of brick or fireproof stone, 5 feet long, and project 18 inches outside the barn. Their walls should be a
thickness of 2 bricks, and built 2 feet apart and 18 inches high, and arched over with the thickness of a single brick. Their outside walls should be laid 4 inches from the walls of the barn, the intervening spaces being filled with dry earth, while the space between the furnaces should be underpinned to the first log. Care should be taken that no part of the furnace comes in contact with the wood of the barn, and for that reason, as well as to moderate the heat with fresh air, small openings should be left just above the arches. The inside ends or throats of the furnaces should be sloped or slightly drawn together in order to give a good fit to the pipes, which should be inserted some 6 inches above their floors, after which all cracks should be closed with soft mud.
With the view of giving the flue its greatest heating capacity, I have directed that the pipes should be laid only 1 foot from the walls of the barn. To do so with safety to the barn, a thin false wall should be laid between them and the ground sills for a length of 6 feet from the furnaces, that being about as far as the pipes are reddened by heat. This and every other necessary precaution should be taken against burning the barn, which often happens, but always from inexcusable carelessness.
CIGAR TOBACCO.
WHILE North Carolina stands pre-eminently the first in the production of bright yellow tobacco, and second only to Virginia in the dark chewing tobaccos, she has had to yield without a contest to the superiority of Connecticut, Pennsylvania, and Ohio, in a cigar tobacco partaking largely of the aromatic flavor of the envied product of Cuba. It is, indeed, related on the authority of Prof. Horsford, of Harvard University, that on a visit to a large cigar factory in Havana, he was honored with the gift of a few cigars made for the especial use of the Emperor Louis Napoleon, and was informed that the leaf of which they were composed was from North Carolina. Without doubting the statement, it is certain that there was a rare exception to general character, our tobacco being unequalled for the pipe or the cigarette, but wanting in the flavor so exquisite in the genuine Havana.
This flavor the tobaccos of the States above-named have in a large degree. Cannot the same be produced in North Carolina and in Virginia, so favored by soil and climate for the perfection of all other grades ?
If it were a question of latitude simply, the answer might be given at once. The mountain counties by their altitude would fall along the isothermal line of Pennsylvania and Connecticut, and develop an identity of character. But experiment has not justified such conclusion. Those mountain counties do produce the bright yellow in admirable perfection, but they will not respond to the demand for cigar tobacco.
It has been shown that it is not a question of climate, but one of soil ; that portions of the same county, geologically dissimilar, will be unlike in their products, and that Nature will not yield to the most persevering skill of the cultivator when she has definitely fixed the boundaries between one formation and another. Therefore, dark wrappers and fillers must be the result of one soil, bright yellow of another. This is the rule, from which there is little exception. If another variety of tobacco is sought to be added, its characteristics must be studied, and the soil on which it flourishes be submitted to analysis that its geological composition may be determined.
As the Laurentian system is proven to be the favored one for bright yellow tobacco and the Huronian for darker qualities, so the Triassic may be accepted as the home of cigar tobacco, at least in the United States. Prof. Kerr, in Vol. I. of his Geological Survey of North Carolina, assigns it the lowest grade in the Mesozoic (middle life) system, " a system," he says, " very scantily represented on the Atlantic slope, being limited to the narrow tracts of sandstones, with shales and conglomerates, so well known
in the Connecticut valley, which extends also, with few interruptions, from the Hudson River, in southeastern New York, to the upper border of South Carolina. . . . But the important feature of it here (North Carolina) and Virginia, is the occurrence of extensive and valuable seams of coal, and while the strata of this series are generally poor in fossils elsewhere on the Atlantic slope, there have been found in this latitude many new and interesting organic forms, both vegetable and mineral. "
It is in this belt that the cigar tobacco attains so much importance in Pennsylvania and Connecticut. Prof. Jed Hotchkiss, topographical engineer, of Virginia, in a letter addressed to Mr. John Ott, Secretary of the Virginia Fertilizer Company, calls attention to the matter as follows : " Knowing that the famous 'seed leaf (cigar) tobacco of the Connecticut valley is grown on the soils overlying the Triassic, or New Red Sandstone rocks, as also in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, it has often occurred to me that a similar leaf might be reared upon the same formation in Virginia, where these rocks cover an area of about 1,600 square miles." And Prof. Hotchkiss presents a map showing the occurrence of this formation whereever it appears. ■ What has been attempted in Virginia under such enlightenment is not known. The knowledge of so important a fact should not be lost. It concerns North Carolina to know if such formation exists within her territory, and if so, to subject it to intelligent tests.
The answer is, that there are two such formations : " the smaller or Dan River belt, from two to four miles wide, following the trough-like valley of that stream (about N. 650 E.) for more than 30 miles, to the Virginia line ; the other, or Deep River belt, extending in a similar trough 5 to 15 miles wide, (and depressed 100 to 200 feet below the general level of the country) from the southern boundary of the State, in Anson County, in a N. E. direction to the middle of Granville County within 15 miles of the Virginia line."* Or, reversing directions, beginning about half a mile south of Oxford, and stretching towards the southwest with varying width, and extending across the State to the South Carolina line, interrupted only once by the Pee Dee river valley and its flanking hills, for a few miles. The North Carolina railroad enters this formation about five miles west of Durham, and emerges ten miles from Raleigh. Durham, therefore, already in commanding relations to the other varieties of tobacco, may become the centre also of an entirely new and lucrative industry. For it is not to be questioned that, if "seed leaf" owes its existence to the elements of this special formation, the influence of a lower latitude must have a decisive effect in heightening flavor, as well as extending the season of cultivation.
A wide prospect is opened to intelligent enterprise and industry. Success would revolutionize industries, would bring into culture thousands of acres given over to unproductiveness, and would give the favored section,
subject of monopoly.
The treatment of this variety of tobacco is so different from that which regulates Southern practice, that copious extracts from a treatise by A. C. Libhart, of Lancaster, Pa., are given.
Varieties.
The best variety for cultivation in a high northern latitude is the Connecticut seed-leaf, as it ripens two weeks earlier than most any other variety, cures and colors better, and commands the highest price in the market. The Pennsylvania seed-leaf outstrips the Connecticut in size and weight, but owing to its requiring a longer time to mature in, is not so well adapted to climates north of 41 ° or 42 °.
The manure should be spread and plowed down several weeks before it is intended to plant. There is scarcely any limit as to the quantity of manure that may be put to the acre, it seeming that the richer the ground is the larger will be the tobacco. As an instance verifying this fact, a gentleman in this place raised the past season on a half-acre of land fourteen hundred lbs. of tobacco, of the aggregate value of $230. There was $25 worth of barn-yard manure put upon it at about the rate of fifty cents per one horse load ; the average crop in the vicinity was only' about twelve hundred lbs. to the acre. After the land is plowed, and a few days before it is intended to plant, the soil should be well worked with a harrow or large cultivator until it is free from lumps or clods, when it is ready for ridging ; this is performed with a common plow. Beginning on one side of the field, take a light furrow, so as to throw up a ridge about five or six inches higher than the surrounding surface of the field. When arrived at the end, return another furrow alongside, so that the earth thrown up by the plow unites with that of the former furrow, leaving a ridge apparently about ten inches in height, but really only five or six above the general level. So proceed, making the apex of the ridges three-and-a-half feet apart, until the whole is finished. Measure off the distance of thirty-six inches for the plant on the top of the ridge, with an instrument constructed as follows : Take two strips of board, two-and-a-half feet long and an inch square, make one end of each pointed, then spread them in the form of a pair of compasses, until the points are the desired distance apart, making the other ends lap each other, fasten them, and put a brace across about the middle to keep them stiff; with this instrument one person can go before, and planting one point at a time on the apex of the ridge, measure off rapidly and correctly the place for each plant. Now take a hoe, and at each
indentation made by the compasses, cut off about two or three inches in depth of the top of the ridge, and tap it lightly with the back of the hoe this forms a platform or " bench " for the reception of the plant.
Transplanting.
When the ridge has been thus prepared, one person goes ahead with a basket of plants and drops one on each " bench," another person following and planting as rapidly as possible, as it is injurious to the plant to leave its roots long exposed to the air. In inserting the plant, a hole may be made with a pointed stick, but the most expeditious, as well as the best way, is with the hands. The roots of the plant are carefully inserted, and the earth pressed moderately tight upon them ; care must be taken not to press the delicate heart leaves, for upon their preservation depends the future vigor of the plant. The best time for planting is during a warm, drizzling rain ; but if no such occasion presents itself, when everything is ready, then immediately before or after a shower will do nearly as well. If it is necessary to plant without any rain, it should be done in the evening, and each plant watered slightly. Unless absolutely necessary, never plant when the ground is in the consistence of mud, as the roots are doubled up and stuck together, and there is considerable time lost in starting the plant, if, indeed, it ever becomes vigorous. In taking the plants from the bed, if the earth is not previously well moistened by rain, water the ground sufficiently, so that the plants will come up with some earth attached to the roots ; they may be pulled by taking hold and gently doubling up the several large leaves of the plant at once ; they are very nicely raised with a common table fork. After the whole area has been planted, it should be gone over every few days, and such plants as have been destroyed by the cut-worms, or otherwise, replaced by new ones ; if, however, a plant shows signs of remaining vitality, it should not be destroyed, but a new one placed alongside, as it often happens that a plant of the first setting, even though it be injured, will eventually outstrip in growth one of a subsequent planting ; either can be used to advantage in replacing any missing plants at the first hoeing, transplanting them with a large ball of earth to the roots.
Cultivation.
When the weeds begin to appear pretty abundantly, and after the plants have made visible growth, a cultivator must be run between the rows, taking care that it does not throw up the earth on the ridges and cover the plants ; a cultivator that can be regulated in width is the best. Hoe down the prominences of the ridges to a level with the plants, and eradicate all weeds that have come up between the leaves of the plants ; also transplant from any double plants to such hills as have become vacant. The plants will now begin to grow vigorously, and require no attention beyond transplanting to fill vacancies, until a new crop of weeds appears, when the cultivator
must be again run through, and the plants carefully hoed, fresh earth being drawn up after the weeds have been scraped away. Care must be taken not to hoe too deep close to the plant, as it destroys too many of the fibrous roots which have begun by this time to permeate the soil in every direction. When the weeds and grass have been thoroughly killed by the sun, the shovel-plow or hook may be run between the rows, and following after, uncover such leaves as may have been buried by the earth thrown up by the implement, and hoeing the ridges into an even shape, rather flat upon the top, and rounding off gradually till they meet in the centre between the rows of tobacco, forming a ditch or furrow not too deep, but answering the purpose of a drain. This is all the cultivation it will require, but if the weeds come up between the rows thereafter, it will benefit the tobacco as well as the ground if they are scraped off with a hoe.
There can be no stated time for this, as it depends upon the stage of growth in which the plant may be, and the latitude or climate. As a general thing, it should be topped before the seed-buds are visible, for when these appear, the plant has expended most of its vigor, and is no longer able to mature the upper leaves ; and it must be done at least four weeks before the period of heavy frosts. The number of leaves that may be left to a stalk depends upon the quality of the soil ; if it be very strong, it will mature twenty or twenty-four leaves, but in general from sixteen to twenty is amply sufficient to leave on a stalk in any situation. In topping, it is better to pinch out enough of the crown of the plant to leave the first two leaves not less than three or four inches long, as they grow more vigorously and mature more rapidly than the small and tender leaves found about the blossom buds. In pinching out the heart of the plant, care must be taken not to break or injure the upper leaves that are left. When topping, the plants intended to produce seed for the following year's crop must be spared ; they should always be chosen with regard to the heaviest, as well as the longest and broadest leafed plants, as weight and size of leaf is the chief consideration of tobacco-growers. The seed-stalks should be left standing until the pods are fully formed and begin to turn brown, when the leaves may be stripped off and saved, and the stalk be spaded up and placed beyond the reach of frost until the seed is fully ripe.
Suckering.
Soon after the tobacco has been topped the " suckers " begin to appear from the junction of every leaf with the stalk ; they must be pinched off as soon as they are large enough to be caught by the thumb and finger, and every new one that appears must be served likewise, for if left they consume much of the nourishment that would otherwise go to the leaves, besides much impairing the process of curing when the stalk is hung up.
When the top leaves have attained the size of the lower ones and begin to be dotted with reddish spots, the tobacco is ripe, and ready to be cut off and hung up to cure. There are several methods of hanging' up tobacco, but the following two are the best and shortest : First, splitting and hanging it upon laths or poles and leaving it to partially cure in the field. Secondly, nailing it to rails with lathing-nails at once in the shed. The former method, for high northern latitudes, is by far the best, as it will cure in a much shorter time (and thus prevent the destruction of the crop by freezing in the shed) by the drying of the pith of the stalk, which is the main reservoir of moisture. It is performed as follows : Have a chisel about a foot long and three inches broad, the sharp end not beveled on one side but coming to an edge by a gradual taper on both sides (a common tenon saw will do pretty well) ; place the edge of the chisel in the centre of the stalk upon the end where it has been topped and push it down, guiding it in its course so as not to break or cut off any leaves, to within three or four inches of the ground ; the stalk may then be cut oft with a hatchet, or with the chisel if it be made pretty strong. The splitting may be done in the morning when the leaves are too brittle to admit of the stalk being cut down, and then, when the sun has sufficiently wilted the leaves, the stalk may be cut and left to lie until it will bear handling without breaking the leaves. The lath being previously prepared, four feet in length, and about an inch in thickness on one edge and one-half inch on the other, and two inches broad (or poles cut in the forest will answer pretty well) ; then have trestles prepared high enough to allow the stalks to hang suspended without touching the ground, and set far enough apart in the field to admit of the lath reaching from one to another ; now place the stalks of tobacco upon the lath (previously laid across the trestles) by slipping them over and down until they will hang perpendicular, and six or eight inches apart, so they will merely touch without crowding too much. It may be left hanging thus exposed to the weather until the leaves are so wilted that the stalks hang apart without touching and the lower leaves begin to dry, when it is taken off the trestles, each lath entire, and laid upon a wagon and hauled to the
The shed must be constructed of timbers strong enough to resist storms and should be boarded " up and down." About every three feet one board should be hinged, to readily open and shut. If it is intended to split and lath the tobacco, the inside of the shed must be divided by rails into widths to accommodate the laths, and likewise into tiers, one above the other, far enough apart to allow the stalks to hang from, well separate. The frame of rails and timbers inside the shed, destined to sustain the weight of the tiers of tobacco (which, when green, is exceedingly heavy),
should be strongly constructed so as to preclude the possibility of breaking down, for if this should happen to the upper tier, in all probability the whole would be tumbled to the ground. When ready to hang up, beginning at the top tier of the shed, slip on one lath after the other until the whole is filled. The process of nailing it up to rails or strips of board in some respects may be superior to the former method, as the tobacco is more expeditiously secured in the shed and does not require so much handling ; but in general there is more tobacco lost by being frozen in the shed than will pay for the difference in time and labor. The stalk should be cut down after the dew is off in the morning and left to wilt. If the sun be very hot the tobacco must be watched that it does not scorch, and if this be found to be the case, it should be thrown in heaps about a foot high and three feet or less in width, and then hauled into the shed. Here it must not be piled more than a foot high, or it will soon heat and spoil. It should be nailed up as rapidly as possible — one person sticking the nail in the pith of the stalk exposed by cutting it off from the ground and shaking it to loosen the leaves, hands it to a second person, who nails it to the rail far enough apart to allow of the circulation of the air throughout. After the crop is in, the doors and shutters should be opened all round, so as to allow a strong draught of air to pass through the tobacco and prevent what is technically called " burning." This is literally nothing more than a partial decomposition of the leaf consequent upon the exclusion of air from passing through it while in the green state, which destroys its quality and texture. When dried it has a blackish brown color and crumbles beneath the touch. When the tobacco is pretty thoroughly cured and during dry weather, when it is very brittle, the high winds that prevail about that season will damage it very much if allowed to blow through the shed. Hence, at such times the shed should be closed on the sides whence the wind comes and opened again when it has ceased to blow. When the leaves are all dry, or after the weather has been severe enough to freeze the remaining green ones, the tobacco is ready to be stripped.
At the setting in of a warm, drizzling, wet, foggy spell of weather, the shed must be opened on all sides to allow the damp atmosphere to pervade the whole interior. After the dry leaves have become damp enough to allow handling in any degree without breaking, the stalks must be taken off the lath, or pulled down and laid in heaps about eighteen inches or two feet high and any desired length. If it is not intended to strip it immediately it should be conveyed to a cellar or other apartment where it will remain damp. It should not, however, be suffered to remain longer than two or three days in heaps without examination, as there is sometimes sufficient moisture remaining in the stalks or frozen leaves to create heat and rot the good tobacco. If found to be heating it should be changed about and
aired, and be stripped immediately. If found to be drying out, further evaporation may be checked by covering the heaps with damp straw or corn-fodder. Tobacco is usually stripped into two qualities — " ground leaf," or "fillers," and "wrappers." The leaves that lie next the ground,, generally from two to four, are always more or less damaged by sand beating on, by the rain and other causes ; hence they only command about half the price of the good tobacco or " wrappers." The ground leaves are taken off first and tied up separately in bunches or " hands." This is performed in the following manner : Take off one leaf after another until there is contained in the hand a sufficient number to make a bunch about an inch in diameter at the foot-stalks, which must be kept even at the ends, and, holding the bunch clasped in one hand, take a leaf and wrap it around (beginning at the end of the bunch), confining the end under the first turn, continue to wrap smoothly and neatly until about three inches of the leaf remain, then open the bunch in the middle and draw the remaining part of the leaf through. This forms a neat and compact " hand " that will bear a great deal of handling without coming open. After the ground-leaves have been removed, the good leaves are stripped off and tied up the same as the ground-leaves, with this exception — the leaves of each stalk should be tied in a bunch by themselves to preserve a uniformity in color and size, as tobacco is sold in the market according to color and size. Therefore, if the leaves of a large and a small plant, or of a dark colored and a light one, be tied up together it at once diminishes the appearance and value of the crop.
Bulking.
As soon as a quantity of tobacco is stripped it should be " bulked down," or if intended to be immediately delivered at the packing-house, put up in bales. A place to bulk it in should be damp enough to prevent the tobacco from becoming dry, and not damp enough to cause it to mold. A platform raised a few inches from the ground, and open to let the air circulate under, must first be laid down, and then the " hands" of tobacco piled upon it crosswise in successive layers, and lapping each other about three or four inches at the points of the leaves. If " bulked " beside a wall, a space must be left behind for air to pass through to prevent moulding. It may be thus " bulked " four or five feet in height without danger of spoiling* In most sections the crop is sold to merchants who have packing houses, and who pack it in cases of about three hundred pounds each, and store it until it has gone through the "sweating" process, by which it becomes fit for manufacturing purposes, and then dispose of it to manufacturers and speculators in the city markets.
hundred pounds each. The process of baling is performed thus : make a
bottomless box about thirty-four inches long (inside) by sixteen high and wide. On each side nail two upright cleats, one-and-a-half inches thick, each ten inches from the end. Across these cleats, parallel and even with the top of the box, nail a narrow strip of board. These strips or rails are to confine and keep the ends of the straw-bands out of the way while packing. Now have a duplicate box the same size in length and breadth, but about six inches deep, to fit down on the top of the first box ; there must be three notches cut in the bottom of each side of this box for the bands to pass through. It should fit down close on the top of the true box. There must also be a lid made to slip up and down easily in the box, with three notches in each side to allow it to slip past the bands. When ready to pack, have good bands made of rye-straw, and wet, to render them more pliable. Twist them, and getting inside the box, lay one band down on the ground, with the knot in the middle, and within three inches of the end of the box, and place one foot in each corner of the box upon the band, then push the ends of the band down between the outside of the box and the rail. There must be three bands in all, one at each end and one in the middle. When the bands are in the box, the " hands " of tobacco are laid in the same as in the " bulk," keeping the ends of the bunches well against the end of the box until it is filled, then put on the lid and press it down with lever or screw, whichever may be most convenient ; after it is pressed sufficiently solid remove the lid and place the upper box in its proper position, fill up to the top with tobacco, and press it down again, and so until the box is sufficiently full to come within the limits of the bands to confine. Now remove the upper box and tie the middle band first (this prevents the mass from expanding further), and lastly the end ones, and give it another pressure to set the bands and restore the shape of the bale ; now pull off the box and there remains a neat, square bale of tobacco of about one hundred pounds' weight, that will bear handling and transportation almost anywhere without injury or coming open. If the tobacco should become too dry in the " bulk " to pack, it may be restored by sprinkling it lightly with hot water, using a small corn-broom, and "rebulking " it, taking down and sprinkling one layer at a time, and allowing it to remain about two days, when the water will have become diffused throughout the whole, and i,t again be fit to pack.
RICHMOND INTERESTS.
In an interest in which North Carolina is so largely connected with the Virginia markets, it would be unjust to pass by the relation in which Richmond stands to those interests. For two hundred years she has been the arbiter of the tobacco markets, controlling them by the influence of character and experience. Those interests are extended over so much ground
that it is not proposed, from the magnitude of the subject, to more than refer to the subject. As identified with North Carolina interests an exception is made in the case of Messrs. Hill, Skinker & Watkins, two of whom are North Carolinians, one a Virginian, but all animated by the finest North Carolina spirit.
Their business was established in 1866. Charles D. Hill and Charles Watkins, native North Carolinians, from Caswell County in this State, have literally spent their lives from early boyhood handling the bright tobacco which originated in their county. The senior partner, Mr. C. D. Hill, went to Richmond early after the completion of the R. & D. R. R. in 1857, and has been identified with the tobacco trade of that city ever since, except the period covered by the late civil war.
This house has been thoroughly identified with the bright tobacco interest of North Carolina in all the stages of its development, and are now handling it probably to as large an extent as any one house in the United States, and have done as much as any one house to introduce North Carolina's great staple to the notice of tobacco dealers and manufacturers as any one house in the trade.
Their buildings, erected for warehouse purposes on Carey street, are no doubt the best in Virginia, erected with special reference to the preservation of the peculiar qualities of the special tobacco they control ; especially of brights, which change color less and keep longer than the same tobacco stored in ordinary sheds. The centre warehouse is of brick two and a half stories high, 80 feet front, running back 260 feet, and are in all respects perfectly adapted to the uses to which they are appropriated.
We have Good Lights and Good Accommodations, with a polite and experienced corps of gentlemen, who will at all times give strict attention to handling and the sale of all Tobacco sent to this house.
LOWEST WHOLESALE CASH PRICE,
1 to 3 tons, - - $32.00 per ton. 3 to 6 " - - - 31.00 6 or more tons, - - 30.00
ON BOARD CARS OE BOAT IN BALTIMORE.
If this article was sold through agents, and we had to pay agents' commissions, the N. 0. tax, and the losses from bad debts incurred by every one who gives credit, the price would have to be $10.00 higher per ton to the farmer. We claim that there is
The best and cheapest compound ever made for making reliable fertilizers. By the use of Powell's Chemicetls you can make a high grade fertilizer at one-third the usual price. — Dr. Ledoux, of N. C, in his report to the North Carolina Board Agriculture for 1SS0, gives the Powell's Chemicals an intrinsic value of $13.85 per formula when we sell them to the farmer at 12 00 See Ledoux's Report, 1880, pp. 68 and 76.
Special Mixtures and Fertilizers made to order.
RE.lIEJflBlEBl that Powell's Chemicals after January 1st, 1880., also Powell's No. 1, High Grade Kainit will be shipped in tight barrels instead of bags as heretofore. This will be a great saving of loss in weight during transportation.
The "Tip Top" bone fertilizer, as will be seen by analysis, is very rich in plant food. We put it on the market as being much cheaper and equally as good as many of the higher priced brands that are now sold. The analysis of this Fertilizer is guaranteed, and is in the best mechanical condition for drilling.
foreign matter ttsed in making the
compound. These facts, with the high chemical value and low price of the " Tip Top," will make it fill a demand made by a great many fa?mers for a cheap and efficient Fertilizer where they have not the time or means of manipulating chemicals successfully.
GIVE IT A TRIAL.
A pamphlet giving full description of all our goods, and testimonials from leading farmers as to their qualities, mailed to any address on application to
A TRUE TONIC
IRON BITTERS are highly recommended to the public for all diseases requiring a certain and efficient TONIC ; especially Indigestion, Dyspepsia, Intermittent Fevers, Want of Appeti te, Loss of Strength,. Lack of Energy, etc. It enriches the blood, strengthens the muscles, and gives new life to the nerves. It acts like a charm on the digestive organs. Relieves all dyspeptic symptoms, such as tasting the food, belching, heat in the stomach, heartburn, etc.
CURATINE, a cure for .all Scrofulous Taints,
Rheumatism, Salt Rheum, Old Sores and Ulcers, White Swellings, Eruptive Diseases, Tetter, Carbuncles and Boils, Syphilis, all debasements and impurities of the BLOOD. * v
VU MA-TINE, a, cure for all liver Complaints, Jaundice, Severe Headache, Dizziness, Constipation, Dropsical effusion, Biliousness, and every other disease that threatens Life through that important vital organ, t he LIVER,
CURATINE, a cure for all Kidney Complaints, ( except * ' Brigh t's Kidney Disease ," which is incurable, CURATINE will relieve), Pains in the Back, Groins, Retention and Excess of Urine, Diabetes, Night Sweats, Painful Urination, Palpitation, and other Symptoms of Trouble in the KIDNEYS.
4 THE BLOOD IS LIFE." If it be impure there can be no real health. CURA.TINE reaches and cleanses the blood with marvelous certainty
THE LIVER IS THE BODY'S FILTER. If it is clogged, Inactive or torpid from congestion, many or all of the above symptoms appear and sickness, and perhaps death ensues. CURATINE acts directly upon the Liver and corrects its action.
THE KIDNEYS STRAIN AND SEPARATE THE USEFUL FROM USELESS FLUID IN THE SYSTEM Direous distresses take place when the Kidneys cease to act, the whole body is in danger. CURATINE gives the Kidneys strength and energy to perform their appointed work.
The bulk of the Tobacco now produced in North Carolina is of the yellow types, and the success attending its cultivation has been. such as to induce us to look for a still further extension of its range. The Southern Fertilizing Company, of Richmond, Va., early appreciating the probable progress of this industry, not only prepared a fertilizer that would produce yellow leaf of the finest quality, but supplied the grower needing information with the fullest instructions how to handle the crop from the seed-bed to the warehouse. It is every way desirable that North Carolina should maintain her reputation as the home of the finest yellow tobacco in the world. The fertilizer her people use on this crop should be one that time has proven to be entirely reliable. This proof is shown by the
It has been fourteen years in the field, and continues to stand without a rival on fine yellow tobacco. Hear what is said about it by Majok Robert L. Ragland, of Halifax County, Ya., who is accepted on all hands as the best tobacco authority in the United States :
u There are several brands of fertilizers manufactured specially for tobacco, differing in composition, price and merit ; and after repeated experiments with most if not all of the best, the author gives it as his decided opinion, that for fine, bright, silky tobacco nothing equals the Anchor Brand Tobacco Fertilizer, prepared by the Southern Fertilizing Company, Richmond, Va. And this opinion is based upon fourteen years' trial, and often in competition with the best of other brands on the market. It is a tried and proved fertilizer, which the planter can use without the risk of getting something unsuited to his crop ; and therefore I can recommend it with confidence."
Stands in the front rank with none ahead. Sales for the present year more than thirty thousand (30,000) parcels. Increase in past four years more than four fold. Hundreds of new customers have been added during present year ; still there is room for more. With many thanks for past patronage, we ask a liberal share in the future.
O. TLm. UFSHTJR, Importer,
Manufacturer of the Celebrated Bone and Peruvian Guano brand for Tobacco,, (made from Peruvian Guano, Dissolved Bones and Potash), also Manufacturer of the Royal Phosphate, Fish Guano, and Importer of Chemicals.
Manufactured by I. E. RAY,
Of Puke North Carolina Leaf, and peculiarly adapted to the Pipe ; are already famous and sought as the most desirable, in fact, it is said that nowhere else can such be had.
27, 1S80, the following notice in reference to the above firm :
LYNCHBURG ENTERPRISE— Notes of a Prosperous House and its Business —One of the best known and most deservedly popular business houses in Virginia is that now known as Lee, Taylor & Co., Leaf Tobacco and Produce Commission Merchants, 66 Main street. The history of this establishment makes an interesting: and important part of that of Lynchburg itself. It has grown, like the city, if not slowly at least surely, and the various changes through which the business has passed are weil worth recording:
In 1841 the firm of Roberts & Lee was established when the city and its trade may be said to have been in their infancy, compared with the present proportions, and their business, though small, was lucrative, and the partnership continued until 1844, when the firm of Lee & Roberts was formed and continued until 1847 ; then they were succeeded by McDaniel & Lee. This firm continued in active business until 1853, when Lee & Johnson stepped forward and conducted the business until 1859. Then came Lee, Rocke & Taylor, whose partnership was not dissolved until 1865. Then Lee & Taylor conducted the business until 18T0. when the firm name was changed to Lee, Taylor & Co., and this partnership continued for three years. In 1873 the firm was again changed to Lee & Taylor Bros., and, in 1879, to Lee, Taylor & Payne. And now, October, 1880, the firm is again known as Lee, Taylor & Co., as it was ten years ago, Mr. Mosby H. Payne having retired.
It may be mentioned, as a significant proof of the energy, tact and popularity of the numerous business men who have from time to time beenmemters of this firm, which dates back nearly forty years, that though the business was originally small, every successive firm has increased its trade and popularity, and that, in all these long years, and amid all the changes and vicissitudes which have wrecked many business establishments, this house has never failed to pay any note or other obligation at maturity, and has never asked indulgence from a creditor, while granting that favor with a liberal hand to its customers and debtors.
An idea of the immense business of this house may be gathered from the fact that during the past year they sold at their warehouse (Martin's) over six and a half millions pounds of tobacco, being more than one-fourth of all sold in the market. Their dealings with producers, buyers and consumers have been so satisfactory as to increase their trade and make new friends and patrons every month.
From the small beginning of forty years a<?o, this house has established not only an enormous retail trade, but wholesale patronage which is surprising— their business last year aggregating a half million d;. liars ; and to demonstrate " how pleasant it is for brethren to dwell together in unity," it may be stated that the present proprietors have been together more than twenty years.
In view of a large expected increase of business in future they have greatly increased their facilities for accommodating the wants of all their patrons. The farmer who wants seed grain need go no further to find everything in that line that the market affords, for in this specialty Lee, Taylor & Co. have no opposition. In field seeds, some other firms here make the competition lively.
In addition to their enormous leaf tobacco, commission and grocery business, this firm are also sole agents for Dupont & Co.'s powder and fuse of all grades. In fact anything to be found in a wholesale grocery and commission house will be promptly supplied by them on terms as reasonable as any other house can offer.
We have thus hastily and imperfectly alluded to the claims of this house upon the patronage and confidence of the public, with no other desire than to call attention to a deserving enterprise which fully demonstrates its claims to continued support.
surpassing any other.
We have devoted our attention to the manufacturing of the very choicest selection of this tobacco here at home, where it is raised, and we now offer to the public a perfectly pure article, absolutely free of any mixture whatever. We use no flavoring or any other deleterious mixture, it is the native leaf. We manufacture these grades, all perfectly pure : —
Skill in the preparation of food is economy in its use, as well as a cardinal domestic virtue. Believing this, we cheerfully commend
Contains General, State and Local News, also correct Produce and Tobacco Market Reports. Full of Rood things for all personsKills the blues every time. Good advertising medium. Large circulation. Established in one of the fastest growing towns of Western Caolina, and among an enterprising and industrious people. Everybody reads.
All grades of Tobacco sold for Full Market Value. Strict personal attention given to Weighing and Selling. Prompt payments and returns made after each sale, either in Currency or Checks, as planters may desire. Ample Camp Lots and Sheds for the protection of Stock. Our demand for Fine Wrappers, Smokers and Fillers is large and increasing, at Full Prices.
Son, Petersburg, Va.
Dr. G. W. Blacknall — New Morehead City Hotel. — The public will be delighted to know that the new Hotel at Morehead City has been leased by Dr. G. W. Blackball, proprietor of the Yarboro House, Raleigh, N. C, for the period of five years. Dr. Blacknall is widely known as the best hotel man in North Carolina. No man in the hotel annals of the State has ever been known to handle*, crowd with so much ease as he. By the coming season there will be good accommodations for five or six hundred guests. This most excellent House is fitted up with every modern improvement. The ball-room will be the largest and best arranged In the United States. Every room will be supplied with gas and water. This hotel is beautifully and conveniently situated near the water edge, and is one of the most agreeable places for the seaside visitor on the Atlantic coast. We bespeak for the Doctor a most successful season for the coming summer. — The Torchlight, Oxford, N. C.
ing Academy.
The elder Mr. Horner has had a varied experience of thirty years in the schoolroom; and his son, Mr. J. V. Horner, after the best preparatory training under his father, was graduated with distinction at Davidson College, since which time he has been constantly engaged in teaching.
honorable and studious boys will be retained in the school.
The location is retired, but not so remote from the town as to lose the healthful influence of its refined society. Students live in the family of the Principals; and their conduct out of school and in school is strictly supervised and controlled. The standard of scholarship and of gentlemanly deportment is high.
The course of study is complete. The Text-Books are up to the latest advancements in every department; and the best educational advantages in all the appointments of the School are provided. The session is divided into two terms of twenty weeks each, with only one day's interval.
Published Monthly, at Oxford, N. C, at One Dollar a Tear, in advance.
Offers decided advantages to advertisers. High average circulation. Advertisements shown prominently, are free from errors and are tastefully displayed. Its advertising rates are not in excess of its value to an advertiser. Advertisements, intended for publication in any issue, should be in the office by the 20th of the month.
HUNDLEY TOBACCO ORDERER.
This is undoubtedly one of the greatest conveniences for the Tobacco Farmer yet invented. By its use the farmer is enabled to remove his tobacco immediately after it is cured in any kind of weather without the least damage.
He can strip and market his crop at any time or during any season , and especially is it useful in cold rainy weather, when it is too disagreeable to work out of doors, and too cold for tobacco to soften.
will do this, and he will at once appreciate its value.
With our Improved Orderer we have never failed to give satisfaction, and can produce more than one hundred testimonials, but for want of space confine ourselves to a few from the leading farmers in different localities.
****** a8 gne yellow tobacco is so much more profitable than any other kind, it is not only best to know how to cure it bright, but also how to retain the fancy color. Every person at all acquainted with the nature of fine yellow tobacco knows that it is liable and apt to change if allowed to soften too much or too quickly ; therefore, it is important not to allow it to undergo any change that will cause it to lose its fancy color. Having some experience with fine tobacco myself, I went to see what effect the Orderer had upon tobacco, and whether or not it would change the color. We put some very fine into the barn, which was entirely dry. I examined it well, and when it was thoroughly softened, I found that the color was not changed in the least. I continued to experiment until I was perfectly convinced that it wouTd not at all change the most fancy color. It required about thirty-five minutes to soften the leaf, but would take some time longer to soften the large stems sufficiently to strip. I am perfectly satisfied that the Orderer will not change the color any more than a natural season. It is arranged to distribute the steam uniformly over the barn, and can be easily turned on or off. Tobacco can be softened or ordered by it quickly or slowly, as may suit best.
Dear Sir: June 10th, 1880.
Herewith find orders for five of your Tobacco Orderers. * * The tobacco you ordered when here I sent to Danville a few days after you left. TJie warehousemen prwwunced the order good. From what I have seen of the Orderer I am more than satisfied that it is an indispensable adjunct to every tobacco farm, and that in the course of a few years every man that raises fine tobacco will have one. I am now satisfied, from my experience, that it will not change the color or in any other way damage fine tobacco. Wishing you much success, I remain
J. C. Hundley, Esq., Oxford, N. 0. October 18th, 1880.
Dear Sir : — Your Improved Tobacco Orderers have given general satisfaction so far. Many farmers signify their intention of purchasing at an early date. * * They all work charmingly. * * Make two more for me. Very truly,
Mr. J. C. Hundley,
Dear Sir: — I am glad to hear that you are receiving so many orders for your Orderer, feeling certain that it is just what every tobacco farmer needs. I am using mine and it works well. Respectfully yours, W. H. ANDERSON.
Dear Sir: — I have been using the Steam Orderer I bought of you, and am well pleased with it. I think I can recommend it to do what you claim for it. It will order tobacco in a very little time and uniformly through the house.
Oxford, N. O, Nov. 23d, 1880.
I have thoroughly examined the Hundley Tobacco Orderer and know it to be a complete success. No tobacco farmer can afford to be without one. He can often save the cost of one in a single load of tobacco by being able to handle it at any time.
OUR RIGHTS are protected by Letters Patent, number 224,290, bearing date February 10th, 1880, and covering the process of ordering Leaf Tobacco by passing the steam from a suitable boiler through a pipe perforated in such a manner that the main portion of the steam issues in a direction away from the overhanging tobacco.
'Will not the " Safety Fund " plan of the HARTFORD LIFE AND ANNUITY INS. CO. revolutionize the whole Life business? It contains all that is valuable both in Mutual and Co-operation Insurance.
For the profitable growing of Fine Yellow Tobacco, satisfying all the wants of the crop in its successive stages of growth and maturing, this preparation has no superior, as is clearly evidenced by the continuous experience of many of the best planters in the Fine Tobacco region of North Carolina and Virginia. To those who have used it no recommendation is needed, and of
The favor with whicli this tobacco has been received is evidenced by the fact that the salek, following its introduction, have been larger and more steadily maintained than has ever been the fortune of any new article of the kind put on the market.
THESE GOODS WE OFFEE UNDEE AN ABSOLUTE GUAEANTEE
f They fire the Finest and Purest Gooas upon the Market T W A T ' They are free from Drugs or Chemicals of any kind. 1 flli i They consist of the Finest Tobacco, and Purest Rice
| 63,285 | common-pile/pre_1929_books_filtered | sketchoftobaccoi00came | public_library | public_library_1929_dolma-0018.json.gz:375 | https://archive.org/download/sketchoftobaccoi00came/sketchoftobaccoi00came_djvu.txt |
3gvXEqqpUxNE2y21 | UPEI Introduction to Psychology 1 | Introduction
Imagine two men of 30-something age, Adam and Ben, walking down the corridor. Judging from their clothing, they are young businessmen, taking a break from work. They then have this exchange.
Adam: “You know, Gary bought a ring.”
Ben: “Oh yeah? For Mary, isn’t it?” (Adam nods.)
If you are watching this scene and hearing their conversation, what can you guess from this? Perhaps you would infer that Gary is getting married to Mary. What else can you guess? Perhaps that Adam and Ben are fairly close colleagues, and both of them know Gary and Mary reasonably well. In other words, you can guess the social relationships surrounding the people who are engaging in the conversation and the people whom they are talking about.
Language is used in our everyday lives. If psychology is a science of behavior, scientific investigation of language use must be one of the most central topics— this is because language use is ubiquitous. Every human group has a language; human infants (except those who have unfortunate disabilities) learn at least one language without being taught explicitly. Even when children who don’t have much language to begin with are brought together, they can begin to develop and use their own language. There is at least one known instance where children who had had little language were brought together and developed their own language spontaneously with minimum input from adults.
Language is an essential tool that enables us to live the kind of lives we do. Much of contemporary human civilization wouldn’t have been possible without it. [Image: Marc Wathieu, https://goo.gl/jNSzTC, CC BY-NC 2.0, https://goo.gl/VnKlK8]
In Nicaragua in the 1980s, deaf children who were separately raised in various locations were brought together to schools for the first time. Teachers tried to teach them Spanish with little success. However, they began to notice that the children were using their hands and gestures, apparently to communicate with each other. Linguists were brought in to find out what was happening—it turned out the children had developed their own sign language by themselves. That was the birth of a new language, Nicaraguan Sign Language (Kegl, Senghas, & Coppola, 1999). Language is ubiquitous, and we humans are born to use it. | 481 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://pressbooks.library.upei.ca/upeiintropsychology/chapter/chapter-21-introduction/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:99104 | https://pressbooks.library.upei.ca/upeiintropsychology/chapter/chapter-21-introduction/ |
3t_9crgoXqWx2W4k | 1.20.4: Surfactants and Miceles: Ionics | 1.20.4: Surfactants and Miceles: Ionics
An intense debate concerns the structure of micelles, particularly those formed by ionic surfactants such as SDS and CTAB. It seems generally agreed that micelles are essentially spherical in shape. The polar head groups ( e.g. \(– \mathrm{N}^{+} \mathrm{Me}_{3}\)) are at the surface of each micelle, having strong interactions with the surrounding solvent. In close proximity in the Stern layer are counterions (e.g. bromide ions in the case of CTAB); the aggregation number \(\mathrm{n}\) describes the number of cations which form each micelle. The total charge on the micelle is determined the aggregation number and a quantity \(\beta\), the latter being the fraction of charge of aggregated ions forming the micelle neutralized by the micelle bound counter ions. The remaining fraction of counter ions exists as ‘free’ ions in aqueous solution. Both \(mathrm{n}\) and \(\beta\) are characteristic of a given surfactant system, and are obtained from analysis of experimental data [1]. The properties of ionic surfactants have been extensively studied [2-14]. Here we examine four thermodynamic descriptions of these systems.
Ionic Surfactant:1:1 salt: Phase Equilibrium: Dry Neutral Micelle
We consider a dilute aqueous solution of an ionic surfactant; e.g. \(\mathrm{AM}^{+} \mathrm{Br}^{-}\). As more surfactant is added a trace amount of micelles appear in the solution when the concentration of surfactant just exceeds the cmc. The trace amount of surfactant is present as micelles constituting a micellar phase. At defined \(\mathrm{T}\) and \(\mathrm{p}\), the following equilibrium is established in the case of the model surfactant \(\mathrm{AM}^{+} \mathrm{Br}^{-}\);
\[\mathrm{AM}^{+} \mathrm{Br}^{-}(\mathrm{aq}) \Leftrightarrow \mathrm{AM}^{+} \mathrm{Br}^{-}(\mathrm{mic}) \nonumber \]
Then,
\[\mu^{\mathrm{cq}}\left[\mathrm{AM}^{+} \mathrm{Br}^{-}(\mathrm{aq})\right]=\mu^{\mathrm{cq}}\left[\mathrm{AM}^{+} \mathrm{Br}^{-}(\mathrm{mic})\right] \nonumber \]
We assume that the micelles carry no charge. The chemical potential of the surfactant in aqueous solution is related to the cmc using the following equation where \(\mathrm{y}_{\pm}\) is the mean ionic activity coefficient. We set \(\mu^{\mathrm{eq}}\left[\mathrm{AM}^{+} \mathrm{Br}^{-} \text {(mic) }\right]\) equal to the chemical potential of the surfactant in the pure micellar state, \(\mu^{*}\left[\mathrm{AM}^{+} \mathrm{Br}^{-} \text {(mic) }\right]\).
\[\begin{aligned}
\mu^{0}\left(\mathrm{AM}^{+} \mathrm{Br}^{-} ; \mathrm{aq} ; \mathrm{c}-\mathrm{scale}\right)+2 \, \mathrm{R} \, \mathrm{T} \, \ln \left(\mathrm{cmc} \, \mathrm{y}_{\pm} \, / \mathrm{c}_{\mathrm{r}}\right) \\
&=\mu^{*}\left(\mathrm{AM}^{+} \mathrm{Br}^{-} ; \text {micellar phase }\right)
\end{aligned} \nonumber \]
Here \(\mu^{0}\left(\mathrm{AM}^{+} \mathrm{Br}^{-} ; \mathrm{aq} ; \mathrm{c}-\text { scale }\right)\) is the chemical potential of the salt \(\mathrm{AM}^{+} \mathrm{Br}^{-}\) in aqueous solution at unit concentration where the properties of the salt are ideal. Thus \(\mathrm{y}_{\pm}\) describes the role of ion-ion interactions in the solution having salt concentration cmc. Because the model states that there is only a trace amount of micelles in the system, we do not take account of salt-micelle interactions. Then
\[\Delta_{\text {mic }} \mathrm{G}^{0}=\mu^{*}\left(\text { micellar phase; } \mathrm{AM}^{+} \mathrm{Br}^{-}\right)-\mu^{0}\left(\mathrm{AM}^{+} \mathrm{Br}^{-} ; \text {aq; } \mathrm{c}-\text { scale }\right) \nonumber \]
Hence,
\[\Delta_{\text {mic }} G^{0}(\mathrm{aq} ; \mathrm{c}-\text { scale })=2 \, \mathrm{R} \, \mathrm{T} \, \ln \left(\mathrm{cmc} \, \mathrm{y}_{\pm} / \mathrm{c}_{\mathrm{r}}\right) \nonumber \]
If the salt concentration in the aqueous solution at the cmc is quite low, a useful assumption sets \(\mathrm{y}_{\pm}\) equal to unity. Then,
\[\Delta_{\text {mic }} \mathrm{G}^{0}(\mathrm{aq} ; \mathrm{c}-\mathrm{scale})=2 \, \mathrm{R} \, \mathrm{T} \, \ln \left(\mathrm{cmc} / \mathrm{c}_{\mathrm{r}}\right) \nonumber \]
The latter equation leads to the calculation of the standard increase in Gibbs energy when one mole of salt \(\mathrm{AM}^{+} \mathrm{Br}^{-}\) passes from the ideal solution, concentration \(1 \mathrm{mol dm}^{-3}\) to the micellar phase.
There is a modest problem with the latter equation which can raise conceptual problems. As normally stated the cmc for a given salt is expressed using the unit ‘\(\mathrm{mol dm}^{-3}\)‘ so that \(\mathrm{c}_{\mathrm{r}} = 1 \mathrm{~mol dm}^{-3}\). This means that when \(\mathrm{cmc} > 1 \mathrm{~mol dm}^{-3}\), \(\Delta_{\operatorname{mic}} G^{0}(\mathrm{aq} ; \mathrm{c}-\text { scale })\) is positive. For solutes where \(\mathrm{cmc} < 1 \mathrm{~mol dm}^{-3}\), the derived quantity is negative.
Another approach expresses the cmc using the mole fractions, cmx such that equation (c) is written as follows.
\[\begin{gathered}
\mu^{0}\left(\mathrm{AM}^{+} \mathrm{Br}^{-} ; \text {aq } ; \mathrm{x}-\mathrm{scale}\right)+2 \, \mathrm{R} \, \mathrm{T} \, \ln \left(\mathrm{cmx} \, \mathrm{f}_{\pm}^{*}\right) \\
=\mu^{*}\left(\mathrm{AM}^{+} \mathrm{Br}^{-} ; \text {micellar phase }\right)
\end{gathered} \nonumber \]
Here \(\mu^{0}\left(\mathrm{AM}^{+} \mathrm{Br}^{-} ; \mathrm{aq} ; \mathrm{x}-\text { scale }\right)\) is the chemical potential of the salt \(\mathrm{AM}^{+} \mathrm{Br}^{-}\) in an ideal solution where the (asymmetric) activity coefficient \(\mathrm{f}_{\pm}^{*}=1.0\) and \(\mathrm{cmx} = 1.0\). .
By definition \(\operatorname{limit}\left[x\left(\mathrm{AM}^{+} \mathrm{Br}^{-}\right) \rightarrow 0\right] \mathrm{f}_{\pm}^{*}=1.0 \text { at all } \mathrm{T} \text { and } \mathrm{p}\).} The analogue of equation (f) takes the following form.
\[\Delta_{\text {mic }} \mathrm{G}^{0}(\mathrm{aq} ; \mathrm{x}-\text { scale })=2 \, \mathrm{R} \, \mathrm{T} \, \ln (\mathrm{cm} \mathrm{x}) \nonumber \]
Because cmx is always less than unity, \(\Delta_{\text {mic }} G^{0}(a q ; x-\text { scale })\) is always negative. It is important in these calculations to note the definitions of reference and standard states for solutes and micelles otherwise false conclusions can be drawn [14]. The analysis proceeds to use the Gibbs-Helmholtz equation. Hence,
\[\Delta_{\text {mic }} \mathrm{H}^{0}(\mathrm{aq} ; \mathrm{x}-\text { scale })=-2 \, \mathrm{R} \, \mathrm{T}^{2} \,\{\partial \ln (\mathrm{cmx}) / \partial \mathrm{T}\}_{\mathrm{p}} \nonumber \]
The term \(\left\{\partial \ln (\mathrm{cmx}) / \partial \mathrm{T}_{\mathrm{P}}\right.\) is conveniently obtained by expressing the dependence of cmx on temperature using the following polynomial.
\[\ln (c m x)=a_{1}+a_{2} \, T+a_{3} \, T^{2}+\ldots \nonumber \]
Equation (h) is straightforward, the stoichiometric factor ‘2’ emerging from the fact that each mole of salt \(\mathrm{AM}^{+} \mathrm{Br}^{-}\) produces on complete dissociation 2 moles of ions. A key assumption in this analysis is that the micelles carry no electric charge. In other words a micelle is formed by \(\mathrm{n}\) moles of cation \(\mathrm{AM}^{+}\), \(\mathrm{n}\) moles of counter ions \(\mathrm{Br}^{-}\) being bound within the Stern layer such that the charge on each micelle is zero. This model is a little unrealistic.
Ionic Surfactant: 1:1 salt: Phase Equilibrium: Dry Charged Micelle
A cationic surfactant \(\mathrm{AM}^{+} \mathrm{Br}^{-}\) in aqueous solution forms micelles when \(\mathrm{n}\) cations come together to form a micellar phase. Bearing in mind that \(\mathrm{n}\) might be greater than 20, the idea that there exists micro-phases of macro-cations in a system with an electric charge at least +20 is not attractive. In practice the charge is partially neutralised by bromide ions in the Stern layer. The quantity \(\beta\) refers to the fraction of counter ions bound to cations. Thus the formal charge number on each micelle is \([n \,(1-\beta)]\). In the model developed here we represent the formation of the micro-phase comprising the micelles as follows where n is the number of cation monomers which cluster, the remaining bromide ions being present in the aqueous solution (phase).
\[\begin{aligned}
\mathrm{nAM}^{+}(\mathrm{aq}) &+\mathrm{n} \,(1-\beta+\beta) \mathrm{Br}^{-}(\mathrm{aq}) \\
& \Leftrightarrow\left[\mathrm{nAM}^{+} \mathrm{n} \, \beta \mathrm{Br}^{-}\right]^{\mathrm{n} \,(1-\beta)}(\mathrm{mic})+\mathrm{n} \,(1-\beta) \mathrm{Br}^{-}(\mathrm{aq})
\end{aligned} \nonumber \]
We re-express this equilibrium in terms of equilibrium chemical potentials for a system at fixed \(\mathrm{T}\) and \(\mathrm{p}\).
\[\begin{aligned}
&\mathrm{n} \, \mu^{\mathrm{cq}}\left(\mathrm{AM}^{+} ; \mathrm{aq}\right)+\mathrm{n} \,(1-\beta+\beta) \, \mu^{\mathrm{eq}}\left(\mathrm{Br}^{-} ; \mathrm{aq}\right) \\
&=\mu^{\mathrm{eq}}\left\{\left[\mathrm{nAM}^{+} \mathrm{n} \, \beta \mathrm{Br}^{-}\right]^{\mathrm{n}(1-\beta)} ; \text { micelle }\right\}+\mathrm{n} \,(1-\beta) \mu^{\mathrm{cq}}\left(\mathrm{Br}^{-} ; \mathrm{aq}\right)
\end{aligned} \nonumber \]
We define the chemical potential of the micelle microphase which contains 1 mole of \(\mathrm{AM}^{+}\). This is a key extrathermodynamic step. We also describe the micelle as a pure ‘phase’.
\[\begin{aligned}
\mu^{\mathrm{eq}}\left\{\left[\mathrm{AM}^{+} \beta \mathrm{Br}^{*}\right]^{(1-\beta)} ; \text { micelle }\right\} \\
&=\mu^{\mathrm{cq}}\left\{\left[\mathrm{nAM}^{+} \mathrm{n} \, \beta \mathrm{Br}^{-}\right]^{\mathrm{n}(1-\beta)} ; \text { micelle }\right\} / \mathrm{n}
\end{aligned} \nonumber \]
Hence,
\[\begin{aligned}
&\mu^{\mathrm{eq}}\left(\mathrm{AM}^{+} ; \mathrm{aq}\right)+\mu^{\mathrm{eq}}\left(\mathrm{Br}^{-} ; \mathrm{aq}\right) \\
&=\mu^{*}\left\{\left[\mathrm{AM}^{+} \beta \mathrm{Br}^{*}\right]^{(1-\beta)} ; \text { micelle }\right\}+(1-\beta) \mu^{\mathrm{eq}}\left(\mathrm{Br}^{-} ; \mathrm{aq}\right)
\end{aligned} \nonumber \]
Or,
\[\begin{aligned}
&\mu^{\mathrm{cq}}\left(\mathrm{AM}^{+} \mathrm{Br}^{-1} ; \mathrm{aq}\right)= \\
&\mu^{\mathrm{eq}}\left\{\left[\mathrm{AM}^{+} \beta \mathrm{Br}^{-}\right]^{(1-\beta)} ; \text { micelle\} }+(1-\beta) \mu^{\mathrm{cq}}\left(\mathrm{Br}^{-} ; \mathrm{aq}\right)\right.
\end{aligned} \nonumber \]
The term \(\mu^{थ}\left(\mathrm{AM}^{+} \mathrm{Br}^{-1} ; \mathrm{aq}\right)\) is the equilibrium chemical potential of a 1:1 salt in solution at the cmc. The term \(\mu^{\mathrm{eq}}\left(\mathrm{Br}^{-} ; \mathrm{aq}\right)\) is the equilibrium chemical potential of the bromide ion in the solution at the cmc of the surfactant. In any event the system is electrically neutral.
\[\begin{aligned}
&\mu^{0}\left(\mathrm{AM}^{+} \mathrm{Br}^{-1} ; \mathrm{aq}\right)+2 \, \mathrm{R} \, \mathrm{T} \, \ln \left[\mathrm{cmc} \, \mathrm{y}\left(\mathrm{AM}^{+} \mathrm{Br}^{-}\right) / \mathrm{c}_{\mathrm{r}}\right] \\
&=\mu^{*}\left\{\left[\mathrm{AM}^{+} \beta \mathrm{Br}^{*}\right]^{(1-\beta)} ; \text { micelle }\right\} \\
&+(1-\beta) \,\left\{\mu^{0}\left(\mathrm{Br}{ }^{-} ; \mathrm{aq}\right)+\mathrm{R} \, \mathrm{T} \, \ln \left[\mathrm{cmc} \, \mathrm{y}\left(\mathrm{Br}^{-}\right) / \mathrm{c}_{\mathrm{r}}\right]\right\}
\end{aligned} \nonumber \]
By definition,
\[\begin{aligned}
\Delta_{\text {mic }} \mathrm{G}^{0}=\mu^{*} &\left\{\left[\mathrm{AM}^{+} \beta \mathrm{Br}^{*}\right]^{(1-\beta)} ; \text { micelle }\right\} \\
&+(1-\beta) \, \mu^{0}\left(\mathrm{Br}^{-} ; \mathrm{aq}\right)-\mu^{0}\left(\mathrm{AM}^{+} \mathrm{Br}^{-1} ; \mathrm{aq}\right)
\end{aligned} \nonumber \]
Assuming both \(\mathrm{y}\left(\mathrm{AM}^{+} \mathrm{Br}^{-}\right)\) and \(\mathrm{y}\left(\mathrm{Br}^{-}\right)\) are unity,
\[\Delta_{\text {mic }} \mathrm{G}^{0}=2 \, \mathrm{R} \, \mathrm{T} \, \ln \left[\mathrm{cmc} / \mathrm{c}_{\mathrm{r}}\right]-(1-\beta) \, \mathrm{R} \, \mathrm{T} \, \ln \left[\mathrm{cmc} / \mathrm{c}_{\mathrm{r}}\right] \nonumber \]
or
\[\Delta_{\text {mic }} \mathrm{G}^{0}=(1+\beta) \, \mathrm{R} \, \mathrm{T} \, \ln \left[\mathrm{cmc} / \mathrm{c}_{\mathrm{r}}\right] \nonumber \]
The latter equation closely resembles that for non-ionic surfactants for which \(\beta\) is unity. For ionic surfactants it is not justified to assume that \(\beta\) is also unity.
Ionic Surfactant: 1:1 salt: Dry Charged Micelle:Mixed Salt Solutions
As more ionic surfactant is added to a solution having the concentration of surfactant equal to the cmc, so the solution increasingly resembles a mixed salt solution, simple salt, charged micelles and counter ions. Analysis of the properties of such solutions was described by Burchfield and Woolley [2-5]. We might develop the analysis from equation (k). An advantage of writing the equation in this form stems from the observation that both sides of the equation describe an electrically neutral system. Woolley and co-- workers [4,5] prefer a form which removes a contribution \(\mathrm{n} \,(1-\beta) \mathrm{Br}^{-}(\mathrm{aq})\) from each side of equation (k).
\[\mathrm{nAM}^{+}(\mathrm{aq})+\mathrm{n} \, \beta \mathrm{Br}^{-}(\mathrm{aq}) \Leftrightarrow\left[\mathrm{nAM}^{+} \mathrm{n} \, \beta \mathrm{Br}^{-}\right]^{\mathrm{a} \,(1-\beta)}(\mathrm{aq}) \nonumber \]
Nevertheless one might argue that equation (k) does have the merit in comparing two salts whereas equation (t) describes the links between three ions. In terms of equation (k) , there are two salts in solution.
-
\(\mathrm{AM}^{+} \mathrm{Br}^{-}\) where \(v_{+}=1, v_{-}=1, v=2, Q=\left(v_{+}^{v+} \, v_{-}^{v-}\right)^{1 / v}=1, y_{\pm}^{v}=y_{+}^{v+} \, y_{-}^{v-}, \text { or } y_{\pm}^{2}=y_{+} \, y_{-}\) But
\[\begin{aligned}
&\mu\left(\mathrm{AM}^{+} \mathrm{Br}^{-}\right)= \\
&\mu^{0}\left(\mathrm{AM}^{+} \mathrm{Br}^{-}\right)+2 \, \mathrm{R} \, \mathrm{T} \, \ln \left(\mathrm{c}\left(\mathrm{AM}^{+} \mathrm{Br}^{-}\right) \, \mathrm{y}_{\pm}\left(\mathrm{AM}^{+} \mathrm{Br}^{-}\right) / \mathrm{c}_{\mathrm{r}}\right)
\end{aligned} \nonumber \] -
For the micellar salt, \(\left[\mathrm{nAM}^{+} \mathrm{n} \, \beta \mathrm{Br}^{-}\right]^{\mathrm{n} \,(1-\beta)} \mathrm{n} \,(1-\beta) \mathrm{Br} \mathrm{r}^{-}\)
\(\mathrm{v}_{+}=1, \mathrm{v}_{-}=\mathrm{n} \,(1-\beta),\) and \(v=n \,(1-\beta)+1\) and \(\mathrm{Q}^{\mathrm{n}(1-\beta)+1}=\left[1 \,\{\mathrm{n} \,(1-\beta)\}^{\mathrm{n}(1-\beta)}\right]\) with \(\mathrm{y}_{\pm}^{\mathrm{n} \,(1-\beta)+1}=\mathrm{y}_{+}^{1} \, \mathrm{y}_{-}^{\mathrm{n} \,(1-\beta)}\)
Then,\[\begin{aligned}
&\mu(\text { mic. salt }) \\
&\left.=\mu^{0} \text { (mic. salt }\right)+[n \,(1-\beta)+1] \, R \, T \, \ln \left[Q \, c(\text { mic.salt }) \, y_{\pm} / c_{r}\right]
\end{aligned} \nonumber \]
At equilibrium,
\[\mathrm{n} \, \mu^{\mathrm{eq}}\left(\mathrm{AM}^{+} \mathrm{Br}^{-} ; \mathrm{aq}\right)=\mu^{\mathrm{eq}}(\text { mic. salt; aq }) \nonumber \]
Hence,
\[\Delta_{\text {mics slt }} \mathrm{G}^{0}=-\mathrm{R} \, \mathrm{T} \, \ln \left(\mathrm{K}_{0}\right)=\mu^{0}(\text { mic.salt })-\mathrm{n} \, \mu^{0}\left(\mathrm{AM}^{+} \mathrm{Br}^{-}\right) \nonumber \]
The total concentration of salt ctot in the system is given by equation (y).
\[\operatorname{ctot}\left(\mathrm{AM}^{+} \mathrm{Br}^{-} ; \text {system }\right)=\mathrm{n} \, \mathrm{c}(\text { ch arg ed micelles })+\mathrm{c}\left(\mathrm{AM}^{+} \mathrm{Br}^{-} ; \mathrm{aq}\right) \nonumber \]
The analysis makes no explicit reference to a cmc. Instead the micellar system is described as a mixed salt solution. Application of these equations requires careful computer –based curve fitting for multi-parametric equations. The latter include equations relating mean ionic activity coefficients for salts to the composition of a given solution. A shielding factor \(\delta\) was use by Burchfield and Woolley to reduce the impact of micellar charge of the cationic micelles on calculated ionic strength [2]. Thus the effective charge on the cationic micelles was written as \(n \,(1-\beta) \, \delta\) where \(\delta\) is approx. 0.5.
Ionic Surfactant: Mass Action Model
In general terms the equilibrium between surfactant monomers \(\mathrm{Z}^{+}\), counter anions \(\mathrm{X}^{-}\) and micelles \(\mathrm{M}\) can be represented by the following equation.
\[\mathrm{n} Z^{+}(\mathrm{aq})+\mathrm{mX} \mathrm{X}^{-}(\mathrm{aq}) \Leftrightarrow \mathrm{M}^{(\mathrm{n}-\mathrm{m})+}(\mathrm{aq}) \nonumber \]
Then in terms of the mass action model, the concentration equilibrium constant,
\[\mathrm{K}_{\mathrm{c}}^{0}=\left[\mathrm{M}^{(\mathrm{n}-\mathrm{m})+}\right] /\left\{\left[\mathrm{Z}^{+}\right]^{\mathrm{n}} \,\left[\mathrm{X}^{-}\right]^{\mathrm{m}}\right\} \nonumber \]
By definition,
\[\Delta_{\text {mic }} \mathrm{G}^{0}=-(\mathrm{n})^{-1} \, \mathrm{R} \, \mathrm{T} \, \ln \left(\mathrm{K}_{\mathrm{c}}^{0}\right) \nonumber \]
Then,
\[\Delta_{\text {mic }} \mathrm{G}^{0} /(\mathrm{R} \, \mathrm{T})=-(\mathrm{n})^{-1} \, \ln \left[\mathrm{M}^{(\mathrm{n}-\mathrm{m})+}\right]+\ln \left[\mathrm{Z}^{+}\right]+(\mathrm{m} / \mathrm{n}) \, \ln \left[\mathrm{X}^{-}\right] \nonumber \]
Footnotes
[1] N. M. van Os, J. R. Haak and L. A. M. Rupert, Physico – Chemical Properties of Selected Anionic, Cationic and Non-ionic Surfactants, Elsevier, Amsterdam 1993.
[2] T. E. Burchfield, and E. M. Woolley, J. Phys. Chem.,1984, 88 ,2149.
[3] T. E. Burchfield and E. M. Woolley, in Surfactants in Solution, ed. K. L. Mittal and P. Bothorel, Plenum Press, New Yok, 1987, volume 4 , 69.
[4] E. M. Woolley and T. E. Burchfield, J. Phys. Chem.,1984, 88 ,2155.
[5] T. E. Burchfield and E.M.Wooley, Fluid Phase Equilib., 1985, 20 ,207.
[6] D. F.Evans, M. Allen, B.W. Ninham and A. Fouda, J. Solution Chem.,1984, 13 ,87.
[7] D. G. Archer, J. Solution Chem.,1986, 15 ,727
[8]
- L. Espada, M. N. Jones and G. Pilcher, J.Chem. Thermodyn., 1970, 2 ,1, 333; and references therein.
- M. N. Jones, G. Pilcher and L.Espada, J. Chem.Thermodyn,.,1970, 2 ,333
[9] M. J. Blandamer, P. M. Cullis, L. G. Soldi and M. C. S. Subha, J. Therm. Anal.,1996, 46 ,1583.
[10] R. Zana, Langmuir, 1996, 12 ,1208.
[11] M. J. Blandamer, K. Bijma, J. B. F. N. Engberts, P. M. Cullis, P. M. Last, K. D. Irlam and L. G. Soldi, J. Chem.Soc. Faraday Trans.,1997, 93 ,1579; and references therein.
[12] M. J. Blandamer, W. Posthumnus, J. B. F. N. Engberts and K. Bijma, J. Mol. Liq., 1997, 73-74 ,91.
[13] R. DeLisi, E. Fiscaro, S. Milioto, E. Pelizetti and P. Savarino, J. Solution Chem.,1990, 19 , 247.
[14] M. J. Blandamer, P. M. Cullis, L. G. Soldi, J. B. F. N. Engberts, A. Kacperska, N. M. van Os and M. C. S. Subha, Adv. Colloid Interface Sci.,1995, 58 ,171.
[15] For further references concerning the Stern Layer, see N. J. Buurma, P. Serena, M. J. Blandamer and J. B. F. N. Engberts, J. Org. Chem., 2004, 69 , 3899. | 2,926 | common-pile/libretexts_filtered | https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Topics_in_Thermodynamics_of_Solutions_and_Liquid_Mixtures/01%3A_Modules/1.20%3A_Surfactants/1.20.4%3A_Surfactants_and_Miceles%3A_Ionics | libretexts | libretexts-0000.json.gz:44788 | https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Topics_in_Thermodynamics_of_Solutions_and_Liquid_Mixtures/01%3A_Modules/1.20%3A_Surfactants/1.20.4%3A_Surfactants_and_Miceles%3A_Ionics |
_OtCp8UzNIp9U0LH | Exploring Physical Phenomena | Unit 1: Exploring the Nature of Light Phenomena
V. Developing Mathematical Representations of Pinhole Phenomena
Pinhole phenomena can provide useful tools in estimating quantities that are otherwise hard to measure. To do so, we need to develop ways to represent pinhole phenomena mathematically, both geometrically and algebraically.
A. Representing pinhole phenomena geometrically
The visual display provided by a ray diagram suggests describing pinhole phenomena geometrically. First we simplify the diagram, next name and label angles, and then interpret geometric aspects of two triangles evident in the refined ray diagram.
Question 1.14 How can you describe pinhole phenomena geometrically?
The ray diagram in Fig. 1.14 includes realistic sketches of the light bulb, the upside-down projection, and the pinhole camera as well as lines representing light rays inferred to be leaving the source and traveling straight through the pinhole to the screen.
This realistic portrayal of what we can actually see (the light bulb, camera, and projection on the screen) was helpful in using our conceptual model for light in explaining the upside-down projection of the light bulb observed on the screen: We could infer that light was leaving points on this source in many directions and envision that some light rays were traveling in straight lines:
- from the top of the light bulb straight through the pinhole to form the projection of the top of the light bulb near the bottom of the screen,
- from the middle of the bulb traveling straight through the pinhole to form the projection of the middle of the light bulb near the middle of the screen, and
- from the bottom of the bulb traveling straight through the pinhole to form the projection of the bottom of the light bulb near the top of the screen.
A more abstract stylized ray diagram, however, can focus attention on the envisioned light rays without the details of source, camera, and screen as shown in Fig. 1.17:
- Instead of a drawing of a light bulb, a vertical line represents the light source.
- Instead of a drawing of an upside-down projection of the light bulb on the screen, a parallel shorter vertical line represents this projection.
- Instead of an open circle, the pinhole is represented by an opening between short vertical lines above and below the point where the lines representing envisioned light rays cross. These short vertical lines represent the opaque end of the camera through which a pin was pushed to make the pinhole
In Fig. 1.17, vertical black parallel lines represent the source and projection rather than sketches of the bulb and upside down projection. An opening between two small black vertical lines represents the open pinhole. The blue straight lines represent rays of light inferred to be traveling from the top and bottom of the bulb to the bottom and top of the screen where they form the upside down projection of the light bulb. The rest of the details of the source and the camera are not shown. The description of what is happening is the same:
- We are envisioning rays of light from the top of the vertical line representing the light bulb traveling straight through the opening representing the pinhole to form the projection of the top of the light bulb near the bottom of the screen.
- We are envisioning rays of light from the bottom of the light bulb traveling straight through the opening representing the pinhole to form a projection of the bottom of the light bulb near the top of the screen.
By using straight parallel vertical lines to represent the source and the projection, Fig. 1.17 simplifies the ray diagram so that two triangles become evident.
- What do these two triangles represent?
- How are these two triangles related?
One way to describe a ray diagram geometrically is to begin by naming the vertices of the triangles. In Fig. 1.18 for example, the vertices of the triangle on the left are labeled A, B, C, whereas the vertices of the triangle on the right are labeled F, E, C. (Later the letter D will represent the distance between line AB and vertex C, so D is omitted in naming vertices here.)
- How are the angles in these triangles related?
- What does it mean, for example, for two angles to be corresponding?
Which angle in triangle FCE corresponds to Angle A in triangle ACB?
Which angle in triangle FCE corresponds to Angle B in triangle ACB?
Which angle in triangle FCE corresponds to Angle C in triangle ACB? - What does it mean for two angles to be congruent?
- When are two angles congruent if formed by intersecting lines?
- What does it mean, for example, for two angles to be corresponding?
Triangles with three congruent corresponding angles are called similar triangles.
- Are triangles ACB and FCE similar triangles? If so, which are the three congruent corresponding angles?
- If triangles ACB and FCE are similar triangles, how are corresponding lengths related?
If you need to learn about similar triangles, see www.mathopenref.com/similartriangles.html and http://www.mathopenref.com/similartrianglesparts.html
For information about vertical angles, see http://www.mathopenref.com/anglesvertical.html
For information about congruent angles created by parallel lines and a transversal (sometimes called alternate interior angles), see http://www.mathopenref.com/anglesalternateinterior.html
Complete writing your own response to Question 1.14 before reading an example of student work and some nuances in representing pinhole phenomena geometrically.
1. Example of student work representing pinhole phenomena geometrically
A student drew the ray diagram in Figure 1.19 at the close of a class session in which the students developed and then used mathematical representations of pinhole phenomena to estimate a quantity. This student drew single, double, and triple lines to indicate clearly the congruent corresponding angles of the two triangles formed in the ray diagram:
Single lines indicate that angle c of the large triangle on the left corresponds to and is congruent with angle c of the small triangle on the right
Double lines indicate that angle a corresponds to and is congruent with angle f.
Triple lines indicate that angle b corresponds to and is congruent with angle e.
The student described this ray diagram geometrically:
(The figure above) is a ray diagram consisting of two triangles that share a point. I have labeled the vertices of each of the triangles a b c, c e f, noticing that their shared vertex is c…We can conclude that the two triangles are similar because of two different properties. The first property, vertical angles property, states that angles acb and ecf are congruent. Next, the alternate interior angles property allows us to confirm that two different sets of angles are congruent: angles abc and fec as well as angles bac and efc. The two triangles above, written acb and ecf, are similar because each of their corresponding angles is congruent. We know this because of the AAA, or Angle Angle Angle, theorem. Because these triangles are similar, we can set up a proportion…
Physics student, Spring 2016
(This student also included some numerical information on this ray diagram that refers to the activity involving pinhole cameras discussed below under section VI.)
2. Some nuances in representing pinhole phenomena geometrically
In writing about the ray diagram shown in Fig. 1.19, the student invoked several geometric ideas:
- Angles formed by two intersecting lines are called vertical angles (as occurs at the pinhole C in Fig. 1.19) and are congruent, that is, they have the same measure; if one is 30 degrees, the other also is 30 degrees.
- Some angles formed by a line (a transversal) intersecting two other lines are called alternate interior angles (such as angles a and f; also angles b and e in Fig. 1.19).
Alternate interior angles are congruent only if the two other lines are parallel. If the two other lines are not parallel, the angles will still be alternate interior angles but they will not have the same measure, that is, they will not be congruent.
Angle b is congruent with Angle e because they are alternate interior angles formed by a transveral crossing two parallel lines.
Angle c of the big triangle is congruent with Angle c of the little triangle because they are vertical angles
- Corresponding lengths of similar triangles are proportional.
In naming the triangles “triangle acb” and “triangle ecf” this student did not follow the convention to name similar triangles so that the names of the corresponding angles are in the same position: the position of Angle a in the name “triangle acb” would correspond to the position of Angle f in name “triangle fce”; the position of Angle c in the name “triangle acb” would correspond to the position of Angle c in the name “triangle fce”; and the position of Angle b in the name “triangle acb” would correspond to the position of Angle e in the name “triangle fce”.
In referring to “angles abc and fec as well as angles bac and efc”, however, this student has followed the convention in that congruent angles a and f are in the same position, congruent angles b and e are in the same position, as are the angle c’s.
Note that this student used lower case letters, rather than capital letters, to identify angles on the ray diagram and then named each angle by listing three lower case letters with the angle letter in the middle. In this course, capital letters placed outside the vertex as in Fig. 1.18 are preferred in labeling angles of triangles such as Angle A and in naming triangles, as in the statement “Triangle ABC is similar to Triangle FEC”.
The ray diagram in Fig. 1.19 clearly represents the congruent corresponding angles in these two triangles. Note that the student has used the space between two short vertical lines to represent the pinhole as well as a ruler to make straight lines. The line with arrows drawn from the projection to the viewer’s eyes is ok in that light all the way along the projections bounces off the screen to the viewer’s eyes. However, starting this line higher, at the vertex of Angle e, would better represent rays continuously traveling from the bottom of the source straight through the pinhole to form the projection of the bottom of the light bulb near the top of the screen and then travel to the eye.
Note that the eye is shown to the left of the screen. This represents a scenario in which the student was looking at a projection on a screen where the light forming the projection reflected off an opaque screen back to the eye as in Fig. 1.21 below rather than passing through a translucent wax paper screen as in Fig. 1.15 above.
B. Representing pinhole phenomena algebraically
The visual display provided by a ray diagram also suggests describing pinhole phenomena algebraically. First, we name and label lengths as well as angles, identify ratios of corresponding lengths that are equal, and consider nuances in representing pinhole phenomena algebraically.
Question 1.15 How can you represent pinhole phenomena algebraically?
Representing pinhole phenomena algebraically requires naming aspects of pinhole phenomena that you can measure and use in a calculation. Identifying such quantities involves thinking about the variables in a situation: what, for example, affects the size of the projection that you see?
- What can you do to make the projection bigger? Smaller?
- What happens to the projection if you move the camera closer to the source? Farther from the source?
- What happens to the projection if you make the camera longer? Shorter?
- What happens to the projection if you choose a higher light source? Lower?
- Give names to those variables and draw a ray diagram that includes identifying those variables with symbols, in addition to labeling angles A, B, C, E and F.
Include, for example, a horizontal line from the middle of the vertical line representing the light source, AB, to the middle of the vertical line representing the projection to EF.
Figure 1.20, for example, includes a line representing light rays leaving the middle of the source, traveling straight through the pinhole, to form the projection of the middle of the source on the middle of the screen. This line also can represent two variables, the length, Distance D, between the light source and the pinhole, and the length, distance d, between the pinhole and the projection on the screen. The ray diagram in Fig. 1.20 also identifies H as the Height of the source AB and h as the height of the projection EF.
Note that the symbols H, D, h and d represent lengths in the two triangles whereas the symbols A, B, C, E, and F represent angles.
- How are lengths related in similar triangles?
If two triangles are similar, their corresponding lengths are proportional.
- How would you express the relationship of corresponding lengths in similar triangles algebraically with symbols?
- How would you express the algebraic relationship of corresponding lengths in similar triangles with words?
Complete writing your own response to Question 1.15 before reading an example of student work and some nuances in representing pinhole phenomena algebraically.
1. Example of student work representing pinhole phenomena algebraically
A student summarized the mathematical relationship among the lengths of similar triangles as follows:
The property of similar triangles states that triangles can be different sizes as long as they have the same shape. The same shape depends on corresponding angles and proportionate sides. In the figure we can see the relevant vertices of the triangles and proportionate sides where “H” is the height of the bulb and “d” is the distance from foil to wax paper. The Height of the bulb over the Distance from the bulb to the foil is equal to the height of the projection over the distance from the pinhole foil to the wax paper.
[latex]\begin{split} \frac{H}{D} & = \frac{h}{d} \\ \frac {\text{Height of the bulb}}{\text{Distance from the bulb to pinhole}} & = \frac{\text{height of the projection}}{\text{distance from the pinhole to the projection}} \end{split}[/latex]
Physics student, Spring 2014
This student understood the basic property of similar triangles, that they have the same shape but may be different sizes and that this means that the ratios of corresponding lengths are equal.
2. Nuances in representing pinhole phenomena algebraically
There are several aspects of representing pinhole phenomena algebraically that need attention. These include choices made in using language, naming variables, forming ratios, justifying the equal sign, deciding on an appropriate algebraic representation to use, and using one’s sense-making skills to envision and monitor what one is doing.
(a) Using language. Part of learning physics is learning to use language precisely. What words, for example, describe “H/D”? Colloquially this often is referred to as “H over D” or “height over distance”. The use of the word “over” refers to how one expresses this relationship in writing: one writes the H “over” the D. Such language can be confusing for someone who does not infer the process represented by the word ‘over’ and the line drawn between the H and D. A more precise version would be to refer to “H divided by D” or “height divided by distance”. This articulates the mathematical process involved, division. However, a more informative version would be to refer to “the ratio formed by comparing H to D” or “the ratio formed by comparing the height of something to some relevant distance, such as “the ratio formed by comparing the height of the light source to its distance from the pinhole.”
(b) Naming variables. In developing an algebraic description of a phenomenon, one has to give names and symbols to the variables that matter, in this case how high the light bulb and its projection are, and how far they each are from the pinhole. Height and Distance seem the natural names for these variables with H and D used for the height of the light source and its distance from the pinhole in the large triangle and h and d used for the height of the projection and its distance from the pinhole in the smaller triangle.
The horizontal line representing two distances here, however, would typically be described as the heights of triangle ABC and triangle FEC. Should one give a name to this variable that refers to what it is representing, distance from the pinhole, or a name to this variable that refers to its geometric role in the diagram, height of a triangle?
To avoid this confusion, sometimes we have used length to refer to the vertical lines, but the lower-case l looks like a one and L/D = l/d is also confusing. Note in Fig. 1.19, that this student had used the letters W and w to represent the width of a circular light source and its projection where use of a D and d might have been expected for representing their diameters, but D and d were already in use for representing distances from the pinhole.
The advantage of using the name height for the variables represented by the vertical lines AB and EF is that this connects the mathematical description to the objects the lines are representing, the heights of the light bulb and its projection.
An essential aspect of developing a mathematical representation of a phenomena is that after deciding on the names and symbols one wants to use, be sure to state clearly what each variable and its symbol represent.
(c) Forming ratios. When considering two similar triangles, it can be helpful to form a ratio with variables in one triangle and set this equal to a ratio formed with the corresponding variables in the other triangle. The equation with ratios that this student stated, for example, H/D = h/d, compares two lengths of the large triangle, representing the height of the light source and its distance from the pinhole, and sets this equal to a comparison of the two corresponding lengths of the small triangle, representing the height of the projection and its distance from the pinhole.
It is important to be able to express the equality of such ratios with words as well as symbols: With H/D = h/d, one is equating “how the height of the light source compares to the light source’s distance from the pinhole” with “how the height of the projection compares to the projection’s distance from the pinhole.”
One also has the choice of in what order to make such a comparison. With D/H = d/h, for example, one is equating “how the light source’s distance from the pinhole compares to the light source’s height” with “how the projection’s distance from the pinhole compares to the projection’s height.”
In both cases, this approach has the advantage that the units used within the same triangle will match. In this case of comparing one length to another length, with both lengths measured in the same units, the ratios will be dimensionless. This means that, if convenient, one can use units for the lengths in the large triangle that differ from the units for the lengths in the small triangle.
Sometimes, however, one might want to compare the same variable in the two triangles, setting the ratio of the heights, for example, equal to the ratio of the distances: H/h = D/d In this case, one is setting equal “how the light source’s height compares to the projection’s height” with “how the light source’s distance from the pinhole compares to the projection’s distance from the pinhole.” One also could set this equation up as: h/H = d/D. Here one is setting equal “how the projection’s height compares to the light source’s height” with “how the distance of the projection from the pinhole compares to the distance of the light source from the pinhole.”
Although cumbersome, keeping in mind the word description of what these ratios represent can prevent randomly setting up an equation that may look appropriate: h/D = H/d but is not justified in this context.
(d) Justifying the equal sign. When setting one algebraic expression equal to another in this course, it is important to justify the equal sign explicitly. For example, one student wrote:
In the figure, there are two triangles seen, triangle ABC and triangle FCE. The two triangles are similar because they have three sets of congruent angles. The first set of congruent angles are vertical angles, in which Angle ACB ≈ Angle FCE. The second set of congruent angles are alternate interior angles, in which Angle CAB ≈ Angle CFE.
The third set of congruent angles are alternate interior angles, in which Angle CBA ≈ Angle CEF.
Since the two triangles have congruent angles, they are therefore similar triangles because of the AAA theorem. The corresponding sides of similar triangles are proportional, which is why we are able to set up a proportion comparing the two triangles.
Physics student, Spring 2016
Note that this student has not used the convention in naming the triangles. Triangle ABC puts angle C in the third position but Triangle FCE puts angle C in the second position. An alternative would be Triangle ABC is similar to Triangle FEC or Triangle ACB is similar to Triangle FCE. The student has used the conventions in naming angles so that the angle of interest is the middle letter: Angle ACB and Angle FCE are both referring to the angle where the two lines cross at C. Angle CAB refers to the angle at A and Angle CFE refers to the angle at F, a set of alternate interior angles at A and F. Angle CBA refers to the angle at B and Angle CEF refers to the angle at E, the other set of alternate interior angles.
(e) Choosing an appropriate algebraic representation. If H/D = h/d, D/H = d/h, H/h = D/d and h/H = d/D, which set of equal ratios should one use?
If you can measure three of the variables and need to calculate the forth, any of these will work. However, some are easier to use than others.
Solving for an unknown that is in the numerator for many students is easier than solving for an unknown in the denominator. If asked to find the height of a projection, h, for example, choose a version with h in the numerator: H/D = h/d or h/H = d/D . Then isolate h by multiplying both sides by the variable in the denominator:
[latex]h = d\,(\frac{H}{D})[/latex] or [latex]h = H\,(\frac{d}{D})[/latex]
Note: Avoid using x to represent multiplication in an algebraic equation as this can be misinterpreted as representing an unknown. Use parentheses or a dot:
[latex]h = H \,\bullet\, \frac{d}{D}[/latex] to represent multiplication.
f) Using sense-making skills to envision what an equation is doing. People in this course typically differ in their experiences and comfort in setting up and solving algebraic equations. If you are feeling some anxiety after reading this section, it is important to give yourself time to connect each symbol with what it means, not only by writing out its definition and labeling it on your ray diagram but also by visualizing what the symbol represents within an equation.
When solving a pinhole problem, for example, write h = height of the projection and place an h next to the vertical line representing the projection on your ray diagram; then step back and visualize the size of the upside down projection you saw on the wax paper screen of the pinhole camera. Do the same for the d, H, and D.
The goal is to become familiar enough with the symbols that when you see H/D = h/d, your mind visualizes what those ratios mean:
- you can “see a comparison in your head of the big Height of the light bulb with the big Distance from the light bulb to the pinhole of your pinhole camera;
- you can “see” a comparison in your head of the little height of the projection with the little distance from the pinhole to the wax paper screen of the pinhole camera;
- and you can “see” that those comparisons seem about equal;
- that, for example, the big Height of the light bulb is about a tenth of the size of the big Distance from the light bulb to the pinhole in the pinhole camera in your hand
- and that the little height of the upside down light bulb projection seems about a tenth of the size of the little distance from the pinhole in the aluminum foil end of the tube to the wax paper screen.
Also use words to tell yourself a story about what the equation is doing, that the equation is comparing heights to distances in two similar triangles and if the triangles are similar, the comparisons of heights to distances are equal even when the sizes of the triangles are very different. Visualizing what the equation is doing is key to clarifying in your mind whether you have set up the equation in a way that makes sense.
(g) Using sense-making skills to monitor what one is doing. In addition to visualizing what an equation is doing, it is important to use sense-making skills to monitor what you and your group members are doing. In solving a complex problem, it is easy to get focused on some detail that in the end is not needed. To make productive progress, it is important to step back for a moment to ponder:
- What are we doing?
- Why are we doing that?
- How will that help us?*
This is particularly important to do periodically when engaged in a multi-step endeavor, such as designing an experiment, collecting data, and using the data and one’s knowledge of physical phenomena to estimate a quantity that can not be directly measured such as the diameter of the Sun.
*These questions are suggested by Alan Schoenfeld (1992) as meta-cognitive checks when engaged in problem-solving.
Schoenfeld, A. (1992). Learning to think mathematically: Problem solving, metacognition, and sense-making in mathematics. In D. Grouws (Ed.), Handbook for Research on Mathematics Teaching and Learning (pp. 334-370). New York: MacMillan
(h) Using one’s knowledge of geometrical and algebraic representations of pinhole phenomena to explore ways to estimate quantities one wants to know. Suppose you want to know, for example, how high something is, like a tree. How would you use a pinhole device to find that out? What would you need to measure and do if you used the equation H/D = h/d ? You can practice such approaches in a dark room by using data from your exploration of variables affecting pinhole phenomena (Question 1.12). What would you need to measure if you wanted to estimate the height of the lightbulb? If H = D(h/d) and you substitute your measurements in this equation, how does your estimate compare with an actual measurement of the height of the bulb? | 5,824 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://open.oregonstate.education/physicsforteachers/chapter/developing-mathematical-representations-of-pinhole-phenomena/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:62957 | https://open.oregonstate.education/physicsforteachers/chapter/developing-mathematical-representations-of-pinhole-phenomena/ |
-zKnUCI-q8t4i06l | 1.9: Topological Spaces | 1.9: Topological Spaces
Topology is one of the major branches of mathematics, along with other such branches as algebra (in the broad sense of algebraic structures), and analysis. Topology deals with spatial concepts involving distance, closeness, separation, convergence, and continuity. Needless to say, entire series of books have been written about the subject. Our goal in this section and the next is simply to review the basic definitions and concepts of topology that we will need for our study of probability and stochastic processes. You may want to refer to this section as needed.
Basic Theory
Definitions
A topological space consists of a nonempty set \( S \) and a collection \( \mathscr{S} \) of subsets of \( S \) that satisfy the following properties:
- \( S \in \mathscr{S} \) and \( \emptyset \in \mathscr{S} \)
- If \( \mathscr{A} \subseteq \mathscr{S} \) then \( \bigcup \mathscr{A} \in \mathscr{S} \)
- If \( \mathscr{A} \subseteq \mathscr{S} \) and \( \mathscr{A} \) is finite, then \( \bigcap \mathscr{A} \in \mathscr{S} \)
If \( A \in \mathscr{S} \), then \( A \) is said to be open and \( A^c \) is said to be closed . The collection \( \mathscr{S} \) of open sets is a topology on \( S \).
So the union of an arbitrary number of open sets is still open, as is the intersection of a finite number of open sets. The universal set \( S \) and the empty set \( \emptyset \) are both open and closed. There may or may not exist other subsets of \( S \) with this property.
Suppose that \( S \) is a nonempty set, and that \( \mathscr{S} \) and \( \mathscr{T} \) are topologies on \( S \). If \( \mathscr{S} \subseteq \mathscr{T} \) then \( \mathscr{T} \) is finer than \( \mathscr{S} \), and \( \mathscr{S} \) is coarser than \( \mathscr{T} \). Coarser than defines a partial order on the collection of topologies on \( S \). That is, if \( \mathscr R, \, \mathscr S, \, \mathscr T \) are topologies on \( S \) then
- \( \mathscr R \) is coarser than \( \mathscr R \), the reflexive property .
- If \( \mathscr R \) is coarser than \( \mathscr S \) and \( \mathscr S \) is coarser than \( \mathscr R \) then \( \mathscr R = \mathscr S \), the anti-symmetric property .
- If \( \mathscr R \) is coarser than \( \mathscr S \) and \( \mathscr S \) is coarser than \( \mathscr T \) then \( \mathscr R \) is coarser than \( \mathscr T \), the transitive property.
A topology can be characterized just as easily by means of closed sets as open sets.
Suppose that \( S \) is a nonempty set. A collection of subsets \( \mathscr{C} \) is the collection of closed sets for a topology on \( S \) if and only if
- \( S \in \mathscr{C} \) and \( \emptyset \in \mathscr{C} \)
- If \( \mathscr{A} \subseteq \mathscr{C} \) then \( \bigcap \mathscr{A} \in \mathscr{C} \).
- If \( \mathscr{A} \subseteq \mathscr{C} \) and \( \mathscr{A} \) is a finite then \( \bigcup \mathscr{A} \in \mathscr{C} \).
Proof
The set \( \mathscr{S} = \{A^c: A \in \mathscr{C}\} \) must satisfy the axioms of a topology. So the result follows DeMorgan's laws: if \( \mathscr{A} \) is a collection of subsets of \( S \) then \begin{align*} \left(\bigcup \mathscr{A}\right)^c & = \bigcap\{A^c: A \in \mathscr{A}\}\\ \left(\bigcap \mathscr{A}\right)^c & = \bigcup\{A^c: A \in \mathscr{A}\} \end{align*}
Suppose that \( (S, \mathscr{S}) \) is a topological space, and that \( x \in S \).
So a neighborhood of a point \( x \in S \) is simply a set with an open subset that contains \( x \). The idea is that points in a
small
neighborhood of \( x \) are
close
to \( x \) in a sense. An open set can be defined in terms of the neighborhoods of the points in the set.
Suppose again that \( (S, \mathscr{S}) \) is a topological space. Then by definition of neighborhood, for every \( x \in U \) there exists an open set \( U_x \) with \( x \in U_x \subseteq U \). But then \( \bigcup_{x \in U} U_x \) is open, and clearly this set is \( U \).
Although the proof seems trivial, the neighborhood concept is how you should think of openness. A set \( U \) is open if every point in \( U \) has a set of
nearby points
that are also in \( U \).
Our next three definitions deal with topological sets that are naturally associated with a given subset.
Suppose again that \( (S, \mathscr{S}) \) is a topological space and that \( A \subseteq S \). The closure of \( A \) is the set \[ \cl(A) = \bigcap\{B \subseteq S: B \text{ is closed and } A \subseteq B\}\] This is the smallest closed set containing \( A \):
- \( \cl(A) \) is closed.
- \( A \subseteq \cl(A) \).
- If \( B \) is closed and \( A \subseteq B \) then \( \cl(A) \subseteq B \)
Proof
Note that \( \mathscr{B} = \{B \subseteq S: B \text{ is closed and } A \subseteq B\} \) is nonempty since \( S \in \mathscr{B} \).
- The sets in \( \mathscr{B} \) are closed so \( \bigcap \mathscr{B} \) is closed.
- By definition, \( A \subseteq B \) for each \( B \in \mathscr{B} \). Hence \( A \subseteq \bigcap\mathscr{B} \).
- If \( B \) is closed and \( A \subseteq B \) then \(B \in \mathscr{B}\) so \( \bigcap \mathscr{B} \subseteq B \).
Of course, if \( A \) is closed then \( A = \cl(A) \). Complementary to the closure of a set is the interior of the set.
Suppose again that \( (S, \mathscr{S}) \) is a topological space and that \( A \subseteq S \). The interior of \( A \) is the set \[ \int(A) = \bigcup\{U \subseteq S: U \text{ is open and } U \subseteq A\} \] This set is the largest open subset of \( A \):
- \( \int(A) \) is open.
- \( \int(A) \subseteq A \).
- The sets in \( \mathscr{U} \) are open so \( \bigcup \mathscr{U} \) is open.
Hence \( \bigcup \mathscr{U} \subseteq A \).
Of course, if \( A \) is open then \( A = \int(A) \). The boundary of a set is the set difference between the closure and the interior.
Suppose again that \( (S, \mathscr{S}) \) is a topological space. The boundary of \( A \) is \( \partial(A) = \cl(A) \setminus \int(A) \). This set is closed.
Proof
By definition, \( \partial(A) = \cl(A) \cap [\int(A)]^c \), the intersection of two closed sets.
A topology on a set induces a natural topology on any subset of the set.
Suppose that \( (S, \mathscr{S}) \) is a topological space and that \( R \) is a nonempty subset of \( S \). Then \( \mathscr{R} = \{A \cap R: A \in \mathscr{S}\} \) is a topology on \( R \), known as the relative topology induced by \( \mathscr{S} \).
Proof
First \( S \in \mathscr{S} \) and \( S \cap R = R \), so \( R \in \mathscr{R} \). Next, \( \emptyset \in \mathscr{S} \) and \( \emptyset \cap R = \emptyset \) so \( \emptyset \in \mathscr{R} \). Suppose that \( \mathscr{B} \subseteq \mathscr{R} \). For each \( B \in \mathscr{B} \), select \( A \in \mathscr{S} \) such that \( B = A \cap R \). Let \( \mathscr{A} \) denote the collection of sets selected (we need the axiom of choice to do this). Then \( \bigcup \mathscr{A} \in \mathscr{S} \) and \( \bigcup \mathscr{B} = \left(\bigcup \mathscr{A} \right) \cap R\), so \( \bigcup \mathscr{B} \in \mathscr{R} \). Finally, suppose that \( \mathscr{B} \subseteq \mathscr{R} \) is finite. Once again, for each \( B \in \mathscr{B} \) there exists \( A \in \mathscr{S} \) with \( A \cap R = B \). Let \( \mathscr{A} \) denote the collection of sets selected. Then \( \mathscr{A} \) is finite so \( \bigcap \mathscr{A} \in \mathscr{S} \). But \( \bigcap \mathscr{B} = \left(\bigcap \mathscr{A}\right) \cap R \) so \( \bigcap \mathscr{B} \in \mathscr{R} \).
In the context of the previous result, note that if \( R \) is itself open, then the relative topology is \( \mathscr{R} = \{A \in \mathscr{S}: A \subseteq R\} \), the subsets of \( R \) that are open in the original topology.
Separation Properties
Separation properties refer to the ability to separate points or sets with disjoint open sets. Our first definition deals with separating two points.
Suppose that \( (S, \mathscr{S}) \) is a topological space and that \( x, \, y \) are distinct points in \( S \). Then \( x \) and \( y \) can be separated if there exist disjoint open sets \( U \) and \( V \) with \( x \in U \) and \( y \in V \). If every pair of distinct points in \( S \) can be separated, then \( (S, \mathscr{S}) \) is called a Hausdorff space .
Hausdorff spaces are named for the German mathematician Felix Hausdorff. There are weaker separation properties. For example, there could be an open set \( U \) that contains \( x \) but not \( y \), and an open set \( V \) that contains \( y \) but not \( x \), but no disjoint open sets that contain \( x \) and \( y\). Clearly if every open set that contains one of the points also contains the other, then the points are indistinguishable from a topological viewpoint. In a Hausdorff space, singletons are closed.
Suppose that \( (S, \mathscr{S}) \) is a Hausdorff space. Then \( \{x\} \) is closed for each \( x \in S \).
Proof
The definition shows immediately that \( \{x\}^c \) is open: if \( y \in \{x\}^c \), there exists on open set \( V \) with \( y \in V \subseteq \{x\}^c \).
Our next definition deals with separating a point from a closed set.
Suppose again that \( (S, \mathscr{S}) \) is a topological space. If every nonempty closed set \( A \) and point \( x \in A^c \) can be separated, then the space \( (S, \mathscr{S}) \) is regular .
Clearly if \( (S, \mathscr{S}) \) is a regular space and singleton sets are closed, then \( (S, \mathscr{S}) \) is a Hausdorff space.
Bases
Topologies, like other set structures, are often defined by first giving some basic sets that should belong to the collection, and the extending the collection so that the defining axioms are satisfied. This idea is motivation for the following definition:
Suppose again that \( (S, \mathscr{S}) \) is a topological space. A collection \( \mathscr{B} \subseteq \mathscr{S} \) is a base for \( \mathscr{S} \) if every set in \( \mathscr{S} \) can be written as a union of sets in \( \mathscr{B} \).
So, a base is a smaller collection of open sets with the property that every other open set can be written as a union of basic open sets. But again, we often want to start with the basic open sets and extend this collection to a topology. The following theorem gives the conditions under which this can be done.
Suppose that \( S \) is a nonempty set. A collection \( \mathscr{B} \) of subsets of \( S \) is a base for a topology on \( S \) if and only if
- \( S = \bigcup \mathscr{B} \)
- If \( A, \, B \in \mathscr{B} \) and \( x \in A \cap B \), there exists \( C \in \mathscr{B} \) with \( x \in C \subseteq A \cap B \)
Proof
Suppose that \( \mathscr{B} \) is a base for a topology \( \mathscr{S} \) on \( S \). Since \( S \) is open, \( S \) is a union of sets in \( \mathscr{B} \). Since every set in \( \mathscr{B} \) is a subset of \( S \), we must have \( S = \bigcup \mathscr{B} \). Suppose that \( A, \, B \in \mathscr{B} \) and that \( x \in A \cap B \). Since \( A \cap B \) is open, it's a union of sets in \( \mathscr{B} \). The point \( x \) must be in one of those sets, so there exists \( C \in \mathscr{B} \) with \( x \in C \subseteq A \cap B \).
Suppose now that \( \mathscr{B} \) satisfies the two conditions in the theorem. Let \( \mathscr{S} \) be the collection of all unions of sets in \( \mathscr{B} \). Then \( S \in \mathscr{S} \) by condition (a), and \( \emptyset \in \mathscr{S} \) by taking a vacuous union. Suppose that \( U_i \in \mathscr{S} \) for \( i \in I \) where \( I \) is an arbitrary index set. Then for each \( i \in I \), there exists an index set \( J_i \) such that \( U_i = \bigcup_{j \in J_i} B_{i,j} \) where \( B_{i,j} \in \mathscr{B} \) for each \( j \in J_i \). But then \[ \bigcup_{i \in I} U_i = \bigcup_{i \in I} \bigcup_{j \in J_i} B_{i,j} \in \mathscr{S} \] Finally, suppose that \( U, \, V \in \mathscr{S} \). Then there exist index sets \( I \) and \( J \) with \( U = \bigcup_{i \in I} A_i \) and \( V = \bigcup_{j \in J} B_j \) where \( A_i \in \mathscr{B} \) for all \( i \in I \) and \( B_j \in \mathscr{B} \) for all \( j \in J \). Then \[ U \cap V = \bigcup_{i \in I, j \in J} (A_i \cap B_j) \] By condition (b), for each \( i \in I \), \( j \in J \), and \( x \in A_i \cap B_j \) there exists \(C_{x,i,j} \in \mathscr{B}\) with \( x \in C_{x,i,j} \subseteq A_i \cap B_j \). But then clearly \[ U \cap V = \bigcup\{C_{x,i,j}: i \in I, j \in J, x \in A_i \cap B_j\} \in \mathscr{S} \]
Here is a slightly weaker condition, but one that is often satisfied in practice.
Suppose that \( S \) is a nonempty set. A collection \( \mathscr{B} \) of subsets of \( S \) that satisfies the following properties is a base for a topology on \( S \):
- \( S = \bigcup \mathscr{B} \)
- If \( A, \, B \in \mathscr{B} \) then \( A \cap B \in \mathscr{B} \)
Part (b) means that \( \mathscr{B} \) is closed under finite intersections.
Compactness
Our next discussion considers another very important type of set. Some additional terminology will make the discussion easier. Suppose that \( S \) is a set and \( A \subseteq S \). A collection of subsets \( \mathscr{A} \) of \( S \) is said to cover \( A \) if \( A \subseteq \mathscr{A} \). So the word cover simply means a collection of sets whose union contains a given set. In a topological space, we can have open an open cover (that is, a cover with open sets), a closed cover (that is, a cover with closed sets), and so forth.
Suppose again that \( (S, \mathscr{S}) \) is a topological space. A set \( C \subseteq S \) is compact if every open cover of \( C \) has a finite sub-cover. That is, if \( \mathscr{A} \subseteq \mathscr{S} \) with \( C \subseteq \bigcup \mathscr{A} \) then there exists a finite \( \mathscr{B} \subseteq \mathscr{A} \) with \( C \subseteq \bigcup \mathscr{B} \).
So intuitively, a compact set is
compact
in the ordinary sense of the word. No matter how
small
are the open sets in the covering of \( C \), there will always exist a finite number of the open sets that cover \( C \).
Suppose again that \( (S, \mathscr{S}) \) is a topological space and that \( C \subseteq S \) is a compact. If \( B \subseteq C \) is closed, then \( B \) is also compact.
Proof
Suppose that \( \mathscr{A} \) is an open cover of \( B \). Since \( B \) is closed, \( B^c \) is open, so \( \mathscr{A} \cup \{B^c\} \) is an open cover of \( C \). Since \( C \) is compact, this last collection has a finite sub-cover of \( C \), which is also a finite sub-cover of \( B \).
Compactness is also preserved under finite unions.
Suppose again that \( (S, \mathscr{S}) \) is a topological space, and that \( C_i \subseteq S \) is compact for each \( i \) in a finite index set \( I \). Then \( C = \bigcup_{i \in I} C_i \) is compact.
Proof
Suppose that \( \mathscr{A} \) is an open cover of \( C \). Then trivially, \( \mathscr{A} \) is also an open cover of \( C_i \) for each \( i \in I \). Hence there exists a finite subcover \( \mathscr{A}_i \subseteq \mathscr{A} \) of \( C_i \) for each \( i \in I \). But then \( \bigcup_{i \in I} \mathscr{A}_i \) is also finite and is a covering of \( C \).
As we saw above, closed subsets of a compact set are themselves compact. In a Hausdorff space, a compact set is itself closed.
Suppose that \( (S, \mathscr{S}) \) is a Hausdorff space. If \( C \subseteq S \) is compact then \( C \) is closed.
Proof
We will show that \( C^c \) is open, so fix \( x \in C^c \). For each \( y \in C \), the points \( x \) and \( y \) can be separated, so there exist disjoint open sets \( U_y \) and \( V_y \) such that \( x \in U_y \) and \( y \in V_y \). Trivially, the collection \( \{V_y: y \in C\} \) is an open cover of \( C \), and hence there exist a finite subset \( B \subseteq C \) such that \( \{V_y: y \in B\} \) covers \( C \). But then \(U = \bigcap_{y \in B} U_y \) is open and is disjoint from \( \bigcup_{y \in B} V_y \). Hence also \( U \) is disjoint from \( C \). So to summarize, \( U \) is open and \( x \in U \subseteq C^c \).
Also in a Hausdorff space, a point can be separated from a compact set that does not contain the point.
Suppose that \( (S, \mathscr{S}) \) is a Hausdorff space. If \( x \in S \), \( C \subseteq S \) is compact, and \( x \notin C \), then there exist disjoint open sets \( U \) and \( V \) with \( x \in U \) and \( C \subseteq V \)
Proof
Since the space is Hausdorff, for each \( y \in C \) there exist disjoint open sets \( U_y \) and \( V_y \) with \( x \in U_y \) and \( y \in V_y \). The collection \( \{V_y: y \in C\} \) is an open cover of \( C \), and hence there exists a finite set \( B \subset C \) such that \( \{V_y: y \in B\} \) covers \( C \). Thus let \( U = \bigcap_{y \in B} U_y \) and \( V = \bigcup_{y \in B} V_y \). Then \( U \) is open, since \( B \) is finite, and \( V \) is open. Moreover \( U \) and \( V \) are disjoint, and \( x \in U \) and \( C \subseteq V \).
In a Hausdorff space, if a point has a neighborhood with a compact boundary, then there is a smaller, closed neighborhood.
Suppose again that \( (S, \mathscr{S}) \) is a Hausdorff space. If \( x \in S \) and \( A \) is a neighborhood of \( x \) with \( \partial(A) \) compact, then there exists a closed neighborhood \( B \) of \( x \) with \( B \subseteq A \).
Proof
By (20), there exist disjoint open sets \( U \) and \( V \) with \( x \in U \) and \( \partial(A) \subseteq V \). Hence \( \cl(U) \) and \( \partial(A) \) are disjoint. Let \( B = \cl(A \cap U) \). Note that \( B \) is closed, and is a neighborhood of \( x \) since \( U \) and \( A \) are neighborhoods of \( x \). Moreover, \[ B \subseteq \cl(A) \cap \cl(U) = [A \cup \partial(A)] \cap \cl(U) = [A \cap \cl(U)] \cup [\partial(A) \cap \cl(U)] = A \cap \cl(U) \subseteq A \]
Generally, local properties in a topological space refer to properties that hold on the neighborhoods of a point \( x \in S \).
A topological space \( (S, \mathscr{S}) \) is locally compact if every point \( x \in S \) has a compact neighborhood.
This definition is important because many of the topological spaces that occur in applications (like probability) are not compact, but are locally compact. Locally compact Hausdorff spaces have a number of nice properties. In particular, in a locally compact Hausdorff space, there are arbitrarily
small
compact neighborhoods of a point.
Suppose that \( (S, \mathscr{S}) \) is a locally compact Hausdorff space. If \( x \in S \) and \( A \) is a neighborhood of \( x \), then there exists a compact neighborhood \( B \) of \( x \) with \( B \subseteq A \).
Proof
Since \( S \) is locally compact, there exists a compact neighborhood \( C \) of \( x \). Hence \( A \cap C \) is a neighborhood of \( x \). Moreover, \( \partial(A \cap C) \) is closed and is a subset of \( C \) and hence is compact. From (21), there exists a closed neighborhood \( B \) of \( x \) with \( B \subseteq A \cap C \). Since \( B \) is closed and \( B \subseteq C \), \( B \) is compact. Of course also, \( B \subseteq A \).
Countability Axioms
Our next discussion concerns topologies that can be
countably constructed
in a certain sense. Such axioms limit the
size
of the topology in a way, and are often satisfied by important topological spaces that occur in applications. We start with an important preliminary definition.
Suppose that \( (S, \mathscr{S}) \) is a topological space.
Equivalently, \( D \) is dense if every neighborhood of a point \( x \in S \) contains an element of \( D \). So in this sense, one can find elements of \( D \)
arbitrarily close
to a point \( x \in S \). Of course, the entire space \( S \) is dense, but we are usually interested in topological spaces that have dense sets of limited cardinality.
Suppose again that \( (S, \mathscr{S}) \) is a topological space. A set \( D \subseteq S \) is dense if and only if \( \cl(D) = S \).
Proof
Suppose that \( D \) is dense. Since \( \cl(D) \) is closed, \( [\cl(D)]^c \) is open. If this set is nonempty, it must contain a point in \( D \). But that's clearly a contradiction since \( D \subseteq \cl(D) \). Conversely, suppose that \( \cl(D) = S \). Suppose that \( U \) is a nonempty, open set. Then \( U^c \) is closed, and \( U^c \ne S \). If \( D \cap U = \emptyset \), then \( D \subseteq U^c \). But then \( \cl(D) \subseteq U^c \) so \( \cl(D) \ne S \).
Here is our first countability axiom:
A topological space \( (S, \mathscr{S}) \) is separable if there exists a countable dense subset.
So in a separable space, there is a
countable
set \( D \) with the property that there are points in \( D \)
arbitrarily close
to every \( x \in S \). Unfortunately, the term
separable
is similar to
separating points
that we discussed above in the definition of a Hausdorff space. But clearly the concepts are very different. Here is another important countability axiom.
A topological space \( (S, \mathscr{S}) \) is second countable if it has a countable base.
So in a second countable space, there is a countable collection of open sets \( \mathscr{B} \) with the property that every other open set is a union of sets in \( \mathscr{B} \). Here is how the two properties are related:
If a topological space \( (S, \mathscr{S}) \) is second countable then it is separable.
Proof
Suppose that \( \mathscr{B} = \{U_i: i \in I\} \) is a base for \( \mathscr{S} \), where \( I \) is a countable index set. Select \( x_i \in U_i \) for each \( i \in I \), and let \( D = \{x_i: i \in I\} \). Of course, \( D \) is countable. If \( U \) is open and nonempty, then \( U = \bigcup_{j \in J} U_j \) for some nonempty \( J \subseteq I \). But then \( \{x_j: j \in J\} \subseteq U \), so \( D \) is dense.
As the terminology suggests, there are other axioms of countability (such as first countable ), but the two we have discussed are the most important.
Connected and Disconnected Spaces
This discussion deals with the situation in which a topological space falls into two or more separated pieces, in a sense.
A topological space \( (S, \mathscr{S}) \) is disconnected if there exist nonempty, disjoint, open sets \( U \) and \( V \) with \( S = U \cup V \). If \( (S, \mathscr{S}) \) is not disconnected, then it is connected .
Since \( U = V^c \), it follows that \( U \) and \( V \) are also closed. So the space is disconnected if and only if there exists a proper subset \( U \) that is open and closed (sadly, such sets are sometimes called
clopen
). If \( S \) is disconnected, then \( S \) consists of two pieces \( U \) and \( V \), and the points in \( U \) are not
close
to the points in \( V \), in a sense. To study \( S \) topologically, we could simply study \( U \) and \( V \) separately, with their relative topologies.
Convergence
There is a natural definition for a convergent sequence in a topological space, but the concept is not as useful as one might expect.
Suppose again that \( (S, \mathscr{S}) \) is a topological space. A sequence of points \( (x_n: n \in \N_+) \) in \( S \) converges to \( x \in S \) if for every neighborhood \( A \) of \( x \) there exists \( m \in \N_+ \) such that \( x_n \in A \) for \( n \gt m \). We write \( x_n \to x \) as \( n \to \infty \).
So for every neighborhood of \( x \), regardless of how
small
, all but finitely many of the terms of the sequence will be in the neighborhood. One would naturally hope that limits, when they exist, are unique, but this will only be the case if points in the space can be separated.
Suppose that \( (S, \mathscr{S}) \) is a Hausdorff space. If \( (x_n: n \in \N_+) \) is a sequence of points in \( S \) with \( x_n \to x \in S \) as \( n \to \infty \) and \( x_n \to y \in S \) as \( n \to \infty \), then \( x = y \).
Proof
If \( x \ne y \), there exist disjoint neighborhoods \( A \) and \( B \) of \( x \) and \( y \), respectively. There exist \( k, \, m \in \N_+ \) such that \( x_n \in A \) for all \( n \gt k \) and \( x_n \in B \) for all \( n \gt m \). But then if \( n \gt \max\{k, m\} \), \( x_n \in A \) and \( x_n \in B \), a contradiction.
On the other hand, if distinct points \( x, \, y \in S \) cannot be separated, then any sequence that converges to \( x \) will also converge to \( y \).
Continuity
Continuity of functions is one of the most important concepts to come out of general topology. The idea, of course, is that if two points are close together in the domain, then the functional values should be close together in the range. The abstract topological definition, based on inverse images is very simple, but not very intuitive at first.
Suppose that \( (S, \mathscr{S}) \) and \( (T, \mathscr{T}) \) are topological spaces. A function \( f: S \to T \) is continuous if \( f^{-1}(A) \in \mathscr{S} \) for every \( A \in \mathscr{T} \).
So a continuous function has the property that the inverse image of an open set (in the range space) is also open (in the domain space). Continuity can equivalently be expressed in terms of closed subsets.
Suppose again that \( (S, \mathscr{S}) \) and \( (T, \mathscr{T}) \) are topological spaces. A function \( f: S \to T \) is continuous if and only if \( f^{-1}(A) \) is a closed subset of \( S \) for every closed subset \( A \) of \( T \).
Proof
Recall that \( f^{-1}(A ^c) = \left[f^{-1}(A)\right]^c \) for \( A \subseteq T \). The result follows directly from the definition and the fact that a set is open if and only if its complement is closed.
Continuity preserves limits.
Suppose again that \( (S, \mathscr{S}) \) and \( (T, \mathscr{T}) \) are topological spaces, and that \( f: S \to T \) is continuous. If \( (x_n: n \in \N_+) \) is a sequence of points in \( S \) with \( x_n \to x \in S \) as \( n \to \infty \), then \( f(x_n) \to f(x) \) as \( n \to \infty \).
Proof
Suppose that \( V \subseteq T \) is open and \( f(x) \in V \). Then \( f^{-1}(V) \) is open in \( S \) and \( x \in f^{-1}(V) \). Hence there exists \( m \in \N_+ \) such that \( x_n \in f^{-1}(V) \) for every \( n \gt m \). But then \( f(x_n) \in V \) for \( n \gt m \). So \( f(x_n) \to f(x) \) as \( n \to \infty \).
The converse of the last result is not true, so continuity of functions in a general topological space cannot be characterized in terms of convergent sequences. There are objects like sequences but more general, known as nets , that do characterize continuity, but we will not study these. Composition, the most important way to combine functions, preserves continuity.
Suppose that \( (S, \mathscr{S}) \), \( (T, \mathscr{T}) \), and \( (U, \mathscr{U}) \) are topological spaces. If \( f: S \to T \) and \( g: T \to U \) are continuous, then \( g \circ f: S \to U \) is continuous.
Proof
If \( A \) is open in \( U \) then \( g^{-1}(A) \) is open in \( T \) and therefore \( f^{-1}\left[g^{-1}(A)\right] = \left(f^{-1} \circ g^{-1}\right)(A) \) is open in \( S \). But \((g \circ f)^{-1} = f^{-1} \circ g^{-1}\).
The next definition is very important. A recurring theme in mathematics is to recognize when two mathematical structures of a certain type are fundamentally the same, even though they may appear to be different.
Suppose again that \( (S, \mathscr{S}) \) and \( (T, \mathscr{T}) \) are topological spaces. A one-to-one function \( f \) that maps \( S \) onto \( T \) with both \( f \) and \( f^{-1} \) continuous is a homeomorphism from \( (S, \mathscr{S}) \) to \( (T, \mathscr{T}) \). When such a function exists, the topological spaces are said to be homeomorphic .
Note that in this definition, \( f^{-1} \) refers to the inverse function, not the mapping of inverse images. If \( f \) is a homeomorphism, then \( A \) is open in \( S \) if and only if \( f(A) \) is open in \( T \). It follows that the topological spaces are essentially equivalent: any purely topological property can be characterized in terms of open sets and therefore any such property is shared by the two spaces.
Being homeomorphic is an equivalence relation on the collection of topological spaces. That is, for spaces \( (S, \mathscr{S}) \), \( (T, \mathscr{T}) \), and \( (U, \mathscr{U}) \),
- \( (S, \mathscr{S}) \) is homeomorphic to \( (S, \mathscr{S}) \) (the reflexive property ).
- If \( (S, \mathscr{S}) \) is homeomorphic to \( (T, \mathscr{T}) \) then \( (T, \mathscr{T}) \) is homeomorphic to \( (S, \mathscr{S}) \) (the symmetric property ).
- If \( (S, \mathscr{S}) \) is homeomorphic to \( (T, \mathscr{T}) \) and \( (T, \mathscr{T}) \) is homeomorphic to \( (U, \mathscr{U}) \) then \( (S, \mathscr{S}) \) is homeomorphic to \( (U, \mathscr{U}) \) (the transitive property ).
Proof
- The identity function \( I: S \to S \) defined by \( I(x) = x \) for \( x \in S \) is a homeomorphism from the space \( (S, \mathscr{S}) \) to itself.
- If \( f \) is a homoemorphism from \( (S, \mathscr{S}) \) to \( (T, \mathscr{T}) \) then \( f^{-1} \) is a homeomorphism from \( (T, \mathscr{T}) \) to \( (S, \mathscr{S}) \).
- If \( f \) is a homeomorphism from \( (S, \mathscr{S}) \) to \( (T, \mathscr{T}) \) and \( g \) is a homeomorphism from \( (T, \mathscr{T}) \) to \( (U, \mathscr{U}) \), then \( g \circ f \) is a homeomorphism from \( (S, \mathscr{S}) \) to \( (U, \mathscr{U}) \).
Continuity can also be defined locally , by restricting attention to the neighborhoods of a point.
Suppose again that \( (S, \mathscr{S}) \) and \( (T, \mathscr{T}) \) are topological spaces, and that \( x \in S \). A function \( f: S \to T \) is continuous at \( x \) if \( f^{-1}(B) \) is a neighborhood of \( x \) in \( S \) whenever \( B \) is a neighborhood of \( f(x) \) in \( T \).
Suppose again that \( (S, \mathscr{S}) \) and \( (T, \mathscr{T}) \) are topological spaces, and that \( f: S \to T \). Then \( f \) is continuous if and only if \( f \) is continuous at each \( x \in S \).
Proof
Suppose that \( f \) is continuous. Let \( x \in S \) and let \( B \) be a neighborhood of \( f(x) \). Then there exists an open set \( V \) in \( T \) with \( f(x) \in V \subseteq B \). But then \( f^{-1}(V) \) is open in \( S \), and \( x \in f^{-1}(V) \subseteq f^{-1}(B) \), so \( f^{-1}(B) \) is a neighborhood of \( x \). Hence \( f \) is continuous at \( x \).
Conversely, suppose that \( f \) is continuous at each \( x \in S \), and suppose that \( V \in \mathscr{T} \). If \( V \) contains no points in the range of \( f \), then \( f^{-1}(V) = \emptyset \in \mathscr{S} \). Otherwise, there exists \( x \in S \) with \( f(x) \in V \). But then \( V \) is a neighborhood of \( f(x) \), so \( U = f^{-1}(V) \) is a neighborhood of \( x \). Let \( y \in U \). Then \( f(y) \in V \) also, so \( U \) is also a neighborhood of \( y \). Hence \( U \in \mathscr{S} \).
Properties that are defined for a topological space can be applied to a subset of the space, with the relative topology. But one has to be careful.
Suppose again that \( (S, \mathscr{S}) \) are topological spaces and that \( f: S \to T \). Suppose also that \( A \subseteq S \), and let \( \mathscr{A} \) denote the relative topology on \( A \) induced by \( \mathscr{S} \), and let \( f_A \) denote the restriction of \( f \) to \( A \). If \( f \) is continuous on \( A \) then \( f_A \) is continuous relative to the spaces \( (A, \mathscr{A}) \) and \( (T, \mathscr{T}) \). The converse is not generally true.
Proof
Suppose that \( V \in \mathscr{T} \). If \( f(A) \cap V = \emptyset \) then \( f_A^{-1}(V) = \emptyset \in \mathscr{A} \). Otherwise, suppose there exists \( x \in A \) with \( f(x) \in V \). Then \( V \) is a neighborhood of \( f(x) \) in \( T \) so \( f^{-1}(V) \) is a neighborhood of \( x\) in \((S, \mathscr{S}) \). Hence \( f^{-1}(V) \cap A = f_A^{-1}(V) \) is a neighborhood of \( x \) in \( (A, \mathscr{A}) \). Since \( f_A \) is continuous (relative to \( (A, \mathscr{A}) \)) at each \( x \in A \), \( f_A \) is continuous from the previous result.
For a simple counterexample, suppose that \( f \) is not continuous at a particular \( x \in S \). The set \( \{x\} \) has the trivial relative topology \( \{\emptyset, \{x\}\} \), and so \( f \) restricted to \( \{x\} \) is trivially continuous.
Product Spaces
Cartesian product sets are ubiquitous in mathematics, so a natural question is this: given topological spaces \( (S, \mathscr{S}) \) and \( (T, \mathscr{T}) \), what is a natural topology for \( S \times T \)? The answer is very simple using the concept of a base above.
Suppose that \( (S, \mathscr{S}) \) and \( (T, \mathscr{T}) \) are topological spaces. The collection \( \mathscr{B} = \{A \times B: A \in \mathscr{S}, B \in \mathscr{T}\} \) is a base for a topology on \( S \times T \), called the product topology associated with the given spaces.
Proof
Trivially, \( S \times T = \bigcup \mathscr{B} \). In fact \( S \times T \in \mathscr{B} \). Next if \( A \times B \in \mathscr{B} \) and \( C \times D \in \mathscr{B} \), so that \( A, \, C \) are open in \( S \) and \( B, \, D \) are open in \( T \), then \[ (A \times B) \cap (C \times D) = (A \cap C) \times (B \cap D) \in \mathscr{B} \] Hence \( \mathscr{B} \) is a base for a topology on \( S \times T \).
So basically, we want the product of open sets to be open in the product space. The product topology is the smallest topology that makes this happen. The definition above can be extended to very general product spaces, but to state the extension, let's recall how general product sets are constructed. Suppose that \( S_i \) is a set for each \( i \) in a nonempty index set \( I \). Then the product set \(\prod_{i \in I} S_i\) is the set of all functions \(x: I \to \bigcup_{i \in I} S_i\) such that \( x(i) \in S_i \) for \( i \in I \).
Suppose that \( (S_i, \mathscr{S}_i) \) is a topological space for each \( i \) in a nonempty index set \( I \). Then \[ \mathscr{B} = \left\{\prod_{i \in I} A_i: A_i \in \mathscr{S}_i \text{ for all } i \in I \text{ and } A_i = S_i \text{ for all but finitely many } i \in I\right\}\] is a base for a topology on \( \prod_{i \in I} S_i \), known as the product topology associated with the given spaces.
Proof
The proof is just as before, except for the more complicated notation. Trivially \( \prod_{i \in I} S_i = \bigcup \mathscr{B} \), and \( \mathscr{B} \) is closed under finite intersections.
Suppose again that \( S_i \) is a set for each \( i \) in a nonempty index set \( I \). For \( j \in I \), recall that projection function \( p_j: \prod_{i \in I} S_i \to S_j \) is defined by \( p_j(x) = x(j) \).
Suppose again that \( (S_i, \mathscr{S}_i) \) is a topological space for each \( i \in I \), and give the product spacee \( \prod_{i \in I} S_i \) the product topology. The projection function \( p_j \) is continuous for each \( j \in I \).
Proof
If \( U \) is open in \( S_j \) then \( p_j^{-1}(U) = \prod_{i \in I} A_i \) where \( A_i = S_i \) for \( i \in I \) with \( i \ne j \), and \( A_j = U \), so clearly this inverse image is open in the product space.
As a special case of all this, suppose that \( (S, \mathscr{S}) \) is a topological space, and that \( S_i = S \) for all \( i \in I \). Then the product space \( \prod_{i \in I} S_i \) is the set of all functions from \( I \) to \( S \), sometimes denoted \( S^I \). In this case, the base for the product topology on \( S^I \) is \[ \mathscr{B} = \left\{\prod_{i \in I} A_i: A_i \in \mathscr{S} \text{ for all } i \in I \text{ and } A_i = S \text{ for all but finitely many } i \in I\right\}\] For \( j \in I \), the projection function \( p_j \) just returns the value of a function \( x: I \to S \) at \( j \): \( p_j(x) = x(j) \). This projection function is continuous. Note in particular that no topology is necessary on the domain \( I \).
Examples and Special Cases
The Trivial Topology
Suppose that \( S \) is a nonempty set. Then \( \{S, \emptyset\} \) is a topology on \( S \), known as the trivial topology .
With the trivial topology, no two distinct points can be separated. So the topology cannot distinguish between points, in a sense, and all points in \( S \) are close to each other. Clearly, this topology is not very interesting, except as a place to start. Since there is only one nonempty open set (\( S \) itself), the space is connected, and every subset of \( S \) is compact. A sequence in \( S \) converges to every point in \( S \).
Suppose that \( S \) has the trivial topology and that \( (T, \mathscr{T}) \) is another topological space.
- Every function from \( T \) to \( S \) is continuous.
- If \( (T, \mathscr{T}) \) is a Hausdorff space then the only continuous functions from \( S \) to \( T \) are constant functions.
Proof
- Suppose \( f: T \to S \). Then\( f^{-1}(S) = T \in \mathscr{T} \) and \( f^{-1}(\emptyset) = \emptyset \in \mathscr{T} \), so \( f \) is continuous.
- Suppose that \( f: S \to T \) is continuous and that \( u, \, v \) are distinct elements in the range of \( f \). There exist disjoint open sets \( U, \, V \in \mathscr{T} \) with \( u \in U \) and \( v \in V \). But \( f^{-1}(U) \) and \( f^{-1}(V) \) are nonempty and so must be \( S \). If \( x \in S \), \( f(x) \in U \) and \( f(x) \in V \), a contradiction.
The Discrete Topology
At the opposite extreme from the trivial topology, with the smallest collection of open sets, is the discrete topology, with the largest collection of open sets.
Suppose that \( S \) is a nonempty set. The power set \( \mathscr{P}(S) \) (consisting of all subsets of \( S \)) is a topology, known as the discrete topology .
So in the discrete topology, every set is both open and closed. All points are separated, and in a sense, widely so. No point is close to another point. With the discrete topology, \( S \) is Hausdorff, disconnected, and the compact subsets are the finite subsets. A sequence in \( S \) converges to \( x \in S \), if and only if all but finitely many terms of the sequence are \( x \).
Suppose that \( S \) has the discrete topology and that \( (T, \mathscr{S}) \) is another topological space.
- Every function from \( S \) to \( T \) is continuous.
- If \( (T, \mathscr{T}) \) is connected, then the only continuous functions from \( T \) to \( S \) are constant functions.
Proof
- Trivially, if \( f: S \to T \), then \( f^{-}(U) \in \mathscr{P}(S) \) for \( U \in \mathscr{T} \) so \( f \) is continuous.
- Suppose that \( f: T \to S \) is continuous and that \( x \) is in the range of \( f \). Then \( \{x\} \) is open and closed in \( S \), so \( f^{-1}\{x\} \) is open and closed in \( T \). If \( T \) is connected, this means that \( f^{-1}\{x\} = T \).
Euclidean Spaces
The standard topologies used in the Euclidean spaces are the topologies built from open sets that you familiar with.
For the set of real numbers \( \R \), let \( \mathscr{B} = \{(a, b): a, \, b \in \R, \; a \lt b\} \), the collection of open intervals. Then \( \mathscr{B} \) is a base for a topology \( \mathscr{R} \) on \( \R \), known as the Euclidean topology .
Proof
Clearly the conditions for \( \mathscr{B} \) to be a base given above are satisfied. First \( \R = \bigcup \mathscr{B} \). Next, if \( (a, b) \in \mathscr{B} \) and \( (c, d) \in \mathscr{B} \) and \( x \in (a, b) \cap (c, d) \), then \( x \in \left(\max\{a, c\}, \min\{b, d\}\right) \subseteq (a, b) \cap (c, d) \).
The space \( (\R, \mathscr{R}) \) satisfies many properties that are motivations for definitions in topology in the first place. The convergence of a sequence in \( \R \), in the topological sense given above, is the same as the definition of convergence in calculus. The same statement holds for the continuity of a function \( f \) from \( \R \) to \( \R \).
Before listing other topological properties, we give a characterization of compact sets, known as the Heine-Borel theorem , named for Eduard Heine and Émile Borel. Recall that \( A \subseteq \R \) is bounded if \( A \subseteq [a, b] \) for some \( a, \, b \in \R \) with \( a \lt b \).
A subset \( C \subseteq \R \) is compact if and only if \( C \) is closed and bounded.
So in particular, closed, bounded intervals of the form \( [a, b] \) with \( a, \, b \in \R \) and \( a \lt b \) are compact.
The space \( (\R, \mathscr{R}) \) has the following properties:
- Hausdorff.
- Connected.
- Locally compact.
- Second countable.
Proof
- Distinct points in \( \R \) can be separated by open intervals.
- \( \R \) has no proper subset that is both open and closed.
- If \( A \) is a neighborhood of \( x \in \R \), then there exists \( a, \, b \in \R \) with \( a \lt b \) such that \( x \in [a, b] \subseteq A \). The closed interval \( [a, b] \) is compact.
- The collection \( \mathscr{Q} = \{(a, b): a, \, b \in \Q, \; a \lt b\} \) is a countable base for \( \mathscr{R} \), where as usual, \( \Q \) is the set of rational real numbers.
As noted in the proof, \( \Q \), the set of rationals, is countable and is dense in \( \R \). Another countable, dense subset is \( \D = \{j / 2^n: n \in \N \text{ and } j \in \Z\} \), the set of dyadic rationals (or binary rationals ). For the higher-dimensional Euclidean spaces, we can use the product topology based on the topology of the real numbers.
For \( n \in \{2, 3, \ldots\} \), let \( (\R^n, \mathscr{R}_n) \) be the \( n \)-fold product space corresponding to the space \( (\R, \mathscr{R}) \). Then \( \mathscr{R}_n \) is the Euclidean topology on \( \R^n \).
A subset \( C \subseteq \R^n \) is compact if and only if \( C \) is closed and bounded.
The space \( (\R^n, \mathscr{R}_n) \) has the following properties:
- Hausdorff.
- Connected.
- Locally compact.
- Second countable. | 10,741 | common-pile/libretexts_filtered | https://stats.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Probability_Theory/Probability_Mathematical_Statistics_and_Stochastic_Processes_(Siegrist)/01%3A_Foundations/1.09%3A_Topological_Spaces | libretexts | libretexts-0000.json.gz:37966 | https://stats.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Probability_Theory/Probability_Mathematical_Statistics_and_Stochastic_Processes_(Siegrist)/01%3A_Foundations/1.09%3A_Topological_Spaces |
ByA8HbRrj3gl0hev | The jewelry repairer's handbook / by John G. Replinger. | PREFACE.
In preparing this hand-book it was not the inten¬ tion to publish an exhaustive volume covering every detail of the whole held of jewelry repairing, nor a text-book for beginners. It is presented mainly for that large class of workmen who have learned their trade in stores and who desire to knozv the best as well as the latest methods employed in large jewelry repair shops. With this end in vieiv the author has explained methods more fully than he otherwise would to workmen who have made the repairing of jewelry a specialty. J . G. K.
THE BENCH
The jeweler’s bench must be strong and well made and securely fastened to the floor to insure firmness. Its dimensions should be about 3 ft. 4 in. high, 2 ft. wide and 3 ft. long and the top 1^4 in. thick.
The bench usually contains two drawers ; one — measuring from 21 to 24 in. long, 18 in. wide and 3 in. deep — immediately below the top of the bench, in which all tools are kept when not in use, and when closed it should be at least 3 inches back from the edge of the bench to allow the jeweler’s hand perfect freedom while working at the bench pin; the other, or lap pan, from 21 to 24 in. long, 24 in. wide and 1 Y\ in. deep in front and having sloping sides which make the drawer Al/2 in. deep at the back. This pan is lined with zinc, and when pulled out lies snugly in the jeweler’s lap and catches all filings and scraps that fall from his work.
A very important part about the bench is the bench pin, and the writer has been considerably sur¬ prised to learn that very many jewelers have never heard of it. Into the edge of the top of the bench and above the middle of the lap pan, a hole is cut about
3 in. long, in. deep and % of an inch wide. Into this hole is fastened the bench pin — a flat piece of wood about 3 in. wide, in. thick and extending 3 in. from the edge of the bench. Another style of pin with two surfaces — one flat and the other sloping — is used for filing rings. This style can be made to order or obtained from any material dealer.
On the bench pin most of the work is done, and it has aptly been called a third hand. Its further uses will be pointed out in the sequel.
TOOLS.
The beginner need not have many tools with which to begin work ; indeed, for some time, in shops, he does not do anything but saw straight and curved lines in copper or brass plate. Then the tools required are a saw-frame and blades, a pair of flat pliers, a rule or straight-edge, a pair of divid¬ ers and a scribing point. As he advances he makes flat band rings of the strips, and for this work he re¬ quires a cut-off size gauge, one of which will be found on the top of every Allen ring-stick, a pair of shears, a pair of half-round pliers, a half-round file, a ring mandril, a rawhide mallet — small size — a blow-pipe, soldering block or charcoal, a borax slate and cake of borax, a small camel’s-hair brush, a wa¬ ter-bottle, a pickle pan, a pickle cup and a soldering lamp, either alcohol or gas. Provided with these tools, the beginner is enabled to make up plain rings, and as he progresses he can do many repair jobs without requiring any more tools. But as these will be needed some time or other, below is pre¬ sented a complete list of them, the use of each being briefly explained when considered necessary:
dium stiff brush.
The beading tools are tapering pieces of tempered steel, about four inches long, and have a concaved end which forms the beads or grains used when set¬ ting pearls. The tools are held in graver handles and are given a rolling motion.
Prepared borax can be bought at any material house, but crystallized borax, obtained in any drug store, will answer just as well.
The spoon-burnisher is made by softening and rounding and retempering the wide end of a flat file. This burnisher is used for removing dents, etc., from spoon bowls.
The small camel’s-hair brush is used for placing the borax paste on the joint to be soldered. A larg¬ er one can be used for anti-oxidizing purposes.
round pliers.
The rivet pliers are used to extract rivets from joints which resist all other methods. They are made from a pair of English hawkbill case-pliers by drilling a hole through the end of the flat jaw and
bending the curved end so that it will be exactly above the hole when the pliers are opened about a quarter of an inch. The curved part should be filed so as to go into the average joint without splitting it. It is not supposed to push the rivet out entirely, but simply to start it, after which it may be easily removed with a pair of pliers or a rivet punch.
The ring clamp or vise is a wooden arrangement for holding rings while stones are being set in them. It is a very useful tool and should be used by every jeweler.
A spiral turner is a piece of steel about three or four inches long and one-fourth of an inch in diame¬ ter. The one end is fastened into a long handle and the other is filed flat. Then a groove is cut across the middle about one-eighth of an inch deep and wide enough to allow the spiral wire to enter. Then to the side of the middle and about one-sixteenth of an inch from the top, a hole is drilled perpendicularly to the groove. A piece of wire is fitted into the hole, which will hold the spiral wire in position while being turned into a spiral.
The split tweezers have two broad ends, one of which is sawed in half lengthwise for about a quar¬ ter of an inch. This is opened to form a triangle. A narrow band, which fits around the other end, is moved back or forth when an article is inserted or taken out of the jaws. This tool is used mainly for holding scarf pins and button backs while soft-sol¬ dering.
The setting mandril is made by softening, smoothing and retempering a large rat-tail file. This tool is used for rounding up settings that are made of gallery.
The water-bottle should have a perforated cork and is used to drop water on the borax slate to grind the paste for soldering purposes.
The wax-box is an ordinary tin box half filled with wax which has been melted and allowed to cool. This box is used for keeping diamonds and other precious stones while on the work-bench.
stones while setting them.
The pusher, used to push the prongs over stones, is a piece of soft steel about three-sixteenths of an inch square and about two inches long. It is fast¬ ened into a graver handle so that an inch or an inch and a half protrudes, according to the length of the handle used. The end which comes in contact with the prong is slightly beveled back and roughened, so that it will not easily slip.
The Scotch-hone or stone is very useful for re¬ moving scratches and file marks from articles to be polished, and especially so where engraving has been removed.
Chromic acid is used for testing silver. If a drop of it be placed on sterling silver it will immediately change its color from a bright crimson to a dark red, while on silver less than coin it will become the color of chocolate.
Aqua-regia, which is an old name for nitro-muriatic acid, is composed of three parts of muriatic acid and one part of nitric acid. This acid or combina¬ tion is used for dissolving gold and testing alloys of 14 karat or over.
heated.
It may be well to state here that should any acid, by accident, fly into the eyes of the workman he should immediately rub soap and water into the parts afifected. We know this from experience to be an efficient antidote.
The uses of alcohol are so well known to the trade that it is not necessary to state anything about it excepting that wood alcohol, which is only onehalf as expensive as grain alcohol, will answer just -\ as well as the latter for the jewelry repairer’s use.
drug store.
Chloride of iron is used for oxidizing brass buckles. The chloride is dissolved in water and then boiled. While boiling, the buckle is immersed until the desired shade is obtained. Should a darker shade be wanted, dip the article into a liver-of-sulpliur solution.
Gum mastic is the best cement we know of for cementing pearls on pegs. It comes in “tears” or balls and hardens very quickly.
There are on the market jewelry soaps and washes of various descriptions, but for every-day use in the shop and store we prefer Ivory soap. It is smooth, does not scratch or cause the work to tarnish and is nice for cleaning the hands and face.
Saltpetre is used as a flux for refining purposes.
A piece of sal-ammoniac is the handiest thing for tinning a soft-soldering iron. Moisten the sal-am¬ moniac with the soldering-fluid and then rub the heated iron and a piece of soft-solder over it.
Sulphuret of potash, or liver-of-sulphur is used for oxidizing articles of silver. It should be kept tight¬ ly corked in a bottle and can be used in either of two ways: Place a small piece in a boiling-cup and add some water, then slowly heat and immerse the ar¬ ticle ; or dissolve it in water and place it in a bottle to be used when wanted.
. is .925 fine.
Sterling silver is so called from the fact that the Easterlings — inhabitants of Eastern Germany in the 12th and 13th centuries — were noted for the purity of their alloys, and especially of their silver. Hence the name.
RECIPES.
Anti-oxidizer : There have been very many pub¬ lished recipes for anti-oxidizing solutions, chief of which was one consisting of ocher and borax. This preparation is alright but too dirty for the jobbingjeweler. The following recipes have been in use for years and found to be perfectly satisfactory:
A good anti-oxidizer is made by taking four ounces of rain water and putting in as much boric acid as will dissolve. Then add one-fourth ounce of pulverized borax. To apply, heat the article and when warm, paint it with a camel’s-hair brush which has been dipped in the solution. This preparation is very good for engraved band rings and all articles which do not contain stones. But should it be de¬ sired to anti-oxidize an article containing stones, the following solution should be used: Take an ounce of alcohol — grain or wood — and put in as much boric acid as will dissolve. To apply, dip the article into the solution ; remove and ignite, when it will burn off with a green flame and leave a thin, white, uniform coating upon the article to be repaired. Should a transparent anti-oxidizer be desired add ammonia, largely diluted with water, to the latter solution until it becomes perfectly clear. Before ap¬ plying be sure to have the article perfectly clean. Paint it with a camel’s-hair brush moistened with the liquid and place on a warm piece of charcoal to dry. When dry do not handle the article more than is absolutely necessary.
phuret of potash) diluted with spirit of sal-ammon¬ iac. No. 2: Saltpetre, 1 part; sal-ammonniac, 2 parts; sulphate of copper, 2 parts. These ingredi¬ ents are reduced to a fine powder and dissolved in acetic acid. No. 3: Place a small piece of sulphuret of potash in a boiling cup and add about an ounce of water. Heat, but do not boil the mixture and immerse the article to be oxidized.
camphor, equal parts.
Soft-soldering Fluid: Soft-soldering fluid is gen¬ erally made by dissolving small pieces of zinc in muriatic acid until all effervescence ceases; after which a small amount of sal-ammoniac is added. Another way to make this fluid is to dissolve a small amount of chloride of zinc in alcohol.
Soft-solder Destroyer: Many jewelers use nothing but muriatic acid to remove soft-solder from articles to be repaired but, in all our experience, we have not found anything to equal the formula of George E. Gee ; therefore we give it in its entirety :
13 oz.
Reduce the proto-sulphate of iron (green copperas) and nitrate of potassa (saltpetre) to a fine powder, then add these ingredients to the wrater, and boil the preparation in a cast-iron saucepan for some time ; afterwards allow the liquid to cool, and in doing so it will shoot into fine crystals; if any of the liquid should remain uncrystallized, pour it from the crys¬ tals and again heat it, when, on cooling a second time, it will all have become crystallized. The crys¬ tallized salt should then be taken and dissolved in
muriatic acid, in the proportion of i ounce of salt to 8 ounces of acid. Now take of the latter prepara¬ tion i ounce, and add it to 4 ounces of boiling water in a pipkin, keeping up the heat by means already stated. In a short space of time the most obstinate cases of soft-solder will be cleanly and entirely re¬ moved and without the work changing color, if the instructions are properly carried out in preparing the mixture, etc.
Washing soda . 1 pound
Slack the lime in rain water. Then pour off the liquid and in it boil the washing soda for one hour. To use, place the articles to be cleaned in a boilingcup and cover with the liquid, which is heated to the boiling point. Then rinse in water and dry.
TESTING ACIDS.
For buying in old gold the jeweler will need two different kinds of acid — strong and weak, or more generally known as straw-colored and white. The straw-colored is the nitro-nniriatic acid previously mentioned and the white acid is chemically pure nitric acid.
To test gold of any karat rub the article on the testing stone and the ends of two or more needles that are supposed to be nearly the same quality. Then apply the testing acid and the article will be of the same quality as the needle whose mark dis¬ appears at the same time.
Thus for testing 18k., rub the 18k. test on the stone and the article to be tried next to it. Then with the stopper put some of the straw-colored acid over both rubs at the same time. If the article tried is 18k. the acid will not affect it, but will with¬ stand it the same as the test does; if not 18k. the acid will cause it to turn red.
From the description given for testing 18k. the reader can easily ascertain the quality of any other alloy. It should be borne in mind that the nitric or white acid should be used for testing gold- 14k. fine or less. Always keep the testing stone and needles free from dirt and grease.
THE MAKING OF A RING.
The reader being acquainted with the tools and chemicals needed for the making and repairing of jewelry, we will now explain the methods employed in the making of a flat band ring which will illusrate many points in jewelry making.
The first thing to be considered is the gold. If old gold is used, we generally take gold of the karat desired, but when all the old gold is of a lower karat, we must add a certain amount of pure gold
to raise the old gold to the fineness desired. For instance, suppose we have a lot of 8k. spectacle frames which we desire to make up into 14k. rings. The gold spectacle frames must be thoroughly cleaned and all solder, rivets and screws removed, and then the gold is accurately weighed and the re¬ sult noted; suppose it weighs 12 dwts. Then, by using the numeral 20 as a multiplier — which will always be constant, because it represents the num¬ ber of pennyweights in an ounce — we determine the amount of fine gold to be added by the following example :
Therefore, it is seen that to every ounce of 8k. gold must be added 12 dwts. of fine gold to raise it to 14k. Thus, in the example above cited, 7 1-5 dwts. of fine gold must be added to the 12 dwts. of 8k. gold to raise it to 14k.
The divisor, 10, of the example is the difference between the quality to be made and 24, which rep¬ resents the number of karats ; thus we see that the divisor will always represent the difference between the quality as improved by the addition of fine gold and 24.
If new gold or coin is used it must be reduced to the karat desired by adding to it copper and silver instead of fine gold, as in the former case. Suppose it is desired to reduce 12 dwts. of coin — which is . nearly 22k. fine; 213-5 to be exact — to 14k. By , using the number 20 as a multiplier, we find that
always must be the karat of gold reduced.
The gold and required alloys being made ready, we proceed with the melting. This may be done in crucibles when there is a forge in the shop, but in many places the workman has nothing but his lamp, blowing-pipe and a piece of charcoal. Before plac¬ ing the gold and alloys in the crucible, the latter should be rut-bed well on the inside with charcoal to prevent the borax — which is used as a flux — and the gold from adhering to the sides and bottom. Then the crucible containing the metal is placed in the forge and the fire is started. The fuel generally used is gas, which is blown with great force by a blower connected with the forge. In some places charcoal forges are still used for melting purposes.
While the gold is melting, adjust the ingot mould to the width desired, and after slightly oiling it, place it near the forge to become heated just so the hand can touch it and not be burned. Then when the gold is thoroughly melted, which is known when it becomes perfectly clear on the top, it should be stirred well to mix the several alloys and then, while removing the crucible from the fire, a small piece of beeswax should be dropped onto the molten mass. This will exclude air and prevent oxidation.
The casting of gold into the ingot-mould is a deli¬ cate operation and requires a steady hand ; other¬ wise the gold would be spilled around on the forge. After the gold is cast, it should be removed from the ingot-mould and cooled in water so that it may be readily handled. Then the edges and corners are filed and hammered to remove all small pieces which
being rolled.
But where the workman does not have these ap¬ pliances and must do his melting on charcoal, he must proceed in a different manner. First, he should secure two large pieces of charcoal — we would suggest prepared charcoal, which can be ob¬ tained in blocks of the desired shape — and rub a flat surface on each. At the end of one of the flat sur¬ faces should be cut a hole sufficiently large to re¬ ceive the gold and alloys.
Now a mould or form should be made from a strip of sheet iron, about 6 inches long, and from 1-16 to of inch wide. This should be bern with square corners to form an oblong mould whose ends should extend out to guide the molten mass into the form. This done, the workman should make 12 or more saw-cuts crosswise on the flat sur¬ face of each block and then place his form in posi¬ tion with the extended ends near the hollowed part, and then place the second piece of charcoal on top of the form and bind all together securely with strong binding wire.
All is now ready to melt and cast the gold. Place it and the alloys — which should be well mixed — and a small piece of borax into the hollow and blow a strong, steady flame onto the mass until it is thor¬ oughly melted ; at the same time agitate it con¬ stantly to insure its becoming thoroughly incor¬ porated. When the molten mass begins to churn and becomes perfectly clear on the top it is ready to be cast.
This operation is 'as delicate as casting into an ingot-mould, and in many cases even more so. When satisfied that all is right, the charcoal-block should be tilted sufficiently to allow the mass to run into the form, and as soon as it is in the mould should be turned up perpendicularly and tapped
slightly with the blowpipe to settle the gold. Al¬ low it to cool, cut the binding wire, remove the bar and trim and hammer as explained heretofore.
To melt gold in this way requires considerable practice with the blowpipe, so that one might blow a steady current of air through it, and at the same time breathe through the nostrils. Many jewelers cannot do this, but where practice is persisted n: the result can be accomplished.
If the reader will close his mouth and fill his cheeks with air until they are distended, he will find that lie can close the passage between the mouth and throat so that while he is breathing through the nose the cheeks will remain full. Then if a blowpipe is inserted and the passage closed the blowpipe will not permit the air to escape from the cheeks so rapidly but that the lungs may be filled by breathing through the nose, while the muscles of the cheeks are forcing the air out through the blowpipe. Then, when the lungs are filled the pas¬ sage is opened and the cheeks refilled.
Now we are ready to roll or hammer the gold, which is done by passing it through two steel roll¬ ers which are pressed closer together by screws after each passage of the strip or bar. After being rolled several times, the gold becomes exceedingly hard and sometimes cracks. To prevent this the bar should be frequently annealed. After the strip is annealed, it is rolled or hammered to the desired thickness, after which it is annealed and boiled out in sulphuric acid pickle. To make a ring a strip of gold should be cut about three inches long and somewhat wider than the desired width of the ring to be made.
Suppose the ring is to be made size 8. On the top of every Allen ring gauge will be found a scale from i to 13. To make a ring size 8, the end of the strip of gold should be placed at the end of the
metal forminsr the gauge and then a line should be drawn across the strip of gold. Then at 8, on the top scale, draw a similar line across the strip and when the ring is made up — providing due care has been taken — it will measure 8 exactly. But broad rings should have an allowance of about one-half a size, when marking off the strips. In this case the strip would measure 8j/> and when the ring was made up the reader would find the ring to measure 8 exactly. It is for this reason that clerks should notice whether they are using wide or narrow size rings when taking the size needed by a customer. In this connection it should be mentioned that in shops, the reading is taken at the lower edge of the ring and not in the middle, as is sometimes claimed.
After the strip of gold is marked to the desired size, take a pair of half-round pliers, or, if the ring is very heavy, take the pendant bow contractor and bend the strip into an ellipse. Then, with the saw or shears, cut off the surplus gold at the marks made on the strip. Now with a flat or barrette file, file the joints smooth and be very careful to keep them free from grease and dirt. This done, join the two ends with the pliers or bow contractor. Now mix up some borax paste and paint the joint well and lay on a small piece of solder. Many jewelers use solder made by taking the gold they are work¬ ing and reducing it two karats. The reader can easily do this by following the instructions given for reducing a higher karat of gold to a lower. In¬ stead of using all copper and silver a small amount of brass should be added to the alloy.
Cadmium solder is used a great deal, and this the jeweler can make by taking gold of any alloy and, after weighing, melt it. When in a perfectly liquid state, he should add one-fourth its weight of cadmium, stir the mixture well and pour very
temperature.
The borax and solder having dried on the ring, lay the latter on a piece of charcoal and gently heat it, first on the opposite side of the joint, then the whole ring, until the solder melts and flows down through the entire joint. Allow the ring to cool, and then boil it out in the sulphuric acid pickle. If the gold is iok. fine the color, after being boiled out, will be red, and the finer the gold the lighter will be the color. This is due to a lesser amount of copper in the alloys. After the ring is boiled out it is washed and dried. After this the solder is filed out nice and smooth on the inside of the ring with a fine half-round file. The ring is then ready to be rounded up. This is done by placing it on the mandril, which, in factories, rests on a gum tree block, and striking the ring on all sides with a rawhide mallet.
This operation requires considerable skill and practice, because the mandril must be held in the palm of the left hand and given a revolving motion, so that the mallet, which is held in the right hand, will strike all parts of the ring and make it per¬ fectly round. Now, suppose the band ring was to be size 8 full and, after being rounded up, it meas¬ ures 7^4. To make it size 8 full, we must use the steel hammer, and with careful, sharp blows, which must be given around the entire surface of the ring, we draw it up to the required size.
In sizing rings of this kind the writer prefers this method, because it leaves one joint only in the ring, and consequently the latter is not so liable to break while being worn. When the required size is ob¬ tained the sides of the ring are filed flat and smooth until the desired width is obtained. This done, the surface of the ring is filed flat and smooth, so that it may be easily polished. To file a ring of this
kind, hold it between the thumb and forefinger of the left hand with the ring resting against the bench pin. Then with a fine half-round file begin to file the surface flat and slightly hollow from the mid¬ dle to the edge of the ring. To do this push the file from the body and at the same time give the ring a circular motion toward the body, and vice versa. Care should be taken to keep the ring the same thickness in all its parts. This seems to be a difficult matter for some ring makers — possibly ap¬ prentices — judging from the number of rings that we have seen that are thinner at the joints than anywhere else. This is due quite often to the fact that one end is rolled or pressed harder than the other, or the joint may not have been properly made and the jeweler filed away too much of the surface with the solder.
Engraved band rings are made in the same man¬ ner as the flat bands, excepting that the flat strip of gold is given its impression by rolling it in a small steel die, which makes the imprint in the strip.
Plain or half-round band rings are made in the • same manner as flat bands, excepting that they are considerably thicker and are filed or turned halfround.
In ring shops plain rings are made by rolling long strips of gold through a pair of rolls, the lower one of which is grooved the desired shape of the ring.
The rings we have mentioned are now ready for the polisher, excepting the engraved band rings, which must have the green color removed. This is done by heating the ring to redness and plunging it into alcohol. We will describe the polishing ot these rings under the head of “Polishing.”
REPAIRING.
There is probably no more difficult job for the average jewelry repairer than that found in a broken spectacle frame, and especially so in one that has been broken and repaired near one place several times before.
If the reader will note where spectacle frames are generally broken, he will see that nearly twothirds of all frames are broken on the left side, either in the nose piece, eye wire or side piece. This is due, no doubt, to the manner in which per¬ sons put on and remove the spectacles from their faces. Another fruitful source of breakage is the incorrect manner of holding spectacle frames while cleaning the lenses. Persons, as a rule, hold the frames by the nose piece while wiping the lenses. This is wrong, for by so doing the frame is given a severe strain which may cause it to break in the eye wire. The correct way to wipe the lenses is to hold the frame by the joints. This will relieve the frame of nearly all strain and reduce the possi¬ bility of breakage to a minimum.
Each time a spectacle frame is repaired it is pol¬ ished and, consequently, it is made somewhat weaker, as all polishing cuts away more or less of the metal.
In repairing a spectacle frame the workman must leave it as strong, if not stronger, at the place where it had been broken, than it was before. This is an easy matter if due care be taken in soldering, filing and polishing. In illustration, we will take a io-karat frame, which has been broken at any place in the frame — in this case, in the eye wire near the nose piece.
I he first thing to be done is to secure a nice, flat piece of charcoal or any other kind of soldering block, and some sprigs, which can be made of bind¬ ing wire and are used to hold the frame and broken ends in position on the soldering block. Then, these being in readiness, clean the broken edges with a file or scraper, and securely fasten the frame on the soldering block so that the broken edges meet but do not press tightly against each other ; otherwise in soldering the frame the ends would unite and spring into a V-shape and cause consid¬ erable trouble. When the frame is secured on the soldering block, prepare the borax paste by plac¬ ing several drops of water on the plate and rubbing the cake of borax in it until a thin paste is formed.
Then cut the solder and after moistening the joint with a camel’s-hair brush, apply the solder with the moist end of the brush, or with a pair of tweezers. Then, with an easy flame, heat the solder and as little as possible of the frame on either side of the joint, until the solder flows. After the solder flows examine the joint to ascertain if it is perfectly united and, if so, remove the frame from the soldering block and pour heated pickle over the joint to remove the borax and fire-coat. But if the joint be not perfectly united re-borax and reheat the frame and cause the solder to flow. If not satis¬ factory this time remove the frame from the charcoal, clean it and proceed as before. It may be well to state that the repairer will not have much trouble in this direction if the manipula¬ tion of the flame is thoroughly understood and proper care is taken in regard to keeping the work clean. Be sure that there is no foreign matter in the water or on the borax slate which could get into the paste. It is also advisable that the fingers do not touch the parts to be joined, as
prevent the solder flowing.
As stated before, in all speetacle repairing the workman should endeavor to leave the joint as strong and as neat as possible. To do this, the solder should be the very best obtainable, and in this connection we wish to state that no good re¬ pairer of spectacles or jewelry will use silver solder on gold work. This might be excused on work where it does not show and is gilded afterward, but even this should not be done. The solder should be placed on the outside of the eye wire, when the break is in the eye wire — and allowd to melt and flow through to the inside of the eye wire. In this manner the solder will flush the joint on the out¬ side as well as in the inside. The surplus solder on the outside can easily be filed so that the place of the break will be thicker after it is repaired than the other part of the eye wire. Of course, a lump of solder should not be left large enough to attract attention. The solder which flows on the inside of the eye wire can easily be removed by cuttingcrosswise inside the eye wire with a flat graver, or lengthwise with a round graver similar in shape to an inside ring graver.
It is hardly necessary to describe the method of soldering different breaks in the spectacle frames, as one generally proceeds in the same manner in re¬ pairing all breaks, no matter where they may be. To the beginner we would state that he should not endeavor to do his work too rapidly, because he may then slight it, in which case he coidd not hope to be¬ come an expert at this work. As will be learned from actual experience, the method described for re¬ pairing the frames of spectacles is a good one for the average repairer who is not pushed with work. But for the man who does repair work for the trade this method is entirely too slow; therefore, he re-
ning of the work onto a soldering block.
To illustrate the method of doing this work, we will take a pair of io-karat spectacle frames that nave been broken at the small bend in the nose piece. This is a somewhat difficult job to pin upon a soldering block, as the nose piece quite frequently is higher than the frame and consequently a groove must he cut into the block. But by holding the broken parts in the fingers the work is greatly simplified.
After removing the lens from the side nearest the break, the broken ends are filed or scraped nice and clean. Then the borax paste is ground up and the solder is cut into pieces of the desired size. Then the two ends are moistened with the borax paste and a piece of solder applied, either with the moist borax brush or with a pair of tweezers, to the end which will be above when the pieces are being held in position to be soldered together. In our experi¬ ence we have found this to be the best way, for the solder will flow downward more read ly than it will upward. And, again, in some cases solder can be drawn to its proper place if the repairer will so ma¬ nipulate his flame and have the place to be soldered and the approach to it heated to the proper degree, which will attract the solder in that direc¬ tion. This, however, requires considerable skill and experience and is not easy to master. When the joint is prepared and the solder placed in position on the upper end, place the blowpipe between the teeth and hold the two parts of the broken frame between the forefinger and thumb of each hand so that the edges will meet perfectly. To do this the hands and frame can be steadied considerably if the small fingers of each hand are extended so that they meet. Another way is to allow the small finger of the left hand to touch or rest aga:nst any convenient sup¬ port, as the bench, vise, etc.
SPECTACLE AND EYEGLASS REPAIRING. 31
Then when the ends are in the right position, blow an easy, steady flame onto the edges, and heat as little on either side of the joint as possible — until the solder flows through and around the break. As soon as the solder flows stop blowing and pour pickle over the joint, which will remove the borax and fire coat. A pair of spectacles should never be allowed to lie in or be dipped into the pickle bath, as the acid will attack the steel rivets and screws and cause the gold to become coated very red. One can easily see that the latter method of soldering would be difficult for the beginner, but after some practice it can be mastered by any persevering workman. The reader also can see that this way of soldering is very rapid and useful for soldering the eye wire, no matter where broken ; for soldering on broken off joints or end pieces, in which case the end piece is perfectly cleaned and the solder is laid on the eye wire, which has been moistened with the borax paste. Then the frame is held in the left hand and the end piece in a pair of tweezers is held in the right hand, and, with the blow pipe between the teeth, the work is easily and quickly done. Side pieces are held in the same manner to be repaired.
The question has often been raised as to the best way to repair broken side pieces. Some repairers place ferrules over the broken parts and solder with soft solder. This is a questionable practice and is condemned by every workman who takes pride in his work. Others claim that to file the ends off even and to solder, after which the solder is allowed to remain so that the break will be in the middle of the circular lump, is the best way. This is a very good way, but our experience has shown us that the best joint in side pieces is made by beveling each end so that the ends will over-lap and at the same time retain the thickness of the side piece. Then, after soldering, the surplus solder is filed off nicely,
so that it does not have a lumpy appearance. Of course, we do not mean to hie the solder ofif en¬ tirely, but just sufficiently to make it an even swell and not an unsightly lump. The beginner should remove side pieces to repair them, but more ad¬ vanced workmen can solder a break three-fourths of an inch or less from the end piece by holding the frame in his fingers.
All spectacle frames, whether gold, gold filled, sil¬ ver, steel or alumnico, are soldered in the same man¬ ner as the gold frames. The steel and alumnico frames have the fire coat and borax removed by fil¬ ing and scraping instead of being cleaned in pickle. The solder used on gold filled frames is the same as used on gold ones, but silver solder or hue brass wire is used for repairing steel spectacles. Alum¬ nico frames are soldered with silver solder.
When the frame is repaired and cleaned with the pickle wash it with water and dry with a rag, which should be kept about the bench for that purpose. The frame is now ready to be trued and straight¬ ened — that is, the middle of the end pieces and the axes or centers of the lenses should be in a straight line, and the planes or top surfaces of the lenses should be in a straight line also. It is very im¬ portant that the side pieces be similar in curve and shape as well as length, and when lying on a flat surface the curves should lie evenly upon it.
The cards which wholesale and manufacturing opticians issue for determining the pupillary dis¬ tances of lenses are very useful as straight edges or guides for truing up the end pieces with the axes of the lenses. A simpler and quicker method for the jewelry repairer is to use a saw blade, securely fast¬ ened and taut in the saw frame, as a straight edge which can be laid on the top of the frame, and is more satisfactory than the method of laying the frame on the line of the card. The correctness of
the other.
To slope the side pieces hold the frame by the end pieces — with the side pieces curving upward — ■ between the thumb and forefinger of the left hand ; and, starting near the end piece, move the fingers toward its extremity, with it between the thumb and forefinger of the right hand. Should it be desired to increase the curve move the forefinger slightly in advance of the thumb. To decrease the curve the thumb should be in advance.
Frameless spectacles are the most difficult ones to true up properly, because of their liability to break. Care should be taken that there is no strain on the glass anywhere, and especially at the straps which steady the glass. Before attempting to straighten frameless spectacles or eyeglasses see that the ends of the straps fit the edges of the lenses perfectly, so that the lenses will be firm. If this were not done the lens would be liable to break at any time.
Eyeglasses are usually broken in the spring or in the eye wire. These breaks are easily repaired by taking the frame apart and pinning the broken parts together on the charcoal soldering block. But if the spring is broken near the hole where it is at¬ tached to the stud, remove the eye frame and nose guard and prepare the joint as already described. It would be the safest plan for the repairer to pin the work onto the soldering block, but the quickest way is to hold the larger side between the fingers of the left hand and the smaller in a pair of tweezers, which are held in the right hand.
glasses.
There is no good way to repair rubber or zylonite eyeglass frames. A better plan is to put in a new eye. Springs are secured to rubber or zylonite eyeglass frames with pins, which are riveted.
If a gold or gold filled spring is broken at the screw hole, drill a hole in the end and replace it in the eyeglass frame and reshape it to suit the nose of the wearer.
New cork is easily placed in eyeglass guards by removing the old and slightly bending back the edge of the guard to receive the new piece of cork. Then the sides, or edges, are pressed over the cork, which is finished with a medium fine file. There is a narrow strip of metal beneath the cork of nose guards, in the end of which is a hole for the screw which secures the guard to the eye wire.
Shell or zylonite for guards can be bought in strips. From this the desired piece is cut and fast¬ ened to the nose guards with rivets.
The repairer occasionally will have trouble in re¬ moving screws from spectacle and eyeglass frames. Should the screw be rusted in the end piece or hold from any other cause, lay the end piece on a small anvil or block and lightly hammer the gold between the bead and end of the screw. This will spread the gold around the screw and it can then be turned with ease if a good, strong screwdriver is used, which the repairman can grasp firmly in the hand.
between the joint or sides of the end pieces, so thaf the parts can be screwed closer together. This fail ing, move the joint back on the eye wire. The care ful workman will not countenance the practice of putting sheet lead or tinfoil between the lens and eye wire to tighten the glass. Great care shoulc be exercised in filing between the joints or end pieces, either to tighten the lens or the side piece. In the latter case it would be better to use washers or to put in new rivets. Some workmen have an idea that side pieces can be tightened by laying the joint on an anvil and hammering the rivet. This is a mistake, because the gold is stretched more than the rivet is compressed and, consequently, the side piece will be as loose as before, or, if tighter, will work itself loose in a very short time.
But if one wishes to tighten the side piece with¬ out putting in washers or rivets, lay the end on an anvil and strike the rivet several sharp blows with a punch of the same diameter as that of the rivet. This will compress the rivet and tighten the side piece without any injury to the gold joint.
If lenses are too large for the spectacle or eye¬ glass frame and a grinding stone is not at hand, use a slightly coarse, flat file, wetted with water, for reducing the size. In filing move the file toward the lens at an angle of about 45 degrees.
The jeweler is often called upon to drill a hole in an eyeglass lens for a cord. This is an easy mat¬ ter if one has a lens drilling machine, but if not the case is dififerent. Secure a large, three-cornered file and grind the three sides smooth and to a point, and sharpen on the Arkansas stone. Moisten the lens with the lens drilling mixture — sewing machine oil will answer nicely — and make a small mark on the lens where the hole is to be. Then place the lens against the edge of the bench or any other firm place, insert the three cornered point, which is given
a rotary motion back and forth. After drilling about one-half way through, turn the lens and pro¬ ceed in the same manner from the opposite side. A three cornered drill used in the pump drill will do this work nicely. In using lay the lens on a large, flat piece of cork and use the drilling fluid freely. When a small opening is made moisten a fine rattail file with the drilling mixture and broach out the opening to the size desired.
CLEANING BIFOCAL LENSES.
There are many forms of bifocal lenses, from the “split” glasses, invented by Benjamin Franklin and, consequently, so named, down to the present cement bifocal.
The dirt which accumulates between the former form of bifocal lenses is easily removed by taking the glasses from the eye frames and wiping them with tissue paper. The cement bifocal, which is very popular at present, is very neat, but it has several serious drawbacks. In wiping these lenses great care must be taken that the heat and friction do not cause the segments to become loosened from the distance glasses or the space between will be ob¬ scured by vapor bubbles. Another drawback is the fact that a sudden jar is liable to cause“Newton’s rings,” a beautiful iridescent phenomena, which present all the colors of the rainbow when the glass is held in a favorable position.
To clean these lenses it is necessary to remove the dirty or spotted cement which unites the two parts of the lens and reunite them with new cement — Can¬ ada balsam. Many prefer to use the cement prepar¬ ed by optical companies. Canada balsam, however, is the nicest form, as it is put up into tubes and a drop can easily be pressed out whenever wanted. In
cleaning lenses of this description it is necessary to take the lens from the eye frame and to remove the segment from the larger glass by slightly heat¬ ing the latter on the side opposite the segment. Both pieces are allowed to cool, after which they are cleaned with alcohol and wiped perfectly clean and dry with a soft rag or tissue paper.
The large glass is then held in a pair of tweezers and a drop of the cement is placed on it. This is heated over a small alcohol flame — but not allowed to ignite — until a vapor is given off, at which time the segment should be applied to its proper posi¬ tion and pressure given to force all bubbles from between the two glasses. If, however, spots or bub¬ bles remain, remove the segment and, after clean¬ ing both glasses, repeat the operation. The cement, after heating, becomes hardened in a very short time and can be chipped off with a graver or scraper. The residue is removed by the use of alcohol and a medium stiff brush.
There is nothing, aside from personal attributes, which more easily makes or mars a jeweler’s reputa¬ tion or affects his trade than the character of his re¬ pair work. It is not more difficult to do a job nicely than it is to “botch” it, if care and judgment are ex¬ ercised in the work. To become expert at jewelry repairing the workman should be able to see at a glance exactly what is necessary to be done in each job and then do that in the best and quickest man¬ ner possible.
Many jobs in themselves are not worth the repair¬ ing, but the owners prize the articles, for the sake of associations, of which the repairer knows nothing, and for this reason, as well as for his reputation, the jeweler should not slight the meanest job.
Replacing a Pin Tongue. — Replacing a broken pin tongue in a brooch is considered an easy matter and so it is if the work is done in the right manner. In many cases the pin tongue is broken off at the joint. The first thing, then, to be done is to remove the rivet from the joint. This may be pushed out with the tweezers or any other point, and if it does not yield to this treatment use the rivet pliers. The rivet removed, select a pin tongue whose joint is about the same size as that of the joint on the brooch and cut it to fit into the joint. Then hold the brooch with the top side down and in this posi-
TO MAKE A PIN STEM.
tion the catch will be nearest the body of the work¬ man. Then, with the right hand insert a round broach — the round ones are the best, as they stretch the stock instead of cutting it — into the joint ana through the pin tongue joint until the end appears on the left side of the joint. Then care must be taken that the pin tongue will move up and down on the broach — which serves as the rivet — without causing the latter to move. When this is satisfac¬ tory, remove the broach and, if necessary, cut the pin tongue to the required length and repoint it. This is done by placing the tongue in a small pin vise and laying it in a groove on the bench pin and giving it a rotary motion between the thumb and forefinger of the left hand, while a fine file is passed back and forth over it with the right hand. This done, the rivet is filed in the same manner, ex¬ cepting that the taper is not so acute, and inserted from the right, always ; and when the pin tongue will work nicely — not too tightly or too loosely — without causing the rivet wire to move, cut off the ends close to the joint with a pair of cutting pliers or a saw and file them ofif smoothly, but not quite even with the joint. Then finish by hammering it lightly on each end, so as to prevent any pos¬ sibility of its working out.
To remove a rivet that has been inserted in this way hold the brooch so that the catch will be farthest from the body and file the right side of the rivet and then force it with the pliers. All rivets in new work, as brooches, lockets, match safes, watch cases, etc., are inserted from the right, and when this is fully understood the repairer will not have much trouble in removing rivets.
To Make a Pin Stem. — Pin stems having regular joints are made as follows: Take a piece of hollow wire and file small grooves crosswise on the seam.
and lay this on a thin, narrow piece of stock and, after binding the two securel) together with the binding wire, coat the line of contact with borax paste and on this lay small pieces of solder. Then, when the borax has dried, apply the flame until the solder flows and unites the two pieces. The binding wire is then removed and the stock “boiled out” in the sulphuric acid pickle. Then cut the flat stock off to within one-sixteenth of an inch of the hollow wire and the stock is placed on a flat piece of char¬ coal, with the hollow wire beneath. The pins, which have been pointed, are arranged with the butt ends on the plate and with sufficient distance be¬ tween to allow for cutting, etc., and fastened there by sprigs made of binding wire or by mixing plaster of paris and water and pouring the mixture onto the ends of the pins. This, when dry, will hold the tongues in position, while the butt or thicker ends are being soldered to the joint stock After all sol¬ dering is done remove the sprigs or plaster of paris and clean the work in the sulphuric acii pickle. The pins may then be separated as they ai wanted.
Pin stems for ball joints are made b drawing the wire to the thickness of the pin desired and cutting it about one-eighth of an inch longer than necessary. The end is then melted into a ball, which, when hammered, will spread sufficiently to allow the drill¬ ing of a hole through it and, at the same time, serve as a spring.
To Straighten Pins. — Very often it is necessary to make pin tongues and scarf pins in bulk, and it is necessary to have the wire perfectly straight. This may be accomplished bv annealing the wire after it is drawn to nearly the required thickness and fastening one end in a vise, while the other is secured in a drawing tongs and the wire stretched as much as possible without breaking it. When re-
fectly straight.
Repairing Broken Scarf Pins. — Broken scarf pins are repaired by beveling each end of the break so that when joined the ends will overlap'but not be any thicker than the other parts of the pin. To solder breaks of this kind — which usually occur about the middle of the pin — the set should be wrapped in wet tissue paper before the parts are fastened on the charcoal soldering block or held in the fingers to be soldered. To solder the pin in the fingers, grasp the ball of moistened tissue paper which envelops the set, between the thumb and forefinger of the left hand, and with a pair of tweezers in the right hand place and hold the other end of the pin in position. When scarf pins are broken ofif at the setting it is advisable to remove most of the stones before sol¬ dering is attempted. Doublets, sometimes, will stand the heating and at other times they will not.
Pearls, genuine turquoise, amethysts, the topaz, opals, etc., must be taken out or they will be ruined. Small doublets and diamonds will, in most cases, stand the heat necessary for soldering, but it is ad¬ visable for the repairer to take as little risk as pos¬ sible, and especially so with diamonds. After the stone is removed from the setting, the parts to be soldered are cleaned with a file or scraper.
The setting, with the filed part upward, is then fastened on a piece of charcoal and the filed end of the pin placed in its proper position. To do this, insert the point of the pin into a small piece of char¬ coal and lay both on the large soldering block, so that the two parts to be joined will be in their re¬ spective positions. Then apply the borax paste, solder and proceed as before.
ping the enamel. The safest plan is to explain to the customer the risk that is taken and what the con¬ sequences might be. Then proceed to prepare the joint in the usual manner.
A piece of mica — which may be obtained at any drug or stove store — is laid on the charcoal sol¬ dering block and on this is laid the piece to be heated. In this way the enamel, while heated, will not become black or dirty from the soldering block. After the article is soldered, allow it to cool before attempting to remove it from the mica ; otherwise the enamel will chip out. This is not a very good method for curved enamel surfaces, but it is the best known at present. Heated enamel or stones should not be immersed in pickle or water until cold, lest they crack.
Twists in Pintongs.— Pintongs having twists in the middle are made by drawing the wire to the de¬ sired thickness and hammering it slightly flat in its middle portion, after which it is annealed, and then by holding the ends of the flat surface in hand vises or pliers, twisting the wire four or five times. This will smooth the twist and the pin is ready to be made up.
Repairing Set Rings. — Set rings broken at the joint are the easiest to repair, as all that is neces¬ sary to be done is to file the broken ends even and to join them so that they meet nicely, without any pressure and with the same curvature of the ring. A joint of this kind will solder nicely, but where the ends meet with pressure, they will, when heated, spring into a V-shape and cause considerable trou¬ ble. Having joined the broken ends, take a piece of tissue paper and fold it until it is about one-half an
RINGS BROKEN AT THE SET.
inch wide and from three to six inches long-, accord¬ ing to the size of the set to be protected. This is saturated with water and wrapped around the set, after which the joint is coated with borax paste and a small piece of solder applied. To solder the joint, thus prepared, hold the set between the thumb and forefinger of the left hand and blow a strong flame onto the joint, and somewhat on either side of it. until the solder flows. As soon as this is done, dip the soldered part into pickle and rinse it in clean water. The tissue paper is then removed and the surplus solder filed from the inside of the ring with a fine half-round file. Then the ring is placed on a mandril and “rounded up.” This done, its sides and surface are filed even and smooth with a fine file, and the stones securely fastened so that they will not be lost while the ring is being polished or worn.
To Repair Rings Broken at the Set. — Before any¬ thing is done on a job of this kind the stones should be removed from the setting. This is done by plac¬ ing a knife blade between the prong and stone and gently pressing upward. This will loosen the stone, which can then easily be pushed out. Pearls, tur¬ quoise, etc., are removed by cutting away one or more beads by which they are held in position and then lifting out by pressing a wax point down on them and quickly jerking it upward. The foilbacks of a marquise ring quite often can be forced out by pushing them from the back with a blunt pin or pusher. Cameos, intaglios and all stones hav¬ ing beveled edges, over which the gold is burnished, are removed from the settings by cementing the top of the stone on a cement stick. When the cement has hardened the ring can be pried from the stone, which will remain imbedded in the cement. If, however, any difficulty is encountered in this method, strike the extreme outer edge of the setting
with a hammer before fastening the stone on the ce¬ ment stick. By removing these stones in this man¬ ner the edge of the setting will be preserved intact and the stone can easily be sprung back into its former position and the gold burnished over it.
When the stones are removed anti-oxidize the set¬ ting and prepare the joints in the usual manner. Then apply the borax paste, a small piece or more of solder and lay the ring on a piece of charcoal and heat it gently — care, however, being taken with set¬ tings having prongs, so that the ends are not melted — until the solder flows. Then the ring is cleaned in pickle, the surplus solder removed and the ring rounded up and smoothed in all its parts. Set rings may have the inside of the setting polished or gilded, as the workman may elect. The latter method us¬ ually is the one adopted where there are several set¬ tings in a cluster.
Tiffany, belcher and rings of this description, no matter how many settings there may be, always have the inside of the setting polished. The gild¬ ing of the settings is done to give a nice finish to the interior, nothing more. The prongs and outside of the settings are polished in the usual manner. Then after the settings are washed and dried the stones are replaced in their proper positions and the ring is ready for the final polishing. This method of re¬ pairing set rings, no matter where broken, is diffi¬ cult for men who do not have much of it to do, but without a doubt it is the only proper way of mend¬ ing rings of this kind. We have seen rings, one particularly with an opal center and half pearls sur¬ rounding it, which was broken at the set, and the workman had taken a thin piece of gold and softsoldered it inside the ring so as to join the two ends. Then he had drilled four holes, two on each side of the break, which he tapped and in these he inserted screws — a very ingenious method of doing the work,
was capable of better things.
New Prongs on Settings. — Occasionally it is necessary to replace one or more prongs on a ring setting. Sometimes the prong can be stretched by laying it on the anvil point or by means of a pair of pliers. In either case it would be well to anneal the prong to prevent it from breaking. If it can¬ not be repaired in this way, remove the destructible sets and take a thin piece of gold of about the same width as the prong and bend it double, allowing the bent portions to touch. This done, bevel one end, also the inside of the prong. Then, after anti-oxi¬ dizing the setting, slip the double piece of gold over the prong and, after boraxing the joint, lay a piece of solder on the inside and blow an easy, steady llame on the setting until the solder flows. After the solder has united the two parts the ring may be cleaned in the pickle and the unattached piece of gold can be removed, as it has served its purpose. It may be well to state that the double piece of gold should not clasp the prong too tightly as in this case it would spring off when heated. Another method of doing this is to prepare the prong as in the former method and afterward anti-oxidize the setting. The end of the prong is boraxed and a piece of solder laid upon it. Then a small piece of gold of the width and thickness of the prong is taken and one end is beveled to correspond to the end of the prong. To join the two prepared ends hold the ring in the left hand and the small piece of gold between a pair of tweezers in the right hand. Blow an easy, steady flame onto the solder, and, when about to melt, join the two ends and heat so that the solder will unite both firmly together. Afterward the new part can be cut and filed to cor¬ respond to the other prongs in the setting. This
method is very well for cluster rings, but for Tif¬ fany mountings it makes a nicer job to put on an entirely new crown or setting. Secure a setting which will take the stone nicely — the girdle of the stone, when laid on the top of the setting, should cover about one-half of the top of each prong — cut out the old setting and fit in the new one. Consid¬ erable care must be exercised so as get the new set¬ ting perfectly straight. Another way to re-crown a Tiffany ring is to cut ofif the top horizontally and solder the setting on the top. This way is the easier, but the former is the better. After the setting is soldered in position, file the ring so that it is uni¬ form on all sides, after which the scallops can be cut to the required depth. After polishing, inside and outside, the stone is ready to be reset. The subjects of polishing and setting will be considered later.
For the benefit of those who want to take the risk on Tiffany, or for that matter, on any other mountings, we will describe how some workmen replace one or more broken prongs. Suppose two prongs are worn ofif the setting which holds a dia¬ mond of a karat weight. These workmen will make a saw-cut from the girdle of the stone down¬ ward along its lower side. Then they will cut a piece of gold V-shaped to fit over the girdle of the stone, the same as a prong would do, and fashion the lower part to be pushed down into the saw-cut until the top part rests snugly on the top slope of the stone. The setting was previously anti-oxi¬ dized and now the joint is boraxed and a small pallion of solder applied. Then an easy flame is di¬ rected upon the joint until the solder flows, which unites the two parts. But simple as this may ap¬ pear the risk is very great, for the least draught of air might crack the stone and the loss would be many times the value of the time it would have
in the regular manner.
Repairing Broken Band Rings. — Band rings hav¬ ing one break are easily repaired by scraping the joint clean and then joining the two ends without any pressure, with the same curvature as that of the ring. When this is done, anti-oxidize the en¬ tire ring and paint the joint with the borax paste. Lay a piece of solder on the inside of the ring. 1 hen the ring is laid on the charcoal solderingblock and the ring soldered as previously described. But where two or more breaks are to be repaired in one ring, we must proceed in a different manner. Scrape the joints clean and see that all have the same degree of curvature. Then place the largest piece on the ring stick and fit the next largest piece where it naturally belongs. The ends of the wire should be brought together and twisted, but not too tightly, otherwise the pieces would spring out of place. A little practice will enable anyone to do this work without much trou¬ ble. After the pieces are securely bound in posi¬ tion by the binding wire, anti-oxidize the whole and paint the joints with borax paste, and lay a piece of solder, inside the ring, on each break. Then blow an easy, steady flame on all parts of the ring until the solder flows and firmly unites all parts. After “boiling out” the ring in the pickle, remove the sol¬ der from the inside of the ring with a fine halfround file and round it up. This done, file the sides smooth and even and replace the ring on the mandril and matt the joints with a fine matting tool. Solder, which has flowed onto the outside, may be finished in the same way.
Sizing Rings. — To make a ring smaller it is nec¬ essary to note what the size of the ring is and what it is to be. For instance, we have a Tiffany ring, size eight, which is to be made size five. We take the pair of dividers and measure three sizes on the scale near the end of Allen’s ring stick. The length of the three sizes we will mark on the bottom of the ring with each point of the dividers. Then this piece may be cut out with either a pair of cutting pliers or with the saw. The joint is then prepared and the soldering proceeded with as has been de¬ scribed for set rings ; but in sizing a ring of this kind, the amount of gold taken out and the conse¬ quent bending have caused the setting to stretch and the stone to become loosened. This should be tightened by pressing the prongs tightly upon the stone with the pusher. In making rings larger, take the measure in the same manner as in the case just described. But to put in the extra piece of gold is a rather difficult job. In enlarging band rings the new piece can be curved and placed in position on the ring stick, where it is secured by passing doubled binding wire around the entire ring. We can hardly remember an easy way of putting pieces in other rings ; however, the rings can be “pinned up” on charcoal after the sets have been duly protected. In repair shops the workman will open the ring where it has been cut and leave the one end higher than the other. These are then filed so as to make a good joint. A piece of gold is then taken which is about the same width and thick¬ ness as the shank of the ring, and given the curva¬ ture of the ring. Then, after wrapping moist tis¬ sue paper around the stones, the workman takes the set between the thumb and forefinger of the left hand and paints the joint with the borax paste and applies a small piece of solder. Then he places his blow-pipe between his teeth, takes the new piece
NEW SHANKS ON RINGS.
of gold between his tweezers, clips the filed end into the borax paste, joins the two and blows a strong, steady flame onto the joint and somewhat on either side of it until the solder flows and unites the two pieces. Then on the new piece he marks off the number of sizes to be added, cuts off the surplus gold and prepares the end as before described. This done, he joins the edges and proceeds in the method described for repairing a set ring broken at the joint. When the last joint is soldered the ring is allowed to cool before it is cleaned in the sulphuric acid pickle. Then the inside is filed smooth with the half-round file and the ring rounded up. If the ring does not reach the desired size after it is rounded up, hammer the ring shank evenly until the size is ob¬ tained. Then finish the new piece to conform to the other parts of the shank. Where rings are to be made from one-cpiarter to three-quarters of a size larger, it is often desirable to stretch them by means of hammering, while on the mandril. This is preferable to having two joints very close to¬ gether.
New Shanks on Rings. — Very often it is neces¬ sary to put an entire new shank on a ring to make it serviceable. To do this nicely secure a piece of gold, the width and thickness of the shank, on a new ring of a similar pattern. The thickness gen¬ erally is 150 on a screw-gauge, which is equivalent to 2-3 millimeter. When this is obtained, cut off the old shank where the new piece is to be joined and prepare the joints as previously described. Then bend the new piece to conform to the curvature of the ring and cut it the required size. Place the shank and setting on the ring stick and tie the two together with binding wire. Before soldering, in a set ring, the setting should be anti-oxidized to pro¬ tect the color of the gold. When the parts are sol-
manner described for sizing rings.
New Gallery Settings.— If the setting for a large cushion stone is badly worn, it is advisable to re¬ place it with an entirely new setting in preference to restoring the old claws. This is easily done by securing gallery stock, which may easily be bent to the desired shape and size. This gallery is illus¬ trated in most material catalogues and the repairer can easily determine the size and amount required. It is usually bought by the foot. After the setting is bent to the required size and shape, the ends are joined and, after cleaning, it is ready to be soldered in position. This is done by the same method, pre¬ viously described, for holding the ring shanks to be soldered.
Lining Band Rings. — Band rings, which are worn very thin and are considerably cracked and broken, may be made serviceable and strong by lining them. Take a strip of gold somewhat wider than the ring, and make the inside ring the same size as the one to be repaired. Then place the broken band over the newly made ring and measure the size of the piece necessary to be placed in the upper ring to fill the gap between the two edges. When this is done, secure all together by means of binding wire and anti-oxidize the engraved surface. Then lay small pieces of solder around the edges, one side at a time, and when the borax has sufficiently dried to prevent it from throwing off the solder, blow an easy flame onto the interstice. When one side is soldered, remove the binding wire and clean the ring by boiling it in the sulphuric acid pickle, and wash in water. Then re-tie the ring and, after anti¬ oxidizing the engraved surface, proceed as before. When all soldering is done, remove the binding
REPAIRING INITIAL RINGS.
wire, clean the ring and round it up. The sides are then filed to the edges of the band ring and, finally, the top surface is finished with a fine file or an emery stick.
Repairing Initial Rings. — Initial rings are nearly always broken at the box or setting, or at the bot¬ tom. Those broken at the bottom are easy to re¬ pair, but those cracked at the set require more time and patience. Carefully remove the rivets, or screws holding the initial, after which the stone, generally onyx, is easily raised. Initials fastened in position with a screw at the bottom cause much trouble if the screw-head becomes rusted. Should this be the case, grasp the initial firmly with a pair of pointed pliers and unscrew in that manner. This will not injure in the least the initial or screw, but usually a new screw should be inserted. Then clean the parts to be united and join, but avoid any pressure as the joint would spring into the Y-shape when heated. If the shank is sawed or cut so that several ends touch the setting, see that all are joined nicely, then borax and solder all at the same time. It is not nec¬ essary to tie binding wire around a job of this kind unless the shank is broken off the box on both sides. If so, place the shank on the ring stick and insert the setting and secure with the iron wire. Care, however, must be exercised that too great pressure be not given, lest the ends slip up on the setting about the time that the solder flows.
Frequently the underside of the box is cracked or dented. 'This is a difficult place to repair nicely, as the edge of the gold is liable to melt when heated. There have come to our notice many rings of this kind which have been repaired with silver solder and, consequently, show a white line. The best way to repair these rings is to solder a thin, narrow strip of gold over the break. In this way the gold will
cover the crack and fill it as the solder flows to the piece of gold. If the solder were laid over the crack, when melted, it would flow to either side and a piece of gold would have to be placed over the crack to draw it back. After the solder flows and the gap is not closed entirely on the inside, place several pieces of solder where needed and melt. Then, after cleaning the ring in the sulphuric acid pickle, remove the surplus gold and solder and. if necessary, round up the ring. When filing do not use the point of the file to remove marks or solder, as this does not better the work in the least. File with the full surface of the file and the polishing pro¬ cess will be considerably easier and, at the same time, will leave the repaired article in a better state.
Braid or Hair Chains to Repair. — The attach¬ ments of braid or hair chains are made in two parts and, in most cases, are soft soldered together. When broken, the surface should be scraped or filed clean and moistened with soft-soldering fluid. The parts are, while being soldered, held in the split tweezers over an alcohol flame. If the braid or hair is badly worn and it is desired to put in new silk, tie a piece of binding wire around each attach¬ ment before heating it, preventing thereby its be¬ coming unsoldered. All attachments should be cleaned and polished before the braid is inserted.
To Repair Cuff Buttons. — Lever back cuff but¬ tons are the most difficult to repair, because, us¬ ually, the break is in the under part containing the spring, which must be removed. But, if the but¬ ton is broken anywhere else, the spring must be re¬ moved before any hard soldering can be done. This is accomplished by cementing the back on a cement stick and taking up the edge with a knife or graver. When the button is repaired, the back should be
REPAIRING BRACELETS.
held on the cement stick while replacing the spring. The edge can be bent over with the pusher or ham¬ mered over with a square punch. There are some buttons on the market the backs of which work on a rivet, and these will not give the repairer any trouble. Link and one-piece buttons are not diffi¬ cult to repair, but it is advisable to leave as much solder as possible on the joints to insure strength.
To Repair Buckles. — Cut steel buckles have the attachments fastened with soft solder, and when these become loosened the break should be scraped and moistened with the soldering fluid. Then the parts are easily soldered by holding them together with the split tweezers over an alcohol flame. Buckles of this kind are cleaned by brushing thor¬ oughly with a brush with a plentiful use of tripoli or Vienna lime. Putz-pomade can also be used to advantage. It is hardly necessary to describe the method of repairing any of the other cheap buckles, excepting that all marks of soft soldering should be covered, either by gilding or gold paint.
Bracelets to Repair. — Spring bracelets, broken in the middle, are repaired by heating the ends until they can be removed and the broken spring with¬ drawn. Then the new spring is inserted and the ends soldered in position. Care, however, should be used that the soft solder does not bubble and flow out upon the surface of the beads or spiral. Snap bracelets are not considered difficult to repair, but we would advise caution in the use of soft solder. Nethersole and all hollow bracelets should have an air hole drilled into them before any solder¬ ing, which is liable to prevent the escape of the heated air, is done. When the bracelet is boiled out, a light green effervescence will be seen at the hole. This is the sulphuric acid pickle. To remove this
of washing soda.
To Make a Nethersole Bracelet Smaller. — If a Nethersole bracelet measures 2)4 inches in diame¬ ter and it should be 2 inches in diameter, multiply each diameter by three, or, more exactly, by 3.1416. This will give the circumferences of the bracelet be¬ fore and after cutting, and the piece to be taken out will be the difference between the two amounts. For example, we have a bracelet measuring 2)4 inches in diameter and the customer wants it to measure 2 inches in diameter, then we proceed as follows :
6j4 6 Yx of an inch.
Bonnet Brushes to Repair. — Broken bonnet brushes are hard soldered whenever possible, but, in some cases, beauty is often sacrificed for strength. When the top is broken out, take a piece of silver and cut it to cover the broken part. Then perpen¬ dicularly on this, solder a heavy piece of brass tubing, which should fit nicely into the handle of the brush. Then the plate may either be soft or hard soldered to the top of the brush. When this is done the tube is cemented into the handle.
Silver Novelties to Repair. — Many novelties, and especially those bought in department stores, are not worth repairing, but it will not do to refuse this work when it is brought in. As most of the handles are filled with cement this must be removed before any soldering can be done. If the article is a tooth brush, which has broken off right at the mouth of the handle, heat the handle at the other end until the heated air and cement force out the broken end. If it does not yield in this way, press it down into the handle. After all cement has been removed, clean the handle in sulphuric acid pickle, then wash and dry. Now make a brass or German silver fer¬ rule that will slip inside of the handle on either end of the break and join the two ends. Then coat the joint with borax and lay on the small pieces of easy flowing silver solder. When the borax has dried, heat the handle unfit the soft solder flows into the joint. If the broken article has been filled with soft solder the work is very much more difficult. Re¬ move the excess of soft solder by holding the article over the alcohol flame until the solder is melted, when it can easily be poured out. The remaining solder can be removed by allowing the article to lie in the soft solder destroyer. It is advisable in some cases to soft solder articles of this kind when the silver is of an inferior quality or is very thin. In either method, use the ferrule in the inside to strengthen the article.
Watch Case Bezel to Repair. — Before soldering the bezel, the place to be soldered should be careful¬ ly filed to make a good joint. Binding wire is then wrapped around the bezel several times ; but before drawing it tight take a piece of wire of such size that it will fill the glass groove and extend a little beyond the ends. Bend the wire to correspond to the groove and lay it in, after which the binding
wire encircling it is tightly drawn. Next gradually heat the part opposite to the break and slowly pass around to the joint with a small and gentle flame. When soldered, remove the wire and boil the article in pickle, after which the solder, if any, is removed from the groove with a graver and the outside filed and rubbed smooth with fine emery paper.
Watch Bows to Refill. — Watch bows worn thin in places are refilled by placing a small piece of gold in the worn spot and flushing it with solder. Solder, in itself, is too soft to stand the wear; so the gold should be inserted to insure wearing.
Belcher Rings to Repair. — Repairing the setting on a belcher ring is rather a difficult job, for there should be a number of new claws, usually eight, soldered in the right position. It must be borne in mind that the old prongs are to be filed off suffi¬ ciently to give the new ones a firm hold on the base ; otherwise when setting the stone they will be liable to be broken off. Some repairers, after filing off the old setting, make a ring of gold about 3-16 or in. high and solder this in position. It is difficult to make this ring, for the gold should be as thick as the base on which it is to be soldered. When made up it is rounded on the setting mandril described in a previous chapter. When the ring is made it is tied in position and charged with borax and solder. After the borax has dried the ring is heated until the solder flows and joins the two parts. This done, file the top of the new setting flat and mark out the number of new claws to be made. The gold be¬ tween the prongs is sawed out by placing the saw through the center of the setting and sawing down¬ ward, but great care should be exercised that the
bottom is nicely rounded and the claws even and straight. This is all a matter of practice, for, after doing this work several times it becomes compara¬ tively easy. When all sawing is done the sides of the-prongs and the rounded parts of the scallops should be smoothed with fine needle files. This will greatly facilitate the polishing. The inside of a new setting of this kind is polished by rubbing it back and forth on a linen or cotton string or strips of chamois skin which have been charged with tripoli and oil, or, what is cleaner, the prepared tripoli composition which can be secured from any material dealer. It is not necessary to use one string only, for several may be used at the same time. When the parts have been thoroughly smoothed the ring should be washed to remove all grease and grit, after which the inside is polished in the same man¬ ner as before, excepting that rouge is substituted for the tripoli. In factories the sides and top fof prongs are polished on wood-laps before being brushed with rotary brushes, and it would be ad¬ visable for the repairer to finish his work in this way if he has the facilities for doing so.
Chains to Repair. — Silver fox-tail chains, when broken at the swivel, are often attached by opening the end link with a pin-tongue and inserting a jump ring. When broken some distance from the swivel, lav a piece of solder on each end of the break and melt. Then cut off as much of the ends as possible, leaving just sufficient to make two nice, solid sur¬ faces which are joined and soldered together. This is the best way of repairing this kind of chain, as it prevents the solder from flowing any distance, which would stiffen the chain. This chain is made like new by drawing it through an alcohol flame until it is thoroughly heated and then allowed to -ool ; after which it is allowed to lie in the sulphuric
acid pickle until it becomes perfectly white. Some prefer the white finish, but, if the bright is desired, it is necessary to polish the chain with the brass scratch brush. It is also done by briskly brushing the chain with bi-carbonate of soda, but the resu t is not so good. Rope chains, made with unsoldered links, are repaired by opening the two links at each end and hooking together. This is not so difficult with the larger size of chains, but a great deal more so with very small chains. Care should be taken that the break is repaired on the proper twist; oth¬ erwise the repaired place will be noticeable. It is not necessary to solder links in an unsoldered chain, but it is necessary to do so in a soldered li ik chain. To solder chains of this kind use very small pieces of solder and, if possible, solder the ends of the links together. This will mend the break and leave the chain as pliable as before. Wherever possible, save the color of these chains by using the anti-ox¬ idizer ; but if a pickle coating is visible it would be well to gild the soldered parts before any polishing is attempted.
Charms to Repair. — Charms and lockets may be broken in so many different places that it would be difficult to enumerate all at this time. Generally, however, they are broken at the joints or at the top ring. If the joints on a plated charm or locket are broken, remove all parts that are soft soldered in position. Then remove all soft solder re¬ maining on the part to be repaired. If the joints are split out or broken from the knuckle, remove the rivet and insert a round steel broach and try to hammer the joint back into its former shape and po¬ sition. The tapping or hammering should be done lightly, so as to leave as few marks as possible on the joints. All being clean and the joints tied in position, proceed to anti-oxidize the whole and
charge with borax and solder. Then solder with an easy flame and as soon as the solder flows nice¬ ly, withdraw the article and allow it to cool, after which it should be cleaned in the sulphuric acid pickle. As many of these lockets are gilded on the inside, it would be well to clean the inside and coat the outside with any resist — coach painters’ varnish will do — and then dip the whole into the warmed Roman coloring solution. This will produce a nice finish on the inside, similar to that on the other parts. The resist should be removed and the whole put together, after which it is polished and washed. If rings are broken ofif or worn on plated charms, which are soft soldered together, it is advisable to remove all the parts and clean off all soft solder before any soldering is done. This may be removed by scraping, which is by far the quickest method, or by the use of the soft solder destroyer. If the rings on solid gold lockets or charms, or plated ones that are not soft soldered, are worn they can easily be filled by wrapping the charm in moist tis¬ sue paper and then holding it between the fore¬ finger and thumb of the left hand. But when the rings are broken off of an elk tooth or similar charm the tooth or other destructible parts must be re¬ moved. Wherever possible, use the anti-oxidizer, as it will save both labor and the engraving on all articles. When repairing anything containing ce¬ ment or shellac be sure to have all removed before attempting any soldering, as, otherwise, the cement would boil out and prevent the solder from flowing.
Watch Chains to Repair. — When any repairing is to be done to a watch chain, the repairer should examine all rings which compose the toggles to see that the ends are perfectly joined. When the swivel ring is drawn out of shape, it should be bent back and the swivel itself put into first-class order.
If the catch does not spring back with sufficient strength to close entirely, remove the rivet from the swivel, stretch the spiral spring a trifle and replace it. This, if carefully done, will remedy the defect. Watch chains, as ordinarily broken in one or more links, do not require so much patience as skill in their repair, but where chains are to be entirely re¬ filled, both patience and skill are required. Watch chains which are worn thin are refilled by placing small pieces of gold into the worn spots and flush¬ ing the whole with the best solder that the chain will stand. One will notice that a chain of this kind is much shorter after it has been refilled than it was before, and the result will be surprising if one takes the trouble to measure the chain before and after refilling it. We have heard of customers asking if some of the links had not been removed from the chain. If solder only were used for re¬ filling the chain links it would be entirely too soft and would wear out in a short time. To obviate this the harder alloy is substituted. When doing this work on a curb chain, take a flat piece of char¬ coal in which a groove is cut to receive the second link of the chain while the first lies perfectly flat on a charcoal block. Of course the other end of the chain is doubled up into the end of the block or al¬ lowed to pass over the edge, in which case it is se¬ cured by holding it with the index finger or thumb of the left hand. This being understood, the re¬ pairer will, after the chain is perfectly clean, lay a small piece of gold, filed somewhat to the shape of the worn spot, in position and charge with borax and solder. Then the piece of gold is soldered in place and the end of the chain dipped into the sul¬ phuric acid pickle and rinsed in clean water. The other end is then placed in the position of the first and soldered in the same way. Then, by repeating this, link after link, each one as it is refilled is
doubled back on the chain. The whole chain will be refilled without much difficulty. After the en¬ tire chain has been refilled it should be boiled out in the sulphuric acid pickle and rinsed in clean water. Then the links are filed into shape and as the finishing is a matter of everyday practice, we will not go into any details on that head.
The worn rings of the toggle cause much more trouble than the larger links of the chain. In most cases it is advisable to cut the rings apart to refill the worn spots. In some chains there are two links soldered together. Should this be the case, cut the end link of the two and then every other one in the same order. After being refilled the cut link can easily be soldered by using a little care. As these toggles are rather difficult to polish in¬ side they may be cleaned and given a dip in the Roman coloring solution. We have known repair¬ ers to pursue the same method with the inside of the larger chain links ; but where polishing can be done it would repay one to do a little extra work, as the chain will look a great deal better for so doing.
Cornets to Repair. — As jewelers are frequently called upon to repair musical instruments and es¬ pecially cornets, we will endeavor to state how the more frequent breaks are repaired. The valves us¬ ually cause the most trouble, either because they are tight and cannot be moved or the slide will go down and not spring up. To remedy this defect it is necessary to take the valve apart, both below and at the top. Then perfectly clean all the parts and if it is seen that there is any considerable friction anywhere, take powdered pumice stone and water and place some inside the tube and insert and re¬ volve the slide on the inside until all friction is overcome, when it and the dirt are removed and the
parts re-adjusted. If it works easily the defect is remedied, but if it does not it will be necessary to use caution in the rubbing process so that the slide or valve tube is not bent or dented. The slides and caps of the valve should occasionally be oiled, both above and below. No more oil than is absolutely necessary should be used, as it would work into the valves and cause trouble. Sometimes it would be well if the repairer would pour several quarts of water into the bell and turn the instrument so that it would cleanse the inside, the water being then al¬ lowed to flow out at the mouth-piece. The cork or padding at the water-key should always fit tightly, as the slightest leak at this point would impair the tone of the instrument. Should the metal edge be broken off, remove the spring and, after thoroughly cleaning both parts, apply soldering fluid and soft solder on the inside edge and solder with the blow¬ pipe. If care be taken the solder will not flow on the outside. Then apply a little non-gumming oil to the spring and wipe it off thoroughly before re¬ adjusting it. It is advisable to use as little on as possible in a cornet and especially on the valves. Saliva is the best lubricator we know of for this pur¬ pose.
Combs to Repair. — When the silver backs of combs are cracked the rivet holding them in posi¬ tion should be removed by filing off the smallest head and pushing it out by using the rivet pliers oi a small punch. Then scrape the fractured edges and join nicely on a piece of charcoal. Charge with borax and solder on the inside, otherwise the solder will flow or lump on the outside in the scroll work or engraving. The solder on the inside will act as a brace in places where before there was a strain. Should there be but two rivets which secure the back to the comb, it would be advisable to put in one or two more to make the back more secure.
MAKING CASTS.
When the comb itself is broken the repairer cannoi do better than to put in a new one. Sometimes celluloid combs are joined together, but it is better to put a new one in at once. Tortoise shell combs are quite frequently repaired. This is done by soft¬ ening the parts in clean boiling water and then join¬ ing them between heated plates in a vise. This is a job which requires considerable skill and exper¬ ience, but it is worth the repairer’s time to try it. After the comb is repaired, or, for that matter, any tortoise shell article which is brought in, it is pol¬ ished by using a mixture of soap and whiting on the rotary bristle brush and finally on the flannel buff. Another and perhaps a cleaner polishing prepara¬ tion is made by intimately mixing vaseline and rot¬ ten stone or olive oil and rotten stone. The bristle brush should be used first and care exercised that the friction does not burn the shell. The buff is used next, after which the article is briskly rubbed with the palm of the hand.
Casts to Make. — Very often the repairer meets with articles as heads, eagles, etc., of which it is de¬ sirable to keep models. In order to do this he should provide himself with a soft wax, usually called impression wax, and fine calcium plaster. To take an impression the article, if possible, is laid on a flat surface, and after the wax has been moistened on the tongue, it is pressed on to the article. Care, however, should be taken that it is pressed down evenly without a rocking motion, otherwise the im¬ pression will be imperfect. After the wax impres¬ sion has been obtained, mix calcium plaster with water until it is the consistency of a medium thick paste, and pour into the mould. In doing this it would be well to stick a pin or point into the plaster, to allow all air to escape. If this were not done, small air bubbles or hollows in the model would be
the result. The plaster is allowed to dry slowly for several hours, or until it is perfectly hardened. Then the model can easily be removed by pressing the wax away from it on all sides. *
If the workman can keep the article long enough, it would be advisable for him to make a plaster im¬ pression of the article instead of one of wax. Pro¬ ceed in the manner outlined above, and after the plaster has dried, which usually requires from two to four hours, the article can be removed. This is done by taking a point or knife and inserting it un¬ der an edge where the metal will be poured when a casting is made. For instance, we have an elk head of which we desire to have a metal copy. Place it on a flat surface, and pour the plaster paste over it. When dry take a pointer and insert it at the neck or what would be the base of the head. Then after the head is removed from the plaster cast a groove or trough is cut to the edge of the plaster to allow the free passage of the molten metal. Another plaster cast having a flat surface can be made, and this should have a trough cut into it to correspond to the other one. The trough should be larger at the mouth than at the model, so as to receive the metal better, and for the pressure. Then if it be so desired, a leaden model can be made which will be ready for use at all times. This is made by melt¬ ing lead in a tin boxlid and pouring it into the mould. Allow to cool for several minutes, and lift the side with the flat surface. Then the leaden model can be removed and cooled, after which it is finished to correspond to the original.
Earrings to Repair. — The connecting rings on earrings usually break where the rings rub to¬ gether. If these are not worn too thin or broken off, they can easily be refilled. To do this remove
TO REMOVE ENGRAVING.
all stones that are likely to be injured when heated, and anti-oxidize the setting. A suitable piece of solder is then laid upon the worn spot and heated until it melts and flushes the worn parts. Very lit¬ tle filing is necessary if care has been taken in the soldering, as the solder will conform to the shape of the ring. When all the rings are refilled, boil them in the sulphuric acid pickle and rinse in clean water. Then join all the parts, and proceed with the polishing. If the rings are broken off, make or secure wire of the original thickness of the connect¬ ing rings and take a piece of steel wire which would pass through the original ring and fasten it together with the end of the gold wire in a hand vise. Then by holding the hand vise in the right hand and the end of the gold wire with a pair of pliers in the left hand, proceed to revolve the hand vise away from the body. This will make a spring which can easily be slipped from the steel wire. Then with a saw-blade saw lengthwise on the top of the spring until the rings separate. These are called jump rings, a^d they are now ready to re¬ place the worn or broken rings.
With the flat pliers join the ends of the jump ring and file a flat surface right on the joint. These rings are used on the bows or wires. Those used on the settings have the flat surface filed to one side of the joint, to allow the ring to be opened to engage the top one.
Engraving to Remove. — The repairer is some¬ times called upon to remove engraving from silver handles, watch case shields, etc. The former can be removed with a file having a curved end, the file marks being removed by the use of a piece of Scotch hone and water.
placed over the engraving.
Take a print or pattern of the shield, and make one out of a thin piece of gold or plate which will cover the entire surface of the shield. Then lay the under side of the piece on a fiat piece of charcoal and flush it with a thin layer of silver solder. Then clean the piece in pickle and rub a file over the solder to smooth and remove any excess. The two surfaces to be joined are then cleaned thoroughly, boraxecl and joined. The piece is secured in posi¬ tion by means of binding wire placed around the back and drawn tight. Then one end is cut off right inside the snap edge and bent down so as to hold the wire in place. The other end is bent over and cut off in the same manner. This method of tying on a plate will prevent the back from being drawn out of shape while being heated. Anti-oxiclize the back inside and outside, and allow it to dry. Then with a steady flame heat the entire back until the solder melts and shows a white line at the edge of the shield. The back is allowed to cool and the wire removed, after which it is cleaned in pickle and polished inside before it is fastened to the center.
Some repairers use soft solder for this work, but wherever hard solder can be used it would be much better to do so. After the shield is soldered in po¬ sition and the back polished, the repairer should bevel the edge of the plate by bright-cutting it with a flat graver.
Fluxes. — Crystallized borax, obtainable in drug stores, is one of the best fluxes for the jewelry re¬ pairer's use. Prepared borax, containing sal am¬ moniac, is very good and is used by very many re¬ pairers. Liquid fluxes, used for anti-oxidizing as well as for fluxing, are good, but they have a ten¬ dency to cause the solder to spring away when the
REPAIRING FOUNTAIN PENS. G7
flux is heated. Cyanide of potassium is a good flux, but is entirely too dangerous to be used about the work bench. Many repairers unconsciously hold the fluxing brush between the teeth while working on a job requiring several solders, and if cyanide of potassium were used, the results might be fatal to the workman.
Filigree Work to Clean. — Filigree work is cleaned by laying it on charcoal and heating it to a dull red with a steady, even flame. Then allow it to cool before placing into the sulphuric acid pickle. If the dead white finish is not desired, a bright finish can be obtained by the use of the brass scratch brush, which should be kept wet with water. If the edges only are to be bright, put some moist baking soda onto a towel and rub the parts to be made bright.
Fountain Pens to Repair. — Jewelers are fre¬ quently called upon to unscrew fountain pen hold¬ ers at the joint. To do this, hold the joint over an alcohol flame until warmed and, then, by grasping an end in each hand, suddenly twist as in unscrew¬ ing. If sufficiently warmed the parts will separate with ease. If the pen does not feed sufficiently take it apart and clean thoroughly with alcohol. Grain or wood alcohol can be used for this purpose. Then put the pen together and, in many cases, it will be all right. If this does not remedy the defect, the capillary channels are too small, or the position of the feeder should be changed. Very little enlarging of the channel will often change the flow of the ink from the barrel. It would be almost impossible for a jeweler to repoint the nib, as this is a very diffi¬ cult and tedious piece of work ; therefore, when a job of this kind is brought in, it should be sent to a manufacturer, who is thoroughly equipped for this work. If the barrel of a fountain pen becomes worn
and it is to be repolished, smooth the surface with pulverized pumice stone and oil. Wash this off and polish the article with oil and rotten stone. If the cap of a fountain pen becomes so large as to easily slip off the barrel, it should be tightened. A piece of heavy binding wire is taken and passed around the cap about one-eighth of an inch from its ex¬ tremity. Then by twisting the two ends the cap can be contracted so as to fit the barrel tightly. When it is as desired, gently heat the contracted part over an alcohol flame and allow to cool, and re¬ move the wire. If warmed sufficiently the cap will be just as it was when bound by the wire.
Fobs to Repair. — Fobs usually have the silk worn so that the putting in of new silk is all that is re¬ quired. Before doing this the attachments should be tested, and if found satisfactory, they are polish¬ ed. See that all jump rings are evenly joined and the swivel in good working order. Then, after in¬ serting the silk, stitch it and the bar so that it will stay in position. The lower ends may be cut square and frayed or cut into an inverted V-shape. The latter is preferable.
Ferrules to Make. — Cracked umbrella handles and fountain pens are sometimes brought to the jeweler to have ferrule placed around them. This is a job that requires accuracy, for the ferrule should fit tightly to overcome the trouble and should not be higher than the surface of the article, if it is to be placed on the end. To make a ferrule, secure a piece of the metal — brass, silver, etc. — the desired length and width. Then cut a groove around the handle so that the depth will not be quite as much as the thickness of the metal, and tie a piece of binding wire around the grooved part and twist the ends together. Cut this apart at the twist and the
piece will be the length of the strip for the ferrule. Mark off the distance on the strip and bend up the ends, as in making a ring. The joint is prepared, joined and soldered, after which the solder on the inside should be removed. The rounding up some¬ times causes considerable trouble if one does not have different sized mandrils, but by means of screwdrivers — pieces of round steel — this can easily be done. When the ferrule is round, fit it to the piece and if it is a little tight it may be forced on. It is better to have it this way than have it too loose. If it is found to be all right, remove it and file the surface and edges, and then, after removing the file marks with emery and scotch-hone, polish it. Place it on the edge of the prepared part and strike the upper edge with a rawhide mallet to drive it into position. When this is done file the top edge smooth and even with the wood and smooth with a burnisher. There are many kinds of ferrules to be made, but by following the principle here given no trouble will be found while making any of them.
Filings to Reduce. — Jewelers who do not save the filings from their work bench would be surprised at the amount of gold that is lost in a year. These should be collected and cleaned every week. When a sufficient quantity has been gathered, it may be reduced and melted. The filings are placed into a sheet-iron box, lined with a piece of tissue paper and placed over a charcoal fire. This will cause the wood filings and other foreign matters to be de¬ stroyed. When the filings have undergone this treatment sufficiently — which will be known when they cease burning and become black — cool and place them into an iron mortar. With a pestle reduce very fine and go through them with a strong magnet to remove all steel and iron filings. The filings are then, thoroughly mixed with an
equal amount of saltpetre and placed into a large crucible which should be about three-fourths full of the mixture and saltpetre added to entirely fill it. This is placed in the melting forge until the metal melts and flows to the bottom, where it forms into a button. Many jewelers send the button thus ob¬ tained to the mint or to a refiner. This is certainly the best way of dealing with it ; but as somd may wish to separate the metals we will describe the methods employed :
The button of gold is taken and to it is added about one-half of its weight of silver and the two are melted together and, when thoroughly incorporated, are cast into an ingot mould. Borax or potash can be used as a flux, when melting the two. The bar of gold thus obtained is rolled until it is very thin, after which it is cut up into small pieces and placed in a glass jar or other suitable vessel to which ni¬ tric acid and water in the following proportions are added :
The acid should be slowly heated and allowed to act for several hours when all the alloys excepting the gold will become dissolved. The latter will be found at the bottom of the vessel in the form of a dark brown powder. When the acid fails to pre¬ cipitate any more of the dark brown powder, it should be decanted into another vessel and saved. The dark brown powder should be thoroughly washed with hot water to remove any trace of alloy that still remains. The water is then poured off and the powder allowed to dry. This is melted with borax or potash and the resultant bar will be pure gold or very nearly so. If, when working up, the gold is brittle, it may be understood that the baser metals were not all removed. In that case
MAKING JUMP RINGS.
the refining process should be repeated. The trouble and expense connected with this work is greater than it would be if the jeweler would send the filings, together with his polishing dirt and sweepings, to a refiner, who would have all the dirt and trouble and yet charge a very small sum for its reduction. If salt is added to the decanted liquid, previously mentioned, the silver will be pre¬ cipitated to the bottom of the vessel as a nitrate. This is washed with warm water to remove all for¬ eign matter and dried. Melt with borax and cast into ignot moulds. To make a silver plating solu¬ tion add a saturated solution of cyanide of potas¬ sium until all the silver is redissolved.
Impressions. — Engravers frequently desire to take a print or impression of a fine piece of en¬ graving. The best method that has come to our notice for doing this is to touch the finger to the tongue and slightly moisten the engraved surface. Then heat a stick of good sealing wax and press it onto the engraving. When the cement has cooled remove it from the en¬ graving and coat it lightly with printer’s ink. Take the print from this in the usual manner.
Jump Rings to Make. — Gold and silver as as well plated jump rings of various sizes should be kept on hand by every workman. Secure a piece of wire of the metal needed and draw it to the desired thickness. Then anneal and polish it with fine emery paper, a chamois rubbed with tripoli com¬ position, and , finally, with a rouged chamois. After polishing the wire, fasten it and the desired size of forming wire in a hand vise. Then hold the end of the wire in the left hand and revolve the
hand vise in the right hand. This will form a spring on the forming wire, which, when sawed apart lengthwise will separate the rings, which are tech¬ nically called jump rings.
Locks to Repair. — The tops of small bracelet locks very often become loosened when the key is withdrawn. To resolder these tops clean the sur¬ faces thoroughly and apply the soldering fluid. Very little or no extra solder is needed. Place the top onto the lock and hold the two in position [w means of the split tweezers and heat until the sol¬ der flows and joins the two parts. The surplus solder is easily removed with the scraper.
Mosaic Pins to Repair.— Broken mosaic pins and brooches are soldered by placing them top down¬ ward on a piece of sheet iron or other metal. It would be advisable to tie the two together when¬ ever this is practicable. Soft solder only can be used.
Mercury to Remove. — Mercury on gold and sil¬ ver articles is removed either by heat or by nitric acid. The latter is the preferable method. Apply the acid with the long stopper of the acid bottle and after a moment or so rinse the article in water and repolish it.
Mirror Backs to Wash. — Sterling silver mirrors, after being polished, can be washed without any danger of water getting back of the glass, by folding a towel and laying it on a stool or table upon which the mirror is laid with the glass downward. When washing or brushing, the water which passes over the edge of the mirror back will be ab¬ sorbed by the towel.
a thread to correspond with the one on the post.
Fans to Repair. — Broken fan sticks are usually repaired by riveting a strip of metal about i or il/2 inches long over the break. Another way is to cut a groove on the under side of the stick, about of an inch wide and about l/2 inch long on either side of the break. This groove should be from a 32d to a 16th of an inch in depth. Into this groove is fitted a piece of bone or other hard substance and cemented with a strong glue. Major’s cement has been found an excellent article for this purpose. After drying thoroughly the surplus cement and inserted bone can be removed with a file. This method of repairing fan sticks is, no doubt, the best and neatest. When the sticks part at the joints, clean the edges and re-cement. Always allow the glue or cement to become perfectly hardened be¬ fore attempting to finish the repair job. For glu¬ ing down lace, etc., a mere trifle of Major’s cement, applied with a match stick, will secure it without any of it showing through.
Gilding to Remove. — Gilding on articles can be removed by the electrical process or by heating. By the first method the article is attached to the positive pole of a battery and immersed into a saturated cyanide solution. Then attach a piece of copper to the negative wire and immerse into the solution. The gold will be dissolved from the gild¬ ed article and a part held in solution, while some of it will be deposited on to the copper plate. The second method is the quickest and in many cases the best. Lay the gilded article on a piece of char¬ coal and heat to redness. Allow it to cool and im¬ merse into the sulphuric acid pickle for an hour. One heating often is sufficient, but if the gilding is not perfectly removed proceed as before.
Isinglass. — This substance is used instead of glass for covering pictures, etc., in lockets and is much easier to cut into the proper shape and size. It is also used when soldering enameled articles. Lay the isinglass on the charcoal and place the ar¬ ticle on it. Thus, when the enamel becomes soft it will adhere to the isinglass and not become cov¬ ered with charcoal spots, etc.
Inkstand Tops to Remove. — Inkstand and viniagrette tops are removed by soaking the articles in warm water for an hour or so to soften the calcium plaster. Then with a screwdriver, knife, etc., gently force the top upward. This method very seldom fails to remove any top, no matter how se¬ curely it is fastened.
Tooth Brushes to Fit. — Jewelers will find a cir¬ cular disc of wood covered with coarse emery cloth and nailed onto an old bristle brush very useful in cutting down tooth brushes to fit into silver handles.
Polishing. — The finishing of work after being re¬ paired is as important as the repairing itself. As polishing is nothing more than removing all scratches and marks from the surfaces, we will consider the abrasives used for this purpose. Gen¬ erally speaking, tripoli and rouge are all that most repairers use, and in many cases are all that are necessary. Before going further it may be well to mention that the very coarse file marks and scratches are removed with an emery stick or by using a piece of moistened Scotch-hone. The latter is obtained in square sticks about four inches long and about j^-inch square. When in it shotdd be kept wet, and as it is softer than V vnotal op¬ erated upon a mudlike mixture will form on the Sur-
POLISHING.
face, which must be washed off frequently to as¬ certain the progress made. When all marks are re¬ moved the articles are ready to be polished on the lathe.
Tripoli is the first abrasive used in connection with an inside felt ring buff or on a bristle brush. This substance can be obtained in the form of lumps, which are covered with oil before using. A more desirable tripoli mixture is to be obtained from all material dealers and is known as tripoli composition. If the repairer desires to make it himself, he can do so by melting nine parts of sperm candle and into this stir 12 parts of powdered tri¬ poli. When thoroughly mixed it can be poured into boxes or moulds and kept for use. Rouge, which is oxide of iron, would be too troublesome for the repairer to make himself, and, besides, it can be bought cheaper than he could make it him¬ self. The kind preferred is hard rouge, known as XXG. Soft rouge mixed with alcohol is used for finishing fine silver pieces before dry-buffing them.
As a rule, most jewelers use a foot-lathe for their polishing, which answers very well, but many others are now running their lathes with electric motors, which, without a doubt, is a great ad¬ vantage to the polisher, especially if he is called upon to repolish the gold and silver stock of the store. In connection with the lathe very few buffs, brushes, etc., are needed by the average repairer, and generally these are :
can be polished, but for some jobs special buffs, brushes, etc., can be obtained and in many cases the repairer can make them himself.
A metallic lap, composed of a mixture of two parts of pure grain tin and one part of pure lead — will be found very useful for giving band rings or new ring shanks the appearance and polish they had when new. Lapping is rather difficult for any¬ one who does not have much of this work to do, but when one has mastered the art very satisfac¬ tory work will be the result. When lapping a band ring it is held between the thumb and fore¬ finger of the right hand and applied to the surface of the lap so that all parts of the ring surface will touch evenly. Then when on the lap give the ring a circular, up and down motion so as to smooth or lap as much of the surface as possible. When one part is done satisfactorily take the ring from the lap with a quick motion and apply another part of the surface to be polished. A wooden lap, which would answer the repairer’s needs, can be made by taking a disc of wood six or eight inches in diam¬ eter and cutting a hole in the center of it to fit the spindle of the lathe head. Polishing lathe spindles usually have a thread cut on them to receive a nut with which the lap is held in position against the shoulder cut into the spindle. When cut and shaped as desired the disc of wood is placed on the lathe and smoothed with fine sandpaper. This lap, with the use of the tripoli composition, will assist the polisher considerably in producing nice, sharp work. Another small wooden lap having its in¬ ner side cut down so as to form a knife edge on the lap, will, with the use of the tripoli composi¬ tion, be found very useful for lapping the sides of prongs in new settings, etc. This lap should be considerably smaller than the first one and can be nailed on to the side of a worn-out four row brush.
The polishing outht would not be complete with¬ out brass and steel wire brushes. The former is used to clean work before gilding and to finish it after being colored. The steel wire brush is used for satin finishing or “frosting” silver work. All that need be explained about satin finishing is that the surfaces should be free from all scratches and of a dead white color. This is obtained by heating the article to redness and, after cooling, it is placed in the sulphuric acid pickle until it is perfectly white. Then hold the article between the index fingers and thumbs of both hands and present its surfaces to the brush in such a manner that the ends of the wires will strike equally and evenly. It is advisable to keep the brush and articles moistened with water or stale beer to produce a nice finish. With these preliminary explanations we are ready to proceed with the subject of polishing — for in¬ stance, of one day’s repair work, which usually con¬ sists of rings, brooches, etc. This method of des¬ cribing the polishing process is taken in order to avoid a separate description of the buffs, brushes, etc., that are used and which can be obtained by carefully following the method described below. The repair jobs, as a rule, are kept in envelopes, and, to prevent mistakes, each article is taken from its envelope and a brief description made of it on the inside of the envelope flap, which will assist the re¬ pairer to quickly replace the job when polished. When sealed the brief description will be covered and a nice, clean envelope can be presented to the customer. Then cover the lathe bed with a newsDaper to catch all polishing dirt, tripoli, rouge, etc., and to one side the jobs can be sorted into several piles in the order of their needs. For instance, rings which have been stretched, pieced or soldered arc placed in the first pile. Brooches, spectacles, etc., that have been soldered or had new pintongues at'
are placed on the third pile.
Before doing any polishing on the lathe Tiffany ring mountings should be polished between the prongs and through the hole at the base of the stone by drawing the setting back and forth on a rouged chamois strip. Likewise it is advisable co recolor the insides or backs of cluster rings, etc., which had the original color ruined in the soldering. This done, the polisher is ready to proceed. Place the tapering felt buff on the lathe and give it a light coating of the tripoli composition, and take the rings of the first pile and, holding each between the forefinger and thumb of the right hand, rub back and forth on the buff until all file marks and scratches are removed. Then join the first and second piles and proceed to tripoli brush the pickle coated or filed surfaces until smooth. Avoid round¬ ing edges of the work. In this connection it is ad¬ visable to use black bristle brushes, as, from our ex¬ perience, it is found that they are tougher and last considerably longer than those made from white bristles. When the surfaces have been thoroughly brushed in two or more directions and are smooth proceed to wash off all tripoli and dirt, as otherwise this would prevent the articles taking a high polish. Benzine is the best preparation for removing tripoli that has yet come to our notice. When all the ar¬ ticles that were tripolied are dried in the sawdust or by means of tissue paper or a towel, separate the rings to make one pile and all of the other articles will constitute the second pile.
The rings of the first pile are rouged on the inside rouge buff in the same manner in which they were tripolied. Be very careful not to allow the rouge and tripoli brushes, buffs, etc., to become mixed : otherwise there would be trouble. Then brush all
REPAIRING STUD SPIRALS.
the articles with the bristle brushes to which the cake of rouge has been applied and finally finish them on the canton flannel or cotton wheel buffs. After washing the articles with soap, ammonia and warm water, dry them in warm boxwood sawdust. Diamonds should be dipped into alcohol to remove all grease before they are dried in the sawdust. The dry buff — usually canton flannel — is used for dry buffing, without the use of rouge, all silver pieces, as bonbon dishes, etc. The articles that were brushed or cleaned with the brass or steel wire brushes should be brushed briskly with baking soda to impart a nice luster to the work.
Stud Spirals to Repair. — When stud spirals are broken off at the setting it is advisable to anti-oxidize both parts. Then clean the surfaces to be united ; borax and lay on the solder. Place the set¬ ting on a piece of charcoal and hold the spiral with a pair of tweezers in the left hand. Great care must be taken in soldering so that the setting or spiral is not melted or burned. When the stud is broken in the curve of the spiral anneal and straighten it. When soldered, smooth it nicely with a fine file and polish. After this it should be bent perpendicularly at a distance of 3-16 of an inch from the setting. Then the spiral wire is placed into the spiral turner groove and the fastening pin inserted. When it is seen that the setting would be in the middle of the spiral or circle, grasp the end of the wire in a pair of pliers held in the left hand and turn the spiral turner away from the body with the right hand. When spirals are “sprung” or pulled out of shape, draw the coils together and bind in three or four places with strong or doubled binding wire. When drawn into the proper shape anti-oxidize the spiral and heat to redness with the blow-pipe or over an alcohol flame. After cooling, the wire should be removed and the stud boiled in the acid pickle.
Stone Setting. — In connection with this brief des¬ cription of stone setting it is desirable that the re¬ pairer examine every piece of nice work of this kind that comes his way. Very few tools are needed for setting and resetting stones, and these are: A ring clamp, for holding rings ; a cement stick for holding earring and stud settings; a fine barrette needle file; a fine barrette file (larger size) ; a shad belly graver, No. 4; a flat graver, No. 41; one-half dozen pearl drills, assorted sizes, which can be obtained from any material dealer and are used in the drill pump ; two or three beading tools of small size. The shad belly graver is ground back on the left side so as to form an angle of about 45 degrees. This tool is used for cutting the bearing in the settings. With these tools the repairer is able to set or reset almost any stone which may be brought to him.
As very many stores carry an assortment of Tif¬ fany and belcher diamond mountings for mounting loose stones, we will briefly describe how stones are set in rings of this kind. The first thing necessary is to see that the mounting is the right size for the stone ; that is, the outer edge or girdle of the stone should cover about one-half of the tops of the prongs when placed on the setting. This is a pretty good rule to follow with Tiffany and belcher mount¬ ings, because if the prongs were bent inward the gold or base of the setting would show considerably all about the stone, and if the prongs were bent out¬ ward the effect would be equally as bad, if not worse. Care, also, should be taken that the top of the set¬ ting is perfectly straight, for if this defect is not remedied the stone, when set, would be found to be crooked. This will be understood if one will hold a mounted stone up before him and see whether or not the table of the stone is or is not at right angles with imaginary lines drawn from the bottom of the ring. If the surface of the table, on all sides, does
not form a right angle with the lines the stone is set crooked and the job is not creditable to the workman. Thus it can be readily seen that the set¬ ting should be perfectly straight before attempting to set any stone. If stones are uneven or are cut crooked, allowance is made when cutting the bear¬ ing in the setting so that one side would be cut deeper than the other. A great deal depends upon the skill and judgment of the setter.
After the setting has been straightened the setter opens or closes the setting, if necessary, to suit the stone. This can easily be done with the pointed flat pliers in the Tiffany mountings, but very little, if any, bending can be done on belcher mountings. Hence the importance of seeing that the stone and the mounting are of a corre¬ sponding size. When the setting is the right
the thickness of the prongs to the depth of one millimeter. This is done either with the shad belly graver described above or with the needle barrette file. Many workmen use the graver exclusively, but, wherever the file can be used, it is advisable to do so, as the work can be done much more rapid¬ ly and easily. When all the prongs have been cut in this manner, see that the stone fits into the berth thus prepared,. If it does not, remove it and cut away the gold that prevents it from fitting into the setting. Care, however, should be taken that too much of the prongs is not cut away, as this would weaken them. Very often this impediment can be removed by slightly bending one or more prongs with the pointed flat pliers.
When the setting is cut so that the stone fits in between the prongs, proceed to cut away the sharp angle underneath the stone to correspond to the un¬ der slope of the stone. The fiat graver is used for
this work. When this is done, fit the stone into the setting and if it is straight and rests securely and evenly without unduly pressing against one or more of the prongs — which would cause the stone to “rock” when touched on the table with a pair of tweezers — the prongs are ready to be bent over the stone. If, however, the stone should “rock,” cut away the slope where the stone presses the most and refit. If this were not done there would be danger of chipping the stone when the prong was bent over it. Before bending the gold over the stone remove the latter and file the sides of the prongs, at the tops, to a point so as to form a tri¬ angle whose base would be about one millimeter from the top. Then file the outside face of the tri¬ angle so that the top would be thin while the base would retain its original thickness. The top of the prong, when filed in this manner, will look like a right angled triangle when viewed from the side. Many setters do not prepare the setting in this man¬ ner when setting stones, but for the repairer who must do repairing, stone setting, etc., it is advisable to follow this method, as very little filing need be done after the prong is bent over and the bright cut¬ ting will be easier to cut even and straight.
The stone is now placed into the setting and, by holding it in position with the forefinger of the left hand, proceed to push over the prong opposite to the finger. The greatest pressure is applied to the low¬ er portion of the slope or bent part so that the prong will rest snugly upon the stone. Be particu¬ lar that the part that is bent over the stone is not curved in the middle, in which case the gold at the girdle of the stone and at the point of the prong only would touch the stone. This should not be, as all the gold above the girdle should rest upon the stone. When the first prong has been bent over the stone, remove the finger and bend over the prong
opposite to the first one that was pressed over. Now if the table is perfectly level and the stone does not “rock,” bend over all the prongs. If all is not right, remedy the trouble before going any farther. After all the prongs are bent over, the “bent over” parts are finished by bright cutting. With a polished flat graver which has been rubbed dead flat on the under size and then polished on a boxwood diamantine or crocus paper block, start at the top or point of the prong and cut a beveled edge in one continuous cut. Then cut the other size in the same manner and finally with one cut brighten the face of the clamp. This done on all prongs, see that all the points are pressed down tightly upon the stone.
The above description will apply to all prong set¬ tings. The ring clamp is used for holding all rings in which stones are to be set, but earring and stud settings are held by cementing them onto a cement stick. Before doing this, dip a small camel’s hair brush into oil and brush the parts which the cement will cover. By so doing the cement can be very easily removed after the stones are set.
Turquoise, half pearls and opals should have the settings prepared as described above, with the excep¬ tion that the under slope should be cut away very little. Whole pearls and moonstone ball settings are prepared by gouging out the gold from the inner surface of the prong to correspond to the curvature of the gem. Great care must be exercised while bright cutting the prongs on pearl mountings so that the pearl is not scratched or injured in any way. Stones set in Gypsy and other mountings have the gold hammered over them or they are held in position by little beads which are forced up over them. Care must be taken with both methods so that the stone is not chipped or broken.
a hollow the size required, by means of a pearl drill. Then the number of beads, usually five, are marked off and the star or other ornament cut almost to the edge of the hollow. As the cutting proceeds the graver is allowed to pass to the side of the bead so as to make a continuous bright cut from the point to the stone. After this is done, the stone is placed into the hollow and the beads worked over it with the beading tools. This is done by fastening the tool in a graver handle, so that it may be placed on to the bead so as to slope away from the stone, after which, by giving it a rolling, rocking motion, the head is worked upward and over the stone. Genu¬ ine whole pearls are fastened on pegs with gum mastic. Carbuncles and stones cut cn cabochon are burnished into the settings with a burnisher or with the Hat graver.
In connection with this description of stone set¬ ting the following diamond table will be found use¬ ful when ordering mountings for stones and also to find the approximate weight of mounted stones :
ROMAN COLORING.
cut stone this “table” should measure 2-5 of the diameter of the stone. The “girdle” is the edge which fits into the setting and should, in a perfectly cut stone, be one-third of the distance from the table to the lower flat surface of the stone. The part between the table and girdle is the crown. Below the “girdle” is the "collet,” which extends down to the “culet,” or lower table of the stone. The latter is equal to one-sixth the diameter of the “table.” The number of facets on a perfectly cut diamond is 56, but sometimes the number is 64.
Roman Coloring. — The beautiful finish known as Roman gold is obtained in various ways. The old¬ er methods known as the dry and wet coloring pro¬ cesses were much employed for coloring new work, and, as the articles were immersed in the solutions, the acids, etc., dissolved the baser metals on the surface and left the gold in a pure state. These methods cannot be employed in the repair shop be¬ cause most articles. are not able to undergo the dis¬ solving process more than once or so. If this should be done, the articles would become honey-combed and liable to break with the least pressure.
For repairing purposes, Roman coloring is done by the electrical process — just the reverse of the former, for in that case the alloy was dissolved from the article to be colored, while by this method the gold is dissolved from the anode and deposited in a uniform coating upon the article. The solutions for this purpose are made in several ways. The easiest method is to dissolve three 15-grain bottles of chloride of gold and one-half ounce of cyanide of potassium in a pint of distilled water. Another method is to dissolve the gold from the anode di¬ rectly into the cyanide solution. To do this, dis¬ solve an ounce of cyanide of potassium in a quart of distilled water. Then procure a porous cup — a
crucible will answer — and nearly fill it with some of the cyanide solution. The porous cup is then placed in the liquid in the larger vessel so that the two solutions are on the same level, but do not come in contact. This done, weigh the gold anode (a flattened gold coin is used by many for repair work) and, after attaching it to the positive wire, suspend it into the solution contained in the larger vessel. Then attach a piece of sheet copper to the negative wire and suspend it into the solution in the porous cup. Heat the solution and allow the current to pass through it until one and a half or two pennyweights of gold are dissolved from it. This is determined by weighing the anode after it has been in the solution for some time. Very little trouble will be experienced in making the solution, but in keeping it constant, so as to procure a nice color from day to day, requires the watchful care of the workman. As cyanide of potassium plays an important part in the solution, care must be taken that not too much is added nor too little allowed to be in the solution. If there is not sufficient held in the solution, the anode will become grayish and dirty, but if there is au excess of cyanide the anode will become very clear and bright. So, to keep the solution in good working order, it should be kept clean and the anode should have the natural color of a piece of pure gold.
Work that is to be Roman-colored or gilded must be absolutely clean. Don’t attempt to color dirty or greasy articles. To clean work, brush it with the steel or brass wire, with a brush upon which water is allowed to drop. Before dipping it into the solu' tion wash it with baking soda and ammonia. Then attach the article to the negative wire of the bat¬ tery and immerse it into the solution. A short time only is required to give the article a dull yellow color, which, when brushed with the moistened
brass brush becomes the Roman color. But this is easier said than done, for the workman often must manipulate the solution, etc., to obtain good results. The articles will receive a nicer coating if they are kept in motion in the solution, which should be heated until the water in the surrounding vessel reaches the boiling point. Better results are ob¬ tained by keeping the anode and cathode separated as much as possible. In the case of large articles, the anode should be held deep in the solution, but for small objects it is advisable to immerse only onequarter to one-half of it to obtain a nice color. In finishing, the brushing should be done as lightly as possible, to avoid giving the work a brassy appear¬ ance. Then wash the articles with ammonia and baking soda, and dry them in Avarmed boxwood saw¬ dust. A green gilding can be obtained by taking some of the Roman coloring solution and substi¬ tuting a silver anode for the gold one.
To start with, you must be sure to follow instruc¬ tions implicitly. First, you must have pure gold. Any old piece of gold that you have around the shop will not do, as, if there is any silver in the alloy, the silver will take on so much faster than the gold that you will get a greenish color instead of the clean yellow that is so desirable.
Then, you must have clean receptacles, and if you should use granite ware or enameled ware of any kind, be sure that there are no checks or cracks in the enamel where the solutions could come in contact with the metal, generally iron, base, as this would ruin your solution at once. Clean water, that has no mineral content, distilled, is the best.
Do not let it boil.
Hard solder the piece of pure gold that you are going to use as an anode to a piece of copper wire, one or two feet long and about one millimeter in diam¬ eter, and attach to the side of your battery or dynamo, from which the least bubbles are freed.
Take another piece of wire the same size and length, and attach to the other pole of the battery or dynamo, and run for ten or fifteen minutes, and you will have built up a good solution and are all ready to put in articles to be colored.
GREEN GOLD PLATING SOLUTION.
To three parts of gold solution in good working order, add one part silver solution. Use 17 K. Anode of fine gold, alloyed only with silver. This plates light green. To obtain dark green, add few grains of powdered white arsenic until desired shade is obtained.
lution for a few seconds.
It is sometimes necessary to refinish old gold filled jewelry such as chains, brooches and watch cases, which have no intrinsic value, but because of some sentiment attached to it, the customer desires the piece put in first class condition.
This can be done by first polishing carefully and boiling in a solution of water with a few drops of ammonia and a pinch of soap added. Brush off any dirt that remains, and rinse before placing in the solu¬ tion. Do not handle any more than necessary after
ENGLISH OR GUINEA FINISH.
rinsing. Give article to be plated two or three dips of about five minutes each, brushing with soft brush and soda between dips. Polish with a soft wool buff, and fine rouge. Wash the article and dry in sawdust.
BEADED OR MILGRAIN SETTING.
Lay out the work so the seat for the stone is ex¬ actly in the center of the plate in which the stone is to be set. This is very important as a small difference one way or the other makes the whole piece look out of true.
Next, drill the hole for the stone 3/10 to 5/10 of a millimeter smaller than the stone. The amount of surplus left for the seat depends on the size of the stone, about 3/10 millimeter for small stones, 4/10 mil¬ limeter for medium stones, and 5/10 millimeter for large stones of a carat or over.
Then ream the hole large enough so that the girdle of the stone sets slightly below the surface of the metal. Raise a bead in each corner with a square graver. Start this bead about one millimeter back from the hole. Then cut a groove with a knife edge graver on each side of the bead, starting in the same cut made by the square graver and cutting off to an angle and depth of 450. After this is done, bright cut the bevel between the beads with a flat graver.
The way to determine the number of rows of bevels to milgrain is to measure the space left after the hole for the seat is cut, and allow about one millimeter space for each row of milgraining. Do not leave too
will make the job look crude and rough.
Now, with a round bottom graver or a scraper, un¬ dercut each bead slightly so that the stone fits snugly, not too loose or too tight. Inspect it carefully to see that the stone sets level all the way round. If it does not, remove the stone and cut the seat lower at the point where it was high.
After the stone sets level press the beads over the stone with a beading tool or purler. This is done by placing the beading tool on the bead, leaning the tool away from the stone at 45 degrees angle, and then pressing firmly on the handle of the tool and with a rotary motion gradually bring the tool to an upright position. Do not force the beads down too tightly at first, as you may have to straighten the stone on one side or the other. Press one bead down on one side, then directly opposite tighten another and so on until all the beads are over the stone loosely.
Now, examine the stone again to see if it still sets level. If it does, go over all the beads again and tighten them securely, taking care that your header does not slip, as this may chip the stone. This done, go over all the bright cut bevels with a highly polished flat graver and trim ofif any surplus metal that may still be left around the bead. Good results are obtained on this last bright cutting by using a little oil on the point of the graver when cutting gold, a little turpentine for white gold, and a little oil of wintergreen for platinum.
Next, take the job to the polishing lathe, and with a very short single or two row bristle brush, polish the bright cuts around the stone very lightly with tripoli, and then with rouge. The bristles on these brushes should not be over one-fourth inch long.
take a soft pointed stick, such as a match or piece of pegwood, and try to push the stone out from the under side. Do not use a piece of metal for this as it is apt to chip the stone. If this does not loosen the stone, try pushing on the table and crown of the stone. If this does not loosen it, you may rest assured that it is set securely.
COLOR SCHEMES.
In painting colored letters or monograms, the color scheme is of great importance, for no matter how neatly you may have the letter designed, if the color scheme is not right your work will be in vain. A good rule to follow is that two shades of the same color are always good taste : then again, such combinations as black and gold, purple and gold or silver are always in harmony. If two colors are desired, choose a bright and a somber color, such as blue and brown, green and gray, crimson and black. These will be found to give pleasing contrasts and will not jar like mixtures of purple and orange or blue and yellow. When using two colors always see that they are in harmony and do not clash. If in doubt as to a combination try it out on the piece of waste ivory. An effective letter may be made by painting a circle of solid color on a piece of ivory and then engraving the letter through the color, when you will have a white letter on a dark background. This method can also be used for border and panel designs with great effect and will be of great use when ornamenting ivory clock cases and photo frames.
COLORS THAT HARMONIZE.
Scarlet, with blue and green ; Gold or yellow, with blue or green ; Violet with green or yellow — bright green ; Blue with yellow or red ; Carmine with green or orange ; Brown with blue or red ; Wine with yellow or green; Rose with light blue or yellow; Neutral tint with red or yellow ; Orange with violet or blue ; Blue gray with buff or pink ; Olive green with red or orange ; Flesh with blue or dark green ; Dark green with
RULES FOR MIXING AND BLENDING COLORS.
Rose — diluted magenta ; Brick red — brown and magenta ; Golden brown — yellow and violet ; Seal brown — yellow and violet ; Reddish brown — brown and pink ; Dark reddish brown — brown and red ; Wine — purple and magenta ; Royal purple — magenta and light blue; French red — magenta and flesh; Navy blue — purple and blue ; Indigo blue — violet and blue ; Plum — magenta and blue ; Drab — yellow and purple ; Myrtle green — blue and green ; Landscape green — blue and yellow ; Olive green — blue and yellow ; Bottle green ; — green and blue ; Light green — yellow and green ; Dark green — blue and green ; Foliage green — green and violet ; Mauve — blue and pink ; Crimson — black and red ; Crimson — red and blue ; Bronze — brown and blue ; Lavender — pink and blue ; Garnet — red and green ; Old gold — brown and yellow ; Terra Cotta — pink and brown ; Maroon — red and brown ; Salmon — orange and red ; Orange — red and yellow ; Gray — black and white.
Ornamenting with jewels and pearls is another way of decorating ivory which is becoming very popular. These stones may be obtained from any dealer in jewel¬ ers’ material.
scribed and outline it with the graver. Then paint the colors in good solid coats and make the outlines, either gold or silver, sufficiently bold to stand up. When this is all dry and hard, and not before , the holes may be drilled for the stones. For this purpose, you will re¬ quire a pearl drill for flat bottom stones, and an ordi¬ nary drill for gem cut stones, of the size of the hole required to hold the stone. This is important, as the stones must fit snug or else they will not stay in. To fasten the stones, use celluloid cement, dropping it in the hole by means of a pointed stick, press the stone down good, and allow two hours or more to dry.
Abalone pearl is also used and if the thin cut is used, it may be cemented on the surface without cutting the ivory, while for jet and coral the ivory is required to be cut out to hold it. Artistic effects may be had with small shell cameos, also coral cameos. These are very effective if inlaid on hair ornaments such as combs and barrettes, also frames for hand bags and umbrella handles. Beautiful raised effects may be had by pierc¬ ing out a design and then cementing it on to the article to be decorated. This method can be used on toilet sets, jewel boxes, etc., with admirable results. Photo frames and clock cases may be made very pretty by simply washing over with large brushfuls of color blended into each other. In doing this, you may use all the colors in the box.
or c. p. acetone.
Another, and in many cases, the best formula : — Glacial Acetic Acid — one part, Acetone — three parts, Alcohol — three parts. Moisten the surfaces to be united with above solution and when the surfaces be¬ come slightly soft, place in contact with each other and
For the colors used in ivory or celluloid paints, use the regular aniline dyes that are soluble in alcohol, dis¬ solved in pure acetone. Do not get your colors too strong. If the color is not deep enough with the first coating, you can put on a second or third coating, and in this way get the desired shade. Whereas, if you get it too dark, it cannot be remedied only by scraping out, and the scraping out process ruins the surface.
Many jewelers have a large amount of repair work on hand that has been brought in and, al¬ though wanted within a few days, has never been called for. This causes the jeweler considerable an¬ noyance, for aside from the space occupied by the jobs and the trouble of examining them every time another job is called for, he has a considerable amount invested in their repairing on which he can¬ not realize.
The question has often been asked : How one is to place these articles into the possession of the own¬ ers and secure the cost of repairs? This is easily done if the jeweler will adopt and maintain a system by which each envelope containing a job will be marked with the instructions for the repairer : the owner’s name and address and the date when re¬ ceived and when promised.
Most jewelers use repair envelopes that have marked spaces for these items, but for some reasons, such as haste, hesitancy in asking names, etc., the filling out is not done, and, as a result, if the articles are not called for, they can hardly be sent to the owners or the owners reminded of them.
After the repairer has finished the repairs the ar¬ ticle should be replaced in the envelope, which should be carefully sealed and the cost of repairs marked on the outside.
A drawer containing a compartment for each let¬ ter of the alphabet can be used for storing all jobs until called for. At the end of each month the jew¬ eler should send a postal card, of which the accom¬ panying is a specimen, to each person whose job has been in the store a month or more. If at the end of another month the owner does not call, another pos-
As we desire to make room
for new goods, and thinking that many of these articles have been forgotten, we take this means of recalling them to memory.
FORM FOR NEWSPAPER ADVERTISEMENT.
sent to those persons whose jobs have remained in the store for a year or more, reminding them of the articles and stating that the repairer cannot be held
UNCALLED FOR REPAIR WORK.
responsible for articles remaining for more than one year. But this will hardly be necessary, as the other postal cards will usually accomplish the de¬ sired result.
If a newspaper announcement is desired, which we would advise immediately after taking an inven¬ tory of the stock, the accompanying can be used.
From Circular issued by Bureau of Standards.
Beginning July 1, 1913, the Bureau of Standards put into force the international metric carat of 200 milligrams as the unit of weight for diamonds and other precious stones, and will use this unit for purposes of certification of all carat weights submitted to the Bureau for test. On the same date the Treasury Depart¬ ment of the United States Government also began the use of this unit in the customs service for the levying of import duties on precious stones. This unit was also put into commercial use in the United States on this date by practically all the dealers in gems and precious stones through the efforts of a committee representing all the principal firms handling gems.
Recently the movement for the adoption of a uniform stand¬ ard has met with increasing success, and the new carat of 200 milligrams has been adopted by Spain, Italy, Bulgaria, Denmark, Norway, Japan, Portugal, Roumania, Switzerland, Sweden, France, Germany, Holland, and Belgium, while considerable progress has been made toward its adoption in England.
The carat which has been in use heretofore in the United States, while varying, has been nearer the value 205.3 milligrams than any other. This value has therefore been taken in making up the tables of equivalents given in this circular. The old carat has usually been subdivided on the binary system, the smallest subdivision used being usually one sixty-fourth of the carat. The equivalents in fractions of a carat in these tables are, there¬ fore, given in sixty-fourths. One of the improvements intro¬ duced with the new carat is the subdivision of it on the decimal system. The fractions of the new carat in these tables are accordingly given to hundredths of a carat.
Tables 1 and 2 are for the conversion of quantities in the old unit to the equivalent weight in terms of the new metric carat, while Tables 3 and 4 are for the reverse process of converting quantities stated in the new system to old carats of 205.3 milli¬ grams. Table 1 is used for the conversion of fractions of a carat, while Table 2 gives the equivalent of each unit or whole carat from 1 to 100 of the old system in metric carats and hundredths of a carat. If it is desired to convert whole carats and fractions of a carat of the old unit to the new, the two tables can be used in combination; that is, by adding the quantities obtained from each,
Or, if it is desired to convert a larger quantity involving several hundred or thousand carats, one uses the equivalents in the last column of Table 2 for each hundred and thousand of the old carats up to ten hundred and ten thousand — thus, to convert 3225f old carats to metric carats.
Table 3, instead of giving the equivalent of each 0.01 metric carat in sixty-fourths of an old carat, gives the limits, shown by a brace, of the successive sixty-fourths of the old carat, so that any decimal fraction of a metric carat is equivalent to the sixtyfourth of the old carat shown opposite the limits between which it lies, the limits being given to thousandths of a metric carat. Thus, any fraction of a metric carat between 0.698 and 0.714 is equivalent to 44/64 old carats, according to Table 3. In Table 4 the equivalent of each whole metric carat from 1 to 100 is given in whole carats and sixty fourths of the old unit. For example, to obtain the equivalent of 58.71 metric carats in old carats —
| 36,293 | common-pile/pre_1929_books_filtered | jewelryrepairers00repl | public_library | public_library_1929_dolma-0020.json.gz:1335 | https://archive.org/download/jewelryrepairers00repl/jewelryrepairers00repl_djvu.txt |
pV4ZxUS7Q5drt4JM | 8.4.5: Special Culture Techniques | 8.4.5: Special Culture Techniques
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Learning Objectives
- Evaluate special culture techniques
Microbiologists would prefer to use well-defined media to grow a microbe, making the microbe easier to control. However, microbes are incredibly varied in what they use as a food source, the environments they live in, and the danger levels they may have for humans and other organisms they may compete with. Therefore they need special nutrient and growth environments. To grow these difficult microbes, microbiologists often turn to undefined media which is chosen based on price and more-so in this case by necessity as some microorganisms have never been cultured on defined media. Some special culture conditions are relatively simple as demonstrated by microaerophile.
A microaerophile is a microorganism that requires oxygen to survive, but requires environments containing lower levels of oxygen than are present in the atmosphere (~20% concentration). Many microphiles are also capnophiles, as they require an elevated concentration of carbon dioxide. In the laboratory they can be easily cultivated in a candle jar. A candle jar is a container into which a lit candle is introduced before sealing the container’s airtight lid. The candle’s flame burns until extinguished by oxygen deprivation, which creates a carbon dioxide-rich, oxygen-poor atmosphere in the jar. Many labs also have access directly to carbon dioxide and can add the desired carbon dioxide levels directly to incubators where they want to grow microaerophiles.
Animals can often be used to culture microbes. For example, armadillos are often used in the study of leprosy. They are particularly susceptible due to their unusually low body temperature, which is hospitable to the leprosy bacterium, Mycobacterium leprae. The leprosy bacterium is difficult to culture and armadillos have a body temperature of 34°C, similar to human skin. Likewise, humans can acquire a leprosy infection from armadillos by handling them or consuming armadillo meat. Additionally, Syphillis which is caused by the bacteria Treponema pallidum is difficult to grow with defined media, so rabbits are used to culture Treponema pallidum . Treponema pallidum belongs to the Spirochaetesphylum of bacteria.
To date Spirochaetes are very difficult if not impossible to rear in a controlled laboratory environment. This also includes other human pathogens like the bacterium that causes Lyme disease. Using animals to culture human-pathogens has problems. First, the use of animals is always difficult for technical and ethical reasons. Also, a microbe growing on animal other than a human may behave very differently from how that same microbe will behave on a human. Some human pathogens are grown directly on cells cultured from humans. Exemplified by the bacteria Chlamydia trachomatis , the bacteria responsible for the sexually transmitted infection (STI) in humans known as Chlamydia. As Chlamydia trachomatis only grows in humans. The human cell culture known as McCoy cell culture is used to culture this bacteria.
A large concern of microbiology is trying to find ways in which humans can avoid or get rid of microbrial infections. As typified by some of the above examples, some microbes have to be grown in the lab, and some of them can infect humans. To deal with this, microbiologists use a classification of biosafety levels. A biosafety level is the level of the biocontainment precautions required to isolate dangerous biological agents in an enclosed facility. The levels of containment range from the lowest biosafety level 1 (BSL-1) to the highest at level 4 (BSL-4). In the United States, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) have specified these levels.
- Biosafety Level 1 : This level is suitable for work involving well-characterized agents not known to consistently cause disease in healthy adult humans, with minimal potential hazard to laboratory personnel and the environment.
- Biosafety Level 2 : This level is similar to Biosafety Level 1 and is suitable for work involving agents of moderate potential hazard to personnel and the environment. It includes various bacteria and viruses that cause only mild disease to humans or are difficult to contract via aerosol in a lab setting such as chlamydia.
- Biosafety Level 3 : This level is applicable to clinical, diagnostic, teaching, research, or production facilities in which work is done with indigenous or exotic agents that may cause serious or potentially lethal disease after inhalation. It includes various bacteria, parasites, and viruses that can cause severe to fatal disease in humans, but for which treatments exist (eg. yellow fever).
- Biosafety Level 4 : This level is reserved for work with dangerous and exotic agents that pose a high individual risk of aerosol-transmitted laboratory infections, agents that cause severe to fatal disease in humans for which vaccines or other treatments are not available, such as Bolivian and Argentine hemorrhagic fevers, Marburg virus, and the Ebola virus. Very few laboratories are biosafety level 4.
LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS
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- Culture media. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_media. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Culture media. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_media. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Culture media. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_media. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Culture media. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_media. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Culture media. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : http://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_media . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Culture media. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_media. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Culture media. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_media. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- culture. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/culture. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- lysogeny broth. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/lysogeny%20broth. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Agarplate redbloodcells edit. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fi...cells_edit.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright
- Growth medium. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Growth_medium. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Chemically defined medium. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemically_defined_medium. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Growth medium. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Growth_medium. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- serum. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/serum. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- recombinant. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/recombinant. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Agarplate redbloodcells edit. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fi...cells_edit.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright
- Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedi..._bottle-01.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Growth medium. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Growth_medium. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Growth medium. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Growth_medium. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- allele. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/allele. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- recombinant. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/recombinant. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- gene. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/gene. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Agarplate redbloodcells edit. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fi...cells_edit.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright
- Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedi..._bottle-01.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Neisseria gonorrhoeae 01. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fi...rrhoeae_01.png. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright
- Sterile Technique. Provided by : Laboratory Wiki. Located at : http://lab.wikia.com/wiki/Sterile_Technique . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Serial dilution. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Serial_dilution. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Streaking (microbiology). Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Streaking_(microbiology). License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Serial dilution. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Serial_dilution. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- colony. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/colony. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- bunsen burner. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bunsen_burner. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Agarplate redbloodcells edit. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fi...cells_edit.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright
- Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedi..._bottle-01.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Neisseria gonorrhoeae 01. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fi...rrhoeae_01.png. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright
- Sembra%20en%20estria. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fi..._en_estria.svg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Verd%C3%BCnnungsreihe%20mit%20Ausplattieren. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fi...plattieren.svg. License : CC BY: Attribution
- Biosafety level. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Biosafety_level. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Biosafety level. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Biosafety_level. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Biosafety level. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Biosafety_level. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Biosafety level. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Biosafety_level. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Growth medium. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Growth_medium. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Microaerophile. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Microaerophile. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Armadillo. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Armadillo. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Chlamydia infection. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlamydia_infection. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- ChlamydiaTrachomatisEinschlussku00f6rperchen. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fi...B6rperchen.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Biosafety level. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Biosafety_level. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Growth medium. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Growth_medium. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Armadillo. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Armadillo. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- yellow fever. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/yellow%20fever. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Lyme disease. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Lyme_disease. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Agarplate redbloodcells edit. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Agarplate_redbloodcells_edit.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright
- Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedi..._bottle-01.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Neisseria gonorrhoeae 01. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Neisseria_gonorrhoeae_01.png. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright
- Sembra%20en%20estria. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sembra_en_estria.svg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Verd%C3%BCnnungsreihe%20mit%20Ausplattieren. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Verd%C3%BCnnungsreihe_mit_Ausplattieren.svg. License : CC BY: Attribution
- ChlamydiaTrachomatisEinschlussku00f6rperchen. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ChlamydiaTrachomatisEinschlussk%C3%B6rperchen.jpg. License : CC BY: Attribution
- Positive-pressure biosafety suit. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Positive-pressure_biosafety_suit.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright
- Anaerobic chamber. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Anaerobic_chamber.JPG. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
Key Points
- Microbes, often those that we know little about, have to be cultured with undefined media or growth conditions.
- The use of animals to culture animals is sometimes necessary as no simple media can be used, this presents technical and ethical issues.
- As human pathogens are often studied by microbiologists, special safety conditions know as biosafety levels are used to keep researches free of infection from the pathogens they study.
Key Terms
- yellow fever : An acute febrile illness of tropical regions, caused by a flavivirus and spread by mosquitoes, characterized by jaundice, black vomit, and the absence of urination.
- Lyme disease : Infection by a bacterium of the genus Borrelia which is transmitted by ticks. Symptoms include a rash followed by fever, joint pain, and headaches. | 2,444 | common-pile/libretexts_filtered | https://bio.libretexts.org/Courses/Prince_Georges_Community_College/PGCC_Microbiology/08%3A_Microbial_Growth/8.04%3A_Culturing_Bacteria/8.4.05%3A_Special_Culture_Techniques | libretexts | libretexts-0000.json.gz:23525 | https://bio.libretexts.org/Courses/Prince_Georges_Community_College/PGCC_Microbiology/08%3A_Microbial_Growth/8.04%3A_Culturing_Bacteria/8.4.05%3A_Special_Culture_Techniques |
pp7zwkidx2uLMKxW | Feeding and management of hogs / by J.I. Thompson. | INTRODUCTION
The object of this circular is to outline some approved methods of feeding and management of hogs for the benefit of all who are interested, and to supply some suggestions and practical information for the beginners.
ADVANTAGES OF THE SWINE INDUSTRY
Ranchers in California are gradually changing from exclusive grain or fruit farming to a more diversified system in order to maintain the fertility of the soil. Since live stock permits crops to be marketed at a higher average price per hundred weight, reduces much of the waste, provides a more uniform distribution of labor throughout
stock breeders.
The hog can utilize a majority of the waste products of the farm more economically, reproduce more rapidly, be secured with less outlay of capital and started as a herd more easily, and can be fed and marketed more economically than any other class of meat-producing animals. For these reasons this class of live stock is attracting marked attention at the present time.
PKESENT CONDITION OF INDUSTRY
The number of hogs in California last year was approximately 877,000. Statistics show a gradual increase for the past few years; also that the number now is fully one-fourth less than it was twentyeight years ago. During this time the population has more than doubled, so that the pork produced here supplies probably not more than one-third the amount consumed. The market value of pure-bred hogs must have increased materially, for the total value of hogs now is more than double what it was twenty-eight years ago (when the number was fully one-fourth greater). Of course the price per pound is also higher, but it is not sufficiently so to account for the difference. The entrance of many new breeders into this business and the shortage of the supply has created a very great demand for breeding stock. Breeders are finding a ready sale for good quality stock for breeding purposes and for the market.
THE ENVIRONMENT
Alfalfa grows in abundance in many sections of the state, and because of its high-protein and ash content is the most valuable pasture crop that can be produced. An average acre will take care of from fifteen to twenty pigs, or from 2,000 to 2,500 pounds of pork when grain is fed in addition. In this manner rapid gains and a high quality of pork can be produced. Rape, clover, or peas can be grown in some sections not adapted to alfalfa. Wheat, barley, corn, kafir, and milo will supply much of the necessary concentrates, and a great number of pounds of pork are annually produced from the waste wheat and barley left in the grain fields.
The hog is well adapted to the uniform climate found here, which permits of regular and rapid growth throughout the year. The market price for properly finished hogs is generally as high and sometimes higher in San Francisco and Los Angeles than at other market centers in the United States, quality considered.
TYPES OF HOGS
Two radically different types of hogs are recognized among the pure-breds — the bacon and the lard types. The former is well adapted to the production of deep, long, smooth sides. In this type the shoulders and hams are comparatively light and the back not nearly so broad as in the lard type. The lard type is well adapted to the production of hams, shoulders, and broad fat backs and loins.
The market demand in California is almost entirely for a block, or butcher's animal, which is best supplied by medium-weight lard hogs, hence the bacon type does not sell so readily as the latter. The lightweight hogs of the lard type seem to supply the demand for bacon satisfactorily, but when the bacon hogs are produced in sufficient numbers to establish a constant supply of high-class bacon for a curing business, they will undoubtedly find a ready sale.
LARD HOG TYPE
The lard hog type is one that has been developed principally in the cornbelt of this country. While this type is expected to produce a considerable amount of lean meat, it is also expected to produce a large amount of lard. The market in this state prefers a handy weight hog of about 225 pounds. In general he should be fairly long, broad, deep, uniform in width and depth, thick in flesh, and smooth and symmetrical throughout. The legs should be of medium length, straight and strong, and the bone sufficiently large to carry the weight easily.
above mentioned, are found in some localities.
Each one of these breeds has its partisans and yet any of them seem to do well where given the proper care and handling. Crossing of the various breeds has been quite common, but since such a practice has not produced a better market hog — except sometimes in the first cross in herds that are badly run down — than is produced within a breed, and since such produce is not in demand for breeding stock the practice is not to be recommended and is gradually disappearing. Most of the breeds now show enough variation of type so that a breeder
BUILDINGS
Hog houses of almost every style are to be found in California, ranging from quite good to very poor. In some cases none are provided. Whether the house is a permanent, centrally located one, or one of the movable style, it should be clean, dry, free from draughts, and easily disinfected. A combination of a central house, with storage room for feed, and some farrowing pens, together with a number of movable houses seems to be the most feasible.
Lots that can be kept reasonably dry and clean should be provided around the house or houses where all hogs may secure sufficient exercise when pasture is not available.
SELECTION OF BREEDING STOCK
In selecting breeding stock for the foundation of a herd of breeding sows, the beginner will oftentimes be guided by the means at hand, and, if his experience and finances do not warrant beginning with pure-breds, he must needs be content with the best grades obtainable. These should be selected to conform as nearly as possible to one type, for unless they are of a uniform type no sire could be expected to beget an even lot of pigs from them.
He has been bred and selected to consume large amounts of feed and put on his gain in that part of his carcass most valuable to the butchers. Since he can consume more feed daily, he makes larger gains and saves to the breeder the amount of feed required for his maintenance for the number of days taken to reach a given weight in advance of the "scrub." This, then, is the greatest advantage that the pure-bred has, and is sufficient reason from a financial standpoint alone for using pure-bred or high-grade breeding stock.
AGE TO BREED AND DETAILS OF BREEDING Sows should not be bred to farrow until they are at least twelve months old. To do this they should be bred at from eight to nine months of age (the period of gestation is about 112 days), and sows of this age should produce but one litter the first year. After that they can readily produce two litters each year, provided they are properly fed and handled. In order to do this, the pigs should be weaned when about eight weeks old, and the sow rebred as soon thereafter as she
comes in heat, which will probably be in about three days. The period of heat is the time at which a sow is in season and ready to be bred. It usually occurs about every twenty-one days and, if a sow is not bred, lasts for two or three days. If bred at one period of heat and no sign of heat is evidenced when the next period is due, the sow may be considered to have conceived.
Some breeders prefer not to breed a gilt2 until she is about fourteen months old, so that her first litter is produced when she is approximately eighteen months of age, and she is then bred to farrow every six months thereafter.
It has been proved that older sows produce more and heavier pigs than young sows, and their pigs gain faster while suckling. The records of the California Agricultural Experiment Station for the past three j^ears show that the mature sows have farrowed 12 per cent, more pigs and 21 per cent, heavier pigs than the younger sows. It is a mistake to sell all of the sows after they have produced one litter, and depend on young untried gilts for the next crop of pigs.
Old sows sometimes become so heavy and fat that they lie on many of their pigs. Sometimes, too, they become deaf or blind, which contributes to the same trouble. To prevent this, a guard rail should be placed on at least two sides of the farrowing pen, six inches from the wall and about eight inches from the floor so that the little pigs will not get caught behind the sows. The bedding should be fine and not too plentiful in order that the little fellows will not get entangled in it and crushed by the mother when she lies down.
Pigs may be farrowed during any month of the year in this state, so far as weather conditions are concerned, however, it is not advisable for them to come during the hottest weather in July and August, and it is just as well to have the spring litter come near the close of the rainy season rather than earlier. The dates of reckoning the ages of pigs for the fairs and stock shows are March 1st and September 1st, so that breeders who contemplate exhibiting should have their pigs farrowed as soon after either of these two dates as possible.
The sows should be bred so as to farrow as nearly the same time as possible, for the pigs not only look better if they are about the same size, but they also do better. Where some are large and some small, the larger ones crowd the little chaps away from the trough and get more than their share of the feed.
There is a wide variance of opinion concerning the condition of sows at breeding and at farrowing time. However, it is quite generally admitted that sows which are gaining rapidly in condition at
2 A gilt is a young sow that has not farrowed.
breeding time, conceive most readily and produce the largest litters. During the past three years the California Agricultural Experiment Station has secured an average of 8.6 live pigs to the litter from sows that the average breeder would call fat at farrowing time. These results seem to indicate that high condition obtained with the proper feeds and accompanied with an abundance of exercise is beneficial rather than detrimental.
A breeding crate is desirable on farms where many sows are kept. It conserves the energy of the boar and permits the use of old boars on young sows, and vice versa. When the breeding is done in this manner, the correct breeding date is much more liable to be recorded than is the case where the boar is turned in with the herd. There are many patent breeding crates on the market but it is entirely possible to build one at home that will answer the purpose quite well. An ordinary shipping crate with adjustable two by fours along the sides to support the weight of the boar, a small adjustable approach at the rear to raise or lower the boar, and a T shaped piece to place under the sow to hold her in the crate and keep her standing, are all that is needed.
SELECTION AND HANDLING OF THE BOAR
He should always be a pure-bred and a good individual. Some breeders prefer a boar that is rather more compact than the sows. It is important that he be very masculine in appearance, else he is liable to be disappointing as a breeder. He should be in strong, healthy, vigorous condition. To insure this he should be provided with a small pasture lot well fenced and provided with good shelter and plenty of grass.
It is sometimes necessary to use a young boar, but this should be avoided as much as possible. He may be used on a limited number of sows when eight or nine months old. When mature he may be permitted to serve two sows a day for a time, but this may prove too many if long continued. He will need a carefully-planned grain ration to keep him in proper condition. This ration may be composed of much the same material as is fed to the sows, an abundance of protein being essential. Barley, two parts, and middlings one part, for a boar in thin condition, or barley and middlings in equal parts for one in sufficiently high condition, is the regular thing. A small amount of tankage may be used in place of the middlings, and when oats are reasonable in price, they may replace part of the barley for a boar in good condition. The amount fed will depend on the condition of the boar. A gradual change in the ration occasionally to afford variety will prove beneficial.
CARE, FEED AND, MANAGEMENT OF BROOD SOWS
Young sows intended for breeding purposes should be separated from the other pigs when about five or six months old, and kept in pasture. They should be fed a growing ration, not a fattening one, Barley will generally constitute the bulk of this ration in California, except in sections where corn does well. If the pasture is alfalfa or clover, only a small amount of some other feed or feeds high in protein will be necessary. If the pasture is other than alfalfa or clover, the high-protein feed should be increased in proportion to the barley or corn. Skim milk, tankage, wheat shorts or middlings, and perhaps soy bean meal and cocoanut meal will furnish the desired protein. Corn, kafir, milo and barley may be fed dry to hogs of almost any age, but the last three should be ground or rolled. Less barley will be wasted when fed in an open trough if it is soaked. Brood sows and young pigs seem to relish it more in this condition. If the grain is soaked, twelve hours is sufficient. Oats may be used as a part of the ration for brood sows, especially in conjunction with wheat, but both are usually too high in price to be used for hog feed, and oats are rather too bulky to constitute the entire ration. Dried beet pulp, soaked, may replace from one-third to one-half the barley.
The amount of skim milk to be fed will vary with the price of grain, but when barley is not higher than $1.00 per hundred pounds and skim milk or butter-milk can be secured for 25 cents per hundred pounds or less, it is most economical to feed not more than three and one-half to four pounds of milk for each pound of grain.
tion of the hogs.
Mature sows can make good use of some bulky feeds during the winter months, but they should always be fed a sufficient amount of grain to keep them in vigorous condition, and be supplied with sufficient protein and mineral matter to develop the growing foetus properly. Some alfalfa hay may be fed in racks or in the form of meal. A few cull potatoes, if cooked, may be used, also some pumpkins, sugar beets or mangels. It is poor economy, however, to attempt to use these feeds in such amounts that the sows are thin at farrowing time and the pigs weak because of improper nourishment.
FARROWING TIME
Two or three days before farrowing sows should be placed in individual pens, which should be clean, dry, well- ventilated and lighted, free from draughts, bedded lightly and provided with a guard rail.
Those that are too fat, or those too thin and weak, may experience some difficulty in farrowing and should receive attention. For twentyfour hours before farrowing the feed should be light and nothing but an occasional drink of water need be given for twenty-four hours afterward. Some breeders prefer to give the sow a large feed, made up principally of bran, soon after she farrows, believing that she will settle down much more readily if she is not hungry.
After twenty-four hours a light grain ration should be given, and this should be increased daily until the sow is on full feed in about two weeks. During this time the ration should be similar to the one fed before farrowing. From this time on the object of the ration should be to produce as large a flow of milk as the pigs can handle properly. Some breeders find that the addition of some dried beet pulp (soaked) to the grain ration aids materially in increasing the milk flow. Overfeeding, which may cause the production of more milk than the pigs can use, often produces an inflamed condition of the sow's udder, and causes scouring in the pigs.
The mouths of all new-born pigs should be examined. If some long, black tusk-like teeth are found projecting outward against the lips, they should be broken off with a pair of nippers.
If the sows have not been furnished a sufficient amount of protein in the ration previous to farrowing they may eat the young pigs. To prevent this, feed a considerable amount of tankage for two weeks after farrowing to all sows that may not have secured enough protein during the gestation period. Should two sows, farrowing on the same day, have litters very uneven in numbers, it is often advisable to transfer some of the pigs from the sow having a very great number to the one having only a few.
Each sow with pigs should be kept in a separate pen until the pigs are at least two weeks old. After that ten or more sows may be allowed to run together if the pigs are about the same size. If they are uneven in size, the growth will be very uneven, for the stronger pigs will get more than their share of the feed.
CARE OF LITTERS
The opinion is quite prevalent in California that large litters are the more economical. This is not always the case. Large litters are desirable if the sow can raise them properly. If strong litters of seven and eight are farrowed and ninety per cent, of them raised, it is much more profitable than a moderately strong to weak litter of nine or ten, of which only sixty-five per cent, are raised. The first figures are being duplicated on the better managed farms, and yet the latter ones are higher than the average.
Pigs may be so large at birth that farrowing is difficult, but the larger they are, so long as this trouble is not experienced, provided they are strong and vigorous, the more rapidly will they grow afterwards. The birth weight of pigs at the University Farm has ranged from 1.7 pounds to 4.6 pounds and averaged 2.64 pounds for the last three years.
When the pigs are from three to four weeks old they will begin to eat and should be provided with finely ground grain and skim milk in a trough separate from their mothers. A "creep" may be built by placing a panel across the corner of the lot, which is built of slats four inches wide, placed six inches apart, perpendicular to the ground.
Pigs make their cheapest gains while nursing and the cost of their gains in food nutrients increases steadily from that time until they are mature. Therefore, if proper attention is given to the make-up of the ration so that it is reasonably economical, the more rapid the gains, the cheaper they are likely to be.
FEEDS TO USE
A number of different systems of growing pigs for market have been followed in various regions of this state. The most common practice in the Sacramento and San Joaquin valleys is to allow sows and pigs to live on pasture alone until the stubble fields are available. When these are cleaned up, the orchard and vineyard wastes are next utilized ; then the pigs go back on pasture until the next year 's stubble is available. After it is gone they may be fed for two or three weeks to harden them up, and are then marketed. There are two objections to the system. The first is that the pigs do not get to market until they are from sixteen to twenty-two months old, which means that for maintenance alone they have eaten the equivalent of about six hundred pounds of barley. The amount required for their growth must be added to this to obtain the cost of production. Of course, much of the food utilized is practically waste, but if the pigs are fed a medium grain ration in connection with the pasture, they can still make use of the waste material from the fields and go to market at about ten months of age instead of from sixteen to twenty-two, weighing about two hundred pounds. The ten months ' old pigs will each have used for maintenance only about 263 pounds of barley, or barley equivalent, a saving of about 340 pounds of feed.
Alfalfa pasture alone will do little more than maintain the weight of the pigs. They will gain rapidly when furnished a heavy grain ration after having received nothing but pasture for several months,
but the product so produced is not a desirable one. Such a carcass is soft, dresses out only about 72 per cent, or 73 per cent., when it should dress from 78 per cent, to 80 per cent., and also shrinks about 3 per cent, in the cooler where it should shrink only about 1 to iy2 per cent. This class of pork has caused buyers to discriminate against Californiagrown hogs in favor of hogs grown outside the state. This discrimination can be overcome only by proper feeding.
Some growers in the Imperial Valley, hoping to overcome this objection, adopted a practice of removing the pigs from alfalfa pasture when they had reached a weight of about 100 pounds, and confined them in close quarters until ready for market. This method will overcome the objection mentioned above but has another just as serious ; it is too expensive. Such a system might be commendable for fattening a hog of from 200 to 300 pounds weight, for the gain on a hog of this weight is mostly in flesh and not in growth of frame, but to grow a pig from 100 pounds to 200 pounds requires more growth of frame than increase in flesh. The best quality of product and most economical growth up to 200 pounds can be secured by a combination of grain and pasture.
In the coast counties where alfalfa is not commonly grown, less trouble is experienced with the carcass being too soft and too oily, but in many localities where acorns grow in abundance the same trouble is encountered in a more aggravated form. The acorns, unless supplemented with a substantial grain ration, produce flesh so soft that it is almost impossible to cure it, and for this reason it is often severely discriminated against on the market. The most satisfactory system of feeding is the one that will keep the pigs growing at a reasonable rate and do this economically. The use of home-grown feeds, so far as they suit the needs of the animals, is always to be recommended.
In order to provide a liberal grain ration of corn or barley when hogs are on alfalfa and to keep the labor cost as low as possible, selffeeders will be found valuable. When barley is high in price so that a heavy ration might be too costly, alfalfa meal or some similar bulky feed may be mixed with the barley in order to prevent the pigs from eating so much of the latter. When barley is medium or low in price, the self-feeder may be filled with barley alone. Should the alfalfa pasture get dry or sparse, some high-protein feed may be furnished in a separate self-feeder. Tankage and cocoanut meal have been used in this manner at the University Farm with good results. Wheat shorts or middlings can be fed in this manner but should be mixed with the
rolled barley, using two parts of barley to one of shorts, by weight. Contrary to the general belief, the pigs will balance their own rations when all of the material necessary for proper growth is available in the feeds offered.
The system of feeding here advocated will readily produce a 200pound pig at from seven and one-half to eight months of age. The feed required will vary from three to five pounds of grain, in addition to the pasture, for each pound of gain — the amount depending upon the thrift, vigor and capacity of the pigs.
MAINTENANCE OF HEALTH
No system of feeding is likely to prove satisfactory unless the hogs are healthy. Many of the losses occurring in herds of swine can be avoided by preventive measures.
Inbreeding — that is, the mating of animals closely related, should be avoided in most cases. Probably more serious, however, is the continuous use year after year of immature sows and boars. This practice is sure in time to produce small weak pigs of low vitality which readily succumb to the attacks of the various diseases. Long continued, the herd generally deteriorates very perceptibly in rapidity and economy of gains and in general excellence. The decline may be so gradual as not to be observed by the owner, yet there is probably no other single factor so detrimental to the prosperity of the swine industry as this one.
Clean, dry sleeping quarters free from draughts are essential. When such are not provided, rheumatism, asthma, and pneumonia are prevalent, and lice and worms find excellent harboring places.
A central hog house that can be kept clean, dry, free from dust and draughts is a convenient place for farrowing and for the storage of feed. If runways of alfalfa or grass can be provided, so much the better. It is often advisable to supply individual houses for use in conjunction with the central hog house. These can be readily moved to adjacent pastures by a team of horses. During the summer months a shade of rough boards or limbs of trees covered over with straw or hay may be sufficient to protect the hogs from the sun. These places should be kept free from dust. Some breeders prefer a hog wallow to keep the hogs cool. If this is built of concrete or similar material and constructed with an outlet drain so that it can be kept clean, it may prove very useful, but a mudhole is generally worse than nothing. It soon becomes filthy and when the hogs get badly covered with mud, especially in the Imperial Valley, they are liable to develop a serious skin disease.
If clean running-water can be provided, with no chance of its having become contaminated up the stream, the hogs may make good use of it. The bed of such a stream should be composed of sand or gravel. Irrigation ditches should never be used for hog wallows.
The feed should be of sufficient variety, palatability, bulk, amount, and in proper condition to keep the hogs thrifty, for in such a condition they are best able to ward off the attacks of disease and parasites.
Dipping will help to keep the animals free from lice and similar parasites. Crude oil is the most effective for destroying lice, but the occasional use of one of the coal tar disinfectant dips is beneficial.
Intestinal Worms in Pigs* — "Intestinal worms are common in hogs and are particularly injurious to growing pigs. Insufficiently fed, neglected pigs living in dirty pens and yards, fed from filthy troughs, drinking contaminated water, bathing in old hog wallows, and rooting and sleeping in manure piles and stack bottoms, soon become infested with worms, consequently they do not thrive, but develop into potbellied, rickety, profitless runts. Pens should be kept clean and dry and the manure frequently removed.
"It has been asserted by various experienced feeders of hogs that a mixture of charcoal, ashes, lime, salt, sulphur and copperas kept where the hogs can eat it, will tend to prevent worm infestation. There is not as yet positive experimental evidence in support of the idea that such a mixture will prevent worm infestation, but the mixture does appear to satisfy the hog's desire for mineral substances and probably is of value as a tonic and appetizer. It may be made in the following proportions :
Salt, 8 pounds Pulverized copperas, 2 pounds
"Mix the lime, salt, and sulphur thoroughly and then mix with the charcoal and ashes. Dissolve the copperas in two parts of hot water and sprinkle over the whole mass, mixing it thoroughly. Keep some of this mixture in a box before the hogs at all times, or place in a self-feeder.
U. S. Dept. Agr. Weekly News Letter, Vol. Ill, No. 37.
"The following treatment has been found very effective against intestinal worms in experiments conducted by the Zoological Division of the Bureau of Animal Industry : Withhold all feed and water for twenty-four hours, then give each pig 1 to 4 ounces of castor oil to which has been added oil of American wormseed as follows : Small pigs, 2 to 3 months old, 35 drops; pigs weighing from 50 to 100 lbs., 50 to 100 drops; larger pigs, 1 teaspoonful.
obtained.
"Dangerous to drench hogs. — Drenching hogs is dangerous, as they are liable to get the remedy into the lungs. With sufficient assistance pigs may be held, the mouth kept open by means of a couple of loops of wire or rope ; and the medicine given directly in a tablespoon. By this method, though it is troublesome, one may be certain that each pig gets his proper dose. After dosing, the pigs may be fed and watered. Repeat the treatment in 10 days."
Cholera is the most serious and costly disease affecting hogs in this country. The following suggestions if consistently followed will reduce to a minimum the ever present danger from hog cholera :
Locate your hog lots and pastures away from streams and public highways, and do not allow the hogs to run free range or permit access to canals or irrigation ditches.
Do not use hog lots for yarding wagons and farm implements.
Do not place newly purchased stock, stock secured or loaned for breeding purposes, or stock exhibited at county fairs, with your herd. Keep such stock quarantined by keeping them in separate pens for at least two weeks and use care to prevent infection from these to other pens in feeding and attending stock.
Burn to ashes or cover with quicklime and bury under four feet of earth all dead animals and the viscera removed from animals at butchering time because they attract the attention of buzzards, dogs, etc., which are liable to carry hog cholera infection.
It is preferable to secure the water supply from wells.
For particulars concerning this disease and its control, write the Director of the Agricultural Experiment Station, Berkeley, California, for Circular No. 106 on " Directions • for Using Anti-Hog Cholera Serum," and Circular No. 132, "When to Vaccinate against Hog
BUTCHERING, CURING AND KEEPING OF PORKs
There are different methods of butchering and various recipes for curing pork products. The methods herein described are not new and are perhaps no better than many others, but will furnish a guide for the novice who desires to do his own slaughtering and curing.
Hogs for home use may vary in weight to suit the size of the cuts to the size of the family, but care should be taken not to use pigs that are quite immature, or some difficulty may be encountered in curing the meat. A live weight of from 200 to 250 pounds will be found most satisfactory if the animal is in good condition and not over one year old. Almost any shed, having good beams, can be converted into a slaughter house. If more than two or three head are to be killed at a time, the expenditure of about $75.00 in equipment will be found most convenient. An overhead track, one or two block and tackles, a scalding vat, tables, a few shelves and a lard cooker will be found useful.
When the water has reached a temperature of 140 degrees Fahr., the hog should be pulled up with a block attached to a chain about the hind legs and stuck. Hanging in this manner produces rapid and complete bleeding. After this the pig is ready for the scalding vat. A thermometer should be available to make sure that the temperature is correct. If one cannot be secured some fresh blood should be placed in the vat. If a "milky" appearance is thus produced, the water is too hot. Too high a temperature is liable to "set" the hair so that it cannot be scraped off. A slow scald is desirable. Some washing powder or wood ashes may be added to the water to remove dirt from the hide. Saucer-shaped scrapers, which can be secured at any hardware store, are preferable for removing the hair. Following the scraping, the hog should be thoroughly washed with luke-warm water, and is then ready to be hoisted to the track, hung on gambrel sticks and dressed. Clean, fine hardwood sticks may be used to spread the carcass open to insure rapid cooling. All of the instruments and carcasses should be kept absolutely clean.
CURING PLAIN SALT PORK
When the carcass is thoroughly cooled out it can be cut up, rubbed thoroughly with fine salt and packed closely in a barrel. After twelve hours a brine consisting of 10 pounds of salt and 2 ounces of salt-
U. S. Department of Agriculture.
peter for each 100 pounds of meat, dissolved in four gallons of boiling water and allowed to cool, should be poured over the meat and a large rock placed on top to keep the meat down. The pork can be kept in this brine until used.
DRY CURED PORK
When cool cut up the carcass, rub thoroughly with salt and pack in boxes. All spaces are filled with a good quality of fine salt. Keep it packed for from eighteen to thirty days. It is now ready for smoking. For this purpose hardwood is desirable. Good results have been reported from the use of green apple wood. Corn cobs will do. After the smoking is finished the flesh side can be painted with sorghum molasses, into which a considerable amount of black pepper and a small amount of red pepper have been stirred. After the surface is dry, a second painting is given.
The pieces can then be wrapped in good building paper, covered with cotton sacks and hung up, with the small end of the hams and shoulders down, until ready for use.
SUGAR CURED HAMS AND BACON
A standard recipe used generally for this process is as follows : The process is the same as given above for plain salt pork until the amount of the materials is reached ; then use 8 pounds of salt, 12 pounds of brown sugar and 2 ounces of saltpeter. Dissolve in hot water as before and cool thoroughly; pour over the meat and place the weights on. The thinner pieces should remain in the brine from four to six weeks; hams and shoulders six to eight weeks. Smoking can be done as previously described.
Many people prefer to keep
the leaf lard separate from the other, as it is very clear and white. The gut fat should not be mixed with any other since it often has a strong taste. All the fat should be cut into pieces not longer than one to one and one-half inches and no lean meat put in, as it will often cause trouble at time of boiling by sticking to the kettle and burning.
Put a quart of water in a clean kettle and fill about two-thirds full of cut fat. The water is to prevent the fat from burning before it begins to melt. A moderate fire should be kept until the cracklings
are brown and will float. Occasional stirring is necessary to prevent burning. The melted fat, after cooling slightly, is strained through a muslin cloth into a stone jar. An occasional stirring while cooling will help to whiten the lard. Sometimes a teaspoonful of salt is sprinkled over the bottom of each can or jar to help preserve the last of the lard. Covers should not be placed on the containers until the lard is cool.
SAUSAGE
Various proportions of fat and lean meat are used for sausage making, some preferring not more than one pound of fat for each three pounds of lean; others as much as one pound of fat for each two and one-half pounds of lean. Only the better trimmings should be used. They should be cut up and run through a grinder twice. For seasoning, one-half ounce of black pepper and one ounce of pure, fine salt for each four pounds of meat, and one tablespoonful of cayenne pepner for each sixty-five pounds of meat will suit the average taste. Sage may be added if desired. This seasoning should be spread over the meat after the first grinding so that the second grinding will mix it more thoroughly than it can be done by hand. The meat may then be stuffed into muslin bags, whose diameter should be preferably not over three inches, and the length may be eighteen to twenty inches. The bags may then be dipped in melted paraifine and, if hung in a cool place, should keep for sometime. Sausage may be kept for a time in a cool place if run into a stone jar and covered over the top with a thin layer of lard.
| 8,342 | common-pile/pre_1929_books_filtered | feedingmanagemen151thom | public_library | public_library_1929_dolma-0002.json.gz:4702 | https://archive.org/download/feedingmanagemen151thom/feedingmanagemen151thom_djvu.txt |
cge3s3ffxI87qUfz | Hymns and Spiritual Songs | G. Matheson
O LOVE, that will not let me go,
I rest my weary soul in Thee,
I give Thee back the life I owe,
That in Thine ocean depths its flow
May richer, fuller be.
2
O Light, that followest all my way,
I yield my flickering torch to Thee;
My heart restores its borrowed ray,
That in Thy sunshine’s blaze its day
May brighter, fairer be.
3
O Joy, that seekest me through pain,
I cannot close my heart to Thee;
I trace the rainbow through the rain,
And feel the promise is not vain
That morn shall tearless be.
4
O Cross, that liftest up my head,
I dare not ask to fly from Thee;
I lay in dust life’s glory dead,
And from the ground there blossoms red
Life that shall endless be. | 178 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://pressbooks.pub/hymnbook/chapter/o-love-that-will-not-let-me-go/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:96721 | https://pressbooks.pub/hymnbook/chapter/o-love-that-will-not-let-me-go/ |
QYqGalB3Vmgn48B7 | The Awakening | The Awakening
Chapter XXXIX
Victor, with hammer and nails and scraps of scantling, was patching a corner of one of the galleries. Mariequita sat near by, dangling her legs, watching him work, and handing him nails from the tool-box. The sun was beating down upon them. The girl had covered her head with her apron folded into a square pad. They had been talking for an hour or more. She was never tired of hearing Victor describe the dinner at Mrs. Pontellier’s. He exaggerated every detail, making it appear a veritable Lucullean feast. The flowers were in tubs, he said. The champagne was quaffed from huge golden goblets. Venus rising from the foam could have presented no more entrancing a spectacle than Mrs. Pontellier, blazing with beauty and diamonds at the head of the board, while the other women were all of them youthful houris, possessed of incomparable charms. She got it into her head that Victor was in love with Mrs. Pontellier, and he gave her evasive answers, framed so as to confirm her belief. She grew sullen and cried a little, threatening to go off and leave him to his fine ladies. There were a dozen men crazy about her at the Chênière; and since it was the fashion to be in love with married people, why, she could run away any time she liked to New Orleans with Célina’s husband.
Célina’s husband was a fool, a coward, and a pig, and to prove it to her, Victor intended to hammer his head into a jelly the next time he encountered him. This assurance was very consoling to Mariequita. She dried her eyes, and grew cheerful at the prospect.
They were still talking of the dinner and the allurements of city life when Mrs. Pontellier herself slipped around the corner of the house. But it was really she in flesh and blood, looking tired and a little travel-stained.
“I walked up from the wharf,” she said, “and heard the hammering. I supposed it was you, mending the porch. It’s a good thing. I was always tripping over those loose planks last summer. How dreary and deserted everything looks!”
It took Victor some little time to comprehend that she had come in Beaudelet’s lugger, that she had come alone, and for no purpose but to rest.
“There’s nothing fixed up yet, you see. I’ll give you my room; it’s the only place.”
“Any corner will do,” she assured him.
“And if you can stand Philomel’s cooking,” he went on, “though I might try to get her mother while you are here. Do you think she would come?” turning to Mariequita.
Mariequita thought that perhaps Philomel’s mother might come for a few days, and money enough.
Beholding Mrs. Pontellier make her appearance, the girl had at once suspected a lovers’ rendezvous. But Victor’s astonishment was so genuine, and Mrs. Pontellier’s indifference so apparent, that the disturbing notion did not lodge long in her brain. She contemplated with the greatest interest this woman who gave the most sumptuous dinners in America, and who had all the men in New Orleans at her feet.
“What time will you have dinner?” asked Edna. “I’m very hungry; but don’t get anything extra.”
“I’ll have it ready in little or no time,” he said, bustling and packing away his tools. “You may go to my room to brush up and rest yourself. Mariequita will show you.”
“Thank you,” said Edna. “But, do you know, I have a notion to go down to the beach and take a good wash and even a little swim, before dinner?”
“The water is too cold!” they both exclaimed. “Don’t think of it.”
“Well, I might go down and try—dip my toes in. Why, it seems to me the sun is hot enough to have warmed the very depths of the ocean. Could you get me a couple of towels? I’d better go right away, so as to be back in time. It would be a little too chilly if I waited till this afternoon.”
Mariequita ran over to Victor’s room, and returned with some towels, which she gave to Edna.
“I hope you have fish for dinner,” said Edna, as she started to walk away; “but don’t do anything extra if you haven’t.”
“Run and find Philomel’s mother,” Victor instructed the girl. “I’ll go to the kitchen and see what I can do. By Gimminy! Women have no consideration! She might have sent me word.”
Edna walked on down to the beach rather mechanically, not noticing anything special except that the sun was hot. She was not dwelling upon any particular train of thought. She had done all the thinking which was necessary after Robert went away, when she lay awake upon the sofa till morning.
She had said over and over to herself: “To-day it is Arobin; to-morrow it will be some one else. It makes no difference to me, it doesn’t matter about Léonce Pontellier—but Raoul and Etienne!” She understood now clearly what she had meant long ago when she said to Adèle Ratignolle that she would give up the unessential, but she would never sacrifice herself for her children.
Despondency had come upon her there in the wakeful night, and had never lifted. There was no one thing in the world that she desired. There was no human being whom she wanted near her except Robert; and she even realized that the day would come when he, too, and the thought of him would melt out of her existence, leaving her alone. The children appeared before her like antagonists who had overcome her; who had overpowered and sought to drag her into the soul’s slavery for the rest of her days. But she knew a way to elude them. She was not thinking of these things when she walked down to the beach.
The water of the Gulf stretched out before her, gleaming with the million lights of the sun. The voice of the sea is seductive, never ceasing, whispering, clamoring, murmuring, inviting the soul to wander in abysses of solitude. All along the white beach, up and down, there was no living thing in sight. A bird with a broken wing was beating the air above, reeling, fluttering, circling disabled down, down to the water.
Edna had found her old bathing suit still hanging, faded, upon its accustomed peg.
She put it on, leaving her clothing in the bath-house. But when she was there beside the sea, absolutely alone, she cast the unpleasant, pricking garments from her, and for the first time in her life she stood naked in the open air, at the mercy of the sun, the breeze that beat upon her, and the waves that invited her.
How strange and awful it seemed to stand naked under the sky! how delicious! She felt like some new-born creature, opening its eyes in a familiar world that it had never known.
The foamy wavelets curled up to her white feet, and coiled like serpents about her ankles. She walked out. The water was chill, but she walked on. The water was deep, but she lifted her white body and reached out with a long, sweeping stroke. The touch of the sea is sensuous, enfolding the body in its soft, close embrace.
She went on and on. She remembered the night she swam far out, and recalled the terror that seized her at the fear of being unable to regain the shore. She did not look back now, but went on and on, thinking of the blue-grass meadow that she had traversed when a little child, believing that it had no beginning and no end.
Her arms and legs were growing tired.
She thought of Léonce and the children. But they need not have thought that they could possess her, body and soul. How Mademoiselle Reisz would have laughed, perhaps sneered, if she knew! “And you call yourself an artist! What pretensions, Madame! The artist must possess the courageous soul that dares and defies.”
Exhaustion was pressing upon and overpowering her.
“Good-by—because I love you.” He did not know; he did not understand. He would never understand. Perhaps Doctor Mandelet would have understood if she had seen him—but it was too late; the shore was far behind her, and her strength was gone.
She looked into the distance, and the old terror flamed up for an instant, then sank again. Edna heard her father’s voice and her sister Margaret’s. She heard the barking of an old dog that was chained to the sycamore tree. The spurs of the cavalry officer clanged as he walked across the porch. There was the hum of bees, and the musky odor of pinks filled the air. | 1,894 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca/awakening/chapter/39/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:28905 | https://pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca/awakening/chapter/39/ |
QRO14m7fG_gXHClm | 11.18: Exercise- Scoring Amplitudes and Latencies and Performing Statistical Analyses | 11.18: Exercise- Scoring Amplitudes and Latencies and Performing Statistical Analyses
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This exercise demonstrates the final stages of processing, in which we obtain amplitude and/or latency scores from each participant and perform statistical analyses. There are many ways we could analyze the N170 data, but here we will look at three simple approaches.
In the first approach, we’ll measure the mean amplitude in the N170 latency range (110-150 ms) for the faces and cars in the left-hemisphere and right-hemisphere electrode clusters. We’ll then perform a 2 ´ 2 ANOVA with factors of stimulus type (face vs. car) and electrode hemisphere (left vs. right). The N170 is typically larger for faces than for cars, and this effect is usually larger in the right hemisphere than in the left hemisphere. As a result, we would expect a main effect of stimulus type and a stimulus type ´ electrode hemisphere interaction. You’ll need to perform this statistical analysis using your own statistics package.
Any differences between the faces and the cars in the first analysis could reflect differences in low-level features (e.g., luminance, spatial frequency) rather than differences between the face and car categories per se. To address this possibility, the experiment also presented phase-scrambled face and car images, which contain the same low-level features as the faces and cars but are unrecognizable as faces or cars. In our second analysis, we’ll make a face-minus-scrambled-face difference wave and a car-minus-scrambled-car difference wave. The ERP activity directly attributable to the low-level features should be subtracted away in these difference waves, and any differences between the two difference waves can be attributed to higher-level features.
The third analysis will be just like the second analysis, except that it will be performed on the peak latency of the N170 rather than the mean amplitude. Because peaks are easily distorted by high-frequency noise, we’ll apply a stronger low-pass filter to the data prior to measuring the peak latency.
Important : For the second and third analyses, the scripts will perform a paired t test comparing the two difference waves (only for the right-hemisphere electrode cluster). This uses a Matlab function called ttest , which is a part of the Statistics and Machine Learning Toolbox. You can see if you have that toolbox by typing ver on the Matlab command line. If you don’t have that toolbox, you can just delete (or comment out) those lines of the script.
Go ahead an open the script ( Step7_scoring.m ) and take a look at it. As usual, the script begins by defining a set of variables that will be used later in the script. It also opens a couple files that we’ll use to store the names of the ERPset files. We’ll send these files to the Measurement Tool so that it knows which ERPsets to use for scoring the ERPs (just like we did with the grand averaging routine in the previous exercise).
The main loop loads the ERPsets created by the script in the previous exercise. It then uses ERP Channel Operations (the pop_erpchanoperator routine) to create a left-hemisphere cluster channel and a right-hemisphere cluster channel. This is pretty simple, so we just send the equations directly in the script rather than saving them in a file.
The next step is to create the difference waves using ERP Bin Operations (the pop_binoperator routine). It sends a file named BinOps_Diff.txt that contains the equations for making the difference waves. The channel and bin operations create updated versions of the ERP variable, and we save this ERPset to the hard drive. We also save the name of the ERPset in a file named Measurement_files.txt .
Then we apply a low-pass filter with a half-amplitude cutoff at 15 Hz and a slope of 48 dB/octave, which help us measure the peak latency more precisely. The resulting ERPset is saved to the hard drive, and the name of the ERPset is saved in a file named Measurement_15Hz_files.txt .
After we loop through all the subjects, we close the two files that are used to store the ERPset filenames. Then we start the first analysis stage, in which we obtain the mean amplitude scores from the parent waveforms. This is achieved by calling the pop_geterpvalues routine, which is the script equivalent of the Measurement Tool. We send it the name of the file that holds the names of all the unfiltered ERPsets that we created in the loop so that it knows which ERPsets should be measured. We also send it the start and end times of the measurement window (110 and 150 ms, which are the values recommended in the ERP CORE paper). We also send two arrays, one containing a list of the bins that we want to measure (Bins 1-4, which contain the parent waveforms) and one containing a list of the channels that we want to measure (35 and 36, the left- and right-hemisphere cluster channels). There are also some parameters that you should recognize from using the GUI version of the Measurement Tool. Finally, we tell it the name of the text file that it should use for saving the amplitude scores ( MeanAmp.txt ).
Go ahead and run the script, and you’ll see that it creates the MeanAmp.txt file, with one line for each subject and one column for each of our 8 measurements (4 bins ´ 2 channels). Load these data into a statistical package. We’re going to ignore the bins for the scrambled stimuli and perform a 2 ´ 2 ANOVA with factors of stimulus type (face vs. car) and electrode hemisphere (left vs. right). If you run the analysis, you should get something like the ANOVA table shown in Table 11.3.
|
Cases |
Sum of Squares |
df |
Mean Square |
F |
p |
|
Hemisphere |
3.228 |
1 |
3.228 |
1.552 |
0.248 |
|
Residuals |
16.639 |
8 |
2.080 |
||
|
StimType |
43.727 |
1 |
43.727 |
62.393 |
< .001 |
|
Residuals |
5.607 |
8 |
0.701 |
||
|
Hemisphere ´ StimType |
2.180 |
1 |
2.180 |
3.485 |
0.099 |
|
Residuals |
5.004 |
8 |
0.625 |
As predicted, the greater N170 amplitude for the faces than for the cars led to a significant main effect of stimulus type. The effect was somewhat greater in the right-hemisphere cluster than in the left-hemisphere cluster, but the stimulus type ´ electrode hemisphere interaction did not reach significance. We have only 9 participants, so this probably just reflects low power.
The next part of the script obtains the mean amplitude scores from the difference waves. This time, however, it doesn’t save the scores in a file. Instead, we use the 'SendtoWorkspace', 'on' option to save the scores in a variable named ERP_MEASURES in the Matlab workspace. This variable is a 3-dimensional array with dimensions of bin, channel, and subject. For example, ERP_MEASURES(2, 1, 7) is the score for the second bin, the first channel, and the seventh subject. The script grabs these values and stores them in two one-dimensional arrays, one for the faces-minus-scrambled-faces bin and one for the cars-minus-scrambled-cars bin. The one dimension is subject, so each of these arrays has 9 values.
We then send these two arrays to the ttest function like this:
[h,p,ci,stats] = ttest(faces_minus_scrambled_meanamp, cars_minus_scrambled_meanamp);
The function returns four variables: h is a 1 if the effect was significant and 0 otherwise (assuming an alpha of .05); p is the p value from the test; ci is the 95% confidence interval for the difference between the two means; and stats holds the actual t value along with the degrees of freedom. This routine can be used to perform a paired t test or a one-sample t test. The ttest2 function can be used for an independent-samples t test, which you would use to compare two groups of subjects. After the script calls the ttest function, it uses fprintf to print the results in the Command Window. As you can see by looking at your Command Window, there was a significant difference in amplitude between the faces-minus-scrambled-faces and cars-minus-scrambled-cars difference waves.
The last part of the script measures the peak latency of the N170 instead of the mean amplitude. It uses a wider measurement window (which is often needed for latency measures), and it performs the measurements from the more aggressively filtered ERPsets. The script then calls the ttest function and prints the results in the Command Window. The peak latency was significantly earlier for the faces-minus-scrambled-faces waveform than for the cars-minus-scrambled-cars waveform (consistent with Figures 11.1D and 11.1E).
This is the last script for this chapter. You’ve now gone through every major step of EEG and ERP processing, all the way from reading in the raw EEG to conducting a statistical analysis. Congratulations!
But remember, you should go back and forth between scripts and the GUI rather than relying solely on scripts. For example, you should use the Viewer option in the Measurement Tool to look at the scores alongside each averaged ERP waveform to verify that the measurement process is working properly. However, the script is also useful, because it makes it easier to repeat the processing if you need to make a change somewhere earlier in the pipeline. Also, if you make your scripts and data available when you publish a paper, other researchers can see exactly how you implemented each step of processing rather than relying on the relatively brief and vague description of the processing that is typically provided in a Method section.
Scripting is a skill that takes a long time to master, and you may initially wonder if it’s worthwhile. It may seem like it’s faster to do everything in the GUI than to spend hours debugging scripts that do the same thing. But in the long run, scripting is incredibly useful, and you will get faster with experience. You’ll still make lots of mistakes—I certainly do!—but you’ll be able to find and fix them much more rapidly once you have more experience. | 2,194 | common-pile/libretexts_filtered | https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Psychology/Book%3A_Applied_Event-Related_Potential_Data_Analysis_(Luck)/11%3A_EEGLAB_and_ERPLAB_Scripting/11.18%3A_Exercise-_Scoring_Amplitudes_and_Latencies_and_Performing_Statistical_Analyses | libretexts | libretexts-0000.json.gz:9240 | https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Psychology/Book%3A_Applied_Event-Related_Potential_Data_Analysis_(Luck)/11%3A_EEGLAB_and_ERPLAB_Scripting/11.18%3A_Exercise-_Scoring_Amplitudes_and_Latencies_and_Performing_Statistical_Analyses |
oLBQ2XKLrrGJquBJ | Medical gynecology / by Howard A. Kelly ; with one hundred and sixty-five illustrations, for the most part by Max Broedel and A. Horn. | PROFESSOR OP GYNECOLOGICAL SURGERY IN THE JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY, AND GYNECOLOGIST TO THE JOHNS HOPKINS HOSPITAL, BALTIMORE ; FELLOW OF THE AMERICAN GYNECOLOGICAL SOCIETY ," HONORARY FELLOW OP THE EDINBURGH OBSTETRICAL SOCIETY ; HONORARY FELLOW ROYAL ACADEMY OP MEDICINE IN IRELAND ; FELLOW BRITISH GYNECOLOGICAL SOCIETY ; HONORARY FELLOW GLASGOW OBSTETRICAL AND GYNECOLOGICAL SOCIETY ; HONORARY MEMBER OF THE ROYAL MEDICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH ; CORRESPONDIRENDBS LND EHRENMITGLIED DER GESELLSCHAFT fOr GEBURTSHULFE ZU LEIPZIG ; EHRENMITGLIED DER GESELLSCHAFT FOR GEBURTSHCLFE U. GYN. ZU BERLIN ; CORRESPONDIRENDES MITGLIED DER K. K. GESELLSCHAFT DER AERZTE IN WIEN ; MEMBRE ASSOCIE ETRANGER, SOCIETfi D'OBSTETRIQUE, DE GYNficOLOGIE ET DE PKDIATRIE DE PARIS ; MEMBRE CORRESPONDANT fiTRANGER DE LA SOClfiTE DE CHIRURGIE DE PARIS ; MEMBRE DE L'ASSOCIATION PRAN9AISE D'UROLOGIE, PARTS ; MEM. HON. SOCIETI ITALIANA DI OSTETRICIA E GINECOLOGIA, ROME, ETC., ETC.
TO THE IDEAL GENERAL PRACTITIONER, A MAN OP WIDE CULTURE IN HIS PROFESSION, IN CLOSE TOUCH WITH ALL THE SPECIALTIBS, THE BELOVED FRIEND OF HIS PATIENTS, AND ABOVE ALL, IN EVERY RELATION OF LIFE A SINCERE AND A DEVOUT CHRISTIAN :
PEEFACE TO SECOND EDITION
I AM glad that a second edition of Medical Gynecology has been called for and I trust that it will be as kindly received as the first. In order to make the book more useful to the general practitioner I have added a chapter on Diseases of Advanced Age, and I have extended the brief account of the Menopause considerably. Dr. Curtis F. Burnam has written the paragraphs on Salvarsan, as well as those on Radiotherapy and Radiography ; in the use of radium his experience has been unusually large. Several new illustrations have been added and the whole of the volume has been carefully re-edited by those who helped me prepare the first edition. My great desire throughout has been to do something to serve the general practitioners of the country, among whom I have so many very close friends.
PREFACE.
What a transformation two generations have witnessed in the field of gynecology ! From modest beginnings, as a sort of a minor specialty coupled with diseases of children and often professed by general practitioners with no special training, it has grow^n to the dignity of a major surgical specialty, so extensive that many gynecologists of to-day claim the entire field of abdominal surgery as their proper domain by right of discovery and conquest. This period of surgical evolution is now at last clearly at an end and I deem it a fitting time to review once more, from our new and advanced standpoint, the relationship of our specialty to the field of general practice.
To my mind the evolution of scientific medicine must ever run this course : The general practitioner yields up to a little group of investigators that portion of his territory which is most obscure and difficult, in which he has made the least progress; the field is diligently cultivated and a specialty is formed. Then in time the specialist so simplifies the etiology, the diagnosis, and the treatment, that he is able to hand back a part at least to the general practitioner, with whom he continues in relations of harmony and sympathy, so that both work conjointly to a common end, namely, the extinction of disease and the amelioration of its ravages. It will be my effort in the following pages to review my special field, in an endeavor to return to the general practitioner that portion of it which he ought to recover by right of his prior lien.
Two subjects stand out preeminently as the field of the practitioner of medicine, namely, hygiene and prophylaxis. He also sees and is often perplexed by the sequelae of the various gynecological operations. A variety of minor operations he must often be prepared to do, notably, suture of the recently torn perineum, dilatation and curettage of the uterus, etc. Largely in his hands also lies the fate of the great army of cancer patients, wdio to-day apply to the specialist, as a rule, too late for relief.
I have often heard the cry ne sutor ultra crepidam, during the twentyfive years I have been practising medicine, but it has not seemed to me to be trespassing too far on other fields to take up such every-day topics as hysteria and its allies, headache, backache, and constipation.
tlienia. Tliis chapter offers tlie first explicit and detailed statement which Professor Barker has as yet made touching his methods of dealing with this class of cases. It constitutes a most difficult branch of therapeutics with which his name is associated as a pioneer, and I am thankful to have this definite expression of ideas from such an authority upon a suljject in regard to which the gynecologist so often stands in need of the advice of an expert neurologist. Dr. Lilian Welsh, Professor of Physiology in the Woman's College of Baltimore, and Dr. Mary Sherwood, Director of the Gymnasium at the Brvn Mawr School, have written the chapter on the hygiene of the growing girl, dealing with the most fundamental question of our work. My old friend Dr. Walter L. Burrage has written the chapter on gonorrhea as well as that on fibroid tumors of the uterus. Dr. Prince A. Morrow, our great American authority on venereal disease, has supplied that on syphilis ; and abortion comes from the pen of Dr. Edward J. 111. The section on movable kidney is by Dr. P. "VT. Griffith; enteroptosis is by Dr. Thomas P. Brown and masturbation by Dr. P. L. Dickinson.
The book has been fostered from its incipiency by my friend and co-laborer, Dr. Caroline Latimer, without whose aid it could not have been written. She has nursed it throughout with unwonted solicitude and after revision and correction sent it forth into the world to battle for a living.
I am indebted for help and suggestion to Dr. W. L. Burrage and Dr. C. P. Burnani through a large part of the book ; to Dr. T. R. Brown in the chapter on constipation, headache, insomnia, and obesity; to Dr. G. W. Dobbin, Dr. Pichard Xorris, and Dr. J. M. Slemmons in the chapter on injuries and ailments after labor. Dr. TT. S. Baer has given me valuable advice concerning the treatment of backache, in which chapter I draw special attention to sacroiliac disease, and Dr. G. L. Hunner has assisted me in revising the chapter on cancer.
The illustrations, one hundred and sixty-three in number, have almost all been made by Messrs. M. Brodel and A. Horn, my longtime faithful coadjutors. In many of them we have worked on comparatively new lines, securing a more realistic and greater artistic effect in certain cases where it was formerly necessary to rely solely upon diagrammatic representation. Such illustrations are line drawings of examinations, postures, methods of treatment, and others which will be readily recognized from their generic resemblance.
table, p. 6. Abdominal examination, p. 6. Examination of stomach, p. 9. Vaginal examination, p. 10. Bimanual examination, p. IL Gauze records of abdominal tumors and displaced viscera, p. 17. Inspection, p. 19. Leucorrhea, p. 20. Examination in knee-breast position, p. 23. Sims position, p. 23. Examination in children, p. 25. Examination standing, p. 26. Examination under anesthesia, p. 26. Examination of virgins, p. 27. Pain as a symptom in examination, p. 27. Notes of examination, p. 29.
THE CONSULTING ROOM.
The general practitioner who intends to practise gynecology ought to devote the best space on the first floor of his house to the reception of his patients. Whenever it is possible he should arrange for three rooms : a reception room; a consulting room, where he meets his patients and takes their histories; and an examining room with its paraphernalia, where the patient can prepare for the examination and dress in comfort afterwards.
The reception or waiting room ought to be cheerful, sunny, and clean; simply and attractively furnished, and well supplied with current light literature to beguile the period of waiting. Time is well spent in exercising ingenuity and taste to secure articles of furniture and wall decorations which show marked individuality. Unfortunately, not everyone realizes how important it is that the first impression made upon the patient should be a pleasant one, tending to inspire confidence in the physician to whom the patient is about to confide the most important interest in life, her health. A cheery kindly wife, a pleasant secretary, and even a bright-faced maid are all assets of much value in helping to hold a nervous impatient patient. It is a serious mistake to put an office in a basement in order to get it out of the way or to avoid sacrificing the family parlor ; on the other hand, nothing is more dreary than the use of the family sitting room for such a purpose. Moreover, patients are never favorably impressed by an introduction to family portraits in crayon, nor by the cheap, gaudy pictures and startling plush furniture which are so common everywhere. Everything about the reception room should express 2 1
COXSULTIXCt room AXD gynecological EXAMIXATION.
seriousness of purpose, taste, and dignity. In other words, the physician should consider what object lesson his office shall teach to his Avaiting patients. It is also a mistake, I feel sure, whenever it can be avoided, to force patients to go to a large office building, use a common elevator, and wait in groups on benches, among the patients of other doctors. Such herding of the suffering and the sorrowful robs life of its refinement.
Again no one material quality in these days teaches such important spiritual lessons and appeals to patients' higher instincts more than scrupulous cleanliness in their surroundings. A bright clean reception room and a spotless examining room are instantly accepted as guarantee that the physician himself is a votary of the modern doctrine of antisepsis and carries it out in all his practice.
Fig. 1. — A Simple Form of CoxsTn^TiXG .\2st> ReCEPTiox Room. The examining table in the consulting room is placed conveniently to the light which falls on the back of the operator as he sits at the foot of the table; this corner of the room is screened off.
Fig. 2. — Aeraxgemext -stith Examixixg Room Separated from the Coxsitltixg Room. The patient arranges her clothing behind the curtain indicated bv the waw lines.
A simple office arrangement is shown in Fig-ure 1 in which, when space is limited, a portion of the consulting room is utilized as an examining room. A somewhat more elaborate arrangement is shown in Figure 2, including a reception room, a consulting room, and a separate examining room. The toilet arrangements in the examining room are placed at one end and behind curtains. When more elaborate arrangements still are necessary, I recommend the scheme in use in my own suite of apartments. There is first a large reception room, while adjoining that is the room where the secretary and typewriter have their desks; the consulting room is next to this, and behind
HISTORY TAKING. 3
there are three examining rooms. Washing and toilet facilities are provided in a sejDarate apartment. Such an arrangement facilitates thorough work for the specialist whose time is precious and provides for the occasional patient who has to rest before leaving the house.
A nurse should always be on hand, if possible, to receive the patient and prepare her for examination, as well as to render any assistance required afterwards. She should be dressed in a regular nursing costume, with a scrupulously clean cap and apron, and she ought to be a woman of digTiified appearance, preferably not too young. ISTothing so serves to tone the patient up for the ordeal of an examination as a nurse of the right kind ; indeed, she will in many instances be able to hold on to a patient who thinks of leaving the physician for another. If she has training and ability, she will often learn in time to give material assistance in investigating a case by emphasizing to the doctor the matters of complaint and directing his attention to those issues which seem paramount to the patient.
The j)hysician should ever meet his patient with courtesy and a warm personal interest ; showing by his manner that he esteems it a high compliment that she has been willing to entrust him with the care of her health.
History Taking. — There are three ways of taking a history: (1) to fill in an outline, such as that given in the text, and then to add the special matters complained of; (2) to let the patient ease her mind by first telling all her troubles, after which the outline is filled in ; or ( 3 ) a combination of these two methods, by listening and asking occasional questions. ISTo one way suits all cases. If a patient is nervous and distressed, a few routine questions directed in a kindly reassuring manner, will serve to give her time to collect herself and set her at ease. If she has her ailments much on her mind, and is impatient to pour them out, it will be best to let her talk freely at first, and then to fill in the outline afterwards. In each instance a general outline should be filled in and the history should be written down. After the name follows the residence, age, social state (married or not), and if married, how many children, miscarriages and labors, as well as the character of the menstrual period, as to regularity of intervals, duration, amount of flow, and pain. The occurrence of leucorrhea should then be noted. I think it is best, as a rule, at about this juncture to let the patient tell her own story briefly in her own words, interrupting occasionally if she becomes prolix or wanders off to unimportant details. While the patient is talking, the physician jots down his notes, taking up the line of her suggestions from time to time and asking more particularly and specifically regarding the nature of certain complaints. Having in this way secured a complete history, the outline is further filled in by suitable questions relating to all the other important organs in the body, including headaches, backache, digestion, regularity of the bowels, urination, etc. I find it an excellent course, while taking the history, to underline important facts ; for instance, if the patient has it very much on her mind that she has no children, I write the word sterility and underscore it.
INSTRUMENTS FOR GYNECOLOGICAL EXAMINATION. 5
If she has severe headaches, I underscore that word, and so on. If she has been told elsewhere that she has a tumor, I underscore the word. By thus underlining several catch words, the physician is not liable in the subsequent examination to overlook any ailment which the patient has much on her mind. I sometimes find it helpful, as I take a history or make an examination, to note down in a short column, one below another, the special complaints as well as any suggestions that occur to me as to lines of treatment to be carried out. It is a good plan to fill out some such outline as shown on the opposite page in each case.
After taking the history, the next step is the physical examination. It is always important to bear in mind the purpose of such an examination, and to remember that especial care must be taken to discover the cause of the patient's discomfort or suffering. In making a gynecological examination it is necessary to bear in luind that the investigation of the pelvic organs is always a trial and source of distress to the patient who is not an habituee of the office. For his own sake as well as for the patient's, and as a mark of the respect which he owes to all womankind, the physician will always carefully protect the patient and avoid all undue exposure. The methods of examination in this country and in Great Britain have thus far ever been characterized by a modesty and a consideration for the feelings of the patient which do honor to our profession. When that sense of modesty becomes blunted, our specialty will have taken a lamentable and a distinctly retrograde step. Great care should also be taken not to expose a patient even when she is under anesthesia and unconscious, during preparation for an operation.
The first examination should include a consideration of every important organ of the body. The physician must never forget that a large percentage of his patients have other ailments than those which are covered by gynecology. The condition of the chest must be looked into, and inquiry made into a history of tuberculosis, pleurisy, or any form of heart disease. After a survey of the other organs, the physician concentrates his attention upon the abdomen, which must be studied from thorax to pelvic diaphragm with extreme care.
Borogiycerid, 6 oz.
Metal instruments are best sterilized in a fisb-kettle by boiling in a 1 per cent solution of sodium carbonate for five minutes. After every use tbe instruments should be washed with soap and hot water and re-sterilized. There is great risk of spreading gonorrhea and even syphilis by the use of contaminated instruments. An ordinary washing or rinsing in hot water does not serve to render an instrument sufiiciently clean for use. After sterilization all the instruments should be placed in an orderly manner on a clean towel, laid on a white porcelain ware tray, and covered with another towel so as not to offend the eye of the patient. The physician ought to wash his hands briefly witH soap and water and a scrubbing brush before each examination, and thoroughly immediately after it is over. A sample of urine should, as a rule, be secured as part of the examination. The most satisfactory specimen is that which is taken by a nurse, after cleansing the orifice of the urethra, with a sterile glass catheter, having a piece of rubber tubing six inches long on the outer end, which serves to convey the urine into a sterile test-tube.
Preparation of the Patient. — The patient should be prepared for the examination by removing all clothes, baring the abdomen from thorax to symphysis. She ought always to remove her corsets. The physician ought not to consent to attempt an examination hampered, for example, by a union suit of underwear or by corsets. If the patient deems her condition serious enough to compel her to apply to a physician for examination, it is at least worth her while to offer him the best possible opportunity to make his examination with thoroughness.
The best examining table is a simple rectangailar structure, like a big box with drawers or like a kitchen table, upholstered with leather or covered with a folded blanket and clean sheets (see Fig. 3) ; two supports, projecting about eight inches from the foot of the table, support a crossbar which may be notched so as to catch the heels. The under part of the table may be conveniently supplied with drawers and utilized for holding linen, supplies, etc. The measurements of the examining table that I use are: Leng-th forty-five inches, breadth twenty-four inches, height thirty inches. I prefer a table of this kind to the various examining chairs advertised, although I began my work with a chair.
in warm water, after which the abdomen is palpated. It is my custom, and I think it is the best plan, first to feel the upper abdomen, running the hand across it and making pressure at several points, to make sure there are no undue prominences, or areas of tenderness, resistance, or fluctuation. I then examine the right hypochondrium, and if no resistance is felt, use both hands, pressing deeply into the right flank and feeling for the kidney. If this is not discovered at once, I tell the patient to breathe deeply, and this may bring it down between the fingers. Sometimes with the
Fig. 3. — ^The Gynecological Examining Table. The top is covered with leather, well padded, on this is placed a blanket covered with a linen sheet. A drainage cushion is serviceable in protecting the table from contamination from discharges. In my office I sometimes use a much smaller cushion than that shown in the figure. The drawers serve for the storage of clean linen, towels, dressings, pessaries, etc.
fingers pressing in deeply from behind and from the front simultaneously, a wedge within is felt, as the patient takes a deep breath, descending from under the ribs, entering the angle and pressing the fingers gently apart; with the act of expiration, the wedge retires back under the ribs again. In this way, the lower pole of the kidney can often be felt. With a deep inspiration it descends until it is felt as far as the renal notch, the second degree of displacement; or again, it slips down entirely below the fingers, which now lie above the upper pole, when the descent is one of the third degree. If the kidney cannot be felt in this way, it can sometimes be found by raising the head and shoulders and letting the patient lie on the left side, when the intestines drop away from the side under examination. On sitting up and leaning forward, or on standing up and leaning forward, a loose kid-
ney can often be felt to best advantage; sometimes a markedly displaced kidney becomes evident only after the patient has been walking about a great deal just before the examination. The edge of the liver at times feels surprisingly like a kidney, but, as a rule, the sharpness of the edge serves to
A Paix Index.
distinguish the liver. In thin patients, a distended gall bladder can often be felt, hanging pendulous into the abdomen from beneath the margin of the ribs. It is best to complete the examination of all the other abdominal organs before examining the stomach.
ABDOMINAL EXAMINATION. 9
The way to outline the stomach is to give a teaspoonful of the bicarbonate of soda dissolved in a small glassful of water, following this at once with a teaspoonful of tartaric acid in a like amount of water. The patient must drink lying down, and she must resist the impulse to belch up the gases which at once begin to distend the stomach visibly under the abdominal wall. This examination is best put last. The colon and the vermiform appendix are next palpated. If the patient complains of any tenderness or there is any reason to suspect ajDpendicitis, a good way to compare the relative tenderness on the right and on the left sides is to use a piezometer (see Fig. 4),
the right side, then returns to the left pelvic brim, and drops into the pelvis just behind the uterus.
which is designed to register accurately the amount of pressure necessary to produce pain, as well as to record the resistance, by means of the depression made in the abdominal wall. The piezometer consists of a spiral spring in a hollow cylinder within which travels a piston ending in a button. If the button is pressed into the abdominal wall, the amount of pressure made is measured on an index, while the depth to which the button depresses the wall is measured by a wheel which slips freely up and down the shaft of the piston. The sigmoid flexure is palpated to discover any accumulations of fecal matter (see Fig. 5). The pelvis is palpated above the symphysis, by mak-
or any tender spots.
Vaginal Examination.^ — The pelvic organs are next examined by the vagina, (a) by touch and (b) by insi^ection. In making such an examination, the points to be noted by inspection are :
By touch the finger may recognize a lax, everted condition of the vaginal orifice, often found after multiple childbirth. The vaginal walls are next examined and may be found rugose and in their normal condition, or often, as in women who have borne many children, flaccid, smooth, and pouting. We thus note at once by touch whether or not the vaginal orifice is tightly
Fig. 6. — Bimanual, Examination by Vagina and Abdomen. The index finger of the right hand and the index, middle, and third fingers of the left hand are easily brought close together and used to question the structures lying between them.
closed, and whether the vagina occupies its normal relations to the pelvic floor, as it stretches back over the floor of the pelvis to the cervix which lies in the sacral hollow, or whether, on the other hand, the orifice is broken down and
VAGINAL AND BIMANUAL EXAMINATION.
the tissues are pouting, forming what has been appropriately called a sacropubic hernia (Berry Hart). The examining finger also notes carefully a cervix in descensus, that is to say, lying low down in the vagina, perhaps just behind the symphysis pubis, and the cervix in its normal position well back in line with the ischial spines. The form and size of the cervix are noted. The conical cervix, with a rounded hard surface, is readily distinguished from the fissured, infiltrated cervix, or a friable cervix converted into a cauliflower mass by malignant disease. If there is much vaginal discharge, it is well to wear ^ thin glove in order to protect the hand during such examinations, and avoid even the slightest risk of carrying over an infection to the next patient, perhaps a woman in labor.
Fig. 7. — Bimanual, Examination of the Uterus. The upper hand indents the walls of the abdomen and rests upon the fundus while two fingers of the lower hand, introduced into the vagina, rest upon the cervix. Palpation in this way reveals the size and form of the uterus.
Bimanual Examination. — The examiner next investigates the condition and positions of the deeper pelvic organs by using his free hand through the abdominal wall to press down through the superior strait and act conjointly with the vaginal hand (see Figs. 6 and 7). A bimanual examination reveals the exact position of the uterine body, whether inclined forward in normal anteposition, or backward in retroversion or retroflexion. Then, displacing the uterus to the riglit or to the left, the condition of the uterine tubes and of the ovaries is investigated. If there is a simple enlarge-
ment, it is easily detected as shoAvn in the figure; an enlargement associated with adhesions is recognized as a more or less immovable mass to one side or other of the. body of the uterus. During the bimanual examination, the mobility of the organs is tested. The question must be asked and answered whether the uterus has its normal play, and whether or not the ovaries are free. This question of mobility of the uterus becomes a matter of the utmost importance in dealing with cancer. When a cancer is found in the cervix, the first important query is this: Has the disease extended beyond the uterus into the broad ligaments in the direction of the pelvic wall? The answer to this inquiry is found by attempting to throw the uterus up and down in the pelvis thus performing a sort of ballottement with it; if it feels fixed or hinged on one side, this, as a rule, constitutes a contra-indication to a radical operation. It must never be forgotten, however, in seeking to give the patient the benefit of every reasonable doubt, that the fixation may be
Fig. 8. — BmANUAL Examination by Rectum and Abdomen. It is easily seen from this figure to what depth the index finger of the left hand can be carried into the rectum, in this way reaching the posterior surface of the uterus and both tubes and ovaries.
effected by inflammatory and not by cancerous infiltration, and that it may also be due to an inflamed, adherent tubo-ovarian mass in one or both sides. The clearest approach to the pelvic organs above the vaginal vault is by the combined rectal and abdominal examination (see Fig. 8). The uterus, tubes, and ovaries are felt in this wav with the utmost distinctness.
Before -witlKlrawiug the finger from tlie vagina, tlie bladder is palpated through the anterior vaginal wall, and the little delicate ureteral cords are felt, stretching from the position of the internal ureteral orifice around the pelvic wall to the side of the cervix in the lateral fornix above ; the normal ureters are always quite small, freely movable cords. Any enlargement, or thicken-
OF and Fixes the Cervix.
ing, or irregularity indicates disease of the ureter and of the kidney on the same side. By thus discovering a thickened ureter in a case of pyuria, a diagnosis of tuberculosis of the kidney can often be made within a few seconds. Such a diagnosis must, of course, be confirmed by further topical examination and by urinary analysis. If the uterus is inclined to slip from under the examining finger in the ordinary recto-abdominal examination, it is sometimes a good expedient to fix the lower pole of the uterus with the index and middle fingers in the rectum, at the same time carrying the thumb into the vagina (see Fig. 9), and so locating and fixing the cervix; making a sort of trimanual examination, in which the uterus sits poised, as it M^ere, on the
"When any enlargement of the intrapelvic structures is felt during a bimanual examination, the fundamental question to be answered is whether the growth is uterine or ovarian?
is in this way felt to be continuous with the uterine wall, from the cervix up on to the growth and from the fundus down over its convexity. In moving the uterus the enlargement at once moves with it, and there is, as a rule, no appreciable interval between the two. The tumor is then uterine.
In such a case as that shown in the figure, the next question is whether the uterus is in anteflexion with a tumor imbedded in its posterior wall or whether it is in retroflexion with the tumor growing from its anterior wall. This question is usually easy to answer, as a uterine tumor, which is practically always a fibroid, is denser than the normal uterus, has a more rotund form, and is often nodular; furthermore, a
figure.
minute handling of the mass frequently shows just a little play of motion between the uterine body and the tumor. The relation of the normal ovaries to the uterus also serves to mark out the uterine body. The uterine sound carried up on to the uterus gives the direction of the cavity at once, and shows whether it is in front of or behind the uterus.
An ovarian tumor (see Fig. 11) usually lies more or less lateral to the uterus, and is distinctly fluctuating, while there is also a well defined interval between the tumor and the womb. Palpation of the smaller structures about the tumor with careful attention sometimes reveals its connection with the uterus by the ovarian ligament. If the uterus is then caught with a
GAUZE KECOEDS OF ABDOMINAL TUMOKS AND DISPLACED VISCERA. 17
tenaculum forceps and pulled down towards the vaginal outlet, there is at first an indistinct movement on the part of the uterus, followed by a more tardy communicated movement on the part of the tumor. If the tumor is pushed upward in the direction of the umbilicus, the uterus, as a rule, does not follow it at once. An additional point in favor of an ovarian tumor is the discovery of a normal ovary on one side, while on the opposite side the ovary cannot be felt, its place being taken by a cystic tumor.
would earnestly recommend
to ^practitioners at large, who can easily, with a little practice, acquire the slight degree of skill necessary to make the
minute as well as the large
features of the case which a grave situation demands. The first step is to make an outline of the tumor by means of a series of dots on the surface of the skin with an aniline pencil, while the bimanual examination is being made (see Fig. 12). If the marks are not easily made on the skin, it will be sufiicient to wet the surface with a little alcohol. By giving the fingers a little vibratory movement, as shown on the left hand in Figure 13a, the outlines of the cyst or tumor are more delicately appreciated, since each slightest thrill is communicated to the vaginal fingers resting on the lower pole of the growth. After
.. i J
Fig. 14. — After the Examiner has Outlined the Tumor ON THE Skin in Aniline and has Marked Out such Landmarks as the Anterior Sxtperior Spine, the Symphysis and the Margin of the Ribs, He then Lays a Glass Plate on the Abdomen, Covered with THE Transparent Material on which He Registers the Markings on the Skin, easily seen through the Glass. A crayon or carbon pencil is better for this purpose than an aniline pencil.
the tinnor lias been dotted out in outline and the dots have been connected by a continuous line, the landmarks of the abdomen, as the symphysis, the anterior superior spine, and the margins of the ribs are outlined with aniline (see Fig. 136). The next step is to make a transfer of the record on the abdomen
symphysis lies below.
to a piece of stiffened gauze material ( Suisse, nainsook, or organdie) laid over the abdomen upon a glass plate as shown in Figure l-i. The skin markings are all visible through the glass, and it is an easy matter to reproduce them
teaching as well.
Inspection. — The examiner next proceeds to inspect the vulva, the vagina, and the cervix. A broken down or gaping vulvar orifice is often a most conspicuous object. The vulvovaginal glands (Bartholin's glands) should be' examined, as they are sometimes the seat of chronic gonorrheal infection. By squeezing the external urethral orifice, a lingering infection at that point is brought to light in the form of a little drop of pus exuding onto the surface. A cystocele and a rectocele are formed by the walls of an everting vagina, associated with a descent of the uterus. The upper vagina and the cervix can sometimes be seen in these cases by simply pulling back the perineum with two fingers. For making a specular examination of the vagina, I like best on the wdiole a trivalve speculum (JSTelson's). This is easily introduced by drawing back the posterior wall of the vagina with one or two fingers, at the same time slipping the well-oiled blade into the vagina, pressing a little backward so as not to impinge upon the urethra or strike the pubic arch. The position of the cervix having been located by the finger, the end of the speculum is directed downward and backward, so that when it is opened, the
Fig. 16. — A Photographic Copy of a Gauze Tracing made in THE Case of a Large Fibroid Tumor of the Uterus. The name and clinical data attached to the corner are omitted.
cervix lies plainly in view between the three blades (see Fig. 17). The color of the vagina is noted, and any discharges found are spread out on a slide for microscojjic examination. When there is much leucorrhea, a large infil-
Nelson SPEcuLmi.
trated cervix is often found pouring out a tenacious, mueo-purulent material (endocervicitis). This is the common sign of a chronic gonorrheal infection, or of a simple chronic cervical infection following childbirth. The condition is not a sign of endometritis farther up.
Leucorrhea. — ^\Vhen a patient complains of leucorrhea, it is always important to determine the source of the discharge. As a rule, it is either vaginal or cervical. Cervical discharges may come from the mucous lining of the cervical canal from the external up to the internal os. A discharge from the uterine cavity (endometritis) is rare; I declare this in direct opposition to the commonly received opinion. The vaginal is readily distinguished from the cervical discharge by its more milky, thin, and uniform consistency; in pregnancy it may be of a curdy character. The cervical discharges, on the other hand, are always stringy, mucoid, or muco-purulent. In a doubtful case it is sometimes a good plan, after cleaning out the vagina, to prove the source of the vaginal discharge by placing a tampon in
LEUCOKKIIEA.
the vagina, adjusting it carefully to the cervix and vaginal vault. The patient should then keep quiet for a few hours, when the tampon is carefully removed and inspected. If the discharge is vaginal, the whole tampon is wet; if it is cervical, the accumulation is more in a little pool in the depression made by the cervix (Schultze's method).
I hear a great deal in correspondence with physicians in different parts of the country and from patients who come for treatment, of " ulcerations " and " erosions of the womb." To most women, " ulceration " is a grave, well nigh incurable malady, accountable for all sorts of lower abdominal aches and pains and general ill health. It is important to call the attention of the profession to the fact that ulceration of the neck of the womb is an extremely rare ailment, which not one physician in five hundred has ever seen. The condition called ulceration is, as a rule, an ectropion of the cervix, commonly
Pelvic Viscera, the Rectum, the Vagina, or the Bladder. Note the approximation of the chest to the table, the spreading out of the elbows, and the direction of the face to one side, as well as the slight incurvation of the back. The patient should be at rest and feel well supported in this posture. Most cases do well with the thighs at an angle of about 65 degrees to the body as shown here in the figure. In other cases a better exposure is secured when the thighs are vertical and the angle is about 50 degrees, while in a few others still the relaxation is best when the thighs are drawn up a little under the abdomen and the angle is about 40 degrees.
associated with laceration. It does not demand treatment, unless there is at the same time an infection of the glands causing the discharge of a mucopurulent secretion. Anything causing congestion of the cervix, or a swelling up of its mucosa, will cause the cervical mucosa to roll out into the vaginal
Fig. 19 — ExjoniN-ATTOX zn" Kxee-breast Posttee shotvixg ^Iethod of Lifttxg up Glttteai-s axd Posterior Vagixai, Wall thts Lettln'g Air rxro the Vagin^a foe the Lsteoductiox of the Speculttm or the Examixatiox of the Bladder.
misapplied.
Examination in the Knee-breast Position. — An examination in the kneebreast position (see Fig. 18) is often of the utmost service in exposing every part of the vagina, with the cervix, to view. This posture is of the greatest utility in applying treatments to the inflamed vaginal walls, as the rugse are
the interior.
thus all smoothed out and the vagina appears as a broad, smooth surface. A good way to let air into the vagina before introducing the speculum is shown in Figure 19. The examination is then best made by means of the writer's cylindrical metal speculum, with a large handle, as shown in Figure 20, which exposes every part and protects the vulvar orifice when treatments are given.
The Sims' position (see Figs. 21 and 22) is one in which the patient lies semi-prone, with the right leg drawn a little above the left, and with the left arm behind the back or hanging over the edge of tlie table. The posture assumed is one in which, if the abdomen were opened, the pelvic viscera would be poured out onto the table. The pelvis must be so disposed at the edges of
Fig. 23. — Patient in Sims' Posture Exaggerated by Decided Elevation or the Foot of the Table. The figure also shows the method of pulling apart the buttocks and letting air into the vagina to facilitate the introduction of the Sims' speculum.
EXAMINATION IN CHILDKEN.
the table as to afford a convenient view of the parts when the speculum is inserted, with the perineum retracted and the vagina ballooned out with air. If the table is elevated as shown in Figure 23, the distention of the vagina is greater and a better view is often afforded.
Examination in Children. — The examination of a child suffering from a vaginitis is always easiest to make in the knee-breast position, as it causes no pain, and affords a perfect exposure of the entire vagina and the cervix, impossible by any other method (see Fig. 18). To make the examination entirely painless, the nurse should slip a little pledget of cotton attached to a thread saturated with a ten per cent solution of cocain just inside the
Fig. 24. — The Examination of a Child about Six Years Old, sho"wing the Facility with which THE Entire Pelvis can be Palpated by a Bimanual Rectal and Abdominal Examination, Owing to the Relatively Large Size op the Examining Hand.
hymen. Then after five to ten minutes the little patient is put in the kneebreast posture and the cotton removed, when the vesical speculum Ko. 10 is introduced and the vagina at once balloons out and can be seen in all its parts by a reflected light. It is usually easy, without the knowledge of the child, to apply a thorough treatment, say a five to ten per cent solution of nitrate of silver, to all parts of its walls, or to insert a small medicated tampon, saturated with, say, thirty per cent to fifty per cent solution of argyrol, attached to a fine thread, by which it can be withdrawn in six to twelve hours.
When it is necessary to make a careful examination of the pelvic organs in a child, it is always best to do so at one sitting and to make the examination thorough by giving an anesthetic. A few drops of chloroform is all that may be necessary to relax the little patient completely. The examination should
be made as shown in Figure 24, through the rectum and lower abdomen, and never through the vagina. The extreme simplicity as well as the facility of such a bimanual recto-abdominal examination is readily appreciated upon noting that the hands of an adult are relatively much larger in proportion to the pelvis of a child than to that of an adult. For this reason the pelvic organs in a child are all easily within reach of the bimanual touch.
When an ovarian tumor is found in a child, it is usually sarcomatous and demands careful handling on account of its friability, as well as ]3rompt removal on account of its liability to become disseminated. A large ascitic accumulation in a child (see Fig. 25), in the absence of any other evidence of grave disease, is apt to be tubercular, especially in the colored race. A large tumor springing from one side and more or less filling the pelvic abdomen, is soft and fluctuating, but not within the peritoneal cavity, is generally a sarcoma of the kidney. Such tumors have been observed in children of very tender years.
Examination Standing. — It is important, where the patient has a descensus, or other displacement of the pelvic organs, to examine her in the erect posture, as she stands before the examiner with one foot on a low stool. In this way marked differences between the organs in the dorsal and in the vertical position are often found.
Examination under Anesthesia. — It often happens that the ordinary digital and bimanual examination leaves a doubt as to the condition of the deeper pelvic organs, the position and condition of the body of the womb, the uterine tubes, and of the ovaries. Under these circumstances it is always best to request a more complete and a deeper examination, with the patient completely relaxed by an anesthetic. By this means entire relaxation is secured, and the resistance which tlie patient often cannot control on account of pain, is done away with ; while at the same time, the uterus itself can, under anes-
FiG. 25. — A Case of Tubercular Peritonitis IX A Colored Child abou't NixE Years of Age. Note the rotund, ovoid, distended abdomen manifestly due to an accumulation of fluid in a child not too ill to be about.
EXAMINATION OF VIRGINS. 27
tliesia, be drawn well down to the vulva and so made much more accessible to touch. Before making an examination under anesthesia, the bowels should be well opened, and the stomach empty. It is a good rule to have the patient rest a day or two afterwards. The best anesthetic for such a purpose is nitrous oxide gas. The gas can be given and the examination made within three to five minutes; consciousness follows at once, and there is no distressing nausea or depression afterwards. Sometimes after starting the gas, the patient is stertorous and does not relax; a few whiffs of ether combined with the gas then serve to produce entire relaxation, after which the gas alone is continued. It is possible, if it is necessary, for a patient to get up within a few minutes after such an examination and go home.
Examination of Virgins. — Young unmarried women ought, for decency's sake, always to be examined for the first time under an anesthetic; in this way their feelings are spared the shock and the distressing ordeal, and the examination made is complete and satisfactory, an exception under such circumstances without an anesthetic. It is always well to secure permission at the same time, if only a slight operation is required, such as a dilatation for dysmenorrhea, to proceed with it at once, to avoid giving an anesthetic again.
The empty rectum is the one important avenue of approach in making a deep investigation under an anesthetic. The finger should be carried well above the cervix uteri, through the valves, until the posterior surface of the uterus and of the left broad ligament are plainly felt. Too much force must not be used in palpating; I have known several instances in which the rectal wall has been perforated by an examining finger, compelling the examiner to suddenly and unwillingly turn surgeon, open the abdomen, and sew up the rent.
Pain. — When a patient comes with a complaint of a definitely located pain it is most important for the physician, in the course of his examination, to discover which organ is causing the suffering and then, by gentle pressure or manipulations, to try to reproduce the pain so that the patient may feel convinced that the source of her discomfort has been located, for if she can declare with conviction that the pain aroused is exactly the same pain, felt in the same spot, he will secure her hearty cooperation in following any rational plan for her relief. Patients sometimes complain of pain in the pelvis, when a careful examination shows that no abnormality can be detected in any organ. Here, as a rule, the pain is complained of whenever any part of the pelvic peritoneum or any pelvic organ is squeezed slightly betwe'en the fingers of the two hands. If this fact is carefully noted and remembered, many unnecessary, often mutilating operations will be avoided. When intermittent attacks of pain arc complained of, unless the examiner can distinctly reproduce tlie pain or touch the very spot, the patient ought to be kept under observation until a typical attack comes
on. The physician should be called, by day or night, to make a careful investigation as to the exact character of the attack and the site of the sensitiveness. If he has had much experience, he will very often be able to say at once " the attack is one of renal colic," or " it is undoubtedly due to gall stones," etc.
The right side of the abdomen is peculiar in that we find there a chain of at least five organs, beginning at the margin of the ribs and extending down to the pelvic floor, and some of the morbid conditions affecting these organs are liable to be mistaken one for another. These organs are: the gall bladder, the right kidney, the cecum, the vermiform appendix, and the right uterine tube and ovary (see Fig. 26). It might at first sight seem impossible that anyone familiar with abdominal diseases could mistake a disease in such an organ as the gall bladder, for instance, at the upper end of the chain for a disease of the tube and the ovary at its lower end. Such mistakes have occurred, however, and that in the hands of some of our best diagnosticians. The physician who would avoid
Affections are Liable to be Confused One with Another. Bj^ careful reetal palpation the ovary and uterine tubes are felt; by careful palpation in the right iliac fossa a diseased appendix can be reached ; and the right kidney can be examined with unerring certainty by injecting its pelvis through the ureter.
sixty per cent of these cases of ill defined right-sided pain are due to some trouble in the kidney, usually a displacement, with a kinking of the ureter, and retention of urine in the renal pelvis.
either an affection per se and purely local, or it is dependent upon an anemia and a general condition of ill health (neurasthenia). From backache to uterus in women, and backache to kidneys in men, is a fallacious mode of reasoning. When the pain is situated very low down in the back, the coccyx should be examined carefully bimanually, with one finger in the rectum. Occasionally, a well localized, severe pain in the coccyx is relieved by the extirpation of the structure, but, as a rule, coccygeal operations are failures and are greatly overdone, to the discredit of surgery (see Chap. IX)'.
Notes of Examination. — The notes of the examination' should always be carefully compared with the complaints of the patient, which ought, as a rule, to be written down in her own characteristic words ; if the anatomical findings do not tally with the statements made by the sufferer, or afford a reasonable
Fig. 27. — Examining a Ureteral Catheter that has BEEN Wax-tipped and Passed through the Bladder UP into the Pelvis of the Kidney and Carefully Withdrawn. The examiner is using a lens and holding the catheter so that the light strikes the uppermost glistening surface as he turns the catheter between thumb and forefinger, while looking for the gouges or scratch marks indicative of the presence of a stone in the upper urinary tract.
exj)lanatioii of tlio complaints, llie examiner should not rest satisfied imtil lie lias made a further and more searching investigation and perhaps discovered the cause for the discrepancy between the subjective sensation and the objective findings. When the patient comes complaining of pain, and the examiner finds a displacement of some sort, he should be very cautious about promising that the correction of the displacement will serve to relieve the pain. It will be safer to promise nothing more than a good mechanical result from the operation, while expressing the reasonable hope that the discomfort will be relieved.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF TREATMENT.
Outlining a Course of Treatment. — With the statements of the patient clearly borne in mind, and with the patient before him and fresh from the examination, the gynecologist should be prepared at once to outline a course of treatment. Whenever there is a lingering uncertainty as to the condition, a tentative course may be tried with a view of proceeding, if necessary, at a later date, to more radical procedures. It is my custom in puzzling cases to note all the facts ascertained and then to add a list of the doubtful matters still to be determined.
When in doubt it is best to proceed from the simpler to the more serious modes of treatment. Having outlined a scheme, the physician should stick to it until it is fairly tried, when he may be justified in assuming a more aggressive course.
Hygienic treatment involves these various factors :
Rest. — Early hours in retiring; breakfast in bed; rest an hour before and an hour after each meal, or lying down six half -hours in each day. A splendid rest may be obtained by regularly putting on a night-gown and going to bed for an hour to an hour and a half in the afternoon.
Food. — Simple, nourishing food, avoiding pastry, pickles, condiments, and fried articles. Some easily digested food betweeh meals and before going to bed, such as a cup of milk, malted milk, gruel, or broth.
whether in walking, driving, working in a garden, or playing golf.
Medicine. — A bitter tonic such as Calisaya bark, or a pill of caluniba and gentian, one grain each. Opium must never be given in any form to induce sleep. If it is necessary to give some sedative for a few nights in
Sunlight baths.
Often the mere assurance that there is nothing serious the matter will send the patient rejoicing on her way, ready to take plenty of exercise, to live in the open air, to take her food with relish, and to enter once more into natural home relationships. Such is the discipline of the mind over the feelings. I have many times seen a patient walk into my office the picture of woe, with all her functions disordered, because she has been told she had an incurable disease which rendered it necessary to remove her uterus, uterine tubes, and ovaries. Upon my assuring her that there was nothing whatever the matter with these organs, she has left my office radiant, a woman in perfect health.
For painting the cervix and the vault of the vagina, a strong tincture of iodine (Churchill's) was largely in vogue a couple of decades ago. The nitrate of silver in strong solution, ten to forty j^er cent, may be used on the diseased cervical mucosa. In using any powerful solutions for treating the cervix or the glands within the cervical canal I commonly employ a cylindrical metal speculum with a stout handle like that shown in Figure 28. This serves to isolate the cervix and to protect the surrounding parts from the cauterizing effects of any of the drugs used. It is doubtful if uterine treatments for " endometritis " are not far more dangerous than useful. Many cases of salpingitis have been set up in this way. Packs support the uterus and provoke a watery discharge when glycerin is used. They do not do much to cure any disease. Douches as hot as can be borne often give much relief; just how far they are curative is doubtful. Pessaries are being more and more rarely used. They have a useful, but limited field. The question of their use is discussed in detail in Chapter XIII.
While undergoing a course of palliative treatment, vaginal packs consisting of cotton and wool tampons carrying boroglycerid, may be applied to the vagina and the cervix; hot water douches, as hot as can be borne comfortably, say 105°— 115° F., continued for ten or fifteen minutes once or
twice a clay, are serviceable after removing the pack. The bowels should be kept unloaded bv giving a flaxseed enema, made by boiling four tablespoonsful of the whole seeds in a quart of water for ten minutes, then straining and injecting the soothing mucilaginous fluid warm. Massage may be
Fig. 28. — ExA^^xrN■G tete CER^^x and Vattlt of tfte Vagixa with Kellt's O-ltxdrical Metal SpecultjM with Stout H.andle. This instninient is most convenient for exposing the cervix and protecting the rest of the vagina wliile treating the cer"\dx with canterj-, etc.
at night to induce rest, and a cold spinal douche in the morning.
In deciding to do an operation, it is always most important to be sure that the operation will relieve the complaint. If a minor operation is suggested, such as the repair of a lacerated cervix, the physician should take gTeat pains to determine that there is no other serious affection which he is likely to leave unrelieved. In my personal experience, the operation for laceration of the cervix is generally a most useless gynecological procedure, often unnecessarily performed. It is often recommended when the patient is in reality suffering from a uterine displacement associated with a broken down vaginal outlet,
The rectum, owing to its proximity to the other pelvic organs, and its frequent association with many of their diseases, is as much a part of the field of the gynecologist as are the organs lying in front of the vagina and uterus, namely the urethra and the bladder. The specialist or the general practitioner, who fails in his gynecological examinations to take the rectum constantly into account, will often in this way lose important opportunities to make a correct diagnosis. It is only necessary to recall the close anatomical connection of the rectum with the perineum, with the vagina, and with the cervix, as well as its constant contact with the body of the uterus and the left uterine tube and ovary, to realize that these claims are not exaggerated. The wonder is not that the rectum is so often involved, but that lying as it does, it does not more frequently enter, as an important complication, into a great variety of gynecological ailments. The rectum is of interest to the gynecologist in the following ways:
(1) It may itself be the cause of diseases of the pelvic structures, as when a carcinoma of the rectum extends to the vagina, or the uterus, or the pelvic peritoneum. The constant overloading of the rectum often causes stasis of the pelvic vessels, and either through this means or through the attendant toxemia, is a common cause of dysmenorrhea. In children, a form of pruritus is occasioned by the escape of thread worms from the rectum out onto the vulva.
(2) The rectum is liable to be affected in its turn by diseases of the pelvic organs; for example, it may be choked by a large uterine fibroid, if it is one large enough to choke the pelvis which has been caught under the promontory of the sacrum; or again it may be pressed upon by ovarian tumors; or its lumen may be invaded by pelvic abscesses.
Almost all cases of extensive pelvic, that is to say uterine tubal inflammatory disease, involve the rectum as well as the adjacent structures; extensive disease in the pelvic cellular tissue may choke the lumen of the bowel at the pelvic floor down to the size of the little finger. A vicious retroflexion may cause obstinate constipation, as in the earliest and now classical case observed by Koberle. Large pouting hemorrhoids may be only a sign of a blockade in the pelvic circulation, induced by inflammatory masses at mid. pelvis. Further, we have but to recall the cases of complete septal tear, extending from the vagina into the bowel and rupturing one or both sphincters.
(3) Diseases of the rectum are sometimes mistaken for uterine or ovarian diseases. This error is a grave one, inasmuch as mutilating operations may be and have been performed on the innocent genital organs, when the disease actually lay within the rectum. Hemorrhoids produce a bearing down sensation, easily mistaken for the bearing down caused by a
displacement of the uterus; a cancer of the rectum, high up, has been repeatedly mistaken for a pelvic tumor of some other kind ; and most im])ortant of all, a proctitis, with its j^elvic distress and vague pains is commonly overlooked or mistaken for chronic disease of the ovaries and tubes. I recall also in this conection the cases so much talked about a generation ago, where a fissure of the rectum, causing pains reflected to other parts of the pelvis, was often mistaken for uterine or ovarian disease.
It is manifestly important for all these reasons that the gynecologist should include the rectum and its diseases within the scope of his inquiry in almost every case, and further that he should, if necessary, be ready to apply the appropriate treatment. I would lay great stress then upon the routine examination of the rectum. I have no doubt at all that in every hundred cases examined in this way by one who has newly taken up the subject, a number of surprising discoveries will be made.
The reason for the neglect of this field in the past has lain in the difficult and unsatisfactory character of the examinations, which elicited no positive information. Even recently, the method in vogue has been to investigate the diseases of the rectum situated above the anal margin with the index finger, which at best cannot do more than reveal a few of the gross changes. A distinguished proctologist and author of a large work on rectal diseases once declared at a large society meeting at St. Louis, that he had no interest in diseases of the rectum that did not manifest themselves to his educated touch ! Concurrently with the finger examinations, various thin-bladed bivalve and trivalve specula were used, in the vain hope of seeing as well as feeling something; but these little instruments were in reality almost wholly useless, for they did little more than expose the sphincter area, and as much of the bowel above as might prolapse between the narrow blades of the speculum. It was with rectar diseases as with eye diseases a few decades ago, when the patient had either amblyopia or amaurosis ; in amblyopia the patient saw nothing, but the physician saw something, while in amaurosis neither patient nor physician saw anything. Several men, such as Sims and J. G. Carpenter, had looked into the rectum, using a Sims' speculum in a Sims' or an elevated posture, but the action was incidental, and they never appreciated the value of the method enough to advertise it or insist upon its universal acceptance as the one method of the highest importance, and so fundamental and absolutely necessary in all satisfactory examinations and treatments of the rectum above the sphincters. ISTo other person took particular note of their use of the Sims' speculum in this way and nothing was accomplished. One insuperable added difficulty was the want of a proper instrument to make a thorough investigation of the bowel, for the Sims' speculum is but a make-shift. I took up this subject in the eighties, while yet in Philadelphia, and in April, 1895, I published an article in the Annals of Surgery (vol. 21, p. 468), in which I insisted upon the importance as well as the entire feasibility of always examining the rectum in an elevated posture under air distention, using a long
purpose.
Method of Examination (see i'ig. 29). — A good single speculum for general use for this purpose is one fourteen centimetres long and twenty -two millimetres in diameter (5^ X f in.). A serviceable long proctoscope is
sphincter, and long alligator forceps for conveying cotton or gauze high up into the rectum.
twenty centimetres long, and a sigmoidoscope may be used which is thirty centimetres in length or even more. The handle, from ten to thirteen centimetres in length, affords a strong grasp for the fist. The obturator of the speculum must not be pointed, nor yet too blunt. Aside from the speculum, the following instruments are needed: A head mirror to reflect an electric light, gaslight, lamplight, or daylight ; a long pair of alligator forceps used in swabbing out the bowel. The bowel ought to be empty when the patient assumes the knee-breast posture, having laid aside all constricting articles of dress, espe-
cially corsets and articles likely to Lind the cliest aiKl limit tlie tendency of the viscera to gravitate towards the diaphragm. The end of the speculum is now well oiled and introduced by thrusting it in a direction slightly downwards and into the pelvis through the anal orifice (see Fig. 30). A good way to effect its introduction is to push it a little way into the anus, and then quickly withdraw it, when the anal orifice at first contracts vigorously and then relaxes ; now in the act of relaxation, the bowel is caught by surprise, as it were, and the speculum thrust quickly in before another contraction can take place. As soon as the speculum enters about two inches, its deeper introduction into the bowel beyond should be conducted under the guidance of the eye, looking down its liunen into the bowel (see Fig. 31). Only those who have a large experience in carrying the specuhun into the upper bowel ought ever to make the attempt to push it on up the bowel without removing the obturator and watching each step in the advance. With the removal of the
obturator, the air rushes in with a distinct suction sound and distends the rectal canal : at times it does so suddenly, at other times slowly step by step, until the air expansion reaches up to the hollow of the sacrum, to the promontory of the sacrum, and even beyond it into the sigmoid. I thought in my first efforts that I could look well up into the descending colon, where
METHOD OF KECTAL EXAMINATION.
I could feel the end of the speculum through the abdominal wall, apparently not far from the ribs. In this, however, I was misled, and I have not yet been able to use a colonoscope. As the light reflected by the head mirror is directed into the bowel, the ampulla is first seen and the sharp-edged overlapping valves which limit it just above on the right and the left. With the
Electric Light.
illumination properly directed, the examiner will easily keep the instrument well within the lumen of the bowel so as not to cut .the mucosa, as he carries it successively higher and higher until the uppermost limit of expansion is reached. Oftentimes this upper limit is marked by a little puckered depression in the midst of a series of concentric folds. It is important not to mistake this normally contracted empty bowel for a stricture of the rectum or of the sigmoid. The soft margins of the normal lumen at this point can readily be examined Math a metal instrument, a searcher, or a scoop, or by pushing up a large soft catheter. It is well, in the course of the examination, to notice and to touch the promontory and the hollow of the sacrum against which the distended bowel closely applies itself. As the instrument is gradually withdrawn, the character of the mucosa on all sides is noted, its natural redness, the vessels which course like streams and subdivide into lesser and lesser
tributaries, sometimes tiny little points, the openings of glands are visible, the valves are each noted with particular care, they may be extensively overlapping, making the bowel tortiions, or have thickened, inflamed margins or be almost obliterated. The signs of rectal inflammation are evident in a diffuse haziness or velvety appearance of the mucosa, associated with the disappearance of the normal vascularization, and often, although the tissues bleed easily, no vessels at all can be seen; old inflammatory trouble often leaves behind patches of brownish discoloration seen mottling the mucosa everywhere ; ulcers are always plainly visible ; polyps are readily seen pendant in the lumen, and occasionally the ragged, bleeding, granulating surface of a carcinoma fills the lumen and forbids the further introduction of the speculum. When the bowel is strictured by syphilis, by tuberculosis, or by early cancer, one can often use a smaller speculum with advantage, one about twelve or fifteen millimetres in diameter. It is important in such cases, when it can be done without risk, to carry the speculum above the diseased area to discover the healthy bowel above, and so to determine the extent of the disease. For the examination of the hemorrhoidal region, a shorter speculum, four centimetres long, which I call a sphincteroscope, is of value. The mucosa of the bowel prolapses into this on withdrawing the obturator, and the hemorrhoids swell up. It is of an occasional advantage to have a sphincteroscope made with a fenestra on one side about two-fifths of an inch in diameter, cut through the entire length of the tube. This allows any diseased tissues within the sphincter area to drop into the lumen for examination and treatment. With the sphincteroscope one also sees fistules and fissures to better advantage.
Methods of Treatment of Rectal Diseases. — It does not lie within the scope of my undertaking to do more than to touch upon this important special branch, so closely allied to the gynecological field. The following are some of the general guiding principles; the bowel, which has been thoroughly evacuated beforehand, can be well cleansed with pledgets of cotton dipped in warm boric acid solution and introduced by means of the long alligator forceps (see Fig. 32). An application is in like manner readily made to ulcers by means of cotton pledgets, saturated with a two or a five per cent silver solution; this can be done with as much accuracy as in the treatment of a sore throat. Inflamed areas in the upper bowel can be treated by packing with gauze carrying a ten per cent ichthyol solution in water and glycerin. A cotton bolus makes a good pack too. These packs thus applied to the upper bowel, or to the whole bowel from the sigmoid down, can be left in place until they are passed in the course of nature by the patient.
When maligTiant disease is discovered, it is easy with a pair of cutting sharp-edged forceps, with short jaws working like alligator forceps, to remove a piece of the tissue for microscopic examination.
In the treatment of fissure, it is sufficient to give the patient enough gas to make her unconscious, and to use the conical dilator (see Fig. 29, p. 35), so as to thoroughly overstretch the sphincter area until the tips of five fingers
and ill-health among children, p. '41. Remedial measures — Education of mother, p. 41; public hygiene, p. 44; water supply and disposal of sewerage, p. 44; clean air, p. 44; public control of milk supply, p. 44; improvement of housing conditions, p. 45; public parks, etc., p. 49; protection against infectious diseases, p. 50. Summary-, p. 51.
dition, p. 54. Condition of eyes, p. 56. Condition of ears, nose, and throat, p. 57. School-building and appliances, p. 58. Physical training and medical gj-mnastics, p. 59. School Hfe in relation to puberty, p. 65. Summar\', p. 67.
68; rest and sleep, p. 68; emplo\TQent. p. 69; bathing, p. 69; clothing, p. 70; instruction in physiology' of reproduction, p. 72; hygiene of menstruation, p. 72. Hygiene of occupation— Industrial life, p. 74; social life, p. 76; college hfe, p. 76.
HYGIENE OF INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD.
G-eneral Considerations. — The most important factor in the development of a healthy girl baby into a healthy yonng woman is an intelligent mother, and no more nrgent problem calls for solution to-day than that of securing adequate training for the duties of maternity. Maternal instinct and maternal love plus family traditions are not sufficient equipment for rearing a healthy family. They must be guided by maternal intelligence, vhile maternal intelligence, in its turn, must be aided and supplemented by a broad and enlightened public health policy. The care of the health of the groving girl begins vith the education of her mother.
It is not necessary at present to multiply text books for teaching medical students and practitioners elementary facts concerning the hygiene of infancy and childhood. Medical literature is rich in material easily available for instruction. On the scientific side there is pretty general agTcement as to the hygienic measures vhich ^vhen applied in the family and in the community "will preserve and promote the health of infants and children. The medical profession has the knowledge necessary to decrease enormously the death rate of infants and children, and at the same time to increase proportionally the average of health. What it lacks is the power to apply this knowledge, because it has not control of the necessary agencies. The remedial measures in question are entirely those of preventive medicine, and they require the cooperation of educational and social forces, the formation of public opinion, legislative enactment, and administrative control.
Causes of Infant Mortality and of Ill-health among Children. — It is estimated that of all children born into the world eightj-five to ninety per cent are healthy at birth, and excluding mortality in infants resulting from immaturity, malformations, and injuries of parturition, the high death rate among infants, as well as much of the physical deterioration of the growing child, is directly traceable to external and, therefore, controllable causes. In his testimony before the English Interdepartmental Committee on Physical Deterioration, Dr. Eicholz, H. M. Inspector of Schools, says, " Other than the well-known specifically hereditary diseases which affect poor and well-to-do alike, there appears to be very little real evidence on the pre-natal side to account for the widespread physical degeneracy among the poorer population. There is accordingly every reason to anticipate rapid amelioration of physique so soon as improvement occurs in external conditions, particularly as regards food, clothing, overcrowding, cleanliness, drunkenness, and the spread of common practical knowledge of home management. In fact, all evidence points to active rapid improvement, bodily and mental, in the worst districts, as soon as they are exposed to better circumstances, even the weaker children recovering at a later age from the evil effects of infant life."
So long as a community can rest content in the belief that a large infant mortality is the natural method of ridding the race of the unfit, the doctrine of laissez-faire can be accepted with tolerance. If, however, it seems probable that the influence of environment must be reckoned as a greater cause of infant mortality and of physical unfitness than the influence of heredity, it may be wiser for society, as it certainly will be easier, to preserve the lives and health of the children born than to stimulate an increase in a birth rate now diminishing. As it is an open question whether the race, as a whole, suffers mental or physical deterioration from a diminished rate of production among the superior stocks, it is unquestionably a matter of public policy as well as of common humanity that conditions of living in communities should be made favorable to the preservation of the life and health of all infants and children.
Remedial Measures Demand Activities of Public Hygiene and of Personal Hygiene.- — Malnutrition, due to insufficient or improper food, and infections are the greatest causes of infant mortality and of physical deterioration in the growing child. These causes have their origin in poverty, ignorance, neglect, lack of cleanliness, lack of protection from sources of infection, and lack of proper education of the child. Each one of these sources of evil has a public as well as a private aspect, and thus their removal involves activities of the State as well as of the individual. The great function of the physician in hygiene is to instruct and to guide his individual patients, and to direct and lead all those movements for social reform that aim to improve conditions of hygienic living. In modern preventive medicine the family physician assumes renewed importance and dignity.
demanding that women mnst be educated for maternity, and this whether the podiatrist works mainly with the poor and ignorant, or with the ignorant and Avell-to-do. Dr. Hollopeter, in his presidential address before the annual meeting of the American Society of Podiatrists (1905), says, " A troublesome obstacle that the pediatrist encounters to-day is the general ignorance and helplessness of the young mother. . . . Instruction in the details of the baby's care, and proper guidance in the study of home modification of milk is often the main function of the medical attendant, and a maternal mind previously prepared in hygienic instruction is a great help." Of interest, too, is the insistence with which thoughtful women are demanding that the education of girls shall include some efiicient training for the duties of family life. The numerous papers of Mrs. Ellen H. Richards, Mrs. Mary Hinman Abel, and others, with the discussions found in the proceedings of the Home Economic Conferences at Lake Placid, represent the trend of educated opinion and effort iij this direction.
There seems to be general agreement among physicians and social reformers as to the necessity of giying all women some systematic training for homemaking; there is a fair ag-reement as to the essentials of such training; but the methods by which all actual and potential mothers may receiye instruction adapted to their particular needs have not yet been deyised. In recent years courses in the household arts, cooking, sewing, etc., haye been introduced into many schools in this country ; school physiology, too, has been widely included in public school curricula, as a result of temperance agitation, but it cannot be said that the teaching has been adequate or effectual. The value of any such courses for yoimg children is extremely doubtful. Experience has shown that if the teaching of these subjects is to be of real value, it must be brought very near to the period when the knowledge and skill acquired are to be practically applied by the individual in her o^vn household.
The English Interdepartmental Commission on Physical Deterioration recommends, in addition to courses in higher schools, the establishment of continuation classes for instruction in domestic science, at which the attendance of working girls and others who have left school at an early age should be made obligatory twice a week during certain months of the year. " The course of instruction at such classes should cover every branch of domestic hygiene, including the preparation of food, the practice of household cleanliness, the tendance and feeding of young children, the proper requirements of a family as to clothing, everything in short that would equip a young girl for the duties of a housewife."
Training of the kind here suggested, gi^-cn at a proper age and in an efficient way by teachers specially prepared for the work, will doubtless eventually be made part of the compulsory education of girls in our public schools. This will come when the puldic mind fully grasps the idea that a nation's welfare depends as much upon the physical efficiency of its citizens as upon their general intelligence.
EDUCATIOlSr OF MOTHER. 43
Whatever scheme is finally adopted for the universal education of mothers, it is clear that instruction must be given to some classes of women in their own homes under medical and sanitary supervision. There is at present in this particular field of preventive medicine great opportunity for private initiative through philanthropic effort. The work of the various Instructive Visiting ]^urses' Associations and similar organizations in our large cities has already demonstrated how quickly health conditions in the homes of the poor can be imjDroved as a result of sympathetic instruction. What it is now possible to give in cities to* the very poor should be available everywhere for women of the better classes. There is need for a new class of health officials — women trained especially in dietetics and the general care of children whom physicians could send to their private patients to instruct them and help them in keeping children well, as they now use trained nurses in the care of the sick.
In this connection a study of the foundation and results of Dr. PierreBudin's " Consultations for ISTurslings " should be familiar to all physicians having the care of women and children. " Every medical man," Prof. Budin says in his lectures, " ought to regulate the feeding of all infants born under his charge. The lying-in period being accomplished, he considers his responsibilities at an end and leaves the poor woman to her own devices in rearing her child. She is expected to have an intuitive knowledge of infant feeding. She might as well be expected to conduct her own confinement. With proper direction the safety of almost every infant can be ensured, and diarrhea, marasmus, rickets, and other dietetic diseases banished from the community." Prof. Budin's "Consultations" are held for both free patients and for those who can pay. They are really classes for the instruction of pregnant women and mothers of young infants. Among other results he has been able to show that the function of lactation is not disappearing among women, but, on the contrary, the great majority of women, by proper food and hygienic care during pregnancy, are able subsequently to nurse their children. It can easily be imagined that a rapid hygienic transformation, public and private, could be made in any given locality if every physician who delivered a woman should be held responsible for the infant's life and health during its early years. Practitioners themselves would quickly acquire a better knowledge of dietetics and the relation of food to health and growth. They would promptly devise some method of effectively educating mothers and nurses to whom the care of young children is directly committed.
When medical inspection of public school children becomes an accepted policy for all public scliools of all gTades, it will be easy to foresee the possibility' of an extension of the system to include an inspection of children before the school-going age. Mrs. Parsons in " The Family " already suggests, in addition to the training of girls of all economic classes in the care of young children, a system of State supervision of the home education of actual and potential public school children, by an extension of the functions of the medical inspectors of schools and school nurses. The school nurse who follows
school children to their homes has already demonstrated that improved hygienic conditions for the younger children may be expected when mothers are given sanitary instruction in their homes.
Public Hygiene. — Ability to obtain food, and "intelligent mothering" are primary essentials in maintaining the life and preserving the health of infants and children, but they are not sufficient. Only by the aid of the community or of the State can the home secure a pure and sufficient water supply ; efficient removal of sewage and garbage ; pure and clean food, including pure clean^ milk, and clean air; proper housing conditions ; and protection from infectious diseases.
The last fifteen years have witnessed a great awakening in our country to the dependence of the individual health upon public sanitary measures. Object lessons there are in plenty demonstrating the ability of preventive medicine to diminish mortality and morbidity, if trained health officials are vested with necessary power. It is only necessary to mention Havana and Panama. In ISTew York City, infant mortality has been decreased fifty per cent in twelve years by an improvement in public hygienic conditions.
Water Supply and Disposal of Sewage. — Education regarding the relation of the public health to a pure water supply and efficient disposal of sewage has gradually secured for urban communities in this country satisfactory efforts towards proper conditions, but much remains to be done before this can be said of small communities. The demonstration of the relation of flies and other insects to infectious diseases gives increased imjDortance to the necessity for proper disposal of human excreta. Better protection of water supply or efficient purification, with sanitary disposal of sewage, are reforms widely needed in suburban places.
Clean Air. — The pollution of the air with smoke and dust, and the methods of street cleaning, or the lack of it, have a very direct effect upon the health of children. The dangers from dust are greater for them than for the adult, both because they have less power of resistance to many infectious diseases, and because their habits of play and their low stature bring the entrance to the respiratory apparatus nearer the floor and the street.
Public Control of Milk Supply. — Efforts to secure pure and clean milk have not kept pace with medical knowledge of its relation to the health of infants and children. In the last few years, mainly through the efforts of the medical j^rofession, it has become possible for the well-to-do in most large cities of the United States to obtain pure, clean milk, usually an impossibility in country districts. Philanthropy has made this possible, also, for the poor of many cities, who can now obtain at a nominal price, at various distributing stations, clean fresh milk or sterilized milk for children. The results in ISTew York from the stations established by Mr. ISTathan Strauss are well known. It is difficult to understand the conditions of milk production that are still
gent effort.
In every locality where physicians have combined to secure a clean pure milk they have succeeded promptly. Eochester, l^ew York, furnishes an example of what may be accomplished by a capable health official, and the results obtained by the various milk commissions organized in recent years show how promptly practical results follow the concerted action of physicians. The Milk Commission organized by the Philadelphia Pediatric Society and that by the 'New York County Medical Society are notable examples. Statistical information is already forthcoming showing an astonishing decrease in the mortality of infants directly traceable to an improvement in the milk supply.
What has been accomplished in larger and smaller cities of the country in the production of certified milk by milk commissions ought to be matters of common knowledge to physicians and stimulate them to similar activities. The first Walker-Gordon milk was supplied from an ordinary farm, with ordinary cows, by the work of one farmer's family. Some encouraging results in Elmira, InT. Y., have recently been reported, wdiich afford a good illustration of what may be done in smaller places. A w^oman was found with some general knowledge of the benefit of clean milk, who was willino- to take up the work. She built a new barn, and had her herd tested for tuberculosis. A standard of 10,000 bacterial count was established and the other usual conditions imposed. The milk was cooled, bottled within a few minutes after it was drawn and then put into a crate, the top of which was filled with crushed ice. The night and morning milk was delivered to the consumer not more than ten hours from the time the oldest of it was drawn the night before. This was accomplished simply by using the means at hand, and what has been done in Elmira could be done in a score of other cities of the sam.e size. Continued public agitation, aided by the work of the agricultural experiment stations, should make the work of milk production a trained industry under constant public supervision.
Improvement of Housing Conditions. — The movement for improved housing conditions of the poor in cities is of great hygienic sig-nificance. Overcrowding, with its attendant evils of bad air, uncleanliness, lack of sunlight, and bad sanitation is, after improper and insufficient food, the greatest cause of death and sickness among children. There is at hand, easy of access, an ample bibliography demonstrating the wretched conditions existing in many of our cities. Booth in his " Life and Labor in London " says, " Crowding is the main cause of drink and vice." As " drink and vice " are the greatest causes of hereditary degenerations, overcrowding, both by its direct and indirect influence upon the health of children, must be reckoned as a principal source of physical deterioration among them. Figure 33 shows a room in which ten persons lived, ate, drank, and slept, and
wliicJi was tlie only place in which one of them, a boy of five or six, could recover from a broken leg. As a result of the activity of social workers and philanthrojjists it has been demonstrated: (1) That improvement in health promptly follows better housing conditions, and (2) that model tenements are a paying investment. A great sanitary reform, therefore, need not be impeded
of children.
A study of the housing conditions in Baltimore, made by Miss Janet Kemp under the direction of the Association for the Improvement of the Condition of the Poor and the Charity Organization Society, furnishes a recent contribution to this subject (1907). This admirable study illustrates well the necessity for watchfulness of conditions even in a city where no tenements are supposed to exist, and shows how rapidly the growth of tenements may proceed within the four walls of dwellings intended for single families. With our present hygienic knowledge, the sanitary conditions under which the poor live in overcrowded houses and tenements should not be tolerated in decent communities (see rig. 34). The hygienic results in tenement house reform aimed at by
sharing among them two privies with three compartments, and one hydrant, the court owned privately and, therefore, independent of the Street CleaningDepartment, in a city with no contagions disease hospital, present a difficult problem to preventive medicine (see Fig. 35).
An interesting question might be raised here as to the effect on the health of the gTowing child of life in the apartment houses for the well-to-do, which have multiplied with such rapidity in recent years in all large centres of population.
PTTBLIC PAEKS, PUBLIC PLAYGROUNDS, PUBLIC BATHS.
Public Parks, Public Playgrounds, Public Baths. — The extension of city park systems, especially the establishment of small parks, the use of school yards and city lots for public playgrounds, out-door gymnasiums and swimming pools are all powerful influences in promoting the health of the growing girl. Towns as well as cities have much to gain by encouraging out-door life among children.
which are under public control. Out-door swimming baths and gymnasiums for boys should be duplicated for girls, or reserved for them at specified times (see Fig. 36). Traditions as to what is proper for girls are difficult to overcome, but mothers must learn to keep their little daughters in the open air as much as possible, and to encourage those plays and sports which take them put of doors. The public playgrounds where girls may spend hours in the open air under watchful control are a great educational force in both the physical and moral development of the child. They should not be for the poor only, but also for those who can afford to pay for the care given. They ought to be in all towns and villages, where it should be possible at all seasons
of the year for joimg children to play in the open air under proper guidance. It would be difficult to estimate the beneficial effect of such out-door life luider efficient direction upon the health of girls.
Public aids to personal cleanliness by the establishment of public baths and laundries in congested districts of large cities are legitimate charges upon the public purse. They are material aids to encouraging cleanliness of children among those classes who need it most.
Protection against Infectious Diseases. — Infectious diseases with their sequelae are, after malnutrition, the greatest source of illness, acute and chronic, among children, while the chronic ill health of adults is often traceable to imperfect recovery from some of the ordinary infectious diseases of childhood. The prevention of infectious disease is, therefore, of the gTcatest imjDortance to the good health of the growing girl. Moreover, there is every reason to believe that not a few of the gynecological affections from which so many women suffer have their starting point in the infectious diseases most common in childhood (see Chap. X).
The knowledge now in possession of scientific medicine as to the etiology and prophylaxis of many infectious diseases is ample to enormously diminish their incidence in child life and their effects upon the health of the adult. It is well known to physicians that the prevention of infectious diseases among children involves: (1) Knowledge of the exciting cause, or of some effective method of preventive inoculation; (2) power to control those external conditions by which sjDCcific infective agents are multiplied and propagated; (3) power to control those external and internal factors by which resistance to infection is increased. They know, too, that the ability of the individual phvsician in private practice to limit the spread of infectious diseases is confined: (1) To preventive inoculations; (2) to trying to secure isolation;
(3) to instructing parents in matters of personal and public hygiene; (4) to calling to his assistance such administrative control as is operative in his particular community for the enforcement of public health measures for the common good. Sanitary reforms of public health administration are as necessary for the physician in his practice as for the general public.
Among the measures which may be expected to materially diminish infectious diseases in the future are: (1) Multiplication of laboratories for research into causes of infectious diseases and the measures for their prevention; (2) thorough reorganization of public health departments with a great extension of their powers; (3) employment of such health officers only as have had special training for their work or have shown a special fitness for it;
(4) medical inspection of all school children; (5) establishment of health laboratories, at such convenient centres in small communities that all physicians may have the skilled assistance in bacteriological and clinical diagnosis which the best municipal laboratories now give to city physicians; (6) establishment of isolation hospitals for infectious diseases, or isolation wards in all hospitals receiving state aid; (7) the practice of better personal hygiene.
HYGIENE OF THE SCIIOOE GIEI.. 51
Tlie adoj)tion of effective measures of public hygiene can be secured only by a vigorous campaign of education in the principles and practice of preventive medicine. The thinking public must be convinced that health is secured best by preventing disease, not by curing it. That it is easier to obtain from the public means to cure than to prevent is illustrated by what has been accomplished in the campaigTi against tuberculosis. State aid for incipient curable cases is -accepted generally as good public policy, w^hile the necessity of provision for the isolation of advanced cases, which are the greatest menace to public health, esj)ecially to that of children, has received as yet little public recognition.
Summary. — 111 health among children is largely the result of post-natal influences. To maintain their life and promote their health requires sufficient and proper food, fresh air, cleanliness, sleep, rest, exercise, the formation of hygienic habits by education, and protection from the harmful influences of environment. Physicians are informed or should be informed about these matters, but their knowledge is of little value unless they can secure its practical and intelligent application in the household through mothers and caretakers ; and in public through public opinion, legislative enactment, and administrative control. The duty of the profession, so far as hygiene is concerned, is to inaugurate some systematic plan for instruction of mothers of all classes on subjects of personal hygiene ; and of the general j)"i^blic in matters of public hygiene.
School-going" Age. — Most girls spend a part of the period from six or eight to seventeen or eighteen at school. Many States determine this fact by the enactment of compulsory education laws. In every intelligent community the schools are tacitly considered to offer the best means for the development of the mind of the child ; they should aid and supplement the home in the development of the body. lio fixed rule can be given as to the age at which the small girl should be placed in school ; the decision in each case must be based upon a comparative study of both the home and the school and the physical and mental status of the individual child. For the weak and anemic girl with poor physical inheritance and with home possibilities of good nourishment and out-door life — six to eight years is too early; the same girl from a dirty insanitary home is certainly better off in school.
At whatever age the girl enters school, her education has already been begun and carried far at home ; habits have been formed, principles instilled, and tendencies developed and trained. The best school available for the continuation of this education should be chosen, co-educational or otherwise. In early school life at least, sex difference should not be emphasized in the selection of the school nor in courses of training. There is no essential difference in the physical needs of growing children. All animal necessities are the
same, the same food is eaten, cell processes arc similar, tlie same exercises are enjoyed. Boys and girls like equally well to ride, to swim, to climb trees, to play basket-ball. Exercises for children should not be restricted, or adapted, or classified on a sex basis as boyish and girlish. Playfair says, " Up to the time of puberty there is comparatively little difference between the sexes in health, in disease, or in any other condition. Conventionally, they are separated and different modes of education and training wall soon make such difference as there is more marked, but boys and girls play together, w^ork together, and are generally on a footing of perfect equality, there being little essential which distinguishes one sex- from the other." As education progresses the boy is trained to courage, endurance, and manliness, is taught to protect the weak, to be depended upon, to provide for himself and others, and, in short, is educated with the idea that he is to be the head of a family, to bear civic responsibility, to assist in guiding national affairs, to be economically independent. The girl is trained to directly opposite notions; she is expected to be helpless and dependent, and this undoubtedly is a distinct hygienic disadvantage.
In recent years there has been a recoil from older ideas and the trained intelligence of educated women has been successfully applied to many of the problems of the child's education. As the education of mothers progresses and becomes more specific, still better results in the education of girls will be attained. ISTo degree of native intelligence, no advantage of modern educational method is too great for the woman who is to be a mother, no knowledge, but may be put to use in the care of a home or training of a child. There is no possibility of over development of the powers of either father or mother when we consider that, biologically speaking, the production and education of children is the greatest human achievement.
It is the duty of parents to bear children with good physical and mental capacities and to train their natural endowments to their most perfect development. Each successive generation should be superior to the preceding by at least some small increment of physical strength and mental or moral vigor. Oppenheim says, " The spirit of the hour calls for a strenuous effort, a desire to improve upon the past, a noble dissatisfaction that can be quieted only by an active exhibition of individual endeavor." The nearest duty to the individual is but the greater duty to the race, and a parent's apparently egoistic effort for the welfare of his own offspring is, in a larger sense, a contribution to race' development.
Hygienic Habits of the School Girl. — A girl at the school age is the product of her home environment and brings to the new conditions of her life a physical preparation which is the direct result of her inheritance and home care. Her general condition and power of resistance should be at the maximum. She should have certain fixed hygienic habits. Her food, her clothing, her hours of rest and of sleep should be regulated by the solicitous care of intelligent parents. The breakfast, the bath, the care of the nails and teeth, attention to the evacuation of the bowels should be matters of daily routine. These early
bility to the child.
A surprising number of school children habitually eat no breakfast. Inability to take breakfast is always sufficient reason for keeping a child from school. Two reasons for this are obvious : the work of the morning will make far greater demand upon the child's vitality, if energy furnished by breakfast is lacking ; and, in the interest of the school, the fact should be determined whether the child is suffering the initial symptoms of contagious disease, in which case she should not be permitted to mingle with other children.
A daily bath may be considered a hygienic necessity. It is a matter of common observation that mothers who are careful to bathe a baby daily throughout infancy consider a weekly bath adequate for the same child as it grows older. This is true, not in the homes of the poor alone, but often in those where complete bathing facilities exist and the physical work of keeping clean is reduced to a minimum. Under the conditions existing at present in many homes the schools must furnish instruction in personal hygiene, and it would be an advantage if they were equipped with shower baths in order to carry out such teaching practically. In some continental cities the shower bath is part of the daily school routine. Teachers should encourage children from homes lacking bathing facilities to make use of the public baths in those cities where such systems exist. The child should have learned, too, that clean clothing is as necessary to personal cleanliness as a clean skin and that the underclothing should be frequently changed. Many children from the better classes are not carefully trained in this particular.
The care of the teeth in young children is of great importance. Too much stress can hardly be laid upon the necessity of early training in habits of mouth cleanliness, not only because of the importance of preserving the teeth, but also because of the relation of the bacterial flora of the mouth to many infectious processes.
The habit of daily evacuation of the bowels is largely a matter of early training. 'No more important habit can be cultivated in infancy and childhood. Most cases of persistent constipation in adult life are attributable to a failure to establish this early habit, to dietetic errors, or to neglect of a tendency towards constipation (see Chap. VIII). Haste and disorder in the early morning hours are very unfavorable to the establishment of regular habits of going to stool. The hour of rising should be regulated to allow time sufficient for the bath, the toilet, the breakfast, and the evacuation of the bowels. Breakfast should be ready promptly at the hour ; many cases of ill health in growing children can be traced to a habit of going to school without breakfast, or of swallowing their food hastily without mastication, or to a failure to observe the regular time of going to stool.
The Dress of Young Girls. — The method of dressing little girls according to present standards is almost ideal. Simplicity of style, lack of constriction and pressure, lightness combined with warmth, support by shoul-
make the well dressed yonng girl a strong contrast to her older sisters.
Physical Condition of the School Girl. — It is very desirable that the physical condition of every girl abont to enter school be determined by medical examination. Unless a child is in good physical condition, she may not only be unable to profit by the advantages offered, but even be harmed by attendance at school. It is futile to attempt to educate children Avho are not in physical or mental condition to be educated ; moreover, the school-going age is the most favorable period for attention to many defects or tendencies which have been overlooked during infancy and early childhood. Corrective and preventive work may be carried far during these plastic years, and much may be accomplished toward right development which, later in life, would be found to be impossible. It is equally important that the child entering school should not be a source of danger to other children, as she will be if she is suffering from any form of . communicable disease.
Unless both the physical and mental status of each child is intelligently determined, she cannot be properly classified. Underfed children, those who have errors of vision, adenoids, or scoliosis are frequently considered to be mentally retarded, whereas experience has shown that many such cases may be returned to the normal classes, if their physical condition receives the necessary attention. Of a large number of Boston school children classed as truant or backward ninety-five per cent were found to be physically defective. Under the conditions of the present day a system of medical inspection of schools furnishes the most efficient method for obtaining the facts which will enable any community to render the schools the best means for the development of the child and for its preparation to receive the greatest benefit from education. It is astonishing that the public has been so slow to recognize the value of what seems such a self evident proposition. Many European countries have had a system of partial inspection for some years. Japan introduced medical inspection in 1893 and in 1906 had eight thousand four hundred and twenty-four inspectors, while the whole United States had but six hundred. Although medical inspection in the United States has been slow of adoption and is limited in application, ISTew York has the most comprehensive and highly developed system of medical inspection of schools in the world. It was established in 1896, one hundred and fifty inspectors were appointed, and during the first year six thousand eight hundred and twentynine pupils were excluded on account of various diseases. In 1902 six oculists were added to the staff. Subsequently a corps of trained nurses made the work more effective by securing immediate attention to minor ailments and to skin and parasitic troubles. A short statement of results during the year between March 27, 1905, and March 31, 1906, is instructive.
That sixty-three per cent of all children who enter the schools of 'New York need medical treatment is a tremendous indictment against the efficiency of the home, and demonstrates also the inability of the medical profession to prevent disease when its relation to the family is entirely dependent upon the volition of parents. There are no available published statistics for comparison from private schools which draw their pupils exclusively from the well-to-do classes, but even here, wherever careful medical examinations and re-examinations have been made, a surprisingly large percentage of girls have been found suffering from remediable physical defects, the most common of which are poor nutrition, defects in vision, defective hearing, enlarged tonsils and post-nasal growths, and chronic skin affections. To these various causes of ill health a careful analysis may trace most of the disturbances of function of the reproductive organs in girls and young women which do not result from congenital malformations, the effects of trauma, or infections. The educational processes of the schools are not entirely blameless, but they are not responsible for the large percentage of acquired ill health in women so often charged against them.
Faulty nutrition is the source of more ill health among school girls than all other causes combined. Measurements of large numbers of school children have shown clearly the direct relation existing between nutrition and growth. Chlorosis, many skin troubles, low power of resistance to some acute and chronic infections, slow recovery after acute
infections diseases, and a low average of general health are all directly traceable to malnutrition. A relatively small number of underfed children reach a reasonable proficiency in their school work. Good nutrition, therefore, is essential to good education. This question of nutrition is one for the family, but its recog-nized importance has found expression in some localities in Continental Europe in the provision of breakfasts and luncheons for the poor, with the result of astonishing betterment in both physical and mental condition of the children. But evidences of malnutrition are common, also, among girls of the better classes, who often fail to eat enough plain, nourishing food, or suffer from loss of appetite consequent upon an indulgence in unsuitable food at the family table, or upon sweets obtained between meals from candy and cake shops and soda-water fountains in the vicinity of school houses. A warm, nourishing, midday luncheon is essential for a girl's good health. School sessions must be arranged with this in view, and where the distance makes it impossible for the girl to go home to obtain it, the school should see that suitable provision is made in or near the school building. In this latter case the food furnished should be supervised by the school principal, and an effort be made, at least, to guide the choice of the individual girl as to the kind and quantity of food eaten, Thomas Madden Moore says : " If the State, for reasons of public policy, determines that all children shall be compulsorily educated from their earliest years, it should certainly afford the means by which this may be least injuriously and most effectively carried out, by providing sufficient food as well as education for every pauper child compelled to attend school."
Condition of Eyes of School Girls. — The result of the examination of the eyes of school children in those schools where medical inspection has been introduced are sufficiently significant to warrant the statement that no child should be permitted to enter school without having had the eyes examined by an ophthalmologist. The ophthalmic inspectors of I^ew York City found thirty-three and one-third per cent of children in the schools with defects of vision of sufficient importance to interfere with the proper pursuit of their studies. The effect of eye-strain on the general health of the child, the possibility of some interdependence between eye-strain and certain disorders of menstruation, insomnia, and nervousness, the presence of eye-strain as a causative factor in the production of scoliosis are all subjects which are being earnestly discussed, and the conclusions of those who can speak with authority show that no defects of vision can be regarded as trivial. Many parents are extremely averse to sending their children, especially girls, to an ophthalmologist, permitting the child to suffer the consequences of a physical defect with no more reasonable excuse than the dislike of the esthetic effects of glasses. Attention to the eyes of children on entering school would protect them against the increasing percentage of defects of vision in the higher schools. Dr. Kerr, from his observations in London, found that ninety-five per cent of children between six and six and one-half years of age have normal visual acuity, A
steady increase in myopia is noted in the ascending grades. Dr. Hermann Colin, after testing ten thousand pupils, found twenty-two per cent with myopia in the youngest classes and fifty-eight per cent in the higher. School construction and school appliances should recognize the needs of the eyesight of the school child in the lighting and color of rooms, size, form and type of hooks, work from black-boards, school seating, methods of teaching writing, substitution of paper for slates. Kindergartens require too much close work from children.
Condition of Ears, Nose, and Throat. — Many girls in both public and private schools are found to have defective hearing in one or both ears. Since ninety per cent of such cases are probably curable, if discovered early and properly treated, it becomes a matter of great importance that the cases which have escaped detection until the school-going age should receive suitable care before a condition of permanent deafness is established. Many cases of defective physical development and impaired health are directly due to the limitation of breathing capacity resulting from hypertrophied tonsils and post-nasal growths. Inasmuch as the tonsils and the peri-tonsillar mucous membrane of the j)harynx are often* the portals of infection for acute rheumatism, endocarditis, and otitis media with mastoiditis, abnormal conditions of the tonsils and naso-pharynx, both acute and chronic, must receive careful and prompt attention. Acute tonsillitis in children can never be looked upon as an unimportant disease, and following such attacks children should be kept from school until their health is fully restored. Kisch holds that there is some interdependence, either nervous or circulatory, between hypertrophy of the tonsils and disorders of menstruation, and cites instances of retardation of the appearance of menstruation and lack of development at puberty which were quickly corrected after the removal of hypertrophied tonsils. This observation receives some confirmation in the fact that a large proportion of the cases of either slight or severe dysmenorrhea among one hundred school girls between the ag-es of thirteen and eighteen, under careful medical supervision, had enlarged tonsils, or had had them removed. The rapid development, both mental and physical, frequently observed in the individual girl after surgical attention to these conditions is most striking, l^o less marked is the improvement after operation in minor conditions, as the adenoid expression, mouth breathing, defective nasal development, and the hoarse or nasal voice frequently accompanying enlarged faucial and pharyngeal tonsils. Without doubt future investigation will show causative relations between adenoids and serious diseases not at present referred to them, but we have even now sufficient knowledge to insist that the development of the growing girl shall not be threatened by the lack of their removal.
The importance of determining the exact physical status of each girl upon entering school has been emphasized. It is equally essential that the results of such examination be followed by skilled attention to the defects discovered. It is of small avail to the welfare of the individual girl that the fact has been
revealed that the eyes are myopic, that scoliosis is present, or that adenoids obstruct the nasal passages, if means are not taken to remove such handicaps. Unfortunately, parents, and even family physicians, frequently oppose any active measures for removing such defects, as in a case of advanced scoliosis, recognized by the school physician in its incipiency, which failed to have any effective treatment because of the attitude of the family physician.
School Buildings and Appliances and the Health of the School G-irl. — If the girl presents herself at the school clean and well, she should find the environment of the school favorable to the preservation of her health and furnishing protection against infectious diseases. It may be truthfully said that most American schools do not, at present, afford such environment. Ideal conditions can be secured only by efficient sanitary oversight of school construction, school furnishings, and school administration. When one considers that the schools are often centres of infections, possibly the most common source for young people, it is evident that all communities should establish medical inspection and sanitary supervision as a measure of public hygiene. Indeed it is questionable whether compulsory school attendance is warrantable without the protection afforded by such compulsory supervision. School architecture has made great strides in recent years, and many modern school buildings in both city and country districts are admirably adapted to their purpose; but even in these, the hygienic demands of the school have not always received the attention demanded by their importance, while many old school buildings are entirely unsuitable for use, on account of their location, construction, lack of suitable heating and ventilation, and of proper lighting. In all school buildings, even the best, school management is responsible for important hygienic necessities that often receive scant attention ; over-crowding and improper seating are common, out-houses and toilet rooms are insufficient, unsuitable, or uncared for; methods of school cleaning are inefficient and even dangerous; drinking cups are used in common; school books, pencils, and other appliances used in common are not cleaned nor disinfected ; children habitually dirty are not separated from the clean, nor is there provision anywhere for school baths. A more widespread knowledge of existing conditions in schools, as well as a better general knowledge of sanitation, will be necessary before better sanitary conditions will be common in all schools.
The number of cases of communicable parasitic and skin diseases discovered among school children by medical examiners suggests the desirability of separating the habitually dirty children from the clean. The services of the school nurse in following up cases of this nature have been productive of very marked improvement in the condition of personal cleanliness of individual children. Health talks to mothers under the joint supervision of educational and health authorities Avould be far-reaching in hygienic results.
The dangers of dust as a carrier of disease germs make a reform in methods of cleaning school-rooms necessary. Janitors and care-takers must be supervised and trained in the best methods of moist cleaning and dusting.
Out-houses and toilet-rooms must receive more enlightened attention. Dirty, unsanitary, and unsuitable closets are common, and usually there is no supervision except that given by the care-taker. The conditions of these closets is in many ways a menace to health as well as to morals. Moreover many cases of constipation in adult life may be traced back to school conditions where the closets provided were so disgusting as to inhibit in a sensitive child the desire to go to stool, or to evacuate the bladder.
All teachers of the young should be instructed in the elements of personal and of school hygiene. Their intelligent initiative and cooperation is necessary in all measures for rendering school attendance a healthful experience. The teacher's ideas of ventilation, for instance, are what eventually determine the condition of the air of the school-room ; her example in matters of personal cleanliness, neatness, and clothing may influence markedly the habits of the girls under her care. ISTo system of medical supervision can be adequate or effective without the cordial cooperation of teachers who have an intelligent knowledge of the objects to be gained.
Physical Training and Medical Gymnastics. — Carefully supervised physical training is one of the most important and rational factors in the life of the school girl. J. Madison Taylor says : " Children cannot be expected to grow up properly unless directed." This fact is easily demonstrated by a comparative study of girls who have had every favorable opportunity for spontaneous growth and those who have had the advantages of systematic training in a modern gymnasium. Indeed the physical differences between girls of sixteen or seventeen who have had well-directed gymnasium work and those who have not had it are so marked that an experienced examiner has little difficulty in separating the one class from the other by simple inspection. ]^o one with medical training who has had the opportunity of examining large ninubers of healthy girls in preparatory schools and observing the effects of good gymnasium work upon them,
Various systems of gymnastic training are used in this country and each system has certain advantages, but whatever the system, the work, to be useful, must be regular, systematic, and adapted to the needs of the average healthy girl. It should he given by a special teacher trained for the work, should require a special dress for the girls (see Fig. 37), and should have a room built and equipped for the purpose. It needs always careful and continued medical supervision. It must seek to gain two results: (1) The general systemic effects of exercise, such as improvement in respiration, circulation, digestion, etc., including the acquisition of increased nervous control over bodily movements; (2) the correction of physical defects, such as faults of posture, carriage, etc., which are not the result of pathological changes in tissues, but are largely due to the environment of school life.
All the systemic effects of exercise gained in the gymnasium could doubtless be obtained from out-door athletics with the additional advantages of the open air, were it possible to make girls take this in definite amounts
have proper seats and desks.
Many are non-adjustable, and many of the so-called adjustable seats and desks cannot be properly fitted to the individual pupil. The rules to be followed are : (1) The height of the seat should equal the distance from the floor to the under part of the knee; (2) the height of the desk should equal the distance
PHYSICAL TEAINIISTG OF THE SCHOOL GIKL AND MEDICAL GYMNASTICS.
from floor to elbow plus tliree-quarters of an inch ; ( 3 ) there should be a minus distance of at least half an inch between front edges of desk and seat ; (4) the box of the desk should be sufficiently narrow at its front edge to permit above adjustment without pressure
to regard it as one of the essentials of healthful living.
Several hours each day should be spent in the open air by every girl attending school. It would be well if the school could make compulsory a definite amount of out-door exercise under guidance. Nearly all the sports and games boys are taught in the open air can be used equally well for girls, when guarded by medical inspection. Playf air says : " One chief reason for the more frequent break-down of girls than boys at school is probably that the male's work is safeguarded by an amount of physical exertion in the way of sports which tends to keep him in health, and that this is usually compulsory in boys' schools, and optional in girls'." School grounds should be ample. Athletic fields for girls are as necessary as for boys. Playgrounds in parks should be set aside for girls. They should receive instruction in swimming. School swimming pools and public swimming baths (see Fig. 40) afford facilities for such instruction, which are easily popularized. The habit of taking exercise in the open air, firmly fixed on the girl, makes it a necessity for her when her formal education is completed, and this is of inestimable valiie in maintaining and promoting her health in after life.
-Desk "with Irons Similar to that Sitoavn in Fig. This is sold as an adjustable desk, but the box is six inches in width at the front and cannot be adjusted to the majority of pupils without pressure upon the knees.
The medical pxaminer must carefully differentiate in school girls those cases of slight myopathic asymmetry; faults of carriage, as protruding head and abdomen; and careless postnre, from those more serious cases in which a slight lateral deviation of the spine has been neglected nntil it has become l^athologic, involving the bony structures and requiring special corrective work,
or medical gymnastics. The prevention of scoliosis, and its early cure, is of especial importance for girls, because of the changes which may result in the bony pelvis and their effects upon the mechanics of parturition. The early recognition of this defect in girls is imperative. Most cases are unfortunately not subjected to physical examination until well established. Every general practitioner should know the diagnosis and the probable etiology of scoliosis, but the treatment should not be undertaken by the school gymnasium. Schulthess thinks that, although schools and attitudes in study may be a detrimental factor in lateral curvature, they do not furnish the chief etiological influence. J. M. Taylor holds that many faults of attitude are due to original errors of construction, some hereditary. One of the latest theories of the etiology of scoliosis assumes the faulty construction of the bodies of the vertebrae as the predisposing factor. This theory receives some confirmation in the fact
demonstrated by tlie medical examination of many school cliildren from six to eight years of age that very few are absolutely symmetrical even at this early age. All sucli children need careful watching throughout the whole period of school life, in order to determine whether they improve constantly under general care, careful attention to nutrition, and simple bi-lateral work in the gjmmasium, or whether there is increasing asymmetry and a necessity for corrective work. Tlie treatment of scoliosis is not a legitimate part of school work, and should not be undertaken by the school gymnasium. It needs medically supervised special individual work, given by women specially trained in the apjDlication of gymnastics and massage to orthopedic cases, as well as sufficiently intelligent and sympathetic to encourage the child and inspire her to put forth her best exertion in the persistent and long-continued effort needed for the improvement of her deformity. The child should not be taken from school unless it is clearly shown that the school, even when the amount of work it demands is modified, is undoubtedly affecting her general health. Much harm often comes to the girl by separating her from her class, interfering with her education, and concentrating her attention upon her physical condition, thus sowing the seeds of physical introspection and invalidism.
in a severe case is shown in Figures 45 and 46.
School Life in Its Relation to Puberty. — It is useless to concentrate attention u]30u one period of a girl's life and to attempt by over solicitude at this time to remedy the effects of early mistakes in hygienic living and hereditary tendencies. It is unreasonable to anticipate normal puberty in the weak, poorly nourished, and imperfectly developed girl who has been permitted to violate the laws of health throughout childhood. The advantage of a good physical start in life is most apparent at the age of sexual development. The physiologic demands upon the growing girl are greatest at this time. That the period from twelve and a half to fourteen and a half years in girls is that of gTeatest increase in height and weight is indicated by the following tables :
That strength docs not keep pace with muscle growth is shown by the falling off in strength tests, and is plainly indicated by the careless carriage and awkwardness of many girls at this age. Inability to give fixed attention to work and listlessness, demonstrate accompanying mental inertia. The school curricnlnm should take cognizance of the physiological and psychical changes going on in the pubescent girl. Under twelve years the pressure and stimulation of the school are of little consequence to the normal girl. She is not likely to respond mentally in a way harmful to her health, but in tlie following years the demands of the present school Mall contain factors unfavorable to her best development. Henderson in his " Education and the Larger Life " has expressed the conditions well when he says : " The lower schools would be good if the high schools would let them, and the high schools would be good if the colleges would let them, and the colleges would teach the knowledge of most worth, if the community would let them. Apparently, it is a superior madness which drives us." Whatever harm educational methods of this high pressure system inflict upon a girl's health, close observation of girls in college and in preparatory schools certainly places the responsibility upon the preparatory schools. School work must be adapted to the capacity of the average girl, not to the ability of the exceptionally gifted.
The school, however, is frequently held responsible for the ill health of individual girls, when it has really furnished the only favorable environmental conditions under which they have lived, B. Sachs finds the chief causes of break-down in school life are the tendencies of parents to force a child to keep up with other children who are mentally or physically stronger and in the conditions of life in homes and in society. " Mental fatigue," he says, '' is no more a morbid symptom than physical fatigue, provided it be transitory and be recovered from promptly after a short period of relaxation. It is the school alone which in our American life exerts the slight restraining influence which our children need above all else."
To what extent the injurious consequences which may reasonably be ascribed to school conditions manifest themselves by disturbances • of menstruation is a difficult question to answer. Certainly the amount of menstrual disturbance occurring among school girls has been much over-estimated. Engelmann has tabulated five thousand cases of beginning menstruation and finds about sixty per cent with more or less menstrual pain. Chapman thinks that fully seventy-five per cent of girls Avould give a history of painful menstruation. Clark says, " The menstrual function should, of course, occur painlessly and with perfect periodicity, but it is quite rare to find this function unattended with some discomfort and very frequently there is the most intense cramplike pain, which totally incapacitates the patient for one or more days before the onset of the fiow and for one or two days after it is established." These figures are not corroborated by a study of the menstrual history of a group of school girls under medical supervision for several years preceding and following puberty. Such a study shows that in about seventy-five per cent
HYGIENE OP PUBERTY. 67
of school girls normal menstruation occurs. In a representative group from a private school only twenty-five per cent reported habitual discomfort. Fiftysix per cent of these, or fourteen per cent of the whole, remained away from school regularly one or two days ; thirty -six per cent of these, or nine per cent of the whole, had sufficient pain to go to bed for one or two days. Statistics of girls of the same grade in public schools, the girls being less likely to report slight discomfort, show still smaller percentages.
Summary.- — The best physical development of the growing girl demands : (1) More rational home care and training throughout childhood and youth ; (2) school conditions which furnish every facility for healthful life and growth, best secured by a wide extension of an effective system of medical inspection and sanitary supervision; (3) compulsory physical training in the schools ; (4) revision of the curriculum of preparatory schools to relieve the pressure of school work.
HYGIENE OF PUBERTY AND HYGIENE OF OCCUPATION.
Hygiene of Puberty.- — Reference has already been made to the necessity of recognizing the years marking the advent of puberty in school curricula. It is convenient to take up here more directly a consideration of the personal hygiene of this period. A rational hygiene of puberty must be based upon an understanding of the physiological and psychical changes which the girl is undergoing. It is a period for wise direction and sympathetic guidance. All the resources of physical and moral education must be brought into play to establish right habits of living, for the future woman is moulded at this time. The physiology of fatigue is too obscure at present to determine with scientific exactness the amount of work, mental or physical, which may be taken as a safe standard for the normal girl with average mental capacity, but it is certain that from her twelfth to her fifteenth year she should have the benefit of any doubt, and the school and home should require too little rather than too much. Strain and stress of emotional life, in especial, must be avoided. Much of the re-education needed as a therapeutic measure in the treatment of the psychasthenia of adult women will become unnecessary when the girl is properly educated at this age in the home and in the school.
ITutrition. — This is a point which requires close attention. Diseases of malnutrition common at this period depend as often upon improper food as upon insufficient food. Rich and poor may suffer equally; the one from overfeeding and improper feeding, the other from lack of food. A plain, mixed diet taken at regular intervals must be insisted upon. Patience and perseverance on the part of mothers, with cordial cooperation between mothers and teachers, will be required in this matter of diet. Girls frequently suffer from the dietetic errors, dietetic fads, and dietetic neglect of the family table. It is as easy to teach them to eat good plain food at regular intervals
difficulties.
The importance of a knowledge of dietetics in relation to health and gTowth cannot be urged too strongly upon the general practitioner. Mothers and young girls need very definite instructions as to the kind of food to be taken and its quantity.
It must not be forgotten that the processes of nutrition involve the excretion of waste as well as the in-take of new material. The care of the health of the growing girl involves the prevention and often the cure of constipation as well as attention to the demands for evacuation of the bladder.
Exercise. — Exercise in the open air, after ' nutrition, is the greatest hygienic need of puberty. The necessity and use of systematic gymnastic work under medical supervision as an essential part of the school education has already been insisted upon, but this work in the gymnasium cannot take the place of exercise in the open air. The school and the home should provide for out-door sj)orts and games. Tennis, golf, hockey, basket-ball, rowing, swimming and skating are all particiilarly useful for the developing girl. All sports into which the spirit of competition enters should be carefully guarded. The value of inter-school and inter-collegiate athletics for girls is extremely doubtful, as excessive physical and mental strain cannot be avoided. The athletic ideal is not to be aimed at; what is required is to cultivate a desire for the pleasurable satisfaction that comes with healthy fatigue of the muscles by work in the open air. Among all exercises great stress should be laid upon walking; girls should acquire a love for brisk cross-country walking. Care in advising exercise and athletics must be observed ; neurotic girls, girls with heart lesions, anemia and other physical disabilities must be kept off basketball teams, tennis tournaments, and other games where excitement runs high. Physical trainers cannot be trusted to judge of medical conditions, and family physicians are frequently at fault. This matter of exercise in the open air should receive careful attention from the family physician; offhand advice to refrain from some particular exercise, or advice to strenuous exercise not adapted to the individual girl often work irreparable harm. The general practitioner should be familiar with the physiology of exercise, with the methods of physical training used in the schools, with the nature of the various athletic games and their adaptation to the needs of the individual girl. He should be able to give definite directions as to the kind of exercise to be taken and its amount. It is his duty before prescribing exercise for any particular girl to make a thorough physical examination, and before advising against exercise to examine most carefully into the life and habits of the girl for causes for her complaints rather than to ascribe them to systematic exercise.
Alcoves, recesses, dark rooms, corners, are unsuitable places for beds. Girls quickly acquire the habit of sleeping with all the outside air they can get, irrespective of its temperature, and the windows of the bed-room should be freely opened at all seasons of the year. The bed clothing must be sufficient for warmth, but light in weight. Single beds should be provided. Simplicity in the furnishings of the bed-room and scrupulous cleanliness are to be aimed at. Bare floors with rugs easily cleaned, washable curtains and hangings, and walls easily renovated are desirable. With a better understanding of the relation of dust to disease we may look for great modifications in the popular standard for the furnishing of bed-rooms, in which approximately one-third of life is spent.
Employment at Home. — The time available for exercise in the open air is interfered with by many unnecessary exactions upon the girl in the household. What these are would involve a discussion of the whole question of the organization of the household and the teaching of domestic science which has no place here. Household work should form an essential part of the education of every girl ; but the unnecessary and thoughtless demands made upon the growing girl in poorly organized households are part of a bad moral and physical training.
Long hours of practice on the piano must be avoided. The posture, if long-continued is bad, the confinement is bad, and the attempt at prolonged attention is bad. If skill in the use of musical instruments can be acquired only by long consecutive sittings, then, for the average girl, a choice must be deliberately made between music lessons and good health. A reform in the method of teaching music, especially the piano, is much needed.
Sewing on the machine for long consecutive periods is objectionable for precisely the same reasons. Long-continued standing for any purpose is also harmful. Frequent changes of posture give most favorable conditions for a normal pelvic circulation.
Bathing. — The bathing habit, if not already established, must receive attention. The bath for cleanliness and the bath for stimulation should be enforced. Most girls must be taught that the minimum of cleanliness requires a full bath at least twice a week with soap and warm water, and at the least, daily attention to the exposed parts of the body, to the axillae, the external genitalia, and to the feet. It is curious to note hov/ averse mothers are to the use of soap in care of the face of the girl for fear of its effects upon the skin, when they cheerfully acquiesce in its necessity for the delicate skin of the baby. It is difficult even in acne to enforce proper cleanliness of the skin of the face.
Most girls, too, must be taught the value of a cold bath as a part of the morning toilet, in the form of a plunge, a sponge, or a shower, with brisk friction subsequently. Such a bath should follow any form of active exercise. Baths other than these referred to belong to the resources of hydrotherapy and ought to be taken under medical supervision.
Clothing. — At the establishment of puberty with the develoj)ment of the physical characteristics of the woman, the child's clothes are replaced by those of the adult. A woman's clothes are the despair of the hygienist. The dictates of fashion pay slight attention to the physiological demands of clotliing. Tight collars, tight corsets, heavy skirts supported by the hips and waist, shoes too small and badly shaped, and a total disregard of the use of clothing in the maintenance of body temperature characterize the dress of the so-called " well-dressed " woman. With such standards before her, with the awakened desire of making herself attractive forcing itself upon her consciousness, the difficulties of adajDting the dress of the pubescent girl to her hygienic needs are well-nigh insurmountable.
Rebellion at first against the corset is strong, but she accepts it, adapts her feelings to it, and finally defends it. In a thousand measurements of women and girls, showing a constriction of the waist varying from one to five inches
and more, one single woman in the series could be brought to acknowledge that her corset felt too tight. While opinions as to the causal relation between the corset and pelvic congestions, movable kidney and enteroptosis in women differ, there is no doubt, as Glenard has shown, that the corset produces artificially, while it is worn, the dislocations of the organs brought about by other causes. This is well illustrated by reference to the diagrams (see Fig. 47). As an article of dress for the girl the corset must be looked upon as distinctly prejudicial to healtli, and as entirely unnecessary. Other more hygienic garments may be made to give whatever support the bust needs.
The weight of clothing and its support should be regulated. The weight of skirts should he kept at a minimum. It is a rule to which few exceptions are found that the entire weight of women's skirts is supported from the waist — and yet the reasons for supporting a woman's clothes hj the thorax are greater than those demanding such support for the little girl. The clothing sold in the shops represents the habits of the community, and the impossibility of buying suitable garments for girls of sixteen shows how early the women's clothes with their disadvantages are forced upon the girl.
A properly fitting shoe is necessary for the support of the body, for correct carriage, and for the maintenance of the integrity of the arch of the
foot. The shoe of the average young woman is too small, while its shape is
grotesque and absurd (see Fig. 48). Its size, its shape and its heel interfere to such an extent with the mechanics of support and with the circulation
urgently needed than an adaptation of the shoe to the function of the foot. Figure 49 shows the relation between a foot of normal shape and the shoe into which it is commonly forced. Figure 50 shows shoes adapted to the shape of the foot and the proper fulfilment of its function as a means .of support to the body.
Instruction of Growing Girl in the Physiology of Reproduction.— All women who have the care of growing girls in the school or in the home should have an iutelligent knowledge of the physiological changes going on in the developing girl. They should have the ability to teach girls in some proper way before the first menstrual period a few simple facts about reproduction, and the very little that is known about the significance of the menstrual flow. Such instruction will be of benefit to girls morally as well as physically. There is little doubt that the ignorance which envelops this whole subject for the average mother and teacher, and the secrecy maintained about it, result in great harm to the mind and body of the developing girl. There is no real difiiculty in giving the necessary instruction in a helpful way, provided it is given with knowledge and sympathy by a woman who has the affection and confidence of the girl. This is a part of the education of the girl that preeminently belongs to the mother, but, unfortunately, for the present at least, this teaching must be relegated in most cases to the schools, and therefore teachers should be properly instructed. The general introduction of the study of biology into high school courses and into those of teachers' training schools is making women teachers familiar with the great facts of organic reproduction, and th'e difficulties of giving them adequate instruction in the physiology and hygiene of the reproductive system have practically disappeared. The nature study now common in most schools will make the task of instructing girls of thirteen comparatively easy, provided the teacher has tact and knowledge.
It is for this reason that an active life out of doors with many varied interests outside of herself should be encouraged. Her reading must be carefully guided. Introspective habits should be discouraged, and an objective life cultivated.
Hygiene of Menstruation. — The periods of the menstrual flow in the healthy girl require no marked deviation from her normal hygienic habits. Great cleanliness of person and of clothing must be enjoined, in opposition to the prevalent idea that bathing and changing underclothing must be avoided. The daily bath must not be intermitted ; a cold sponge bath may be substituted for a cold plunge, but there is no necessity for changing the habit of daily bathing, while the underclothing requires more frequent changing than at other times. Girls should not be taught to use a vaginal douche after each menstrual period.
The diet should be plain and unstinmlating, in other words a diet suitable for a girl at any time may be taken during the menstrual period. There are many fanciful ideas about the effect of various articles of food upon the menstrual flow, but there is no evidence that, in the normal girl, the function is affected by using any particular article of diet.
Excessive exercise should be avoided. Many women take habitually the same amount of exercise, and teachers of physical training, who do not suffer from dysmenorrhea, make no difference with their systematic exercise, apparently with no ill effects. Some healthy girls habitually rest a day or two at the menstrual period because they have been taught to do so, but unless there is marked dysmenorrhea, this is not necessary — on this question of rest during the menstrual period nothing has been added to our knowledge to vitiate the conclusion drawn by Dr. Mary Putnam Jacobi in 1875 (" The Question of Rest for Women during Menstruation " ) . She says, " There is .nothing in the nature of menstruation to imply the necessity or even the desirability of rest for women whose nutrition is really normal. The habit of periodical rest in them might easily become injurious. Many cases of pelvic congestion developed in healthy, but indolent and luxurious, women are often due to no other cause."
The treatment of the disturbances of the menstrual function will be discussed in future chapters, but it may be permitted here, in discussing the hygiene of the growing girl, to emphasize the necessity of extreme care to avoid the suggestion of pelvic disease to the young woman or to the growing girl. Unfortunately, the possibility of giving or withholding the suggestion is not often in the power of the physician. The teaching of gynecology twenty-five years ago, with the constant pelvic examinations, local treatment with douches, tampons, etc., dilatations and curettage for " the moral effect " has fixed pretty firmly in the minds of women the idea that the most frequent source of ill health of girls is to be found in the pelvis. A prominent gynecologist of a generation ago told his patients that if a woman knew the danger she was in from her pelvic organs she would not step from her carriage to the pavement; the effect of such teaching upon practitioners and patients has been harmful in the extreme. It has been hardly possible in the present generation for a neurotic or hysterical girl, or one suffering from malnutrition, to reach the age of seventeen without having passed through some more or less prolonged gynecological treatment by the general practitioner, or, if she has avoided the physician, without having used largely the various nostrums or local applications of the patent medicine venders. It is difficult even for a healthy girl to rid her mind of constant impending evil from the uterus and ovaries, so prevalent is the idea that woman's ills are mainly " reflexes " from the pelvic organs. If symptoms are suggestive of pelvic disturbance a young woman should be examined under an anaesthetic. Local treatment should be avoided unless absolutely necessar3^ On the other hand, pelvic examination when symptoms point to its necessity, must not be postponed by considerations of false delicacy. Here
phenomena of reproduction.
Hygiene of Occupation. — The relation of the school to the health of the girl during the school-going period (eight to seventeen) has been fully considered, hut as there is an increasing tendency to prolong the education of girls beyond the high school, and since many girls leave school before the age of seventeen, a discussion of the hygiene of the growing girl would be incomplete without a reference to the conditions favorable or unfavorable to her health in the environment in which she finds herself subsequent to her withdrawal from the secondary school. This involves a discussion of the relation to the health of girls and young women, (1) of industrial life, (2) of the social life of the leisure classes, (3) of college life. This part of the subject may be conveniently referred to as the hygiene of occupation, using the phrase with another than its usual hygienic significance.
Occupation both mental and physical is a physiological necessity for girls and women ; some regular and systematic work, whether in the household or outside of it, contributes to their health, while the lack of it is one of the most frequent sources of ill health among unmarried women. It must be remembered that occupation should be interesting and should not require excessive physical or mental strain. More women probably suffer in health from lack of work than from its effects. Occupation is harmful to health, if the external conditions under which work is done are unhygienic, or if by its nature it requires too great an expenditure of energy or too prolonged attention. Women too often hold occupation responsible for bad effects upon the health w^hich are really due to the faulty personal hygiene of the worker.
Influence of Industrial Life upon the Health of Women. — The agitation of the question of child labor in the last few years has revealed conditions for young girls some of which are inhuman and intolerable — they are so bad as to be absolutely defenceless from social and economic reasons irrespective of health, and reform will come, though perhaps slowly, that will make it impossible to exploit the work of a girl who has not reached the age of puberty. The special dangers to health of various individual occupations cannot be taken up here. Considerable experience with working girls demonstrates that the ill effects upon health due to external conditions are: (1) Long confinement in-doors in superheated, badly ventilated, dirty rooms ; ( 2 ) work permitting little change of posture and enforcing either long-continued sitting or standing; (3) contact with unhealthy work companions suffering from tuberculosis or other infectious diseases. These conditions are common to the poorly paid unskilled laborer and to the skilled. Clerks in offices and teachers in schools are often under worse conditions for their health than factory girls. The remedy for these conditions will never be effective until all places of employment for women are under rigid inspection of a competent health department with power to enforce sanitary conditions. This inspection should eventually include employment at home and conditions under which domestic servants
live. Among the various results that have grown out of the campaign against tuberculosis has been the institution by great employers of labor here and there throughout the country of the physical examination of employees in industrial establishments. There is every reason to look for a gradual extension of medical inspection to all those who work in close contact with each other, with the resulting improvement in personal and general hygiene which always follows systematic medical inspection of special classes.
The health of the working girl suffers too often from faults of personal hygiene. Malnutrition due to insufficient and improper food is among the most frequent causes of ill health. Either no breakfast, or a hasty breakfast of bread with coffee or tea, no luncheon or an insufficient one^ with fatigue often so gTeat that no supper is eaten, is a frequent history of these cases, if the physician persists in getting at the personal habits. Coffee and tea may be the chief dietary. Tonics prescribed for the working girl who needs food, and recreation out-of-doors give little result. Many working girls spend money for drugs, jDrescribed by physicians, pharmacists, and friends that ought to be used for buying food. The education of the working girl, too, as to the relation of food to energy, and of the kind and quantity of food she needs is important, but the kind of food she needs must be easy to get, or she goes without it.
Constipation, too few hours of sleep, and these spent in rooms occupied by several others, with no ventilation, are, with faulty diet, and unhygienic clothing, the principal causes of bad health among working girls 'which they can, in a measure, control. In so far as her occupation increases these faulty habits common to rich and poor alike, so far her occupation is responsible for her ill health, in addition to the bad environment of shop and factory. Shorter hours, with encouragement in simple out-door recreations, and more ample provision for these would bring about great improvement in the average health of the working girl.
Influence of Social Life upon the Health of Women. — The life of the young woman of the leisure classes whose school education is completed at sixteen or seventeen is too often distinctly unfavorable to her health. It is tacitly understood, though not always consciously expressed, that for four or five years her main function is to make herself attractive and to enjoy life, acquiring irregularly and incidentally some knowledge of the management of a household. Her standards of attractiveness, and her standards of pleasure usually have no hygienic basis. The exactions of an active social career under the most favorable conditions are unquestionably a source of excessive physical and emotional fatigue. Indolence alternates with over-stimulation, intellectual activity is in abeyance, the desire for entertainment and excitement is insatiable, physical exercise is irregular, lacking, or excessive, and clothes are used for ornament according to the dictates of fashion without considering the needs of the body. The necessity for rest and for sleep is disregarded. The poor try to keep pace with the rich. It is in this exclusively social life that the
Influence of College Life ui)on the Health of Women. — The effect of college education upon the health of women has been the subject of much discussion in medical and in general literature. These discussions have been obscured usually by the loose way in which the phrase "'higher education " has been used to desig-nate any kind of school education from the high school to the university. It seems now generally conceded that as much education as a girl may get in the schools before her seventeenth year is not only not harmful, but if given under proper conditions, is distinctly favorable to her health. An examination of the arguments upon which injury to health of women is predicated as a result of education beyond the high school finds them based upon the hypotheses: (1) That mental activity is in itself harmful to the health of women (this in recent years is not often suggested) ; (2) that emotional stress and strain represented by worry and anxiety necessarily accompany the conditions of college life, and bring about such interference with general nutrition as to produce permanent injury, showing itself principally in some failure of the reproductive organs manifested by menstrual disturbances, or, after marriage, by sterility, or failure in the function of lactation. Statistics have been collected designed to show that college life has serious effects upon the menstrual function, upon rate of marriage, and upon the production of children.
The fallacy of the statistical method and the method of the questionnaire as bearing upon the subject involved is easy of demonstration, but cannot be discussed here. That a childless marriage, however, or a small family always indicates either sterility on the part of a woman, or lack of desire to bear children is an untenable proposition, though one that too often passes without challenge in current literature. Any physician who has had wide and intimate acquaintance with college women knows that they do not evade, on the contrary, they welcome the duties and responsibilities of married life, and bring to their performance mental and physical attributes from which society and the race may profit.
Obviously, the effect of college life upon the health of the individual girl can be determined only by a knowledge of her physical condition at entrance, her- personal and family history, her hygienic habits, the exactions of college life, as well as by continued medical observation during her course, together with a medical knowledge of her subsequent history. If one college community, drawing its students from all parts of the country, may be taken as fairly representative, it may be confidently stated that conditions of college life are distinctly favorable to the health of young women. In a long series of observations in one such community not a single instance of nervous breakdown or chronic ill health has been observed in which the legitimate demands of college life could be considered an essential etiological factor. This point may be illustrated by reference to the frequently quoted statistics of
HYGIENE OF OCCUPATIOlSr. 77
G. W. Engelmann, apparently showing that college life brings about menstrual disturbances. In the first place, an analysis of more than one thousand histories does not corroborate his figures. Sixty-five to seventy per cent of college women never suifer with dysmenorrhea. Taking two classes giving relatively high percentages for dysmenorrhea of two hundred and thirty-two, sixty-five, or twenty-eight and two-hundredths per cent, had some menstrual disturbance when they entered college ; of these, only thirty-two, or thirteen and seventythree hundredths per cent, had sufficient dysmenorrhea to require a day's rest at each period. JSTine of these were otherwise healthy girls that no stretch of imagination could have regarded as injuring themselves by mental and physical over-exertion. Among these nine was the only girl in whom dysmenorrhea increased during her college course, and in no single case was it necessary to consider that college work had any causative relation to the dysmenorrhea.
For the girl with fair health who can enter college " without conditions " there is nothing to fear and much to be gained by prolonging education through a four years' course. Why should it be unhealthful? The girls have regular, systematic employment. They have the mental satisfaction which comes from accomplishing definite, progressive work. The wide elective system makes their intellectual effort pleasurable, since they may choose what interests them and satisfies their desires. Mental work alternates with physical exercise. Their food is well chosen. Their hours of rest and of sleep are usually regulated with intelligence. They have congenial companionship, and they are, for the most part, contented and happy.
General Summary. — The great function of woman is to bear and to rear children. The primary requisite for this is a healthy body. To rear children women need intelligence. Good health and intelligence are not incompatible. Whatever in a final analysis may be shown to interfere with a woman's physical capacity to bear children, or her ability to rear them is, for her, unhygienic.
The health of the growing girl is a result of her heredity and her environment. Her heredity will be more favorable when- public opinion makes good health in men and women a primary element of attractiveness, and hence 'an important factor in sexual selection. Her environment, represented by the family, the school, and the community, will be more favorable when the family secures and applies a better knowledge of personal hygiene, especially of food and its relation to health, growth, and energy ; when the school possesses and applies a better knowledge of the physiology of fatigue, physical and mental; when the community acquires and applies a better knowledge of infectious diseases and the means for their prevention.
NORMAL MENSTRUATION.
Theories. — Menstruation is a term used to characterize a discharge of bloody fluid which takes place from the uterus at stated periods throughout the time of sexual activity in the life of women. This definition makes no attempt to deal with the etiology of menstruation, because, though this has been the subject of speculation for many years, our knowledge in regard to it is still quite incomplete.
An understanding of the true nature of menstruation presents certain peculiar difficulties, arising from the fact that menstruation is confined to human beings and some of the higher apes, so that the method of investigation usual in physiological research, animal experimentation, is not easily available. It would not be profitable to enter here upon any detailed discussion of all the differing theories of menstruation; I shall, therefore, content myself with a brief account of three, which seem to me especially worthy of attention.
Two opposing hypotheses have coexisted for a number of years. One of these, of which the chief exponents are Pfliiger and Bischoff, holds that menstruation is dependent upon ovulation and coincident with it. According to this view, the Graafian follicle, by its swelling during its development, excites nerve impulses, which, being reflected upon the vaso-motor system, give rise to local congestion. The congestion involves both the uterine and ovarian circulations and in the end produces a hemorrhage from the uterine mucous membrane as an accompaniment to the liberation of the ovum from its follicle. This theory has been modified by Reichert and others, who hold that the hemorrhage which constitutes menstruation takes place because the ovum discharged prior to its occurrence is not impregnated, and, in the absence of any stimulation to further gTowth towards the formation of the decidua of pregnancy, a retrograde metamorphosis takes place in the uterine mucous membrane, accompanied by a discharge of blood. This theory seems in opposition to the fact, observed in my clinic, that with the discharge of blood the mucosa reaches its fullest development.
THEORIES OF MENSTBUATIOK. 79
The opposite view, of which Kiegel is the chief exponeiat, maintains that ovulation and menstruation are tv/o entirely independent functions ; that the discharge of the ovum may take place at any time and without any reference to the act of menstruation. In support of this theory it is urged that menstruation sometimes continues after the removal of both ovaries; and further, that conception has been known to take place in women who have never menstruated, or have done so only a few times, at periods remote from conception. Moreover, as I have seen in many instances, women sometimes pass from one pregnancy to another without menstruation. Some of these objections the supporters of the opposite view answer by calling attention to the fact that menstruation after the removal of the ovaries, persists, in almost every instance, for but a few months, and can then be explained by long-established habit. In the cases where it has continued permanently, there is good reason to believe that some ovarian tissue has been left behind ; it is never due to a mythical third ovary. An argument of much greater significance is the occasional occurrence of conception at dates known to be independent of menstruation. It is possible, however, to reconcile the two conflicting views by the supposition that although menstruation is not dependent upon ovulation, some relation exists between them by which they are, as a rule, coincident; conception, therefore, takes place in the majority of cases, near the time of menstruation, but if the relation between the two is disturbed, it may occur at some date entirely unassociated with menstruation. This represents the point of view held by some persons at the present time.
In addition to these theories as to the relation of ovulation and menstruation, a new view was promulgated about four years ago by L. Frankel, who claims that the act of menstruation is governed by the corpus luteum. Frankel, in his account of his theory, ascribes the idea to Gustav Born, who reckoned the corpus luteum among the secreting glands and attributed to it the function of stimulating the uterine mucous membrane to receive the ovum and foster its further development. Frankel, in considering this view, reached the conclusion that if it were true, the influence of the corpus luteum over the implantation of the ovum (nidification) is only one part of a much more extended function, and he instituted investigations along this line.
He first proved by experiments on rabbits that if the corpus luteum was destroyed by means of the galvano-cautery shortly after the ovum was fertilized, the ovum failed to enter the uterus, or, if the destruction was delayed until the ovum had had time to enter the uterus, it failed to develop. A further set of experiments showed that destruction of the corpus luteum was accompanied by atrophy of the uterus, one process being in direct proportion to the other. If, as these experiments seem to demonstrate, the corpus luteum is responsible for the nutrition of the uterus, and, incidentally, for the attachment and development of the ovum, the next question in logical sequence is : What is the relation of the corpus luteum to menstruation? If destruction of the corpus luteum occasions atrophy of the uterus, it ought to cause suppression of menstruation.
80 XOEMAL :MEXSTErATIOX AXD THE MEXOPAUSE.
In order to elucidate this point, Frankel made nse of certain celiotomies, performed for such purposes as ventro-fixation when the pelvic organs were healthy. In nine such cases he destroyed the corpns Inteum and waited to observe the effect npon the next menstruation. In five ont of the nine, menstruation was completely suppressed for a period varying from three to eight weeks after the time at which it was expected. In three of the remaining four cases, there was a slight bloody discharge from the genitalia a few days after the operation, which the patients themselves interpreted as menstruation; Frankel, however, thought it more probable that it was nothing more than the bloody discharge accompanied bj pelvic pain which is often observed after abdominal operations of any kind, especially as in each instance the regular menstrual period did not appear at the expected time, being delayed until eight weeks after the operation. In only one case, therefore, out of the nine, was menstruation unaffected, and a single negative instance out of so large a number can probably be explained by some special circumstance. Frankel, indeed, suggests several reasons for the exception; for instance, the corpus luteum may not have been entirely destroyed ; or there may have been a double ovulation ; or the secretory activity of the corpus luteum had already proceeded so far that the necessary stimulus to menstruation had been given.
In conclusion, Frankel oifers the following suggestions as to the working of his theory : The uterus, like every other organ in the body, has its own blood vessels, both afferent and efferent. These are not dependent upon the corpus luteum for nutrition, but without it they cannot impart the life energy necessary to induce the hyi^eremia which, if the ovum is fertilized, leads to the further phases of its development, or, if it remain unfertilized, results in menstruation.
Frankel has published several communications upon the subject. His principal paper (" Die Function des Corpus luteum," Arch. f. Gyn., 1903, vol. 68, p. -i38) is a long and interesting one. It gives his experiments in detail and contains some thoughtful speculations on the relation between pathologic conditions of the corpus luteum and certain morbid conditions of the uterus and its appendages, such as extra-uterine pregnancy, ovarian tumors, and some inexplicable cases of sterility. This interesting theory, so attractive at first sight, is being widely tested, but is as yet far from being substantiated.
Mechanism. — The mechanism of menstruation, as Hirst says, is better understood than the causation. The process of menstruation consists mainly of a diapedesis of blood through delicate capillaries, newly formed in a thickened and congested endometrium, the provision for carrying blood to the membrane being better than that for carrying it away. Some of the newly-formed and delicate capillaries rupture and a discharge takes place. Leopold has given the following description of the condition of the uterine mucous membrane during menstruation:
MECHANISM OF MENSTRUATION.
brownish-red, soft almost to liquefaction, but perfectly intact, and separated by a sharply defined boundary line from the paler muscular tissue of the uterus. The uterine glands, which are 0.5 to 0.75 mm. (0.0197 to
0.0296 in.) wide, are considerably lengthened and can be seen by the naked eye. In the superficial portion of the mucous membrane, which is well preserved and only in certain spots lacks its epithelium and adjacent cells, may be ^ S^ Ho ( In " s^en an immense and enormously hypertrophied )A^ 7) o y li I a capillary net-work, the vessels of which have
irregular outlines and lie in the uppermost layer of the mucous membrane." (Quoted by Hirst, " Diseases of Women," second edition,
Fig. 51. — (1) Normal, Endometrium of a Patient Twenty-six Years Old, near Menstruation, Magnified Twenty-five Diameters. (2) Normal Endometrium of a Patient Forty-one Years Old, Magnified Twenty-five Times. (3) Endometrium after Menopause, Magnified Fifty Times. T. S. Cullen, "Cancer of the Uterus."
changes taking place into three periods:
( 1 ) Premenstrual congestion, in which the capillaries are distended ; there is a transudation or exudation of blood into the intercellular tissues, the meshes of which are widened, and an accumulation of blood under the sub-epithelium, which is raised into little hillocks by the sub-epithelial hematomata.
glandular epithelium.
(3) Post menstrual involution, in which the mucosa shrinks and the extravasated blood remaining in the intercellular tissue is absorbed. The surface epithelium, lifted awaj from its subjacent tissue sinks again to its normal level ("Handbuch der Gynakologie," Bd. III).
The gross changes taking place in the genital organs are those belonging to congestive conditions elsewhere in the body. The uterus, ovaries, tubes, and vagina are swollen and darkened in color. The uterus, in particular, is enlarged in size, the mucous membrane is thro^^^l into folds, and the cervix is softened.
At the beginning of menstruation, the flow is composed of mucus streaked with blood, but when menstruation becomes established, the discharge consists of pure blood mixed with a little mucus and epithelial cells from the nterine cavity and the vagina. As the flow subsides it returns again to its mucous character. Menstrual blood is dark in color, alkaline in reaction, and, owing to the presence of mucus, it does not coagulate unless it is excessive in amount.
Age of First Menstruation. — The age at which menstruation first takes place is given by difi^erent authorities at from twelve to fifteen. The following averages are taken from different text-books on gjTiecology: Ashton, twelve to fourteen; Garrigues, thirteen to fourteen; Hart and Barbour, thirteen to fifteen; Hirst, fourteen; Emmet, fourteen; Montgomery, twelve to fourteen; Penrose, thirteen; Gilliam, thirteen. Cases, however, are sometimes met with in which it occurs below or above the extremes of these averages, without being in the slightest degree remarkable. Anything below ten or above twenty, however, must be considered abnormal. Cases of precocious menstruation are nevertheless constantly being reported, and Strassmann has collected fifteen instances where it appeared during the first year of life. It must always be borne in mind that precocious menstruation is frequently the manifestation of some morbid condition of the uterus or its appendages, such as ovarian tumors, myomata, and affections of the endometrium. Kiedl has recently reported a case in which menstruation began at two years old and continued regularly up to six years, when the child came under observation. Examination of the external genitalia showed the mons veneris to be covered with hair, as well as the labia, which were well developed. The vaginal outlet admitted the index finger. On opening the abdomen a round-celled sarcoma of the left ovary which weighed two and a half kilogrammes (about five and a haK pounds) was found and removed. The right ovary was small in size and contained a few cysts. The uterus was as large as that of a girl of seventeen. Early menstruation, unaccounted for by local lesions, is usually the indication of vigorous sexual activity, which will probably extend over a prolonged period, so that in cases where menstruation is established under the average age, its cessation will, in all probability, be correspondingly late.
AGE OF FIRST MENSTRUATION. 83
The most complete treatment of the subject is by the late George J. Engelmann (" Age of First Menstruation on the !North American Continent," Trans. Amer. Gyn. Soc, 1901, vol. 26, p. 77). The conclusions reached are based on 12,402 observations of his own, made upon women of American birth, although in many instances of foreign parentage, covering the territory from Canada to all but the most extreme of the Southern States. To these are added 5,955 observations upon white women and negresses, made by others; to which he adds certain data touching the semi-civilized races on this continent (Indians and Esquimaux), making a total of 19,405 observations upon Americanborn women. The 12,402 observations made by Engelmann himself represent all phases of temperature and climate from the subarctic conditions of northern Canada to the almost tropical environment of jSTew Orleans, and from the Atlantic coast to the Mississippi valley. In parentage they cover a number of nationalities, including English, Irish, German, and Erench, only those most commonly met with being given. The conclusions drawn as regards American-born women are, briefly, as follows :
The age of first menstruation in the American-born woman on this continent is 14.3 for the laboring classes, such as are seen in free dispensaries; and 14.2 for the educated classes, seen in private practice. The writer concludes by saying, " Climate has practically no influence ; race very little ; mentality, surroundings, education, and nerve stimulation stand out prominently in this country as the factors which determine precocity."
There seems to be little, if any difference, between girls of foreign parentage and those who have had American progenitors. It is well known, of course, however, that there exists a wide difference between countries as to the age of first menstruation. Eor example, it occurs at the age of eighteen in the girls of Lapland and at eight to ten in the aborigines of Australia and in the natives of Southern Prussia, Egypt, Servia, and Sierra Leone. It has always been customary to ascribe this difference between nationalities entirely to the climatic effect of heat in hastening puberty, and of cold in retarding it. Certainly the evidence in the main supports this idea. That there is something to be said, however, in favor of the view that race as well as climate may be concerned, may be deduced from the fact that the Esquimaux of Alaska, where certainly climatic conditions are of a nature to retard rather than to accelerate development, menstruate at the age of thirteen.
xis regards our own countrywomen, Engelmann's statistics indicate fourteen years as the average age for the appearance of menstruation. An important predisposing factor in fixing the age in any given case, however, is the customary time for the family. It is always well, therefore, to inquire at what age the mother began to menstruate.
Duration. — The length of the menstrual period varies considerably in different persons. When once the individual standard is established, however, it should remain fixed, and any marked or prolonged variation from it
is generally associated Avitli a failure of general health, although it does uot necessarily imply the presence of a local lesion. Authorities differ as regards the limits of the menstrual period, and I quote the opinions expressed in several well-kno^^-n text-books : Ashton, three to six days ; Garrigues, four days ; Hart and Barbour, two to eight days ; Hirst, three to seven days ; Montgomery, two to eight days ; Penrose, two to seven days ; Gilliam, four to five days. In all these cases the statement is made didactically and no statistics are given, nor have I found any figures npon the subject except in the case of Emmet, who goes into the subject in great detail and gives four to five days as the general average. I have collected and tabulated one thousand cases from my private case-books, taking, of course, only the history of menstruation under its normal conditions, before it had been affected by the abnormal conditions for which I was consulted. I eive these results in tabular form.
It will be seen that the limits in this table are twenty-four hours and seven to eight days. All authorities I have consulted make the shortest duration two days, but the number of my cases which lasted only one day seemed to me quite large enough to warrant taking this as my lowest limit. Again, some gynecologists make the upper limit eight days ; my experience, however, leads me to agree with those who consider anything over a week as abnormal. It is so common, however, to find menstruation prolonged a trifle beyond its last complete day that I have included cases lasting into the eighth day.
While collecting these cases, my attention was attracted by the fact that in many of those in which menstruation lasted over six days, it was noted that the flow was more or less in excess of the normal. I made a second analysis, therefore, of 200 cases in which the duration of the flow was over six days, and I found that in 52 of them it was noted as free, while in 68 it was excessive; the whole number in which it was in excess of normal being 120, or six-tenths of the whole. This appears to me strongly suggestive of the fact that a duration of more than six days is so frequently pathologic that it should never be regarded as normal, unless it is clear from other data that the patient's health is fully up to par. If she is anemic, or shows evidence of malnutrition by failure
local indication.
Exclusive of cases such as these, where an excessive flow has become established so insidiously or so early as to be accepted as normal, the duration of the menstrual period which is habitual may be regarded as the proper standard for the individual woman, and if her health does not deteriorate, it usually remains unchanged through life.
Amount. — The amount of blood lost at each menstrual period is extremely difficult to estimate, and cannot, indeed, ever be determined with real accuracy. Different authorities give it as varying from two to eight ounces (60 to 240 c.c). The usual rough way of estimating it by the number of protectives needed is too unreliable to be any guide as to the actual amount lost, although it is a fairly good way of determining an increase or diminution in any individual case. Most of the blood is lost during the first two days of menstruation, whatever may be the length of the period. For the first few menstrual periods, before the function is well established, the amount often varies considerably, being excessive at one period and scanty at another, but in the course of a few months, as a rule, a standard will become fixed, and this should remain undisturbed during the remainder of menstrual activity. The sigTiificance of variations from the established standard in the direction of either excess or decrease will be considered in Chapters VI and VII. I will only say here that any deviation from the normal which lasts more than a short time should be brought to the attention of a physician, who is the only person qualified to judge of its real importance. Variations from the normal in amount or duration are of much more conseqlience than those which take place in the intervals between the menstrual periods.
Interval Between Periods. — In normal menstruation there is far less individual variation in the intervals between the periods than in either their duration or amount. From time immemorial twenty-eight days has been accepted as the standard fixed by nature, for which reason, no doubt, it has always been believed among uncivilized people that the periodicity of menstruation depends upon the phases of the moon. In this instance statistics agree with common belief more closely than is often the case, and they show beyond any question that the large majority of women menstruate at intervals of four weeks; there is, however, an appreciable number who do so at longer or shorter intervals. I have investigated the subject by collecting and analyzing one thousand cases from my own case-books, with the following results, which I give in tabular form:
Various Avriters whom I have consulted give twenty-eight days as the interval for the large majority of cases, but they do not, with one or two exceptions, enter into statistics. The exceptions are :
The preponderance of the twenty-eight-day type is the same in all, hut it will l)e seen that in my list the next highest proportion belongs to the twentyone-day t^'pe, which in Hart and Barbour's list is the third, and is not mentioned at all by the others. Where the proportion is so excessive in favor of any one type it would require statistics covering a good many thousands to establish results as concerns the lower percentages; the main point, however, remains the same in all, namely, that twenty-eight days is the custom for so large a proportion of women that it may be considered as the established rule, although there are constant exceptions to it within the limits of health.
The interval between the periods is sometimes irregiilar for a little while after menstruation is first established ; indeed, there is a general impression, not only among the laity, but among medical men that it is usually the case. Emmet found, however, that out of 2,447 women, 72.33 per cent were reg-ular from the first; 18.92 per cent after a certain period; while 8.74 per cent were never regular ("Principles and Practice of Gynecology," 3d edition, 1884, p. 147).
Strict adherence to individual habit, as I have said, is not so closely associated with health as it is to the duration of the flow or to its amount, and even after regularity is established, variations of a day or two in anticipation or delay are very frequent and need excite no apprehension.
MENOPAUSE.
Introductory. — Menarche and menopause are technical terms used to designate respectively the beginning and cessation of the menstrual life in women, the beginning and the end of a period of reproductive activity. In English the terms " puberty " and " change of life " are more commonly used and well understood by the laity. With the menopause the woman steps out of those cyclical changes which for thirty years have represented the sigTi manual of her femininity, nature's signs of the successive maturation and periodical casting off of the ova, and a constant call to the fulfilment of her law in the exercise of the reproductive function. It is by pregnancy and lactation alone that the monthly cycle of changes is normally interrupted at irregular intervals for periods approximating two years — as a rule, well within the outer confines of this thirty-year period and avoiding the two termini, the beginning and the end.
The menopause marks the passing of the reproductive function, and with its cessation the entrance of the woman upon a new and final stage of her existence, two-thirds already past, a final third remains to be accomplished under new conditions.
The " change of life," as it is fitly called, is indeed the major crisis in the life of an adult woman. A man is apt, after a life of hard work (and this applies especially to our business men), to pass through a sort of grand climateric in his early sixties, after which he realizes that his forces are abated, and it is well to walk quietly in shady paths as the sun visibly nears its horizon. Tor a woman the change is of another kind and at an earlier period. She meets her major crisis some time in the forties or early fifties, when, with the cessation of the monthly function, she realizes that the fires of youth are flickering, that there will be no more babies to be nursed, and her life is freed henceforth from those periodical, oftentimes burdensome fluctuations in health. The clock which was wound up at fifteen has run for thirty years, sounding its four-weekly cycles and regulating the affairs of her domestic and social life. With the change she becomes matronly, and with her increased avoirdupois and years of experience behind her, assumes a greater dignity and a tone of authority in those affairs of life which have come within the range of her activities. It is at this period, when freed from the many trammels of younger womanhood, that she often enters into a new and calm enjoyment of intellectual occupations, enters more into society and finds more time for husband and the children rapidly growing up about her, and becomes, if she has used her opportunities well, a more important factor in society.
Woe, then, to the woman whose life has been spent in mere pleasure seeking, who has neglected the cultivation of mind and heart, and who knows nothing of the peace and poise found in the comforting assurance of a Christian faith. How wearisome the life of such a one becomes, when, possessed only of overripe personal charms, she no longer attracts as a belle, is unable to acquire
drifts on into an unhappy, retrospective old age.
With too many of our poorer class the change of life after years of hard labor is but the narrow antechamber leading into decrepit age. How often is the physician, who is himself hale and hearty in the forties or early fifties, startled when he discovers some such broken-down old woman to be several years his junior. This is the fault of our present world spirit, which holds nothing so cheap and negligible as human health and human lives.
According as the menopause is well and safely passed will tlie woman be a^Dt to enjoy good or ill health throughout this remaining period of her life; a period of life, therefore, rightly called '' critical."
The term " menopause," strictly speaking, applies to the complete cessation of and the last menstrual periods ; but, as commonly and conveniently used, it covers a longer period, including the first irregularities of menstruation which mark the beginning of the end, as well as all the subsequent periods up to the last one, together with the subsequent settling-down period, reestablishing the health on a new basis. The period of irregular menstruation is often designated by women as " the dodging time."
The menopause thus constitutes one of the most striking differences between the sexes. Puberty is common to both, but in man the procreative power then received is carried forward into old age and then declines by imperceptible degrees, while in woman it ceases in middle age. For every woman there looms upon her mental horizon as she approaches the forties this pending crisis through which she must pass, associated by tradition in the minds of many with a fear that when the change supervenes the bloom of life will be worn off and the burdens of age assumed. Such a prevalent yet utterly false view was voiced by the French lady who sadly referred to her more youthful attractions in the w^ords, " When I was a woman." This is true, if a woman reaches maturity impressed with the notion that her horizon in life is limited by her reciprocal relations to the opposite sex and by her reproductive activity, that after the cessation of this function there will remain but little of interest for her during the remaining twenty or twenty-five years (over thirty -three per cent of her mundane existence) other than to train her daughters to occupy a similar field of procreative activity. This is the view of life taken by two hundred millions of the Mohammedan world. (See John Foster Fraser's " The Land of Veiled Women.") There is, however, a larger and truer view, which it is our special duty as physicians to inculcate as we superintend the physical and mental culture of our wards, and that is the conviction that life is but a school in the vestibule of eternity leading to larger spheres of activity, responsibility, and enjoyment, and that each age is equally important, and each brings with it its own peculiar opportunities for spiritual development and achievement. Childhood is the age of acquisitiveness and sharp discipline, with untainted joys shared at no later period. Early maturity opens up vistas of duties and new and happy relationships, almost a miraculous revelation of the possibilities of
happy fellowship and service. Later, maturity merging insensibly, as it ought, into old age and then into the more abundant, untrammeled life beyond, places the crown of experience and authority upon a worthy head. It can truly be said to-day that many of our noblest citizens, most devoted to the common welfare, are women at this time of life. Woe to the nation that misses from its midst little groups of devoted, unselfish women such as we know to-day in all our larger cities. W. L. Burrage speaks of the change wrought by the menopause as " a period of rejuvenescence," and quotes the ancients, who declared that " the gauge of age is not years, but vital force."
THE NORMAL MENOPAUSE.
The normal menopause, the final stoppage of menstruation, is contemporaneous with the cessation of ovulation, and takes place in an average of 1,082 cases at, forty-five years and nine months (Tilt). Schaeffer, of Berlin (see table following from Veit's Handhuch), found in a series of 903 cases that the average age was 47.26 years. Satisfactory statistics for women in hot countries are wanting.
striial life extended over a period of forty-seven years (Veit, Hand. d. Gyn., 1908, p. 77). The fact that a woman has borne a number of children does nut bring on the menopause at an earlier date.
The general average duration of menstruation is 30.52 years. It is always important in estimating the probable age of cessation to inquire as to family history, the daughter in this often following the type of the mother. Burrage (" Gynecological Diagnosis," p. 597) gives the following table of ages at which the menopause occurred in 1,291 cases taken from the older writers, who devoted a closer attention to this subject :
I myself think that the nearly twelve per cent between thirty-six and forty would to-day bear closer inspection and criticism, as the occurrence of a physiological menopause before forty is rare.
I know personally of one case in which the change of life occurred in a married multiparous woman with all the customary associated symptoms at twenty-six years of age. She is now over forty-five and has been in perfect health in the intervening years.
The cessation of menstruation took place suddenly in 137 out of 500 cases, Avhile the .average duration of the diminishing flow in 265 cases was 2.2 years (Tilt, " The Change of Life," p. 18).
Symptoms and Diagnosis. — The only w-ell-defined anatomical changes which take place at the menopause are found in the ovaries, which are smaller and harder and contain no ripening follicles. The uterus becomes somewhat smaller and firmer and the Eallopian tubes gTadually atrophy, but these changes are only initial at the menopause and aje completed and most marked in old age. Outside of the ovaries, the next important change is in the increase of adipose tissue in the body, especially in and about the abdomen; gradually, also, in some women there are found coarse, scattered hairs about the body, especially on the face. It is probably owing to this fact that most women have the impression that with the menopause there is a loss of femininity.
The normal menopause gives rise to but slight disturbances and calls for no active treatment. The physician may recommend to those in position to act upon his advice more rest and greater freedom from household cares and responsibilities, with regular hours of rest and careful regulation of the bowels.
The menopause is not a state of disease or unstable health, but is, like puberty, simply a critical period — a time of instability in which the woman passes out of one type and regimen of life into another. So far is the menopause per se from being a malady that it may, and often does, liberate the
patient from the sufferings and discomforts of many years, wiping out, as with a sponge, the pains, the hemorrhages, and the nervousness of three decades' duration. To such a one the change is a manifest blessing, and she first begins to live after the menstruations have ceased.
The physician must be loath to make a diagnosis of menopause in a woman under forty, although patients will often consult him under the impression that they are changing. By consulting Schaeffer's table it will be seen that only 3.65 per cent change before forty years of age.
Such a diagnosis must never be made merely because menstruation has become irregular and scanty for a few periods. When, however, such irregularity persists for many months, and there are concomitant flushes and nervousness, associated with diminution or cessation, the presumptive diagnosis, in the absence of any discoverable local lesion, is change of life. Pregnancy must always be borne in mind and excluded. It must always be distinguished from simple amenorrhea in a woman who has been exposed to cold and whose menstruation is checked for several periods. In such cases there is generally marked malaise and periodic headaches with other symptoms of a menstrual nisus. Again, women in the late twenties or early thirties will sometimes take on an excessive amount of fat and cease menstruating. A pathological menopause may be suddenly brought on by the superinvolution of the uterus following a difficult labor with severe infection. In such cases the examination shows that the uterus is small and atrophic and destined henceforth to remain inactive. The menopause may also be brought on prematurely by a too radical curettage with a sharp instrument, removing all or nearly all the uterine mucosa. This unfortunate accident has happened with a number of good gynecolpgists. A shock or great grief may bring on the menopause in the late thirties or early forties suddenly and completely.
vessels, which acts as a safety valve in place of the menstrual discharge.
Pregnancy During the Menopause. — Pregnancy may occur at any period of life in which a woman menstruates regularly. It may also occur rarely during the irregular menstruations of the change, and even after the change has taken place ! Several authors have investigated the question of the possibility of pregnancy in the late forties, the fifties, and even at sixty years of age and over. An investigation by English authors was stimulated by the interest felt in the celebrated case of Joanna Southcote, who at the age of sixty-four was pronounced pregnant by a committee of medical men ! The diagnosis was made without a digital examination, and the event proved that the gentlemen were mistaken. Our own Fordyce Barker, after an investigation of all the extraordinary published cases, came to the conclusion that but few of the recorded late preg-nancies were well established, and only found one he considered perfectly trustworthy, she was fifty-five years old.
Tilt says that he knows of three instances in which conception occurred during the change of life. A lady who was married at the age of eighteen bore her first child at forty-eight; another, quoted by the same author, married at nineteen and bore her first child at fifty. These cases, of course, have a medico-legal value when the distribution of property depends upon the possible birth of an heir. He only found one case where a woman who had reached fifty-five had given birth. Pie gives the following data from the British Birth Register:
483,613
The question whether or not a woman up in the forties is pregnant is always an important one. It often happens that if she has been married a long time without children, or if late married and has strong maternal instincts, she anxiously watches for the cessation of menstruation as the sure sign of a pregnancy. Again, on the other hand, a society woman may dread a pregnancy in the forties, when she has had no children for sixteen or eighteen years, through a false sense of shame. She may also base her conviction not only on the skipping of several periods, but upon the fact that the abdomen is increasing in size, and it may be she has felt some motions within and has perhaps had some unusual sensations in the breasts. These " fetal movements " may be so clearly defined as to mislead even those who have passed through several pregiiancies. One of my patients, a worthy widow, knowing that pregnancy was impossible, took upwards of sixty dollars' worth of worm medicine, so convinced was she that she harbored a living tenant. The physician will suspect that the case is not one of pregnancy when he discovers fiushings with perspirations following and increased nervousness, with a slight menstruation, which the patient is inclined to dismiss as " insignificant " ; he will become more skeptical when he finds that these symptoms have persisted for some months and that the enlargement of the abdomen does not correspond to the calculated time of the pregnancy. A fat omentum and increased fat under the skin of the abdominal walls may interfere with percussion and make an external examination by palpation difficult and puzzling. All doubt will be set at rest when he makes a combined vaginal and abdominal examination and finds the vagina unchanged and the cervix hard and the uterus small and empty. In a puzzling, doubtful case, especially in a fat woman, there should be no hesitation in urging a careful examination under complete anesthesia, then surely all doubts will be set at rest. If the questionable pregTianey is reckoned to be within the first or the second month and there is a reasonable doubt, he can well afford to wait and watch a couple of months to see whether the corresponding enlargement of the womb takes place. One of the most important and distressing reasons for investigating these self-supposed pregnant women with extreme care is that in many instances they are suffering
from an actual abdominal enlargement due to a fibroid or to an ovarian tumor, and not to a growing fetus. It has happened to every active surgeon to meet one or more of these women about the change of life who have even gone so far as to make all the baby clothes and engage the nurse for the expected confinement : here joy and eager expectation are converted into the tragedy of an operation. In one sad case a middle-aged woman came to me with a complete infant's wardrobe, and I found only carcinoma and ascites.
A little different from these are the cases of pseudocyesis or an illusory abdominal enlargement due to fat or a gaseous distention, or both. A curious case in the hands of Dr. C. F. Bumam is the following: A widow, about fortyfive years old, of clear mind, with good antecedents, suddenly conceives the notion that she is pregnant; menstruation stopped for four months when she had a scanty flow. She was so insistent that she suffered great lower abdominal pain that the abdomen was opened and the uterus suspended. In spite of all assurances she still believed herself pregnant and milk came into her breasts. This is manifestly a case for an expert psychiatrist in conjunction with the physician.
Menopause following Lactation. — Sir James Y. Simpson and Chiari have pointed out the fact that atrophy of the uterus and complete cessation of menstruation sometimes occur after a normal puerperium, due to the exhaustion of a prolonged, excessive lactation. R. Frommel, in investigating 3,000 cases, discovered lactation atrophy of the uterus in twenty-eight — mostly young women who were poorly nourished. The uterus in some was found contracted and small, its cavity measuring from 5 to 5^ cm. These were cases of concentric atrophy. In others the cavity was not shortened, but its walls were thin and relaxed — eccentric atrophy. The cervix sometimes atrophied, at other times remained normal, while the adnexa were always small and atrophic. He found this group practically hopeless from a therapeutic standpoint. Thorn, following up these observations, demonstrated the astonishing fact that every nursing woman who did not menstruate exhibited a hyperinvolution in some degree, and that up to a certain point it is physiological. Upon the cessation of lactation and the resumption of regular menstruation the uterus resumed its natural size. Fraenkel found in 10,088 patients 95 cases of lactation atrophy of the uterus. Their average age was twenty-nine years, the average number of preceding births 3-4. The most marked diminution in size was noticed in the third month, while from the fifth month on the size of the uterus increased. (See Doderlein in Veit's Handbuch.)
Minor Ailments in the Normal Menopause. — Biliousness is often noticed among the minor ailments, characterized by a disgust for food, headache, lassitude, and constipation. Such cases are helped by a course of blue mass with compound colocynth pills, two grains of each every night for a week, associated with the free drinking of saline waters, keeping the emunctories active.
morning.
Exaggerated nervousness is best treated by free use of bromides for a couple of weeks. Tilt recommends three drams of the bromide of soda with the same amount of the tincture of orange peel in a simple elixir sufficient to make six ounces, giving a tablespoonful of this in a little water at four o'clock in the afternoon and two tablespoonfuls at night. Such a plan of treatment is continued daily for two weeks, and then alternate days for two or three weeks more. If sleep is difficult, ten grains of chloral may be added to the dose at night. He also strongly recommends six to twelve grains of extract of henbane taken in two-grain pills in the course of a day.
In the analysis of 500 cases he found headache in over 208, or over fortyone per cent, and generally either frontal or occipital. I have rarely noted the sincipital headaches mentioned as characteristic by the earlier writers. When the headache is severe and throbbing, tincture of aconite may be given in considerable doses, beginning with five drops four times a day and increasing to twenty. The patient experiences some relief if the head is bathed with Easpail's sedative lotion, compounded as follows :
phor as it will dissolve.
When the patient is plethoric, with a full pulse, flushed face, and but a scanty flow, relief is often found when menstruation comes on freely. Here the old-fashioned treatment of bleeding and taking from six to twelve ounces from the forearm is undoubtedly of benefit. This treatment may be associated with a brisk purge and cream of tartar lemonade and hot foot baths, at the same time limiting the diet, giving light breakfast and no meat. In this, as in all other cases, the urine should be carefully examined.
For a debilitated and anemic patient the contrary plan of treatment must be followed. Let there be rest, good feeding, red meats, and tonics. A good tonic is the citrate of quinine and iron in syrup, about three to five grains in the elixir of calisaya (a teaspoonful) three times a day. !For patients greatly troubled by perspirations saturating their undergarments Tilt has suggested the wearing of a long, thin flannel dress over the nightgown to prevent the too sudden chilling off.
In excessive nervous manifestations it is well to inquire carefully into the previous history of the patient, whether she had any unusual nervous attacks at the time of puberty or later, and also concerning the family history and its
tendencies. When there is a marked history of insanity in the family, the physician will watch the patient with unnsual care, not hesitating to use sedatives freely and seeing that she lives a quiet, well-regulated life until the periods are well over and the danger past.
The menopause becomes abnormal when any of its customary symptoms are greatly exaggerated, or when certain abnormal and pathological conditions arise. Any unusual symptoms demand the closest attention and a prompt and thorough investigation. It is at this time of life that certain serious pelvic diseases are of tenest found, and for this reason the most careful attention should be given to each case presenting any abnormal symptoms. While, on the one hand, women at large are apt to exaggerate for the benefit of the expectant younger women the minor discomforts which they advertise must of necessity mark this period ; the same public with a strange fatuity borne of the neglect of ages of experience, greatly underestimates the real major dangers, dismissing such sym.ptoms as pain and serious floodings with the assurance " that is what you must expect — it is only the change of life." Many a precious life has been sacrificed and many a loved mother has been called to leave the family circle in the bloom of womanhood, because of an inoperable cancer, because she has been thus encouraged by foolish friends to delay reporting the first abnormal symptoms to a physician, until, when finally forced to seek advice, she finds it is too late. It would be better for womankind if every married woman in the land were subjected to a competent physical examination soon after passing forty years of age, whether she had unusual symptoms or whether she had none. Women are sometimes so harassed with the sudden fiushes that they almost lose control of themselves and feel obliged to open a window or to rush out of doors to get fresh air and cool off. In occasional instances the sweats are so distressing as to saturate the clothing. I give lutein tablets made of the dried corpus luteum taken from the ovary of the pig three times a day to relieve these conditions. For bad sweats also give aromatic sulphuric acid in doses of 15 drops three times a day, or atropia in -^jj^-gT. tablets. I prescribe the following pills :
M. ft. pil. 1. Make 50. Take 1 after each meal.
The fiushings of a normal menopause rarely ever approach in severity, frequency, or the duration of time over which they extend, those distressing, burning-up, overpowering rushes of heat often experienced at an artificial menopause induced by the removal of the ovaries.
In cases of milder disorders and somewhat exaggerated nervous symptoms, giddiness and flushes, if the patient's circumstances will permit, a trip abroad to a foreign watering place may be of great value, entailing, as it does, the benefits of a change of society, the constant stimulus of expectation amid novel surroundings, coupled with freedom from responsibilities, with regular prescribed exercises and diet.
DISEASES AT THE MENOPAUSE.
Burrage (id. sitp.) gives an instructive table of 115 of his patients, with their leading symptoms and his diagnosis in each case. My own experience has also shown me that the following conditions are not infrequently observed, and are, therefore, important at this period:
(1) Cancer. — In the entire list of diseases which are liable to affect a woman at the menopause, cancer of the body and of the neck of the womb holds by far the most important place. All of the other affections combined, while individually important, are of trifling gravity as compared to this great scourge of our race, most commonly observed at this period. Cancer of the cervix is oftenest seen between the ages of forty-five and fifty, and cancer of the body is manifest a decade later. (See T. S. Cullen, " Cancer of the Uterus.")
Wertheim's list of 500 cases of cancer of the cervix (" Die Erweiterte Abdominale Operation," 1911) shows that in 352 cases, or approximately seventy per cent, the women were of forty years and above, and 198, or 39.6, were between forty and fifty.
There is no other disease so dreaded and none so widespread. It invades all families, and it strikes terror to every heart when any of the symptoms appear in a loved relative or friend. There is no other disease, not even excepting tuberculosis, against which the entire medical profession should wage such unremitting warfare until it is rooted out. But, as yet, we do not even know its cause, and for this reason we are unable to anticipate and to prevent its occurrence by any care or foresight. For this reason we are limited to surgery as our sole resource, but even this too often fails because the patient applies to the physician when the growth has reached a stage when it has passed the
liiiiif-s wlieu a successful radical operation is practicable. Never can the surgeon say " I am sure this disease will never come back." As a rule, the chances are against the patient, and too often the operation is merely palliative. The whole question of the treatment of cancer, therefore, at the present day hinges upon the early recognition of the disease, upon finding out at the earliest possible moment that the patient has it, and this responsibility rests not with the surgeon and not with the specialist, but with the general practitioner.
I have dwelt at length upon this subject in the chapter on Cancer of the Uterus under the heading " Prophylaxis." I do not hesitate here to give added emphasis to so vital a matter by a brief summarized repetition.
are only two plans feasible :
(a) To discover the disease before it has caused any symptoms at all. To this end I have for many years recommended a systematic examination of all women after childbirth, and as soon as the childbearing period is over.
(&) The other is to instruct the public and the general practitioner so carefully that every woman who complains of the slightest abnormality about the pelvis — above all, if it is of the nature of a discharge — should at once be subjected to a searching examination. Then, if cancer is found, or if it is suspected, she should reach the hands of a surgeon within a week from the day the lesion is found. That this ideal is attainable, the work done in Germany, already cited, has clearly shown. If the patient has an excessive flow, or a watery or foul discharge, or any pelvic pain, she must at once seek her physician, and her physician must at once make a careful digital and visual vaginal examination, and not rest satisfied until he has determined the source of the trouble, fearful lest he should overlook an early case of cancer. If the physician has not enough gynecological experience to give him confidence in his own judgment, he must then suspect every case of reddened, thickened, nodular cervix with bleeding. Far better suspect fifty cases where there is no cancer than miss one case. He may feel certain that the cervix which bleeds readily on scraping it with the finger nail, or with an instrument, or one which has an irregular, ragged appearance, with some evidences of superficial sloughing, is cancerous. If there is no obvious cause for hemorrhage such as I have just described, then the parts should be carefully cleansed and a small curette introduced into the cervical canal and up into the uterine body and gently moved about, to see whether or not it provokes a free flow, or brings away little pieces of fleshy tissue. All such cases must be put promptly into the hands of a specialist; the physician must never temporize by giving douches or making topical applications " to avoid frightening the patient " until at last he is driven to consult a specialist, and learns that while he has played with the case, squandering his opportunity, the disease has been advancing. AVhen the physician is justified in feeling greater confidence in his own opinion by a familiarity with gynecological cases, and is uncertain in his diagnosis, he may give an anesthetic or use cocaine injected locally into the cervix, and, excising a piece of cervical tissue.
put it at once into a five-per-cent solution of formalin, and send it to a competent pathologist for microscopic examination. If the patient has a somewhat prolonged history of hemorrhages, and the vagina and the cervix appear perfectly normal, while the body of the uterus feels enlarged, then it is best to put the patient under an anesthetic and curette thoroughly, and remove as much as possible of the uterine mucosa, and send it to a microscopist to detennine whether it is cancer of the body of the uterus.
(2) Metritis. — Metritis, or inflammation of the body of the womb, was, curiously enough, one of the keystones of the uterine pathology of our predecessors, taking the place of the endometritis of fifteen years ago. These conditions are no longer accepted as the causes of hemorrhage at the menopause, and I pass them by.
Endometrial Hypertrophy. — Occasionally profuse flow at the menopause is caused by a polypoid overgrowth of the endometrium. All cases bleeding excessively in this way should be placed under anesthesia and subjected to a thorough curettage, which will remove the cause and, as a rule, cure the hemorrhage. This hypertrophy is not merely an endometritis, and I do not know of any form of endometritis which is in any sense peculiar to this period of life.
Sclerosis of the Uterine Vessels with Hemorrhages. — One of the fairly common causes of excessive, protracted, blanching uterine hemorrhages is hypertrophy of the body of the uterus (subinvolution), associated with sclerosis of the uterine vessels. A bimanual examination shows that the uterus is considerabh' symmetrically enlarged. Such uteri have frequently been removed on a clinical symptomatic diagnosis of cancer of the body of the womb. This is a condition
and A. H. P. Barbour.
The diagnosis of arterio-sclerotic disease may be made when the clinical sigTis cited are present in a patient at or near the menopause who has a large uterus and suffers from excessive or protracted hemorrhages, without pain, where further dilatation and curettage has sho^^^Ti that there is no malignant disease of the endometrium. The proper treatment for this condition is a complete hysterectomy in a woman well over forty. In younger women a subtotal operation perpetuates the menstrual function and spares her the sequelae of the sudden complete change.
(3) Polyps. — Oftentimes when a patient has been bleeding excessively, a vaginal inspection will reveal the presence of a cervical or a uterine polyp. Such a discovery is one of the most satisfactory in gynecology, as the hemorrhages are often severe and protracted, even threatening life, while the means of treatment are so satisfactory and so certain in cure. Such a polyp may hang down into the vagina, a soft, red, fleshy, bleeding mass the size of a pigeon's egg, attached inside the cervix by a long slender pedicle. Pibroid polyps, or
fibroid tumors, extruded from the body of the uterus, are apt to be large, shaped like an orange, with a broader pedicle. Their delivery from the uterus is often associated with expulsive pains. Such tumors, I thinly, are best removed by — after placing the patient under an anesthetic and duly cleansing the parts — catching the tumor on the right and on the left sides and splitting down through the fibroid nodule until it is divided into halves ; then each half is enucleated sejjarately, leaving the capsule, particularly at its base, intact. It is dangerous to cut directly through the pedicle, as there may be a partial inversion of the uterus at this point.
A group of small, raspberry-red, mucous polyps is sometimes seen within the cervical canal. These can be caught with the forceps and clipped off or thoroughly burned out with a Paquelin cautery.
(4) Fibroid Tumors. — In a critical analysis of 1,674 cases examined by Thomas S. Cullen and myself (see Kelly-CuUen, " Myomata of the 'Uterus "), it was noted that, when the myomata do not impinge on the uterine mucosa, the menopause will usually occur at the normal time ; but if at a later date the myomata become submucous, bleeding is likely to take place. These tumors, growing like minute seeds in the uterus and reaching an appreciable size in from three to five or ten years, often first come into prominence toward the end of the child-bearing period, at about the time of the menopause.
Fibroid tumors at this period are the cause of hemorrhages, of abdominal enlargements, and a sense of pressure in the lower abdomen, as well as vesical disturbances. Tor this reason every patient at the menopause who complains of any of these symptoms must be examined carefully bimanually, if necessary, under an anesthetic; and the examiner must bear in mind the likelihood of finding a fibroid tumor. He must further be aware that fibroid tumors thus found are apt to defer the menopause until the patient is fifty years or older. A patient, therefore, of forty-two to forty-five years of age, who is menstruating excessively and in whom a fibroid tumor is found, has not the hope of relief from her periodical losses by the speedy onset of the menopause. This fact determines our course of action in these cases, which must be aggressive; namely, hysterectomy when the tumors are provocative of symptoms,
(5) Ovarian Tumors — Multilocular Cysts, Dermoids, and Malignant Tumors. — Among the major affections liable to spring into prominence at the menopause are the various kinds of large ovarian tumors. Although these tumors commonly begin to grow in the late thirties or early forties, they often do noli attract the attention of the patient and induce her to seek the advice of a physician until about the time of the menopause. Spencer Wells (" Ovarian and Uterine Tumors," 1882) gives a list of 1,000 ovariotomies in which 227 cases were between forty and fifty and 235 over fifty years of age.
The discovery of an ovarian tumor is usually purely accidental ; either the patient in dressing notices an unusual hardness in the lower abdomen which alarms her ; or, having suffered from peculiar irregular menstrual discharges, protracted and intermittent, with or without a sense of pressure or bearing
litems more or less fixed and a resistant mass in one or both sides of the pelvis.
The classical multilocular ovarian cyst is recognized, as a rule, by its contours, being made up of one or two large cysts together with a number of smaller ones with slight depressions between them. The large cysts are more or less elastic and fluctuating.
A dermoid cyst may float up in front of the intestines if it is free, and is apt to be symmetrical and spherical in form ; many dermoids, however, begin at once to form adhesions with the pelvic viscera and are bound down and resistant and hidden under a mass of pelvic inflammatory disease.
There is a peculiar kind of multilocular cyst which is found at this time, malignant in character, against which the examiner must be especially on his guard. In cases of this sort the disease is usually bilateral, fills out both posterior quadrants of the pelvis, and is attached to the broad ligaments, the pelvic floor and walls of the uterus, and the intestines above. The uterus is fixed anc^ difiicult to outline. The cyst contents are thick, more or less gelatinous, and the tumor is filled, especially at its base, with sprouting papillary masses. Even when the operation is promptly done, as it must be done, the patient is fortunate indeed if the disease has not already spread beyond the limits of the ovary and out into the broad ligament and the tissues of the pelvic wall. The operation in such cases must be extremely radical.
(6) Leucorrhea, Vaginal and Cervical. — A leucorrhea, vaginal and cervical, is commonly noted in the various text-books as one of the distressing conditions of the menopause. In my own practice I have not been particularly struck wdth a leucorrhea associated with the menopause wdiich is not simply an inheritance from the woman's previous menstrual history. Tilt says that out of 260 women in whom the menstrual function had ceased, 143 had never been subject to leucorrhea; of the remaining 117:
Many women only note the leucorrhea after the cessation of menstruation. In a number it is of trifling importance, and needs no treatment unless the patient asks for it for the sake of cleanliness. In such simple cases all that is necessary is to prescribe a menthol douche. I commonly have this prescription put up in the form of tablets as follows, patient dissolving two of the tablets in a pint of hot water and using it when tepid :
vaginal wall. The cervical leucorrhea is usually seen oozing out of the cervix, a tenacious, mucopurulent discharge. A vaginal leucorrhea is not thick and tenacious, but thin, yellowish or white. When the leucorrhea comes from the vagina, the latter is usually reddened, showing signs of patchy inflammation. For the treatment of these conditions I would refer to the chapter on Leucorrhea. A marked vaginitis with shrinking of the vagina belongs rather to the diseases of old age, q. v., although sometimes found at this period and sometimes even earlier. — Itching occasionally troubles patients at this period, but I refer to this in another part of the book, associating it more with the diseases of old age. The first two steps to take in investigating a case of pruritus at middle age is to discover whether or not the patient has diabetes, and then to find out whether or not the itching is caused by any irritating cervical or vaginal discharge. In the latter case great relief is often experienced by the application of a strong solution (ten to twenty per cent) of nitrate of silver, followed by a boro-glyceride pack and later by borax douches, a teaspoonful to a pint of warm water. A distressing pruritus ani may be kept up by a slight thin vaginal discharge. When the pruritus is not dependent upon these causes, much relief is obtained by warm hip baths. A good lotion is made by adding two drams of powdered acetate of lead to four ounces of milk, applying this several times a day, allowing it to dry on the surface. When the lotion gets watery it should be thrown away.
cent or weaker, well rubbed into all the recesses of the membrane,
(8) Bearing Down and Relaxed Vaginal Outlet. — I have associated these two conditions here under one caption because they may be either closely related or one exist entirely independent of the other. It is not uncommon at this period for patients to comjilain of a more or less distressing bearing down, which keeps them conscious of their pelvic organs. Often the feeling itself is not so troublesome, but the patient fears lest it means a displacement of the organs and an operation. In such cases a careful examination should be made, not only with the patient lying on her back when the examiner seeks to recognize a broken-down, relaxed vaginal outlet, but with the patient standing to see whether or not there is a tendency of the uterus to fall decidedly toward the vaginal orifice on straining a little. A relaxed condition of the vaginal orifice is common at the change of life for many reasons: the patient may have had it for a number of years, but failed to take any active steps for its relief so long as she was liable to bear children; again, for this or other reasons, she postpones an operation until past the child-bearing period. In all these cases where there is a pouting, relaxed, broken-down condition of the vaginal outlet with uterine displacement, the wiser plan is to operate and bring tlie levator jnuscles together, restoring the outlet to its original integrity.
(9) Uterine Displacement. — Closely connected with the condition just described is retroflexion and downward displacement of the uterus. When the uterus is large and bearing down on the pelvic floor, whether in retroflexion or descensus or both, it is a wise plan to suture it in a good ante position by one or other suitable operation ; when, however, the uterus is not abnormal in size and the history shows that the retrodisplacement has persisted all through the menstrual life, and especially if she is unmarried or nulliparous, she is not likely to derive any benefit from the operation of putting the uterus into position, no matter how tempting to the surgeon. The plausil)le argument is unfortunately fallacious : the patient has for a long time suffered from bearingdown symptoms, the body of the uterus is found tipped back or retroflexed; what more natural than the conclusion that the correction of the trouble will relieve the discomforts. A careful study of the history of many of these cases will show that, aside from the displacement and the pelvic complaints there is a long nervous history with complaints of other kinds, and that the pelvic trouble is but part and parcel of a constitutional condition which cannot be relieved by surgery. If the displacement is not associated with a broken-down outlet, the sequel of labor, and if it is not associated with a decided enlargement of the uterus, then let the operator be careful to avoid promising relief by the mere surgical correction of the malposition.
(10) Incontinence of Urine. — From the time of the menopause on, incontinence of the urine is noticed with increasing frequency. The patient first notices a little dribble, the escape of a few drops on to her person upon coughing, laughing, or sneezing, or upon stepping down or on any sudden exertion. This may increase until she notices that she is wet pretty much all the time. At the same time the occasional dribblings are not sufiicient to empty the bladder, so the toilet is used about as often as heretofore. Sometimes in these cases there is a histoy of a severe confinement and some similar disturbances dating from that event. A careful examination shows no urinary affection and no evidence of cystitis. At the most there is some gaping of the vaginal orifice and dropping of the anterior wall of the vagina, with a downward displacement of the urethra and the neck and base of the bladder. A systematic examination shows nothing special unless it be in some cases a lazy closure of the sphincter at the neck of the bladder.
The surgeon is strongly tempted to recommend an operation at once, lifting up the floor of the vagina " to support the floor of the bladder." This proves a failure. He then suggests resecting the anterior vaginal wall to support it and " to prevent the bladder from coming down," doing a cystocele operation and carrying the denudation out beyond the neck of the bladder. This, too, fails, and he is then at his wits' end. I find the cure for these cases, both in the class of patients we are describing and in those who are older (for it is largely a disease of old age, as the trouble gTows worse as the patient begins to lose the padding of intra-j^elvic fat) is the following: If the patient is so old that slie seriously objects to an operation, if the vaginal outlet is fairly well
OF Urine.
lifted up and will support a pessary, a good, snug-fitting disk pessary, which stifi^ens out the vagina and makes just a little pressure at the neck of the bladder, such pressure as the finger might make while gently pushing the neck of the bladder against the symphysis, will give considerable and, occasionally, entire relief. It is worth while to try several pessaries, each varying a little in size, to see which one does its work best. (See Fig. 51^.)
In the case of a younger woman, or of an older woman who is not relieved by a pessary and wants a radical cure, I believe the best treatment is to make an oval vaginal incision under the neck of the bladder, extending down to but not through the urethral mucosa, then carefidly dissecting out on either side so as to undermine the neck of the bladder. The sphincter muscles are found and sutured snugly together with several buried silk sutures. The vagina is then closed over this and the operation completed. Such cases are relieved with practically uniform success.
(11) Tumors of the Breast. — According to Williams, in 1903, 10,000 women were suffering from carcinoma of the breast in England and Wales. In an analysis of 13,824 primary neoplasms collected from London hospitals, covering a period of twenty-one years, 2,422, or seventeen per cent, were tumors of the breast, and all but 25 of these, or 2,397, were of the female breast. Velpeau ("Diseases of the Breast," Syd. Soc, 1856), classifying 273 cases of scirrhous and encephaloid tumors of the breast, says there were 95 between forty and fifty, and 123 over fifty years of age, and remarks: " So that it is between forty and fifty, and then between fifty and sixty, that the female breast is incontestably more exposed to cancer, whether in the form of scirrhus, or with the characteristics of encephaloid." He united in the following table 281 cases of hypertrophy, cysts, small interlobular fibroids, and adenoid tumors of the breast, and found they were said to have originated at the following ages :
breast as between forty and fifty.
r. Martin quotes Gross as declaring that a discharge from the breast in any woman over forty years of age is pathogiiomonic of cancer. Retraction of the skin over a lump is always a serious sign.
A w^ell-defined tumor of the breast at the time of the menopause should always be held as malignant until an operation proves the contrary. The safe plan is to assume that every cystic or non-malignant tumor is likely to become maligTiant later on. Occasionally, judging from my own experience, errors in diagnosis are not infrequently made by the most expert. I have noted regarding cancer of the womb. The same urgency and immediate operation pertains also to tumors of the breast.
Causes of dysmenorrhea when no pathological lesions can be found, p. 107. Causes of dysmenorrhea associated with gross pelvic lesions, p. 110. Remedies for temporary relief, p. 113. Remedies for permanent rehef, p. 117. Dilatation, p. 121.
Definition. — The name " dysmenorrhea " signifies simply painful menstruation, and is applied without discrimination to all varieties of suffering associated with the performance of the menstrual function. The fact that we are still in the dark as to the etiology of menstruation is a serious obstacle to a better understanding of the true nature of dysmenorrhea. As things stand at present the theories advanced to explain it and the practices employed to relieve it are purely empirical.
Menstrual Molimena. — In any consideration of dysmenorrhea we find ourselves in a difiiculty at the outset, from the fact that it is impossible to say exactly what constitutes normal menstruation. Theoretically, a woman in perfect health ought to know no difference between the menstrual and intermenstrual periods, but this state of things exists only among uncivilized people. The effect of civilization, and more especially of the complex conditions of our modern life, has been to intensify nervous excitability to such an extent that, the woman who menstruates to-day without pain or reflex disturbances of some kind is altogether exceptional. Entire absence of suffering is indeed so unusual that text-books of gynecology all devote some space to what is called " menstrual molimena," that is to say, those local and general disturbances which it is assumed must habitually attend menstruation.
These disturbances consist of a certain amount of pain, situated in the pelvis and extending through the back and thighs; and of nervous excitability, manifesting itself most commonly in headache, depression, and disinclination to exertion. The symptoms frequently precede menstruation by a period varying from a few hours to a few days ; in some cases they are relieved by the establishment of the flow, while in others the suffering is increased by its appearance. The nervous symptoms, such as headache, and reflex disturbances of various kinds, are sometimes more marked than the local suffering. The condition described may be considered as constituting normal menstruation; any marked increase upon the symptoms being pathological and coming under the head of dysmenorrhea.
106 DYSMENORRHEA.
The constancy with which menstrual molimena occur has been investigated by Marie Tobler (Monatsschr. f. Gel. u. Gyn., 1905, vol. 22, p. 1), who interrogated one thousand and twenty women with this point in view. She found that twenty-six per cent had local pain and both physical and mental disturbance, the term physical disturbance being used to indicate such constitutional phenomena as a sense of general discomfort, of malaise, or of weakness. Four and four-tenths per cent had only local suffering. Fourteen per cent had local and physical, but no mental disturbance; eleven per cent had physical and mental, but no local disturbance ; six and nine-tenths had physical, but no local or mental disturbance. Seven and eight-tenths had mental disturbance only; five and six-tenths had mental and local, but no physical disturbance ; while sixteen per cent were free from disturbance of any kind. In three and three-tenths per cent the patients felt better than at any other time ; while in three and six-tenths per cent they felt better during the period, but were more or less disturbed just before or after it.
The reflex symptoms accompanying menstruation are extremely varied. In addition to headache, which is so common as to call for no comment, pains in the joints are often present, even in cases where no rheumatic or gouty tendency exists. Eye strain is quite common, with marked contraction of the field of vision in some cases, especially when there is a tendency to exophthalmic goitre. Skin eruptions, such as eczema and acne, make their appearance or are increased in virulence. Suffering of any kind to which the patient is subject, either temporaril}^ or permanently, is apt to recur or to be exacerbated with the occurrence of menstruation; for instance, neuralgia in any part of the body is more likely to attack its victim at that time, and even so common a malady as toothache is influenced by it.
Classification. — From the standpoint of the subjective symptoms, dysmenorrhea may be divided into two classes, one, in which the character of the menstrual discomfort is identical with that which we have just defined as normal, but is much more severe; another in Avhich the suffering is not only more severe, but of a different character from that just described.
In the class characterized by increase of the usual suffering, the pelvic pain begins from one to two days to a week before the appearance of the flow. It is of a dull, dragging character, extending all through the back and down the thighs, and is often accompanied by severe headache, occasionally associated with nausea, extreme lassitude, and nervous excitability. In some cases the symptoms are greatly relieved by the establishment of menstruation ; in others they continue throughout its duration.
In the second class of cases, the pain begins just before, or exactly with the appearance of menstruation. It is sharp, well-defined, and cramp-like in character, coming on in paroxysms whicli last a minute or two and recur at short intervals. This form of dysmenorrhea is less often accompanied by reflex disturbances than the other.
LESIONS CAN BE FOUND.
It has long been recognized that dysmenorrhea is not necessarily associated with a demonstrable abnormal condition of the reproductive organs. On the contrary, dysmenorrhea of the most severe and obstinate character may exist in the absence of any discoverable local disease whatever, while some cases of advanced disease in the uterus and appendages are entirely free from pain in menstruation. Various theories have been developed to explain the existence of dysmenorrhea in the absence of uterine or ovarian disease, the most widely recognized of which are the following:
Mechanical Dysmenorrhea. — This theory presupposes a constriction of the uterine canal, by means of which the escape of the menstrual fluid is impeded. It was first advanced by Sir James Mackintosh of Edinburgh and was further developed by Marion Sims and Sir James Y. Simpson. In detail it is based on the assumption that an obstacle is present in the uterine canal, and that in order to force the blood past this obstacle the uterus contracts forcibly, the contraction being realized subjectively in the form of uterine colic and constituting the pain known as dysmenorrhea. The obstacle in question, according to the advocates of the theory, may be : ( 1 ) A kink in the cervical canal, due to an anteflexion, or, more rarely, a retroflexion; (2) a stenosis of the internal os, which may be congenital, or the result of spasmodic contraction of the circular muscle fibres at the internal os, or of premenstrual swelling of the mucosa ; ( 3 ) a congenital stenosis of the external os or of the entire cervical canal; (4) intra-uterine polypi acting as ball valves; (5) clots of blood, or (in membranous dysmenorrhea) a membrane forced into the internal os.
This theory affords a most plausible explanation of the clinical features of many cases of the spasmodic variety of dysmenorrhea, where the pain is sharp and colicky, comes on shortly before the flow, and is associated with scanty menstruation, becoming more free as the pain subsides. It received substantial support from the fact that dilatation of the cervix, which was supposed to remove the obstruction and should, therefore, theoretically, relieve the 23ain, was, clinically, a perfect success in many cases. These facts caused it to receive a ready Avelcome, but further experience and a closer oxamination of the results liave to a large extent destroyed confidence in it. Vedeler {Arcli. f. Gyn., 1883, vol. 21, p. 211) has shown that out of a large number of women with
anteflexed uteri, the percentage of those free from dysmenorrhea is as great as of those who suffer from it. Duncan has pointed out that observation of the section of a uterus in extreme anteflexion shows that the flow of blood along the flexed canal would be obstructed only in a degree which could not practically be of the slightest importance. Moreover, the uterine sound has been passed repeatedly through the internal os during menstruation, showing that at this time the stenosis does not exist. Again, it is estimated that the amount of menstrual blood lost is one drop in three minutes, and it has been demonstrated that menstrual blood flows easily at this rate through a tube much smaller than any possible stenosis of the os, or of the canal. It has also been shown that during the acme of the pain, and just before the' flow is established, there is no blood in the uterus at all. In support of the theory it has been urged that when a uterine sound is passed into the nulliparous uterus, resistance is often encountered, but this does not necessarily imj^ly the presence of a pathological stenosis, and careful examination usually shows that the difficulty arises from the tip of the sound being caught in the folds of the mucosa, or from its encountering a flexion.
Dysmenorrhea Associated with Maldevelopment of the Reproductive Organs. — Insufficient development of the reproductive organs is often associated with painful menstruation, but the relation between the two is not yet determined. Some authorities claim that this form of dysmenorrhea is a neurosis ; others, that it arises from a deficiency in the calibre of the blood vessels, which are too small to receive the increased amount of blood necessary to establish the menstrual hyperemia ; others, again, consider it due to the fact that the uterine cavity is too small to accommodate the swollen endometrium ; and still another view claims that anteflexion is present in all such cases, on account of the maldevelopment of the anterior surface of the uterus, and that while the increased blood pressure tends to straighten the flexed organ, the resistance rendered by the lack of distensibility of the uterine parenchyma occasions the pain. ISTone of these explanations can be accepted as satisfactory, and although there is no doubt that maldevelopment of the pelvic organs is an important causal factor in many cases of dysmenorrhea, we are at present unable to say more than that the incompletely developed organ is not capable of prompt, efficient response to a normal impulse, and therefore does not carry out its function with ease, hence the pelvis is not relieved of its increased blood pressure and there is a tendency to stasis. A poor physical development is often associated with a similar condition of the pelvic organs, but maldevelopment of the uterus and adnexa is not necessarily associated with general defective development. Women in robust health, whose only ailment is dysmenorrhea, sometimes present imperfectly formed uteri and ovaries of the puerile type.
Neurotic Dysmenorrhea. — In some instances, dysmenorrhea is undoubtedly a pure neurosis, explicable as a hyperesthesia of the endometrium; in other words, it is an abnormal perception of the uterine contractions physio-
CAUSES OF DYSMENOEEHEA. 109
logically present at every menstrual period, but not usually appreciable, it being supposed that uterine colic is analogous to intestinal colic and due to a tetanic spasm of the circular fibres at the internal os. The pain may be due also to a physiological difficulty occasioned by the breaking down of the mucous membrane of the capillaries which induces a sort of pelvic headache. In dysmenorrhea of this type the patients are not anemic, their functions are well performed, and examination shows their reproductive organs normally developed, so that the dysmenorrhea must be considered as a pure neurosis whose exact nature cannot be clearly defined. It frequently happens that dysmenorrhea will make its appearance during neurasthenia in women who have never suffered from it before. In such cases it is often a nice question how much the dysmenorrhea is the result of the neurasthenia and how much it is occasioned by local disturbance of the organs.
Nasal Dysmenorrhea. — In 1897 Tleiss advanced a theory of dysmenorrhea based on the fact that certain cases could be relieved by the application of a twenty per cent solution of cocain to the so-called " sexual spots " in the nasal mucous membrane, urging in support of his theory that at the time of menstruation these spots increase in size and consistency, become cyanotic, and bleed easily. The theory found some supporters, amongst them J. Mackenzie, but it has never met with general acceptance. A most sensible paper on the subject by G. Kolischer (Amer. Jour. Obst., 1904, vol. 49, p. 804), ascribes the good results observed in certain hysterical patients to the effects of suggestion, and points out that cocainization of other mucous surfaces produces the same effect. For instance, in two cases where relief was promptly experienced after the application of cocain to the " sexual spots," the same benefit was obtained at the next menstrual period from the application of cocain elsewhere, in one case to an erosion of the cervix, and in the other to a previously cleansed rectum.
Dysmenorrhea from General 111 Health. — There is still another variety of dysmenorrhea, common in young girls in whom the menstrual habit is becoming established, and usually associated with a variety of dyscrasias, the most prominent of which are anemia and chlorosis. This form does not usually persist beyond the twentieth year, although it is occasionally met with in young married women. Many of these patients live among poor hygienic surroundings which keep their physical vigor below par ; others, on the contrary, are found among the higher classes who live amidst luxurious conditions, but are victims to the overstrain caused by the perpetual rush and excitement of constant social engagements, or the present efforts towards the higher education of women.
These are the principal theories concerning the etiology of dysmenorrhea not associated with gross pathological lesions of the reproductive organs. Other explanations less well recognized are to be noted also. Chronic endometritis, causing pain in menstruation through hyperesthesia of the endometrium is sometimes spoken of, and also chronic ovaritis; but neither
of these causes has jet been demonstrated. In sixty-four cases of dysmenorrhea without abnormalities of the pelvic organs, which were treated in my clinic by dilatation and curettage, chronic endometritis Avas found on microscopical examination in only four cases, and in no one of the four was it well marked. A form of painful menstruation, known as ovarian dysmenorrhea, is sometimes spoken of, in which there is extreme tenderness of the ovary during the period, demonstrated by pressure upon it, and explained by thickening of the ovarian capsule preventing the expansion of the ovary during the period of congestion; it has never come under' my observation. Perimetritis and salpingitis are sometimes the cause of pain in menstruation on account of the peritoneal pain occasioned by contractions of the tubes and uterus. Some writers recognize another form of dysmenorrhea known as "neuralgic " which is classed with the pure neuroses as analogous to intercostal or facial neuralgia. Dysmenorrhea is sometimes met with in women of a gouty or rheumatic constitution as a manifestation of the diathesis; its association with the dyscrasia being demonstrated by the entire relief afforded from remedies appropriate to its alleviation. In dysmenorrhea, not otherwise explicable, occurring in women with a rheumatic or gouty history, it should always be borne in mind as a possible cause, even if there are no other manifestations of the diathesis.
LESIONS.
While there are many cases in which a most severe dysmenorrhea is present without the slightest local lesion or displacement, there are also a considerable number where it exists in the presence of some pathological condition, of greater or less significance, by which, there can be no doubt, it is sometimes induced. In order to investigate this matter, I inquired into the histories of one thousand patients admitted consecutively into the Johns Hopkins Hospital, and found that two hundred and twenty-nine of them suffered from dysmenorrhea which was apparently the result of a definite pelvic lesion. The abnormal conditions which may occasion dysmenorrhea are many and various, but the three most frequently met with are: (1) backward displacement of the uterus ; (2) pelvic inflammatory disease ; (3) myoma. Of the cases spoken of, forty-one per cent were associated with retrodisplacements of the uterus ; thirty-seven per cent with pelvic inflammatory disease ; and eleven per cent with myomata. The remaining eleven per cent were distributed among various minor conditions.
Retroposition of the Uterus. — Dysmenorrhea is more commonly associated with retroposition of the uterus than with any other abnormal condition of the pelvic organs. An analysis of a number of cases of backward displacements, treated at the Johns Hopkins Hospital, made by my former associate. Dr. G. R. Holden, showed that out of one hundred and twenty nulliparae, one
hundred and nine, or ninety per cent, suffered from dysmenorrhea before operation. In multipara?, backward displacements are not so frequently associated with dysmenorrhea, there being one hundred and thirteen cases of it in two hundred and two cases of retroposition, or fifty-six per cent. Dysmenorrhea is occasionally the only symptom caused by the displacement, but more often it is only one of a series of manifestations, although, perhaps, the most severe. There is no constant type of dysmenorrhea associated with retroposition ; it is more apt to continue throughout the entire period than the dysmenorrhea of nulliparae without lesion. Gastric symptoms, headache, and other neurotic manifestations are often marked features, owing to the neurasthenia which almost invariably accompanies such cases.
Pelvic Inflammatory Disease. — About one-third of all the inflammatory conditions of the uterus, tubes, or ovaries, acute or chronic, are accompanied by dysmenorrhea. The proportion of cases with menstrual pain is about the same in acute and chronic affections, and the intensity of the suffering bears no relation to the extent of the pathological process. Cases in which the entire pelvic organs are the seat of inflammatory disease may have no pain in menstruation whatever, while a few adhesions binding down lightly one tube or ovary, or both, may give rise to severe suffering. Here also there is no constant type of pain. The suffering usually comes on a few days before the flow and lasts through the entire period. It is commonly dull in character, and is often referred to a wide area over the abdomen, back, and thighs. There may be no symptom of the condition except dysmenorrhea.
Myomata. — During the year 190 Y the histories of two hundred cases of myoma in women under forty-five were examined at the Johns Hopkins Hospital to ascertain what percentage of their number suffered from dysmenorrhea. Ninety-four of the cases were white and one hundred and six black. Only those cases were considered positive which " showed the onset of dysmenorrhea with the present illness." Of these two hundred cases of uncomplicated myoma (adeno-myoma not included), twenty-five per cent showed that painful menstruation had made its appearance since the onset of the trouble for which the patient sought advice. This estimate of the proportion of dysmenorrheas associated with myoma may seem low, but another set of investigations carried on at the Johns Hopkins a little earlier gave a percentage of twenty per cent, which is even lower.
Dysmenorrhea is most frequently seen with submucous and interstitial myomata and is rare in the subperitoneal form. Here, again, there is no distinctive form of suffering. Severe dysmenorrhea is most often observed in the case of small tumors, and I pause here to call attention to the fact that a number of apparently inexplicable dysmenorrheas are due to the presence of extremely small myomata. In a case which passed through my hands not long since, the patient had been suffering for some years with extreme dysmenorrhea and more or less constant pain, so that her general health was quite broken down. When the uterus was
TREATMENT OF DYSMENORRHEA.
An important question which at once arises in almost every case of dysmenorrhea is the propriety of making a local examination. There should, of course, be no hesitation in the case of married women, or in cases of inflammatory disease. But there are many instances of young women who suffer from dysmenorrhea pure and simple, when the question of examination must receive careful consideration. It is always best to exhaust all general therapeutic measures before making it; and, in a large number of cases, if these are carried out conscientiously over a long period of time, the suffering will be relieved. If, however, the case is an aggravated one when first seen; if it persists in defiance of all therapeutic measures; if it cannot remain under observation ; or, if the circumstances are such as to prevent the general measures being consistently carried out, an examination should be made under an anesthetic.
With this precaution, an examination can be made without injury to the hymen, while, should any simple operation such as dilatation and curettage be indicated, it can be performed at the same time. Such a course enables the physician to dispense with the endless local treatments which are so objectionable in young women.
GENERAL REMEDIAL MEASURES.
Attention to General Health. — In all cases of dysmenorrhea the closest attention to general health is indicated. In a large proportion of cases the patient will show more or less evidence of malnutrition of some kind or other, and this should be the object of persistent attention. A proper quantity of nutritious food is essential, and if, as often happens, the appetite is so impaired as to make it impossible to consmne this at ordinary meals, the deficiency should be made up by feeding the patient in small amounts at frequent intervals. A glass of milk, a cup of beef tea, a sandwich, some malted milk, or any light nutritious food taken between meals and just before going to bed will generally be sufficient, and as the general condition improves, the appetite will increase.
Sleep. — A case of the kind under consideration should always have fully eight hours' sleep and more, if possible. In young girls who have not attained maturity, or in cases where the patient is markedly anemic, there must always be more, either at night or in the day time. An excellent plan is a sleep of one or two hours in the early afternoon. All late hours and excitement should be avoided with young girls at school, and the greatest care should be exercised to prevent over-exertion. The requirements of our large
schools are such as to tax the caiDacities of a growing girl to the utmost, and if she is to keep up to them she must have every external aid in the healthyregulations of her life out of school hours. A young girl suffering from dysmenorrhea should never be sent to school during the menstrual period ; and in a good many cases she should be taken away altogether for some months, or a year, if necessary.
Fresh Air and Exercise. — A considerable amount of time spent in the open air is of vital importance. The conditions of a woman's life in this respect are greatly improved upon what they were a generation ago, and a variety of outdoor amusements are now open to her. Walking, riding, driving, bicycling, or some form of active game, such as tennis, golf, or basket ball, are very desirable ; and some hours spent out of doors, in all but the most inclement weather, should form part of the routine of each day.
Rest. — More benefit is derived from rest in the treatment of dysmenorrhea than from any one other remedy. Absolute rest in bed during the periods is essential. Every patient suffering from established dysmenorrhea should remain in bed for two to three days at each menstruation, and whenever it is possible, the rest should begin before the appearance of the flow. Careful observance of this rule in conjunction with other remedies will, in many cases, completely relieve the dysmenorrhea, and the patient will be able after some months to resume ordinary habits during menstruation. In other cases it will be necessary to continue the practice of rest in bed for at least the first twenty-four hours each time, if the relief from suffering is to be permanent.
Regulation of the Bowels. — Dysmenorrhea is frequently associated with constipation, so frequently, indeed, that keeping the bowels open, and even a little relaxed at the time of the menstrual period, is often most effectual in giving relief. I have known one case in which perfect relief for several periods was obtained by taking a heaping teaspoonful of Husband's magnesia every morning for three or four days before menstruation. In young girls who suffer from dysmenorrhea, it will often be discovered on close questioning that there is no regular evacuation of the bowels, and that the patient is quite unaware of the importance of the habit to either her general health or her menstruation. In such cases it is well to focus attention upon this point until the constipation is overcome, and this will often result in entire relief of the menstrual suffering.
REMEDIES FOR RELIEF OF PAIN DURING MENSTRUATION.
Opium should rarely be given for the relief of dysmenorrhea, any more than for any other form of protracted suffering characterized by paroxysms, that does not tend to a fatal issue. The various forms of alcoholic stimulants so much in vogue are also contraindicated. There is a strong tendency among the poorer classes to seek relief in either
gin or wliiskev, and this point should be especially borne in mind among dispensary i)atients. The various patent medicines taken for the relief of pain all contain a large percentage of alcohol and their use should be systematically discouraged. The percentage of alcohol by volume in some of these com]")0unds, as given by the Massachusets State Board Analyst, is as folloTvs :
It is necessary, however, or at any rate desirable, to combine a stimulant with the coal-tar preparations which are so much used for the relief of dysmenorrhea, in order to counteract the depressing effect upon the heart exercised by that class of remedies. Five grains of phenacetin with two teaspoonfuls of whiskey are sometimes given for the relief of menstrual pain, but it should always be given by the physician in the form of a prescription, and never put into the patient's hands as a remedy for general use, which she is at liberty to renew at her discretion. The evils of alcoholic stimulation are so great, however, that I prefer to give twenty to thirty drops of the aromatic spirits of ammonia in a little water.
continuing through the flow.
Dr. Walter L. Burrage recommends the various Ilelonias compounds, which he has found useful. The best of them, in his opinion, are " Mistura Helonin Compound " and the fluid extract of " ITelonias Compound." These preparations are safest, as they do not contain an opiate, and the quantity of alcohol per dose is infinitesimal. The compound mixture of helonin, known as " Green Mixture," because of its brilliant color, may be given in doses of a teaspoonful in half a teacupful of hot water every fifteen minutes during a paroxysm of pain, or three times a day during the intermenstrual period, or for a week before the flow is expected.
In cases where the flow is scanty and the pain begins before its appearance, to be relieved by its establishment, I have found great benefit from the use of a rectal injection containing a heavy dose of sodium bromide in hot saline solution; it acts as a local sedative and also stimulates the flow by dilating the blood vessels. The formula for it is as follows:
The apiilication of heat externally often gives much relief. Hot water bags are excellent^ or hot sand bags. A hot mustard foot bath is sometimes of service. Tor the latter purpose I use two teaspoonfuls of mustard in a foot-tub full of water, as hot as can be borne.
In cases where the pain is of tlie congestive character, T. A. Emmet recommends a plan of treatment directed to the relief of venous engorgement ("Principles and Practice of Gynecology," 3d edition, 1884, p. 177). A foot bath as hot as can be borne should be given, followed by some kind of hot drink. A hot mustard plaster is then applied along the spine. This should be about three inches in width and reach from the cervical region of the spine to the sacrum. As a rapid action is desired, the unadulterated mustard must be rubbed up into a thick paste with warm water and then reduced to the proper consistency by adding an ounce or two of syrup or molasses, which will at once develop the volatile oil. A piece of unstarched muslin, sufficiently long and some nine inches in width, is laid out at full length and the mustard is spread down the middle for one-third of the width, so that when the strip is folded over, the mustard will be covered on one side by two thicknesses of the cloth. The surface which is covered by the single thickness of cloth must be warmed and kept folded together until applied. The skin will become reddened in from ten to twenty minutes and the plaster must not be allowed to remain longer, even though the patient should not complain of pain occasioned by it. When the flow is delayed, dry cups, in Emmet's opinion, are more efficacious than the mustard plaster in bringing it on. These must be put on each side of the spinous processes and only in the immediate neighborhood of any point which may be found tender on pressure. The relief is more prompt when four to six large tumblers are used than it is with the ordinary sized cupping glasses. Unless the tumblers are unusually thick and heavy, there is no difficulty in making them hold on, after properly exhausting the air, by igniting a little alcohol which has been poured directly into the glass or upon some cotton on a piece of paper stuck to the bottom. The damp cotton must be firmly pressed against the bottom of the glass before dropping on the alcohol, and any excess of alcohol which may have run down to the edge of the glass carefully wiped up in order to avoid burning the patient. Eifteen to twenty minutes is long enough for the cups to remain in one place, after which they may be shifted to another. It may be necessary to repeat this treatment month after month until the local disease underlying the dysmenorrhea has yielded to treatment. During the interval between the menstrual periods, the general health must be carefully watched according to the rules laid down. A Turkish bath is often beneficial when taken within a week before the expected period.
When the pain is intense and all other remedies have failed, morphin may be given hypodermically as a last resort. As a rule, a single dose of oneeighth or one-fourth of a grain will be sufficient. It should always be controlled by the physician, and if a marked neurotic element is pres-
REMEDIES FOR PERMANENT RELIEF OF DYSMENORRHEA.
Pessaries. — Dysmenorrhea associated with retrodisplacements of the uterus is sometimes relieved by a pessary. In one case I found entire relief afforded by one of the Smith-Hodge variety. As to the selection of a suitable pessary and its application, see Chapter XIII.
Thyroid Extract and Calcium Lactate. — Dr. J. E. B. Branch, of Macon, Ga., has communicated some interesting results obtained with thyroid extract and also with calcium lactate. In one young woman of twenty-seven, who had suffered for twelve years with severe pains in the lower abdomen, backache and headache, nausea and scant flow, there was complete relief obtained by giving thyroid extract 5 gT. t.i.d. In several cases this treatment failed, and in some even made conditions worse. In two, splendid results were obtained by giving 10 gr. of calcium lactate t.i.d., beginning a week before the expected onset of period, continuing till its end.
Electricity. — The treatment of dysmenorrhea by electricity was of interest fifteen years ago, and promised excellent results. The method has failed because of a failure of interest in the question of the use of electricity in gynecology. It seems a matter for regret that the electrical treatment of various gynecological affections should not receive more attention, and I quote from some of the early papers in hopes that the methods described may be of use to-day.
W. B. Sprague (Ann. Gyn. and Fed., 1891, vol. 4, p. 402) says: " I have learned to take my battery with me whenever called to relieve a woman suffering at the menstrual period. I generally use a Kidder five-post battery, and use the current from the extreme posts (the A-E current) with the shell of the magnet well drawn out. I secure a current of great tension, which is the best for relief of pain. Placing the positive electrode, covered with some absorbent material well moistened, in the lumbo-sacral region, I use a small electrode over the hypogastrium with a kneading, rotary, and vibratory motion. This not only relieves the pain greatly, but increases the flow, so the only contra-indication is a tendency to menorrhagia. I also use the static and galvanic currents to palliate the pain, with less benefit — the former under similar conditions to those in which the faradic current is indicated, the latter in menorrhagia. . . . Only a moderate current is required in most cases — from five to twenty-five milliamperes— but in cases of severe hemorrhage it is necessary to use from fifty to sixty milliamperes. Strong currents, while necessary to check hemorrhage, generally increase the pain at first, but cessation usually follows, if it be gradually reduced and followed by the sacro-pubic administration for a few minutes following the removal of the internal electrode."
A. Lapthorn Smith (Amer. Jour. Ohst., 1891, vol. 26, p. 161) states that he has found the most important agent in the treatment of dysmenorrhea of uterine origin to be the apj^lication of the mild galvanic current to the
inside of the uterus by means of the ordinary uterine sound, insulated to within two and a half inches of its end, to the handle of which was attached the negative pole of the battery. The treatment is nsnally less painful than the passage of the sound, as will appear from the following brief description of the method : " After a careful bimanual examination for the purpose of excluding pregnancy and ascertaining the position and condition of the pelvic organs, the vagina is disinfected by a douche, if this has not already been done, at the patient's home. An ordinary Simpson's uterine sound of large size is then bent to the ascertained curve of the uterine canal, passed through the flame of the spirit lamp, cooled, and insulated with a clean piece of rubber tubing to within two and a half inches of its extremity, or less, if we have reason to think that the uterus is undeveloped. In the handle of the sound a hole has been bored, just large enough to hold the tip of the conducting cord from the negative pole or last zinc of the battery. The sound is then guided into the os uteri on the tip of the finger until it meets with some obstruction, when a current strength of ten milliamperes is turned on. In a minute or two the obstruction will seem to melt away and the sound will glide into the cavity of the uterus. The current is now gradually raised until the patient says she can feel it in the uterus, generally between twenty and fifty milliamperes. being at once lowered on the slightest complaint of pain. At the end of five minutes the current is gradually turned off again, when the sound will be found to drop out almost of its own accord, and very much more easily than it entered. This may complete the seance, or, as an adjuvant and safeguard a boroglycerid tampon may be inserted. The patient may return home on foot and resume her duties forthwith, as such mild applications do not require any precautions in the way of resting, etc. The positive pole of the battery is attached to the ordinary clay abdominal electrode." The following case is cited by Dr. Smith as an instance of the success of the above mode of treatment :
" ]\Iiss W. was sent to me on the third of Jime, 1888, by Dr. Eeddy with a uterine fibroid and an enormous hypertrophy of the cervix. Her sufferings every month were imendiiraljle. She had been employed as cook in a private family, but had to give up her situation, as during menstruation she was totally incapacitated. She described the pain as agonizing, her screams being heard all over the house. I gave her two applications a week from then till July 28th of the same year, less than two months, when she reported that she had had a period absolutely free from pain, I continued to treat her for another month, but she has never had a painful period since, and was still menstruating regiilarly up to a few months ago when I saw her last, in perfect health, and doing all the catering and cooking for a large boarding house."
A more recent paper than these is one by A. H. Goelet {Internal. Jour. Surg., March, 1900). In this he speaks most highly of electricity in the treatment of dysmenorrhea associated with stenosis, obstruction, or flexion. In cases of flexion it may be necessary to use tampons in conjunction, to support
is no longer dragged down.
For the purpose of overcoming obstruction in the canal, whether associated with flexions or not, moderate electrolysis is employed. This produces distinct widening of the canal which promotes drainage of increased secretion, pent up in the cavity as the result of obstruction. The strength of the current (galvanic) employed for the purpose should not exceed ten milliamperes, and the duration of the application should be three or four minutes. Thus cauterization is avoided as obviously objectionable, since it would eventually lead to permanent stenosis from cicatricial contractions. The frequency of the applications may be every second day for the first week or two, according to the condition ; twice a week during the third ; and cessation during the menstrual period. If complete relief is obtained at this stage, one application may be made two or three days immediately preceding the next two succeeding periods. The electrode is inserted with a speculum in the vagina or along the index finger as a guide. Strict antisepsis must be preserved throughout. The instruments and hands must be clean and the vulva and vagina thoroughly irrigated with an antiseptic solution immediately before treatment. Following each application the pelvis is submitted to faradization with the current from the long fine wire coil by means of the bipolar electrode in the vagina for the purpose of overcoming the pelvic hyperemia which constantly accompanies this form of dysmenorrhea. These applications should be continued for ten to fifteen minutes.
Goelet considers that dysmenorrhea due to ovaritis and salpingitis, without suppuration, is amenable to this mode of treatment, if the details are carried out with care. In these cases, particularly where there is much sensitiveness to digital pressure in the vagina, the treatment should begin with faradization (bipolar) through the vagina with the most sedative current obtainable, and these applications, which are repeated every twenty-four hours, should be continued each day for fifteen minutes, maintaining the current constantly throughout the application at a point where it is barely appreciable to the patient. The strength of stimulation of the current should be increased only with the decrease of sensitiveness. When this has been accomplished, negative electrolysis of the canal is employed, when necessary, to promote drainage from the uterine cavity and tubes. In the beginning it is best to start with an application of only five milliamperes and continue it only two minutes. The application is repeated in two or three days, if no reaction follows to show that it is contra-indicated. The applications to the canal should be discontinued as soon as the necessity for drainage is no longer indicated, but the faradic applications are to be continued every second or third day until the cure is complete.
Dysmenorrhea due to anemia and impaired nutrition will yield to vigorous applications of static electricity, consisting of sparks over the spine and especially over the sacrum; sparks to the hypogastric region, repeated
daily, or every second day; and the application of a stimulating static breeze applied generally. The applications are discontinued during menstruation. From two to three months are usually required to effect a cure.
Dysmenorrhea due to imperfect development of the uterus and ovaries can only be benefited by electricity, if treatment is instituted before the patient has attained maturity. The applications must be made directly to the uterus with the object of stimulating this organ, and through it, the ovaries. An electrode with two and a quarter inches of exposed surface is inserted into the uterus and connected with the negative pole of the faradic apparatus. The other pole terminating in a felt electrode the size of the hand, is placed over the lumbar region and the current is employed as strong as it can comfortably be borne. It should be maintained for five or ten minutes and its strength constantly increased throughout the application, so as to maintain a stimulation throughout, the object being to excite an increased blood flow to the uterus. The applications should be repeated every second day at first, and later every third day. Applications of static electricity at the same time will aid materially by stimulating an increased general nutrition. The method which is particularly effective is the static breeze: sparks to the spine, over the sacrum, and to the hypogastrium, with the breeze to the head for five to ten minutes after the other application. The static spark exercises a decided revulsive effect which relieves internal congestion, stimulates the general circulation, and, together wdth the breeze, promotes nutrition. The breeze to the head quiets nervous irritation and induces natural sleep.
It will be seen that the various advocates for the use of electricity in gynecology differ in regard to the details of its use, and no doubt every practitioner who makes use of it will find it expedient to develop his own method. It is to be hoped that gynecologists, and general practitioners who practice more or less gynecology, will give the use of electricity in the treatment of dysmenorrhea a thorough trial during the next few years, for it would seem to offer a fair prospect of relief in certain intractable cases, although it is still upon probation.
Operative Treatment. — Permanent relief from dysmenorrhea, if other remedial measures fail, must be obtained from operative treatment. In cases where the suffering is caused by lesions of the pelvic organs, the cure of these lesions will generally be followed by the disappearance of menstrual pain, but the treatment of such cases belongs to the specialist. Tor the relief of dysmenorrhea not associated with organic lesions, however, there is one form of operative treatment so simple as to be within the scope of the general practitioner, and therefore within the limits of this work, namely, dilatation of the cervix uteri, followed, when it is indicated, by curettage of the endometrium. In cases where the organs are apparently normal this mode of treatment has yielded the following percentage of good results in my clinic. Out of ninety-five cases, eighteen were entirely relieved with no subsequent return of the pain, and fourteen were greatly benefited, the pain never return-
DILATATION. 121
ing to its former severity. The periods of observation in these cases extended over from one to twelve years. Of the remaining cases, seven were relieved completely or in great part for periods of from one to twelve years, after which the dysmenorrhea returned. In thirty-nine instances, therefore, out of ninety-five, the results might be considered satisfactory. In twenty-one cases there was no relief at all, while the remaining thirty-five cases experienced more or less relief for a few months, but within a year the pain returned in the same severity as before. When the dysmenorrhea returns after a few years or months of comfort we are justified in recommending a second operation.
There is no symptom complex by which the cases where dilatation may be expected to do good can be differentiated with certainty from those in which it will not. In general, however, we may anticipate relief in cases where the pain begins a few hours before the flow, is sharp in character, and lasts but a short time. A marked neurasthenia does not necessarily forbid a good result, but if permanency of relief is to be secured, the neurasthenia must also be cured. An excellent plan in such cases is to institute a thorough rest cure by an ether examination and a dilatation, with curettage, if necessary.
This operation does not yet stand upon a scientific basis, for its mode of action is not clear and its results are far from uniform. It must always be borne in mind that not every case of dysmenorrhea is suitable for dilatation. The general practitioner, and even many a specialist, often make the mistake of beginning the treatment of every case of dysmenorrhea by dilatation, without a proper preliminary search for the cause of pain, forgetting that in certain cases the pain is due to the presence of definite lesions, such as ovarian disease, pelvic peritonitis, or small interstitial fibroids, which are not of a nature to be relieved by such treatment. In order to make clear the relation of dysmenorrhea to a variety of pelvic affections which are apt to escape detection upon a superficial examination, I analyzed two hundred and fifty-five cases, taken consecutively, of pelvic peritonitis with adherent tubes and ovaries, tubercular peritonitis, hydrosalpinx, and catarrhal salpingitis, and found that out of the two hundred and fifty-five cases, one hundred and eighty suffered from dysmenorrhea, while it was absent in only seventy-five cases.
If the physician has determined by a careful examination that no lesions of the kind described are present, and if the various remedial meas^ures have been tried without success, dilatation should always be performed, and followed by curettage, if the latter seems advisable.
Choice of Method. — Slow dilatation by means of laminaria or tupelo tents, much used in Germany, has been generally abandoned in this country, for fear of septic infection. The class of uteri which need dilatation
and curettage are often already infected, and the introduction of a hard foreign body in the form of a tent, which bruises and lacerates the tissues while it is being introduced and keeps up a constantly increasing pressure, affords just the condition most favorable to the entrance of pathologic organisms into the system. In many instances the patient recovers from the operation with a chronic pelvic inflammation, and not a few deaths have been due to sepsis originating in this manner. A fatal case of infection following slow dilatation has been reported by Dr. T. S. Cullen (Johns Hopkins Hosp. Rep., 1897, vol. 6, p. 109). The patient was a young woman whose physician had thought it necessary to induce an abortion in the fourth month of pregnancy, and therefore he inserted a slippery elm tent into the uterine cavity. A few hours afterwards the patient suddenly became deathly pale and fainted away. On recovering she complained of great pain in the abdomen and had a slight uterine hemorrhage. Four days later she had a profuse hemorrhage, but it was not possible to ascertain whether the fetus had been expelled. On the fifth day she had a severe chill, followed by high temperature, marked abdominal distention, and extreme tenderness over the abdomen. The chills continued at irregular intervals until the sixteenth day, when symptoms of peritonitis appeared and death took place at the end of twelve hours. At the autopsy the peritoneum was found to contain several quarts of purulent fluid and the uterus was enlarged and softened. It was removed, and when the alcoholic specimen was examined it proved to measure 13 X 9 X 6 cm., while its cavity was 9 cm. in length. The latter contained six pieces of wood (the component parts of the elm tent), Avhich, when united, formed a perfect cone with a hole perforating its base. The uterine walls were extensively necrotic and cocci were found everywhere in the uterine blood vessels, as well as in the thin sheet of fibrin which covered the uterus itself. This case is an excellent illustration of the fact that the tent ought only to be used in clean cases, that is to say, where there is no suspicion of any cervical or intra-uterine infection. I would not use it in a septic abortion or a sloughing fibroid.
Gradual dilatation by means of Hegar's graduated dilators has been successful in some cases. According to this method dilatation should be begun by dilators, measuring 3 to 5 mm. in diameter, the size being increased day by day during the interval between menstrual periods until 8 to 10 mm. is reached.
and it is certainly the safest.
Preliminaries to Operation. — The bowels must be carefully emptied by means of either a teaspoonful of liquorice powder the night before the operation, or an equal amount of miagnesium sulphate on the morning of it. If it seems necessary, this may be followed by an enema of warm soap and water. The operating table is covered by a sterilized sheet and a rubber pad is laid over one end of it. The patient, after being anesthetized, is placed upon this in the lithotomy position. The vagina is now cleansed with soap and water
on pledgets of cotton introduced by means of a long forceps. After this, it is irrigated with a solution of bichloride of mercury, 1 : 1,000. The best anesthetic is nitrous oxide gas, and if this does not give sufficient relaxation, a few whiffs of ether may be administered and the gas resumed. The whole operation should not take over five minutes. A careful bimanual examination
Fig. 52. — Instruments used in Dilatation and Curettage of the Uterus. These instruments are in order from left to right, Sims' speculxim; two traction forceps; dressing forceps; tliree iiterine dilators; two serrated curettes; one gauze packer; one uterine sound; bottle of formalin solution for specimen secured.
of the pelvic organs should always be made while the patient is under the anesthetic. ISTot only does it afford valuable information as to her condition, but if the direction of the uterine canal is known, it greatly aids the introduction of the dilators. The instruments used are shown in Figure 52.
Operation of Rapid Dilatation. — In the virgin the well-anointed index finger must be introduced into the vagina slowly and gently,' to avoid injuring the hymen. When the finger touches the cervix, a pair of tenaculum forceps is introduced and the cervix firmly grasped by its anterior lip. The finger is then withdrawn, and traction made with the forceps until the os uteri is seen at the vaginal outlet (see Fig. 53). When the orifice is small, or the examining finger large, the position of the cervix must be determined without vaginal examination by a careful rectal palpation, in order to avoid injuring the hymen, after which the tenaculum forceps are introduced into the vagina, and under the guidance of the rectal finger the anterior lip of the cervix is cau-
tiouslj drawn down to the outlet. In married women, and in those who have borne children, the posterior vaginal wall may be readily retracted by a Sims' or a Simon speculum or even with two fingers, so as to expose the cervix, which is then grasped by the tenaculum forceps and drawn down.
the Vaginal Outlet.
Dilators of the Goodell-Ellinger pattern of three sizes are needed (see Fig. 52). The smallest of these, which has smooth blades, is 4 mm. in diameter, while the two larger, which are 5 and 6 mm. in diameter, respectively, are both corrugated, as recommended by the late Dr. William Goodell. My own dilators have a spring between the handles, but are not provided with either ratchet or screw. The handles are bent at an angle and are made large enough to be grasped in the full hand; the dilating end is blunt and slightly curved. Light instruments with a strong curve and a tapering point are dangerous and must not be used.
pushed np the canal to the internal os (see Fig. 54). The dilator must never be grasped with the handles braced against the palm of the hand and forced through obstructions. When resistance is encountered, as it commonly is, in passing from the internal os into the uterine cavity, the dilator must be withdrawn a little until by repeated efforts and without force, it finally passes the obstruction and slips in. The danger of forcing a sharp dilator into the uterine canal without due precaution is considerable. I have seen a death resulting from neglect of the precaution (Amer. Jour. Ohst., 1891, vol. 24, p. 42). The surgeon pierced the posterior wall of an anteflexed uterus at its cervical junction and bored a hole into the peritoneum. He then inserted a coarse sponge tent into the cervix, which projected partly within the peritoneal cavity. The patient died in a few days of peritonitis, in spite of an effort which I made to save her by opening and draining the
abdomen. The risk of perforating an anteflexed uterus is so manifest that I cannot avoid the conviction that such an accident has happened more frequently than is generally known.
The blades of the dilator being well introduced, the canal is first dilated in one direction ; the pressure is then relaxed and, when the blades have closed, the dilator is rotated a little, so as to dilate another portion of the canal, this
process being continiied all around the circle back to the first point. The cervix yields to these repeated gentle impacts from within on all sides and is gradually and equably dilated to the necessary extent without laceration. In this way the canal is opened up within a minute or two, sufficiently to admit a large corrugated dilator with which the dilatation is continued in like manner from side to side, antero-posteriorly and at all points between.
This extent of dilatation, which is large enough to admit the introduction of a bougie 1 cm. in diameter, is usually sufficient for the relief of dysmenorrhea ; a somewhat greater dilatation may be obtained by using the largest size dilator, but not without risk of great injury to the cervix. It is never justifiable to attempt the dilatation of the cervical canal sufficiently to permit the introduction of the index finger into the uterine cavity, for it can be accomplished only by extensive rupture of the cervix.
The method just described, in which the cervical canal is dilated through successive impacts on it from all directions, is far better than the common method of opening a dilator controlled by a ratchet or screw and expending all the force in one direction until the fibres split and a tear is produced. The damage done the cervix, the gTcater danger of septic infection, and the possibility of cancer developing in the scar which remains after the rent heals, are great objections to forcible dilatation in one direction.
the method for doing this will be found in Chapter VII.
After dilatation the patient should be kept in bed for from one to fourteen days, according to conditions. If her general health is good and her nervous system undisturbed, twenty-four hours will be sufficient ; but if she is anemic and reduced by continued suffering, advantage should be taken of the opportunity afforded by the operation to give her as long a rest as possible, with the advantage of care, attention to diet, and other essentials to complete recovery. A neurasthenic patient should always be kept in bed after the operation for ten days to a fortnight.
Dilatation, as I said, is the only form of operative treatment for dysmenorrhea which comes within the scope of this work. Removal of the ovaries in intractable cases, however, sometimes comes before the general practitioner, because his advice is sought as to its advisability by the patient or her relatives. I cannot leave the subject without speaking emphatically against such a practice. The removal of diseased ovaries is an entirely different matter; the removal of healthy ovaries for the relief of dysmenorrhea is almost never justifiable. The only occasions in which it can ever be so, are the rare instances in which long continuance of pelvic pain is wrecking the patient's health and disabling her to such an extent that she is incapacitated for self support or for the performance of imperative household duties. In an extensive gynecological practice I do not think I average one case a year of this kind. The patient's word or that of her relatives must never be taken as a gauge of the amount of suffering experienced, for, with
EEASONS AGAINST REMOVING OVARIES TO RELIEVE DYSMENORRHEA. 127
every intention to be honest and avoid exaggeration, it is almost impossible for them to be accurate. If such a measure is in contemplation, the physician must convince himself of the intensity of the pain by his own observation of the patient through several periods. The effect upon her general health is also a reliable test. So long as the suffering is confined to the menstrual periods, and the interval is free from pain, the patient's health rarely suffers to any great degree; if, however, as sometimes happens, she is never wholly exempt from pain, some degree of neurasthenia is almost certain to ensue, with loss of appetite, sleep, and general impairment of physical condition. Under such circumstances as these the patient loses v/eight and strength, her face acquires a haggard, anxious expression, and there is every indication to the practiced eye that her general health is much impaired.
Another point upon which I should like to lay stress in this connection is that the fact of ovaries being cystic is no reason, per se, for their removal. It is not definitely decided whether any clinical symptoms arise from the cystic follicles from the size of a pea to that of a cherry, which are often observed. One thing is quite certain, however, namely, that small cystic follicles never of themselves justify the removal of an ovary, or a piece of an ovary. The removal of one ovary is sometimes suggested for the reason that it is " down," but this expression is just about as scientific as saying that the palate is " down and needs cutting."
passed through my hands :
A young woman of two or three and twenty was brought to me with the following history : About two years before she had begun to suffer from dysmenorrhea after a fall from her horse. She lived in the country, on a farm, where no medical attendance was within reach except that of the general practitioner in the neighborhood. He attended her for some time without success, and then, finding that she was, if anything, worse and that her limited means prevented her coming to the city to consult a gynecologist, he suggested asking the advice of a well-known general surgeon who passed his summer holidays in the neighborhood. The surgeon made a pelvic examination and advised the removal of one ovary, on the ground that it was cystic. This he did and for a short time the patient improved, but within six months she was suffering as much as ever. The same surgeon was again consulted and insisted that the only possible remedy was the removal of the other ovary. The patient and her family consented, with reluctance, but fortunately for the issue, the country physician, who still had the case in charge, set before them earnestly that the removal of both ovaries in a girl not much over twenty, who was, moreover, engaged to be married, w^as too serious a step to contemplate without the opinion of a competent gynecologist as to its necessity, and that it was their duty to make an effort to obtain this, no matter what exertion or sacrifice it involved. Accordingly, the patient was brought to me, and I made an
examination under ether, at which I found nothing whatever the matter. I dilated and curetted, however, thinking the case one where it was likely to be beneficial, and the patient has ever since (nearly five years) been free from anything more than a trifling amount of pain. Yet her whole future would have been sacrificed had it not been for the influence of her physician.
There is one kind of painful menstruation so peculiar as to demand special consideration. This is the form known as " membranous dysmenorrhea," characterized by severe cramp-like pains, resembling those of labor, followed by the expulsion of the lining membrane of the uterus, either whole or in part. The cases vary in severity from the typical form in which a complete cast of the uterine cavity is discharged at each period with great suffering, to a mild type where only small fragments of the endometrium are discharged at intervals of several months, with a trivial amount of pain. When the membrane is passed entire, which, however, rarely happens, its nature can be readily recognized by floating it in water ; a shaggy outer coat can then be distinguished, of narrow triangiilar form, with little openings at the base corresponding to the tubal orifices and a larger opening corresponding to the internal os. The affection is not a disease sui generis, but a condition which develops under varying conditions, complicates different pathological processes, and presents a variety of microscopic appearances. Some writers have, therefore, suggested that the term " membranous dysmenorrhea " should be abandoned in favor of "exfoliative endometritis" (Wyder, Arch. f. Gyn., 1878, voL 13, p. 39) or *' exfoliation of the menstrual mucosa " (Lohlein, Zeitschr. f. Geh. u. Gyn., 1886, vol 12, p. 465).
History. — The condition was first recognized by MorgagTii (" De Sedibus et Causis Morborum," 1779, Bk. Ill, Letter 48), who reported a case and gave an excellent description of its clinical course. The first microscopic study of the membrane was made by Ernst Heinrich Weber, and the term " membranous dysmenorrhea " was given in 1846 by Oldham (London Med. Gaz., 1846) and Simpson (Edin. Med. Jour., 1877). The resemblance to decidual tissue excited a prolonged discussion in Germany as to whether all cases of membranous dysmenorrhea were not really early abortions, and it is only within the last thirty years that the two conditions have been clearly differentiated. The first adequate histological study in modern literature is that by Wyder (loc. cit.). Von Franque, in 1893, made an elaborate study of the pathological anatomy (Zeitschr. f. Geh. u. Gyn., 1893, vol. 27, p. 1), and since then numerous isolated cases have been reported, but little new information has been added to the subject.
*A paper by Dr. Elizabeth Morse {Johns Hopkins Hospital Bulletin, 1907, vol. 18, p. 40), which is based upon an investigation of four cases of membranous dysmenorrhea in my clinic, is the foimdation of this section.
MEMBRANOUS DYSMENORKHEA. 129
Etiology.. — The etiology and pathogenesis of the condition are obscure, partly, no doubt, because the affection is really rare and specimens for study are not often available. The most important etiological factor is a preceding endometritis, arising after childbirth, abortion, or a gonorrheal infection. In some cases there is a retroflexion of the uterus or some abnormality of the appendages. A considerable number of cases, however, occur in young unmarried women, where there is no history of infection and the pelvic organs on examination are apparently normal. In these cases there is, of course, the possibility of an overlooked vaginitis in childhood or an endometritis accompanying one of the exanthemata.
Clinical History. — In the first class of cases, where there is a history of infection, menstruation is usually regular and normal until a labor or an abortion takes place, followed by fever ; or, it may be, there is an attack of gonorrheal endometritis. After the occurrence of some such cause, dysmenorrhea appears and is accompanied, in the course of a few months, by extrusion of the menstrual membrane. In the second class of cases, where the pelvic organs are normal, the menstrual history shows no irregularities and the dysmenorrhea, followed by the expulsion of the membrane, appears without any perceptible exciting cause whatever. In both classes the pain is intermittent and -cramp-like in character, closely resembling labor pains, and the membrane is usually passed on the second or third day of menstruation. After the membrane is discharged, the pains cease and there is often a copious flow.
Macroscopic Appearance. — The menstrual membrane, when it is discharged, forms a triangular sac, having the shape of the uterine cavity ; sometimes it has rounded holes at the sides of the tubal openings. The "outer surface is ragged ; the inner smooth. The thickness of the membrane varies from that of tissue paper to two or three millimetres. A membrane of greater thickness suggests decidua. Complete casts of the uterine cavity are more rarely found in membranous dysmenorrhea than in pregnancy. In the majority of cases the membrane is passed in fragments.
Microscopic Appearance. — From a microscopic point of view, the membranes discharged from the uterus may be divided into two classes, namely, exfoliated mucosa and fibrinous easts. In the first class of cases, exfoliated mucosa, there are two different types. One of these is that of interstitial endometritis, in which the stroma cells are of normal size and appearance and there is an infiltration of leucocytes. Hemorrhage, exudate, and fibrin are usually present in addition. In the other type the stroma cells bear a strong resemblance to decidua. They are enlarged, oval or polygonal in form, and have large vascular nuclei with abundant protoplasm ; all gradations may be traced between them and the normal stroma. In some cases the entire membrane is composed of these altered cells, while in others, glands exist; occasionally two layers, one compact and one spongy, can be distinguished. It often happens that the two types are found in the same membrane. The large stroma cells are usually supposed to be the result of hyperemia and
irritation. Tliej are not peculiar to this condition, but are found also in glandular lijpertropliy and edema of tlie endometrium, where they are accounted for by circulatory changes.
In the second class of cases, the fibrinous casts are composed of a network of fibrin, containing in its meshes red corpuscles, leucocytes, and remnants of the cells of the mucosa. There is some difference of opinion as to whether this second group of cases should be considered as true cases of membranous dysmenorrhea. They develop, however, in connection with endometric processes and are passed with the same symptoms as organized membranes ; in fact, cases have been rej3orted where a patient passed a fibrinous cast at one time and a membrane of altered mucosa at another. Moreover, it is impossible to separate the two varieties anatomically, on account of the many transitional forms between the simple fibrinous casts and the well preserved endometrium.
Mechanism of Separation. — The mechanism of separation of the membrane is obscure. The theory most generally accepted is that the hyperj)lasia of the stroma cells causes an obstruction to the escape of blood into the superficial layers, and therefore it spreads out into the deeper portions of the uterus, which yields at the weakest point on account of the friability due to chronic hyperemia and the youth of the connective tissue cells. The membrane is, so to speak, dissected free by hemorrhage. The free bleeding which so frequently follows the expulsion of the cast is in favor of this view; while, on the other hand, the fact that blood is often found distributed through all parts of the membrane is supposed to be against it. The degenerative changes which are taking place in the membrane must also be an important factor in causing separation.
Diagnosis. — The clinical history of membranous dysmenorrhea is, of course, extremely suggestive of the diagnosis, nevertheless, it can never be positively made without a microscopic examination, for there are two other kinds of casts discharged from the vagina which may simulate the menstrual membrane to the naked eye. These are vaginal casts and decidual casts. Vaginal casts are thrown off, either as the result of an exfoliative vaginitis or of treatment of the vagina with strong chemicals, such as silver nitrate. In the case of exfoliative vaginitis the tissue may be passed during menstruation or independently of it, but if the discharge occurs with menstruation and is accompanied by suffering of a cramp-like character, the case may readily be mistaken for one of membranous dysmenorrhea. How easily a mistake may be made in the absence of a microscopic examination is shown by the fact that out of eleven specimens sent to my laboratory at the Johns Hopkins Hospital with the diagnosis of " membranous dysmenorrhea," only four proved to be genuine. The others showed decidua in three instances and vaginal epithelium in two; while of the remaining two specimens, one was uterine polyp and the other blood clot. It must always be remembered that an exfoliative vaginitis may accompany membranous dysmenorrhea, and Leo-
pokl, who rejDorts a case of this kind (Arch. f. Gyn., 1876, voL 10, p. 293), considers the cause of the two processes the same, namely, a superficial hemorrhage arising from extreme hyperemia and extending through the cervix into tne vagina. Hoggan (Arch. f. Gyn., 1876, vol. 10, p. 301) describes a case in which the upper part of the membrane was composed of uterine mucosa and the lower of vaginal epithelium. As a rule, vaginal casts and pieces of vaginal tissue are thinner, rougher, and more like parchment than membranes from the uterus, and no glandular openings are seen upon the surface. In differentiating from decidual casts the history must first be considered, since this form of cast is larger and more vascular than those of the dysmenorrheic membrane, and if chorion-like villi be found on microscopic examination, the diagnosis of extra-uterine pregTiancy is, of course, clear. If decidua alone are present, it is a case of normal pregnancy. In an interesting case of my own the patient brought me two casts, one of which had been passed with menstruation, while the other, which appeared after the interval of a month, w^as an extra-uterine pregnancy. The greatest difficulty arises in cases where it is necessary to make a differential diagnosis between an early abortion and a menstrual membrane containing the decidua-like cells. This question occurs usually in cases of early abortion, before the decidua has reached its full development and typical form. The diagnosis must rest upon the fact that the cells in the menstrual membrane do not show the enlarged epithelioid appearance so often found in the mature decidual cell, and also that they have a more abundant protoplasm with more sharply defined outlines. Moreover, the protoplasm of the decidual cell loses its fibrillated appearance and takes a deeper eosin stain. The diagnosis can usually be made upon the microscopic evidence alone, but cases sometimes occur in which the final decision must include the clinical history.
Treatment. — The treatment in membranous dysmenorrhea is discouraging, and the prognosis as to recovery, either with or withoiTt it, is not good. When the underlying condition is obscure, the treatment most often adopted is curettage a few days before menstruation, followed by the classical application of iodine or carbolic acid and glycerin to the uterine cavity. This procedure may give temporary relief, but the patient generally relapses within a few months. Any associated lesions or abnormalities of the uterus or appendages should, of course, receive appropriate treatment. Sterility is the rule in membranous dysmenorrhea, although a few patients recover and become pregnant.
INTERMENSTRUAL PAIN.
Definition, p. 132. History, p. 132. Age, p. 133. Relation to sterility, p. 133. Relation to child-bearing, p. 133. Date of pain, p. 134. Character of pain, p. 135. Dui-ation cf pain, p. 135. Period of time dui'ing which pain lasts, p. 136. Pressure and nature of discharge, p. 135. Relation to menstruation, p. 135. Location of pain, p. 135. Relation to lesions found on examination, p. 135. Methods of treatment and their results, p. 136. niustrative cases, p. 137. Conclusions, p. 138.
Definition. — Intermenstrual pain is the name given to a form of suffering characterized by pelvic pain occurring on a fixed date between two menstrual periods, in some cases midwav between, and in others on a definite date after the preceding period or before the following one. The Germans give the name " Mittelschmerz " to this affection, but this does not seem an accurate designation, since the pain does not always occur in the middle of the intermenstrual periods. iSTor does the term "intermediate dysmenorrhea" appear more appropriate, for the special characteristic of the pain is that it occurs in the interval between the menstrual periods and is, therefore, distinct from dysmenorrhea. The term used by the French, " douleurs intermenstruelles," or its English equivalent, "intermenstrual pain," seems the most exact, as well as the most descriptive name for this affection.
History. — The disorder was first described, so far as I know, by Sir William Priestley in 1872. He then reported four cases, selected, he says, from a number of others {Brit. Med. Jour., 1872, vol. 2, p. 131). Priestley says frankly that, at the time at which he WTote, any opinion as to the nature and causation of the affection was purely conjectural, and the years that have elapsed have contributed little to our knowledge on the subject. Priestley's theory regarding it is based on the fact that shortly before menstruation one or both ovaries become turgescent, an event known to take place, and this turgescence lasts through the menstrual period, continues for a few days after its cessation, and then gradually subsides. In Priestley's opinion it is not unreasonable to suppose that the preparation for an approaching period should take place as much as ten to fourteen days before its OQCurrence. Under normal conditions this preparation is not accompanied by any appreciable signs ; but the presence of abnormal conditions in the ovary, or even of undue excitability where no structural change is apparent, may cause the preparatory stage to be as difficult and painful as the later stages, which are accompanied, in many cases, by painful menstruation.
Since the appearance of Priestley's article cases of intermenstrual pain have been reported from time to time, sometimes accompanied with suggestions as to its etiology. In looking over the literature of the subject I have been surprised to find that although the total number of cases definitely reported is small, most of the formal reports are followed by the mention of other cases occurring in the practice of those present; so that it would seem the affection is by no means so uncommon as it is usually believed to be, and it is possible that if all the cases coming under observation were carefully recorded, some definite conclusions might be reached as to its nature and etiology. I have collected all the cases which I could find in the literature, and after adding fourteen from my own case-books, I have made a careful analysis of the whole number, sixty-four. Space does not permit me to give any detailed account of so large a number here ; I must confine myself to a brief statement of the main points brought out by the analysis, adding a few illustrative cases from my own records.
Age. — The age at which intermenstrual pain began was noted in forty-one out of the sixty-four cases. In only three did it begin with first menstruation; in all the others menstruation had been established for some years before it appeared. In ten cases (including the three beginning with first menstruation) the patient was under twenty when the pain began ; twenty-nine of the remaining cases were between twenty and thirty-five ; while two were over thirty-five. It seems reasonable, therefore, to conclude that intermenstrual pain is an affection belonging to the period of full sexual activity. Besides these forty-one cases, there were twenty-three in which the age of the patient when intermenstrual pain began was not stated, and could not be calculated from the other data. In seven out of the twenty-three, however, the age of the patient when she came under observation was given, six of them being between twenty and thirty-five, while one was forty-eight.
Sterility. — Out of the sixty-four cases, thirty-two had never had children or miscarriages (eleven of them being married and twenty-one single). Thirteen had had neither children nor miscarriages for as much as five years, and in most cases much longer. Fourteen had had children, or miscarriages, or both, within five years ; and the condition of five as regards child-bearing was not stated. Or, to put the matter in another form, thirty-two cases were sterile ; thirteen relatively sterile; fourteen fertile; and five unknown. These results seem to support the statement made by some persons that intermenstrual pain is associated, in the majority of cases, with sterility.
Relation between Intermenstrual Pain and Child-bearing. — Of the fourteen cases in which the patient had had either children or miscarriages, there were five in which the pain began after the birth of the last child, and three in which it began after a miscarriage. In six cases it was not stated whether the pain began before or after preg-nancy. It would seem, therefore, that it is at any rate possible that child-bearing is, in some cases, an exciting cause. In three cases of intermenstrual pain, where pregnancy occurred, the suf-
tion, returning on the reestablishment of menstruation.
Bate of Pain. — The data on this point are not so full as could be wished; in some cases the statement is made that the intermenstrual pain occurred a certain number of days after menstruation, leaving it uncertain whether this means after the beginning or the end. In other instances, where the date is definitely stated to be after the end, the lenglh of the period is not mentioned, and therefore the cases cannot be compared with others where the date is definitely stated from the beginning. The value of the cases reported by Storer (Boston Med, and Surg. Jour., 1900, vol. 142, p. 397), which are by far the largest number given in any one instance, is somewhat depreciated for this reason. There appears to be no doubt, however, that intermenstrual pain occurs always about the middle of the intermenstrual period, and extends into the second half of it. In nine cases the date of the pain was given as " midway " and in two of these, which were in my own practice, the pain was so exactly between the periods that the date of the approaching one could be foretold from the day upon which the intermenstrual pain appeared ; that is to say, if the intermenstrual attack occurred on the twelfth day after the beginning of menstruation, the next period would be upon the twenty-fourth day. The following record taken from one of these cases illustrates this point:
In another case, reported by Sorel (Arch, de toe. et de gynee., 1873, vol. 14, p. 269), a record of this kind was kept, extending over one hundred and forty-seven periods, and although the intermenstrual pain did not occur with the absolute exactness shown in the two cases just mentioned, it varied distinctly according to the date of the menstrual jDcriod which was to follow.
Out of seventeen cases in Avhich the intermenstrual pain was dated from the beginning of the preceding menstruation there were only four in which it was stated whether menstruation occurred regidarly every twenty-eight days, and in the absence of this information it is impossible to estimate the relation of the pain to the approaching period. Further information as to the date of intermenstrual pain in relation to the following menstrual period is much needed, if definite conclusions on this point are to be drawn. All that can be said at present is that there seems good reason to think that the date of intermenstrual pain is associated with the menstrual period following the pain rather than that preceding it.
Duration of Pain. — This varies from a few days up to the whole time between the occurrence of the pain and the appearance of the next menstrual period. In the majority of cases it lasts three to four days.
Period of Time which the Condition May Last. — This also varies. In one case it had existed only a few months when the patient came under observation, while in another it had lasted twenty-two years. There was one case (Sorel, loc. cit.) where it began with the first menstruation and ceased only with the menopause. In no case was it self-limited.
Presence and Nature of Discharge. — In thirty-nine cases out of sixty-four a discharge was present. Its character varied greatly, being sometimes a simple leucorrhea, sometimes clear and watery, and sometimes yellowish and irritating. Attempts have been made to establish a relation between the intermenstrual pain and an accompanying discharge, but there seems nothing to support . such an idea. The fact that in three out of six cases in which the discharge was bloody or blood-stained there was an endometritis, a polyp, or a submucous fibroid, suggests strongly that in cases where a discharge exists it is connected with associated lesions, and not directly associated with the intermenstrual pain.
Menstruation. — Intermenstrual pain does not seem to be in any way associated with dysmenorrhea. In twenty-seven cases menstruation was noted as painful, while in twenty-three it was painless. In the remaining cases this point was not recorded. It was regular in a good many more cases than it was irregular, and such irregularity as occurred was in the line of anticipation. In only one ease was it noted as delayed. There was a tendency to excess in fifteen cases, in contrast to four where the flow was scanty. On the whole, however, menstrual variation is a point upon which information is lacking, and special attention to it in future reports is desirable.
Location of Pain. — In a large proportion of cases the intermenstrual pain was situated, roughly speaking, in one or the other ovarian region; in two it was in both ovarian regions at the same time ; while in five it was in the right and left regions alternately.
Relation between Pain and Lesions Found on Examination. — The lesions observed in cases of intermenstrual pain are somewhat indefinite in character. In a good many cases nothing which could be considered a lesion was present. In those where lesions or abnormalities existed there was sometimes a relation between its nature and the location of the pain, and sometimes none whatever. Eor instance, out of twenty-four cases where the pain was situated in the region of the ovary, there were eight in which there was tenderness and thickening of the ovary ; one of hematoma of the ovary ; one of hydrosalpinx ; and one of salpingitis. There were also five cases in which there was tenderness, witli or without swelling, in the broad ligament on the side corresponding to the
pain. Of the remaining eight cases in which the pain was situated in the ovarian region, no deviation from normal could he detected on examination. Of eight cases where the pain was situated in the hypogastrium, one was a double salpingitis and another a double salpingo-ovaritis. Of the remaining six cases of hypogastric pain, one was recorded as normal, four were displacements of the uterus, and the remaining case was a large fibroid. Of six cases where the pain was stated to be " in the lower abdomen," there were five displacements, and of the sixth there is no record. In all the remaining cases (thirtyfour) the records are too indefinite to be available for use as statistics. So far as they go, then, these results would seem to indicate that intermenstrual pain is not necessarily related to any one location, but rather that the location is determined by the coexisting abnormal conditions.
Treatment and its Results. — The results of treatment in intermenstrual pain, so far, are discouraging. In no case in my collection has it shown itself selflimited, while in one case (Sorel, loc. cit.) it lasted throughout the whole menstrual life. Of the various modes of treatment adopted, the results are as follows: Dilatation and curettage was tried in eleven cases, entirely without benefit, except in one instance where the uterus was steamed out after it, and in this case the intermenstrual pain had lasted but a few months. Ovarian, parotid, and thyroid extracts were given in one case without relief, but in another the thyroid alone was followed by complete recovery. Electricity over the ovarian region was tried in four cases, two of which were somewhat improved, while the other two derived no benefit whatever. Removal of one ovary and tube was tried in four cases where the localization of pain in the ovarian region seemed to indicate it. In one instance the pain was relieved for a period of eight years, and in another it has now been absent for six; the other two cases were entirely unbenefited. The appendages were removed on both sides in five cases, two of which were among the cases mentioned where one ovary was first removed without benefit. The results in one instance are not definitely stated, although, judging from the context, they were good ; of the other four cases, three were entirely relieved and the other not at all. In the latter instance, however, menstruation continued after the operation and it is to be supposed that some ovarian tissue remained behind. Suspension of the uterus was tried in three cases of retro-displacement, with complete relief in one case, partial relief in another, and none at all in the third.
Partial relief was also obtained in three cases from a course of baths or medicinal waters ; in one case frora absolute rest in bed during the attacks of pain, with straightening of the uterus, which was in extreme anteflexion; and in one case from the use of a Hodge pessary for extreme anteflexion, together with the relief of a coexisting endometritis.
Complete relief resulted in one case from the use of an intra-uterine pessary for marked anteflexion; in two cases from six months' treatment for endometritis, nature not stated; in one case from the cure of
with support of the uterus by tampons.
All that can be determined from these records is that the treatment of coexisting local conditions will sometimes relieve intermenstrual pain. It should always be tried, together with attention to general health and absolute rest in bed during the attacks of pain. In regard to the effect of the removal of one ovary and tube, the results are too scanty to warrant an opinion. Removal of both appendages can probably be depended upon to give relief as a last resort, provided the pelvis is not so matted with adhesions as to make complete removal impossible. It would be interesting to know the effect of inducing the cessation of menstruation by removing the uterus without disturbing the ovaries.
I give here three illustrative cases from my own records :
Case L — Mrs. J., age thirty, November 13, 1894, Case-book V, E"o. 113. This patient had had three children, the youngest of whom was six years old at the time she consulted me. At the birth of her second child, eight years before, the perineum was badly torn, and it was repaired some little time later. The second menstrual period after the operation was followed by the intermenstrual pain, which had occurred regularly since then. It appeared exactly between each two menstrual periods, so much so that if it occurred on the thirteenth day from the beginning of menstruation, the following menstrual period was on the twenty-sixth. The pain was situated in the lower abdomen and lasted from six to twelve hours. Menstruation was regular, painless, and somewhat free. Just before the intermenstrual pain began, there was a yellowish discharge from the vagina, which lasted until the pain v/as over. On examination of the pelvic organs the uterus was found anteflexed and the outlet torn through the sphincter. The ovaries and tubes were free from disease. The outlet was repaired at the Johns Hopkins Hospital, and in April, 1907, when the patient was last heard from, she w^as still suffering from the attacks of intermenstrual pain, although for the last three or four years they have been much less severe than formerly. Her general health is much improved.
Case II.— Miss W., age thirty-nine, October, 1897, San. 'No. 512. This patient began to have intermenstrual pain when she was eighteen years old, four years after menstruation began. The pain occurred on the fourteenth day after the beginning of menstruation. It was situated in the right ovarian region and was dull in character, with a sense of weight. Menstruation was comparatively painless, a little frequent, but not excessive. There was a constant leucorrhea, which was increased with the intermenstrual attacks. On examination the uterus was found sharply retroflexed. Suspension of this was followed by rapid recovery with entire relief of intermenstrual pain and great improvement of general condition. The patient is now (1907) in excellent health.
1,226. Intermenstrual pain began a year before she consulted me. The first attack was accompanied by a rise of temperature to 102° E. After the second attack the pain in the pelvis became habitual, with exacerbations at the intermenstrual periods. The pain was situated on the right side of the pelvis with a focus of gTcatest intensity over the region of the right ovary. There were occasional paroxysms of extreme pain in the rectum, extending up through the right side of the pelvis. Each intermenstrual attack was accompanied by headache, nausea, and nervous exhaustion, and also by a yellowish irritating discharge from the vagina, which was sometimes blood-stained. Menstruation was painful, and after the habitual pain set in became profuse and frequent. Examination showed a small fibroid uterus and considerable tenderness over the base of the right broad ligament, exactly corresponding to the focus of the pain. Dilatation and curettage relieved the menorrhagia, but not the intermenstrual pain. The various gland extracts were tried without benefit; nor was there any relief from electricity or vesication over the right ovarian region. The patient's health became much affected from the incessant pain; she lost nearly thirty pounds and had a haggard appearance. About eighteen months after she was first seen the right ovary and tube were removed. JSTothing abnormal was found on opening the abdomen, and the appendages, except that they were swollen and congested, presented nothing abnormal. Relief from pain was immediate and the patient's general health was completely reestablished.
In concluding the consideration of this subject I may say that a study of these cases leads me to form an opinion substantially in agreement with that of Priestley, namely, that intermenstrual pain is definitely associated with the physiological changes in the ovary which result and end in ovulation. This view, of course, makes intermenstrual pain depend upon the menstrual period which follows, rather than upon that which precedes it, although it is usually associated with the latter in recorded cases. But the fact that the cases in regard to which I have fullest data all show a definite connection with the succeeding menstruation is one reason for my opinion.
Moreover, the other opinions expressed as to the cause of intermenstrual pain do not seem to be tenable. Eor instance, it has been claimed that it is purely a nervous manifestation ; but if this w^ere the case, the removal of both appendages would in all probability be followed by nervous manifestations in some other region of the body, in other words, by a change of neurosis, whereas it gives complete relief. Eurthermore, the fact that the absence of ovulation during pregnancy and lactation is accompanied by a cessation of intermenstrual pain supports the view that the ovaries are directly concerned in it. It has been suggested that intermenstrual pain is associated with fibroid tumors, and one observer claims that he has observed a swelling of fibroids during an attack of pain; but out of the sixty-four cases just considered there were only six of fibroid tumors. Croom (Edin. Med. Jour., 1896, vol. 1, p. 703) agrees with Priestley in associating intermenstrual pain with ovulation.
but "whereas Priestley connects it with the process of preparation for approaching ovulation accompanied by menstruation, Croom believes that ovulation takes place at the time of intermenstrual pain, independent of menstruation. It is difficult to see, in this case, why the date of intermenstrual pain should vary in accordance with the menstrual period following it ; moreover, it is hardly possible that ovulation would take place regularly between two menstrual periods for a number of years, and even through the whole of sexual activity.
Everything, in fact, which is known in regard to intermenstrual pain, thus far, seems to support the theory which associates it with approaching ovulation, taking place under difficulties which are, as yet, imperfectly understood. Should Frankel's theory as to the relation between the corpus luteum and menstruation prove correct, some light may be incidentally thrown upon the etiology of intermenstrual suffering.
Further knowledge of the subject must depend upon information furnished by a large number of records, and it is greatly to be wished that all cases of intermenstrual pain should be carefully observed and duly reported. I am convinced that such cases are much more numerous than they are supposed to be.
The points which should be noted are: (1) Age of patient; (2) married or single; (3) children or miscarriages; (4) date at which intermenstrual pain occurs, with special reference to following menstrual period; (5) length of time pain has lasted; (6) location of pain; (7) duration of pain; (8) character of pain; (9) age at which pain began; (10) condition of menstruation as regards pain, regularity, and amount; (11) presence and nature of vaginal discharge; (12) results of pelvic examination or of abdominal section; (13) treatment and its effect.
Definition. — Amenorrliea, or absence of the menstrual flow, is a symptomatic condition accompanying a variety of affections. It may be broadly divided into two classes : one in which menstruation fails to appear at the usual age, and one in which it ceases after it has been established. The first of these is known as primary amenorrhea, or emansio mensium, and the second as secondary amenorrhea, or suppressio mensium.
CAUSES OF PRIMARY AMENORRHEA.
The non-appearance of the menstrual flow at the customary age is always a matter for serious consideration. There are two different conditions from which it may arise : (1) failure of development (aplasia or hypoplasia) on the part of the reproductive organs; (2) atresia, causing obstruction of the genital tract of some sort. The second class is not, strictly speaking, an amenorrhea at all, but a retention of the menstrual fluid; it is convenient, however, for practical purposes, to consider such cases under this head.
Maldevelopment. — Amenorrhea due to failure of development is really a rare condition, although its existence is often assumed. It is to be suspected in the case of a young girl in her teens, who has never menstruated, and is easily demonstrated by a local examination, when the uterus will be found to have a characteristic shape, the cervix being large and disproportionately long, while the fundus is small and infantile in type. The following case is of this kind:
Miss McC, age nineteen (San. 'No. 2396), March, 1907. The patient had had complete amenorrhea for three years ; before this date menstruation had been regular and painless, but alwaj^s scanty, lasting only one day. The abdomen was opened for the purpose of removing the appendix ; the right kidney was also suspended. On examination the external genitalia, vagina,
and cervix uteri were found normal, wliile tlie uterus, ovaries, and tubes were infantile in type. Tlie ovaries were elongate, white, smooth, and sclerotic. The right ovary measured 4 X 1|^ X 1^ cm. No corpus luteum was present.
In cases where there is aplasia of both uterus and ovaries there will be no attempt at ovulation, and therefore no symptoms of menstruation. If, on the other hand, there is aplasia of the uterus while the ovaries are healthy and functionally active, ovulation will take place as usual and will be accompanied by the customary menstrual molimena, .namely, pelvic pain, headache, and nervous manifestations of different kinds, recurring at intervals of about four weeks. As the uterus is incapable of responding, no relief is afforded by the customary discharge, and the patient's sufferings often increase until her general health is impaired.
Cases in which amenorrhea is associated with the absence of one or more of the organs of generation must be included in this class, as well as those in which diseased conditions have caused sufficient degeneration of the ovaries to destroy their function before puberty. A case of this kind, in which, as sometimes happens, the patient was to all appearance perfectly developed physically, is given by W. B. Chase (Amer. Jour. Ohst., 1898, vol. 38, p. 512).
The patient was a married woman, twenty-four years old, of fine physical development, and apparently in good health, although she had never menstruated. She had been married about two years and had had no prospect of children. When she was about eighteen she began to have attacks of pelvic pain, accompanied by headache and nervous excitability, which recurred regularly every four weeks. These attacks gradually increased in severity until her sufferings, especially from headaches, became so severe that she and her family' feared insanity. During the preceding year she had perceived an abdominal enlargement and could clearly define a tumor. On examination the growth was easily perceptible, though the abdominal walls were fat; it was as large as a five months' pregnancy. All the rational indications pointed to a uterus distended with menstrual fluid from atresia of the cervix, but the uterus, which was pushed up under the pubes, admitted the sound to the usual depth. As the patient was anxious for any operation which offered a prospect of relief from her sufferings, the abdomen was opened, when the pelvic contents were found to be almost completely M^alled off by peritoneal adhesions, although the patient was never conscious of having had peritonitis. Two tumors were found, one a multilocular ovarian cystoma attached to a smaller growth containing a shrunken ovary the size of a large lima bean, within which was a corpus luteum. The other tumor was a dermoid cyst, containing hair and sebaceous material, which had entirely usurped the place of the right ovary. ISTeither of the uterine tubes could be found. It was plain that the futile attempts at ovulation with its attendant suffering, as well as the womanly development, had been occasioned by the presence of the small amount of ovarian tissue left in the cystoma.
AMEXOEEHEA.
Atresia. — In primary amenorrhea arising from atresia of the genital tract, the ohstruction may exist at any point, that is to say, there may be an imperforate hymen, an atresia of the vagina, or (rarely) an atresia of the cervix. In such cases ovulation, when it begins, is accompanied by menstruation, and as it is impossible for the menstrual flow to escape, it collects behind the point of atresia, causing distention first of the vagina, then of the uterus, and finally of the uterine tubes. The customary menstrual molimena are present and are sometimes accompanied or followed by bleeding from the nose, or some other mucous membrane. At first the suifering is slight, but with each recur-
considerably impaired.
A congenital atresia, with absence of the vagina above the point at which the- tip of the finger rests, is shown in Figiire 55. Figure 56 shows the depth to which a shallow vaginal pocket can be thrust into the pelvis by blunt pressure from without. This patient was married and came to me to consult me for sterility. Atresias of the genital tract resulting in primary amenorrheas were not long ago considered to be always congenital, except in the rarest instances; within the past twenty-five years, however, it has been shown that most of them are really the result of infectious inflammatory processes, originating for the most part in the acute infectious diseases, especially typhoid and scarlet fevers. This subject is more fully discussed in Chapter X ; I cite here,
the potential lengthening of the vagina under strong blunt pressure from without.
complained of severe pain over the symphysis. An area of resistance about the size of a fist had already been discovered in that locality. The pain now complained of was at first ascribed to an effort at menstruation, and this idea was confirmed by the patient's having a discharge of thick, brownish blood from the genitalia a few hours later. Shortly after this occurred she became worse, and within twelve hours she died, with every indication of peritonitis due to perforation. ISTo autopsy was permitted, but an examination of the external genitalia, made shortly before death, showed a slight tear in an otherwise closed hymen. The patient's mother said that her daughter had been in the habit of having attacks of abdominal pain resembling colic for the past few years ; she also stated that about four and a half years before her daughter had had an attack of scarlet fever, and, for some time after her illness, there was a discharge from the vagina. It was clear that the scarlet fever had set up an inflammatory process in the vagina inducing an atresia retrohymenalis,
with imperforate hymen, and this resulted by degrees in hematocolpos, hematometra, and probably hematosalpinx. The typhoid fever induced a menstrual flow, or an atypical metrorrhagia, and resulted in a rupture of the tubes and of the closed hymen.
The atresias of childhood are, for the most part, of a harmless character, consisting of a conglutination of the labia in their inner surface. This cohesion is continued up to and above the level of the urethra, where there is an opening, through which the urine escaj)es freely and by which the menstrual dis-
FiG. 57. — ^A Conglutination of the Labia Minora Just Below the Clitoris and Above the Level OF THE Urethra. This is quite certainly the remains of an extensive adhesion in childhood, of which the lower part has been ruptured, wliile the tell-tale bridge, in a protected situation above, lingers to tell the story of the original condition.
charge may escape, later on, without difficulty. I take it that the origin of the adhesion of the nymphse in the case of a woman who had borne children (see rig. 57) is susceptible of no other explanation. Here the marital relation and labor have destroyed all the lower part of the cohesion, leaving only this tell-tale bridge behind.
J. C. ISTott in 1843 called attention to a form of atresia of the vagina arising in young infants without any demonstrable cause {Ame7\ Jour. Med. Sci., 1843, vol. 5, p. 246). He cites two cases of infants, perfectly normal at birth and healthy in every respect, who were found several months later to have
months.
In addition to these two distinct classes of primary amenorrhea, every physician is familiar with cases where absence of menstruation at the usual age is occasioned by general backwardness of development, arising from constitutional weakness or else following an acute disturbance of some kind. These cases are usually recognizable from the history, as well as from the general appearance of the patient. In considering this group it must always be borne in mind that in some families puberty is unusually late, without any definable reason for the delay.
Secondary or acquired arnenorrhea may arise from a variety of causes, which can be classified as physiological, mechanical, constitutional, and, what may be called for want of a more definite name, functional.
Physiological Amenorrhea. — The great physiological cause of amenorrhea is pregnancy, a fact which should always be borne in mind; for, unless it is kept first on the list of possible causes, disastrous mistakes will be made, especially by those who undertake a course of active local treatment. Amenorrhea is usual, though not invariable, during lactation, and it should cease with its conclusion. Prolonged lactation, however, as Vineberg points out, sometimes results in atrophy and consequent amenorrhea which persists after lactation is over. The other physiological causes of amenorrhea are childhood and the menopause. During childhood the whole organism is undergoing those changes which eventually express themselves in ovulation; while the menopause represents the physiological relief from the cyclic changes which follow the exhaustion of the rej>roductive system.
Mechanical Amenorrhea. — This form includes cases of character similar to those just described under the primary amenorrhea due to atresia. Obstruction of the genital canal may occur after the establishment of menstruation as well as before its appearance, resulting in like manner in the suppression of the flow. Imperforate hymen is the only atresia of the genital tract belonging exclusively to the class of primary amenorrheas. Obstruction at points above the hymen may result from an infection, although the fact that infectious diseases are so much more frequent in childhood makes this factor less frequent than it is in primary amenorrhea. There are other causes, however, which can arise only after sexual maturity, or even in some instances, after parturition. ISTot a few cases of atresia of the vagina or cervix are due to necrosis following difficult labor, while the prolonged or injudicious use of pessaries is another cause. Jacobson (8t. Louis Courier of Med., 1906, vol. 34, p. 58) has seen several cases of atresia from this cause.
in M-liicli there is a failure in devclopmeut uf tlic genital organs sufficient to render menstruation iiifre(|Tieiit and scanty, apjiearing in sonie instances only a few times during the whole period of reproductive activity, although it is not enough to suppress the function altogether.
It may also he caused hy hums, scalds, or by the application of too strong caustics to the vagina or the cervix. Sir J. Y. Simpson has reported a case in which atresia of the cervix was occasioned by the application of the actual cautery to the edges of a vesico-vaginal fistula, caused by extensive sloughing of the upper part of the vagina after childbirth (" Diseases of Women," 1872) ; and Yeit mentions a case in which cicatrization took place in a short time from the application to the vagina of a tampon soaked in a fifty per cent solution of chloride of zinc.
Constitutional Amenorrhea. — This form is found in almost all diseased conditions, acute or chronic, which make heavy demands upon the vital forces. Such a repression has always been regarded as a conservative effort on the part of nature to preserve the patient's strength ; in a few instances, however, it has been shown that the morbid condition is associated with an atrophy of the genital organs. Thorn (ZeitscJir. f. Geh. u. Gyn., 1889, vol. 16, p. 57) considers that in all exhausting diseases there is a temporary atrophy of the uterus and ovaries which is the immediate cause of the amenorrhea, and he cites a number of cases to establish his point.
Chlorosis. — The commonest constitutional cause of amenorrhea is chlorosis. W. Stephenson in 1889 (Trans. Obst. Soc, London, 1889, voL 31, p. 101:) called attention to the fact that this disease was too much neglected by gynecologists and the same accusation might be made to-day. As a constitutional disorder, chlorosis falls under the domain of general medicine, but, owing to the disturbances of menstruation, whether amenorrhea or menorrhagia, which are among its distinguishing features, it has certainly a claim upon the attention of the gvnecologist.
Chlorosis, as defined by Stengel {Tweni. Cent. Med., vol. 7, p. 326), is " primarily a blood disease dependent upon disturbances of the hematopoetic system " ; " not a disease resulting from blood destruction, but rather from imperfect hematogenesis." The ultimate causes of the imperfect blood development are obscure. The disease is characterized clinically by a deficiency in the hemaglobin of the red blood corpuscles gTeatly in excess of the diminution in their number: a peculiarity first pointed out by Duncan in 1S67. In the early stage of chlorosis the number of red corpuscles may be hardly below normal, even though the hemoglobin is extremely reduced, but, as the disease progresses, the number of the corpuscles diminishes, while the striking disproportion between them and the percentage of hemaglobin persists. The reduction in the hemoglobin, as Stengel says, is primary, the reduction in the corpuscles secondary. The shape of the red corpuscles is often changed, and the specific gTavity of the blood is usually reduced in proportion to the diminution of the hemaoiobin. The total amount of blood is not diminished and some
white corpuscles and they are not increased as in other forms of anemia.
The cansal relation between chlorosis and disturbances of menstruation is not yet understood. Virchow in 1872 showed that it was associated with an imperfect development of the heart and large arteries and also, in many cases, with imperfect development of the sexual organs. He considered, that the defective development of the circulatory system was primary, while that of the sexual organs was secondary. Rokitansky, on the other hand, believed that chlorosis was necessarily associated with imperfections in the development of the sexual organs. Trankel (Aixh. f. Gyn., 1875, vol. 7, p. 465) showed that in certain cases of chlorosis there was an imperfect development of the genital organs while the heart and other organs were normal. Stephenson (loc. cit.) insisted that the imperfections in the evolution of menstruation observed in chlorosis constitute as constant a feature in the disease as imperfections in the evolution of the red blood corpuscles. He also agreed with Virchow in believing that a special diathesis or peculiarity of constitution predisposing to the development of the disease was present in most cases.
The general trend of opinion in the present day is to the effect that the amenorrhea almost always present in chlorosis is the result of the impoverishment of the system, as in simple anemia. It is difficult, however, to reconcile this view with the intimate relation between chlorosis and the sexual system. The fact that the disease is hardly ever met with in childhood or after the menopause and that it makes its appearance at periods corresponding to epochs of special significance in the sexual life of women, speak strongly in favor of a direct relation between it and the reproductive organs, of which the menstrual disturbance is but the outward expression. The majority of cases of chlorosis occur between the ages of fourteen and twenty-one, which is the time when the sexual function is established ; while there is a small nundier of cases in which it occurs (or recurs) between the ages of twenty-four and thirtyfive, the period of full sexual maturity and greatest reproductive activity.
Complete amenorrhea is not common in chlorosis. In most cases the flow appears at long and irregular intervals and is extremely scanty. In sixtyfive cases examined by Hayem, menstruation was diminished in thirty-six, and completely suppressed in twenty-four, while in four it was normal or a little increased. In a few rare cases chlorosis is accompanied by profuse menstruation, and both Virchow and Frankel have pointed out that in such cases the ovaries are hypertrophic instead of being of the usual infantile type (see Chap. VII). Contrary to expectation, the establishment of menstruation is early rather than late in chlorotic patients.
Constipation is so often a marked feature in chlorosis that Sir Andrew Clark believed the disease was really due to a copremia from absorption of ptomaines and leucomaines from the lower intestine. Emotional and nervous disturbances are sometimes well marked and some writers have held the disease was a neurosis. Disturbances of the heart and cir-
present.
Tuberculosis. — A frequent cause of constitutional auK'norrbea is tuberculosis. The disturbance of the function dates from the earliest stages of the disease, and the patient and her relatives not infrequently regard the amenorrhea as the cause instead of the result of the tulDerculosis.
Anemia, both primary and secondary, is usually attended by suppression of menstruation, more or less complete, and it also occurs after loss of blood from any cause, especially after post-partum hemorrhage, when the patient may not menstruate for months after she has resumed her normal habits of life. Malaria is an occasional cause of amenorrhea and should always he suspected in districts where it prevails.
associated with cessation of menstruation, especially gastric ulcer.
In the various maladies now held to be caused by disease of the glands concerned in the internal secretions, amenorrhea is often a symptom, but whether in these cases it is simply a conservative effect or whether there is some direct connection between these disorders and the sexual organs is not yet known. Atrophy of the uterus is often noted in acromegaly according to Yeit. Kleinwachter has shown that in Basedow's disease there is a general atrophy of the genitalia both external and internal (Zeitschr. f. Geh. u. Gyn., 1889, vol. 16, p. 14-4), and his observations have been confirmed by Theilhaber (Arch. f. Gyn., 1895, voL 49, p. 57).
Obesity is an occasional cause of amenorrhea. In a case reported by Lomer (Centrhl. f. Gyn., 1893, vol. IT, p. 641) the patient gained fifty pounds in six months and became so corpulent that she could hardly move. She complained of dizziness, flushes of heat, and bleeding at the nose. Scarification and blood-letting at the external os uteri relieved the symptoms. Whenever a young woman who complains of amenorrhea is much above the average weight for her age and height, esj^ecially if the increase coincides with the cessation of menstruation, the physician will do wisely to turn his attention to the vices of nutrition which are responsible for the obesity. The increase of weight is considered to be akin to that often seen at the menopause, both being associated with a repression in the activity of the uterus and ovaries. H. C. Coe (Med. Rev. of Revs., 1906, voL 12, p. 506) suggests that an amenorrhea associated with obesity may be nothing but an early symptom of the obscure disorders arising from disturbances of internal secretions, and that the recognition of this fact may be of service in making an early diagnosis. He cites an illustrative ease in which amenorrhea, accompanied by a marked
increase in weight, preceded acromegaly, and further the case of another patient, under treatment for Hodgkin's disease, where irregular and scanty menstruation ending in complete amenorrhea lasting for some time preceded the glandular enlargement. There was a little anemia present in the last case, but not enough to account for suppression of menstruation.
Chronic poisonings, particularly of lead, occasion amenorrhea. The habitual use of opium or morphin induces in time a more or less complete cessation of menstruation. The use of alcohol at first increases the menstrual flow, but eventually it may check it, in consequence of degenerative changes in the tissues.
Attention has been called by W. H. Baldy to the possibility of amenorrhea arising from the uric acid diathesis {Phil. Med. Summ., 1903-4, vol. 25, p. 239) which it is well known may occasion dysmenorrhea.
Functional Amenorrhea. — The term functional is used to define that form of amenorrhea in which a patient with normal generative organs and in average health, ceases to menstruate without any apparent objective cause, local or constitutionaL Excitement, shock, or sudden fright will act to cause menstruation to be delayed or missed altogether. I have known a case where a period was missed from no other apparent cause than the loss of several nights' sleep just at the time its appearance was expected. The mere expectation of pregnancy sometimes acts to prevent the flow in the case of unmarried women who have exposed themselves to the risks of it. It often happens in such cases that the next succeeding period appears normally. Again, an intense desire for children may focus the attention upon menstruation and so control the function as to suppress it entirely, leading to the confident hope that pregnancy has taken place. Haultain (Edin. Med. Jour., 1900, vol. 2, p. 339) advances the idea that amenorrhea of the kind known as functional is the effect of an impairment of controlling nerve centres.
Another form of amenorrhea is that due to changes of climate. It is a matter of common observation that differences of climate or altitude occasion disturbances of menstruation, a change to the seashore being generally accompanied by an increase in menstrual flow, while that to a higher altitude may be attended by the reverse. Tilt says that he was once consulted by a lady, who had shortly before established a large boarding school for girls near London, because so many of her scholars who came from a distance suffered from amenorrhea that she feared there was something unhealthy in the location. This class of cases, as well as those arising from shock, fright, or excitement, are explicable on Haultain's theory. Over-study and exhaustion of the nervous system are also frequent causes of functional amenorrhea. Exposure to cold during a menstrual period with a consequent sudden stoppage of the flow, which may or may not return next time, is usually classed as a functional amenorrhea.
assigned
Could we follow the evolution of the corpus luteum in these cases we should probably be able to understand better the causal nexus ; the first step is to determine whether Frankel's theory as to the relation between menstruation and the corpus luteum can be established.
SYMPTOMS AND DIAGNOSIS.
Amenorrhea in itself is only a symptom common to a variety of conditions, and in many cases where it is the sole clue the physician must follow the various possible causes until he discovers the particular condition which is effective in the case under observation.
In a case of primary amenorrhea the first question to be considered is whether there is maldevelopment of the pelvic organs, or an obstruction at some point in the genital tract, or whether it is merely an expression of general backwardness of development. The doubt can be set at rest at once by a local examination, but the conscientious physician will hesitate to take this step in the young and unmarried until he is sure it is indispensable. The crucial point is the presence or absence of menstrual molimena. If no such symptoms have appeared the case is either one of backwardness of development or of maldevelopment (aplasia of the reproductive organs). Under these circumstances the physician is justified, if the girl is not more than sixteen or seventeen, in waiting, in the hope that nature and a little attention to general hygiene will remove the difficulty.
WITH AN Amenorrhea.
the case is one of faulty development, the uterus will be found to be of an infantile type with a small undeveloped fundus and a disproportionately large cervix, while the ovaries are elongate, smooth, and smaller than at puberty (see Fig. 58).
If, on the contrary, the patient gives a history of recurrent attacks of pelvic pain, headache, dizziness, and nervons excitability, accompanied, it may he, by bleeding from the nose or some other mucous surface, the case is either one of maldevelopment with ovaries functionally active, or of an atresia in the genital tract. Here an examination must be made at once to obviate serious consequences, namely the formation of hematocolpos, hematometra, and hematosalpinx, with rupture and consequent peritonitis.
What harm may arise in such cases from neglect is shown by a case of Gebhard's (Veit's " Handbuch der Gynakologie," 1898, vol. 3, second half, p. 60). A girl of seventeen with a primary amenorrhea consulted a physician on account of a severe colicky pain in the abdomen. The physician made no inquiry into the menstrual function nor did he suggest any local examination. Inspection of the abdomen showed a painful diffuse tumor above the symphysis extending towards the right, which he took for a perityphilitic exudate ; for the relief of this he made an incision in the ileocecal region " to evacuate the pus." Instead of an abscess he found a large circumscribed dark red swelling, looking like an ovarian tumor, which he did not attempt to remove. The patient then entered the clinic where the diagnosis was apparent on the first inspection of the genitals and the tumor was seen to be a large hematocolpos due to an atresia of the hymen. It was relieved by an incision.
Imperforate hymen is at once .recognized by the marked bulging tumor of a livid or dark brown color, which fluctuates distinctly upon palpation, protruding between the labia; posteriorly it is limited by the perineum, laterally by the inner surface of the labia, and anteriorly it reaches to the posterior margin of the urethra. If the growth is sufficiently large to fill the lower abdomen, rising as high as the umbilicus, the wave of fluctuation is readily transmitted from above downward to the tumor at the vulva. A rectal examination reveals an elongate sac filled with fluid, occupying the position of the uterus and vagina and conforming in its general direction to the axis of the pelvis. Great care must be taken in the examination not to rupture the thin tubal sacs lest a fatal hemorrhage or an attack of peritonitis should be induced.
Pregnancy must be considered in every case of amenorrhea, coming on in women who have menstruated regularly up to the time of the sudden onset of the suppression, if the patient is still within the child-bearing period. It must also be considered in atypical cases where the menstruation has been irregular. The examiner does not insult his presumably chaste patient by bearing this condition in mind and proceeding at the first step he takes in his diagnosis to exclude it from the category of possibilities in any given case. Pregnancy is diagnosed by recognizing the rotund enlargement of the uterus, sometimes soft and boggy, sometimes firm, but almost always more or less globular. In some cases, it feels as if jointed onto the cervix which may be mistaken for the uterus itself, while the body above, containing the fetus^ appears to be a tumor attached to it by a pedicle (see Fig. 59). Ilegar has
shown that softening of the uterus caused bj pregnancy is not symmetrical; the neck retains a certain resistance, when the body has already become soft, and the upper part, which contains the o\Tim, is tenser than the lower empty part which may be pressed together between the fingers like a soft membrane. This sign is of great importance in the early diagnosis of pregnancy. Anyone
Fig. 59. — An Early Peegxanct SHO"«axG the Globitlar Enlargement of the Uterine Bodt. The cervix is often flexible at the point under palpation and may feel like an organ detached from the semi-fluctuant mass above.
acquainted with the extraordinary relaxation of the lower segTuent in the second or third months will avoid the not uncommon mistake of taking the cervix to be the whole uterus and the pregnant body for a loosely attached tumor, a pregnant tube, cyst of the ovary, etc.
In amenorrhea of women over forty, there is always a possibility of the menopause. Women are prone to assume that "the change of life is working " as early as thirty-five or even earlier, but a cessation of menstruation before forty-one or two is rare and the physician should accept it as a diagnosis only after he has failed to find any other cause and after the lapse of some months. The physiological amenorrheas of childhood and lactation require no comment.
Secondary amenorrheas of the mechanical variety are easily recognized by the existence of menstrual molimena without a regular occurrence of the habitual discharge, and examination shows the nature and seat of the obstruction. There are certain cases of secondary amenorrhea, caused by faulty development, when the defects are not sufficient to cause primary amenorrhea, but menstruation is so far affected that it takes place at infrequent intervals, it may be only a few times in the whole course of the sexual life. The history of such cases is very suggestive and examination makes the diagnosis clear. In patients of this class the physical development as well as the general health is sometimes
manifestly feeble constitution.
In constitutional amenorrhea the history will generally supply the clue to diagnosis. Chlorosis is the commonest cause and here the appearance is so characteristic as to suggest it at once. The complexion has a peculiar, transparent, waxy, greenish hue, from which the disease derives its name, unlike that of other forms of anemia. The conjunctivae are unnaturally white and clear and there is usually a disturbed heart's action, manifested in shortness of breath, palpitation, and great fatigue on exertion. When the disturbance of the circulation is marked, there is apt to be more or less congestion of the terminal blood vessels so that the skin has a muddy cyanotic look, which to some extent masks the typical greenish hue. Menstruation is disturbed by a more or less complete amenorrhea; the flow is of a peculiar, characteristic,, pinkish color. The age of the patient is a point which must be considered, since the majority of cases occur between fourteen and twenty-one, with a smaller proportion between twenty-five and thirty.
An examination of the blood is always necessary to complete the diagnosis ; its appearance as it flows from the body is characteristically thin, pale, and watery. The hemaglobinometer shows that the percentage of hemaglobin is reduced, while the hemacytometer demonstrates that the number of red corpuscles is not diminished proportionately. In a series of ninety-four cases investigated by Dr. C. E. Simon, the average hemoglobin value was forty-two and a half per cent, while the lowest in the series was seventeen and a half per cent. There are certain rare cases of great reduction in the number of red corpuscles. One is mentioned by Hay em, where only 937,360 were counted, and three by V, Limbeck in which the red corpuscles were 1,750,000, 1,850,000, and 1,930,000 respectively.
In the amenorrhea of tuberculosis, patients usually complain of phthisical symptoms, although among the ignorant classes the cough, loss of weight, and other early symptoms of phthisis may escape the recognition of the patient and her family and she may complain of the amenorrhea and nothing more. The suppression of menstruation following acute diseases offers no difficulty in diagnosis. In some chronic conditions the whole body must be carefully examined, as well as the lungs, the sputum, and the blood.
Obesity associated with amenorrhea suggests some vice of nutrition which must be carefully investigated, and the suggestion made by Coe as to disease of the glands employed in internal secretion deserves to be borne in mind.
TREATMENT.
Primary amenorrhea, due to atresia with accumulated menstrual secretions above, is the only form in which there is any necessity for inmiediate action, and this form of amenorrhea is not really a true amenorrhea at all, although it is conveniently considered under this head. If the general
154 AMENOEKHEA.
practitioner has convinced himself that an atresia of the genital tract exists he should send the patient without loss of time to a gynecologist. A form of obstruction which may claim the attention of the general practitioner is an imperforate hymen. It is better to refer this class of cases as well as those in wliich the atresia is situated higher up to a specialist, but as circumstances may arise in which the general practitioner is obliged to deal with this condition himself and as the operation itself is a simple one if performed with extreme antiseptic precautions, I give the details of its execution.
Operation for Imperforate Hymen. — Once more I earnestly insist upon the most rigid asepsis at every step. Lives have been repeatedly lost from sepsis coming on rapidly after opening such accumulations, especially where the tubes have been dilated. The blood adhering to the sac and the thin walls, together with the sudden change in the pressure in the blood vessels, affords material for sepsis, as well as a ready avenue for the invasion of the neighboring peritoneal cavity through necrosis of the thin tubal walls. This danger can be avoided, however, by a thorough cleansing of the field, by care against infecting the tract while operating, and by a thorough packing with iodoform gauze so as to protect the field for some days after the operation. After the external genitals are cleansed and the operator has put on sterile rubber gloves, the bulging membrane is opened by a crucial incision, dividing it into four triangular flaps at its base. The thick tarry fluid is allowed to escape slowly and on no accoim.t must it be hastened by pressure from above, for fear of rupture. The canal is then washed out for from five to ten minutes with a warm saturated boric acid solution introduced under low pressure through a long, curved, glass douche nozzle. Pains must be taken to empty the vaginal and uterine cavities of all the accumulated blood. An abundance of iodoform and boric acid powder (1:T) is dusted into the vagina and iodoform gauze loosely laid is packed into the uterus and the vagina down to the vaginal outlet. The urine is drawn, the powder sprinkled on the outside, and a pad of sterilized cotton is laid on and held in place by a sterilized T-bandage. The internal dressings may be left in place for from four to five days or even longer, provided everything is going on well and they do not become saturated sooner. Whenever they are wet and secretions are found to be escaping at the vulva they must be changed by bringing the patient to the edge of the table or bed under a good light, withdrawing the pack with forceps and reinserting it by means of a packer, thus using every precaution to avoid infection by keeping the gauze from all contact with the fingers, the buttocks, etc. By this method sepsis is avoided and the one great danger eliminated. The patient should be kept in bed for from one to two weeks.
Cases where there is maldevelopment of the reproductive organs should also be referred to a gynecologist, although there is not the same need for immediate action as in the case of an obstruction of the genital tract. When the ovaries are able to perform their function while the uterus is too imperfectly developed to respond, there is usually no relief from the constantly
recurring suffering except in the removal of the ovaries, but this should only be done in imperative cases, where the suffering is extreme. Galvanic stem pessaries laid within the uterus have been recommended for puerile organs as well as for those cases where menstruation occurs at infrequent, long, or irregular intervals, but without, in mj opinion, any reasonable claim. Moreover, as Herman has shown {Med. Press and Circ, London, 1893, vol. 55, p. 269), they often irritate the endometrium, as shown by resulting hemorrhage and leucorrhea, and set up an infection which may spread along the uterine tubes to the peritoneum, setting up a fatal peritonitis. The value of the galvanic current in this form of amenorrhea has been much praised by some writers, the negative pole being applied inside the uterus (Apostoli). I am not prepared to utter a sweeping denial of these claims and I am willing to concede that it is perhaps worth trying for a few months. The cathode shaped like a sound is introduced into the uterus, while the positive pole, a long dispersing electrode, is placed on the abdomen. Treatments of ten minutes' duration are given three times a week ; the strength of the current should be twenty to thirty milliamperes.
In the amenorrhea of young girls, whether primary or secondary, the treatment should first of all be directed to diverting the patient's attention from the pelvic organs by assuring her and her relatives that a little time and patience will regulate the function. Anemia, often present, must receive consideration. Iron is beneficial in most cases, but there are a certain number in which cod liver oil appears to do more good. E^ourishing food and plenty of fresh air and exercise are essential elements in the treatment. In schoolgirls the question of over-study should receive earnest attention. No night study whatever should be allowed, and the amount of work done in school hours reduced to a minimum. In any case where the amenorrhea is obstinate or of long standing and the patient's health is manifestly below normal, it is the wisest plan to take her out of school altogether for some months or a year. The worst that can result from such a course is the delay of a year in graduation, and the disappointment attendant on this is a trivial matter compared to her physical welfare. Great attention must be paid to keeping the bowels open, as constipation is closely asso»ciated with amenorrhea. The prescription for constipation given in chlorosis is of use in all forms of amenorrhea (see p. 143).
Secondary amenorrhea due to constitutional causes must be treated by attention to the particular cause in each individual case, when the relief of the underlying condition will almost certainly be followed by the re-establishment of the menstrual function.
In chlorosis the great indications for treatment, as Herman has said (loc. cit.), are fresh air, light, food, iron, and laxatives, to which might be added another item of great importance — intervals of rest. It is a matter of common observation that chlorosis is most prevalent in unhealthy surroundings; indeed, there seems much to favor the theory of Virchow and Stephen-
son that the disease depends upon a constitutional predisposition, engendered by damp, darkness, unhealthy food, and general want of hygiene. Sunlight and fresh air form an essential part of the treatment. The character of the food must be nutritious, and as Stanley has pointed out {Birmingliam Med. Rev., 1906, vol. 59, n. s., p. 102) the diet should contain a large proportion of such foods and vegetables as yield a considerable amount of minerals, especially iron. As Stanley remarks, the diet of working girls, among Avhom chlorosis is most prevalent, sometimes consists largely of meat and is always particularly deficient in the class of foods just mentioned. Milk, eggs, and any nutritious easily digested foods are suitable, and it must be remembered that when the appetite is poor and capricious, as it is in all forms of anemia, especially chlorosis, any article of food not absolutely injurious will be of service, if the patient has a fancy for it.
Of all remedies employed in the treatment of chlorosis, iron has always held the first place, although exactly how it works is not known. Carbonate of iron in the shape of Blaud's pills, is the preparation considered most efiicacious by authorities in general. The formula is :
M. et ft. pil. j. Mitte tales 100.
It is best to begin with one pill three times daily, after each meal, and increase the dose gradually up to three. Hay em recommends the oxylate of iron, as less irritating to the stomach than the carbonate, in pill form, in doses of one to five grains. The tincture of the chloride of iron also gives excellent results, in doses of two to thirty drops, well diluted with water; an old well-seasoned preparation should be used. Reduced iron is another useful preparation, in pill form, the dose varying from one to five grains after each meal. Herman {loc. cit.) recommends the ammoniocitrate of iron combined with an alkali carbonate and made up with spirits of chloroform to make it palatable. The following formula is effective :
When the stomach is too irritable, as it sometimes is, to allow of iron being given by the mouth, it must be administered hypodermically. Dori, cited by Pratt (N. Y. Med. Times, 1905, vol. 33, p. Y7), considers the ammonio-citrate of iron best for hypodermic use. He finds that jDatients are able to tolerate large doses of iron given in this way when the administration by mouth is out of tlie question. The daily dose is three centigrams
ISFext to iron, arsenic gives the best results in the treatment of chlorosis. It may be given as Fowler's solution (liquor potassi arsenitis), dose two to five drops three times a day; or as a pill in the form of arsenious acid, dose one-thirtieth to one-fiftieth of a grain. In some cases it is best to give arsenic hypodermically, and for that purpose I have found a French preparation, the cacodylate de sonde, give excellent results.
Manganese, so highly recommended in the treatment of all forms of amenorrhea, is considered by Stengel to be useless in chlorosis. If it is tried it should be in the form of the dioxide, dose two to five grains in pill three times a day. A good prescription in which arsenic and manganese are combined with iron is the following:
A course of chalybeate or arseniate waters is sometimes useful.
Forchheimer finds the best results in the treatment of chlorosis by combining an intestinal antiseptic with a blood preparation. He gives five grains of hydronaphtol and salol before each meal and five grains of hemogallol after it. If the latter preparation cannot be obtained, large quantities of beef juice may be substituted, or any preparation which contains blood, care being taken to make sure that it really measures up to its claims. It is certain, according to Pratt (loc. cit.) that in some cases of chlorosis antiseptics succeed where iron fails. The success of this plan of treatment seems to agree with Clark's theory that chlorosis is caused by the absorption of poisonous products, ptomaines, etc., from the large intestine.
The constipation, which almost always accompanies chlorosis, requires constant attention. Salines are the best form of laxative, and if anything stronger is required to start the bowels, calomel may be administered in broken doses of one-eighth to one-sixth of a grain, at intervals of half an hour, until one grain has been taken. The following prescription recommended by Hart and Barbour is excellent even if somewhat bitter:
Gastric symptoms must be met according to tlie indications. When there is an excess of hydrochloric acid, hirge quantities of an alkali may be given before meals. In some cases, where the glands of the stomach are atrojDhied, Pratt (loc. cit.) recommends stimulating the small intestine by the administration of the ferment of the pancreas or by papain. The dose of pancreatin is five to fifteen grains in powders, while that of papain is two to five grains in the same form.
Vomiting, according to Stengel (loc. cit.) is best treated by minute doses of calomel combined with a local sedative, such as cocain, one-fortieth to one-twentieth of a grain; dilute hydrocyanic acid, one to two drops; creosote, one-quarter to one-half drop; or carbolic acid, one grain. An excellent prescription for this purpose is the following:
S. One pill every hour until relieved.
JSTervous symptoms, when they are present, must be treated according to the indications. In cases combined with chorea, which are not infrequent, arsenic is the best remedy. For the severe headache which sometimes accompanies chlorosis, the various coal-tar preparations may be tried, or the bromides.
Finally, one most important remedy in chlorosis is rest. Hayem insists strongly upon this point, as well as Taylor, cited by Pratt (loc. cit.), who says that the classical treatment of chlorosis with iron and purgatives is not assisted, but rather counteracted by the accompanying prescription of exercise. " Against fresh air," he says, " I have nothing to say, as long as it does not involve exercise either by walking or riding. It is, of course, partly a question of proportion; the worse the case, the more absolute should be the rest. In a slighter degree of anemia, or in one already recovering, carriage exercise may be allowed, while in the severer forms the patient may with advantage be kept in bed entirely, the most certain means of keeping her absolutely at rest. An intermediate prescription is that the patient shall only get up for three or four hours in the afternoon."
Edgecombe has sho^^Ti that under normal conditions there is a fall in the percentage of hemaglobin during the day with a rise at night. Moreover, the daily diminution is increased by exercise. His observations were made upon healthy persons, but they are significant of what rest may do in building up hemaglobin, Hayem has shown that when chlorotic patients are allowed to walk about, the blood pigment present in the urine is greatly increased over the amount present during rest. It is safe to say that the routine prescription of fresh air and exercise in chlorosis is one which should be modified. Fresh air is important, but active exercise should be proscribed. In well-marked
cases absolute rest in bed should be prescribed until there is a decided increase in the percentage of heiiiogl<»l)in. After this point is reached, the patient should have passive exercise in the open air, with massage. In milder cases it is enough to insist upon rest in the recumbent position for several hours every day, and the absence of active exercise. In the treatment of chlorosis it must always be remembered that relapses are frequent, and therefore the treatment should always be kept up for some time after the patient is apparently restored to health.
In amenorrhea occurring during the course of tuberculosis, attention should be directed to the tubercular affection. Should the primary condition be arrested and the general health restored, menstruation will return, while if the disease progresses, the absence of the menstrual flow should be regarded as a benefit.
The amenorrhea which accompanies or follows severe illnesses should also be looked upon as a blessing, since the absence of the menstrual flow is nature's effort to conserve strength. 'No treatment is necessary beyond attention to the general health, and the patient and her relatives can be assured that with the return of health the function will almost certainly be re-established.
A functional amenorrhea, as a rule, requires no treatment. In cases where it arises from shock, alarm, or nervous disturbance, the physician can only counsel patience until the nervous system has had sufficient time to recover. In cases where there is a sudden stoppage of menstruation from exposure to cold, the treatment should be calculated to restore the circulation to its normal rhythm, for the causes at work probably act mainly through the vaso-motor system. The patient should have a hot tub or hip bath and be put to bed, warmly covered up, with hot-water bottles, and a hot poultice over the hypogastrium. I have myself cured one case of over a year's standing by feeding large amounts of the fresh corpus luteum. The patient sometimes suffers from attacks of headache, dizziness, and flushes, recurring at intervals corresponding generallj^ to the expected menstrual periods. In such cases as these the discomfort can often be relieved by scarifying the cervix until a few ounces of blood have been removed. W. L. Burrage has successfully treated cases of this kind by the application of leeches to the cervix.
Pituitary Amenorrhea. — It seems more than likely, in view of accumulating clinical facts, that amenorrhea, dysmenorrhea, and menorrhagia are frequently due to disturbances in the function of the internal secretory organs, notably the pituitary body, the thyroid gland, and the suprarenal capsules.
The normal pituitary gland may exercise an important control over and stimulate the ovarian function. If this conjecture is correct, then a lowered activity, as found in pituitary tumors and cyst cases, would explain the production of a peculiar class of cases of amenorrhea which present the following well-defined symptom complex: A comparatively young woman begins to have scanty menstruation, and in a few months' time the flow ceases altogether,
is lowered blood pressure combine it with suprarenal extract.
Emmenagogues. — I do not myself recommend the class of medicines knoA^TQ. as emmenagogues. Their action is extremely uncertain, and should menstruation appear while one of them . is in course of administration, its ai^pearance is probably due to causes apart from the drug. In amenorrhea due to unsuspected pregnancy, the use of emmenagogues has been followed by most disastrous consequences. The principal remedies falling under this head are :
Manganese. — This is best given in the form of dioxide, two to five grains three times daily in the form of a pill. The permanganate of potash may be substituted, dose one-half to one grain three times a day, also in pill.
Apiol (Garden parsley). — The dose of this remedy is three to six minims, administered in capsules, after each meal. The administration should, be begun several days before the flow is expected.
Aloes. — This should also be begun several days before menstruation is due, in the form of purified aloes, dose one gTain; or aloin, one-half of a gTain, both in pill form three times daily.
There is one other variety of amenorrhea which cannot be included under any of the classes just discussed, and that is the amenorrhea due to the superinvolution following severe labor. It is fortunately rare, but it must always be borne in mind whenever a persistent amenorrhea is noted after labor. Nothing can be done to relieve it.
Vicarious menstruation is a term used to describe a condition in which in the absence of the regular menstrual flow a substitutive hemorrhage occurs from some other part of the body. There is some disagreement among the members of our profession as to whether a vicarious menstruation really exists, some persons contending that the cases reported will not bear analysis (Wilks, Brit. Gyn. Jour., 1886-7, vol. 2, p. 177) ; others maintaining that there is a sufficient number of authentic cases to establish the reality of its existence (R. Barnes, ibid., p. 151).
As Withrow has pointed out (Amer. Jour. Ohst., 1892, vol. 25, p. 164), this disagreement arises partly from a lack of exactness as to definition. Menstruation has been usually defined as a periodical discharge of blood and endometrial debris from the uterus, and if the presence of endometrial debris is considered essential to the definition, a discharge from any other organ than the uterus cannot constitute menstruation, therefore under such a definition vicarious menstruation does not exist. It has been suggested as more appro-
The term, as used here, is intended to signify a discharge of blood taking place from an organ other than the uterus, at intervals corresponding in a general way to those existing between the menstrual periods, menstruation being at the same time wholly or partially suppressed. Under this definition, vicarious menstruation is of two different kinds : one in which the regular menstrual flow takes place as usual and is accompanied by hemorrhage from some other organ (supplemental) ; another in which the menstrual flow is absent and its place is taken by hemorrhage elsewhere (substitutional).
The nose is the most frequent situation for vicarious hemorrhage, but there is hardly a mucous surface in the body from which it has not been observed to take place: the stomach, the intestinal tract, the lungs, the bladder, the vagina, the eye, the ear, the tonsils, and the gums have each in turn been reported as the seat of the flow, as well as the nipples and the umbilicus. It has also been observed to take place from the surface of old cicatrices, and, in a few rare instances, from the skin, representing, it may be, the " bloody sweat " long classified among medical curiosities. One special form of vicarious hemorrhage is the discharge of blood from the bowel which sometimes takes place at long intervals after operations for the removal of the sexual organs, and represents the absent menstrual periods. A discharge of this kind rarely continues after a few months.
The efficient underlying cause of vicarious menstruation is not yet understood. It is manifestly a part of the ovarian function, probably of the corpus luteum in process of formation, to stimulate a vasomotor congestion, which in some cases is general, as shown by the throbbing full feeling in the head accompanied by pain before the appearance of the menstrual flow; and when the blood is once discharged the tension elsewhere is reduced. We do not know, however, by what cause this local congestion followed by discharge of blood from the uterus is determined. If the possibility of relief through the natural channels is taken away, the efferent impulse is diverted and concentrates itself upon the spot in the body at which the vessels can be most readily dilated and ruptured. The impulse instead of being reflected from the ovaries back to the uterus is reflected to whatever vascular area responds most readily to it. The reasons for this selective action in a given case, however, are obscure.
Withrow (loc. cit.) mentions an interesting instance of heredity in connection with vicarious hemorrhage, in which there were two sisters, neither of whom had ever menstruated, although their genital organs were normal. One of them never showed any signs of menstruation, but the other had attacks of epistaxis occurring at intervals which corresponded in a general way to what should have been menstrual periods. The attacks began at puberty and
continued np to the age of fortv-oiie. A niece of these women, tlie danghter of au older sister, resembled them in never menstruating, her pelvic organs, like theirs, being normal. She also had attacks of epistaxis at intervals of about four weeks for a number of years, the bleeding taking place always at night. All of the women were married and all remained sterile.
The treatment of vicarious menstruation must depend upon the nature of the case. The causes of the accompanying amenorrhea must first be ascertained and, if possible, removed, for when menstruation is re-established, the vicarious hemorrhage will, in all probability, cease. Seeliginan (Centrbl. f. Gyn., 1893, vol. 17, p. G42) advises the use of a hot douche during the time supposed to correspond to the intermenstrual periods, for the purpose of inducing the menstrual flow. In cases where liormal menstruation cannot occur, the vicarious hemorrhage is often a safety-valve which it is not well to shut down. If the relief from the vicarious hemorrhage is not sufficient to relieve the headache, flushing, and dizziness it is sometimes a good plan to scarify and deplete the cervix. In rare cases the vicarious liemorrhage is so profuse as to require measures for its control. Under these circumstances the usual remedies for checking hemorrhage should be tried, adapting them to the situation from which the liemorrhage proceeds. The application of ice is of service, and where the hemorrhage is from the stomach Kiistner recommends gastric lavage with iced water.
In exceptional instances radical measures are indicated. Webster (" Textbook of Diseases of Women," 1907, p. Ill) mentions two cases of vicarious hemorrhage under his care in which he was obliged to remove the ovaries (in both instances diseased) because life was endangered by the repeated hemorrhages. He does not state the situation of the vicarious hemorrhage. Fischel (Prag. med. Wochenschr., 1894, 'No. 12) has been obliged to resort to the same radical measure in a case of rudimentary uterus accompanied by vicarious menstruation in the form of hematemesis.
cous myomata, p. 168; carcinoma of the cervix, p. 169; carcinoma of the fundus, p. 170; sarcoma, p. 172; chorio-epithelioma, p. 171; retrodisplacements, p. 172; subinvolution of uterus, p. 172; inversion of uterus, p. 173; acute endometritis, p. 174; chronic endometritis, p. 174; hypertrophy of the endometrium, p. 175; polypoid endometritis, p. 175; tuberculosis of the endometrium, p. 176; cystic ovaries, p. 176; pelvic hematocele, p. 177; corpus luteum cysts, p. 177; inflammation of the tubes and ovaries, p. 177; extra-uterine pregnancy, p. 177; sclerosis of uterine blood vessels, p. 177; calcification of uterine blood vessels, p. 178; (6) Constitutional and vascular causes, p. 179.
nancy, p. 204. Treatment, p. 206.
Definition. — Uterine hemorrhage is of two kinds: one, which is periodical, that is to say, associated with the normal menstrual flow, is for this reason called monorrhagia (monthly bleeding) ; the other, occurring at irregular intervals and standing in no manifest relation to menstruation, is known as metrorrhagia (simply uterine bleeding). In some cases it is easy to use these two terms with discrimination, while in others it is impossible, because the conditions co-exist. Precisely the same causes often give rise to monorrhagia and to metrorrhagia, as, for example, incomplete abortion, cancer of the cervix or of the body of the uterus, fibroid tumors, and extra-uterine pregnancy. It is plain, therefore, that it is not always possible to be minutely particular in the classification of any particular case under one or the other category, and that the terms are simply used as a matter of general convenience.
There is no difficulty in recognizing a case of uncomplicated metrorrhagia, for any uterine hemorrhage occurring at times other than the regular menstrual periods comes under this head. The recognition of a monorrhagia is more difficult, for the question whether the menstrual flow is, or is not excessive must be, within certain limits, a personal one. The normal habitual discharge of a plethoric woman would be a serious loss to another of slight build, with but little blood to spare. Each woman soon learns her individual norm which she can comfortably bear, and realizes that if it is greatly exceeded for several periods her general health begins to sufl^er. The common method of estimating the amount of blood lost by the number of
pieces of i^iroteetive gauze or '' na})l-:ins '■ used is a fairly j-clialile ^vay of e-auo-ins: an increase, but it is not a reliable ffuide as to tlie absolute amount. In general terms, it may be said that menorrhagia exists "wben two to three times the usual amount of blood is lost, coming away in spurts or gushes of bright red color or accumulating in clots in the vagina, to be discharged at intervals. The amount of Wood lost may be so great as to exhaust the patient greatly and even endanger life and it is always an important point in the physician's duty to decide whether the loss is sufficient to impair the health. A notable characteristic of menorrhagia is the fact that the flow is greater when the patient is on her feet and moving actively about.
Typical menorrhagia, then, is characterized by an excessive flow at the menstrual period. There are two different types of the condition which may exist separately or conjointly: a flow which is excessive throughout the period, and one which is unduly prolonged beyond its normal limits. A persistent menorrhagia of either t\'pe reacts upon the patient's health, inducing anemia, shortness of breath, and general debility.
LOCAL CAUSES.
Abortion. — In married women threatened or incomplete abortion must always be suspected as the cause of a menorrhagia until its existence is disproved ; only in this way will mortifying mistakes be avoided.
Threatened Abortion. — The symptoms indicating a threatened abortion are, pains due to uterine contraction and loss of blood. Loss of blood, no matter how slight, in the early months of pregnancy should always be regarded with anxiety, for if it does not proceed from an impending miscarriage, it must be due either to an endometritis or, in the later months, to an abnormal placental implantation. When due to threatened abortion the discharge is not usually profuse at first; it may be of a dirty brown or a brownish red color, or it may consist of fresh red blood and coagula. This premonitory bleeding may hang on for weeks, or it may be shortly followed by the complete expulsion of the ovum, when it ceases. The diagnosis of threatened abortion must be made from the history of a missed period and the presence of some uterine enlargement, on account of which the patient herself thinks she is pregnant. In many cases an abortion has occurred before in a similar manner.
Incomplete Abortion. — The symptoms of incomplete abortion are a complex of pain, hemorrhage, and, it may be, the expulsion of membranes. One characteristic of the hemorrhage often present, is that it comes in spurts or gushes and keeps up with slight intermissions until the miscarriage is complete. It sometimes happens, however, that the abortion has occurred so early that no suspicion of pregnancy has arisen, and a curettage undertaken for the relief of the hemorrhage reveals its true cause. In a recent case of this kind in my own practice the patient complained of irregular menstruation, sometimes profuse and sometimes scanty. For about three months before I saw her the flow had been excessive and had lasted from six to seven days. Her family physician ascribed it to a polyp, seen hanging to the uterus. On curetting I removed a large amount of endometrial debris
which macroscopicallj resembled carcinoma; microscopical examination, however, showed syncytium and villi, the remains of an incomplete abortion. Yet there had been no suspicion of pregnancy.
In doubtful cases the diagnosis of incomplete abortion must always rest upon the microscopical examination of curettings from the endometrium. The most characteristic appearance in the often abundant tissue removed is little villous threads and dark coagula interspersed through the fleshy masses. Histologically, a glandular hypertrophy may predominate, in which the glands are dilated and convoluted, with little tit-like processes springing from their lumina; the epithelium is somewhat flattened and the stroma of the mucosa shows marked swelling of the cells, which persists for several Aveeks after the abortion. AVhile these appearances are suggestive of pregnancy, a positive diagnosis must rest upon the discovery of villi. In the early months these will be found to show two layers of epithelial covering, the interior of which is made up of cuboidal cells, while the outer, syncytial layer, appears as a ribbon of protoplasm with nuclei distributed through it; this outer layer sends out protoplasmic buds which u L ^1 f^ form new villi and in the cen-
polypoid mass.
Mucous Polyp. — A mucous polyp is a soft growth, produced by a localized hyjjertropliy of the uterine mucosa, which becomes pedunculate. It is frequently associated with endometritis and with fibroid tumors. Its size varies fvoni that of a pea to a walnut and occasionally it is larger. Cervical polypi (see Fig. 61) are most frequently pedunculate and protrude from
Fig. 60. — A Placental Polyp, the Prodxtct op an Incomplete Abortion, formed by the Contractions of the Uterus acting on Hemorrhage taking place Slowly at the Placental Site. (After Bumm.)
LOCAL CAUSES OF UTEKINE HEMOREIIAGE. 167
the external os, while those within the uterine cavity are often found near the tubal ostia. The one prominent symptom in uterine polypi is hemorrhage, which is sometimes severe. The diagnosis is easily made when the polyp can be seen hanging into the vagina or just within the os uteri,
AND Causing Hemorrhage.
where it looks like a smooth, round, fleshy ball. Sometimes a number of little red polypi depend from the cervix. A microscopical examination shows mucous membrane with uterine glands ; the glands are mostly normal, but when they are dilated and form small cysts, the epithelium becomes cuboidal and the cavities contain desquamative epithelial cells. The stroma, especially near the tip of the polyp, often shows hemorrhage and edema. When no polyp can be seen, the diagnosis may be extremely difficult and sometimes can be made only by exclusion ; that is to say, no other probable cause being found for a protracted hemorrhage at every period, persisting for months, and associated with the fact that the uterus is not markedly enlarged, warrants the assmnption that the trouble is due either to a polyp or a small submucous fibroid tumor. Occasionally, a polyp can be removed with the curette, but, as a rule, an incision into the uterus is necessary to discover and remove it. Small sessile fibroid OTowths should be treated in the same manner.
Fig. 62. — ^A Large SuBMucotrs Myoma (&), Solitahy and Filling the Uterine Cavity. The uterus has been spht from the cervix (a) up to the fundus and out into each ■ cornu.
Submucous Myomata. — ]\Iost mjomata are interstitial in the beginning, but it often happens tliat a tumor, beginning in this manner, is carried down in the course of its development into the uterine cavity where it is attached either by a broad base or a pedicle of varying length (see Fig. 62). The two characteristic symptoms of submucous myomata are hemorrhage and pain.
thin serous oozing from the
tmnor is a marked symptom. Direct examination shows a rounded tumor in the vagina or just inside the cervix. By passing a finger around it on all sides the tumor will be found to be smooth and to have a pedicle within the uterus. If the growth is still retained inside the uterus, the pedicle may be demonstrated by passing a sound around it on all sides. A myoma within the uterus has the characteristic feel of a ball in a cup and it may sometimes be rotated so as to show that it has a narrow pedicle above. A myoma sessile within the uterus may sometimes be diagnosed without difficulty by introducing the index finger through the cervix, the other hand being used to make counter pressure through the abdominal wall. "Wlien the canal is too small to admit the finger, a sound may be employed instead. By noting the increased depth of the uterine cavity and tracing its irregularities by the sound moving within it and by palpation per rectum and per abdomen at the same time, an accurate idea may be obtained of the size and location of thp tumor. Such a fibroid tumor is always larger than a mucous polyp.
To differentiate between a myoma and a uterus which is inverted, either wholly or in part, the peritoneal surface of the uterus must be palpated by the rectum when, if there is any inversion, the corresponding depression on the peritoneal surface will be felt. Furthermore, in inversion the neck of the tumor stops short inside the cervix on all sides.
A submucous myoma is sometimes mistaken for cancer of the cervix, which is not surprising, because when the patient suffers for a long time from profuse hemorrhage she acquires a cachectic look resembling that of cancer, and, moreover, when there is a sloughing myoma it gives rise to
frequent fetid discharges. The distinction must be made by observing the location of the tumor and its density as contrasted with the friability of cancer. The smaller myomata are quite smooth on the surface while the larger are nodulated. The myoma presents a distinct, well-rounded tumor, contracted above a pedicle which enters a canal; the cancer, on the other hand, is a tumor with a broad attachment to the cervix, not within the uterus, and often only to one point. The diagnosis between a small submucous myoma within the body of the uterus, which cannot be felt, and a cancer of the fundus may be difficult, but if the endometrium is curetted and the curettings examined microscopically, the characteristic changes will always be found, if the growth is cancerous (see Chap. XXI, p. 503). As a rule, these submucous and pedunculate myomata are not single, but form part of a group of tumors occupying the body of the uterus. This greatly simplifies the diagnosis, as the enlarged multinodular uterus is early recognized as myomatous, the presumptive inference being that the particular growth which is giving rise to the hemorrhage is of the same nature.
Carcinoma of the Cervix. — From the age of thirty, cancer of the cervix must always be considered in the diagnosis of uterine hemorrhage. The frequency with which the disease occurs and the rapidity of its advance make it important to recognize it at the earliest possible moment, as every week of delay in radical treatment (extirpation) of a uterine cancer is precious time lost. It is in this class of cases that the policy of delay can too often be justly laid at the door of the general practitioner by his fellow specialist as a fault which makes him responsible year by year for the loss of many lives. It is of vital importance that the general practitioner should recognize the fact that anemia and cachexia are only present in the last stages of the disease and that pain does not usually appear until it has progressed beyond the cervix. An operation, to be successful, must be performed before the appearance of these signs, and, as a rule, it is the general practitioner who sees the case while there is still time to save life.
Cancer of the cervix is extremely rare in women who have not borne children. Menstruation is usually regular up to the time the cancer begins and may or may not be affected by it. The symptoms of carcinoma, whether of the body or of the cervix, are hemorrhage, watery, foul discharges, pain, emaciation, and cachexia. Watery discharges and hemorrhage are the earliest and most marked symptoms, although the latter may be absent altogether. The hemorrhages occur at other times than the regular periods and vary in frequency, occurring at intervals of a few weeks to several months. A watery discharge is often an earlier symptom than the hemorrhage ; it may irritate the external genitalia and, as the disease advances, it becomes purulent and malodorous. Pain is not, as a rule, present until the disease has advanced beyond the cervix ; some patients, however, complain of cramp-like pain of the uterus or of frequent backache
in the early stages. As the disease progTesses, the gTOwth presses upon the nerve trunks, and the pain is no longer limited to the pelvis, but extends to the thighs, knees, and doT\Ti the legs. In the early stages and often np to a late period, the patient looks well, keeps her usual weight, and is not at all anemic; in all but a few eases, however, the later stages are accompanied by great emaciation, anemia, and that peculiar unhealthy pallor of the skin characteristic of malignant disease.
A vaginal examination in the early stages of cervical carcinoma shows the cervix to be slightly enlarged, firm, and glazed in appearance, while a few fine finger-like processes may project from the surface. The examining finger is often covered with blood when withdrawn. In more advanced cases the upjDcr part of the vagina is filled with a friable cauliflower -like growth, which breaks down on touch. On tracing this upward it will be found to spring, as a rule, from one of the cervical lips. It is at this stage of the disease, while it is still limited to the cervix, that the diagnosis is a matter of such vital importance, for the results of operation performed during this period, reported during the last few years, are most encouraging, and seem to indicate plainly that ultimate recovery may be looked for in a good many cases, if operative interference is not delayed. As cervical cancer progTesses, the gTOwth breaks down; the cervical lips are enlarged and present a ragged uneven surface extending over a more or less extensive area at the vaginal vault. The floor of the eaten-out area is very hard, but small pieces break off under a little pressure made by the finger. In later stages all traces of the cervix disappear and the vaginal vault is occupied by a small, puckered, ulcerated, hard, nodular area covered by a necrotic brown or greenish slough.
Carcinoma of the Fundus. — Cancer of the body of the uterus is a disease of women over forty and usually over forty-five., The uterus is commonly enlarged, although not always, and the cervix is hardly ever involved. The hemorrhage is here painless and persistent, lasting ten days or longer, and the discharge is apt to be dark and often watery as well. It is odorous only in the later stages. An atypical fiow, coming on in a woman who has passed the menopause and whose uterus is not markedly enlarged or nodular, as in a fibroid uterus, ought always to arouse more than a suspicion of cancer of the body. The early diagnosis of cancer of the fundus must depend entirely upon the microscopical examination of the scrapings from the endometrium. Whenever there is the slightest reason to suspect the existence of the disease, the uterus must be curetted without loss of time and the curettings carefully examined (see Chap. XXI, p. 503).
I would repeat that in the early stages of either form of uterine carcinoma., a positive diagnosis can be made only froui a uiicroscopical examination of the curettings from the uterine lining.
in carcinoma; namely, hemorrhage, watery, foul discharges, and pain, together with more or less cachexia in appearance. Examination of the scrapings from the endometrium will show the characteristic appearance of sarcoma if it is present. There is a peculiar form of cervical sarcoma known as botryoidal, or grape-like, in which the vagina is filled with masses of vesicular bodies, made up of rapidly growing nodules, each with its own little vesicular pedicle. Only a few cases of this disease have been reported; I have myself seen but one, many years ago, in which, not recognizing the condition, I amputated the mass at the cervix. The operation was followed by a rapid recurrence and the invasion of all the surrounding tissues. Another form of sarcoma appears as deep-red or bluish masses involving the vagina as well as the cervix, which once seen can never be forgotten.
Chorio-epithelioma. — Chorio-epithelioma or deciduoma malignum, is a new growth developing after a normal pregnancy, an abortion, or the expulsion of a hydatidiform mole. It has sometimes been known to occur before the mole was expelled. Whenever a patient gives a history of monorrhagia following recovery from a labor, a miscarriage, or especially the expulsion of a mole, and examination shows that the uterus is enlarged, the presence of chorio-epithelioma must be suspected. The diagnosis can be made with certainty only by examination of the curettings from the endometrium, and it must be remembered that in curettage for chorioepithelioma it is easy to get a piece of the uterine wall which will suggest a fibroid tumor. Histologically, the tumor is composed of blood spaces surrounded by the elements of the growth, derived from both layers of the fetal ectoderm and presenting in an exaggerated manner the peculiar characteristics of these cell elements. The syncytial masses present are multinuclear, with dark staining nuclei and numerous vacuoles. The elements from the Langerhans' layer are large cells with clear protoplasm and vesical nuclei in which karyokinetic figures are frequently visible. These are especially perceptible about the margins of the growth and invade the surrounding muscular tissue. The first evidence of growth may be found in metastases into the vaginal walls or into other organs, and in some instances the entire growth disappears. It is not always easy, however, to distinguish chorio-epithelioma from a benign hydatidiform mole by means of the curettings, and all the clinical facts must be weighed, together with the histological findings, in order to differentiate between the two conditions. Profuse uterine hemorrhage beginning a few weeks (six on an average) after the termination of pregnancy and leading to profound anemia is strongly suggestive of deciduoma. In some instances the interval of development has been as much as a year after the previous pregnancy; where a still longer time has elapsed, the question must be considered whether a pregnancy has not occurred of which the patient was Ignorant. A fetid, watery discharge is sometimes present; pain has been noted in some cases, but is not a prominent symptom. In many instances marked irregular fever has been observed, which, in a case under my
Retro-displacements. — Backward displacements of the uterus are frequently accompanied by menorrhagia. The symptoms, in addition to the hemorrhao-e, are, pain in the back, aggravated by exertion and standing; a feeling of weight and bearing down in the pelvis; and leucorrhea. Examination will at once reveal the presence of the displacement, its nature, and its degree.
Fig. 63. — Subinvolution of the Uterus, which is 13 cm. Long and Enlarged in the Proportion SHOWN BY Comparison with the Normal Uterus Superimposed Above. This patient had for a long time suffered with profuse hemorrhages at the time of the menopaxise. There was no tumor or malignant disease.
Subinvolution of the Uterus. — This condition arises from the arrest of involution in the uterus whicli has exj^elled the products of conception. It may occur after either a miscarriage or a labor at term. After the increase in size of the uterus during the development of the ovum, the organ normally
undergoes retrogressive changes by which it is restored to nearly the size which it was before impregnation. But if these retrogressive changes fail to take jDlace, the uterus remains large and boggy, while the endometrium becomes thick and succulent (see Fig. 63). The symptoms of this condition are pain and feeling of w^ eight in the pelvis, with a sense of bearing down. Menorrhagia is always present and frequently leucorrhea. Examination shows the uterus to be enlarged, boggy, and frequently displaced, and these facts, together with the history, which shows that the patient dates her condition from a confinement or a miscarriage, establish the diagnosis.
Inversion of the Uterus. — Inversion of the uterus can occur under two different conditions: (1) Immediately after labor, as the result of it ; (2) gradually, in a non-puerperal uterus along with the expulsion of a tumor attached to the uterine wall. The amount of inversion varies from a simple depression at the fundus (inversio incomyleta) to a complete turning inside out of the organ (inversio completa). Any condition which favors relaxation of the musculature of the uterus and a patulous cervix, predisposes to inversion. The exciting cause is usually some direct mechanical pressure exerted from above. There seems good reason for believing that many cases of post-partum inversion are due to violence exercised during labor. In the non-puerperal, or pathological variety, the most common cause is a submucous fibroid attached to the fundus ; the uterine cavity below the tumor is relaxed and the expulsive efTorts, like those of labor, which accompany fibromata, force the tumor downward, until finally, in extreme cases, it passes through the cervix into the vagina, dragging with it the portion of the uterine wall attached to it. If the tumor is submucous and becomes pedunculate, the peritoneal surface of the uterine wall may undergo no displacement, in which case there will be no inversion. If, on the other hand, the tumor remains sessile, the whole thickness of the uterine walls and peritoneum may follow as it descends, creating an indentation on the peritoneal surface which is at first slight, but gradually becomes more deeply depressed until, with the escape of the uterus into the vagina and out at the vulva, complete inversion is brought about. The tumor causing the inversion need not arise from the fundus ; it may be attached to a lateral wall.
The acute form of inversion, which immediately follows labor, does not come within the scope of this work. In the chronic variety the commonest symptom is menorrhagia, or metrorrhagia, or both, since hemorrhage occurs with great ease from the exposed mucosa. If the inversion is the result of labor, the patient will give a history of hemorrhage dating from it and sometimes state that it was particularly severe just after delivery. In the non-puerperal variety there is no such clue, and the inversion may not suggest itself to the physician as the cause of the hemorrhage for which he is consulted, until he makes a bimanual examination. In extreme cases a red, bleeding, pyriform tumor, about three centimetres in diameter
below and contracted above, will be found filling the vagina. Bimanual palpation shows a depression entering the tumor on its peritoneal surface, while the fundus is absent from its normal position. When the inversion is complete, the cervix cannot be distinguished at the vaginal vault, which seems continuous with the tumor. If the inversion is incomplete, the cervix remains as an enlarged ring, into which the sound may be pushed for a short distance. The presence of the orifices of the uterine tubes at the lower end of the tumor is also a diagnostic point of considerable importance. The differential diagnosis between inversion and myoma has been given above (see
Acute Endometritis. — This is a rare condition, although often mentioned. There are no special symptoms connected with it, and the diagnosis can be made only from examination of the curettings. Histologically, tlie surface epithelial cells are often swollen to two or three times their natural size, Avhile the adjacent cells may be compressed. There is a tendency to cell proliferation and between the epithelial cells are many polymorphonuclear leucocytes and small round cells. The glands in the superficial portions show swollen epithelium, with a tendency towards proliferation, together with a small round-celled and polymorpho-nuclear-celled infiltration. Some of the gland lumina are partially filled with leucocytes. The deeper portions of the glands are often normal. The stroma shows much infiltration superficially, with polymorpho-nuclear leucocytes and small round cells, the infiltration diminishing towards the muscle. The muscle tissue underneath is rarely much altered.
Chronic Endometritis. — This condition is also rare. The prevailing habit of describing all uterine scrapings as examples of endometritis is greatly to be deplored, since it interferes with our getting a satisfactory knowledge as to the real frequency of the affection and tends to encourage unnecessary operating. The so-called fungoid endometritis is not really a pathological entity at all and the name ought to be avoided. Chronic endometritis is oftenest associated with old cases of pyosalpinx and is rarely found in ordinary scrapings. The slight liability of the uterine mucosa to this affection is due to two factors: First, the tendency of pus-containing tubes to close completely at the uterine end, by which one avenue of infection is shut off; second, the form and position of the uterine canal, which are such as to afford good drainage. Chronic endometritis, when present, is characterized by the unevenness of the mucosa, in which the epithelium is stunted, low, cylindrical, or cuboidal. The glands, in some places, are diminished in number and vary in size ; some of them being narrow above and distended below. The epithelium of the dilated glands is somewhat flattened. The stroma is denser than it is normally, especially in the superficial portions, the nuclei tend to become spindle-shaped, and there is much round-celled infiltration. There are practically no poljonorpho-nuclear leucocytes. The deeper portions of the stroma are often normal and there are no changes in the muscles.
Hypertrophy of the Endometrium. — Hypertrophy of the endometrium, sometimes called chronic hyperplastic endometritis, is generally the result of an over-supply of blood to the uterus. Any condition, therefore, which induces pelvic congestion is likely to be accompanied by an increased growth of the endometrium. The symptoms are, profuse and prolonged menstru,ation with a shortening of the intermenstrual period. Sometimes there is metrorrhagia, and cases occasionally occur in which there is a continual hemorrhage, the menstrual periods being distinguished by an increase of the flow. Leu cor r he a is almost always present, occasionally tinged with blood.
Examination shows a uterus increased in size and weight, frequently softer than normal in the early stages of the affection and hard in the later. There are two different forms of hypertrophy of the endometrium: glandular and interstitial, both of which may exist at the same time. In the glandular form the glands, which are increased in number, are spiral, and the gland spaces are dilated, with an excess of epithelium in their lumena. The surface epithelium of the endometrium is also proliferated, but the single epithelial layer in the glands or on the surface is never duplicated, except in the senile form of the affection. In interstitial hypertrophy there is at first a round-celled infiltration of the inter-glandular connective tissue. The glands themselves are widely separated and compressed. The surface epithelium is sometimes exfoliated and when the condition has become chronic the round cells become spindle-shaped. If the glands are much compressed they may atrophy and disappear. The uterine mucosa becomes a single layer of epithelial cells on the surface of the uterine cavity.
are dilated and the blood vessels increased in size and number (see Fig. 64). It is usually seen in quite young women, and is characterized by profuse menstrual hemorrhage, sometimes of the most severe description. The only condition for which it is likely to be mistaken is malignant disease, and the di-
Tuberculosis of the Endometrium. — ^lenorrhagia is occasionally caused by tuberculosis of the endometrium, which is nearly always secondary to tuberculosis of the tubes. It luay be miliary, a part of a general tubercular process, or of the chronic diffuse form. The chronic diffuse form is that with which we usually have to do. It begins, as a rule, at the fundus, being secondary to a tubercular tube. The first visible alterations are little yellowishwhite nodules under the surface one to two millimeters in diameter, which may increase in size and numbers and then coalesce and break down, forming an ulcer with an undermined edge. The disease extends from the endometrium into the uterine muscle.
Histological examination in the early stages shows the epithelium of the surface intact and the glands normal, while the tubercles are found scattered throughout the superficial portions of the uterus ; these consist of agg-regations of epithelial cells, later they are surrounded by small round cells, and at a still later stage, the giant cells are found in the centre. The surface epithelium over the superficial nodule is frequently flattened and plain. In a marked case the glands are encroached upon and it is at times impossible to distinguish some of the epithelial cells from the gland epithelium ; in other cases tubercles are seen partly projecting into and obliterating the gland cavity; and again, the gland may be filled with caseous material. In the most advanced cases the cavity is lined by caseous material devoid of nuclei, below which lies a zone of typical tubercular tissue consisting of epithelioid cells and tubercles ; in the deeper portions a stray gland may survive where the process has gone deep enough to involve the muscle. The glands are often entirely absent. Bacilli are found with varying frequency, sometimes sparse sometimes abundant, and most numerous in the advanced cases with marked caseation. In my experience, they are much more readily found than in tuberculosis of the tubes. In the early stages of the disease the tubercular process may be entirely unsuspected and the curettings may look like the normal uterine mucosa: but where the disease is advanced, the presence of soft cheesy masses will at once arouse suspicion. Xecrotic carcinomatous tissue may present a somewhat similar appearance, but the characteristic branching found in cancer does not occur in tuberculosis. In advanced cases the diagnosis may be reached from the examination of the uterine discharge, which contains tubercle bacilli. It has happened several times in my experience that tuberculosis has been found in a purely accidental way while submitting the uterine scrapings to the routine examination. On other occasions I have found a tubercular endometrium on curetting the uterus immediately after removing the tubercular tubes.
Pelvic Hematocele. — Menorrhagia from this cause is usually associated with pelvic inflammatory disease. The symptoms are more or less constant pelvic pain, dysmenorrhea, and hemorrhage. Examination shows the uterus to be full of old viscid blood ; it is more or less immobile and may be tender on firm pressure. Irregular lateral masses will be found filling out the pelvis behind the broad ligaments.
follicular cysts. ,
Inflammation of the Tubes and Ovaries. — Menorrhagia is a common accompaniment of tubal inflammation. The period is lengthened, the interval shortened, and the quantity of blood lost unnaturally great. In rare instances the monorrhagia becomes a metrorrhagia so profuse and long continued as to cause profound anemia and actually threaten life. In exceptional cases menstruation is scanty or there may be amenorrhea, by reason of atrophic changes in the uterus and appendages. There is usually a history of neurasthenia and digestive disturbances with loss of weight and failing strength. Often there is the history of infection. Examination shows lateral inflammatory masses or else the uterine tubes are large, hard, and distended to a sausage shape.
Extra-uterine Pregnancy. — Menorrhagia is one of the striking symptoms of an extra-uterine pregnancy; but usually something in the history suggests the cause of the hemorrhage. In many cases there will have been the usual symptoms which accompany the early stages of normal pregnancy, namely, cessation of menstruation, morning sickness, fullness of the breasts. The diagnosis of this condition is of such importance that it is considered in a separate section (see p. 194).
Sclerosis or Atheroma of the Uterine Blood Vessels. — The physician sometimes encounters cases in which monorrhagia, or metrorrhagia, or both occur in women nearing middle life, for which none of the causes just discussed can be assigned. Even if the hemorrhage is so severe as to necessitate removal of the uterus to save life, nothing will be found, except that it is somewhat enlarged and from a macroscopic point of view simply superinvoluted. Examination with the microscope, however, shows sclerotic changes in the uterine blood vessels. The smaller vessels in the mucosa are increased in number and their walls, instead of consisting of practically nothing but a layer of endothelium, are thickened by a deposit, around which is a layer of concentric lamellffi of fibrous tissue with well-stained nucleii. This condition is a local affection which does not involve the uterine artery and is not associated with a sclerosis of the other vessels of the body. The diagnosis of it can be made only by exclusion. It was first noted, according to Barbour, by Pichevin and Petit in 1895 {Gaz. med. de Paris, ISTov., 1895) and has since been discussed by Barbour himself (Jour. Ohst. and Gyn. of Brit. Emp., 1905, vol. 7, p. 387) and by E. L. Dickinson [BrooMyn Med. Jour., 1906, vol. 20, p. 45). Let me utter a word of caution here, however, against considering every woman who
suffers from liemorrhage at the meuopause, aud has been shown free from cancer, to be a case of capillary sclerosis. There are many cases of " symptomatic hemorrhage " at the time of the climacteric which recover with rest, packing-, and the exercise of a little patience.
Calcification of the Uterine Blood Vessels. — Henri Arnal, in a thesis on the senile nterns (Abst. by P. Petit, La sem. gyn., 190G, vol. 11, p. 33) has pointed ont that calcification of the nterine blood vessels is by no means infrequent, being- present in fifty per cent of the uteri observed by him. The degeneration begins in the middle fibrous coat of the artery and extends towards the periphery or the inner coat, sometimes invading and breaking down the latter. The degree of calcification is not in proportion to the age of the patient ; for example, there were no more calcified vessels in a woman of eighty-seven than in another woman of sixty. Tt seems probable, therefore, that other factors than mere age enter into the degenerative process, possibly the same which are observed in angio-sclerosis of the uterus before the menopause, or in neuro-arthritis. These vascular lesions are liable, of course, to cause the formation of intraparietal hematometra, accompanied by more or less hemorrhage, and this form of metrorrhagia, which has been little noted, is important, because any hemorrhage from the uterus after the menopause is liable to be taken as evidence of cancer. In any suspicious case the uterus should be curetted and the scrapings carefully examined. This condition is frequently associated with grave vascular lesions in other parts of the body; one patient of Petit's died from the effects of a pulmonary embolism and another from a thrombus in the left cerebral hemisphere.
I have investigated the frequency with which the different local causes just discussed are found in menorrhagia, with the following results : Out of three thousand nine hundred and fifty-four gynecological cases treated in the Johns Hopkins Hospital between June 11, 1894, and March 25, 1899, there, were six hundred and seven in which hemorrhage from the uterus occurred. The local causes associated with them are these :
Other causes were : Anteflexion of the uterus ; sarcoma of the uterus ; each three cases. Stenosis of the cervix uteri; sarcoma of the ovary; pregiiancy; each two cases. Pyometra; hematometra; corpus luteum cyst; retroposition ; hemophilia ; cyst of Gartner's duct ; fibroma of the ovary (malignant) ; dilated glands ; subinvolution ; gland hypertrophy ; " menorrhagia and metrorrhagia ; " each one case.
Of the six hundred and seven cases, eighty-seven showed menstruation to be prolonged or profuse, or both ; and of these eighty-seven, fifty-seven, or sixty-five per cent, were cases of myoma of the uterus, including myomata complicated with pelvic disease.
CONSTITUTIONAL AND VASCULAR CAUSES.
The diagnosis of uterine hemorrhage arising from constitutional or vascular causes must rest upon the history of the case and the exclusion of any local cause. In young girls the establishment of the menstrual function is often attended with irregularities which may manifest themselves in excess as well as in deficiency. The following case is an illustration of how much may be done in such menorrhagias by patience and the employment of palliative measures.
Miss G-., age sixteen, J. H. H., 'No. 11750, Dec, 1904. The patient was always in good health until she was fourteen, when she began to menstruate. Menstruation was too frequent and too profuse from the onset, the periods recurring every two weeks. At first the flow lasted only two days, but by the end of two years, at which time she entered the hospital, the hemorrhage had become almost continuous. Her hemoglobin count was then only forty-eight per cent. She had been curetted three times and the last time a surgeon of high standing had said that the hemorrhage was caused by cancer and that a hysterectomy was the only means of saving her life. I curetted her as soon as she came under my care, and removed an excessive amount of pale, flabby, endometrium, in long projecting tufts. She was discharged at the end of three weeks, but the hemorrhage shortly returned and she was re-admitted about four months later. Her hemoglobin count was then only forty per cent. I curetted the uterus again and cauterized it, with relief from hemorrhage for nearly a year, when the flow again became excessive. I then curetted a third time, making in all six curettings in three years. This last curettage was in May, 1906, and in June, 1907, a little over a year, she was free from more than a slight excess in menstruatir*n.
There is a rare form of chlorosis in which the uterus and ovaries, instead of being small or even infantile, as is usually the case in this affection, are markedly increased in size, while menstruation, instead of being deficient in amount, is excessive.
syphilis. B. MacMonagle; of San Francisco, lias had a case of persistent menorrhagia which nothing relieved until a complaint made b}' the patient of dizziness and a tendency to fall clown, suggested specific disease and led Dr. MacMonagle to prescribe iodide of potash; this relieved the head symptoms, and immediately afterward the menorrhagia disappeared.
In making a diagnosis as to the cause of any case of menorrhagia, the physician will do well to bear in mind the age and condition of the patient. If she is a yoimg girl, malignant disease of any kind may generally be excluded, and in all probability several other local causes. In the case of yoimg girls the irregularity is most apt to be caused by the slow and imperfect development of the uterine vessels, in the last stage of her corporeal evolution. Chlorosis is sometimes associated with this state of things. Young girls are also apt to suffer from an excessive flow following influenza, pneumonia, scarlet fever, or small-pox. A persistent hemorrhage in their case is sometimes associated with a glandular polyp, or, more rarely, with a polypoid endometritis. Family tendencies must also be borne in mind. In umnarried women between thirty and forty years of age, excess of menstruation is most likely caused by a slight displacement (retroflexion as a rule), in eases where the increase begins suddenly. "When the onset is gradual, it is probably caused by a polyp, or else by a fibroid tumor, or, quite frequently, by tuberculosis of the uterine tubes.
In married women, a threatened or an incomplete abortion must always be assumed as the efficient cause until its existence is disproved. Fibroid tumors also frequently come into play with this class of cases. Almost every woman who presents herself in the late thirties with large fibroids and a history of menorrhagia will also give a history of an excessive fiow for some years previous, the cause of which had not been recognized.
After the age of thirty-five, cancer comes into play as an active cause of hemorrhage. The frequency with which this disease exists makes it imperative to be always on the watch for it, in order that it may be recognized at the earliest possible moment. Every week of delay in active treatment (extirpation) of cancer is precious time lost. If a woman over forty is troubled with an increasing instead of a diminishing menstrual flow, sometimes marked in its earliest stages by a watery discharge, and if, on examination, the uterus is found somewhat enlarged, cancer of the uterine body is to be suspected
The investigation of any case of uterine hemorrhage should be carried on as follows: First, a careful history must be taken in which the patient's age and condition are noted, together with her family history and its tendencies. Second, a careful physical examination of the chest and abdomen must be made, when, if anything amiss is discovered, as for example,, a bad heart lesion, the diagnosis may be cleared up at once. I have seen a case in which the patient came into the dispensary complaining of menorrhagia and with a history which suggested no local cause except, possibly, incomplete abortion. It
GENBKAL DIRECTIONS FOK DIAGNOSIS OF UTERINE HEMORRHAGE. 181
was observed, however, that she was extremely short of breath, and examination of her heart showed that it was enormously dilated. Examination of the pelvic organs showed no local trouble of any kind. Systematic treatment for the heart lesion improved her general condition greatly and with this improvement the monorrhagia was also much relieved.
Let me here utter a word of protest against the too hasty local examination of young unmarried women made by many practitioners and pseudo-specialists. In almost all such cases it is best to assume that the simpler condition (e.g., constitutional disturbances) accounts for the trouble, and to use appropriate remedial measures for general treatment, endeavoring above all to gain the kindly aid of time in setting things right. If, however, an excessive flow persists in spite of all measures for its relief, an examination should be made under an anesthetic, when appropriate measures for relief can be taken at the same time.
In a married woman, or in an unmarried one with a long history of excessive menstruation, there should be no delay in making an examination. A simple inspection of the introitus, revealing the deep bluish color of pregnancy, may clear up the diagnosis at once. The finger introduced may at once touch a polyp lying in the vagina or feel its smooth surface just within the cervix. A softened cervix is a sign of pregnancy, while a nodulated enlarged cervix, due to endocervicitis, or a friable cancerous cervix speaks for itself at once. A bimanual examination is next in order to detect any enlargement of the uterine body, should it exist, and if it does, to determine whether it is uniform and more or less globular, in which case it is due to pregnancy, to a subinvoluted uterus, a cancerous uterus, or a polyp within the uterine body. Fibroid tumors are usually asymmetrical and multiple. Diseased conditions lateral to the uterus, such as the unilateral tumor of extra-uterine pregnancy, a malignant ovarian tumor of greater or less size, or the hardness and tenderness induced by an inflammatory condition of the ovaries, if -they are marked, may all be at once detected.
If the diagTLOsis is not clear, it is best for diagnostic purposes to make a more thorough examination of the uterus and the lateral structures by putting the patient completely under the control of the examiner through the use of an anesthetic. Whenever an anesthetic is used for diagnostic purposes, it is well to obtain the patient's consent beforehand to the performance of any simple operation which may be required, such, for example, as a curettage.
Let me note here that the cases which most often escape diagnosis are those in which there is a small polyp or fibroid tumor, perhaps not over half an inch in diameter, in the uterine cavity. In several such cases occurring in women under forty, where I have excluded every other local cause, I have opened the body of the uterus through the vagina by detaching it from the bladder and splitting it up the anterior wall ; or else, through the abdomen, making an incision in an antero-posterior direction through the fundus
into tlie cavity, as though I were about to cleave the organ into two parts. A little tumor inaccessible by the ordinary means of exploration has thus been discovered and removed with entire relief of the hemorrhage. A case of this kind is the following:
The patient complained of excessive flow; and on examination the uterus felt enlarged and thick, but nothing else could be observed. The cervix was therefore pulled down to the outlet, dissected away from the vaginal vault, and freed nearly up to the os internum. It w^as then split up into the uterine cavity and the finger introduced. A mucous polyp as large as the end of a thmnb was at once felt on the posterior wall towards the left. This was curetted off Avith a large scoop curette. The cervix was then closed with buried catgut sutures and the vagina tmited, with a narrow iodoform gauze drain in the centre.
Several times, on opening the uterus in this way, I have found nothing but a peculiar feathery condition of the endometrium, particularly marked in the cornua of the uterus, and after this had been thoroughly removed by the curette the hemorrhage ceased.
In the midst of all these possible causes, the diagnosis of the cause of uterine hemorrhage may, to a comparatively inexperienced practitioner, appear a matter of the utmost difficulty. This is not the case, however, for, as a rule, it is quite easy to say that the hemorrhage springs from a certain source within a few minutes after seeing the patient. As soon as the causes just discussed receive a little clear analysis they will be found to fall into groups, and therefore it is not necessary to go over every possibility with painstaking care in order to reach a diagnosis by exclusion. For example, if a patient comes into the physician's ofiice out of breath and cyanosed, and the fingers touching the pulse detect an irregularity, there is at least a suggestion that the cause of the uterine hemorrhage which she complains of lies in a valvular heart lesion. Again, a patient with extreme anemia comes in, and in answer to the question whether the anemia began first and was followed by the hemorrhage, or vice versa, she asserts that the hemorrhage came first. This makes it clear that the hemorrhage is probably due to a local lesion, and if the hand placed upon the abdomen recognizes an enlarged nodular uterus, the cause is apparent— the hemorrhage comes from uterine fibroids. Or, it may be, that the patient volunteers the information that she was pregnant one or two months when the hemorrhage began, when examination will likely reveal a threatened or an incomplete abortion.
When there is no obvious cause the question must be approached somewhat after this manner: There is no manifest systematic disease and judging by the fact that the trouble began recently, the cause is probably a local one. This being the case, a pelvic examination must be made, when it may be that the vagina will be found normal and that there will be no evidence of lateral disease in the tubes and ovaries, but as soon as the cervix is seen the matter will be settled hj the evidences of carcinoma. From this time on then, the whole
hemorrhage proceeds and as that in which the cause of it is to be found.
If, however, the cervix proves normal, the next question will be: is the uterus enlarged ? If it is, the enlargement, if nodular, may be due to a myoma or a sarcoma ; or if it is uniform, to a pregnancy or a carcinoma of the fundus. It must always be borne in mind, however, that small nodules may be found in carcinoma.
If all these manifest signs fail, the patient must be more minutely examined under anesthesia and, if necessary, the uterus must be dilated and curetted, in order that the scrapings of the mucosa may be examined under the microscope, for such an examination may reveal an incipient carcinoma, an endometritis, or the remains of an abortion.
The treatment of uterine hemorrhage in order to be efficient must reach the cause; it is plain, therefore, that a correct diagnosis is- essential to a cure. Sometimes it happens that the diagnosis and the treatment proceed pari passu, as, for example, in curettage of the endometrium, when a diagnosis is made and a cure effected at the same time.
The hemorrhage arising from irregularity in the establishment of menstruation in young girls is best treated as a physiological affection of the young tissues which are taking on a new function. Rest is the prime factor in such cases, that is to say, rest in bed for two to three days in each menstrual period, beginning, if possible, before the flow appears. Dr. Ethel Vaughan finds that, many young girls are entirely relieved by abstinence from active exercise, such as long walks, the use of the bicycle, or playing tennis just before menstruation. If due precautions of this kind are observed for from six months to a year, a proper norm will probably be established. It is most important to keep the bowels well regulated, and a course of tonic treatment is an excellent adjuvant. I should, for example, give arsenic and quinine in some such formula as this :
S. One pill three times daily.
Iron is best avoided in this class of cases and ergot is of no value. Strychnin, however, is often useful. A good way to equalize the circulation is to draw blood from the pelvic organs by giving the patient a hot bath and putting her to bed. If, in spite of all precautions and general remedial measures, the flow continues excessive, an examination must be made, and if the case seems suitable for curettage it may be performed at the same time. In treating
yoimg girls or yoimg unmarried women, no benefit arises from persistent local treatment in the form of donches and applications ; sncli measures as these should in every case be assiduously avoided. Attention of this kind is well described as " gynecological tinkering."
In cases of severe hemorrhage it becomes necessary to treat the hemorrhage independently of the local ' cause, which must be dealt with later on. The measures likely to be useful in immediate treatment are as follows: Rest in bed in the reciunbent position with the foot of the bed elevated about ten inches. Absolute quiet must be enforced in the patient's room, no visitors should be admitted, and all occasion for excitement or worry excluded. The bowels must be carefully regulated, preferably with salines. Some of the medicinal remedies discussed below should be given, and, if the flow still persists, the vagina must be tamponed according to the directions given.
In extreme cases it may be necessary to give an injection of normal saline solution. The best method of doing this is to infuse the solution into the cellular tissue under the breasts, as follows : two bottles are prepared, each containing a litre fthirty-four fluid ounces) of a sixth-tenths per cent salt solution, at a temperature of 100° Y. This can be prepared by adding a small teaspoonful of common salt to a pint of water. A rubber tube, six feet long, is placed in each bottle, attached to which is a long, slender, sharp aspirating needle. Instead of two bottles and tubes, one bottle can be used with a T attachment. The solution must be free from all organic particles, such as bits of cotton from the plug in the bottle in which it has been sterilized. The skin of the breast is carefully disinfected, after which the breast is grasped and lifted up from the chest, while the needle, with the salt solution flowing into it, is thrust into the cellular tissue, well under the glandular substance. The bottle is elevated above the patient about six feet, in order to give a sufiicient hydrostatic pressure to force the fluid into the tissues. As a rule, it requires about twenty minutes to infuse from seven hundred to a thousand cubic centimetres of the solution under both breasts, taking one after the other. If the svmptoms are urgent, both breasts may be infused at the same time. As the infusion proceeds the gland becomes greatly distended, and not infrequently the salt solution spurts out of the nipple in a fine jet. At the completion of the operation, a piece of adhesive plaster must be placed over the point of puncture, to prevent a reflux of some of the injected fluid. In none of the cases in which I have employed this form of repletion of the circulation has there been the slightest ill effect in the way of local inflammation about the breasts.
stitutional.
Medicinal Measures. — There are various drugs which have considerable influence in controlling uterine hemorrhage, though there are none which can be depended upon to effect a permanent cure.
MEDICIKAL TREATMENT OF UTEKINE HEMOKKHAGE. 185
Ergot. — Ergot is a remedy much in use formerly, but largely abandoned now. It is given in the form of the fluid extract, dose fifteen drops in water, or as ergotin, dose one-tenth to three-fourths of a grain in pills.
Hydrastis canadensis. — This drug, commonly known as Golden Seal, has a direct action on the vaso-motor nerves and is therefore useful in cases of sub-involution, interstitial fibroids, and all forms of uterine congestion. The dose of the fluid extract is fifteen to thirty drops in water, three or four times a day ; or it may be given in the form of hydrastin, dose one-eighth to one-fourtli of a gTain in pills. It is best to give it during the intermenstrual jjeriod or else to begin the administration a week before the flow is expected.
Viburnum prunifolium. — This is a remedy highly recommended for use in the monorrhagia associated with constitutional conditions, or in that which accompanies the establishment or cessation of menstruation. The fluid extract is the best form for its use, dose thirty drops to two teaspoonfuls.
Apiol. — Apiol (garden parsley) has recently been much spoken of in the treatment of monorrhagia. I have seen a case in which it gave great relief. It should be given between the menstrual periods in the form of capsules, dose three to six minims, several times a day, or else it should be begun just before the period and continued through the first day or two.
Styptic in. — This is a drug which has found favor in the treatment of uterine hemorrhage Avithin the last few years. Abegg (Centrhl. f. Gyn., 1899, vol. 23, p. 1333) has written of it in the most favorable terms. Unlike ergot it does not cause uterine contractions, its hemostatic action being central. The blood pressure is lowered and it has a certain sedative action which relieves the pain associated with menorrhagia. According to Gottschalk, it is useful in the following conditions: (1) Climacteric hemorrhage; (2) subinvolution which does not depend on placental or membranous retention; (3) fiemorrhage of reflex order, caused by disease of the appendages or of the parametrium, when the uterus itself is healthy; (4) congestive hemorrhage in young girls; (5) hemorrhage due to fibroids (but not to submucous polyp). In Gottschalk's opinion the action of the drug is more certain if it is injected into the gluteus muscle. For hypodermic use a ten per cent aqueous solution is best, the dose being one to two minims.
Styptol is recommended by K. Witthauer {Centrhl. f. Gyn., 1904, vol. 28, p. 997) as being cheaper and more efficacious than stypticin. The dose is one grain, three times daily, until the fiow begins, when one and a half grains are given every three hours through the period.
Adrenalin. — The extract of the adrenal glands has been given for the relief of menorrhagia with some success. The dose is fifteen drops of a 1 : 1000 solution, three times a day.
Calcium. Chloride. — This is occasionally of service, in doses of five grains after each meal during the intermenstrual period, the frequency being increased to intervals of two hours during menstruation.
Gallic Acid. — This is a remedy higbly recommended by T. A. Eimnet and, more recently, by W. L. Tajdor. Both Emmet and Taylor advise combining the acid with cinnamon, which has also, in their opinion, a beneficial effect in controlling hemorrhage. It may be done after the following formula :
M. S. One tablespoonful every three or four hours.
In cases where there is marked congestion of the uterus or ovaries, Taylor finds great benefit from combining one of the bromides with cinnamon and ergot in the following formula :
M. S. One to two teaspoonfuls three times daily.
Mechanical Measures. — The mechanical measures used for the relief of uterine hemorrhage are: Hot douches; tampons (packs); cold applications ; electricity ; intra-uterine applications.
Hot Douches. — This mode of treatment is highly recommended by many authorities. The mode of administration is as follows : The patient should lie in the dorsal position with the hips on a bedpan, so that the vaginal vault is below the orifice of the vagina and the water will be in direct contact with the pelvic organs while it is in circulation. The temperature should be between 110° and 120° F. A lower temperature than this is not only ineffectual, but injurious, because, instead of stimulating the blood vessels to contract, it relaxes them. Each douche should last from fifteen to twenty minutes, and one to two gallons of water is usually sufficient. Tmce a day, morning and night, is generally often enough to use a douche, but there are some cases in which it may be necessary to give it three times a day. As a rule, the injections are used between the menstrual periods and discontinued when menstruation appears, but if the flow is greatly in excess, there is no objection to using them throughout the period.
Vaginal Tampons (packs). — The vaginal tampon is a most efficient means of controlling uterine hemorrhage. In cases where the amount of blood is greatly in excess from the beginning of the flow, the tampons should be introduced soon after menstruation begins, but if the loss of blood is due to prolongation of the menstrual period, it is better to wait for several days after menstruation has been established before inserting the pack. Tampons are made of non-absorbent cotton, of wool, of lamb's wool in bulk, or, sometimes,
of strips of gauze. To insert the tampons a trivalve speculum is necessary, if the patient is in the dorsal position ; a Sims' speculum, if the Sims' position is used; or, better still, a Kelly's cylindrical metal speculum, with the patient in the knee-breast position, when the vagina balloons out and is easily distended with a firm pack to its utmost capacity. A tampon should remain in place from eighteen to twenty-four hours. When it is removed the parts should be carefully cleansed by a douche and another pack inserted.
Uterine Tampons. — Intra-uterine tampons of sterilized gauze may be used, packed very tight and left in position for forty-eight hours. These cannot be introduced, however, without extensive dilatation of the cervix, and they are not generally of much service, except in abortions. Bouriaut of Geneva has suggested that intra-uterine injections of a two per cent solution of glycerin should be used instead of tampons. Ten to fifteen cubic centimetres (about half an ounce) of the solution are injected and the injection is repeated two to four times, if necessary. The method is highly recommended in hemorrhage from uterine atony, and that due to fibroma (cited from Monod, Montreal Med. Jour., 1905, vol. 34, p. 22).
Cold Applications. — In cases where excessive hemorrhage must be stopped at once, the application of cold may be tried by placing an ice-bag over the lower abdomen and another over the lumbo-sacral region. This is not, however, a mode of treatment which is often advisable, as patients suffering from loss of blood usually require the stimulating effect of heat.
Electricity. — The treatment of uterine hemorrhage by electricity, much advocated some years ago, has now fallen somewhat into disuse. The results from it, however, were often favorable, and there seems no doubt that it is of service in a good many cases and may obviate the necessity for a radical operation.
The application is made by means of a platinum electrode, with a movable insulating sheath. The electrode is j)assed up to the fundus of the uterus, while the insulating sheath is adjusted so as to reach just beyond the internal OS. As the bleeding comes from the body of the uterus, it is absolutely necessary to see that the current affects the body of the uterus and not the cervix. Moreover, strong currents cause stenosis of the cervical canal. A large clay pad is placed on the wall of the abdomen, just above the pubes, and connected to the negative pole, while the intra-uterine electrode is connected to the positive pole. At the first application, only a mild current should be used, not more than twenty milliamperes ; subsequently, it can be slowly raised until the galvanometer indicates thirty-five to fifty milliamperes. This is kept up for from ten to fifteen minutes. The patient need not stay in bed during the progress of the treatment, and, except in extreme cases, she can come to the physician's office to receive it.
The applications are made twice a week. An antiseptic vaginal douche should be used every morning and evening. The electrode must, of course, be absolutely clean and should be placed in an antiseptic solution like any other
instrument before being used. The number of applications will vary according to the severity of the case. Half the number required to reduce the amount of blood lost to normal proportions must be given to produce permanent relief. The treatment is suspended for a week during menstruation, but if the flow has not ceased at the end of that time, it is resumed. In some cases, where there is an incessant flow, there may be some difficulty in knowing exactly what is the proper date for menstruation, but by closely questioning the patient it will generally be found that in one week out of every four the loss is greater than at any other time, and this may be taken as the normal time for menstruation. As a rule, no improvement begins until several applications have been made, and then the flow diminishes rapidly. With a current of twenty milliamperes, properly applied and slowly raised, the patient feela little, if any pain. The sensitiveness of the uterus, which is present at first, usually goes off after the first two or three applications (J. E. Parsons, Lancet, 1901, vol. 1, p. 547).
Intra-uterine Applications. — -The application of caustics to the interior of the uterus during the intermenstrual periods is often of great service in controlling uterine hemorrhage, and of these caustics nitric acid is the best. Before using it the vagina must be carefully protected with gauze packed around the cervix. It is best to use a cylindrical speculum, which fits snugly around the cervix, and pass up the fuming nitric acid on a pledget of cotton by means of an applicator to the fundus. Great care must be taken to avoid any excess of the acid, and the applicator must be immediately withdrawn.
Surgical Measures. — Operative procedures are far more often indicated in the treatment of menorrhagia and metrorrhagia than in dysmenorrhea or amenorrhea,, for many cases of uterine hemorrhage are due to grave organic disease which requires surgical measures for its relief ; moreover, the effects of frequent or prolonged loss of blood upon the general health is serious enough in itself to call for operative interference in some cases. The only operation for the relief of uterine hemorrhage which comes within the scope of this work is curettage of the endometrium. This is a simple measure, easily performed, and giving excellent results in a large number of cases, provided care is exercised in the selection of suitable cases and in the performance of the operation. It frequently happens that the general practitioner is called upon to perform it for the relief of uterine hemorrhage, and also for the purpose of ascertaining the nature of the disease present from an examination of the scrapings. Whenever the general practitioner discovers, or has reason to susj)ect that his patient is suffering from malignant disease of any kind, it is his duty to refer her at once to a specialist, no matter what may be the inconvenience or discomfort to her or her relatives, nor how plausible the reasons for delay. Fibroid tumors, also, in some cases, demand radical measures for their relief, but there are many cases of uterine hemorrhage associated with abnormal conditions of the endometrium, such as retained products of conception, endometrial hypertrophy, endometritis, submu-
one or two repetitions.
The operation is one of such simplicity that its performance is quite within the province of the general practitioner, under due precautions, and therefore I give a description of it in detail.
Method of Curettage. — The patient is prepared and cleansed, and the uterus dilated according to the directions given for dilatation in Chapter IV (see p. 122). The serrated, sharp, perforated spoon curette (see Fig. 52, p. 123), poised between the thumb and the first and second fingers, is then easily introduced into the dilated canal. The whole inner surface of the uterine cavity from the fundus to the cervix is next carefully scraped, the superficial portion of its lining membrane being removed in strips and short pieces. The healthy basis is recognized by the greater resistance and by a slight grating sensation communicated to the fingers. The separated lining membrane is expelled through the cervix by means of a series of intermittent contractions and the discharge may also be assisted by using the curette to scrape it out. The hemorrhage from this operation is never sufficiently severe to call for measures to control it. Some persons are in the habit of introducing gauze into the uterine cavity, but it has never been my custom. The patient should be kept in bed for from three days to a week.
Before I leave the subject I should like to say a word of caution in regard to the danger which accompanies curettage, if it is not attended by the same care and vigilance practiced in every surgical procedure, and especially those requiring an anesthetic.
If the uterus is soft or the condition of the body wall pulpy and like wet blotting paper (a condition not to be recognized by any digital examination) then the curette or the sound may pass directly through the uterine wall into the abdominal cavity, and, in a septic case, set up a virulent peritonitis. In order to avoid this contingency, the operator must guard against using much force, the curette must be handled with the greatest gentleness and should never be pushed against the uterine wall. If the instrument should perforate the wall, it must not be reintroduced ; a drain should be inserted, and the patient put to bed and watched. If the case is known to be septic, and the curette passes through the uterus, the abdomen should be immediately opened, the area excised, and the opening closed with catgut.
W. Hessert (Amer. Jour. Ohst., 1905, vol. 51, p. 26) has collected from the literature a number of cases in which the uterus has been perforated during curettage and gives the following general principles which should be observed in order to avoid such an accident:
(1) Make an accurate pelvic diagnosis, as to size, position, mobility, and consistency of the organ. Determine the presence or absence of tumors upon or within the organ. Observe, if possible, its contractility. Determine the condition of the adnexa and the possi-
words, get as clear a picture as possible of the pelvic organs.
(2) In curetting post-partum, bear in mind the possible extreme friability of the uterus. The cervix should be amply dilated -to admit the finger. The direction of the cervical canal and the uterine cavity should be accurately determined l)y means of a graduated sound. The question of angulation backwards or forwards should be known before introducing dilators^ especially Goodell's. Disregard of this precaution has been the cause of most perforations made with Goodell's dilators. Avoid the ratchet and screw, but use the hands in dilating carefully. Dilate slowly, so as not to split the cervix, meanwhile turning the instrument around to all points of the circle.
(3) A sharp curette is best for the purpose. Be careful in the use of the placental forceps in pulling down anything which may be felt in the uterine cavity, as it may be omentum or gut. ISTever use a volsella forceps for this purpose.
(4) Except in the presence of septic endometritis the use of the irrigator is generally superfluous. If it is used, a non-toxic solution, such as boric acid, should be employed. Avoid strong solutions, such as sublimate. If there is the least suspicion of perforation, omit all irrigation. The injection of caustics, such as liquor ferri chloridi, tincture of iodine, chloride of zinc, etc, is not without danger, and should be employed only where there are special indications.
Any condition causing atrophy of the uterus is one which, by rendering the uterus unduly friable, is likely to result in perforation. The local conditions associated with uterine atrophy are: carcinoma, myoma, pelvic tuberculosis, pelvic abscess, recent abortion, and others.
The general or constitutional conditions accompanied by atrophy are leukemia, diabetes, nephritis, Addison's disease, tuberculosis, pernicious anemia, and the acute infectious diseases.
Curettage for Remnants of Abortion. — Curettage for the removal of a dead ovum or the remains of an incomplete abortion requires a few words of special direction, because of the danger arising from the readiness with which sepsis may invade the upper genital tract in the presence of either of these conditions. In cases which are already septic, the avoidance of a general infection and the safety of the patient depend upon the complete removal of the ovum and the establishment of artificial drainage through the dilated cervix. There is no way by which a septic uterus can be thoroughly disinfected. Cases which are not septic will not become so, if the operation is aseptically performed and the aseptic conditions maintained afterwards. In curettage shortly after an abortion has taken place, the anterior cervical lip is caught with a tenaculum forceps, a blunt spoon curette is introduced, and used with gentle force over the whole surface of the uterus, loosening and bringing down the membranes, which begin to pour out of the os. Undue force must not be used, lest the curette perforate the softened uterine wall and pass into the abdominal cavity, exposing the j)atient to the imminent risk of a septic
CURETTAGE FOR REMNANTS OF ABORTION. 191
peritonitis. I have known a case in which curettage was performed two and a half months after an early abortion (three weeks) in which several blocks of firm whitish material were removed from one side of the uterus, when, without the use of any force whatever, the curette suddenly perforated the fundus. After loosening the membranes with the curette a pair of fenestrated placental forcej)S is inserted, which brings away the placenta, the decidua, and the fetus, if it has not been previously expelled, whole or in pieces. When the canal is large enough, as is usually the case in a miscarriage after the third month of pregnancy, the index finger, well sterilized, should be inserted and the whole interior of the womb palpated. Unsuspected pieces of tissue may be found clinging to it, especially in the placental area. These can be freed by the palmar surface of the finger, assisted by the external hand acting through the abdominal walls and affording a point of resistance. The uterine wall, thus bared in places, feels almost as thin as paper and must be gently handled. When curettage is difficult and uncertain, the entire separation of the remains of the ovum may be effected by the finger alone, assisted by the hand making counter-pressure through the abdominal walls. The finger-nails must never be used to scrape off tissue from the uterine walls, as such a practice would often introduce sepsis, and if the case is already septic, the operator would be sure to carry infection away with him to inoculate other patients. Irrigation of the uterus after curettage for abortion is not necessary, unless the contents are septic, when the cavity must be repeatedly washed out with a warm boricacid solution, introduced by means of a curved glass douche nozzle, the blunt end of the nozzle being used to aid in detaching clots and small particles of debris. The uterus may be drained for forty-eight hours by packing its cavity loosely with gauze, the ends of which are allowed to hang out of the cervix into the vagina ; my own practice, however, is simply to place a loose pack in the vagina, which is renewed every twenty-four hours. Patients should be kept in bed for two weeks or longer after curettage for abortion, in order to allow involution of the uterus to take place. Care of the patient is just as important at this time as in the puerperium after a normal labor.
Examination of Scrapings Removed by Curettage. — The scrapings from the endometrium should always be examined, for they afford reliable evidence as to the nature of the condition underlying the hemorrhage. The following conditions should always be looked for :
The fovinaliu method of preparation, fire^l introduced by Dr. T. S. CuUen {Johns Uopl'ins IIosp. Bull., April, 1895), and later by Pick, is the best, as it obviates the tedious delay incident to the older methods of preparation and permits a diagnosis to be made, in case of necessity, with a competent pathologist at hand, within tifteen minntes.
Canada balsam.
When it is not of the first importance to save time, finer sections may be obtained by CuUen's second method, in which the tissues are first hardened in formalin, as follows: The sections are placed immediately in a ten per cent solution of formalin, kept in small bottles always at hand. Within three or four hours they are sufficiently hardened to cut readily, when frozen sections are made and left in a fifty per cent solution of alcohol for three minutes, after which the succeeding steps are taken as before described.
Curetted specimens must always be placed in a bottle by themselves and labelled at once with the patient's name and the date. When the sections are cut, no similar open dishes containing other specimens should be lying about, nor should sections under consideration be passed through the fluids together with other sections, in order to avoid the terrible mistake of confusing the two cases and so leading to erroneous conclusions. Serious mistakes have followed the mixing of specimens,
jSTormal Uterine Mucosa. — The standard for comparison from all curetted specimens is the normal uterine mucosa ; this presents, microscopically, an even surface covered by a single layer of cylindrical ciliated epithelium. The glands are round or oval-shaped on cross section, and in a few places they may be seen to open on the surface. They are usually equidistant and are lined with one layer of cylindrical ciliated epithelium. An occasional bifurcation is seen in the deeper layers of the gland. Lying between the glands is found the stroma of the mucosa or so-called lymphoid tissue. . The cells, however, are much larger, and on close examination bear no resemblance to lymphoid tissue ; the nuclei of the stroma cells are oval, vesicular, and appear to best advantage in specimens hardened in Miiller's fluid. The arteries of the stroma are usually
found in small bunches ; the veins are large, single, and thin-walled. The blood in the veins is separated from the stroma cells by one layer of endothelium. The line of demarcation between the mucosa and the muscle is usually well-defined ; occasionally, however, a gland penetrates the muscle for some depth, when it is invariably accompanied by a considerable amount of stroma. This dipping of a gland in the muscularis must not be mistaken for a pathological condition.
The appearance suggestive of malignant disease, whether carcinoma or sarcoma, will he found described in Chapter XXI (see p. 527). The other conditions in regard to which conclusions can he drawn from the examination of curettings will be found under their separate headings in the diagnosis of monorrhagia.
Constitutional Measures. — Under this head come those measures which may be employed to remove the constitutional causes underlying certain cases of uterine hemorrhage. Cardiac and hepatic disease are both sometimes associated with monorrhagia, or metrorrhagia, or both, and when this is the case the relief of the underlying cause will relieve the local hemorrhage. In cases of cardiac derangement, digitalis in tonic doses, ten to fifteen drops, three times daily, is frequently of great benefit. After the heart's action has been improved, strychnin and arsenic are of value. A marked rheumatic diathesis must receive appropriate treatment as well as anemia or scurvy. Tor hepatic derangements, calomel is usually indicated, with attention to diet, exercise, and general hygienic measures of every kind.
as to the treatment of uterine hemorrhage in general:
If the hemorrhage is due to the retained products of conception, to hypertrophy of the endometrium, endometrial polypi, endometritis (acute or chronic), submucous myomata, or decidual endometritis, curettage is certainly indicated, and will afford relief in a large proportion of cases. It is better to resort to this measure as soon as the diagnosis is clear than to wait to try a long course of topical treatments which rarely, if ever, do any good. It must always be remembered that it may be necessary to repeat the curettage several times. Should curettage of the endometrium reveal the presence of can'cer, sarcoma, chorio-epithelioma or extra-uterine pregnancy, the patient must be at once referred to a specialist, no matter what difficulties, real or imaginary, are put in the way of such a course. Cases of subinvolution or inversion of the uterus, interstitial or sub-peritoneal myomata, sclerosis of the uterine vessels, or corpus luteum cysts, should also be sent to a specialist, although there is not the same pressing need for haste as in the cases mentioned above. Fibroid tumors giving rise to uterine hemorrhage must be differently'treated according to the indications in each individual case; these are discussed at length in Chapter XX. Uterine hemorrhage due to constitutional or vascularcauses is distinctly the work of the general practitioner and must receive his most careful attention. The indications for treat-
ment in such cases belong to the works on general medicine in whicli the conditions underlying the uterine hemorrhage are discussed. It is greatly to be desired that physicians in general should make this class of patients the object of their careful study, for they are more likely to be benefited by the attention of the general practitioner than that of the specialist.
History. — Few subjects in the whole range of his ^^ractice excite so lively an interest in the general practitioner as extra-uterine pregnancy. Of all the mysterious processes of life, the most mysterious is that an ovum can become fertilized and gTow on ground foreign to its normal development. Xatural interest in this extraordinary phenomenon is great and it is enhanced by the fateful possibilities of the situation as well as the tragic outcome which may, at any moment, determine a doubtful diagnosis and rob the poor victim of life. For these reasons, and because such cases fall, in the first stage, into the hands of the family physician in the majority of cases, it is important that he should know something in detail of the course of such pregnancies not interrupted by the surgeon ; of the methods of their diagnosis ; and of the j)i'oper means for their relief.
Extra-uterine pregnancy was once thought to be extremely rare, but it is now known to be comparatively common. There are few jDhysicians who have been ten years in practice without seeing at least several instances, sometimes in a single year. Veit has shown that many of those cases of irregular menstruation associated with colic, which pass off without special treatment, or with a little watchful attention on the part of the physician, are, in reality, a relatively mild ending to an extra-uterine pregnancy. For this reason, as we can readily see, all deviations from the norm during pregnancy ouglit to excite the liveliest attention on the part of the responsible medical attendant.
It may be said then that extra-uterine pregnancy in its early stages belongs to the general practitioner ; as soon as the diagnosis is made, however, the case should at once, as a matter of propriety, be transferred to the domain of the surgeon. If it were possible, it would be best for the patients if all cases could be classified as surgical from the outset. As to the promptitude with which this transfer is effected from the purely medical to the purely surgical domain, it is interesting to note that the experience of one case is sufficient to quicken the diagnostic powers to such a degTee that subsequent cases are detected much earlier, and in consequence subjected to a relatively earlier appropriate radical treatment, which is always operative and extirpative. In order to grasp his subject properly, the general practitioner must be familiar with the causes of extra-uterine pregnancy, with its course if left alone, and with the various diagnostic signs, which we will now take up.
Fig. 65. — Various Sites of Implantation of THE Ovum in Extra-uterine Pregnanct. 1, ovarian pregnancy; 2, implantation upon the tubo-ovarian fimbriae; 3, implantation within the fimbriated extremity of the uterine tube ; 4, attachment of the ovum in the ampulla; 5, isthmial attachment; 6, interstitial implantation.
Kgnre 65, proceeding from within outwards: (1) in tlie ovary; (2) in the tubo-ovarian iinihria; (3) just within the grasp of the tubal fimbria; (4) in the ampulla; (5) in the isthmial or narrow part of the tube; (6) or, finally, in the interstitial portion of the tube, where it traverses the uterine wall. The commonest of these sites
reasonably expect from
our knowledge of pregnancy in its early stages. The spermatozoa meet and fructify the ovum at or near the ovary, and it is the function of the uterine tubes, which have afforded the spermatozoa an avenue of access from the uterus to the ovum, to transmit the ovum in turn to its proper resting place in the uterus. The small spermatozoa travel up the uterus and down the tube by their own active propulsive movements, while the larger ovum must be swept towards the uterus, through the ampulla of the tube, p-ast all the tubal folds, into the narrow isthmus, and so through the interstitial portion of the tube into the uterus, where it commonly lodges near one cornn.
An extra-uterine pregnancy is brought about by any cause whatever which tends to hold the ovum back until it is too large to travel further down the constantly narrowing tube. Let us note categorically, and with but brief discussion, what these efficient causes may be:
1. Adhesions may bind the tube down, or bands may cut across it, so as to produce an ileus, as it were, preventing the propulsion of the ovum, while not necessarily hindering the spontaneous movements of the spermatozoa. This is the oldest view and undoubtedly the obstruction operates in many cases, though it must be borne in mind that many of the adhesions and inflammatory changes seen at an operation have occurred after the pregnancy and not before it; therefore they cannot be reckoned among the causes in a particular case.
2. Tumors of the tubal mucosa have been noted as plugging the lumen of the tube, accounting for the obstruction in a few rare instances. Fibroid tumors at the uterine cornu, distorting and blocking the isthmial portion of the tube, have been found occasionally.
Fig. 66. — H., Church Home, January 23, 1903. Pregnancy in the ampulla in which a striking feature is the presence of the cyst lying under the tubo-ovarian fimbriEe. Hemorrhage to the amount of about 1^ liters into the peritoneal cavity. Operation. Recovery. Nine-tenths natural size. (Case of T. S. Cullen.)
edly the cause in some cases.
7. The migration of the ovum into an atretic tube. The spermatozoa enter by a patulous tube and fertilize the ovum, Avhich then passes over into the opposite atretic tube. (See Fig. 67.)
munity.
The determination of the cause in any given case can only be made, if at all, at the operating table, or rather after the operation in the pathological laboratory. Even then, with every possible advantage afforded by clinical history, a careful operation, and the benefit of numerous microscopic sections, it is often impossible to say why the extra-uterine pregnancy occurred.
The only aid the practising physician can derive from the operation is the knowledge derived from statistics that there is a peculiar liability on the part of those women who have had one extra-uterine pregnancy to have another. All of our extra-uterine pregnancy cases ought therefore to be watched with a peculiar solicitude lest they become pregnant again, and if they do become pregnant, lest it turn out to be an ectopic growth.
cased and infiltrated with lime salts, to form a lithopedion or stone child. Although the fetus is apparently thus satisfactorily disposed of, it is not and never can become a safe giiest, as long as it is harbored in the body. It is likely
Fig. 69. — Extra-uterix'e Pregx'axcy; Tubal Abortiox. The bleeding is checked by a large coagulum distending and thinning out the tube; the fimbriated opening is greatly distended, but the greater diameter of the clot in the ampulla prevents its escape. Wall of tube averages 1 mm. in thickness. Operation. Recover^-. Jtily 7, 1896. Natural size.
at any time to cause an intestinal obstruction through adhesions, or to set up an inflammation which only ends when it has been discharged bone by bone from the rectum, the bladder, the vagina, or through the abdominal wall, it may be years afterwards.
Diagnosis. — The diagnosis of an extra-uterine pregnancy in the early months is almost always made after the rupture of the sac; it is not difficult to make, if the striking set of signs which I will enumerate categorically, with brief annotations, are borne in mind.
4. Recurring pains in one side are often noted.
5. A sudden attack of agonizing pain sometimes constitutes the first symptom. This may come on in sleep, but it is apt to appear during exertion, as while sitting in the closet, or at work reaching or lifting.
■i. If the sac has ruptured, the blood poured out causes the tumor to grow rapidly, increasing with each successive severe pain and coincident hemorrhage. Sometimes the lower abdominal wall shows a boss as big as a fist. To the vaginal touch the tumor feels peculiarly boggy and lacks the well-defined outline of other tumors, or the hardness of inflammatory affections.
If there is no rupture, nor escape of the ovum or blood through the fimbriae of the tube, then the fetus dies and the sac shrinks, while under an observation extending over two or three weeks. This is a rare finding and ought never to be waited for. The breasts show milk as the pregnancy goes on developing. The patient often declares that she has passed a shaggy skin-like structure (decidua), or, more fortimately, keeps it to show to the physician and ask his opinion as to its nature. The decidua may come away in shreds, or it may be found only on curetting the uterus ; this should always be done in a case of uncertainty. The finding of decidua, or the passing of a decidual cast in the presence of a uterine tumor, practically settles the diagnosis.
The anemia is often so profound that the patient is almost undistinguishable from her own bed sheets. The pulse is tiny and thready, or may even have vanished at the wrist. There is little or no fever until the clots become infected.
the most important are :
Presumptive evidence of pregnancy. A sensitive tumor at the side of the uterus. The fact that the uterus contains no ovum. Attacks of severe abdominal pain.
It is sometimes difficult to distinguish between an extra-uterine and a normal pregnancy, and in some cases it may not be possible to make a correct diagnosis at once. It is not, of course, in those cases of extra-uterine pregiiancy which run a thundering course, where the patient is seized with an agonizing pain, falls in collapse and rapidly becomes anemic while engaged in common domestic duties ; it is not, I say, in these cases, but in the more quiescent ones, that a mistaken diagnosis may occur. If the symptoms are of only moderate intensity, the physician may be lulled into thinking that perhaps after all he is dealing with nothing more than a regular pregnancy with some slight deviations from the normal. In every case where there is serious doubt, it is best to keep the patient under close observation, to keep her quiet and to examine more than once, then, if the doubt is not cleared up, her bowels should be well emptied and a thorough examination made under complete anesthesia.
We have in both conditions a like cessation of menstruation, with nausea, and a presumption on the part of the patient that she is pregnant. A local examination, too, reveals some enlargement of the uterus, and in the early months it may often be difficult to say whether the womb is just large enough for the period of pregnancy or not. When there are no further signs than these, we cannot even suspect an extra-uterine pregnancy. In order to arouse suspicion there must enter into the clinical history certain added elements: (1) severe pain in the lower abdomen, (2) a repetition of such attacks of pain, (3) the strong suspicion on the part of the patient that all is not right, (4) marked tenderness, (5) a uterus which is not duly developed if the pregnancy has gone beyond the third month, (6) a lateral tender mass. Often the free, repeated vaginal, bloody discharges leave the practitioner in no doubt, but that if the case is one of a uterine pregnancy, it must inevitably terminate in abortion. He will then feel free to act promptly by anesthetizing, curetting the uterus and making a careful bimanual examination through the rectum, in this w^ay clearing up the diagnosis.
The task of deciding between the two conditions, extra-uterine and intrauterine, differs materially according as the pregnancy is early or advanced. In an early pregnancy we look for evidences of a mass at the side of the uterus with hemorrhage, and more or less profound systemic disturbances in« the extra-uterine condition, as contrasted with the absence of any mass or clots accumulated in the pelvis, with a uterus lying within the pelvis which is more or less softened and enlarged to correspond to the month in a normal pregnancy, while in an advanced normal pregnancy with a living child, the evidence for an extra-uterine condition lies almost always in the distinctness with which the parts of the child can be felt through the abdominal walls.
who had had several children became pregnant, and experiencing some sharp pains on the left side came to me for examination. I found a uterus which seemed to me to be not much above the normal size, and a well-defined tnmor to the left. At the operation, the tumor was discovered to be a large cystic ovary, while the uterus was duly enlarged to correspond to the third month of pregnancy. The cyst was removed and she recovered and had a child in due time per vias naturales. A more attentive examination under anesthesia would have saved the error. These cysts are so characteristically globular and thin walled and can, as a rule, be felt so readily connected with the ovary, that they ought not to be confused with any other condition.
Again a mistake of this kind must be guarded against. In the early months of pregnancy the cervix maintains its integrity, while the uterine body often becomes remarkably softened and it may be flaccid so that it seems at the first touch to be entirely independent of the cervix, and rather like some boggy tumor lying near by. In such a case the examiner catches the cervix and draws it down until he feels its upper end, which, if it is a long cervix, he may readily mistake for the fundus of a small uterus, the natural inference then is that the ill-defined mass beyond is an extra-uterine pregnancy. Such a mistake will not occur if the examination is made under an anesthetic and the direct organic connection between the cervix and the mass above more carefully studied.
Again a pregnancy may be mistaken for an extra-uterine pregnancy when the ovum lodges in one uterine cornu, and this softens remarkably as the pregnancy advances, while the opposed half of the uterine body remains hard. I have seen this condition repeatedly during the past twenty-five years and watched it gradually disappear as the pregnancy advanced into the fourth or fifth months. Dr. R. L. Dickinson has called particular attention to it in a paper published.
The condition is a most puzzling one when seen for the first time, resembling either an extra-uterine pregnancy pure and simple or an interstitial ovum developing in that portion of the uterine tube which traverses the uterine cornu, or again, a j^i'egnancy in one horn of a bicornuate uterus. An examination per rectum may only serve to confirm the suspicion that the pregnancy is ectopic. Added to the surprising anatomical facts is the additional one that the condition is often associated with much pain in the sac. If, however, the examiner is well on his guard, he will recognize by a rectal examination under anesthesia that the softish mass occupies exactly the position of one whole side or of the right or left upjDcr corner of the uterus, and at the same time he will notice the extraordinarily broad connection with the remaining portion of the uterus and will correct the erroneous notion formed at a previous examination, that the mass is in any sense really distinct from the uterus.
I must confess I don't know just how to distinguish this condition from an interstitial pregnancy, except that interstitial cases seem to be so rare, and on the other hand these cornual cases seem to shade off into those in which
the whole of one side is softened. It is yet possible that many of this group are in reality interstitial and subsequently become intra-uterine, in accord with a number of clinical observations made about two decades ago.
One of my patients some years ago had so much pain with her condition that although I was tolerably sure of my diagnosis, I opened the abdomen to verify it, when I found a bluish thin-walled cystic mass about 6 cm, in diameter at the right uterine cornu sessile on the firm uterine body. The fetus afterwards escaped per vaginam.
Cases of advanced pregnancy mistaken for extra-uterine pregnancy are almost always those with phenomenally thin abdominal walls. The sharply defined limbs of the fetus seem to lie in direct contact with the wall without any intervening tissue.
A case of this kind occurred in the wife of a physician from Iowa, unusual in that the one-sided hardening and want of development of the uterus persisted well into the fifth month. I examined most carefully and counseled delay, my visitor waited for some time not without trepidation, then he took his wife home and later wrote me of her timely and natural delivery.
The general practitioner often finds it hard not to jump at once to the conclusion that he is dealing with a mature extra-uterine ovum. The specialist to whom he brings the case at once makes a careful vaginal or rectal examination, under anesthesia if needs be, in order to answer the deciding question, " Where is the uterine body ? " If the fetus is extra-uterine, it will be a simple task to find and outline a normal uterine body and so confirm the diagnosis. With rare, very rare exceptions the pregnancy is normal and goes on to term and a normal delivery. In several instances patients have come to me because the consultants at home had urged an operation then and there to save the mother's life from imminent peril. I incurred, I fear, the lasting displeasure of two physicians in the Southwest who were more than usually positive and insistent, by venturing to say the child was in the uterus and the pregnancy might proceed unmolested. The event verified the prediction, though it took place in rival hands.
There was a case of advanced pregnancy in the practice of the late A. K. Minich, of Philadelphia, which he took for extra-uterine from a vaginal examination, for while he felt the cervix high up and the large fetal head could be distinguished with the utmost plainness in the cul-de-sac low down, a most careful examination showed that this was one of those rare cases of retroflexion of the pregnant uterus persisting almost to the end of pregnancy, that is to say, while the uterine body developed above, a diverticulum remained below in which the head was lodged. At the end of the pregnancy this disappeared entirely, and I attended her later in a normal labor.
I saw a case but recently with one of my colleagues. A woman who had never been pregnant ceased menstruating early in July. On September 30th, while sitting in a chair, she was suddenly taken with severe pain in the lower abdomen. Since that time she had been obliged for some ten days to stay
I^rettT constantly in bed^ \vitli severe pains. There was extreme tenderness over the abdomen, some pallor associated with localized congestions, tympany, and slight fever, varying from 99° to 100.8° F. The bowels were constipated and there was bearing down. When I examined her I found a more or less diffuse distention of the lower abdomen, and felt the coils of intestine, apparently adherent, running over the mass. Vaginal examination showed extreme tenderness and the uterus appeared lost in the mass. There was no vaginal flow. The vagina was discolored- dark. The uterus could not be felt bimanually on account of the general tenderness, but there was a fulness and resilience at the vaginal vault on all sides. The extra-uterine pregnancy seemed so clear that I sent her to the hospital. On returning I made an incision without further examination, and the pregnancy proved to be intra-uterine and normal, while the pains were undoubtedly caused by strong omental adhesions to the abdominal wall. The adhesion was severed and the patient has since done well. The error in the diagnosis would not have occurred if I had examined the patient under anesthesia just before the operation, and this ought always to be done.
The error of considering an extra-uterine pregnancy as a normal pregnancy in utero is a far commoner one than the opposite mistake upon which I have just dwelt. Almost all extra-uterine pregnancies are so mistaken in the early months, and this is the cause of many of the tragedies which occur with such a dramatic ending. A patient who becomes pregnant whether intra-uterine or extra-uterine ceases to menstruate, and step by step acquires certain of the signs of pregnancy, such as nausea, fulness of the breasts, discolorization of the vagina, some enlargement of the uterus, the formation of a tumor which can be felt above the symphysis. Until there is some unusual sensation or discomfort or accident, such as pain and hemorrhage, the patient has no reason to think that there is anything wrong with her. When, however, things begin to go wrong and the termination of the pregnancy seems threatened or she falls over in a faint, a doctor is called for and the local examination reveals a uterus which is empty, and a mass situated at one side of the uterus. Associating this with the discharge and the history of pain, the physician promptly makes a diagnosis of extra-uterine pregnancy and operates. All these familiar signs are so well known to the average practitioners of to-day, that they only have to be repeated to the successive generations of graduating students to perpetuate the clear teachings of our immediate predecessors who cleared up this difficult field. One sometimes, however, meets with cases which have been strangely neglected in spite of the plainest evidences of an extra-uterine pregnancy. It is important for this reason, in order to rescue more lives from such a sudden and dreadful death, to iterate and reiterate the important signs by which extra-uterine pregnancy is to be distinguished from normal.
Fibroid Tumors Mistaken for Pregnancy. — Fibroid tumors are perhaps the commonest of all major g^mecological ailments, and it is not surprising that occasionally a group of tumors may be found which closely resemble the form of the fetus. At least two such cases have come under my notice, and another
lias occurred in the practice of Dr. E. E. Montgomery. Tlie figure in tlie text shows the characteristic appearance and the ease with which the tumors might readily be mistaken for the prominent parts of the child. Again, given an abdomen moderately distended with ascites, such as is occasionally seen in con-
FiG. 70A. — A Myomatous Uterus Resembling a Fetus in Its Contour. The enlarged uterus measured II X 13 X 21 cm. The nodule just behind the left ovary might readily have been mistaken for the head on palpation, and the large one behind the right ovary for the buttocks. The appendages were normal. The right tube apparently emerges from a small myoma.
nection with fibroids, and in this a pedunculate fibroid tumor, one may easily recognize the sign of ballottement pushing the tumor back in the fluid, when its pedunculate or hinged attachment causes it to return against the examining finger. In this way one of the most characteristic signs of pregnancy is mimicked. In both these classes of cases other signs of pregnancy are absent, and an attentive examination will show that there is no real ground for supposing its presence, though in one case a patient had gone so far as to make a wardrobe for the expected infant.
The diagnosis may be made between extra-uterine pregnancy and abortion, by noting the passage of an ovum in the latter, and the absence of the lateral tumor, as well as the less intense, agonizing character of the pains. If there still remains a doubt, it is best to examine under anesthesia and to curette the uterus. The danger is far greater of mistaking an extra-uterine pregnancy for an abortion, than of mistaking an abortion for an extra-uterine pregnancy. When the patient is stout and the tumor is a small one, situated in the isthmus ; or when there is a flaccid ovum in the ampulla and the fluid blood is distributed through the intestines, the greatest expert may not be able to decide immediately just what the trouble is. In cases of serious continued doubt, it is best to make a vaginal or abdominal incision and set the uncertainty at rest.
A salpingitis may be accompanied by marked fever and is often bilateral. But even here a pyosalpinx may upset the diagnosis of the most expert practitioner. The symptom commonly lacking is the uterine hemorrhage ; if there is time to wait and curette, there is of course no decidua. A Graafian follicle cyst or a small ovarian tumor may also be the source of an error.
In appendicitis, we have the pain, and the muss extending np into the right iliac fossa ; also the fever and the increased lencocyte conut; but with these signs there is the absence of anything pointing towards pregnancy nor is there a tnmor to the side of the womb. It is an old diag-nostic measure, and one of value, to use a small aspirating needle to puncture the vaginal vault and withdraw some of the dark fluid blood. He who has done this in the presence of a tumor and the pains in a case of presumptive pregnancy can afford to be very wise and very positive as to his diagnosis ! ISTeed I caution the physician to treat the little expedient with the same care as to asepsis as he would a major operation ?
Treatment. — If the patient has been suddenly smitten down with severe abdominal pain and hemorrhage, if there is evidently some kind of a mass in the pelvis while she is markedly anemic, it is best to consider the diagnosis while getting the instruments out of the kit to open the abdomen and stop the hemorrhage. There should be no academic discussions under such circumstances, for such cases brook no delay, and he who acts or secures action most quickly will save the most lives. It is self-evident that in the presence of bleeding which will eventually destroy life, every minute is precious.
While summoning surgical aid in cases of hemorrhage, the physician should enjoin absolute rest, flat on the bed, with the legs and arms evenly bandaged from the toes and fingers up to the trunk to keep the blood in the body. The foot of the bed should be elevated from ten to eighteen inches, to keep the blood more in the heart and head. It is best not to give cardiac stimulants; digitalis especially ought never to be used.
Most important of all remedies, as a rule, is the infusion under the breasts, of one thousand cubic centimetres of a normal saline solution six-tenths per cent; that is to say one made up with a small teaspoonful of table salt to the pint of warm water passed slowly in by gravity through a large cannulated needle from a fountain syringe. It is well to consume about half an hour in this operation (see p. 184). To the saline solution may be added twenty to thirty minims of a solution of adrenalin (1:1000).
While waiting for surgical aid, much may be done to save time by getting the room ready, and by preparing plenty of hot water, towels, and clean vessels. It is often best to give the preliminary cleansing of the abdomen in bed before administering the anesthetic. The physician must see to it that the patient remains as short a time as possible under the anesthesia, and the surgeon must be ready to begin the operation as she is lifted onto the table.
CONSTIPATION.
Definition. — Constipation is the infrequent action of the bowels, in consequence of which the waste products of the intestinal tract are retained for periods of one or more days beyond the normal. Habitual constipation may also be defined as a sluggish habit of the body, in which the bowels fail to respond to the presence of the fecal matter, which should excite a desire for evacuation as it is propelled into the rectum. It is one of the commonest abnormal conditions with which the physician has to deal, and is the cause of much ill-health and discomfort in women.
Effects. — In constipation, nutrition and metabolism are interfered with and serious circulatory disturbances arise from the choking of the intestinal tract; from the copremia (constipation anemia) caused by absorption of the poisonous retained products; and from the local stasis in the hemorrhoidal vessels, which may be continued up into the portal system and into the liver.
Patients habitually constipated are apt to show it in their faces: a muddy complexion in young girls, often associated with facial acne, is characteristic of constipation. Constipation is also apt to be manifested in the temper, which is melancholic, and also in the listlessness, which takes the place of energy.
The mechanical circulatory disturbances and the poisonous products reabsorbed from the lower intestinal tract have often a pronounced effect upon the digestion, inducing, apparently, a sluggishness in the upper intestinal tract, with gas, belching, and loss of appetite.
In a word, so long as a pronounced constipation is the habit of the body, all the organs are bathed daily in blood rendered impure by the absorption of fecal products, and the consequences are usually those which might be legitimately expected.
208 COIirSTIPATION. HEADACHE. INSOMNIA. OBESITY.
The local expression of constipation in women is often pronounced. In the first place • the retention of feces in the rectum, especially in that part which, lies back of the uterus, above " the third sphincter," frequently gives rise to colicky pains in the pelvis which are easily mistaken, as are the tender masses themselves when felt through the vagina, for diseased ovaries. I once opened an abdomen thinking I had an acute recrudescence of a pelvic peritonitis, to find nothing but a mass of unchewed, undigested beans in the rectum in this situation.
The pelvic stasis produced by the constipation is not only the cause of the hemorrhoids readily seen at the anal orifice, but of a similar dilatation of the venous channels in direct communication with them above. This pelvic congestion makes itself felt in a sense of weight and bearing dovni, referred to the pelvis at large, and it may also be responsible for the large varices seen in the broad ligaments on opening the abdomen. To this local stasis some authors of repute refer certain cases of endometritis. A marked and a misleading sensitiveness is apt to characterize the organs involved in it. Backache of the sacral form is a common feature.
]^ot a few cases of dysmenorrhea in young girls are due to habitual constipation and are relieved when a daily action of the bowels is established. Constipation is commonly associated with many pelvic ailments, and is often a source of trouble after abdominal operations.
To realize the whole bearing of constipation upon the health of the individual, it is necessary to have some definite knowledge of nature's scheme for the evacuation of the bowels as the completion of the whole process of digestion.
The process of digestion attains completion in the large intestine, and by the time the food reaches the rectum all the nutritious material which can be assimilated has been absorbed, almost all the liquids have been taken back into the system, and nothing remains but an indigestible residuum, connnonly known as feces. When the normal quantity of food taken into the body cavity daily is estimated, it is evident that the residue remaining after digestion and absorption of the three meals should also be daily removed, if the digestive tract is to be kept open and its functions properly maintained. In a normal condition, the rectum ought to be evacuated once in twenty-four hours, and the whole structure of the intestinal tract is arranged to further this end. The peristaltic action of the muscular coats of the large and small intestines is constantly at work to drive the food onward, while the valves occurring at frequent intervals throughout the intestines are so arranged as to facilitate its downward movement. The propulsion of the column of ingestion from the last meal also serves as a powerful stimulus to the intestinal tract beyond to empty itself into the next succeeding portion until the end of the tract is reached, where it should normally produce a desire for an evacuation.
Defecation. — Expulsion of the residual mass, which is known as the act of defecation, is accomplished through the relaxation of the sphincter ani muscles, aided by the peristaltic action of the intestinal tract above, associated with
ACT OF DEFECATION.
the voluntary action of the abdominal muscles. We are accustomed to think of such an action as voluntary, because the part taken in it by the abdominal muscles is impressed upon the consciousness, but it really originates in and arises fundamentally from the peristaltic action of the muscular coat of the intestines, which is independent of volition, as shown by defecation taking place under certain conditions without the knowledge of the individual ; for example, it constantly occurs in this manner after the section of the spinal cord. The anatomical arrangements are such that the act of defecation, as planned by nature, should progress as a steady, gentle evacuation of the lower intestinal contents, without any risk of eversion or prolapse of the mucosa.
The regular evacuation of the bowels is largely influenced by the character and amount of the food taken into the body. If little food is eaten, there will, of course, be little residue, and if the food is too readily assimilated, it will almost all be absorbed, and there will be little or nothing to pass down into the rectum. It follows, therefore, that a mixed diet, composed of a variety of easily assimilated foods, as well as other kinds which contain sufficient fibrous, inert, and indigestible matters to form a residue, is that best adapted to the regulation of the bowels, as well as to the other needs of the body.
People who change their diet materially, or take, for a time, less amounts than they are accustomed to, as in travelling, visiting, or taking a sea voyage, are apt to sufi^er from irregular action of the bowels, until they have adjusted themselves to the new conditions.
In normal defecation four factors are present, namely:
(1) The lower bowel and the rectum must have something to handle ; that is to say, a mass of excrementitious matter extending like a broken or faceted column upward towards the pelvic brim.
that is to say, the physiological sensibility of the rectum must be normal.
(3) The mechanism of the muscular apparatus of the lower bowel, and the voluntary muscles of the abdominal walls must be such that they shall be duly able to expel the accumulated excrement.
(4) While the lower part of the column of excrement is in the act of passing the sphincter area the upper part of the rectum must in turn send down its contents to be expelled in due order.
All these conditions are fulfilled in every normal act of defecation, which, if examined attentively, will be seen to resemble a miniature act of parturition. In the first place, there are slight premonitory feelings of uneasiness, becoming more and more decided and insistent, and finally ending in a welldefined " bearing-down pain." At the suitable moment the levator ani relaxes and lets down the pelvic floor, upon which the fecal mass enters the internal sphincter area, which in its turn also relaxes. Then, with the contraction of the abdominal muscles and the forward inclination and approximation of the thighs to the abdomen, the external sphincter area yields, the bolus passes
tliroiigli and escapes, and the miniature delivery is accomplished, formally defecation should represent parturition without pain. It is interesting to note that the internal sphincter muscle is in some measure under the control of the will; the act of bearing down relaxes it, while a voluntary act of drawing up, that is to say of lifting the levator and tightening the external sphincter, tightens the internal sphincter simultaneously.
The best and most efficient method of defecation and that which best economizes expenditure of force, when, as is often the case, there is a difficulty in expulsion, is found in attendance upon nature's call after the manner of all primitive people in a squatting posture in the bushes sub Jove (see Fig. 71). In this natural and instinctive habit lies perhaps the strongest link in the chain which binds us to-day to our ancestral life. Everywhere, the yokel who retires behind the barn, and the schoolboy who insists upon climbing up onto the seat, seek to perpetuate it, not to mention the number of highly civilized society men who day by day leave their traces behind them, as they wear off the varnish
wall and force is lost there (see Fig. 72), as anyone can feel by placing the fingers in the inguinal rings and straining. It lies also in the fact that the direction of the strain is faulty. One of two things should he done to remedy
the loss of force, indicated by the arrows pointing toward the lower anterior abdominal wall.
this evil : either the closet seats ought to he set low in the floor, or a little bench ought to be provided which will bring the feet up to a point about eight and a half inches from the level of the seat (see Fig. 73). Either of these measures will necessitate widening the opening in the seat for about two inches at a point two-thirds of the way back, on account of the change in the form of the buttocks and the greater prominence of the ischial tuberosities.
The rectum does not normally harbor feces. As soon as the fecal mass descends from the sigmoid and is felt in the lower rectum it should be expelled. If the impulse is resisted, it either returns to the upper bowel by a reverse peristalsis, or, if this is prevented by the accumulation above, it re-
6. Diseases of the intestinal tract, or of the pelvic organs.
It will be seen that these causes must operate more frequentlj- in women than in men. Perhaps the most important is habit, or rather the failure on the part of the individual to establish, or to maintain a regular habit of body. Many women pay no attention whatever to the regular action of the bowels, except when forced to do so by their excessive and increasing discomfort.
The reason for this among the poor may well lie in the atrocious arrangements for the care of the bodily functions afforded by our civic authorities, whereby, for instance, one closet is made to serve for several families. In a tenement in Baltimore, two closets do service for twenty-two families (see Fig. 35, p. 48). Associated with the use of such " conveniences " is often an advertising of the necessity which borders close on indecent exposure. Better for the poor girl to restrain her natural desires and force the function into an intermittency of expression, which is marked by intervals of
way. Again it is frequently
put off as a mere matter of inconvenience until nature's calls are so often stifled that at last the sense gTows blunt and the constipation habit is established.
Too numerous also are the cases in which a grown man or woman, whose training has been neglected in this respect in childhood, continues to suffer at maturity : the responsibility for constipation of this sort must rest on parental shoulders — a word to the wise is sufficient.
Fig. 73. — ^An Adaptation of the Modern Sanitary Closet TO Utilize the Crouching Posture by Raising the Feet tvithin Eight and a Half Inches of the Level OF THE Seat by Means of a Stool.
ETIOLOGY OF CONSTIPATION. 213
Lack of proper exercise and sedentary occupation often result in constipation. Persons whose occupations afford them little or no opportunity for active exercise are peculiarly liable to it. Weakness of the abdominal muscles interfering with the passage of the food downward is often associated with a lack of physical exertion. A feeble or capricious appetite, which interferes with the consumption of a sufficient quantity of food, is another result of insufficient exercise.
Parturition often seriously interferes with the mechanism of the lower bowel by causing a rupture of the levator ani fibres, especially those interlocking with the internal sphincter, so that the bowel is no longer lifted up, but drops forward in the direction of the ruptured perineal muscles. In such a case as this the efforts at expulsion tend to produce eversion of the vaginal outlet so that the expulsive power is lessened or rendered nugatory.
In addition to the causes enumerated, any of which may exist while the patient is in perfect health (except for the presence and the effects of the constipation itself), there are sundry diseased conditions in which retention of feces occurs. The passage of feces may be mechanically interfered with by the pressure of morbid growths, either benign or malignant, situated in different parts of the abdomen or pelvis, as well as by stricture arising from any cause whatever. Chronic disease of the intestinal mucosa may result in atony of the whole intestine, indeed Osier reckons that the most frequent local cause of constipation is atony of the colon, particularly of the muscles of the sigmoid flexure by which the feces are propelled into the rectum. ("Practice of Medicine," 1892, p. 421.)
A redundant sigmoid with its long meso-sigmoid affords a convenient place for the lodgment of fecal masses ; the profession is, indeed, just beginning to attribute importance to this congenital anatomical condition as a cause of an obstinate form of constipation. ITotable work on these lines has been done by Clark and Pancoast in their X-ray studies in Philadelphia. In some cases Clark has operated wath conspicuous success.
Some proctologists attribute importance to a thickened inflamed condition of the rectal valves, associated with a marked overlapping of their margins, rendering the channel more tortuous.
tight corset.
Frequency. — In order to ascertain something as to the frequency and the extent of constipation in my daily consultation practice, I have analysed five hundred cases from my gynecological case-books, taking them in order. The age of the youngest patient was twelve and a half and that of the oldest sixtynine.
The total number of cases of constipation, either habitual or occasional, was one hundred and sixty-four out of five hundred, or about thirty-three per cent. Of these, sixteen are noted as occasionally constipated, while seventeen suffered to an extreme degree. Only fifty-seven of the hundred and sixty-four were
accustomed to use any means to overcome the difficulty, forty-four of this number taking medicines of various kinds, and thirteen using an enema. Another noticeable fact is that in almost all of the cases in which there was no record of any means employed for relief, the constipation is noted as excessive or as having existed for a number of years.
The number of these cases suffering from headache may be taken as a rough indication of the extent to which the body in general was affected by the loaded condition of the bowels. Of the hundred and sixty-four, eighty complained of headache in varying degrees of severity, while five suffered from dizziness without actual pain, making, in all, rather more than half of the entire number. In some of the cases in which the constipation is noted as most marked there was no headache at all, while others, where it was mild or occasional, suffered intensely with it. In some cases of habitual constipation attacks of sick headache with nausea and vomiting were noted as accompanying the menstrual periods. The number of cases in which there was any indication of irritation of the intestinal mucosa was small, as there were only five cases where there was mucus in the stools, and but two where there was blood.
Diagnosis. — In making a diagnosis of constipation as the cause of symptoms complained of, the first point to be established is that it exists, and this is a matter of less simplicity than it seems. So many women, as I have said above, pay little or no attention to the condition of the bowels that the physician is constantly liable to be assured that they act with perfect regularity, when they are really emptied only every three or four days. It is necessary that he should be explicit in his inquiries and that he should make sure the patient understands that nothing but a daily motion is considered normal.
It is sometimes convenient to classify the constipation according to the different parts of the large intestine in which the fecal matter tends primarily to lodge: as rectal, and, if rectal whether ampullar or upper rectal, that is, above the utero-sacral ligaments; or sigmoid ; or colic. Obstructive forms of constipation, when the obstruction is low down, say in a concentric narrowing of the rectum due to cancer, often develop slowly and . insidiously.
"which time careful daily examinations must be made in order to determine where the feces lodge. In a woman, palpation will reveal the presence of any considerable accumulation in the region of the cecum, which when clogged has a doughy pasty feel, is movable and often sensitive. Only in extreme cases can masses be felt above the cecal region in the transverse and the descending colon, j^ot infrequently, however, they can be perceived in the sigmoid flexure, which is perceptible to the touch in the iliac fossa, or behind the symphysis, or near the promontory. A rectal and vaginal examination will reveal the presence of feces in the lowest portion of the bowels. In these cases I constantly use the protoscope, introducing it as far as the sacral promontory. The patient is put in the knee-breast position and by using a long speculum, eighteen centimetres long and twenty to twenty-two millimetres in diameter, I can examine the whole lower bowel. In young women it will often prove that the lower bowel is empty and that the difficulty lies in the fact that the fecal mass does not descend into the rectum. Such an investigation is invaluable in suggesting approximate methods of treatment, of which I shall speak later.
Another form of constipation, which can be detected by this method of examination, is that in which the overloaded bowel is only relieved of a portion of its contents at each act of defecation. It is often a good plan to examine women who are much troubled with constipation within an hour or two after what they consider to be a satisfactory evacuation.
In women who have borne children, the vaginal outlet should always be examined in order to ascertain whether there is a rupture of the muscular fibres and a consequent tendency to eversion. This eversion can be produced artificially by inserting one or two fingers into the rectum and pushing the mucosa forward in the direction of the vaginal outlet until a marked pouch is formed by the protruding vaginal mucosa.
It must next be ascertained how long the constipation has existed and, if possible, what occasioned it. If it is habitual and has lasted a number of years without any known definite starting point, it is probably the result of careless habit ; but if it has developed recently, after years of regularity, the possibility of some local cause must be considered, such as pressure from a pelvic tumor, a malignant growth in the intestine itself, or a stricture. The diagTLOsis of these affections belongs to the surgeon, but the general practitioner should be able to decide upon their probable existence.
To review then, in any given case it must be determined: that constipation exists ; that it is of mild or severe type ; that it is associated with such and such local or general disturbances ; that the patient is or is not free from organic disease. A careful palpation of the abdomen must be made to detect the lodgment of fecal matter at the head of the colon or in the transverse and descending colon, especially at the flexure; an endeavor must be made to map out the sigmoid flexure ; and lastly, a local pelvic examination must be made to determine
Treatment. — The treatment of constipation is three-fold: (1) preventive; (2) to relieve the present condition by unloading the bowel; (3) to regulate the function so that it will act automatically and without artificial aids.
(1) Prevention.^ — The first point in the treatment of habitual constipation is the establishment of a regular daily habit. This applies especially in the training of young girls, with all of whom a daily effort at a fixed time is sufficient to create a habit which becomes at last a second nature. The morning call, to one thus trained, becomes an imperative demand which is never neglected. In those who have not too long neglected this salutary habit, the mere attitude of expectation, created by a persistent morning visit to the closet, is enough after a while to regulate the function. A case in point which shows the influence of the mind over the body, is one where the patient suffered extremely from constipation until she became a " Christian scientist," after which she made an effort to empty the bowels every day, sitting with Mrs. Eddy's manual of Christian Science in her hand, with perfect success !
" I would dare to say that the cure of constipation is certain if one uses these means, but if this treatment is to be efficacious it must be prescribed with entire conviction. This I insist upon, and to those who want to make the attempt I will give the following advice: (1) Draw the patient's attention to the inconvenience of laxatives and enemas ; prohibit them altogether ; burn your bridges without fear. (2) State that one always succeeds by this intelligent treatment. If you have already had some success along such lines in your practice, describe them with convincing eloquence. (3) Ask your patient when he gets up and takes his breakfast. Ton can, to a certain degree, take his habits into account. If he gets up at half-past seven, for example, give him the following prescription in writing: (a) 7.30 a.m. — Rise. (&) 7.45 a.m. — Drink a glass of cold water. For those who have a superstitious reverence for medication give an infusion of quassia prepared the evening before, (c) S a.-m. — Hearty breakfast with milk, coffee or tea, according to choice, and even chocolate for those who are not constipated by this food. Use bread (Graham,
TREATMENT OF CONSTIPATIOlSr. . 217
if possible) and butter, with honey or preserves, (d) 9 a.m. — Try to go to the toilet at a fixed hour. ' Do not go at any other time and refuse to do so, saying to your intestine : ' You would not move at nine o'clock ; now you can wait until to-morrow ! ' (e) Use a copious diet, giving the preference to vegetable foods.
" But do not be content with enumerating these measures and putting them on paper ; explain them, comment upon them, and enumerate the ' invitations ' which the prescriptions contain. The patient will reply to you : ' But I have already tried to go at a fixed hour. I have already taken a glass of cold water.'
" You can reply to him : ' My dear sir, six cannons can make a breach where one or two are not enough. An excellent confrere, who for long years practised this treatment, told me- that he was well satisfied with it, but that he had, nevertheless, had some failures. Astonished at this, I made him go over the prescriptions which he had given. They were as complete as though I had dictated them myself. I tried to find the cause of the failure, when my confrere added : ' However, I have never discouraged the patient and I have told him if this does not work there are still other means ! ' This counter-suggestion was sufficient to explain his failures. When, one wishes to convince one of anything it does not do to suggest the idea of possible failure."
Those who would prevent constipation must also see to it that their patient's diet is of a proper sort, not too highly seasoned, nor of concentrated fancy foods, and not too much meats, but sensible amounts of simple, bulky, nutritious articles, such as are constantly found on the table of the farmer. A diet largely vegetarian, starchy foods, legumes, coarse bread, fruits, fresh and stewed, all conspire to regulate the function and to make it easy of performance.
Let me enumerate a list for selection : Oatmeal and various breakfast cereals with cream. Graham bread, rye bread, corn bread, bran bread, Boston brown bread, dry Swedish bread, German Schwarzbrod, which can now be bought in most of our large cities. Plenty of fresh butter on the bread, for fats generally help to relieve constipation. Honey or molasses at breakfast. Soft boiled eggs, cabbage, sauerkraut, cauliflower, lettuce and salads of all kinds, sj)inach, peas, Lima beans, string beans, lentils, carrots. Fruits, especially stewed prunes, figs, and plums ; in the berry season all berries with seeds are valuable aids.
Breakfast :
Oatmeal, cream of wheat, etc., with cream. Bread with plenty of butter; corn bread, or corn cakes, or Johnny cake, with honey or molasses ; soft boiled eggs, fish. Weak coffee, buttermilk, malted milk.
Dinner :
A thick soup, bread or cheese straws. Shell fish. Celery, olives, radishes. White or sweet potatoes and vegetables of all kinds ad libitum. Salad. Xuts ad libitum. Fruits. Grape juice.
morning regulates the function.
Again so simple a device as a glass of cool water in the morning on rising is all that is needed. It may be that hot water is more agi-eeable as well as more acceptable to the stomach. A glass of cool water containing a little lime or lemon juice is often more effective. Sometimes patients do not drink enough water, and for such persons a glass of water every two hours between meals should be prescribed. An invaluable simple medicament acting like the natural mineral waters is the phosphate of soda taken every day, a teaspoonful in a glass of water early in the morning.
Daily exercise is a prime requisite. Let no one, adult or maiden, think that this important function will regulate itself if they simply eat, and sit, and talk, and dawdle about. Active stimulating exercise is imperative ; a good long walk in good company, golf, horseback, swimming, rowing, or at a pinch, 'pour pis aller, home gymnastics in the fresh air of a well ventilated room with the windows wide open. Equally important with general muscular exercise is the care of the skin by a daily cold bath followed by rubbing with a coarse towel, and deep breathing exercises associated with the regular muscular exercise.
When the abdominal muscles are lax, especially after confinement, they can be strengthened by lying flat on the back and rising to a sitting posture by the abdominal muscles alone without any aid from the hands or arms. C v. Wild even recommends these gymnastics several times a day for the puerperal patient from the tenth to the twelfth days onwards.
If a young woman will discard the rigid tight-fitting corset when she beg'ins to take exercise adapted to making her breathe deeper and strengthen her loins, she will have taken one most important step towards regulating this function.
(2) Galvano-f aradism. — This form of treatment is recommended by Erb (" Handbuch der Elektrotherapie "). The galvano-f aradic current has proven of great use in stimulating the atonic bowel into normal activity and in overcoming chronic constipation. Brose, who writes after considerable experience, found that out of twenty-nine cases of chronic constipation treated by this means alone, twenty-eight were relieved, the remaining patient giving up the
treatment because there were no perceptible results after five sittings (" Die Behandlung d. chron. Obstipation mittels d. Galvano-farad. Stromes," Festschrift zu Prof. Dr. Meyer ^ Gottingen).
Brose used a strong galvanic current of from fifty to seventy-five milliamperes and a faradic current as strong as tbe patient could bear. He made use of large electrodes eight by eight inches in size, placing the positive pole on the sacral region and the negative on the abdomen. The sittings averaged from four to six for milder degrees of the condition, to thirty or forty in more severe varieties.
C. V. Wild uses the same remedy somewhat differently. She rests upon one pole, a plate nine by twelve centimetres (about three and a half by five inches) while a round electrode is used on the anterior abdominal wall. The anode is used behind, the kathode in front. The current employed is of a strength of five to ten milliamperes and is given by pressing the electrode deep into the walls. Decided contractions of the muscles in the abdominal wall can be avoided, if necessary, by weakening the faradic current. That current is best which is felt to excite definite peristaltic contractions, easily recognized through thin walls. The sitting lasts about five minutes. The result of such a treatment is often prompt, but subsequent treatments are needed to increase and render permanent the effect.
Out of twenty-six cases treated in this way, twenty-four are noted as cured, while two gave up the effort. The number of treatments varied from fifteen to one. With increasing experience the worst cases were relieved in six sittings.
If the patient will not regulate her diet and exercise, nor make a faithful attempt to evacuate the bowels at a certain hour, adapting her diet and beverages to encourage this regularity of habit, then nothing remains but to resort from time to time to some of the numerous devices all of which are for a time more or less efficient. The worst thing that can be done is to treat a case of constipation by simply prescribing as the ultimate goal one of the well known and often much advertised popular remedies, familiarly known as " little black pills," French grains, or by their initials as A. S. & B. pills.
Sanger, in a most earnest appeal (Centrhl. f. Gyn., 1890, vol. 14, p. 349) insists on giving up all these common medicaments, which as he declares, never cure, but only serve to fix and perpetuate a constipation, forging the chains of habit upon one who has sought the physician to find deliverance. At the utmost these vaunted constipation remedies should be used but for a short time for temporary effect and merely as expedients on the way to better things, namely, the cure of the evil. In the old or infirm, wliere hygienic measures cannot be carried out, their use is not so objectionable.
prescription, if desired.
For patients wbo insist upon regulating themselves with drugs, the whole gamut of the pharmacopeia may be rim, for no one remedy or prescription does service week after week. For such I mention the following :
sixth of a grain, may be added.
Podophyllin resin in pills containing one-twentieth of a grain, and compound liquorice powder, in doses of from one to three teaspoonfuls or in the form of compressed tablets, are good remedies. Calomel is the best remedy for an occasional unloading, say once in ten days. A single dose of three to five grains may be given at night followed by a saline (Rochelle salts, two drachms) in the morning. Asafoetida with capsicum is said by Anders to be of benefit in senile atrophy with flatulence. A skilful old practitioner whom I knew when I was a boy prided himself on a mixture of this kind:
readily taken by children and is effective.
Massage of the abdominal muscles is one of the best means at our disposal, especially in cases where outdoor exercise is deficient. A metal ball covered with leather, and weighing four to six pounds, may be rolled over the abdomen every morning for five to ten minutes to stimulate peristalsis. The simplest of all adjuvants are the natural mineral waters: Friedrichshall, Apenta, Hunyadi, Carlsbad salts, a teaspoonful in a glass of water every, morning.
If the constipation is of long standing, it is well to give a laxative, followed in six or eight hours by an enema, and then to repeat the laxative on one or two successive days in order to insure a complete evacuation of the lower intestinal tract. In this manner the sluggish bowel is often compelled to yield up the accumulation of weeks, to the utter astonishment of the patient and often of the physician as well. Such a course is imperative in preparing for any gynecological operation. If it is neglected, the surgeon may have occasion for anxiety for several days after the operation, until the bowels begin to move, and then there is often a regular debacle, with reports of one or two bedpans filled with the malodorous materials, when the depression vanishes, the temperature and pulse drop, and the facies change from a sallow pinched expression to a natural one.
In the preparation for operations upon complete laceration of the perineum and sphincter ani, it is my custom to give compound liquorice powder in doses of three to six teaspoonfuls.
Enemata. — These are perhaps the simplest and safest means of unloading the bowel and avoiding drugs. In cases where the extreme lower bowel is habitually loaded and there seems to be a lack of expulsive power, I find it efficacious to inject from two to six ounces of. warm sweet oil, passed slowly in with a soft catheter at a slight elevation at bedtime. It ought to act naturally the next morning. A glycerin suppository is sometimes efficacious in the same way. Large enemata of warm sweet oil from a half to one pint, introduced slowly and gently, have been used in Germany with success. The action here is upon the upper colon as well as the lower bowel. Sweet oil taken freely by the mouth at meals with food, or taken deliberately as a laxative (tablespoonful) at meal times has corrected the habit -in some instances.
Of the watery euemata tlie flaxseed enema is tlie best. I make it by taking two tablespoonfnls of flaxseed to a pint of cold water, boiling it for ten minutes, and then straining out the seeds. The whole shonld be injected while still warm (not hot!), and should be of a mucilaginous consistency. A simple emulsion is made of cotton-seed oil, with enough soap and warm water to make up a pint. A satisfactory purgative enema is composed of sulphate of magnesia (Epsom salts) four ounces, glycerin two ounces, turpentine two drachms, and warm water four ounces. This enema is always effectual, but it may be exhausting to a weak patient. I often use it without the turpentine.
Caution : A too frequent use of large enemata may distend the lower bowel, cause loss of tone, and so increase the difficulty it is attempting to overcome. When the constipation is associated with torpidity of the liver, small doses of calomel must be given from time to time, followed by a saline. A broken dose of calomel, consisting of one-eighth of a grain given every half hour for eight doses, is the best way to administer it, with a glass of Apenta water next morning.
In all obstinate constipation coming on in middle life, bear in mind the possibility of malignant disease of the intestine, or the pressure from pelvic tumors, or a stricture ; these can be detected by a local examination either with the finger or with one of Kelly's proctoscopes.
In a woman who has borne children and in whom the vaginal outlet is lax and gaping, a pouting and eversion of the vaginal walls, especially the posterior wall (rectocele), is often seen, if the patient is told to press down. In these cases a suitable operation repairing the outlet often does much to relieve the difficulty of evacuation by restoring the muscular and tendinous structures, so that the pressure in the act of defecation is no longer lost in the vagina, but acts instead on the rectal sphincter.
The care of the bowels immediately after abdominal operations is a matter for much care and decision, and as it sometimes happens that this duty is left to the lot of the physician in charge of the case by the operator, I give some general directions in regard to it. If the bowels are thoroughly moved, as they should be, before the operation is performed, they need not act again until the second, or even the third day. This first action is best accomplished by means of the flaxseed enema described above, and when the bowels have been once opened, there should then be an action every twenty-four hours. A special enema, which I have found useful in some cases, is composed of cotton-seed oil, four ounces, glycerin, two ounces, turpentine, two drachms, and enough soap and water to make up a pint. For distention with constipation following operations I have found milk of asafoetida, four to eight ounces, used warm, very effectual. As no exercise can be taken, some form of assistance may be necessary to keep the bowels open eacb day. Cascara is the best drug for this purpose, but it may be made a general rule that lar2:e doses of a laxative medicine should never be
given to a patient lying on her back and obliged to evacuate the bowels in that position. Unless a mild dose of eascara (forty to sixty drops of the aromatized fluid extract) is sufficient, it is best to continue the flaxseed enemata as long as the patient remains in bed.
Sanger, v^ho has been largely followed in his own country, lays great stress on some such plan of procedure as the following: In the first place, the working principle is to wean the patient as soon as possible from all drugs. To do this it is necessary to win her confidence completely, both as to the importance of the undertaking and the ability of the physician to effect a cure. At first a few drugs are used to tide over the difficult period of breaking off, but later even these are given up absolutely, until finally nothing but a little belladonna is used, and that only occasionally. Cascara, Sanger considers no better than any other purgative. After giving up laxatives in this way a period of persistent constipation follows, which may last for eight days or longer. This should be explained to the patient beforehand, and she should be assured that nature will, in time, take care of the difficulty. Sanger uses no special diet, declaring that " no diet is the best diet." It is, however, important to see that several glasses of water are taken daily, or else whey, buttermilk, or sour milk. Fresh and cooked fruits are used as well as coarse bread. In addition to this an attempt at regularity of habit is enforced. Most important is some daily active exercise, especially in the gymnasium. Injections are used to as limited an extent as possible; and purgative mineral waters are rejected (ich halte dieselben (Brunnencuren) geradezu filr werthlos). Most important of all methods in the treatment is the massage of the abdomen associated with the use of electricity, especially in lax abdomens.
HEADACHE.
Headache is perhaps the commonest of all the ills that flesh is heir to. It is, indeed, an ailment so frequent that, as a rule, it arouses no attention nor does it excite any solicitude as to the welfare of the patient. jSTevertheJess, headaches, to those who suffer from them, are an aggravating and distressing disorder, often robbing life of its zest and sweetness and liable at any time to interfere with plans of enjo^Tiient or occupation. Repeatedly recurring headaches are peculiarly hard to bear, and, if not relieved, may render life a burden.
A headache is nothing more or less than a symptom, which often leads up through a tangled skein to some remote and unexpected disorder. Persistent headaches, however, are often most difficult to relieve, so that the sufferer goes from one physician to another, tries all manner of patent medicines, and, as a rule, sooner or later consults a variety of specialists to see if some master in his own department cannot detect an abnormality which is the cause of the continued pain. After the general practitioner, the stomach specialist may be consulted, and he, finding a trifling subacidity, prescribes hydrochloric acid; this fails to bring relief, and as the patient hears of some brilliant cures wrought by the oculists, she goes to the nearest one of repute, who finds a mild astigmatism and prescribes glasses, which also fail to relieve. She then consults a gynecologist, feeling sure that the secret of the recurring suffering must lie concealed in those mysterious pelvic organs which control the cycles of her life from childhood to old age. The gynecologist, in turn, finds a slight uterine deviation from the normal, and puts in a pessary, after which she is either resigTied to her fate, or becomes addicted to morphin, or some of the many dangerous patent medicines, advertised ^rith superb impudence not to kill but to relieve suffering. It is because so many of these patients with headaches apply sooner or later to the gynecologist, that I have felt it important to say a few words upon the subject.
Frequency. — I have investigated the frequency with which headaches occur in connection with pelvic and abdominal disorders, by going over five hundred entries in my case-books, and I find that one hundred and seven of the five hundred suffered from headache of one kind or another, in different degTees of severity ; in thirty-two cases, the headaches were associated with the menstrual period.
Etiology. — He who would treat headaches successfully, must in every case look deej^er than the throbbing, aching head, and search for the underlying cause or causes. Indeed, it is chiefly in this way that the intelligent and trained practitioner differs from the quacks who advertise their nostrums in the daily papers. While the practitioner investigates and removes causes and so often cures the ailment, the parasite upon the profession treats all cases
ETIOLOGY OF HEADACHE. 225
alike, considers headaclie a disease per se, and for the sake of his ten or twenty cents' gain supplies a remedy which he swears will cure the malady, in reality giving temporary relief only by benumbing the brain. This he does even at the risk of life itself, without any conscience at all, trusting to the lax administration of our criminal laws, if he should be arraigned for murder. The nostrum vender is thus on a par with those brutal savages who waylay and slay their hapless victim for the purpose of stealing so trifling an article as his penknife or a few pennies in his pocket.
In undertaking to treat rationally and successfully the cases of headache which come to me as a gynecologist, I must keep in mind all the various commoner causes of the ailment, lest I make the mistake so often attributed to a specialist, namely, that of seeing only my own little territory, and considering that all humanity's ailments in one way or another must flow from the pelvis.
In treating headaches in women, I note in the first place, that men are relatively free from this affection to a remarkable degree, and that when men do suffer from headaches, they are apt to arise from overindulgence at the table ; in such a case the ache of the next day is clearly gastric in its origin. Furthermore, the severe and lasting headaches of men about middle life are sometimes the premonitors of grave organic disorders, as, for example, Bright's disease. I discern from these facts that two forms of toxemia, a transient and a permanent form, are at work, and that it must be the toxic byproducts in the blood which produce the symptom, headache. I note, too, that a whole group of headaches, often seen in women, the nervous headaches, are conspicuously infrequent in men. A little further thought suggests, what is quite certainly true, that the reason for this difference lies in the less active physical and intellectual life of the woman, and at once furnishes valuable ideas as to treatment. If this is true there ought to be less headache among our college women than among those who go out at once into society life.
neurasthenia, but frequently noted, too, in women in robust health.
The headaches of children at school, while often ocular, are sometimes but the cry of a tired, over-worked, often underfed organ, which ought to lie fallow while the rest of the body is undergoing its evolution towards adult life.
operative.
The first step is to inquire as to the frequency of the headache, its intensity, its duration, and its relation to the menstrual period. Menstrual headaches are vaso-motor in origin (I do not believe they are toxic) ; as a rule, the premenstrual form is relieved when the flow appears and the menstrual form when a sufficient flow is established. I have not found any particular association between pelvic affections and the especial variety of headache which occurs on the top of the head ; in my experience the sincipital headache is rare.
Patients with nerve exhaustion are apt to suffer from a dull j)ain or pressure in the back of the head and the upper part of the spine. Intense and persistent headache is one of the commonest symptoms among neurasthenics. Headache due to eyestrain is apt to be frontal in character. Where any symptoms, such, for example, as eye-tire, point to the eye, and where other avenues of inquiry have been exhausted, it is always Avell to call upon a competent ophthalmologist for his opinion.
!N^asal polyps may give the first evidence of their presence in the severe headaches they provoke. A little difficuity in breathing, especially if it is marked at the time of the headache, should call for an examination of the upper respiratory passages. Frontal sinus disease may in like maimer occasion intense pain in the head with local and supra-orbital tenderness.
It must never be forgotten that headache is sometimes a marked symptom of malaria, or of typhoid fever in its incipiency ; such cases are occasionally seen in the wards of a large hospital. A routine examination of the blood is of great service in such instances. Anemia is sometimes the self-evident cause of headache, particularly in women who have lost much blood by uterine hemorrhages. Many grades of anemia can only be recognized by the hemaglobinometer, an instrument so simple that it ought to be in the hands of every practitioner advanced enough to consider it important to use a thermometer in his daily practice.
looked for.
In the headache of Bright's disease the increase of arterial tension is often evident in the hard bounding pulse; the tension is easily measured with one of the simple mercury pressure instruments connected with a constricting band on the arm (the Riva-Bocci, or one of its derivatives).
Some patients date their severe headaches from an over-exposure to the heat of the sun (insolation), producing a profound vaso-motor disturbance, after which the least exposure or fatigue serves to bring on a violent attack.
attention, as it may be the only assignable cause. Dr. Ira J. Prouty, of Keene, ]Sr. H., tells me the case of a professor in a college, who graduated in medicine and then had to give np the idea of practising, because he suffered, as did his father before him, from severe headaches every two weeks. I find it always well, too, to inquire as to any severe trauma to the head, received perhaps in childhood, and in case there is such a history, to ask the opinion of a good nerve specialist.
Habits of food and habits of drinking must be looked into, especially the latter in these days. Many headaches are alcoholic and grow worse as the patient continues to imbibe the poison. With men, tobacco is a potent cause and in certain ranks of society to-day, this factor needs consideration in treating women.
After reviewing in this manner the various possible causes of headaches, and excluding any possible unusual cause, the physician can settle down to a minute and careful investigation of those causes which are most commonly operative in women, one or more of which is usually at work in any given case.
Auto-intoxication from the gastro-intestinal tract due to fermentation of food must always be thought of and eliminated by questioning, or, if there is any doubt, it must be settled by washing out the stomach and analyzing its contents. The question of fermentation in the tract lower down must always be considered. This is most apt to be noticed after operations, when it often simulates an incipient peritonitis.
Constipation is perhaps the most fruitful of all causes of headache, and it is all the more insidious because women become so habituated to the condition of sluggish bowels, that they fail to realize the importance of its bearing upon their general health. A vaginal examination often reveals a fulness of the bowel, surprising to the patient who " has just had an action." The finger feels a bolus through the posterior vaginal wall, and often there are a number of tender masses (scybalse) above the vault w^hich may mislead a neophyte into proposing an abdominal operation.
Potent among the causes of headache in women is domestic infelicity. An unfaithful or an unkind husband works like a carking care on the nervous system, robbing life of all its spontaneity and joy. The poor victim gives up her friends, she soon ceases to take any active exercise, and mopes about the house ; feeble appetite, indigestion, and anemia follow, and the foundation is Avell laid for regularly recurring severe headaches.
The late Prances Power Cobbe has given an able description of this form of headache in an article entitled " The Little Health of Ladies " (LittelVs Living Age, Peb. 2, 1878). "It is many years," she says, "since, in my early youth, I was struck by a singular coincidence. Several of my married acquaintances were liable to a peculiar sort of headache. They were obliged, owing to these distressing attacks, to remain very frequently in bed at breakfast time and later in the day to lie on the sofa with darkened blinds and a considerable exhibition of eau-de-cologne. A singular immunity from the
seizures seemed to be enjoyed Avlieu any pleasant society was expected or tlieir husbands happened to be in a different part of the country. By degrees, putting my little observations together, I came in my own mind to call these the ' bad husband headaches,' and I have since seen no reason to alter my diagnosis. On the contrary, I am of opinion that an incalculable amount of female invalidism arises from nothing but the depressing influence of an unhappy home. Sometimes, of course, it is positive unkindness and cruelty that the poor creatures endure. Much more often it is the mere lack of affection and care and tenderness for which they pine as sickly plants for sunshine. Sometimes it is the oppression of an iron will over them which bruises their pleasant fancies, and lops off their innocent whims till there is no sap left in them to bud or blossom any more. I^ot seldom the misery comes from frequent storms in the household atmosphere — for which the woman is probably as often to blame as her companion, but from which she suffers doubly, since, when they have passed, he goes out to his field or his merchandise, with what spirits he can muster, poor fellow, while she sits wherever the blighting words fell on her to feel all their bitterness. ... To those who can get up and walk away the importance which she attaches to them seems inexplicable."
In some cases, however, the fault lies in a self-centered or evil disposition with outbreaks of bad temper and tantrums, or long periods of sullen brooding over fancied wrongs. One of the most distressing forms of headache is that induced by constant weeping.
The wise physician who is the friend of the patient, as well as her medical adviser, will always in puzzling cases squint with one eye in this direction, and will, where his advice is called for, treat the moral as well as the physical ailments of the family.
ache as one of the expressions of the deficient nerve capital.
In addition to the headaches just enumerated we have the simple nervous headache and the sick headache, or migraine. Various explanations have been given of the latter, but none are satisfactory. Edward Liveing, who has written exhaustively on the subject, considered the attacks to be nerve storms nearly related to epilepsy, that is to say, a form of periodic discharge from certain sensory centres : a picturesque way of summarizing the phenomenon, if not an adequate explanation. Observations made by Mangelsdorf of Kissingen show that in every case of migraine there occurs a well-marked acute dilatation of the stomach, and that a frequent repetition of these dilatations leads to a permanent gastric atony. Mangelsdorf claims to find these same dilatations in epileptics during the attacks, which would be another point in evidence of close resemblance between epilepsy and migraine. Other authors regard sick headaches as a va so-motor neurosis and support this view by the fact that during the attacks the temporal artery on the affected side sometimes becomes hard and firm, as in arteriosclerosis.
intestinal disturbance. W. P. Millspaugh {South. Calif. Practitioner, 1907, vol. 22, p. 513) points out that migraine must be distinguished from another class of cases in which headache is frequently occasioned by disturbance of the gastric secretion, whereas in migraine the headache and the gastric disturbance are in all probability due to a common cause, which, according to some persons, is uric acid or one of its near relatives among the incompletely oxidized end-products of nitrogen metabolism. In the former class of cases there is hypersecretion of gastric juices, while in migraine the secretion is diminished. In ordinary hyperchlorhydria the correction of the hyperacidity will often, according to Millspaugh, relieve the headache, and he suggests that such headaches may be reflex from the irritation of the stomach induced by the excess of hydrochloric acid. In some of the cases of the kind coming under his own observation, however, he was inclined to suspect that the alkalis used to correct the acidity were effective by checking a gouty poison which might have been the real cause of the whole trouble.
Diagnosis. — In undertaking a patient complaining of headache I would, in the first place, distinguish whether the headaches were those incidental to some other well-defined trouble and not, as a rule, intense. If, for example, the patient is anemic from the loss of blood from the uterus, I would expect the symptom, headache, to disappear with the correction of the local disorder. I would place in a different category those intense headaches where the distress in the head overshadows whatever other ailments there may be, and, if I have determined that the case under treatment is one of that kind, devote myself at once to the minute examination of every function of the body to discover the cause.
as a good starting point to clear the way for further investigation.
Usually the diagnosis of a case of headache involves the discovery of a variety of causes, all of which conspire to reduce the health below the average norm, when the headache becomes the natural cry of the brain for more and better nutrition. Tor example, a nervous, tired, anemic woman enters my office with a dysmenorrhea, or with a descensus and dragging of the pelvic organs, associated with poor appetite, lack of exercise, and sleepless nights ; in such a case I expect, as a matter of course, to hear that the patient also has headaches, and in undertaking to treat the general condition and the local pelvic ailment, I expect the headaches to disappear as the health improves.
Treatment. — The treatment of headache is twofold : that designed to give immediate relief; and that looking towards the removal of the cause and the prevention of the recurrence of the pain. It will be well to glance briefly at the kinds of treatment we have at our disposal before taking up the use of the particular remedy in any special case.
1. In the first place there are those remedies which promptly and efficiently remove the temporarily acting cause, as in a toxic headache from gastro-intestinal fermentation. Such a remedy is calomel,
TREATMENT OF HEADACHE. 231
given in three to eight grain doses, followed by a saline purge, in the form of Rochelle salts, the citrate of magnesia, or Carlsbad salts, some six or eight hours later; the good old blue mass pill, given in doses of six to ten grains, is too much out of vogue. Sometimes, where the table is at fault, emesis and lavage are the best immediate means of giving relief . In milder cases, powders of calomel and soda may be given.
or five grains.
2. Then there are the remedies which act by relieving congestion. Such are blood letting, drawing six to eight ounces from the median vein of the forearm; the use of hot baths, hot water being added after the patient gets in, until it is as hot as she can bear; hot mustard hip baths, and hot mustard foot baths, putting about a tablespoonful of Coleman's ground mustard to the gallon of water. The amount of mustard must depend a little on the sensitiveness of the patient's skin.
Counter-irritation over the upper part of the spine is sometimes a great relief. A mustard plaster may be tried, or chloroform liniment laid on flannel and held close over the upper cervical vertebrse as long as it can be borne. I have known a case in which great relief was experienced from painting the upper part of the spine with the tincture of iodine. In some forms of nervous headache, when the face is flushed and the temples throbbing, an ice-bag over the occiput or the frontal region is more beneficial, or cold compresses, made by holding wet towels on ice and laving' them around the head from time to time.
3. Remedies which act by toning up the nervous system. Here first and foremost come hygienic measures, such as the morning cold plunge, with lively friction to the skin; massage; electricity, either applied generally, or to the scalp during a headache. Gentle frictions to the scalp of ten. exercise a sedative influence, lessening or dissipating the pain. A high-frequency current in the form of a brush discharge, and the wave current of static electricity are much used as a general nerve tonic in the intervals.
4. Hygienic Means. — Regular exercise in the fresh air, particularly breathing exercises, expanding the chest and quickening the circulation. If the patient is not Aveak, it is well to exercise to the sweating point, then to take a cold sponge, and rest for half an hour to an hour. It is important for patients needing hygienic treatment to sleep in a room with open
summer.
Room exercises, if no other are available, are invaluable, especially those which strengthen the abdominal muscles, and thus aid both by giving support to the abdominal viscera and by relieving venous stasis in the abdomen. For example, on awaking in the morning, while -lying flat on the bed, raising the body slowly to a perpendicular attitude about twenty times a minute without any aid from the arms; or raising both legs to a perpendicular position, while the body remains horizontal. Kaising one leg at a time only exercises the psoas and iliacus muscles, but raising both feet brings the abdominal muscles into play. Again, standing erect and bending forward with stiff legs, until both hands, arms extended, are brought as near the floor as possible, and then rising slowly again, strengthens the back muscles, completing the circle of the body cavity.
The physician must exercise discretion, however, in ordering systematic exercises, and in using such remedies as tend to stimulate the processes of health by shocking the surface, as the cold bath ; he must not prescribe a nerveexhausting routine of this sort for a jaded woman with no latent powers of response. To do this is as wise as it is to whip a fagged-out horse.
of the utmost value.
Associated with this hygienic regimen, it is well to use bitter tonics. One of the best of these is nux vomica in increasing doses, beginning with ten drops in water three times a day, and increasing the amount by one drop at each dose until the patient is taking twenty to twenty-five drops three times daily. If there is any twitching of the muscles or stiffness of the jaws, the remedy must be discontinued, and when resumed, the dose must be fixed below the amount which was given before. Strychnin often works admirably and better than nux, given in pilules, containing each one-thirtieth of a grain, increasing the dose rapidly until one-tenth of a grain is being taken three times a day.
each time.
5. Prevention should be written in large letters and hung on the walls of every consulting room, and prevention and hygienic measures walk well hand in hand. By prevention I mean such a careful inquiry into the gen-
eral condition and the habits of the patient, both as to exercise, hours of sleep, character of amusements, reading, and, above all, diet, as shall elucidate the probable causes at work in causing the headaches. It may be, especially in thoughtless young persons, that late hours, and unhealthy, exciting reading are at fault ; it may be that the day is all spent indoors, ending up with the theatre or a hot ballroom. Most frequently, however, the fault is dietary ; sometimes the capricious appetite craves only highly seasoned food and pastry, with strong black coffee or tea several times a day. In all these things to know is to act, and to effect a cure, a word to the wise is ever sufficient.
Where the suffering arises from anemia of the brain, it is sufficient to check the flow of blood which is causing it, or to restore the normal corpuscular balance of the blood to cure the headache. Iron is indicated in most cases of headache accompanied by anemia and may be given in any of the various preparations already discussed (see Chap. VI, p. 156). In some instances, however, the pain is increased by iron, and it is best to substitute arsenic (see Chap. YI, p. 157) or cod-liver oil. I have found that the use of a large electric light (thirty-two candle power), "thermal electric light," in a parabolic reflector, applied to the side of the head and the back of the neck is of value, but possibly suggestion plays a more or less important role here.
6. Remedies which act upon arterial tension. — In all cases with high blood pressure, as evidenced by the full bounding pulse, the bromides of soda, of potash, andof magnesia, given in doses of ten grains or more, in one to two teaspoonfuls of simple elixir every hour until the pain is relieved, are of the utmost service. ISTitroglycerin in doses of one-hundredth of a grain every few hours, as occasion arises, is of inestimable value, especially in the old, whose arteries are in bad condition. But the best of all remedies in such cases is the nitrite of soda in half -grain doses, three times a day, continued as long as the tension remains high; it is particularly valuable where there is a sort of status of headache. Marked disturbances of the circulation are sometimes seen after serious operations, with high pressure and headache. The sodium nitrite is invaluable here. On the other hand, in cases of headache where the arterial tension is low, ergotin in doses of onefourth of a grain, increased up to one grain if necessary, three times a day, is of great value.
associated with diuretics and mild purgatives.
Y. Remedies which remove the cause, when that is intracranial or circulatory.— The iodide of potash in syphilitic headache is the great specific remedy of this class. ISTo social status lies beyond the pale of this disease, and the drug is always worth trying in intense persisting headache with visual symptoms, when other remedies fail. The tolerance of the drug may prove to be the only diagnostic factor discoverable.
a day, watching its effect and stopping it, if there is any buzzing or roaring in the ears. Quinine is sometimes of value in headache where no malarial element exists ; in such cases it is supposed to act by raising blood pressure.
In rheumatic headache, the uric acid diathesis which underlies it demands a course of ajDpropriate treatment, for which I must refer to the text-books on general medicine. Lauder Brunton recommends :
grains, repeated every two to three hours, during an attack.
Trepanation, excision of a scar, of an area of fracture, or of a spiculated bone pressing on the brain is a brilliant remedy, but one which is successful in too small a percentage of cases, even where the indications for it seem to exist, to justify its being advised with assurance ; a welldefined hope is all that can be held out. The same thing may be said in regard to the removal of the ganglion of the fifth nerve for intense one-sided headache. In cases of this kind only a competent neurologist can decide as to the probability of relief by this means.
Remedies which act through a mild sedative effect or by inducing sleep are invaluable when the pain is unbearable, but, unfortunately, though brilliantly successful in affording relief, they do nothing to effect a cure. First among these is the sulphate of morphin, given hypodermically, in doses of a quarter, of a grain, or, in extreme cases, a half. The extract of cannabis indica, one-half to three-quarters of a grain, in pill form, is often of great value. It is not easy, however, to obtain a reliable 23reparation of this drug; if a good article is foimd, it is best, as H. C. Wood long since advised, to secure all of it and use that alone. It must always be borne in mind in giving cannabis indica that some individuals have a marked susceptibility to it.
The bromides and chloral belong in this class of remedies, but the latter is a dangerous drug for the patient to take into her ovti hands. A good prescription for the bromides is:
Hoffman's anodyne (compound spirits of ether) is a remedy whicli has often rendered good service in the past, but has been largely abandoned, owing to the difficulty of getting a really good preparation containing the heavy oil of wine. It should be taken in teaspoonful doses in a wineglassful of water.
Last in this group of remedies I mention the coal-tar preparations, valuable when used judiciously, but dangerous in careless hands, that is, in the hands of the patient herself or of the quack advertiser. The cases now and then coming to light before coroners' juries are but a small index of the numerous deaths from this cause to be laid at the door of the quacks. In some cases an idiosyncrasy exists which makes an ordinary dose of any coal-tar preparation dangerous ; the heart's action becomes unduly depressed, a fact shown by blueness of the lips and nails, or even of the whole circulation ; the cyanosis may be perceptible to others, when the patient herself is unaware of it. There is drowsiness, amounting in severe cases to coma, and if the drug is continued for some time, it induces a nephritis. As I write, I hear of the death of an acquaintance who had taken his mistress to an abortionist in ISTew York City. He had a weak heart and was suffering from a severe headache. The abortion monger gave him a coal-tar ready relief remedy, and in one hour he was dead. This is but one among hundreds of similar cases. Caution spelled in large letters is the warning to place on every coal-tar prescription.
S. Take as directed.
The caffein serves to balance the depressing effect of the acetanilid. Some physicians prescribe a dose of whiskey with each dose of acetanilid, but the evils of alcohol are so great that I prefer using aromatic spirits of ammonia in twenty to thirty drop doses in a little water. The aromatic spirits alone in water is an excellent remedy where the stomach is somewhat disturbed. In using coal-tar preparations there always lurks the danger of forming a habit which in the end endangers life by its effects upon the heart.
Migraine or Sick Headache. — I will now devote a little time to the consideration of sick headache and its management. In sick headache, prodromic symptoms are often present; of which the most constant is the sensation of a blinding light. Some patients display marked psychical disturbances, either of excitement or of depression. Dizziness and giddiness are not uncommon precursors; and in the gouty or rheumatic form, the headache is often preceded by stiffness or shooting pains in the joints.
begins in one spot near the temple, and extends downwards along the affected side, sometimes following, roughly speaking, the course of the fifth nerve and extending to the shoulder and arm. Shortly after the onset of the headache, one of the chief symptoms, nausea, appears, and, as a rule, increases until it ends in violent vomiting and retching, when at first the contents of the stomach are ejected and later bile. In severe attacks, when the retching continues long after the stomach is emptied, it greatly exhausts the patient. When the pain is confined to one side, the vaso-motor disturbance is similarly restricted. One peculiar feature attending some sick headaches is an overpowering sense of drowsiness, sometimes so irresistible as to overcome even the severity of the pain and induce heavy sleep in the intervals of vomiting. Sick headaches in women have a marked tendency to appear at the menstrual periods, either before, during, or after menstruation. The duration of the sick headache is usually from twelve to twenty-four hours ; they generally leave the patient utterly exhausted. Young women, with strong recuperative powers, recover quickly, but older persons are often incapacitated for several days. As life advances, however, the headaches usually show a tendency to decrease in violence, although there is likely to be a period of great severity about the time of the menopause. After menstruation has ceased, they occur, as a rule, much more rarely.
Treatment. — In sick headache it is useless to give remedies by the mouth during the violence of the attack, for the stomach will not retain them. A hypodermic of morphin is practically the only drug which can give any relief, but it is only in cases of extreme suffering or occasions of special urgency that the physician is justified in resorting to this measure. Under no circumstances must he allow the patient to use the hypodermic syringe herself, for the recurrent nature of the disorder peculiarly favors the formation of a drug habit. Occasionally, a strong mustard plaster over the upper cervical region gives some relief, but, as a rule, when a headache of this kind has once begun, the only thing to be done for the patient is to keep her absolutely quiet in a darkened room, until the violence of the attack has subsided.
A great deal can be done for the relief of such headaches, however, by prophylaxis. Persons subject to them are well aware that the attacks are most frequent if their general health is depreciated, or if they are exposed to unusual excitement or fatigue. TVhen it can be established that they are associated with a gouty or rheumatic constitution, the underlying condition should be treated. Constipation should be especially guarded against, for in many cases the permanent relief of a constipated habit has been followed by permanent relief of the headaches. Xot infrequently a torpid liver exists in such cases, and the administration of a small dose of calomel at intervals of al)nnt ten days for a period of several months Avill do nuich towards relief. A lu'okcn dose of one-half to one grain in powders, or tablets of one-
eigl;ith of a grain, at intervals of half an hour, followed next morning by a saline pnrge, is the best form of administration. A wholesome varied diet, plenty of fresh air and exercise, attention to the bowels, and avoidance of over-fatigue and excitement will do a great deal towards reducing the frequency of these headaches. The physician must always bear in mind the fact that headaches of this description are sometimes due to uremic poisoning, and he should never be satisfied to treat a case without assuring himself positively as to the presence or absence of nephritis.
INSOMNU.
I do not know whether an nnusiially large percentage of patients with insomnia calls for relief at the consulting rooms of the gynecologist, or whether the world at large is becoming more and more afflicted with this disorder, but of one thing I am sure, that sleeplessness is a distressingly common ailment. With the exception of the neurologist, it probably falls to the lot of the gynecologist to see more insomnia than any other specialist. It behooves him, therefore, not only to pay close attention to those cases which fall peculiarly under his sphere, but, in order that he may intelligeutly select his cases, to have some clear knowledge of the causes and treatment of insomnia in general. For this reason I give here the conclusions drawn from my personal experiences in this common and most trying malady.
Etiology. — The causes of insomnia are not, as a rule, recondite ; they lie in the mode of life, in upbringing, in occupation, in domestic arrangements. Let us review a few of them. In the first place, sleeplessness is peculiarly common among neurasthenics, and whatever produces neurasthenia, conspires to produce insomnia. The recognition of these two classes has an important bearing on the prognosis in insomnia.
Constant over-taxation in attending to life's duties without relaxation produces first, a sense of weariness which, as a rule, is neglected; the next symptom is apt to be an insomnia which cannot be so easily overlooked, as it soon begins to interfere seriously with the daily activities of life. Constant, fixed, strained attention to any pursuit produces a fulness in the head which leads to sleeplessness. Continued excitement, vexation, or a great sorrow brings about the same result.
It must also be remembered that a persistent insomnia is sometimes the prodrome of grave nervous disorders. In children, excessive study produces insomnia. Some patients date their insomnia from habits begotten in childhood, practices due to a lack of proper parental control, relative to proper hours of going to bed.
large percentage of cases, is inherited from a maternal or paternal ancestor.
These and kindred causes seem to show that insomnia is kept up by a loss of vaso-motor control, or a vaso-motor exhaustion, resulting in dilatation of the capillaries.
The habit of turning night into day, or as one of my associates puts it, " the habit of pottering around at night," begetting later and later hours, tends to produce a wakefulness which is hard to overcome. One of my friends who acquired an insomnia in this way, found that a small dose of
whiskey would give the much needed rest ; but the drug soon overmastered the patient, who died a confirmed drunlvard. Coffee and tea arc responsible for the wakefulness of some patients.
There are diflferent forms of insomnia, namely, the early night, the early morning, and the all night forms. In other, distressing cases, there is fitful sleep or half sleep, when it seems to the patient that she has really been awake all night. Some people think they do not sleep, when in reality they get a number of hours of good rest. A night nurse slipping into the room at intervals through the night will often correct a false impression of this kind ; but it is not always well to tell the patient that she has had a good night's rest, as she may resent it.
in the nervous system.
Cases of the first and last groups come continually, and come appropriately to the gynecologist for relief. The distinction between either of these and cases of the second group, however, is sometimes difficult to make, as no hard and fast line can be drawn between cases which are closely linked to the mild neurasthenics on the one hand, or are inseparably connected with a mild pelvic disorder on the other. Sometimes the test of two or three weeks' observation alone will tell. In all doubtful cases, a neurologist ought to be called in to assist in the decision. Bad, inveterate, and malignant neurasthenics do not belong by rights in the gynecologist's hands at all.
3. Drugs.
1. First and foremost it is necessary to remove any evident cause for the insomnia. A direct cause, as, perhaps, some gross lesion in the pelvis, or, it may be, some hidden cause, acting alone or with some minor pelvic lesion, will conspire to upset the nerve balance and bring .about persistent sleeplessness. A local affection, such as a relaxed vaginal outlet, letting the uterus down and permitting the pelvic structures to drag on their attachments, will produce nervous exhaustion, as well as a nagging displaced
kidne}'. I would then proceed at once to correct these troubles, and would expect the general care, the feeding, the massage, the fresh air, and the sunshine baths, that ought to follow an operation, to relieve the insomnia too. Do not let the patient be impatient about it, however, for the relief may be more positive after she is up on her feet again and able to walk out naturally, taking healthful exercise without the previous drag. She wall then grow normally tired and sleep normally afterward.
The first thing then is to operate soon, if the patient needs it, and to work on the insomnia while the other reparative processes are going on, so as to cure the sleeplessness, if possible, pari passu with the healing of the wound.
2. Hygienic Means of Relieving Insomnia. — These are by far the most important, indeed they are the sheet anchor of all successful treatment. Hygiene is the purpose of all forms of treatment, whatever they may be. However they may begin, in hygiene they must end, in order to be successful and self-perpetuating. The patient who is better while in the hospital after an operation must be committed with sedulous care to mother Hygeia on leaving. It is not enough for the physician to be able to claim that the wound healed well and the patient slept while she was under his care.
fully described in works on hygiene and general treatment.
Some patients sleep much better on a particular kind of a bed, one on a hard bed, another on a soft cushiony one; and when this is the case, the bed should be provided without thought of economy.
A cool room, temperature sixty degTees Fahrenheit or lower, is conducive to rest; and when it can be arranged, it is a good plan to have the bed, duly sheltered, out of doors. It is a mistake, however, to get into a cold bed and to be kept awake by cold feet. The bed ought to be well warmed in winter, and if the patient cannot sleep well between linen or cotton sheets, soft blankets may be tried. Before going to bed, a hot bath (110° E.) may serve to draw the blood to the skin away from the head and so give an impetus to sleep at the outset. Whenever anything is done to promote sleep
taken.
I shall not say more about the diet than to indicate that a simple nutritious food is best. Late suppers and such nerve excitants as alcoholic beverages, tea, or coffee should be avoided. It is often of benefit, however, to give the patient a cup of gruel or hot malted milk on retiring, say about two hours, after a moderate supper. The fermentation in the stomach imposed by a heavy dinner keeps many persons restless and awake; this must always be looked into.
sound refreshing sleep.
The bowels must be kept emptied regularly, as a copremia is often the cause of wakefulness. Massage is a gTeat help for a time, but it is only a temporary expedient, for the most part for the bedridden, as the patient must soon be thrown on her own resources to find natural healthful exercise day by day.
General electricity works in a manner analogous to massage and is a good alternant with it. Sometimes an early night wakefulness is relieved by the application of electricity and a gentle massaging of the scalp.
Of all the remedies for sleeplessness at our command the cold pack is, perhaps, the most generally useful. It is given in this way: The patient is placed upon a rubber sheet with a woolen blanket on top of it. Her nightdress is then taken off while she is kept well covered with a blanket, and she is then turned upon her side. A sheet is wrung out of water at the temperature ordered, which may be anywhere from 100° F. to the temperature at which it runs from the spigot. The sheet must be so folded that the thin edge will be at the outside of the bed. The patient is then rolled in the sheet so that she is entirely enveloped in it, after which the edges of the blanket are brought beneath her, each layer tucked in carefully, and the rubber blanket finally brought over the whole so that her entire body is covered by it. A hot-water bag must be placed at the patient's feet. If she does not warm up promptly, additional blankets may be used. She should remain in the pack for from five to twenty minutes, and when taken out, she must be carefully rolled in a dry blanket and briskly rubbed with a Turkish towel, after which her nightdress is replaced and she is put between sheets again.
Our best neurologists to-day are making large use of hypnotism and suggestion in inducing sleep. To effect anything by this means, the physician must know his patient well enough to inspire confidence and must engage
lier aid iu a coiiiiuun cau^e, operating' against a cuumjuu enemy, insomnia. The attitude of expectation thus created must be enhanced by the external conditions of the moment, such as retiring at a fixed hour, quieting the mind, and composedly awaiting the advent of the expected guest, sleep.
The worst cases of insomnia must be treated, like bad neurasthenics, by absolute isolation and rest in bed for several weeks or longer, under the charge of one nurse, the patient not even being allowed to hear from a relative or read a letter, much less receive visitors.
What shall I say about the treatment of that most distressing of all forms of wakefulness which springs from a mental distress, when the poor victim, unable, as in the daytime, to escape from her anxiety in many hourly distractions, lies, and thinks, and tosses, and readjusts her circumstances, dwelling, perhaps, on some critical event, in which, if she had acted differently, her distress would have been spared. The true physician will not play the coward here, but will esteem it his highest privilege, according as he has grace given him to intervene, to heal the moral or the family ill, as well as the physical, and so to put the wearied mind at rest. This is the truly difficult side of our labors, far more difficult than any mere laboratory analysis, and for this reason many men, even among those who are accounted great, run away from it incontinently.
but everywhere used, and in most cases necessary for a limited time.
The drug is a crutch for the cripple on the road to the house of Hygeia, and sometimes the cripple cannot get there without it ; or she gets there much faster for the temporary, judicious, carefully supervised aid of the crutch.
My list of drugs is but a short one: Trional, aspirin, veronal, codein, sulphonal, bromide of potash, chloral. The ideal hypnotic has not, and it is safe to say, never will be. found ; in fact it would be a misfortune if one were ever discovered, as it would then be used universally and persistently, to the exclusion of the return to natural sleep by the gateway of hygienic methods.
It will be seen upon examining the different drugs on the list that there is not one which can be kept up indefinitely. " For temporary use " ought to be written on the label of the vial containing any one of them. Prescriptions for them ought not to be re-filled except by order of the physician, because of the extreme danger of forming the drug habit, as well as that arising from the pathological effects they may have upon the kidneys or the circulatory system.
Aspirin, in five to ten grain doses, is of use where the insomnia is associated with headache. For wakefulness which occurs as soon as the patient goes to bed, trional, in doses of five to ten gTains, is one of the best remedies we have; for wakefulness in the latter part of the night, sulphonal in doses of ten grains is better. I have known the combination of the two to work beautifully.
jurious to the kidneys, especially if given for a long time.
There is a certain class of patients who go to sleep easily, but cannot stay asleep. With them it is a good plan to give ten grains of siilphonal about four o'clock in the afternoon and ten grains of trional at bedtime. Trional, in some cases, is more effective if given in a suppository containing fifteen grains.
Another excellent remedy is veronal. Five to ten grains is the usual dose, though as much as fifteen grains may be given. Veronal must be watched and stopped if it produces any unpleasant symptoms. The bromideof sodium or of potassium in combination with veronal gives excellent results.
M. S. Tablespoonful at bedtime.
This combination will give a nervous, overAvroiight, excited patient a good night's rest when everything else fails. It must always be given in solution, never in powder form, as it has a tendency to irritate the stomach.
OBESITY.
It is not niY intention to do more here than refer to obesity in general and to give briefly in ontline such simple facts as ought to be in the possession of the practitioner who undertakes to treat any form of it.
Obesity, corpulence, or an excessive deposit of adipose tissue in the body is a common affection among women, sometimes in association with disorders of the pelvic organs, and so characteristic of married women advancing beyond middle life that it almost constitutes the typical characteristic of the sex at this period. The fat, as a rule, is uniformly deposited in all situations where it is normally present, namely, about the face, the shoulders and arms, the chest, the abdominal walls, within the abdomen, and over the thighs and legs. When the superincumbent fat finds no support below, it falls downwards in transverse folds, creating a double chin, wattles on the back, or great folds across the lower abdomen, hanging over the symphysis. In such patients the specific gTavity of the blood is usually increased and, as a rule, the percentage of hemoglobin, creating a plethora. The most serious complication, however, is extensive dej)osits of fat about the heart and in the intermuscular interstices, by which the organ itself is literally smothered ; even the coats of the arteries are sometimes affected.
Etiology. — Heredity is a strong predisposing cause in obesity and is sometimes the only one which can be assigTied. Anders (" Practice of Medicine," 1900, p. 1226) noted that out of two hundred and two cases of obesity in his practice heredity was distinctly traceable in sixty per cent ; in fourteen cases out of the number it had existed from childhood. Gout and rheumatism are factors in a good many cases. Fibroid tumors are often accompanied by an increase in weight, while ovarian troubles are associated with a tendency to emaciation. In some cases of anemia or chlorosis the patient gains flesh from the non-oxidation of food.
Amenorrhea is often accompanied by obesity and under these circumstances the gain in flesh is often extremely rapid, it may be as much as fifty or sixty pounds in the course of a few months (see Chap. VI). The establishment of the menopause, as is well known, is accompanied, in the majority of cases, by an increase in weight, and the same thing is observed to follow the removal of the ovaries before their functional activity is complete. Exactly what governs the increase of adipose tissue in the three latter classes of cases is not known; the most we can say is that with the disappearance of the ovarian function and the glandular corpora lutea the tendency to take on flesh, which has up to that time been held in abeyance, gains the upper hand; this is especially apparent in the Jewish race.
TREATMENT OF OBESITY. 245
most moderate exertion; breathlessness on moderate exertion; plethora, as shown by the frequent flushing of the face, increased by exertion and often ending in dizziness. In young women, the rapid taking on of fat is marked, as a rule, by the lessening of the menstrual flow, which may even cease altogether for months or years — this form of amenorrhea is commonly associated with sterility.
Treatment. — The first stej) to be taken in the treatment of obesity is to ascertain the cause and, if possible, remove it. If the patient gives a history of gout she must be put upon a proper regimen for it. In anemia and chlorosis the administration of iron, arsenic, and cod-liver oil is often accompanied by a decrease in weight instead of a gain, as in other affections, for example, tuberculosis. The obesity associated with amenorrhea is dependent upon the underlying condition which occasions the suppression of menstruation, and, as a rule, can only be successfully dealt with through it. In such cases I always try lutein tablets, five grains each, made from the dried corpora lutea of swine, given three times a day. In some cases they are followed by excellent results.
In the obesity of women approaching or past the menopause the following lines of treatment are of value: When the patient is a large eater the amount of food must be cut down ; and with the lessened ingestion of food the patient will do well to spend more time in the thorough mastication or " insalivation " of what she takes. Most women over forty take more food habitually than is at all necessary at a period of life when the activities of growth and of child-bearing are at an end. Unfortunately, those women who consult the gynecologist on account of excessive fat are generally troubled with the affection in its less distressing forms, and they are, as a rule, unwilling to take any trouble or practice any self-denial to lessen their weight, least of all to modify their habits of life. If, however, the patient is disposed to take her condition seriously and to regulate her life each day so as to reduce her weight, a regular course of treatment should be prescribed, during which she must be under medical supervision both as to the effect as tested by the scales and as regards her general health. Before prescribing such a course of treatment the physician should make out an outline of the patient's history and of the line of treatment proposed. I give the following outline as a suggestion:
With these data before him as a working basis, the physician should underline the prominent factors in the case, such as menopause ; amenorrhea; increase in weight within three years; much fat and starch in ordinary diet: excessive amount of water taken; exercise only about the house.
The physician must then proceed to treat each case according to ideas suggested by prominent facts brought out in this investigation. The following general principles are always to be borne in mind :
It is necessary to promote the oxidation of fat in the system and prevent the ingestion of new supplies ; in order to accomplish this the amount of fat-forming foods must be limited, while the amount of exercise and other factors increasing fat destruction must be increased. In the first place it is well to diminish the total quantity of food. The average diet for an adult is one hundred and twenty-five grammes of albumen, eighty of fat, and three hundred and fifty of starch. In attempting the reduction of obesity the albuminoids must be diminished least and the fats and starches to a much greater degree. Most cases of obesity would improve on one hundred and twenty-five gTammes, or more, of albumen, forty of fat, and one hundred and fifty, or even less, of starch. It is wisest, however, to reach this amomit of reduction by degrees. In the later stages of the treatment, when considerable amoimts of tissue have been lost, the non-nitrogenous foods should be increased, so that the albuminous tissues of the body do not become wasted. The treatment must be kept up for weeks or months as the case requires, and the cure must not be considered complete until the weight is brought down to what is normal for age, size, and sex. A rapid loss of weight at the beginning of the treatment is not desirable ; two to three pounds a week is much better for the patient than a larger amount.
If any benefit is to be derived from the treatment, the physician must insist upon its being conscientiously carried out and the patient must be willing to comply Avith the directions. Where compliance with directions is difficult or impossible at home, it is an excellent plan to send her to some Spa, such as Carlsbad, Marienbad. or in this country, to the Hot Springs of Virginia.
GENERAL RULES FOR OBESITY.
" Guard against sugars, starches, and excess of fat-forming foods. A certain amount of fat with the food is essentiaL Let beginning impairment of the patient's streng-th be the sign to give more liberal diet. Diminish fluids, especially at meals, when not more than five ounces should be given. May substitute saccharin for sugar.
Farinaceous. — A limited amount of dry toast, aerated bread, shredded wheat biscuit, gluten biscuits, beaten biscuits, zwieback, Vienna rolls, soup-sticks, crusts, Graham gems, hoe-cakes.
Vegetables (fresh). — Asparagus, celery, cresses, cauliflower, greens, spinach, lettuce, white cabbage, tomatoes, string-beans, stuffed peppers, radishes, very little if any potatoes.
Beverages. — Limited quantity of water, buttermilk, tea, coffee (no sugar or milk), light wine diluted with Vichy. Mineral waters. — Avon Springs, Eichfield Springs, Crab Orchard, Londonderry Lithia, Hunyadi, Carlsbad, Friedrichshall, Eubinat, Puellna, Villacabras. Continue for several weeks drinking one glass of Kissingen water thirty minutes after each meal one day, and one glass of Vichy water similarly the next. May use artificial compounds.
Must avoid :
Fats in excess, beverages in excess, thick soups, salmon, bluefish, eels, herrings, and all salt fish, pork, sausages, spices, hominy, oatmeal, macaroni, potatoes, parsnips, turnips, carrots, beet-root, rice, watermelons, muskmelons, puddings, pies, cakes, sweets, milk, sugar, malt and spirituous liquors.
cially applicable must be made out.
A good deal can be done in the way of prophylaxis during childhood in cases where the family history shows that obesity is likely to occur at maturity. In such cases careful attention must be paid to appropriate exercise, systematic daily cold baths, fresh air, and the reduction of fats and farinaceous food.
There has been much talk of late years of the extract of the thyroid gland in the reduction of obesity. In cases of myxedema it is known to be of great value and there are certain doubtful cases, where no symptom of myxedema exists excej^t mental sluggishness, in which small doses of the thyroid, say two grains three times a day, have a remarkable effect. It is always allowable to try the gland in such cases, keeping the patient under careful observation, but should there be any indications of injurious effects, manifested by tachycardia, or irregular heart action, suffusion of the face, syncope, vertigo, or marked headache, it must be stopped at once. The indiscriminate use of the thyroid in any and every case of obesity is extremely dangerous and ought not to be encouraged, as it acts as a depressant and also causes gastro-intestinal disturbance.
In conclusion mention may be made of the four principal methods of reduction of obesity, namely, those of Banting, Von ISToorden, Oertel, and Ebstein. The distinguishing characteristics of these are:
Banting reduces the amount of farinaceous food, depending almost entirely upon j)i"oteids. Von ISToorden reduces the amount of food as a whole, giving a large proportion of meat and restricting the amount of sugar and starches; the amount of liquids is also reduced. Oertel's treatment is based largely upon the reduction of liquids to as small amount as can be borne ; the diet allows rather more carbohydrate and fatty food than that of Banting and rather less than that of Ebstein. Oertel carefully includes the use of graduated exercises in his course of treatment.
ADIPOSIS DOLOROSA.
This affection, otherwise known as Dercum's disease, is characterized by the deposit of fat in masses situated in different parts of the body, preceded and attended by pain. It is an affection peculiar to women and appears during the middle period of life. jSTeuralgic pains associated with the fatty
masses occur in different parts of the body. Sometimes the fatty deposits become so large that they form huge pendulous masses ; these never appear on the hands or feet. This affection differs from other varieties of obesity by the pain associated with it and by the irregular distribution of the fat. In some cases of the affection the thyroid gland has shown a marked tendency to atrophy. Dercum states that he has seen great improvement from the use of the thyroid extract in the treatment of the disease.
BACKACHE.
Frequency. — Backache is one of the commonest disorders to which women are heirs. Pain in the back is not often felt by either the yoimg or the old; it seems rather to belong to middle life, that is to say, to the period between the thirties and the fifties. The pain varies in intensity from a mild intermittent ache, coming on when the patient is tired, perhaps in association with a headache to a suffering of such intensity that she feels as though her back were breaking in two, and is unable to rise from a couch or chair without suffering, often expressed in loud groanings.
Etiology. — It is not my purpose to make more than passing mention of those acute lumbagos which come on after exposure, or after sweating and allowing the wet clothes to dry on the back. The pain in such cases often begins without any warning, striking the patient utterly unexpectedly, like a bullet traversing the lumbar muscles (German, Hexenschuss). From that time imtil the attack is over, all muscular exertion causes pain, often extreme, and even agonizing. The best treatment in such a case is rest in bed, a hot relaxing bath, or ironing the lumbar muscles with a hot iron as hot as can be borne through flannel, for ten or fifteen minutes. It can also be cured by thorough deep Swedish massage, the treatments being given twice a day and continued for from twenty-five to thirty minutes. The best drug is aspirin in ten grain doses, followed by four or five doses of five grains each, at intervals of an hour. It is a good plan, in some cases, to inaugurate the treatment with ten grains of Dover's powder, to produce a free sweat. Sufferers from acute lumbago often find that they can ward off a fresh attack by wearing a flannel bandage, or by using a Jaeger wool bandage, made for this purpose. A plan of treatment diametrically the opposite to this is absolute fixation of the affected parts by strapping.
Backaches must be distinguished according to their location as lumbar, lumbo-thoracic, sacral, or coccygeal (to be considered under the caption coccygodynia, page 260). The common areas of location of aches in the posterior part of the lower trunk are: The coccygeal region, somewhat
hidden in the cleft of the buttocks; above this the sacral or the sacro-iliac region; above this again the lumbar region; and lastly an area above the lumbar in the lower thoracic region.
4. The serratus posticus inferior muscle.
They are further distinguished according as the pain is fixed in one spot or radiates. The direction of radiation is almost always downwards. In some cases the pain is central, in others more lateral, to right or left, or on both sides.
Patients, as a rule, consider that backache is due to kidney disease, if they are men; or to uterine disease, if women. It is true that pain in the back is sometimes associated with these conditions, and care should always be taken to ascertain how far they are accountable in any given case ; but the idea, so firmly fixed in the lay mind, that backache is always attributable to one or the other cause is erroneous.
My own experience teaches me that a backache is not often directly dependent upon any pelvic disease, though it is a common concomitant. I would attribute most lumbar aches rather to the neurasthenic or run-down condition of the patient, inviting a local disorder in a weak spot.
This is often proven by the fact that the mere correction of a minor pelvic ailment, apart from the care of the general condition, does not do away with the backache ; whereas patients with aggravated pelvic ailments, where we would most expect backache, often do not complain of it to any great extent. It is common to find backache associated with pelvic tumors or inflammatory masses pressing on the sacral nerves as well as with retrodisplacements of the uterus and chronic constipation, but, as I have said, I attribute the backache rather to the general run-down condition of the patient than to the local intrapelvic disorder. Backache is always a common symptom in nerve exhaustion arising from whatever cause. A common cause of the severe postoperative backache is the straight-out dorsal posture in which the patient lies during a long operation. The pain from the wrenching of the lumbar sinews is often far more intense than that directly associated with a major surgical operation.
It becomes a matter of the first moment to distinguish, wherever we can, between the muscular rheumatisms of the sacral region and the lower back, and the sacro-iliac joint affections which cause similar pains in these regions.
252 BACKACHE. COCCYGODYJSTIA.
In the first place, tlie rheumatic trouble may have come on as a sequel to an acute attack. Again, pain in the muscles may be aroused by pressure on the muscles themselves, either upon the erector spinae, or into the substance of the erector, the longissimus, the sacro-lumbalis, or the quadratus. The pain is provoked by such attitudes as serve to put these muscles on the stretch ; and, what is most important, the pain in the muscles tends to get better with a little exercise. The patient who starts out with groanings and with great difficulty, taking a halting gait, soon steps along as though perfectly well.
Schreiber (" Die mechanische Behandlung der Lumbago," Wiener Klin., 1887, p. T7) says that an intense dull pain widely extended from the sacrum to the third dorsal vertebra, not accompanied by much limitation in the movements of the vertebral column, indicates rather an involvement of the fascia lumbo-dorsalis than an affection of the muscles. When bending is possible, but straightening the spinal column is difficult and painful, the erectors are affected. Such patients preferably sit, or lie with the body inclined forward. On the other hand, difficult painful bending forward indicates an affection of the flexor muscles, the quadratus and the psoas. The psoas affection is evident in the distress occasioned by bringing into play its function of rolling the thigh outward. "When the pain is higher, in the region of the fourth to seventh ribs, not influenced by bending the spine, but excited by breathing, the serratus posticus is the affected muscle.
The affections of the sacro-iliac joint are often quite different. The importance of this class of cases was first fully appreciated by Goldthwait {Bost. Med. and Surg. Jour., 1905, vol. 152, pp. 593, 634), who attributes many backaches in women to a sacro-iliac luxation. The condition still awaits recognition at the hands of the profession at large.
Goldthwait says that the sacro-iliac articulations are true joints, and are by no means as stable as has been supposed, so that under normal conditions, some definite motion exists. There is always a physiological increase in this motion during pregnancy, and " possibly always, certainly occasionally, during menstruation. Injury, disease, a general lack of muscular and ligamentous tone, all are factors which cause an excess of the normal amount of motion. ... As the female pelvis is less firmly constructed the mobility is more easily obtained." I continue to quote as far as possible from Dr. Goldthwait's monograph : " As the cases are studied, they at once divide themselves into groups : the first including those in which there is definite relaxation associated with pregnancy, representing an exaggeration of a normal physiological condition; the second, those cases in which the relaxation is associated with menstruation, apparently representing also a physiological condition, apart from any pathological change with which we are at present familiar ; and the third, the cases in which the lesion is due to trauma, general weakness, or some definitely known pathological process. In general, the relaxation associated with pregnancy is more marked, as it is also more rapid in its develop-
ment, but it is also more certainly and quickly rectified by treatment when the cause is removed. With the non-pregnant eases the relaxation is not as marked; there is no sudden onset with severe symptoms, but it is more insidious and also more troublesome in treatment, as the apparent cause is repeated at the return of each menstruation. . . .
" The cases which properly belong to the third group are not only more numerous, but many of the characteristics are different from those in the other groups. Only one joint may be affected instead of all three, as is common in the others, and the referred pains in leg and hip are much more common in this group than in those previously considered. The lateral deformities or deviation of the body to one side, due to the partial displacement of the bones on one side and not on the other, are common. The onset may be sudden. The so-called ' stitch ' in the back following strain or overwork is in most instances due to the slipping of these bones, and in these cases the lesion represents a definite sprain, the severity of the symptoms depending upon the severity of the injury, as with sprains of other joints. The onset at other times may be more insidious, and may be part of a definite joint disease, the symptoms being due to weakness resulting from the disease, or from the presence of accompanying bone and joint structure thickening, the hypertrophic arthritis (osteo-arthritis) being the most common of these affections.
" In the general relaxation which follows prolonged recumbency upon the back, the lumbar spine straightens, and the back becomes flat. With this, the upper portion of the sacrum, being a part of the antero-posterior curve of the lumbar spine, is drawn backward. This is undoubtedly the explanation of the frequency of backache and leg pain developing at night after sleep, and also explains the more common backache after operations in which the profound relaxation produced by the anesthetic, together with the straight hard table, make the joint strain inevitable. The common way of relieving the night pain by stretching upon first waking, which draws the lumbar spine forward, is also understood with this knowledge of the anatomy. ...
" At times the lesion apparently represents simply an excess of a normal physiological process. At other times trauma is a definite factor, ' sitting down hard,' or the ' giving way ' under severe strains, such as lifting, being the two most common forms of injury. Attitudes or postures are also of importance in causing a predisposition to joint weakness or displacement. . . .
" In stout persons, either men or women, the drag of the large abdomen causes lordosis with resulting pelvic-joint strain, and explains the frequency of the sacro-iliac weakness in this type of individual. In this connection, imdoubtedly, the present so-called straight-front corset, if tightly worn, must be harmful by causing an unnatural amount of lordosis and by producing too great pressure upon the anterior portion of the iliac crests. . . .
" Any motion in which the trunk or thigh muscles are used, whatever the position of the body, necessarily causes the bones to slip about or the joint to be strained. In the severest cases standing or walking is impossible, the
patients describing the sensation as ' breaking apart in the middle/ or as the body ' settling down into the thighs.' With some the npright position and even walking is possible only for a few minutes, the bones apparently being held by strong muscular effort, but as soon as this relaxes, either from fatigue or in unexpected motion, the helplessness at once returns. In the mildest cases the symptoms have been so vague that the exact nature of the difficulty has been appreciated only by- a most careful process of elimination.
" Of the symptoms which have been associated with this condition there is apparently quite a wide range. In the most extreme degree of relaxation or disease the helplessness is profound, nothing but recumbency being possible, while the slightest motion, such as raising the knee or moving the foot, is associated with definite movement of the pelvic joints and consequent pain and discomfort. A^Hien perfectly quiet there is little pain other than backache, and this is worse after sleep, during wdiich the spinal muscles become relaxed and the joint strain is increased. All three of the pelvic articulations may be tender to pressure, and the abnormal mobility may be easily demonstrable. In some of the cases sitting is impossible unless the weight of the body is supported, usually by placing the elbows on the knees or by holding the seat of the chair with the hands. On walking, the movement of the buttocks up and down may be quite evident.
" In the cases in which the relaxation or disease is less marked the symptoms vary more, both as to the nature of the special symptoms, and as to their constancy. At times, only at the menstrual period is there any trouble or are the symptoms severe enough to cause much inconvenience.
" Probably the most common complaint is of backache, referred at times definitely to the sacro-iliac articulations, but often simply to the sacral region. This is usually worse on lying upon the back or with any back-straining exercise or occupation carried to the point of fatigue. When lying upon the back, the flattening of the lumbar spine necessarily strains the sacro-iliac ligaments and is evidently the cause of the backache. As this takes place only when the muscles are relaxed, it explains the pain developing during sleep, the patient often being wakened with the severe suffering. This is usually relieved by stretching or by some other change of position in which the lumbar spine and the sacrum are drawn up. The backache which develops when the patient is up and about may be brought on by any posture which causes strain on the sacral ligaments, such as lounging, sitting with the lumbar spine thrown back, or prolonged standing and walking. At times the backache is produced by a jar or by some sudden, misstep in which the muscles are taken off their guard. At such times there is, as a rule, a distinct sensation of slipping or giving out, and the leg may actually ' give way,' just as the knee joint locks or ' gives w^ay ' if caught with a loose cartilage. The pain or backache may be referred to one synchondrosis or both, and with this there may be discomfort referred to the symphysis. In the cases in which the pain has been referred at first to one synchondrosis there has nearly always developed,
of less severity.
" Referred pains are quite common, and are probably due to the pressure or pull upon the nerves in the sacral region. The lumbo-sacral cord passes directly over the upper part of the sacro-iliac articulation, and it is easy to see that a slight displacement or the thickening or nodes resulting from disease might cause pressure upon this nerve trunk. Undoubtedly the pressure or irritation of the nerve received in this way causes many of the pains referred to the leg. They may be referred to any part below the seat of the trouble, to the thigh, the hip, the calf, or down the back of the leg following the sciatic distribution. These pains are practically always more upon one side than the other, but usually both sides are somewhat affected, and this, together with the fluctuation in the character of the pain, suddenly coining on or passing off, is of importance in differentiating between this condition and other conditions in which leg pains occur. That the nerves are pressed upon or irritated is not to. be wondered at when the anatomy is considered. In fact, in any displacement which may occur, or in the hypertrophic arthritic thickening^ the edge of the bone is so exposed that pressure or irritation of the nerve is almost to be expected. The severity of the pain is at times very great. In two of the patients it was so intense that lying down was impossible and the nights were spent pillowed up in chairs,
" Objective Symptoms : The objective symptoms are such as would be expected from our knowledge of the condition. The motions which would bring strain ,upon the weak part are guarded, in the severe cases this reflex guarding leading to great disability. It may be impossible without assistance to get up or to lie down. Stooping is always made guardedly and in the severe cases this may be impossible unless the knees are flexed and the spasm of the hamstring muscles released. On standing, if the sacrum is at all displaced, the lumbar curve of the spine may be obliterated or even reversed ; the whole attitude being suggestively peculiar. If one side is more involved than the other, a marked lateral deviation of the body may be present, this always being away from the affected joint. A slight degree of this lateral deviation is very common.
" Forward bending, if attempted when standing with the knees straight, is limited, but is always more free if the knees are flexed, as when sitting. In the first position the hamstring muscles which are attached at the tuberosity of the ischium are made tense, and by causing strain upon the sacro-iliac articulations develop the muscular spasm. . . . The character of the disease will be determined by the general appearance of the patient and the appearance locally; that is, the presence or absence of an abscess, the presence or absence of a tumor suggesting a new growth, and the presence or absence of the same disease in other joints. In the hypertrophic arthritic process, which is by far the most common form of disease seen in the sacro-iliac articulations, there almost always is at the same time disease of the spine with the
]\Iore recently Goldthwait (Bost. Med. and Surg. Jour., 1911, March 16) has shown how weakness or partial displacement of the lumbosacral articnlation, with resulting pressure on the cauda equina or nerve roots, is responsible for many cases of " lumbago," "' sciatica " and " paraplegia."
Other causes of backache must also be borne in mind. For example, acute infectious processes, such as typhoid fever and a gonorrheal arthritis. An agonizing backache is one of the most characteristic symptoms of the onset of small-pox. Congenital deformities and osteo-arthritis due to spondylolisthesis also give rise to distressing and persistent pain in the back.
Treatment.- — I shall speak first of the sacro-lumbar rheumatic affection, in which it is important, first and foremost, not to promise that a speedy cure will follow the relief of any co-existing minor ailment, such as an anteflexion, a laceration of the cervix, or a retroflexed uterus. It may he necessary to correct these errors (except the anteflexion), but the patient must be forewarned that the backache will take longer to relieve.
Whatever local measures are employed, general tonic hygienic means must also be used to build up the health and to rest and feed the tired nerves. For this purpose give nux vomica, beginning with a few drops (five) three times a day in water and increasing daily by three drops until twenty or twenty-five are reached. I find useful a pill made after this prescription :
the bowels are slightly acted upon.
Massage is one of the best methods of treating backache, but it must not be given in the form of mere superficial skin frictions; the trained fingers and thumbs must first seek out the painful spots and then skilfully and thoroughly rub them, so as to increase the local circulation and thereby dissipate the morbid products in muscle and nerve sheaths.
In order to give the massage effectively, the patient lies flat on the abdomen on a hard mattress laid on the floor, or on a low bed. It cannot be properly given on a soft yielding bed, which lacks sufficient resistance, and dissipates
the force applied to the muscles of the back. It is not necessary to remove all the clothes ; the best material between the hand of the masseur and the patient being sheep's wool. Kneeling close by the patient on the floor or standing at the side of the couch, the masseur kneads the painful structures overlying the sacrum, or in the lumbar regions, taking care to avoid making any marked pressure directly on the bone itself. In the beginning only moderate strength should be used, but the pressure must gradually be increased to a maximum, at first with the tips of the fingers, then the knuckles, and finally the whole fist. The kneading movements are followed by hacking motions, in which the muscles are struck with the side of the open hand, the force being increased from piano, through forte, to fortissimo. In giving the kneading movements, the masseur works most comfortably on the same side as the structure under treatment, while in giving the hacking movements, he operates best across the patient. It is most important, says Schreiber, whose description I am following as closely as possible, to persist in giving the active local treatment in those very places where, according to the statement of the patient, the pain is most sharply felt. When the deepest muscles are involved, such, for instance, as the multifidi spinse, as evidenced by the great difficulty or impossibility of rotating the spinal column, pressure movements must be used which demand all the strength of the operator, using not only his hand, but the entire weight of his body. The hacking movements are not made from the shoulder joints but from the elbow. The amount of force used will depend upon the grade of the trouble, and upon the character of the muscular structures under treatment, as well as upon the amount of subcutaneous fat, and the experience of the physician. Any little periods of rest in the treatment may be employed to test the progress made ; if the patient feels pain, the treatment must be begun again and directed to the painful spot. The following movements are to be recommended:
Climbing over a staff.
Schreiber recommends that these movements should be repeated ten times. While at first they cause lively pain, this disappears in about half an hour, and they can be done without any suffering at all.
Those who are inclined to feel despondent over the treatment of an inveterate lumbago, would do well to recall the emphatic statement of Schreiber, namely, that his collective experiences justify him in the assertion that every muscular rheumatism, whether acute or chronic, wherever it is located, can be healed by mechano-therapy. Even cases of twenty years' standing are susceptible of the relief of the 25ain and the complete restoration of function within a relatively short time.
A good liniment for the patient's use is chloroform and aconite liniment. Some patients are benefited by a coarse salt rub, night and morning. Great relief is experienced for a time by the application of the familiar hot- water bag, though it is not curative. I used to relieve my patients for a long period, and in many cases effect a cure, by brushing the affected area lightly six to eight times with the Paquelin cautery heated to a cherry-red heat. If passed quickly over the surface the cautery never blisters, but leaves behind a slightly red streak. Some patients dread the notion more than the thing itself. This treatment may be used every five to seven days.
Static electricity has been used with beneficial results in many cases. Where all other means have failed, the disease has been treated by the injection of five milligrams of cocain in solution under the arachnoid of the spinal column, with instant relief.
power electric light in a large parabolic reflector (sec Fig. 74:). This may be applied for about ten minutes every day, shifting the light over the surface when it grows too hot in one place. If the skin is covered with a wet towel the treatment is more easily borne ; the moisture shuts off some of the heat rays, but does not interfere with the chemical rays. Patients invariably express themselves as greatly relieved at once and usually go on improving day by day.
In many of the cases much relief has been obtained by using woven elastic trunks, fitted about each thigh, and then about the buttocks. These are laced or buckled, so that the pressure may be controlled, and represent one of the most reliable of the various supports.
Another support and one which has probably been more satisfactory than any other, except perhaps the elastic trunks, has been devised by R. B. Osgood. It consists of a sacral pad to which a spring steel crib is attached. The ends of the crib curve backward, and to these wide webbing belts are attached, which, when fastened in front, crowd the sacral pad firmly against the upper half of the sacrum because of the curve in the crib part of the brace. The brace is kept in place by attaching it to the corsets by means of steels, and these not only hold the brace down, but, by steadying the lumbar spine, at the same time lessen the tendency to strain the sacro-iliac joints. In order to keep the brace in' place when sitting, a narrow strap is attached at the base of the crib, which is tightened when the thighs are flexed and prevents the brace from springing away from the body. This brace, in connection with the elastic trunk, has given relief in the severe cases when either alone was not satisfactory.
Sacro-iliac Disease. — In sacro-iliac disease, proper support must be given to the pelvis. Goldthwait's treatment for the sacro-iliac cases varies according to the extent and the pathology of the lesion. The malposition, as he has discovered, is a backward subluxation of the upper part of the sacrum, either unilateral or bilateral, the correction of which may be brought about in several ways. Sometimes the patient is greatly relieved by lying at night on a firm bed with a firm hair pillow under the hollow of the back. In the more severe cases Goldthwait has succeeded in correcting the luxation by extending the spine, the legs resting on one table, and the head and shoulders on another, with the face downwards and the body hanging unsupported between. The sacrum is thus replaced and a plaster jacket is applied. In cases of recent injury, rest may be enjoined and later a removable jacket applied, to be worn for several months. In the joint strains or the relaxations without displacements of the bones, which represent the greatest number of cases, some sort of firm support to the pelvic bones is all that is necessary, and there need be little interruption to the activities of daily life. Goldthwait employs a spring steel brace, extending up the spine and so adjusted as to make firm pressure over the sacrum. In other cases in women, a wide webbing belt attached
to the base of the corsets and kept up by the insertion of light steels gives enough pelvic support to ntford relief. 8nch belts are made more efficacious by attaching a lirm pad in the back so as to make pressure over the upper part of the sacrum.
I have cited Goldthwait in detail in order to aid in placing this important matter before the profession at large and to stimulate investigation into a class of ailments Tvhich, although common, has not hitherto been recognized. The practitioner may not feel inclined himself to undertake treatments so decidedly orthopedic in their nature, but it is at least important that he should discern these affections as a cause of backache, and be able intelligently to secure the cooperation of a specialist in bringing relief to a patient "who must otherwise continue to suffer indefinitely.
The distressing post-operative backaches can be avoided by keeping the limbs and the body slightly flexed during an operation, by using pads and cushions under shoulders and knees, and, above all, under the small of the back. Anyone who will try lying on a hard flat surface without an anesthetic will find that it is a severe, almost unbearable strain to remain in the position for half an hour or more.
COCCYGODYNIA.
Definition. — Coccygodynia is a term coined by Sir James Y. Simpson, to designate several affections whose most marked characteristic is pain in and about the coccyx. The absence of any knowledge as to pathological conditions associated with the affection permits the grouping under one head of several troubles whose chief feature is pain in a common situation. As a clinical complaint, coccygodynia presents definite and clear-cut characteristics.
Early Cases. — The condition was first recognized by Dr. J. C. Xott of Mobile, whose original publication on the subject appeared in the New Orleans Medical Journal for May, 1844, under the title " Extirpation of the os coccygis for neuralgia." Xott's description of the clinical symptoms is lively and the theories he advances to explain the pain are ingenious. The patient was twenty-five years old, unmarried, and what we should, to-day, call a neurasthenic. Xott says " her condition was a truly pitiable one. Her general health was completely shattered and her strength exhausted with dyspepsia, constant nervous headaches, menstruation regular but difficult, excruciating pain at the jDoint of the coccyx, pains in the uterus, vagina, neck of the bladder, and back. The most prominent symptom was the exquisite pain at the point of the coccyx, which became intolerable when she sat up, walked, or went to stool, or, in short, when motion or pressure were communicated to it in any way." This condition had followed a blow on the coccyx four years previously from which the patient recovered after several weeks' suffering, the pain not returning until about ten months before she was seen by Dr. ]^ott.
As medicines had already been faithfully tried, E'ott at once proposed extirpation of the bone as the only chance of relief. The operation was performed, of course without an anesthetic, through a vertical incision about two inches long. The bone was disarticulated at the second joint for about two inches, separated from its muscular and ligamentous attachments, and so dissected out and removed. 'Nott observes that the nerves were exquisitely sensitive and the operation, though short, was, he says, " one of the most painful I ever performed." The last bone of the coccyx was carious and hollowed out to a mere shell, l^ott further remarks, " this case is novel and instructive — I know of no one like it on record. E^o doubt many similar cases have occurred and their true nature been overlooked. I have another at this moment." The result of ISTott's treatment was an entire recovery.
I have thus particularly described this early case, both because I wish to do credit to an able surgeon, one of the most original of our American pioneers, and because, aside from the antiseptic precautions which would now be present, the operation, as done to-day, does not differ in any important particular from its prototype in Nott's hands sixty-four years ago.
Sir James Y. Simpson first disseminated a knowledge of coccygodynia and he also operated for its relief by cutting the ligaments of the sides of the coccyx. His earliest publication on the subject was in the Medical Press and Circular for July, 1859 ; a full account is also given in his " Clinical Lectures on Diseases of Women," published in 1863. Simpson's publications were followed at this time by others on the same subject, but of late the affection has fallen into undeserved neglect, little attention being paid to it except in quack advertisements, as can be seen by looking through the Index Medicus for the last five years.
Etiology. — Coccygodynia is peculiarly a disease of women; I do not know of any disease, affecting an organ common to both sexes, which is so exclusively feminine. Beigel, as long ago as 18Y5, noted that it occurred in children.
Many cases begin with a fall upon the coccyx or a blow in which it is struck; in most of my cases such a history was given, though no fracture, dislocation, or necrosis of the bone was found at operation. A common source of injury to which patients frequently attribute the trouble, is horseback riding ; one of Simpson's cases suffered intensely for years after a fall from a horse. Pregnancy and labor are important factors, though not so influential as Scanzoni believed, for he states with emphasis that thirty-four cases observed by him had all borne children. But in seven successive cases which I operated upon at the Johns Hopkins Hospital, three were unmarried, one had never had a child, and in not one of the other three was there a history of an instrumental or even of a severe labor.
The close analogy of coccygodynia with rheumatic pain in the fascia and muscles above, must be borne in mind, for it is within the range of possibility that the affection may prove to be one, not of the bone, but of the tendinous structures. Rheumatism has been assigned as the cause in many
damp gTOund.
Coccygodynia is often associated with uterine and other pelvic ailments, although I do not believe there is any direct causal relationship, what connection exists being j)robably an indirect one through the general impression made upon the health and the consequent neurasthenia. Proctitis and various rectal complaints occasionally cause disturbances similarly referred.
'Noit called the affection " a neuralgia of the coccyx " and M. Graefe comes back to the same interpretation, declaring after a careful study of his cases, all of whom had borne children, that he does not believe it is due merely to the trauma of labor, but that consecutive changes in the coccygeal plexus are to blame which are analogous to intercostal neuralgia, but as little capable of macro- or microscopical demonstration. SeeligTuiiller, in Eulenburg's Eeal Encyclopedie, under the caption " Coccygodynia," follows Graefe's idea and gives the affection an equivalent name, " l^euralgie des Plexus Coccygeal."
I have cited these different opinions as to etiology, because here as elsewhere, the rational treatment must go hand in hand with our convictions as to the cause. In a general way it may be said that nervous people are most subject to the complaint, but it not infrequently appears in those who show no other sign of a neurosis.
Symptoms. — The essential symptom of coccygodynia is pain in and around the coccyx. Its intensity varies all the way from a mere suggestion or a dull aching, to excruciating suffering, requiring morphin for its relief. The pain may be intermittent, but it is usually continuous, with an intensity which varies greatly from day to day. The onset is usually gradual, but not by any means always. The act of sitting down or rising always exaggerates the pain, and in some cases sitting becomes unbearable; so that it has been called " the sitting pain." In one of my patients this annoyance was met by having a hole cut in the chair upon which she was accustomed to sit. But it is not always possible to provide such a convenience, and the sufferer may be driven to sit uneasily, first on one hip and then on the other. Occasionally in walking each step brings on a twinge of pain and the patient is gradually reduced to a sedentary existence.
The act of defecation is almost always associated with increased discomfort. Most patients with coccygodynia find the trouble worse in pregnancy. In one of my cases it was severe at such times, but almost absent in the intervals.
The causes at work in a given case of coccygodynia cannot, as a rule, be ascertained. It is certain that the majority of cases are not dependent upon abnormal length or mobility of the coccyx, nor upon- fractures, dislocations, or anchylosis or necrosis of the bone. Anchylosis is too common a condition, for Hvrtl, in a collection of one liuudro(l and eighty coccyges, found there were thirtv-two in which a luxation and a consecutive ancliylosis was present.
Diagnosis. — Coccygodynia, in its milder grades, is quite common, but the severe cases are rare. Although little attention is paid to it by the profession, it is astonishing how well known it is to the laity. There is scarcely a community without its well-known sufferer from " elongated spinal column," " fractured or dislocated coccyx," or some similarly named malady ; this is probably due largely to the dissemination of quack literature. The condition is readily discovered on examination, in which the patient should lie in the dorsal or the left lateral posture; the index finger is then introduced into the rectum, and the coccyx grasped between the thumb and finger. Movement of the coccyx often reproduces the pain exactly. A further thorough examination must be made of the pelvic organs in order to exclude disease there.
Treatment. — The treatment of a coccygodynia will depend upon the severity of the case. In the lighter forms much can be accomplished by mild measures, such as proper hygienic and medical remedies, while the severer cases, as a rule, yield readily to surgical treatment. In addition to these measures, faradization may be used. By this means, Graefe (Zeitschr. f. Geh. u. Gyn., 1888, vol. 15, p. 344) cured all his cases, five of them in from five to eight, and the sixth after twelve sittings. One pole is applied to the sacrum and one to the coccyx and the surrounding tissues. Seeligman put one pole in the vagina, and so cured a violent case of twelve years' standing with a single treatment. Bearing in mind the close analogy of this disease to the lumbago group of affections described in the preceding section, a thorough-going massage treatment ought to be faithfully tried before resorting to surgery.
If these gentler means fail to persuade the pain to let go its hold, then surgery comes in as a boon, as the operation of removing the coccyx is neither difficult nor dangerous.
Simpson's operation of election consisted simply in freeing the coccyx from all its muscular and fascial attachments ; by this means he cured a number of cases, but it is technically as difficult as and less certain than the removal of the coccyx. In bad cases of coccygodynia, the removal of the coccyx is almost always curative. I relate the following illustrative case: Miss M., age twenty-six, Johns Hopkins Hospital, June, 1899. The patient complained of dysmenorrhea and a severe pain in the coccyx. She came of a healthy, in no way neurotic family, and had always been well up to the time her present trouble began. The dysmenorrhea had been present four years and the pain in the coccyx about one year. Formerly, menstruation had been entirely painless ; it was always regular. The pain in the coccyx was associated with a sense of fulness and swelling; since its onset it had grown steadily worse, until it was impossible for her to sit do\ATi directly on the bone, and movement of the bowels was extremely painful. The great discomfort constantly endured was gradually producing nervous exhaustion.
Physical examination showed a well nourished and fully developed woman, with a retroflexed uterus, movable, and normal in size, normal tubes and ovaries. The coccyx was of normal size and position and not very movable; it was, however, exquisitely sensitive to pressure or the least movement. In view of these findings, the cervix was dilated and the uterus suspended, hoping that the relief of the intra-pelvic condition would also relieve the coccygodynia. In this I was disappointed, as she was in no way improved; so I operated again and removed the coccyx. The wound healed j)romptly, and the operation gave complete relief. The patient married later, has had several children, and remains in perfect health.
Sedatives and analgesics, such as morphin and cocain, ought always to be employed with the greatest care, as they only afford temporary relief and are liable to induce a pernicious habit worse than the disease itself.
ATRESIA OF THE VULVA AND VAGINA.
It is now a well-recognized fact that atresias of the genital tract, hitherto supposed to be congenital in all but the rarest instances, are sometimes acquired in the course of the acute infectious diseases, and that, in all probability, much may be done towards their prevention by a recognition of this fact.
Atresia of the vulva or the vagina may arise from infectious disease at any period of life, but it is far more frequent in childhood. A seemingly trifling infection of the genitals accompanied by insignificant symptoms may lead to a complete closure of the vagina or the hymen which will remain unobserved until suspicion is excited by the absence of menstruation at puberty. Atresias are then a class of affections which is of the utmost importance for several reasons. In the first place they have hitherto been comparatively neglected by the gynecologist, and in the second, it lies entirely within the province of the general practitioner to recognize them at their outset, which, as yet, has hardly ever been done, and to prevent their extension by the application of suitable remedies.
One of the first suggestions as to a causal relation between closure of the genital tract and infectious disease was made by Mossmann in 1881 (Amer. Jour. Ohst., 1881, vol. 14, p. 564). Fifteen years later ISTagel (Zeitschr. f. Geh. u. Gyn., 1896, vol. 34, p. 381) pointed out that it is rare to find a true congenital atresia of the vagina without some arrest of development in the uterus and adnexa, and stated that, in his opinion, most cases of so-called congenital atresias of the vagina or hymen, where the uterus and adnexa are normal, are acquired. He further held that the majority of such cases are the result of inflammation of the vulva or vagina arising during the course of the acute infectious diseases in childhood. Pincus, writing of primary amenorrhea in 1903 (Monatsschr. f. Geh. u. Gyn., 1903, vol. 17, p. Y51) laid stress upon the fact that many cases of retarded menstruation, accepted without question as due to congenital obstruction, are really caused by atresia occasioned by infectious disease. In confirmation of this opinion he points out that in four hundred and thirty-nine cases of atresia of the genital tract collected by
266 ACUTE INTECTIOTTS DISEASES AS A CAUSE OF PELVIC DISEASE.
Xeuo-ebauer (I. D., Berlin, 1895) the proportion of acquired to congenital was two to one (exclusive of cases arising after parturition). The following instructive case is cited by P incus :
A girl of fifteen had a severe attack of scarlatina, during which she menstruated for the first time. Before and after this menstruation she had a vao'inal discharge lasting three weeks, which at times was stained with blood. She became thin and pale, complaining of irritability of the bladder and a feeling of uneasiness in the rectum, with headache and occasional fever. Menstruation did not return, and at the end of two months she applied at the clinic for relief, when examination showed that the entrance to the vagina was closed by a superficial membrane of a dark red color, traversed by blood vessels and somewhat excoriated. On rectal examination the pelvic organs were found normal, but a mass was felt in the lower part of the vagina. The superficial membrane was then incised and about two teaspoonfuls of a thick, purulent fluid evacuated ; six days later a vaginal examination showed that the hymen itself was not closed, but completely covered by the membrane just described, which was easily stripped off. The atresia was in all probability the effect of an inflammatory process set up by the scarlatina, but had the disease occurred a few years earlier, the condition of the genital organs by the time puberty was reached might have been such as to suggest that it was congenital.
The following cases of atresia of the genital tract, reported as the effect of infectious disease of various kinds, have been collected from literature, principally from ISTeugebauer {loc. cit.) :
Typhoid fever. — According to Pincus, typhoid fever is the most frequent cause of atresia, although the fact, he thinks, is little known. The literature of the subject bears out his opinion, and I have collected nine cases, the largest number associated with any one disease :
Diphtheria. — It Avould seem that diphtheria, with its known tendency to invade mucous membranes in other localities than the throat, would be responsible for inflammation of the genital tract as often as or oftener than other infectious diseases, but this does not seem to be the case. T have found but one case in which atresia of the vagina was reported as arising from it, and that was reported by Orth and cited by ISTeugebauer (loc. cit.).
Measles. — Pincus states that, to the best of his belief, no case of atresia of the vagina arising from measles has been published. Two cases of imperforate hymen, however, have been reported by Wuth (I. D. Jena, 1893) which possibly arose from this cause. In both instances the patients, who were suffering from primary amenorrhea, had had measles in childhood, but no other infectious disease; in one case a distinct scar could be traced along the closed hymen.
The whole number of cases cited is not so large as might be expected, but it must be remembered that it is only within recent years that attention has been called to the subject, and these cases have been collected from papers written to develop points quite distinct from the question under discussion. I have met with fifteen cases of atresia where no mention is made of causation; in a few instances the context implies that it was considered congenital, but in not one of these cases is there any mention of the previous history of the patient as regards infectious diseases.
The ease with which acquired atresia may be overlooked is shown in the case of Pincus just cited, and another case reported by him shows the importance of minute inquiry into the presence of infectious diseases in childhood.
A girl of fifteen, who had never menstruated, died in the third week of typhoid fever from peritonitis induced by rupture of a uterine tube. Examination of the external genitalia, made shortly before death, showed a fresh tear in an otherwise imperforate hymen, which had doubtless occasioned retention of the menstrual fluid with resulting hematosalpinx and rupture of the tube. The patient's mother stated that her daughter had an attack of scarlet fever about four years before, after which she had a vaginal discharge containing " little fragments " (probably shreds from coagulation or necrosis). This information was obtained only by persistent inquiry, and in its absence the case might easily have been set down as congenital.
INFLAMMATION OF THE UTERUS AND OVARIES.
In most of the text-books on gynecology, I find the " eruptive fevers/' the " acute exanthemata," or the " acute infectious diseases " mentioned in the list of specified causes of ovaritis and endometritis, hut in none which I have seen is there any more particular mention of the subject, with one exception, namely, " A Text-hook on Diseases of AVomen," by C. B. Penrose, 1001, pp. 197, 330. Periodical literature is little more satisfactory, for of the papers scattered here and there at wdde intervals, only two are important.
Ovaries. — Lawson Tait (''Diseases of the Ovaries," 1883, p. 100) called attention in 1874 to the occurrence of pelvic peritonitis after attacks of scarlatina or small-pox, stating that he had observed a number of cases of the kind in question during an outbreak of small-pox at Birmingham. Tait was of opinion that there was a special variety of inflammation of the ovaries associated with certain of the exanthemata which might or might not be followed by general atrophy of the organs, and some years later he published a case of superinvolution of the uterus which he believed to be of this kind.
After the publication of Tait's opinion the possibility of a special form of inflammation of the genital organs associated with infectious diseases was occasionally discussed, but only two of the contributions to the subject are based upon scientific evidence.
The first of these papers, by Lebedinsky (Abst. in Centrhl. f. Gyn., 1877,. vol. 1, p. 110) treats of the changes observed in the ovaries after death from scarlatina. The macroscopical appearances were found to be unaltered, but microscopical examination showed that the Graafian follicles were in a state of parenchymatous inflammation, varying in degree from a slight cloudy swelling to complete destruction of the epithelium. The younger the follicle the more severe the changes. The stroma of the ovary was not affected except from hyperemia of some of the solitary follicles in the connective tissue. The greatest changes were found in the ovaries of a child eight years old, who had measles three weeks after recovery from scarlet fever, and died after an illness of eight days. Here the greater part of the follicles was filled with a finely granular structureless mass, and the greater part of the cortical layer of the follicles had altogether disappeared. Scar tissue was present at all stages of the inflammatory process. Lebedinsky considered that the changes in the ovary were similar to those taking place in other parenchymatous organs during scarlatina, and believed that the degeneration of such a number of follicles results in more or less impairment of the function, sufficient in some cases to affect the reproductive capacity.
The second article is by Skrobansky (Jour, d'ohst. et de gyn., Oct., 1901) and contains the results of investigations into the condition of twenty-seven ovaries belonging to women and cliildren dying of scarlatina, diphtheria.
typlioid fever, and miliary tuberculosis. In all cases the ovaries had undergone more or less degeneration, but its character was the same, no matter what was the form of infection. Furthermore, neither the intensity nor the duration of the disease made any difference in the extent of the affection. In some instances where the disease was most virulent, the changes in the ovaries were of the slightest, while in others, where the disease was much lighter in intensity, the ovaries were considerably affected. From these facts Skrobansky and Lebedinsky draw the same conclusions, namely, that the changes caused by infectious diseases upon the ovaries are exactly the same as those produced by them upon other parenchymatous organs.
Since the appearance of the second of these papers, a case of abscess of the ovary during typhoid fever has been reported by B. C. Plirst (/ow?\ Amer. Med. Assoc, Feb. 11, 1905), and another in which the uterine appendages were inflamed during the same disease by E. Dirmoser (Centrhl. f. Gyn., 1904, voL 28, p. 117Y).'
Uterus. — The changes wrought by infectious diseases upon the uterus were investigated by Massin {Arch. f. Oeh. u. Gyn., 1891, vol. 40, p. 146), and I believe his conclusions have not been contradicted. He gives a brief review of the literature and shows that up to the time he wrote, opinions upon the subject were so contradictory that it might be considered an open question. He examined the changes in the uterus, both gross and microscopical, in eighteen cases, two of which had died of croupous pneumonia, three of typhoid, one of dysentery, and twelve of ''relapsing fever." In all of them he found definite inflammatory changes in the endometrium, accompanied, in many instances, by hemorrhage leading to a typical hemorrhagic condition. The inflammatory changes were the same as those observed under ordinary circumstances, but they varied in intensity with the disease, as in all cases where the temperature was persistently high there was hemorrhage, while it was present in only half the number of the milder cases. The substance of the uterus was little, if at all affected, although in a few cases the changes appeared to extend out from the endometrium. Massin concluded, therefore, that the acute infectious diseases must be regarded as one of the causes of uterine disease in women, and especially, he says, in those cases where the disease occurs before puberty.
The question whether the endometrium is liable to be affected during gonorrheal vaginitis in little girls has been recently investigated by Jung (Centrhl. f. Gyn., 1904, vol. 28, p. 991). He examined nine children between the ages of two and nine, in whom the gonococcus was known to be present in either the vagina or the urethra when the child entered the hospital. The examinations were repeated every eight days in order to ascertain whether the gonococcus was still present in the cervical secretion, and were kept up for three or four months. Jung came to the conclusion that infection of the cervical
is of extreme rarity.
From these three articles, therefore, Lehedinsky's, Skrobausky's, and Massin's, it seems that disease of the uterus or ovaries may have a starting point in the acute infectious diseases, but that the inflammatory changes excited by these aftections are not in any way different from those which they cause in other organs. It seems probable that the pelvic organs are more or less affected in almost all cases of infectious disease, but if the changes are slight they will pass away with recovery, like other changes incidental to the disease ; on tlie other hand, should there be disturbances of a serious character, the foundation for future disease of a subacute or chronic nature will be laid.
The whole question is clearly stated by Penrose (Joe. cit.). "Acute rhemnatism,"' he says, " and the eruptive fevers may produce oophoritis. The disease of the ovary is often overlooked during the acute attack while the attention of the physician is engaged with the general affection. These diseases, occurring in childhood, are the probable cause of some of the damaged and chronically inflamed ovaries with whick women suffer in later life. To these diseases are also to be attributed many cases of arrested development of the sexual organs, the phenomena of which appear only after menstruation has begun. The ovarian disease in these cases may be insidious. Decided microscopical changes have been found in the ovarian follicles in scarlet fever, though to the naked eye the gland was unchanged." Again he says : " Acute inflammation of the endometrium sometimes occurs during the exanthemata. The changes which take place in the mucous membrane are similar to those seen in other mucous membranes during the course of the disease. The local condition is usually limited by the duration of the general disease. It is probable that some of the cases of arrested development in the internal organs of generation as well as cases of chronic tubal disease and ovarian disease seen during later life may be traced to this exanthematous form of endometritis occurring during girlhood."'
The fact that the acute infectious diseases are the exciting cause of many cases of pelvic disease places the responsibility for their causation prominently upon the shoulders of the general practitioner. As Penrose says, the symptoms indicating the extension of the original disease to the pelvic organs mav easilv be overlooked while the physician is occupied with the general symptoms, especially as, in the case of the ovaries at least, there is no relation between the virulence of the disease and the extent of local changes. It is of the greatest importance that the physician should never lose sight of the fact that the pelvic organs, the vulva, and the vagina may be affected, nor allow the slightest indication of the fact to escape him. Under any circumstances a case presenting symptoms of vaginal disturbance should be carefully watched for some time after recovery, and in the case of little girls it is well to warn their parents that they should be under professional observation during the establishment of the menstrual function.
MALARIA AND DISEASE OF THE PELVIC OECrANS. 271
It may not be amiss to call attention here to the frequency with which menorrhagia or metrorrhagia accompanies infectious disease. The fact that the endometrium is so constantly affected makes it not unreasonable to suppose that the uterine hemorrhage, hitherto attributed to constitutional causes, may be a direct effect of the inffammatory condition of the uterus, and therefore a danger signal to the physician. If there is any purulent or bloody discharge or other evidence of a grave inflammatory or sloughing process going on, it will be best to irrigate the vagina at least once a day, using a glass catheter as a douche nozzle and washing it out with a two per cent solution of carbolic acid or a one per cent solution of permanganate of potash in hot water until the discharge ceases.
The relation between malaria and disease of the pelvic organs has been investigated by Lemanski, who published a book on the subject in 1889. Lemanski, who practised medicine in Tunis for six years, had ample opportunity for observing the effects of malaria upon the various affections of the reproductive organs. The following conclusions are taken from a copious review of his book in the Revue prac. d' ohstetrique et de gynecologie, 1899, vol. 15, p. 39:
The malarial cachexia is a common etiological factor in the genital affections of women living in climates where it prevails. According to Lemanski's observations, cases of endometritis and metritis in malarial districts defy all forms of treatment, even curettage, until a course of specific treatment for malaria is instituted ; it should be added, however, that even in cases where malaria is known to be a causal factor, curettage is often necessary to effect a cure, in association with the specific treatment.
Menstruation is often noticeably affected by the malarial cachexia even in the absence of any organic lesion. In some cases it is profuse and over frequent ; in others complete amenorrhea exists from the beginning of the malarial infection. In a few cases there is metrorrhagia and the intermenstrual hemorrhages may show a periodicity resembling that of malaria and disappearing under the influence of quinine.
Pregnancy is often unfavorably affected by malaria. Labor is difficult and abortions of frequent occurrence, especially in the pernicious form. Eclampsia, on the other hand, is not common. The puerperium is apt to be accompanied by a rise of temperature, even in the absence of all local infection, but the elevation is not continuous. If the temperature is taken every hour, or two hours, throughout the day it will be found to be normal at some periods and slightly elevated at others. The special time of the day associated with the elevation is not mentioned.
given hypodeniucally. Arsenic is higbly recomnieuded, and Lenianski advises giving it in tlic form of a rectal enema, containing half a centigTamme (about one-fifteenth of a gTain) of arsenions acid in twenty-fonr hours, or if it is preferred an equal qnantity of arseniate of soda.
I may add that it is most desirable for all physicians practising in malarious districts to bear in mind the influences which the infection may bear upon gynecological affections under their care. .The existence of a malarial influence is easily settled by an examination of the blood. Dr. Lemanski considers it especially important to remember that there may be a complete absence of all symptoms commonly associated with malaria.
H. C. Coe has reported an interesting case (Amer. Jour. Med. Sci., 1891, vol. 101, p. 365) in which the patient, a married woman about twenty years of age, had an attack of violent pain in the region of the right ovary accompanying menstruation and continuing after it had ceased. After the pain had lasted several days, in spite of all measures for its relief, it was noticed that it became severe every afternoon, reached its acme during the night, and then subsided by morning, though it never disappeared entirely. On inquiry it appeared that the patient had had a well-marked attack of intermittent fever of the quotidian type a few months before, in which the chill had occurred in the afternoon. Acting upon the assumption that the pain might be malarial in its nature, large doses of quinine were given each morning for several successive days with complete relief of suffering. The pain in this instance was undoubtedly associated with ovarian congestion, for the patient had had inflammatory trouble of the right ovary a year or two before, but, as Coe suggests, it seems possible to regard it as one of malarial neuralgia affecting the nerves around the ovary and comparable to similar neuralgia in the trifacial. The periodicity of the suffering he ascribed to the malarial element.
METASTASES TO THE SEXUAL ORGANS DURING PAROTITIS.
It is well kno^vn that parotitis in boys and men is sometimes complicated with orchitis, supposed to arise from metastasis, but there has been a difference of opinion as to whether the ovaries are ever affected in a similar manner. Within the last few years, however, two intelligent articles upon the subject have appeared which would seem to answer the question in the affirmative.
One of these papers, which appeared in 1902, is by a Russian, Troitski; it is based upon observations made during an epidemic of parotitis in young girls, where the ovaries were affected in a number of cases (Russkoi Vratcli, 1902, vol. 1, p. 582). The other article, which appeared the following year, is by G. MclSTaughton ; it contains one case under personal observation, and gives an excellent review of literature on t-he subject, together with a translation of the main points of the Russian article (BrooM. Med. Jour., 1903, vol. 17, P- 115). . ^ ^
thirty-three cases. The ages of the patients varied from nine to fifteen years, the majority being between twelve and fourteen. Of the whole number of patients the ovaries were affected in thirteen, eight of whom had menstruated. It was noticeable that when both parotids were affected, the ovaries on both sides were swollen and tender ; while when only one parotid was inflamed, the ovarv on the same side alone was attacked. The tenderness and swelling in the ovary lasted, as a rule, longer than in the parotid ; in no case was there any sign of abscess formation. As no vaginal examination was made, there is no certainty of diagnosis, but the tenderness and swelling in the ovarian region were so marked as to be typical. The mammary glands were never affected. Considerable pains were taken to ascertain whether the attacks were followed by any disturbances of menstruation, but in every case the answer was negative.
Mc^aughton gives a number of cases collected from literature as well as his own, which was that of a young girl, eighteen years old, who had double parotitis ; on the fifth day, when the swelling was beginning to subside, she was attacked by pain in both ovarian regions, which increased in severity for two days, becoming at last so intense as to require opium for its relief. At the end of the two days a bloody discharge appeared from the vagina and the other symptoms subsided. ]^o mention is made of swelling or tenderness. The patient had menstruated regularly for four years, and her last period had been eleven days before the mumps appeared. She did not menstruate again for nearly six weeks (unless the bloody discharge during the parotitis is regarded as menstrual), making the interval between the two periods nearly two months in all.
Thirteen cases are given by Troitski ; MclS^aughton gives fifteen taken from literature, besides one of his own; to these I can add three, making a total of thirty-two, some of which, at least, were observed with the utmost care and intelligence, and they would seem to leave no doubt that the ovaries are sometimes affected in parotitis, although, as MclSTaughton says, it is perhaps going too far to assume that the ovaries alone are definitely affected, for, in the absence of any vaginal examination, it is impossible to exclude other pelvic inflammations or engorgements, especially as no opportunity for autopsies in such cases is ever afforded. The complication is probably a rare one, though not so rare as has been assumed, and if the cases which do occur were brought under the attention of the profession we might find it more common than we now suppose.
Swelling of the mammary glands and of the labia have been reported as occurring during mumps, and MclSTaughton gives a case of each, taken from the literature, as well as two cases of abortion, occurring during the progress of a parotitis and attributed to its influence.
The relation between the parotid gland and the sexual organs is illustrated by a unique case reported by A. Harkin (Lancet, 1886, vol. 1, p. 374) of a woman who had an enlargement of the left parotid during six successive pregnancies and at no other time. The swelling appeared soon after the beginning
of pregnancy and continued to increase nntil it reached the size of an orange. It lasted nntil pregnancy was over, beginning to disappear as soon as labor was finished and disappearing entirely by the end of a month, except for a slight permanent enlargement which persisted after the first attack. There was no redness nor tendency to suppuration, nor were there any of the usual symptoms of preg-nancy, such as morning sickness or increased salivation.
endometritis, p. 294.
A CATALOGUE of tlie inflammatory affections of the genital tract from the vulva up to the pelvic peritoneum would serve to show the various anatomical structures in which an inflammatory affection, especially a gonorrheal infection, is prone to lodge. The organs and parts thus affected are :
The pelvic peritoneum.
Vulvitis is a comparatively rare affection, seen oftenest in young persons with tender epithelia, easily attacked by micro-organisms, especially the gonococcus. The adult vagina, with its stratified epithelium, long resists the lodgment of an infection, but when once infected, it is slow to recover spontaneously. A vaginal infection is not, as a rule, of a gonorrheal character, except in the young, when it is transitory, owing to the readiness with which the vagina purges itself of its secretions and also to the fact that there are no crypts or glands to lodge an infection. The cervical canal, with its deep glands secreting a mucilaginous fluid, forms the readiest place for the lodgment of an infection, especially of a gonorrheal character, in the entire genital tract; once entered here, the pathogenic organisms are exceedingly difiicult to dislodge. The endometrium, on the other hand, in spite of the fact that anatomically it would seem to form a most favorable nidus, is rarely found infected with a chronic disease, outside of the puerperal period. This is probably due to the monthly purging of this membrane. The uterine tubes, when slightly inflamed, quickly become closed in the portion which traverses
276 VTLVITIS. VAGINITIS. CERVICITIS. ENDOMETEITIS.
the uterine cornua ; in like manner the fimbriated end soon becomes agglutinated to the adjacent peritoneum and inverted on itself. In this way the tubes are converted into closed sacs or almost closed sacs, discharging the pus with difficulty, if at all, and thus serving to lodge an infection for years. The ovary is not a common nidus; in occasional cases, however, an infection, particularly the gonococcus, enters the ruptured follicles and converts the ovary into a thick-walled abscess. Abscesses of the peritoneum outside of the tubes and ovaries are rare.
VULVITIS.
Symptoms. — The initial inflammation of a gonorrheal vulvitis soon subsides, but the affection may creep into the vulvo-vaginal glands on either side and linger in the gland itself (Bartholinitis) or in the duct, indefinitely. An acute vulvitis with free discharge and with swelling is practically always gonorrheal. A form of vulvitis is sometimes seen in children, due to utter neglect of cleanliness, which is of a decidedly milder character than the specific form. Chronic eczematous conditions, often affecting the skin as well as the mucous surfaces, must be distinguished from a true vulvitis. These are apt to be localized and accompanied by great thickening as well as the shedding of epithelial debris. The patients, too, are older women (see Chap. XII). Again, the little urethral glands (Skene's glands) may lodge a drop or two of pus containing . the infecting organism and so form a nidus for reinfection persisting for years. A gonorrheal vulvitis, like a gonorrheal vaginitis or salpingitis, is only to be recognized with certainty by a microscopic examination of a smear made on a slide. If the physician has not the requisite training he must send the specimen to some competent authority. An ordinary darning needle is heated red-hot at the eye end and allowed to cool; then a little of the secretion is taken up and smeared as thin as possible on a clean glass slide. This can be protected by putting another slide on top of it and sent by mail to the nearest pathologist for an opinion.
glands, the orifice of the urethra, or the cervix.
Treatment. — Acute vulvitis, which is practically the only form ever seen, is best treated by frequent bathing and cleansing of the parts; by vaginal douches which wash away the secretions pouring out of the vagina over the vulva; and by the application of solutions, such as the familiar lead-water and laudanum, or a saturated solution of boric acid.
When the disease lodges in one of the vulvo-vaginal glands (Bartholin's glands), one of several things is apt to take place. If the duct is affected and occluded, the gland swells up, so as to form a unilateral swelling, containing a clear sterile fluid (Bartholin's cyst), and causes the vulvar mucosa of one side to bulge out over the vaginal opening in the form of a mass the size of a pigeon's egg. If the gland itself is involved in the infection it becomes converted into a large tender abscess (see Tig. 75) which may rupture spontaneously. With
THE Duct. The treatment in such a case is free incision and drainage.
operation; a little freezing mixture, such as chloride of ethyl, sprayed on the part is sufficient, and then at the little frozen area a hypodermic needle is inserted and a weak solution of cocain and morphin injected. Schleich's solution (medium strength) is made after the following formula:
M. S. Use as a hypodermic injection.
After the tissues overlying the gland have been injected, it may be incised on its most prominent part ; the fluid then escapes and the white walls of the gland are seen. These are grasped with forceps and gradually dissected free from the underlying tissues. The bleeding from this operation is sometimes free, though never dangerous. The operator must be prepared to pass several
sutures from side to side after the extirpation of the lining membrane of the cyst, to close the wound. It is sometimes permissible simply to split the sac widely open and remove a large oval piece from the anterior wall, after which the sac is packed and allowed to close by granulation. This is not so good practice, however, as the extirpation, which takes a little more time and trouble. When the gland has become converted into an abscess, a somewhat similar plan of treatment may be adopted. The overlying tissues are frozen, and the abscess is then opened from top to bottom with a sharp knife, or with a knife followed by a pair of scissors, after which the cavity is packed with an iodoform gauze pack and allowed to granulate up from the bottom. It is a good plan to apply a saturated solution of carbolic acid on a little pledget of cotton to the whole interior of the sac. This generally wipes the infecting organisms out of existence and leaves a wound which heals much more rapidly.
When there is a chronic infection of the gland, sometimes with a fistula, the only right method of treatment is to anesthetize the patient and, after properly cleansing the parts, to cut down on the gland over its most prominent part, and extirpate it entirely, avoiding, if possible, any contamination of the wound. The operation may for a time be rather bloody, but the bleeding structures are readily seen and caught with forceps, and the hemorrhage is easily controlled by passing the catgut sutures, used to close the wound, deep enough to include and make firm pressure on the bleeding tissues.
The urethral glands (Skene's) when infected sometimes cause a decided pouting of the lower part of the urethra, and if one side only is involved, the gland may project out and displace the orifice of the urethra towards the opposite side of the body, or even convert it into a semi-lunar slit. By pressing the urethral orifice up under the pubic arch and squeezing a little from above downwards with the index finger, an infected urethral gland may be emptied of one or two drops of thick, yellow pus.
The best treatment for such a case is to use either cocain injections or a general anesthetic (nitrous oxide is the best here) and then lay the gland freely open with a small knife. After opening, it may be curetted or burned out with carbolic acid. It should be left open to granulate up from the bottom. Palliative treatments in the form of irrigations through the opening of the gland are readily carried out, but they bring about an improvement very slowly.
Suburethral Abscess. — This condition sometimes resembles an enlargement of the peri-urethral (Skene's) glands, but must not be mistaken for it. A suburethral abscess is a cushiony eminence or pouch, formed by a diverticulum from the urethra, which contains from half a drachm to a drachm of pus. The abscess is due to an infection of one of the urethral glands, and forms a tumor which sometimes becomes as large as the last joint of the thumb. It is apt to cause a good deal of pain with occasional discharges of pus, and it also gives rise to a pyuria which may be puzzling until the local examination is made. Even when the patient is examined, it is easy to over-
TREATMENT OF SUBUKETHKAL ABSCESS. 279
look a suburethral abscess, as it closely resembles a simple urethrocele, or a displacement downwards of the urethra itself. The diagnosis will not, however, escape an attentive observer who makes pressure on the prominence, which is often painful, and discovers the escape of pus by the urethral orifice. On introducing a catheter, the instrument may enter the bladder and draw clear urine, and then be carried into the pocket on the floor of the urethra and draw off pure pus. The treatment of such an abscess may be by a simple incision of the anterior vaginal wall, followed by drainage. This is often sufficient to cure the case. A more complete operation, and one more agreeable to the surgeon, is the oval excision of a piece of the anterior vaginal wall overlying the tumor, followed by the extirpation of the inner membrane of the abscess down to its urethral opening. The wound is then closed by interrupted sutures from side to side, after which the patient is entirely relieved.
VAGINITIS.
Inflammation of tlie vagina is most commonly seen at the extremes of life ; it is not so common in the middle-aged woman whose resisting powers are gi'cater, although often seen in prostitutes. There are several forms of the disease, according to the organism provoking the inflammation. Vaginitis may also he divided according to the condition of the tissues and the distribution of the disease. A further division is into acute and chronic forms.
is strictly scientific.
Gonorrheal vaginitis, perhaps the commonest form, is frequently found in the young, especially in children, whose epithelial tissues are more readily invaded hy the gonococcus. In the earlier stages, it is associated with a vulvitis hy which it is often obscured (gonorrheal vulvo-vaginitis) . The disease may remain for a long time localized in the vagina, or it may spread rapidly up through the uterus and out into the uterine tubes, or onto the peritoneum ; oftentimes the urethra is afi^ected coincidently, and occasionally the bladder. Even in little children a gonorrheal peritonitis is not uncommon. Gonorrheal vaginitis is characterized at first by more or less profuse, yellowish discharge, associated with heat and a sense of fullness and bearing down, later the discharge abates and continues without any local discomfort : a febrile reaction is sometimes seen at the outset. Gonorrheal vaginitis is the only infectious form, but it is so common and the danger of infection is so great, that every case of vaginitis should be examined microscopically, to determine whether or not the gonococcus is the active organism. The material for the microscopic examination may be taken at the vulvar outlet, or a speculum may be introduced, and a little of the purulent material gathered on the end of a platinimi loop, and sent to a competent pathologist, as already directed.
After the disease has persisted for some time, there is not infrequently a tendency to the formation of little iiapilhw which look like red warty gTOwths in the vagina and often bleed easily on being handled. This condition has been investigated particularly by C. Ruge.
FOKMS OF VAGINITIS. 281
True diphtheritic vaginitis has been frequently observed in childhood, associated with various grave infectious diseases, and is characterized by the appearance of diphtheritic membrane on the vulva extending into the vagina. In diphtheria, the organism at work is the bacillus of Loeffler ; in scarlatina, it is the streptococcus. A diphtheritic vaginitis has also been observed at childbirth, affecting the lacerated, bruised vaginal tissues, characterized by swelling and redness, and an excoriating sanious discharge, accompanied by a deposit of diphtheritic membrane over all parts of the vagina. The best treatment for this serious condition is first, in true diphtheria, to use antitoxin, and second, in all cases to make free use of local washes. It is well to apply the tincture of chloride of iron and glycerin, which is useful when applied to the throat, by saturating a pledget of cotton with it, placing this in the vagina, and leaving it in situ for an hour or more. The application should then be removed and followed by a warm cleansing boric acid douche. Where the hymen is unruptured, warm weak bichloride of mercury douches (1—10,000) should be given through a vesical catheter introduced well up into the vagina.
An exfoliative vaginitis is one characterized by casting off the superficial epithelium of the vagina either as a whole or in parts. Such a vaginitis may be provoked by a strong and stringent douche, or by the use of some of the patent medicine sujDpositories, so widely advertised, or by using jequirity. One of these suppositories, analyzed for Dr. Gellhorn, contained, besides cocoa butter, twenty-five per cent of dried alum. A similar exfoliation occurs after the application of a strong solution of nitrate of silver to the vagina. The exfoliated membrane will sometimes lie macerating in the vagina until it is removed. On placing it in a glass vessel full of warm water, the membrane floats out and its true nature is at once disclosed. This must not be mistaken for the thin rubber covers (condoms) sometimes accidentally left in the vagina and discovered by the physician. After the exfoliation, the vaginal mucosa is a little redder and more tender for a few days, but quickly resumes its normal appearance. The act of producing an exfoliation by a drug often gives a sense of relief to patients who are suffering from pelvic neuroses or mild disturbances, and this fact forms the basis of the popularity of some of the reprehensible nostrums so widely advertised. This form of vaginitis has been particularly studied by Gellhorn (Amer. Jour. Ohst., 1901, vol. 44, p. 342).
The emphysematous form of vaginitis, first described by Winckel, is rare, and need only be noted in passing. The vagina is covered with little blebs which contain gas, probably due to the invasion of some rare gas-forming bacillus.
Vaginitis of Pregnancy. — ]S[ot infrequently a peculiar form of vaginitis is seen in pregnancy, characterized by heat, redness, and swelling of the parts, associated with a curdy discharge, and an intense itching. The latter symptom, which is most aggravating and distressing, is the chief reason for the visit to
almost unbearable.
Post-operative Vaginitis. — Vaginitis is not an infrequent sequel to radical operations in which the nterus with its tubes and ovaries is amputated above the vaginal vault and removed. The extirpation of these organs undoubtedly exercises a profound effect upon the pelvic circulation; the nutrition of the parts is changed, the vagina loses its rugosities, its walls become thinner and smoother, and assume a senile character. With these changes there often develops a decided vaginitis, accompanied by a milky discharge and sometimes marked by patches of superficial red blotches scattered about the vault of the vagina. The whole picture is not unlike that of senile vaginitis, although there is no tendency to exfoliation or agglutination of the walls of the vagina at the vault.
In senile vaginitis, the secretion is milky, and the smooth vaginal walls show irregular jDatches of hyperemia, while the epithelium at the vault of the vagina often disappears, and the adjacent vaginal walls become agglutinated, in time obliterating the vaginal vault and forming septa, so that the vagina loses its capaciousness and becomes more or less conical. In all forms of vaginitis the secretion is milky or creamy or curdlike, but never mucoid or stringy.
The physician must never forget that it is perfectly within the range of possibility that a vaginitis should occur which is due to his own hands or instruments, indeed it often does occur; or that, in a patient who already has a vaginitis, the physician may himself be responsible for introducing a more virulent form of the disease. The surest way to do this is by inoculation with an unclean pessary. The instrument, taken out of a patient suffering from a vaginal infection, is perhaps rinsed in a little warm water and laid away in a drawer, and then introduced into the next patient, without any precautions to secure sterilization. The patient comes back in a few days with a sense of heat, swelling, and weight in the parts, due to the incipient vaginitis, which thus begins to run its protracted course. In the worst cases, the disease may even go farther and invade the uterine mucosa and the uterine tubes, sealing the avenues of maternity. The same infection may be brought about by the unclean nails and hands of the physician, who neglects to wash before and after examining each case. In investigating any case of florid vaginal infection, thin rubber gloves ought always to be worn to protect the examiner's hand and also the next person examined.
Treatment. — The best position in which to examine a patient is in the knee-breast posture, and the best instrument is a tubular speculum with a stout handle (see Eig. T6). This enables the observer to see all parts of the vagina, to note the conditions of the rug£e and of the parts between, and also to see whether there is an}^ pus pouring out of the cervix. In the more acute stages of the disease, the prominent portions of the vaginal mucosa along the ridges appear swollen and much reddened, while the parts between the prominent eminences are bathed in pus. A little pressure with the end of the speculum
TEEATMEISTT OF VAGIlSriTIS.
drives the blood out of the part, which, on withdrawal of the speculum, appears for the moment preternaturally pale ; the blood, however, at once rushes back into the dilated capillaries. In the more chronic forms of vaginitis, the distribution of the disease is more irregular and patchy and the secretion is less.
The treatment of vaginitis, other than the special forms already spoken of, may be carried out by the patient herself using a douche, or by the physician who gives local treatments at his office or at the bedside.
Douches are most useful here, as they serve both to carry away the irritating material, and to heal and regenerate the diseased tissues. The simplest form of douche is hot water. To this it is well to add a dessertspoonful of common salt to the quart. The patient should take a hot douche, lasting from five to ten or fifteen minutes, once or twice a day, according to the gravity of the affection. The temperature of the water at first should be 105° to 110° Y.,
and this should then be increased rapidly up to 120° if the patient can stand it without much discomfort. While taking the douche, the patient should rest in an easy reclining position, with her hips on a bedpan, so arranged that the overflow is conducted to a waste-pipe. The douche is best given by a nurse or an assistant. A similar douche may be given in which alum is used instead of salt, in the same quantity. A weak solution of permanganate of potash, one to three per cent, may also be used in the same manner. One of the most refreshing and satisfactory forms of vaginal douches is the compound menthol powder, which I have now used for some fifteen years. The formula for it is as follows:
apply this carefully to every part of the vagina until the whole interior from the vaginal vault down to the hymen, including the cervix, is blanched white ; no part should escape. This is readily done in a thorough manner by turning the speculum first in one direction and then in another until all parts are exposed and touched. The speculum is then withdrawn, taking care that none of the solution remains inside to run out and burn the surface of the body. Sometimes there is severe aching in the pelvis after a treatment of this kind; for this reason the patient should always rest for several hours; indeed, it is a wise plan to keep her in bed for several days. In the course of a few days, the superficial epithelium sloughs off in the form of a cast, more or less perfect, and is discharged with a bland, purulent secretion. At this stage, hot douches should be used of permanganate of potash or of Labarraque's solution (Liquor sodse chlorinate, see p. 324), one or two tablespoonfuls to the pint of water. A radical treatment of this kind ought not to be repeated under ten to twelve days, and it is sometimes better to wait three or four weeks. I have in this way cured post-operative vaginitis which has resisted all other kinds of treatment.
the cotton is drawn
over the fluid, and the bolus is then introduced in the vault of the vagina with a dressing forceps. If the vagina is capacious, one or more dry packs may be applied below this. The patient should remove this pack within twenty-four hours by pulling on the string which is left hanging outside, after which she may take the douche recommended on page 284.
Another good treatment of vaginitis, through the cylindrical speculum, with the patient in Sims' posture, is the use of the puff box, commonly employed for distributing insect powder, fllled with fine boracic acid powder, which is blown in through the speculum, and thus applied to all parts of the vaginal walls. A little camphor may be mixed with the powder, say two or three grains to the ounce.
be present, must be cleared up. I have found it of value in a case of vaginitis
following confinement in a stout woman, with, breaking down of the outlet and eversion of the vaginal walls, to thoroughly restore the outlet, saving the tissues from attrition and preventing the hyperemia arising from congestion and imperfect circulation.
the last few years a method of treating vaginitis by means of yeast has been introduced, which has had excellent results in some cases. I cite as a competent authority H. Schiller (Amer. Jour. Ohst., 1905, vol. 51, p. 635). The treatment was
rheal vaginitis with the idea that the rapid gTOwth of the yeast would drive out the gonococcus by depriving it of food and water. Schiller treated ten patients with good results, and there were no bad effects in any case, though some of the women complained of itching for a couple of days. The yeast used is best secured fresh from a brewery. After cleansing the vagina with sterile water, two teaspoonfuls of yeast and one teaspoonful of grape sugar solution are introduced into the vagina through a speculum, in such a manner that the portio vaginalis and the walls of the vagina are bathed in it. If this can be done at the patient's home, it is desirable. After the lapse of a few minutes, a tampon saturated with the grape sugar solution is introduced, and after from eight to ten hours a vaginal douche should be used. The treatment is repeated every forty-eight hours. The cases most suitable for the yeast treatment are es^Decially the gonorrheal inflammations, both acute and chronic ; cases of purulent vaginitis and endocervicitis which are not gonorrheal in character are also benefited.
CERVICITIS AND END O CERVICITIS.
Symptoms. — When an infection, gonorrheal or otherwise, lodges in the cervical glands, the cervix becomes considerably enlarged and sometimes enormously hypertrophied. The mucosa is everted, exposing the reddened lining membrane of the cervix, and the glands become hypertrophied and excessively active, pouring out a whitish, albuminous or muco-purulent, tenacious secretion. This is seen choking the cervical canal and overflowing into the vaginal vault. The picture of such a weeping cervix is quite characteristic. It should be remembered that this affection is designated by the patient as the " whites," and is, of course, not distinguished by her from a vaginal leucorrhea. The secretion thus formed is apt to accumulate in the vaginal vault, and sometimes a large quantity of muco-pus is thus retained back of and under the cervix, which, when the patient rises in the morning, is discharged en masse. Such a discharge is a continual distress ; it produces a sense of uncleanliness, and the patients thus affected feel obliged to wear constantly some protective dressing, such as a gauze pad and a bandage. They are as much inconvenienced as by a continuous menstruation. It is important to note particularly that the cervical discharge is stringy and more or less like the white of an egg, in this way differing from the curdy, or milky, or creamy vaginal discharge. The affected glands are not infrequently closed, when the discharge accumulates within, and converts the cervix into a series of cysts (ISTabothian follicles), some of which are seen on the vaginal surface, while others niay be found far up in the cervical canal, extending out into the walls of the cervix proper. In rare instances the entire cervix, from the internal os down, is converted into a mass of these cysts, until the cervix is literally honeycombed, I have seen a case in which the lower segment of the uterus appeared to be converted into a large tumorous mass, from nothing else than an enormous development of these choked cervical glands. The disease causes no pain, but it is objectionable because the continual discharge is weakening to the patient, and because the presence of an infection at the ostium of the womb is a continual menace to the tissues above, making the patient more liable to a uterine and a tubal infection. Almost all of these cases of muco-purulent cervices are due to a gonorrheal infection. The disease may, however, follow an infection by other pyogenic organisms in childbirth. The presence of a cervical infection of this kind does not necessarily indicate any similar disease of the body of the uterus above it.
It is a common practice among women to use a cleansing vaginal douche just prior to consulting the physician with reference to pelvic complaints. The examiner is thereby obviously deprived of a valuable and important diagnostic aid, namely, the character, amount and source of the leucorrheal discharges. Patients should be carefully instructed, therefore, not to use a douche on the
microscopic, as well as macroscopic, study of the discharges present.
Treatment. — Cervicitis is one of the most obstinate of all gynecological affections. It cannot in any way be reached by vaginal douches, which serve merely to remove the debris that has accumulated in the vaginal vault. Patients subjected to mild treatments by applications will be obliged to frequent the office of the doctor year after year without gaining any substantial relief.
The first step in the treatment is to puncture any cysts that may be seen projecting from the cervix. In mild cases the cervix may be exposed with the patient in the dorsal position, and after placing a suitable pack behind it, an application may be made of a strong solution of nitrate of silver, twenty or thirty per cent strength. This may be rejDeated about once in ten days, the patient in the meantime using cleansing douches. The more aggravated cases of this class are those in which our predecessors used to employ the solid stick of nitrate of silver, pushing it up into the cervical canal and leaving it there. The result of this was an extensive destruction of the contiguous tissues, destroying and curing the endocervicitis, but often resulting in the formation of cicatricial tissue, leaving behind an almost bony cervix, and in the event of pregTiancy, giving rise to serious complications, on account of cervical rigidity. This practice is not to be recommended. If the patient has borne children, and the cervix is lacerated and everted as well as infected, the best plan of treatment is to excise the diseased mucosa (resection of the cervix). This operation is simple, safe, and effective, if carefully done. Incisions are made in each lateral angle between the anterior and posterior lips, a wedge is then excised from each lip, care being taken to remove the mucosa, but as little of the vaginal portion of the cervix as possible. The lips excised in this way may then be brought together by catgut sutures. An iodoform gauze pack should be placed in the vaginal vault, and the jDatient kept in bed for five days, after which she may get up into a chair and the pack may be removed. A few days after, douches of hot boric acid solution^ half saturated strength, should be used once daily.
Where there is no laceration, or it is thought best not to operate, a most effective plan of treating these bad cervical infections is by the use of the actual cautery, as recommended by Dr. Guy L. Ilunner. The cervix is exposed in the dorsal position, with a ISTelson trivalve speculum, the vaginal vault is protected by a gauze pack, leaving the diseased cervix exposed in the middle; then grasping the anterior lip to fix the cervix, the cautery, heated to a bright red, is used to burn out and char the diseased tissues on all sides, and well up into the cervical canal. There are two ways of doing this : one is to char out the cervix, aiming to burn the tissues to the depth of three to four millimetres in every direction, leaving a black, unsightly cervical mucosa. The other is, to introduce the well-heated cautery well into the cervical canal and make two or three deep linear cauterizations, not attempting to burn all the tissues. Dr. Hunner has found the latter plan both simple and effective.
The patient should come back for a repetitoii of these treatments from once in ten days to once in two weeks. A marked improvement will be noted each time. I have myself repeatedly employed the plan of extensive cauterization with happy results. It is well to wait six or eight weeks, or even longer, after cauterizing deeply.
The simple cauterizations do not call for an anesthetic. If the patient is nervous, a little weak solution of coca in, two grains to the ounce, may be injected into the cervix to benumb it. For the more extensive cauterizations, it is well to give a general anesthetic, but, as the operation is a short one, nitrous oxide gas is satisfactory for this purpose. Following the more extensive operations, the patient ought to rest for two or three days in bed. The lighter operations may be done in the office, the patient going home shortly afterwards. It is w^ell to forewarn a woman treated in this way that in about a week or ten days there will be a slightly bloody and increased purulent discharge ; this will prevent any discouragement. In all these difficult cases, the disease can be cured by this method without completely destroying the cervical glands, and without leaving behind any troublesome cicatrices. A word of caution is necessary, however, and that is, to note that Dr. Hunner has seen one case of infection travelling up into the tubes, which may have been due to the suppuration in the cervix, brought on by the use of the cautery. Prompt and marked improvement, even in the worst cases, always follows this treatment. If the thorough burning out is used, one or two treatments will often suffice. I expect after the first treatment to note from seventy-five to ninety per cent improvement in the condition. I have in this way cured a patient who had been on my hands for many years without material change and she has remained several years without a relapse.
Craig's method of treatment of endocervicitis is simpler and safer than the one just described (Trans. South Surg. Assoc, 1905, vol. 18, p. 342). It consists in the suitable exposure of the diseased cervix, thorough cleansing of the parts, and a slight dilatation of the canal, followed by the thorough
use of a sharp curette (see Fig. 77). This serves to break down the diseased giauds, lay them widely open, clean them out, and drain them. It is surprising to note how much tissue is removable by the curette from the rigid cervix. This treatment may have to be repeated several times, at intervals of a couple of weeks. It is in the end most effective and satisfactory. After such a cervical curettage it is well to put a boroglycerid pack against the vault of the, vagina, which is left in situ for twelve hours, and then withdrawn and followed by a hot, half-saturated boracic acid douche.
In extremely obstinate cases, resisting all other plans of treatment, a circular amputation of the cervix will give relief. This is decidedly a major gynecological operation, however, and should only be undertaken by those prepared to do a hysterectomy, should it be rendered necessary by profuse bleeding occasioned by the operation.
A true endometritis is an inflammatory affection of the endometrium, due to the gonococcus, to other pyogenic infecting organisms, or to the tubercle bacillus. A variety of changes in the endometrium, however, characterized by a hyperplasia and dilatation of the glands are included under the head of endometritis which do not properly and in a strict sense belong there. True endometritis is seen in its best-defined form in the acute condition in the puerperal woman, or after a septic abortion due to a septic or sapremic infection. The acute form is rarely seen outside of the puerperal state; a gonorrheal endometritis, for example, which is most evident in the cervix, travels upwards, and often creates no particular recognizable symptoms as it traverses the uterus until the uterine tubes are involved. In examining many specimens of endometria, it is rare to find signs of true inflammation, or evidences of any organisms deep down in the glands or in the submucous tissue.
Out of eighteen hundred cases occurring in my own service and analyzed by Dr. T. S. Cullen, endometritis showing definite inflammatory changes, exclusive of tuberculosis, was found only forty-nine times. The mucosa of the uterus was studied in every case where that organ had been removed, or where scrapings were, taken, including many cases of myomata and of pus tubes. We found that even where there was a pyosalpinx on one or both sides, the uterine mucosa was often perfectly normal. This exemption seems undoubtedly due to the fact that the uterus is so easily drained that the infectious material is not retained long enough to provoke and maintain an inflammation.
Tubercular endometritis is always of a chronic form, with the single exception of the rare miliary condition, when the general state of the patient is so bad that there is nothing to draw attention to the local trouble. In the chronic, diffuse tuberculosis, yellowish nodules are seen under the surface of the mucosa, one to two millimetres in diameter. If the disease is advanced and the mucosa is broken down, shallow, ulcerated areas appear. Sometimes in the more advanced cases, a caseous material is poured out. Tubercles show giant cells from the fusion of protoplasm of a number of cells which still retain their distinct nuclei.
Tubercular endometritis, as a rule, causes no marked uterine symptoms except in an advanced form, and it is oftenest recognized because of its almost invariable association with a tubal tubercular disease. If a tubo-ovarian mass is present and curettings of the uterine mucosa show tuberculosis, it is safe to say that the disease of the tubes is tubercular.
consent.
It is safe to say that in ninety-nine out of one hundred cases when a physician curettes the nterus for endometritis, and removes more or less endometrium, no real endometritis, in the sense of a chronic inflammatory affection, is present. Tme endometritis is a disease as rare as cervicitis and endocervicitis are common. The term endometritis has served as a sort of waste-basket for the gynecologist to which obscure troubles, not referable to any other well-defined disease, are commonly referred as a matter of convenience. It has in these days taken the place of metritis, to which Scanzoni gave so much attention in the early sixties. A metritis is actually one of the rarest of rare gynecological affections, and one which, outside of the puerperal state, is never recogTiized intra vitam. One of the reasons why there exists so much confusion regarding endometritis, as Doderlein and Kronig put it, is that " in an organ so rich in glands as the uterus,
Fig. 78. — Polypoid Endometritis. (Natural size.") J. H. H. Gjm.-Path. No. 1466. The uterus and appendages were removed on account of salpingitis and general pehnc peritonitis. The uterus is enlarged; its walls are thickened and extremely dense. The entire uterine ca^^ty is lined by a shaggy inucosa, consisting of small stubby polypi, which point toward the internal os. These vary considerably in size, but the majority of them are of the same size and have rounded ends. The junction between these outgrowths and the muscle is not sharply defmed, nor is there any evidence that the muscle has been invaded. (From T. S. Culleh.)
There is no symptom characterizing any member of this group except the senile form and the differential diagnosis is purely an act of the X laboratory.
The patients suffering from endometritis of the non-infectious form, who most urgently . ^ demand relief, are for the most part young > women, whose sole symptom and complaint is "^ ^ <»* ' • ,
or extension of the flow beyond its normal duration. These patients in aggravated cases are waxy, almost hydremic, short of breath and in- ^ 'J
resembles a condition of multiple polypi choking the nterine cavity (see Fiff. 78). The elands are ereatlv dilated and the blood vessels increased in number and size, but there is no evidence of invasion of the muscle, as is the case in adeno-carcinoma. A microscopic examination of the curettings should be made in all cases, in order not to mistake a cancer or a sarcoma for the disease in question (see Tig. 79). The methods of treatment are by chemical cautery or by the use of nitric acid or nitrate of silver to the interior of the uterus. The risk of setting up an inflammation in the uterine tubes by the use of these drugs is so gTcat that they ought to be generally abandoned. The actual cautery has been used in the form of air (zestokausis), and steam (atmokausis). It is difficult to regulate these agents and prevent them from burning too deeply into the "svalls of the uterus, thus producing sloughs ; for this reason I do not recommend their use.
The third method of treatment, curettage, is the safest of all. This should be preceded by a dilatation of the cervix, and followed by a thorough, gentle use of a sharp curette by the method described in detail in Chapters IV and YII, pp. 123 and 189.
SENILE ENDOMETRITIS.
A senile endometritis differs markedly in some of its clinical aspects from the ordinary forms foimd earlier in life. A careful description of this affection has been given by H. L. Dunning (Jour. Amer. Med. Assoc, 1904, vol. 43, p. 767). The "vvomb is small and shovs no marked changes in the body. The diseased endometrium pours out a milky purulent discharge. This is often associated ^vith erosion of the cervix and erosion, adhesions, and contractions at the vaginal vault. The vagina itself, bathed in the irritating secretions, is smooth, reddened, and often covered with reddish patches. The discharge accumulating in it is often offensive. A vulvitis of the shrivelled external genitals may be present and marked by intense itching. The purulent or bloody purulent discharges from the uterus are often mistaken for signs of carcinoma.
It is in these cases that the cervix, having lost its epithelium, sometimes becomes agglutinated, converting the uterus into a closed cavity which becomes distended with the accumulation of discharges and converted into a pyometra, or if gas also forms, into a pyo-physometra. The patient, is apt to suffer from distress and burning in the lower abdomen and this is gTeatly aggTavated if the cervix becomes closed. Owing to absorption of the poisonous products there may be anemia and cachexia. The ordinary senile endometritis is not associated with fever.
The inflammatory changes are found in the thin senile endometrium in which the glands, after dipping for a short distance below the surface, turn to extend parallel to the myometrium.
PRURITUS.
Definition. — Pruritus is a general term wliicli signifies neither more nor less than an itching. Hebra defines pruritus as a chronic disease of the skin, which though lasting for months and years may be characterized by no other symptom than itching. The skin may show no alteration at all, or else only such as arises from the constant scratching of the parts excited by the intense irritation. The term pruritus is used here to designate simply an itching of the vulva.
Etiology. — The changes in the skin, so often observed in pruritus, are secondary to the disease, and arise from the itching and consequent scratching or else from the presence of irritating discharges. These secondary changes do not constitute the affection, though they undoubtedly aggravate it, and for this reason the physician must always look behind the superficial affection for some one of the variety of causes in which it may have originated and by which it is, as a rule, maintained. In many cases the profound skin changes, when once induced, are sufficient in themselves to keep up the pruritus even after the original cause is removed ; in fact, these cases move in a truly vicious circle : the itching provokes scratching, and the scratching, in its turn, causes changes in the skin which excite more itching, and this again provokes the desire for relief by renewed scratching, and so the disease grows constantly worse, feeding itself upon the very means which the victim instinctively seeks for relief.
Diabetes may be cited as an example of the third class. Sanger considered that the pruritus observed in diabetes was hematogenous and analogous to the pruritus seen in jaundice. Many authorities believe, however, that the local action of the urine is sufficient in itself to explain the presence of irri-
PETJEITUS. VAGINISMUS. MASTTJKBATION.
tation in this locality. Yeit points out that men with diabetes suffer from pruritus of the scrotum and believes that the irritation is due to some other constituent in the urine than grape sugar, as he tried putting gTape sugar compresses on the vulva of some patients without provoking itching. It is an interesting question how far pruritus is associated with constitutional gout.
As to the neurotic form of pruritus, the term is used in a general sense, as it is in nervous dyspepsia, being often employed to cover an ignorance of the true local cause. It should be recognized that the term is one of convenience only, such as we are still often obliged to use, so long as we are unable to discover locally acting causes.
The most satisfactory group of cases is that constantly enlarging one in which the disease can be attributed to some irritating or infectious secretion, continually discharged over the parts, and thus keeping up a constant irritation. It is possible that eventually some hitherto unrecogTiized organism, peculiarly adapted to gTOwing in the moisture and secretions of the parts, will be found at the bottom of almost all cases, and we shall be able to refer a large number of them to a uniform cause.
"Webster considers that pruritus consists essentially in a slowly progressive fibrosis of the parts (subacute inflammation of the papillary bodies), especially of the labia minora and the clitoris, by which the nerves and their endings are chiefly involved. Leopold holds that pruritus is almost always due to an old chronic endometritis.
Symptoms and Diagnosis. — From whatever cause the pruritus arises, it varies in intensity from a slight or an occasional irritation, manifesting itself in sensations of an itching, pricking, or creeping character, all the way to an irritation so severe as to be a continual torment, making the day miserable and turning the night, designed by nature for rest and refreshment, into a curse. In such cases the sufferer becomes haggard and worn with sleepless nights, made hideous by the constant impulse to relieve the horrible itching by tearing at her person, while she longs for morning to bring the activities of another day to afford a little distraction from the Promethean vulture. So intense is the suffering in these cases that the patient sometimes loses all self control and leads an isolated life, in order that she may attend uninterruptedly to the imperative demands of the disease, which excite an uncontrollable desire to rub the affected parts. Cases have even been known when, after years of suffering, the patient has committed suicide as the only means of relief from torture. Those who are blessed with immunity from this dreadful disease may be thankful that they know nothing of the suffering which it entails.
The local changes in the parts are characterized in the beginning by a reddening of the surface and then by the appearance of small flat papules, the skin over which is speedily scratched off. As the disease progresses, the skin becomes thickened and white, while long scratch marks are often perceptible. The vulvar hairs to a large extent disappear, and such as remain are broken off short; the parts are often moist with secretions. The clitoris is marked by a slight eminence or else disappears under a sort of thick white blanket, while the labia assume an almost pachydermatous appearance. When the disease is thus far advanced, the patient, as a rule, is almost beside herself with the continuous desire to tear at the parts. The changes in the affected parts are best described in the words of the dermatologist as inflammatory parakeratosis (Veit). There is an enormous thickening of the horny layer of the epidermis with an extensive small-celled infiltration just below. A pustular folliculitis is sometimes associated with the original pruritus, arising from infection of the parts irritated.
Treatment. — In almost every case of pruritus the suffering is so intense as to call for immediate relief of the local condition, but the permanent cure can only be effected by the removal of the underlying disease. One of the first steps in the treatment is a careful analysis of the urine, in order to discover a possible nephritis or diabetes. It sometimes happens that itching of the external genitalia is the first symptom of sugar in the urine. If the presence of sugar is determined, the treatment must, of course, be directed to the fundamental disease ; nevertheless, it is most important to keep the parts clean and free from contamination by sponging them with a rectangular pad of gauze wet with a saturated solution of boric acid in water. Pediculi
or tlieir uits can always be found by carefully examining the vulvar liair>5. They are readily destroyed by washing thoroughly with green soap and warm water and then with a decoction of fish berries. This procedure should be repeated at intervals of a few days. Shaving the parts is another good method of destroying them, as well as the application of a mixture of sweet oil and carbolic acid (ten per cent). In the case of little girls who complain of itching at the vulva, two things should always be borne in mind, namely, ascarides and uncleanliness. Ascarides are likely to be associated with anal pruritus, and when this is the case, an examination of the stools serves to clear up the diagnosis by revealing the presence of the worms. The ova are easily found in the feces, if the worms are at all abundant. Cleanliness should be enforced by insisting upon the gentle and careful, but thorough use of warm water and pure castile soap every few days. It is a pernicious training which teaches children that the genitalia should never be touched, for the natural secretions are thus allowed to accumulate, causing irritation and congestion.
Thrush, growing in whitish patches on the parts, should be removed by a thorough cleansing with warm water and castile soap, followed by dusting with dry powder, made according to the following formula:
is also a good way of curing thrush.
Sometimes pruritus is excited and kept up by a vaginal discharge of a gonorrheal character. The peculiarity of a gonorrheal discharge, aside from the fact that its seat of predilection is the vulva, is a tendency to invade the cervical glands and provoke a ropy, mucoid, purulent discharge, the gonorrheal nature of which can only be determined with certainty by microscopical examination. In some cases of pruritus, however, associated with a tough muco-purulent discharge from the vagina, an examination with the microscope reveals the presence of the yeast fungus and some of these cases are associated with gonorrhea; in such cases the use of permanganate of potash is beneficial. The application of brewer's yeast has also relieved the difficulty.
In questioning or examining a patient with pruritus accompanied by a vaginal discharge, the physician must remember that the itching is more often provoked by a slight discharge of a thin quality than by a profuse leucorrheal
one. A good method of testing the relation of the discharge to the pruritus is to insert a tampon in the vagina and leave it there for twenty-four hours. The patient will often declare that she has had no itching at all, while the tampon was in place, which affords a valuable hint as to the treatment. Dilatation and curettage of the uterus (see Chaps. IV and VII), cauterization of the cervix, or the relief of a vaginitis (see Chap. XI) may in such cases be followed by immediate relief. The physician must not be too sanguine, however, as to an immediate and permanent cure. All cases of pruritus should be kept under observation and examined at intervals of every few weeks for a period of several months.
Pruritus limited to the post-menstrual period does not, as a rule, call for treatment. If it is severe enough to cause decided distress, however, the physician need not hesitate to order hot vaginal douches of a saturated solution of boric acid or bichloride of mercury (1:5000).
If a pessary is worn too long, it sometimes provokes a vaginal discharge resulting in pruritus; in such a case tolle causam. et tollitur effectus. When the cause is removed and a few saline douches taken, the disease disappears. Common table salt in the proportion of two teaspoonfuls to the pint of hot water makes a good douche.
We now come to an interesting group of cases, unfortunately still a large one, in spite of the most careful efforts to make a causal classification of them. I refer, on the one hand, to wdiat is known as the neurosis group of cases, and on the other, to those advanced cases with extensive tissue changes in which the original cause, whatever it may have been, has long since disappeared. The question of treatment in these difficult cases, which more than all others demand our sympathy and aid, is one of peculiar importance.
In the first place, let me insist that whatever local treatment is adopted, we must never omit those powerful aids, good health, hygiene, a wellregulated diet, daily baths, and tonics. The patient must take sufficient exercise and a sufficient amount of suitable, non-stimulating food, A cold bath in the morning and a warm one at night with a careful cleansing of the parts will aid greatly in the recovery. There is no danger of contagion to other persons through using the common bath-tub, nevertheless, a due regard to the feelings of othprs will suggest the propriety of using a separate sitz bath for cleansing the genitals. While the patient is under observation an occasional mild hypnotic should be given to secure a good night's rest (see Chap. VIII). A prescription for this purpose should, however, never be put into the patient's hands, or she will almost surely abuse it. About once in five days a dose of chloral, ten to twenty grains, and sodium bromide, grains forty to sixty in six to eight ounces of warm water may be thrown into the rectum at bedtime. Of the various tonics and alteratives, arsenic is the best. It may be combined with a simple bitter in pill form as follows;
S. Take one pill after each meal.
In the advanced forms of the disease, where there are marked local changes, relief is sometimes afforded by painting the parts with pure ichthyol. After the ichthyol is applied, the patient must wear a vulvar pad to protect the clothing. Much benefit is sometimes secured by a careful application to all the diseased parts of a ten per cent solution of nitrate of silver, repeated once in every ten days or longer (Olshausen). The abnormal insensibilitv of the parts is such that the usual sensations of pain and even of touch are largely in abeyance, and this is so marked that a three to eight per cent solution of carbolic acid in water with a little glycerin and alcohol can be borne without discomfort and much subsequent relief. This mixture may be left in the patient's hands to apply as she feels the need of it. A five per cent carbolic acid ointment made up with lanolin, according to the following formula, may be used:
M. S. Apply externally.
Coating the parts with cod-liver oil gives temporary relief. Xaphthalin and anesthesin in a ten per cent solution, made up with lanolin, thoroughly applied to the parts has been found useful.
A method of treatment in vogue at a time when men paid more careful attention to the compounding of prescriptions than they do now, was to put the patient to bed and bathe the parts with a continuous application of a zinc oxide lotion, made according to the following formiTla :
Scanzoni recommends the use of a solution of caustic potash in water, about seven per cent, lightly applied with a brush, copious ablutions of cold water being used as the disease improves.
sea salt as will make it about as strong as sea water, is often of value.
C. Ruge (Centrhl. f. Gyn., 1896, vol. 20, p. 480) takes the positive position that pruritus is almost always of local origin, being due to some chronic or bacterial source of irritation, and that, therefore, it can almost without exception be cured, even in the worst cases, by a thorough cleansing of the parts. The best way to carry out Ruge's suggestions is to put the patient under an anesthetic, and after shaving the parts, to remove all the epidermis which will come off without exciting hemorrhage, by means of a scrubbing brush and soap.
T'laischler, following the same idea, recommends applying a twenty per cent solution of nitrate of silver. In one case he gave complete relief by using a fifty per cent solution.
Soaking the parts in a one per cent solution of nitrate of silver for hours at a time is sometimes of great assistance in producing a permanent alteration for good in the condition of the parts.
C. D. Meigs described a case which he considered was due to a trichiasis of the vulva. He found that the hairs springing from the margin of the mucous membrane were pouting inwards, so as to irritate the membrane and occasion the most distressing itching. When these were removed the pruritus disappeared.
Another remedy which often gives relief is a two per cent carbolic acid poultice. I have used cherry laurel water with great satisfaction (Aq. lauro. cerasi), when the genuine article can be secured. The following prescriptions for topical applications are given by Goodell:
For pruritus of diabetic origin, Goodell speaks most bigbly in favor of tbe following formula, used by Dr. James Simpson of Pbiladelpbia, namely, fifteen grains of tbe salicylate of soda, in glycerin, given by tbe moutb every four bours.
Scbleicb's solution (see p. 277) injected into tbe mons veneris bas been found beneficial in some cases. I sbould be inclined to extend tbe use of tbis injection to tbe ilio-inguinal and genito-crural nerves above and tbe perineal nerves below.
Tbe use of tbe galvanic current bas been followed by brilliant results in some cases in tbe bands of several autborities. Cbolmogoroff {Cenirhl. f, Gyn., 1891, vol. 15, p. 612) cites an instance wbere be cured a severe case of two vears' standing in six applications. Tbe metbod of application is as follows :
Tbe positive pole (anode) is introduced into tbe vulva at tbe vaginal orifice, wbile tbe negative pole (katbode) is carried by means of cotton wet witb salt solution all over tbe affected parts. Tbe sitting sbould last from ten to fifteen minutes. Tbe patient sbould take tbe current as strong as sbe can comfortably bear. H. von Campe also cured a bad case of five years' standing by tbis metbod {CentrU. f. Gyn., 1887, voL.ll, p. 521).
not yet received clinical confirmation.
If cleansings (Euge), batbs, topical applications, • and galvanism, employed wbile tbe cause of the affection is being sougbt for, do not succeed in relieving a distressing case of pruritus witb extensive cbanges, it is best to resort to surgery and excise all tbe diseased tissues, cutting away tbe clitoris, tbe nympbse, and tbe adjacent parts of tbe labia
and attaching them to the mucosa at the vaginal orifice.
Hirst (Amer. Med., May, 1903, p. Y85) cured a case by excising the nerves going to the parts, after exposing them by making four incisions, two in the groins and two in the buttocks. It is not within the scope of my present purpose, however, to do more than indicate the value of surgery as a last, but most helpful resource.
Pruritus in Pregnancy. — There is one special form of pruritus which occurs in pregnancy and is peculiarly distressing. It usually appears in the later months and the patient complains of the most distressing sensations of heat, swelling, and itching of the parts. An examination shows the external genitals red and swollen and often excoriated by scratch-marks. It is the association with a vaginal aifection which distinguishes this form of pruritus from other varieties. The condition comes to an end with the termination of pregnancy, but it is often difficult to cure before its natural terminus is reached. The patient should be kept quiet and use a hot permanganate douche (one to three per cent) two or three times a day. Bathing with equal parts of alcohol and water is of service, to which may be added sufficient coca in to make a one to two per cent solution. If the itching persists in spite of mild local treatments, the patient may be put into the knee-breast posture and, after the vagina is exposed through a large cylindrical speculum, it is everywhere swabbed out with a five per cent solution of nitrate of silver. This treatment will bring away a superficial cast of the vagina in the course of a few days. After three days the douche treatment may be resumed, until the vagina appears normal. Ashwell recommends the following prescription of Meigs, using the language of the latter in doing so, " having been a great many times consulted for the relief of pruritus vulvae and most frequently by pregnant women, I have rarely had occasion to order anything more than the following formula, namely:
Aq. rosse dest Sviij
M. S. Apply three times a day to the affected parts with a piece of lint, after washing with tepid water and soap and carefully drying the parts.
Definition. — Vaginismus is an affection first named and fully described hj Marion Sims. It is cliaracterized by violent reflex spasmodic contractions of tlie muscles around the entrance of the vagina, namely, the sphincter vaginae, the levator ani, the transverse perinei, and the adductors of the thighs. This condition of muscle spasm is called forth either by an attempt at coitus or the effort to make an examination of the vagina.
It is a disease of married life and for the most part of young women, persisting sometimes for many years. Sims, whose descriptions of it are unsurpassed in clearness, says : " By the term vaginismus I mean an excessive hyperesthesia of the hymen and vulvar outlet, associated with such involuntary spasmodic contractions of the sphincter vaginse as to prevent coition. This irritable spasmodic action is produced by the gentlest touch ; often the touch of a camel's hair brush will produce such agony as to cause the patient to shriek, complaining at the same time that the pain is that of thrusting a knife into the sensitive part. In a very large majority of cases the pain and spasm conjoined are so gTeat as to preclude the possibility of sexual intercourse. In some instances it will be borne occasionally, notwithstanding the intolerable suffering, while in others it is wholly abandoned, even after the act has been repeatedly, as it were, perfectly performed."
The spasm of the muscles about the vaginal orifice varies with different patients, all the way from a distress which, though severe, can be endured and with great difiiculty overcome, by a woman who is determined to submit to her wifely obligations, to the most uncontrollable apprehension and agonizing pain. The area of sensitiveness in vaginismus is situated about the urethra, the hymen, and especially the posterior commissure, from which it extends over the entire vulva. In some cases there are manifest changes at the orifice in the form of exquisitely tender deep red spots ; fissures may also be found in the vulva, resembling painful fissures of the anus.
A picture of vaginismus is sometimes seen in the examining room, when the physician, perhaps with large fingers and clumsy efforts, attempts to force the digit through the vulva and hymen in his efforts to penetrate the vagina. The mucosa at the vaginal orifice is naturally delicate and sensitive, and it is capable of acquiring an extraordinary degTee of sensibility through the attitude of expectancy, whether of pleasure or of pain. This shrinking and supersensitiveness constitute one of the safeguards of young womanhood before the maturation of the sexual function.
Etiology. — As a rule, the vaginismus is present from the first attempt at coitus and acts as an insuperable barrier, so that when the parts are examined by a physician, the hymen is found intact. In some cases, however, intromission is occasionally successful and the vaginal orifice, when examined under an
ETIOLOGY OF VAGINISMUS.
anesthetic, presents no abnormality. It is noteworthy that vaginismus is rarely present among the poor, while it is often seen in the hypersensitive women of the leisure classes with neuropathic constitutions. Masturbation has been assigned as a cause in some cases.
Vaginismus may be the consequence of a gonorrheal infection. It is sometimes due also to some degree of male impotence, whereby the relationship is not fully consummated at first. The element of anxiety and uncertainty associated with ill-directed efforts on the part of the husband is not without its effect upon his co-respondent wife. The lihedo sexualis, which normally obtunds and renders transitory the natural pain of the first cohabitation, disappears, and an attitude of anxious expectancy takes its place, which, in time, is converted into apprehension and abhorrence, so that instead of gratification, the wife feels disgust, and instead of pleasure, pain.
Fig. 80. — A Urethkal Gakunclk Rkskmbling a Small Dakk Hematoma Springing from the Right, Posterior Margin of the Urethra. On closer examination it is seen to be an intensely injected tumor springing from the mucosa. It is usually sessile and often extends upward into the urethra.
There is a urethral form of the disease which I would associate with a gonorrheal infection, in which the meatus urinarius is swollen, red, everted, and exquisitely tender. The pain on contact is fully equal to that induced by a urethral caruncle. Here the vaginal orifice and all the surrounding parts can be freely touched, provided only the urethra is let alone; while any contact with or attrition of the urethra provokes a violent and utterly unbearable pain.
Sometimes when the parts at the vaginal orifice are exquisitely sensitive and the patient shrinks from the slightest and gentlest contact, shrieking when the finger im]3inges upon the j)arts, the whole trouble will prove to arise from a cause of no greater significance than a urethral caruncle (see Fig. 80). The true caruncle is a deep-red, well-defined, vascular tumor projecting from one side of the urethra and often flattened like a cockscomb or, when sessile, a mulberry mass. A little minute observation will distinguish this well-defined tumor from the general reddening and swelling of the meatus just described.
Occasionally, vaginismus is seen in a physically ill-matched pair, that is to say a little woman, childlike in both person and temperament, wedded to a man of large frame with insistent sexual desires. Here, where the manifest disproportion of body is carried into a like absence of correlation in the sexual organs, great distress may be occasioned by the marital approach, ending in a condition of general hysteria with a well-marked vaginismus. This explanation of vaginismus, as being due to disproportion between the intromittent organ and the receptive channel, is one which appeals to the lay imagination as the great common factor in producing the disease. It is, however, extremely rare.
Another cause of vaginismus, more frequently noted, is the displacement of the fourchette and the orifice upwards and forwards, making the channel difiicult of access, and rendering the urethra and clitoris liable to injury from too frequent forcible impacts.
Prognosis. — The prognosis as to recovery in vaginismus when left alone is bad. Pregnancy is rare under the circumstances; nevertheless, it may take place, and when this is the case the vaginismus is usually relieved, though not necessarily so. Sims cites a remarkable instance in which the family physician anesthetized the wife for the first coitus, which then offered no difficulty; he continued to do this at bi-weekly intervals for a year, when she became pregnant and bore a child at term. The old pain returned, however, and it became necessary to resume the " ethereal relations." Sometimes the distressed and suffering wife secures an immunity from any approach and lives from year to year as in her maidenhood, a virgo intacta.
Treatment. — Every case of vaginismus must be taken seriously and faithfully treated until a permanent recovery is assured. The first step is to secure for the wife rest and freedom from importunity. If she is subjected to continual approaches and submits to frequent ineffectual attempts to overcome the difficulty by the natural method, the nervous system often breaks down and she becomes a physical and mental wreck. In order to secure the quiet which
TREATMENT OF VAGINISMUS. . 307
she needs, she must sleep alone ; some sedative should be given for a few days at the beginning of the treatment to secure a habit of sleep. It is most important to keep up a hygienic regimen by using daily cold baths or spongings, as well as early rest and exercise each day, according to the needs of the individual case.
The active treatment of a vaginismus begins with the effort to discover some well-defined local cause which can be removed. As a rule, it is impossible to make a thorough examination in the usual manner on the office table. The patient, with the best will in the world, involuntarily draws her thighs together, and even if the examiner by dint of persuasion and great difficulty succeeds in introducing a well-oiled finger he has accomplished nothing. It is best then to insist upon a complete examination under anesthesia at the outset, securing permission to remove any minor cause of the trouble which may be found at the same time. Careful inquiry must be made beforehand as to the potency of the husband and as to any history of gonorrhea. Nitrous oxide gas wdll not suffice to induce the necessary relaxation ; ether or chloroform must be used.
The vulva is examined for signs of inflammation, fissures, or red spots. The condition of the urethra is noted as to whether it is swollen, red, or everted. A urethral caruncle, if present, must be treated according to the following method: (1) it must be thoroughly removed down to and beyond its base; (2) this may be done under cocain anesthesia (ten per cent), by laying a pledget of cotton saturated with the drug on the growth for ten minutes; (3) when the growth is pedunculate, it may then be grasped, drawn forward, transfixed, tied both ways, and then cut off well beyond the ligature. The removal of a sessile growth is a delicate piece of plastic work, and the physician would do wisely in such a case to consult a specialist. Any fissures or little superficial ulcerations surrounded by an intensely red area near the hymen are noted. The hymen itself is observed, to ascertain whether it is intact, and whether inflamed or not. The vagina and the cervix uteri are examined for evidences of gonorrhea. It is a good plan to dilate the cervix in order to facilitate pregnancy. If gonorrhea is found, an effort may be made to wipe it out at once by using a strong (thirty per cent) solution of nitrate of silver, carefully applied to all the affected parts. A gonorrheal urethritis is also well treated by repeated applications of a two to three per cent solution of silver.
If the case is not extreme, two remedies may be tried : first, putting a pledget of cotton saturated with a ten per cent solution of cocain at the vaginal orifice for ten minutes and removing it just before coitus; secondly, the immediate application, upon removing the cocain, of a quantity of vaselin to the parts. If this plan works well, it can be repeated.
In simple cases, that is to say cases w^here there is no inflammatory basis and no inflammation has been superadded, the use of the galvanic current has succeeded in several instances in effecting a complete cure. Lomer (Centrhl. f. Gyn., 1889, vol. 13, p. 8Y0) cites a case lasting five years and associated with frequent involuntary perineal contractions, in which he used a weak, barely
perceptible galvanic current every two or three days for four or five minutes at a time. In six weeks the patient was completely cured and had had no return of the trouble at the end of six months. Another similar case was cured by him in like manner. In both cases there was dysmenorrhea, which was also relieved to some extent by the treatment.
If inflammatory areas or fissures are found in the neighborhood of the vaginal outlet they should be dissected out in a linear manner and the mucosa carefully brought together with a fine catgnit suture.
When no evident cause is found, or when the hymen is intact or deeply reddened, no plan which has yet been devised is equal to that of Marion Sims, namely, removal of the hymen, the incision of the vaginal orifice, and the subsequent dilatation of the orifice. The patient is profoundly anesthetized and the parts cleansed, after which the hymen is seized on one side anteriorly by a pair of rat-toothed forceps and pulled out, being excised at the same time well down to its base in one continuous piece on the right and left sides posteriorly. "When this has been done it was Sims' custom to pass two fingers into the vagina to stretch the outlet and then to make a deep cut in each sulcus about two inches long, united at the raphe, and prolonged in the form of a Y quite down to the perineal integument. Each cut was about half an inch or more above the sphincter vaginae, half an inch over its fibres, and an inch from its lower edge to the perineal raphe. These operations were then followed by the insertion of a bougie or a dilator three inches long and an inch and a half in diameter in order to stretch the opening. This was worn for two hours in the morning and t^vo or three in the afternoon for a period of two or three weeks. The bougie is of conical form and open at its outer end, with a depression for the urethra.
The plan of having the patient repair to the physician's ofiice regTilarly for the purpose of having him stretch the outlet by the insertion of specula of successively larger sizes does not seem to be worth trying, from the experience of many persons, though it suggests itself as useful.
Veit, who has made a most careful study of the treatment of vaginismus, has given up the excision of the hymen to a large extent in favor of two radiating incisions, cutting through, not only the hymen but the sphincter vaginae as well. Then, to check the hemorrhage, the wound is closed with superficial and deep sutures of the vulva, passed in the same direction, and attaching the vagina to the vulvar mucosa. Veit uses interrupted silk sutures and removes them in ten days, after applying cocain. The effect of such an operation is to convert the nulliparous outlet into the shape of a parous one. After recovery from this operation, the outlet is habituated to the passage of tubular specula, increasing in size, imder cocain anesthesia. Finally, when the patient can stand the introduction of a speculum, three centimetres in diameter, without cocain and without the use of any lubricant, she is discharged as cured. Veit insists that the important point in this treatment lies in the after management of the case.
MASTURBATION IN WOMEN.
General Considerations.' — A strong instinct of repugnance impels us to gloss over this section of preventive gynecology, and to revolt when sacrilegious hands are laid on our ideal of purity. But the family practitioner is under obligation to see that the mother warns and watches her growing girl; he may no longer ignore the prevalence of the danger ; he must recognize the marks of the yielding to this temptation in time to help ; and he cannot avoid some study of autoerotism in women if he would give effective counsel at critical periods. In a restricted space conclusions only can be given. Reversing the usual order, however, the common degrees of the habit among ordinary individuals will receive attention rather than the rarer excesses of the unbalanced. Yet these lesser troubles are the more difficult, since there is no recess in the world so truly impenetrable as that chamber of the adolescent's mind where she hides her questioning concerning the vague stirrings of love and sex-consciousness. If we start with the proposition that some curiosity about the awakening genital sensations of puberty is normal, and some pressures and frictions instinctive, then we may fairly consider restriction of such experimentation a stage of advance, and entire freedom from contacts a high degree of self-control. Animals in youth and in the periods of sexual excitement exercise such practice ; in some tribes low in the scale it is universal among the women; in the Orient and in ancient times there has been the uttermost openness of excess. Such primitive instincts, often reinforced by neurotic heredity and a will little trained in selfcontrol, leads the child directly toward trial of these excitements.
Boys teach each other this vice more often than girls do. The muscular activities of the young male, and the traditions of the hurtfulness of excess, make for moderation, whereas the secretiveness of the girl lessens the chances of detection or confession of a solitary indulgence that is self-taught. But in any individual, in adolescence, the soil is fertile, with its emotional and affectional fervors and introspective intensities. It should not surprise us then, if, in the common absence of all instruction, and in the presence, let us say, of some pelvic disturbance, the habit were often started. Add to the monthly rush of blood to the genitals, the friction of the napkin, the suggestiveness of the hot-water bag, the lying awake in day dreams in bed the iirst day of the period, and we may well fear such arousing at some time during the seventy periodical opportunities between puberty and nubility.
The danger zones are these : Infancy ; puberty and the years immediately following ; school and factory life ; engagement ; marital maladjustment ; widowhood; the pre-climacteric sexual activity; and any long period of nervous in-
just afterward, and the average time of excess is within the next four years.
General Causes. — Parents who are intemperate, whether through weakness of will or excess of passion, transmit such tendencies. Among neurasthenics more than half hare been masturbators at some time, and the most pronounced cases are very generally found among them. The two great main causes, however, are: defective education, and its result, defective seK-control. Ignorance of the simplest sex knowledge, infirmity of body, absence of absorbing and healthful occupation, insufficient out-door exercise, lack of a constant stream of elevating influences and stimuli — all these favor the habit, particularly where, as in certain natures, there is capacity for an overplus of sexual passion. Among the most potent factors are undoubtedly these three : Emotional excesses, when feeling fails to be translated into action, whether it be roused to frequent intensity by novel, or theatre, or sermon; self-indulgences, such as late rising, and all idleness, sulky reticence, and hysterical outbreaks ; and intimacies of the person, whether the liberties be with other girls, or with boys and men.
Local Causes. — Irritation frcmi lack of cleanliness is found not alone among the tubless. The fastidious not infrequently fail to clean the space beneath the prepuce and the interlabial grooves. Vulvitis, eczema, parasites, leucorrheal discharges, and highly acid, concentrated, or diabetic urine bring about irritations and scratching. Ill-fitting clothing may also do so. Rectal worms, anal fissure, and chronic constipation are some of the causes of congestion and itching. All pelvic disorders whatever, and particularly ovarian irritations, draw the attention to these sensations, and such inflammations and displacements constitute the most important of the local causes.
Prevalence. — We have no means of estimating the frequency either of minor degrees of self-abuse or its occurrence among healthy individuals. Among boys " whenever careful researches have been undertaken, the results are appalling as to prevalence." For women of loose life and certain peasants there are figures showing a very frequent occurrence. Among women of a good class there are some indications that it is by no means uncommon, as for instance, where one thousand consecutive gynecological cases showed well-marked vulvar hypertrophies in over one-third. By one-third of this third, full admission was made, so that it is fair to attribute the findings in the remainder to the same cause, especially as categorical denial was forthcoming in only one in fifty. The above figures bear only, however, on women with pelvic disorders, in whom more or less chronic attention to the sex organs has been necessarily present. On all sides of such questions one must beware of exaggeration. " The difference," says the astute Dooley, "between Christyan Scientists an' doctors is that Christy an Scientists think they'se no such thing as disease, an' doctors think there ain't annythin' else."
It cannot be too strongly stated that in a very large proportion of instances of masturbation in women the matter is a physical rather than a sexual one. It might be said to be sexless. By this is meant that sensual images and desires
are infinitely less often consciously associated with the practice in women than in men. The distinction applies particularly to the intelligent classes. Among refined and delicate women, the pent-np sex hunger may take this outlet without recognition of the real meaning of the impulse, and nothing is more astounding on the part of clear minds, than the failure to make the connection between their knowledge of physiology and social practices and their genital sensations. Aversion to men is not uncommon in association with it.
Methods. — In infants the means, in nearly all instances, is thigh compression, the child being seated, and swaying its body until flushing and excitement and staring end in the deep breathing of the climax. In the worst cases the thigh rubbing is almost incessant during the waking hours. At this age the practice is far more commonly seen in girls than in boys. In girls of four or five manual friction of the prepuce is the method. Tell-tale hypertrophy of longitudinal folds and the frequent pigmentation often render the habit easy to recognize in an early stage.
After puberty the habit may be mental, vulvar^ vaginal, urethral, mammary, or any combination of these. The fifth is presumably rare, but the occasional hypertrophies and pigmentations about the nipple point to breast congestion as a feature of some cases. The psychic form of solitary sexual indulgence is most difiicult of all to study or describe, its shadings are so various, its ignorances of actuality so colossal. Vaginal masturbation is rare because of the fear of harming the hymen and thus destroying virginity.
The usual vulvar method is digital pressure, applied to the labia minora, or to the prepuce. To and frO sliding of these parts, hard pressed against the symphysis and descending rami of the pubes, or forward and backward over the edge of the subpubic arch, produces nerve excitation and alternate filling and emptying of the cavernous structures of the bulbs of vestibule, clitoris and labia. That the labia minora, which in their structure can be truly called erectile, are the most common point of attack, is shown by their being the most frequent seat of hypertrophy, while enlargement of the clitoris is distinctly unusual — perhaps because its make-up does not admit of the same acute edemas.
Pressure with the thighs seems as effective in producing enlargement as manualization. While sitting with crossed thighs, a slight bending forward of the trunk brings the vulva against the seat of the chair, and rhythmic adductor action produces the orgasm. In highly sensitive states the adductor rhythm alone is sufficient, and this, at times, without motion evident to any onlooker. Indeed, the extent of the need of watchfulness can never be grasped unless it is known that when self-abuse has reached its keenest pitch in certain individuals the effective pressures or frictions are so simple that a girl can reach the climax in bed with her mother without suspicion. A roll of bedclothes or nightdress held between the upper thighs, or, prone, beneath the vulva ; the heel, brought up against the pudenda ; vulvar contacts with the corner of a piece of furniture or the key in a drawer — any one of these may constitute an individual process. The vaginal douche tube and hot water excite very few women, and the bicycle
been accused of fostering the habit.
Time. — The nsual time of indulgence is at the end of menstruation. The day or two immediately preceding the flow is the period next most fertile in temiDtation. Springtime brings attacks especially strong. When a pelvic disorder, such as a cervical erosion, occurs or gTows Avorse, the torment is prone to light up again. An ordinary frequency is two or three times in the immediate neighborhood of the period, and once or twice (if at all) between. This may continue for years, while, at times, months of freedom elapse. Contrary to the usual belief, the day is as much to be feared as the night. Where a statement is made concerning twelve or fifteen conclusions in twenty-four hours, it is impossible not to believe that in most instances the climax is feeble or brief, but it must never be forgotten that women bear sexual excesses better than men — better, that is to say, physically ; worse, morally. With some the solitary orgasm is said to be no more fatiguing than the. normal relation, with others it is infinitely more so.
Location : Labia minora ; prepuce ; fourchette and perineum ; accessory nympha? ; clitoris ; meatus ; pelvic floor and levator ; vagina — eight in all, any combination being possible. To these may be added varicosities of the broad ligament and bladder base, and the mammary hypertrophies.
A typical case presents the following changes : After pubertj^ the prepuce is a tiny tent over a small clitoris. The lesser labia are smooth and of an inverted V shape in transverse section, forming small, pink ridges closed in between the rounded cushions of the outer lips. After some months of active traction, the nymphffi are larger, thicker, darker along the outer edges, and, together with the prepuce, exhibit the simpler foldings, as well as beginning protrusions. Perhaps some area demonstrates the pathology by characteristic acute edema, showing recent trauma. Thereafter, within two or three years, the fullest development may be looked for in aggravated cases, though the maximum findings here described as belonging to the vulvar habit are very rarely grouped in a single individual. This virgin of eighteen, a well-developed brunette of excellent antecedents and personal history, refined, reticent, and studious, is suffering from mental and physical depression, headache, dysmenorrhea, leucorrhea, bladder irritation and menorrhagia. The breasts are large, the nipples prominent, the primary areola distinctly pigmented, elevated, and bearing follicles, with the secondary areola plainly visible. A strong growth of pubic hair covers rotund, coarse-skinned labia majora. Between these outer labia protrudes, in all postures, a corrugated roll of brownblack skin. Thickened, elongated, curled on themselves, thrown into tiny, close-set, irregular folds that cross at all angles as in a cockscomb, each lesser
eLINICAL FINDINGS IN MASTURBATION. 313
labium hangs in a double fold, its anterior projection partly concealing the rear portion. Unrolled, this little elephant ear, elastic and insensitive, reaches one inch, or even two, beyond the major a, and then drops back, wrinkling into deep furrows. The enlarged and prominent whitish sebaceous glands feel to the touch like a multitude of embedded sand grains. (The pigment deposit is present or absent according to the general coloring.) The prepuce, thickened and lying in rounded folds or wrinkling plaits, is continuous with these lesser labia. They unite in a sweep behind the vulva so that the fourchette and the perineal raphe are as dark and corrugated as they. Laterally, from them, two bridges of the same fine-laid furrowed folds run across the shallow sulcus that lies between inner and outer labium onto the labia majora, like an accessory or intermediate pair of smaller labia ; and this duplicature hangs up or puckers the centre of each labium minus. The prepuce is partly adherent, and underneath it smegma lies hidden. The fully developed clitoris rounds its back and projects its tip under this thick cover nearly an inch in advance of the face of the symphysis. On each side a couple of prominent veins twist along the inner aspect of the labia majora. The wide meatus presents two curious ear-like flaps or tabs when drawn open. Into these ridges the forward edges of the hymen run. The openings of the vulvo-vaginal and urethral glands are reddened and gaping. The hymen is too small to admit the finger-tip. The deeply pigmented anus with its powerful sphincter is surrounded with small piles, and finally, the pelvic floor muscles are increased in vigor and thickness and in susceptibility to spasm. Vaginismus is not uncommon.
The last stage is shrinkage, with or without spotty pigment. The habit ceases. The vulva ages. Its muscles relax, and the surfaces of the lesser labia become smoother as the muscular and elastic fibers in them atrophy, but the curtain-like lips still show abnormal and characteristic increase in area, if not in thickness, and still hang in delicate folds that cross no longer. Shrivelling is never sufficient to bring them back to the former narrow ridge of projecting skin, and although the cockscomb may smooth out its surface, some of the hall marks of the aggravated habit persist for life.
Traction or friction applied to the meatus or urethra result in hypertrophies. Tiny ear-like tabs or projections of the lateral edges of the meatus — on the summit of which elongated urethral glands open — have been called urethral labia, but they are an enlarged anterior section of the hymen (urethral hymen). Dilatability or gaping of the lower third of the canal is sometimes sufficient to admit the finger-tip. A varied assortment of articles, such as hairpins, passed into the urethra to excite sensation, have slipped into the bladder, and called for surgical interference.
The vaginal habit may or may not be a later stage of vulvar excitation in any given instance. The very gradual dilatation of the hymen, extending over a long period, explains the remarkable freedom from injury and the astonishing elasticity and insensitiveness belonging to the aggravated cases of years of pelvic floor massage. Dr. R. L. Dickinson has seen at least fifteen non-parous women
in whom the hymen readily yielded to a circle of six to nine inches, admitting the hand. Yet some of these hymens spring hack to a closed puckered curtain which the eye cannot distinguish from the virgin maidenliead. In a later stage of the same habit, relaxation has taken place and the vulva sags open, though the woman may have had no children at term. The full-term head cannot tear these elastic pelvic floors unless its exit is precipitate. The large variety of foreigTi bodies which have been used to supplement the digits, or have been found in the vagina, need not be enumerated.
Effects. — The physical results of self-abuse, in all but the extreme cases, seem to be surprisingly small. Endometritis, vaginal catarrh, and trigonitis result from long indulgence. jSTeurasthenia is probably coincidence rather than consequence. Protracted masturbation, not associated with sexual images, tends to apathy or aversion toward the sex-act, but the contrary is true where there is longing for normal gratification. In the excessive forms of the vice, as with relaxed pelvic floors, the capacity for pleasure in coitus is lost. If the physical evils are not many, the moral penalties, on the contrary, are disproportionately great. The undermining of self-respect, the tortures and the shame react on the general health surely and frequently and deeply. But there is no diagnostic behavior or appearance.
Diagnosis.- — This presents no difficulty in advanced typical cases of the vulvar habit, as described above, and in general it can, in my view, be safely said that no well-marked area of corrugation about the female genitals is produced in any way but by pressures. The minor and the mental manifestations offer troublesome problems, for which space is lacking here. After some measure of the patient's good-will and confidence has been secured, and the physician is reasonably certain of his premises, the matter may be broached if he fears there is a persisting habit. There is nothing in practice more difficult than the approach to the subject — except perhaps the retirement from it. Good women, particularly, possess no lang-uage and no terminology, either for their feelings or their anatomy. Their words, meaning much or little, are liable to any kind of misconception. The sphinx is not more silent. Secretiveness and skill of fence are developed to the highest degTce. Denial springs instinctively to their lips, or professions of ignorance of what can be meant. Therefore, it is best to put through a set speech steadily. In carefully chosen words the growth of the habit in an average case is outlined, and the successful points lead the patient to think all her trouble is known. The first alarm has time to subside in assurance that this is not denunciation, but help. Admission is rarelv to be asked for in adults. The warning suffices. In voung girls the threat of telling the mother in case the habit is continued forms a powerful deterrent.
Preventive Treatment. — It rests with her training, not whether a girl shall" be tempted, but whether she shall be enslaved by the habit. Self-control is everything, with the help of good muscle and ample nutrition, outdoor tire and cold-water sprays, elevating environment and cleanness of comrades, judicious
TREATMENT OF MASTURBATION, 315
work, and wholesome hardship. Her ideals cannot be too high, nor her conscience too alert, but the stimuli can readily be too intense. Well-timed and reiterated impact of good influences, as in church service and social service, is vital, but prolonged religious emotionalism has no stone wall dividing it from sexual agitation. Fervid preoccupation with art, music, or the literature of feeling presents dangers less gross, but not less real than contacts with loose thinking. From every excess of intensities and unsanities we shall do well to guard.
" Whatever else we may deem wise or unwise as to the instruction of the young girl in the details of sexual gratification, there can be no doubt about their teachers." The physician is the m^oral sanitarium directly responsible. Her telling is to be matter of fact, yet reverent ; neither vague and sublimated, nor specific and suggestive ; not too casual, yet not so freighted with import and interest as to arouse curiosity and invite experiment, and with just two purposes : namely, to so dispose the mind of the child that thereafter she shall bring to the mother her questionings, and to anticipate communications from the girl's companions in a matter wherein the right point of view is everything. Thus by successive stages, as the questions arise, and by illustrations drawn from plants and animals, the mother shows how the holy mysteries of sex were instituted and ordained. In the absence of researches amons: ffirls the proper age for each stage cannot yet be defined. The Y. M. C. A. camps have shown us that at from eight to ten in the tenements and from twelve to fourteen in the better houses, the boy has found out from his comrades about many sex matters. Young girls in school are sometimes surprisingly informed, and parents astoundingly ignorant of this fact. At any rate, the reckless and forward, the hysterical and passionate, the brooding and introspective should be studied and cautioned.*
Curative Treatment. — Confession, however fragmentary, is a long first step toward recovery. " Remorse for sexual sin is still the religious teacher's great opportunity." The doctor may " show great things and difficult," urge the immediate action that will break loose from the particular vicious association, start work to uplift others, and secure a promise to report. These, with strong mental suggestion of control, will go far. The issues must be clear. The lure of temptation lies largely in its intellectual vagueness. To think out the real implications is largely to loosen the habit's hold. Whereto is all this leading? The life is readjusted. House habits and work habits are studied, and nervewrecking tensions let go. Our motto should be, " To replace is to conquer." The taking up of an outdoor hobby, like a nature study, can bring about that muscular fatigue which is found to be the best single remedy for the male. Swimming, hydrotherapy, gymnastic games, skating, tennis, golf, wheeling
*The Wood- Allen Publishing Co.'s books (Ann Arbor, Michigan) are not condensed enough, but furnish an excellent guide for mothers. Stanley Hall's "Adolescence" (Appleton) is the best scientific presentation in English.
and horseback — all are good, but bard to get in cities. Forced nutrition is usually needed, and a general upbuilding. Tea, coffee, and alcohol are cut off, A hard bed with minimum covering in a cool room ; immediate evacuation of the bladder when first conscious, and prompt rising, followed by the cold spray or cold spinal douche, are desirable. Bromides help over crises, whatever the period of the month or the day temptation comes, and valerianates spread this quiescence further, where bromides would disturb.
Actual pelvic disorder calls for cure, by the briefest means available, in order to remove the local irritant. This is right in all but the neurasthenic class. Here anatomic cure does not mean symptomatic cure, except with tumors and gross prolapses. Care is exercised to associate fear of pain with examination. Operation is preferred to office treatment or home treatment on the part of the patient. Stripping the prepuce is desirable whenever adhesions are complete or retained accumulation considerable. Circumcision is useless^ except where adhesions with accumulation persistently recur.
In conclusion it may be said that whatever the divergence of opinion concerning danger or diagnosis, prevalence or effects, we can agree that there is on us the troublous duty of moral prophylaxis, the need of sane instruction of the teachers of children, formulation and comprehension of what the danger signals are, and the mastery of means that will strengthen the body and energize the will. Inasmuch as we do it not —
AND PESSARIES.
Normal position of the uterus, p. 317. Abnormal positions of the uterus, p. 318. Diagnosis and symptoms of retro-displacements, p. 322. Treatment of retro-displacements, p. 323; packs, p. 323; pessaries, p. 325; operative treatment, p. 332. Treatment of prolapsus, p. 333.
Before considering the question of displacements of the uterus it is important to define briefly its normal position, because it is the only proper standard by which to measure a displacement. If my views as to the normal position of the uterus are incorrect, then I must, of necessity, estimate as misplacements a great many cases which are perfectly normal.
The older writers had the idea that the uterus must lie in one particular position in the pelvis, gently inclined forwards or slightly anteflexed, and to this norm they endeavored to accommodate all their patients. As a consequence of this false conception, great numbers of women were put upon treatment for this condition who needed none at all, and the variety of pessaries devised, particularly for anterior displacements of the uterus, .was without end. With a correct notion of the posture or postures of the uterus, the vast field of anterior displacement therapy disappeared into the gynecological waste-basket, and with it the host of pessaries over which our immediate predecessors spent so much thought and wasted so much ingenuity.
NORMAL POSITION OF UTERUS.
The uterus normally lies in a state of mobile equilibrium, that is to say, it is poised or swung between its broad ligaments, ready to respond to any force however gentle exerted upon its anterior or posterior surfaces. It lies generally with fundus inclined forward, and cervix turned backwards towards the lower part of the sacral hollow. As the bladder is emptied, the fundus drops still further forward, and the uterus comes to lie in a more decided anteposition, while if the bladder becomes distended, the situation is reversed, and the body is lifted on the distended bladder ; in cases of extreme distention is even thrown over into retroposition. The general position of the normal uterus is fundus anterior, cervix posterior, and as it swings in this position, the least increase of intra-abdominal pressure above forces the viscera down upon the posterior surface of the uterus and so increases the ante-displace-
318 displaceme:xts of the utekits.
ment. Xo anterior position of the uterus is abnormal, except that of an extreme flexion of the bodv on the cervix. This is a congenital condition associated with imperfect development of the uterus and is not to he remedied by palliative treatments through the vagina, or by the use of any kind of a pessary. It is in cases of this kind that a dilatation of the cervical canal is often done, associated with a deep incision of the posterior wall of the cervix at the angle of flexure, so as to open the cervical canal and secure free exit for the menstrual discharge. Plausible as such an operation appears in the description, it unfortunately does not often relieve the dysmenorrhea which torments these patients, and although successfully done to overcome sterility, a simple dilatation of the cervix is, as a rule, equally efiicient.
jSTumerous combinations of these malpositions.
Although this list of malpositions seems a formidable one, there are practically only two or three of them which are of clinical sigTiificance. These are : retroversion and retroflexion, best considered together; descensus; and prolapsus. Anteflexion, as I have said, is a congenital condition, causing in itself no symptoms and requiring no treatment. The other malpositions are either pathological varieties or dependent upon some disease of the pelvic organs.
Ascensus, or the pulling of the uterus up into the abdominal cavity, is due to an association of the body of the uterus with a tumor, such as a fibroid or an adherent ovarian tumor, gTowing in the direction of the abdominal cavity; or to a slinging of the uterus to the abdominal wall by a suspension operation. The displacement itself demands no particular attention.
The latero-displacements also are produced by the push or pull of a tumor ; or by that of a pelvic inflammatorv mass ; or by the contraction of scar tissue in old inflanmiatory cases, which drags the cervix in the direction of the focus of inflammation. These conditions demand notice only as clinical features of value in making a diagnosis in connection with pelvic inflammatory trouble.
Torsions. — A slight degree of rotation low down on the right side exists commonly and may almost be considered normal. Any inflammatory disease causing an unsymmetrical drag or pull may exaggerate this. Large myomatous tumors and tumors of the ovary may cause such twisting as to completely shut off the circulation and cause gangrene. Such conditions are usually considered under tumors of the uterus or ovaries.
Retropositions are by far the most important. It is in retroversion and retroflexion, especially when associated with descensus, that the patient's general health is liable to suffer, and she experiences local discomforts ; it is in these cases, therefore, that an appropriate therapy is always likely to afford entire relief.
A Decided Retroflexion with Descensus.
first, these steps on the backward and downward progress may be recognized, even to its final appearance at the outlet and its escape as a complete prolapsus. Frequency of Retroflexions. — The relative frequency of retroflexion, as contrasted with other gynecological ailments, is found in the following statement taken from my records at the Johns Hopkins Hospital : Out of the thirteen thousand and six hundred gynecological cases, there were eleven hundred and
eightv-six of retroflexion, and of this number four hundred and fifteen were uncomplicated retroflexions, three hundred and sixteen being associated with pelvic adhesions, a broken-down vaginal outlet (commonlv called laceration of the perineum), appendicitis, etc..
Out of one thousand operations of all kinds, extending from August 27, 1904, to iSTovember 9, 1905, there were ninety-five cases of retroflexion; of this number sixty-nine were married women and twenty-six were single. In ten per cent of the ninety-five cases an operation was done upon the vaginal outlet.
There is no doubt at all
that thousands of young women are under treatment for retrodisplacements, impressed by their physicians that it is a serious malady, who would be far better off if they were let entirely alone, or if the time and money expended were directed to the simple endeavor to build up their health. At the same time there are occasional cases in young women, in which there is a marked downward displacement, with the fundus of the uterus tilted backward, and often associated with a misplaced ovary, where there is a distinct dragging pain and a marked dysmenorrhea. In such cases where the symptoms are distinctly local and clearly referable to displacement, gTeat relief generally follows replacement of the uterus. It is the cases of neurasthenia, with more or less general aches and pains, and suffering which seems more particularly ovarian in character, that are rarely relieved by mechanical methods.
PKOLAPSUS OF THE UTEEUS,
at the vaginal outlet, involving the levator ani fibres, and leaving the outlet gaping, with more or less eversion of the anterior and posterior vaginal walls. The cervix in such cases is at a much lower point in the vagina than is normal, in fact that conditions seem almost reversed. The cervix lies forward, one or two finger breadths from the symphysis, while the fundus lies backward, low down in the sacral hollow, where the cervix formerly lay. The examination in such a case is not completed until the patient is examined while standing, with one of her feet resting on a low stool. While in this position, on making the least strain, the vaginal Avails are felt to roll out, and the cervix is found to descend lower in the vagina.
Prolapsus of the uterus is simply an advanced stage of this retrodisplacement just described, associated with descensus, which is the first step towards the formation of a complete prolapse. A complete prolapse, or escape of the entire uterus from the pelvic cavity, is rarely brought about within a short period of time; as a rule, the descensus increases week by week until the cervix appears at the vaginal outlet, and next escapes from the outlet, until finally the entire uterus, or, it may be, a long drawn out supra-
The vagina,
vaginal cervix, like a stem of -macaroni, communicating with the body above, hangs between the thighs (see Fig. 83), at the apex or on the anterior surface of a sac made up of vaginal walls, containing a diverticulum from the bladder in front, and it may be some projection of the rectum or the small intestines behind. The pain present in these cases is most aggravated when the prolapsus is in the process of formation, while the dragging is still going on, and the tis-
sues are yielding. When the prolapse is completed, altliougli the patient may be greatly incommoded by the mass, the sacropnbic hernia, which hangs between her thighs, the suffering is not so great, as there is no longer any stretching going on.
Prolapsus is usually found in women well over forty, no longer in the child-bearing period, so that for this as well as for mechanical reasons, pregnancy is extremely rare. The chief dangers in this condition are associated with the difficulty in emptying the bladder. Cystitis may occur, stones may be formed in the sacculus lying in the hernia, and an ascending infection may cause death. As a rule, however, there is but little danger to life.
Symptoms and Diagnosis of Retrodisplacements. — A retroflexion is objectionable because of the disabilities it induces. The patient who was once active and energetic now feels more or less tired all the time, has a dragging sensation generally referred to the brim of the pelvis posteriorly, is apt to suffer from constipation and prolonged menstruation, and is often seriously incommoded by frequent urination. If pregnancy occurs, an abortion is apt to take place; although in favorable cases, the uterus rights itself, and after the third or fourth month there is no further difficulty, but rather a relief. If the retroflexed pregnant uterus becomes incarcerated and unable to escape from the promontory up into the abdomen, as a rule, an abortion takes place. This is the simplest and safest solution. Sometimes the pressure is so great as to occlude the urethra and cause an exfoliation of the vesical mucosa. A simple manual replacement, with the patient in the knee-breast position under anesthesia, in which the cervix is pulled doT\Ti towards the outlet, while the fundus is pushed up with two fingers introduced into the emptied rectum, will at once relieve all discomforts and place the uterus in a position to carry its burden to term.
The diagnosis of retrodisplacement is made by feeling the cervix lower dovTi in the vagina than its normal position, instead of lying well up at the vault, while the rounded fundus is easily felt through the posterior vaginal vault (see Fig. 81, p. 319). The rounded mass at the posterior vaginal vault must be distinguished from an ovarian tumor or a fibroid tumor of the posterior surface of the uterus. This is done in the first place by grasping the cervix with the tenaculum forceps and drawing it down, while the finger distinctly recognizes the continuity between the cervix and the fundus in the angle posteriorly. Then upon making a bimanual examination, with one hand palpating through the abdominal walls, the absence of any fundus anterior to the cervix is noted, while at the same time the fundus felt below can be pushed up so as to come within the reach of the abdominal fingers. If there is any doubt about the condition, a little anesthesia will enable the operator to make a still more searching examination bimanually through the rectum and the abdominal wall, bringing the finger into the closest contact with the posterior surface of the uterus, and enabling him to outline the ovaries at either side.
TREATMENT OF EETRODISPEACEMENTS.
spare her feelings and suggest an anesthetic at once, to clear up the situation. I find as a rule that nitrous oxide gas is sufficient for this purpose; if it does not produce enough relaxation, a little ether may be given. Where an anesthetic is objectionable, a ten per cent solution of coca in may be inserted by the nurse, upon a pledget of cotton attached to a thread placed just behind the hymen; this measure obliterates the sensitiveness, after which the examination can be made with far less distress and resistance on the part of the patient. The examiner ought always to avoid any injury to the hymen. This can be done by conducting the entire examination through the rectum. It is my rule in such cases to suggest to the patient, if she has been complaining of dysmenorrhea, that any simple operation, such as a thorough dilatation, should be done at once, so as not to subject her to the discomfort of two acts of anesthesia.
A Packer, for the Purpose of Holding the Uterus up and in Place.
must be reckoned the application of packs to the vagina, with a view of holding up the uterus, and the use of pessaries for the same purpose. Radical treatments are operative in character. A vaginal pack, or tampon, is made of large pledgets of absorbent cotton or wool, or of a long strip of gauze (see Fig. 84) saturated with some drug, and introduced into the vagina, .where it forms
a supporting column, holding nj) the nterns. The medicament most commonly used is a solution of boric acid in glycerin, called boroglycerid. This is then placed at the vaginal vault under the cervix with a thread hanging outside. One or perhaps two or more pledgets of cotton are similarly introduced, using an instrument called a packer, to carry the cotton up into place. Underneath the pledgets of cotton it is well to place a tampon of wool, which does not collapse like the cotton, and gives an elastic support to the whole. Such a tampon should be left in place from twelve to twenty-four hours, after which the patient removes it and takes a douche, using permanganate of potash, two to three per cent, in warm water for the jDurpose; or a teaspoonful of Labarraque's solution, the formula for which is as follows:
Such packs may be renewed from week to week, the douching being continued in the intervals. A pack is not to be left in for several days, as it is liable to become sour and to set up irritation. A good plan of putting in a pack is to place the patient in the knee-breast position and lift up the perineum, when the whole vagina balloons out, and it is much easier to place a suppository or a supporting pack in position. The cervix should be drawn down with a tenaculum, so as to dislodge a non-adherent fundus or to gain as much room as possible, should it be adherent. The action of the pack is for the boroglycerid to provoke a free watery discharge and thereby deplete the surrounding tissues, while the cotton and wool form an elastic supporting colimin within the vagina on which the uterus rests, preventing displacement downwards when the patient is on her feet and propping the distended walls of the pelvic blood vessels, thus giving the patient a sense of relief. I sometimes see patients who have become accustomed to the use of packs where no displacement or anatomical abnormality of any kind whatever can be detected. Such patients, who have worn packs a long time, experience a sense of discomfort without them, and unless a strong effort is made to wean them from the practice, they are likely to remain tied to the doctor's office from year to year. Cases of this sort, where there is really no trouble demanding the pack, are a disgTace to the gynecological profession.
Pessaries in Retrodisplacement and Descensus. — Pessaries are valuable instruments in giving relief in cases of ret rodispla cement, or descensus, or both. As a rule, their use is only temporary, for a few weeks or months, when an appropriate 0]>eration should be done so as to free the patient from the necessity of local treatment. Sometimes, however, as in prolapsus in an older woman who has a serious organic disease, such as a heart lesion, and an operation is contra-indicated, a pessary is used permanently to
FiG. 85. — The Five Most Useful Kinds of Hard-rubber Pessaries. Their Size is Slightly Reduced AS SHOWN BT THE CENTIMETRE MEASURE Below. (1) Smith pessary with strong Upper curve of the posterior bar and pointed nose. (2) Hodge pessary with broad anterior bar; the curved form of the pessary, seen from the side, is shown on the right. (.3) Comn:ion hard-rubber ring pessarjr, the most generally useful of all. (4) Gehrung pessary, the most valuable form in cases of cystocele, and in prolapse where the vaginal outlet is still good ; the outline of this pessary is shown on the right. (5) Reinforced Munde-Thomas-Smith pessary. Thomas added the thickening of the posterior bar to the Smith pessary (1) ; while Munde changed the pointed nose of the anterior bar into a broader one, more like the Hodge form. All these pessaries are made in several sizes.
ber pessaries may be left in place for periods varying for from several months to a year. The operator should be sure when the pessary is introduced that it is perfectly clean. A pessary should never be taken from one patient and, after simple washing, introduced into another. The ring pessary alone of all the different kinds can be disinfected by boiling in water. Other pessaries, which are liable to lose their form by boiling, should be washed with soap and hot water and then immersed in a solution of bichloride of mercury for several days. The use of the pessary is simply to spread out the vaginal walls. When the uterus is freely movable, it may be put in a normal position before
a pessary is placed. A measurement should be made of the length of the vagina, by means of the finger or a sound, from the upper limit of the posterior culde-sac down to the posterior surface of the symphysis at a point corresponding to the junction of the lower and middle thirds of the urethra, in order to determine the length of the pessary to be used.
of the fundus uteri.
Manual Reduction. — Let me say here that manual reduction of the uterus, while it seems an ideal procedure as it appears on a diagram, lacks two important elements of the ideal in actual practice. In the first place it is not always easy to accomplish and may hurt the patient a good deal ; in the second place, a uterus so replaced, as a rule, refuses to stay where it has been put. For this reason, I do not pause to lay great stress on this phase of the treatment of retrodisplacements. The replacement is effected by getting hold of the back of the fundus with the hand on the abdomen (see Fig. 86), at the same time pushing the cervix back with the finger of the other hand, in this way assisting the organ to reach its normal fundus-ante position. After replacement it is well to exaggerate the anterior position decidedly before putting in the tampon (see Fig. 87).
It sometimes happens that the simple introduction of a pessary sets a retro' position of the uterus into anteposition. Before introducing the pessary the vagina should be clean and the bowel free of fecal matter. The well-lubricated pessary is then placed inside of the vagina, encircling the cervix as if it is a ring, and this may be done without attempting to raise the fundus ; the pessary itself will often serve to correct the retroposition of tlie uterus, if its presence is sufficient to maintain the uterus in a correct position. The essential con-
ditions for the use of a pessary are the absence of a lateral inflammatory disease, which would be aggravated by the hard sides of the pessary, and a vaginal outlet sufficiently closed or snug enough to keep the pessary within the vagina. If the vaginal outlet is much broken down, any pessary, however well placed, will roll out as soon as the patient is on her feet, or with the first act of straining.
There is one pessary, the Gehrung, which will correct an eversion of the anterior vaginal w^all, called a cystocele. The pessary is held in the fingers, as shown in the diagram (see Fig. 85, 'No. 4), and inserted by hooking it down over the perineum, and then rotating it gently till the entire pessary is brought within the vagina. It is then turned with the index finger, pressing on one or the other of its bars until the cervix comes to lie in the position shown in the diagram. Other pessaries commonly used are the simple ring (Fig. 85, ISTo. 3) in sizes from four to ten centimetres in diameter; and the rubber ring, which should be about ten millimetres in thickness ; it is a serious mistake to use rings made of narrow rubber less than six millimetres in thickness, as these
Bimanual Manipulation.
are more liable to cut through the vaginal walls. Whenever there is some tendency to prolapsus, it is better to use rings with thicker margins, and in prolapsus, a disc of rubber is often valuable, with simply a little hole (one to two centimetres in diameter) in the middle. In such cases a shell pessary is often useful. I believe, as a rule, hard-rubber rings will serve all the purpose
Fig. 88. — Showing Manner of Introdttcing a Ring Pessary, by Drawing Back the Posterior Vaginal, Wall, and Pressing Back^svard with the Pessary as it is Introduced in a Slightly Oblique Direction. It is important to avoid pressing upon the pubic bone or the more sensitive structures near the symphysis.
INTRODUCTION OF PESSARIES.
and fulfil nearly all indications better than the so-called lever pessaries, known as the Hodge, Albert Smith, Smith-Thomas, Smith-Thomas-Mnnde (Fig. 85, !Ro. 5). When a lever pessary is used in retroflexion, the broad posterior bar of the Thomas pessary is more satisfactory than the old-fashioned Smith, while the same pessary with a square nose in front is more satisfactory than the pointed nose of the Albert Smith pessary. The pessary ought never to stretch the walls of the vagina so as to produce an ischemia. It is a temptation, it appears, to many physicians to insert a large pessary, of the style which I have long called a Horse Pessary; this stretches the vaginal walls out tremendously in every direction, producing a result which would be very satisfactory if the instrument did not lie in contact with living tissues liable to ulcerate. A pessary should fit snugly, but rather loosely, although not so loosely as to be unable to keep its position. There should be room on all sides to insert easily between the pessary
tain what kind of a pessary to use, it is best to start out by trying a ring. Then if this does not do well, to try, say the Smith-Thomas-Munde. The ring pessary is inserted in the manner shown in Figure 88, pushing pos-
avoiding any violent impact on the urethra or the anterior vulvar tissues. The Smith or Munde pessaries are held and inserted in the manner shown in the diagram (see Fig. 89). After thus slipping the pessary into the vagina, it is put in position by the index finger pressing the posterior bar back behind the cervix (see Fig. 90).
Fig. 90. — Showing Manner of Carrying Smith Pessary into Place. The pessary, having been introduced into the vagina, is caught by the index finger, which rests upon its posterior bar, and carried well behind the cervix, when the pessary is in position.
the vaginal outlet. Figure 91 shows ring pessary in position.
The thick ring pessaries, the disc pessaries, the shell pessaries, and the bayonet handle pessaries (Menge) should be reserved for prolapsus cases. In these cases, the pessary must be larger, as a rule, than for retroflexion, so as to take up more space in the overstretched vagina, and at the same time too large to escape through the vaginal outlet when once introduced. The simpler the form of pessary which does the work, the better for the patient. Sometiuies a pessary seems to fulfil the indication in an ideal manner, so long as the patient is on her back, but as soon as she gets on her feet,
the part lying behind the symphysis slips down, appears at the vulva, and so escapes. The physician here realizes that, if in some way he could prevent the pessary falling forward in this manner, he would be able to keep it inside, and so give entire relief. This indication was met by our predecessors by the
Zwank pessary, an instrument which could be introduced closed and then opened out by means of a screw arrangement in the handle. These pessaries, however, did incalculable harm in cutting through into the tissues, and have, for this reason, fallen into a well-deserved disrepute. This indication is well met by the Menge pessary, with a rounded stem, which is inserted into the pessary and fixed with a bayonet lock after the pessary has been introduced (sec Fig, 92). Pessaries cause abrasion or ulceration of the vagina because they are too large and exert undue pressure in one place, or because the polished surface of the hard rubber becomes incrusted with lime salts and thus roughened. To gaiard against this roughening and to make sure that the pessary fits well, it should be removed and inspected after each menstrual period for several months, and thereafter at intervals of two or three months during the time it is worn.
In fitting a pessary it is often necessary to bend it. To do this without destroying the polish it must be thoroughly greased and held just above the flame of an alcohol lamp, taking care not to let the grease catch fire, for if it does the rubber will burn, leaving a rough spot.
Patients who wear pessaries find it necessary, as a rule, to use douches; a good douche is made of sodium bicarbonate and borax, a teaspoonful of each to the pint of warm water, which can be taken once a day injected with a Davidson's syringe, using the long hard-rubber nozzle introduced to its fullest extent into the vagina. If a drop of menthol is added to this
of the douche.
Operative Treatment. — The radical or operative treatment for retrodisplacements consists in the use of natural or artificial supports to hold the uterus in an anteposition and keep the fundus forward in advance of the cervix. The simplest form of operation is that used in nulliparous women where one of several supra-pubic operations may be employed. The Alexander operation acting on the round ligaments by shortening them in the inguinal canal has long been in vogue, but it is at present being generally abandoned.
Fig. 93. — Shows the Different Steps in an Operation for Prolapse of the Uterus. (1) Represents the amputation of the cer^dx by removal of the area indicated by shading. (2) Represents the resection of the anterior vaginal wall for correction of the cystocele. (3) Shows the operation for building up the vaginal outlet and thus narrowing the opening. (4) Is the suspensorj.- ligament attaching the fundus to the abdominal wall. (5) Represents the alternate operation to this, namely, the shortening of the round ligament by Gilliam's operation.
the cervix, wliicli, as a rule, is elongate, is amputated (see Fig. 93, 1) then the anterior vaginal wall is resected (Fig. 93, 2) ; and, finally, the vaginal outlet is built up so as to give a strong support to the outlet (Fig. 93, 3). An abdominal operation may be added to hold the vagina forward, either by direct action of the fundus, or by drawing the round ligaments through the
Fig. 94. — An Operation for the Cure of Prolapsus in Women Who have Passed the Child-bearing Period and tvhere there is a Marked Cystocele. The uterus is intereallated, or fixed between the bladder and the anterior vaginal wall. The shaded area in the perineum represents the customary closure of the relaxed opening.
abdominal wall (Gilliam's operation). In the other forms of operation, which effectively holds the uterus in place in even the most difficult cases, the body of the uterus is brought out between the bladder and the vagina as shown in Figure 94. After this the vaginal outlet is built up as in the operation shown in the previous figure.
Treatment of Prolapsus. — While retroflexion and simple relaxation of the vaginal outlet are easy, prolapsus is often exceedingly difiicult to cure. The flaccid vaginal walls, with a loose uterus above, are apt to roll out of the best-formed vaginal opening, as a wet glove is turned inside out. In almost all cases of prolapsus, a series of operations is necessary to effect a cure. I have already spoken of the three forms of pessaries in use
in this condition, and when they do afford relief in women of advanced years, especially in those who are very stont, it is far better to use them than to resort to any more or less aggressive treatment. A pessary cannot be used successfully, however, unless there is a more or less well-formed outlet to hold it in. If there is a fairly good outlet, then it is worth while to spend some little time in persevering effort to find a suitable pessary.
Whenever there are ulcerations on the everted vaginal mucosa, the uterus and vagina ought to be pushed back into the pelvic cavity and the ulcerated surfaces treated by inserting glycerin tampons, and keeping the patient in bed until they are healed (see Fig. S-4, p. 323). Each time the tampon is removed a prolonged hot douche is given, six quarts of water as hot as can be borne at a temperature of 110° to 116° F., given by means of a fountain syringe, after which another pack is inserted. If the bladder is affected with cystitis, as sometimes happens, it should be treated by daily irrigations with a boric acid solution of half saturated strength, as hot as can be borne. A good wav to do this is to attach a funnel with a long rubber tubing to the end of the catheter and after filling the funnel with the solution, raise it two to three feet above the level of the patient as she reclines on her back. Let the fluid run into the bladder until the patient complains of gTcat discomfort, then pinch the tube, and disconnect it from the catheter. Care should be taken not to let any air go into the bladder, as it is apt to produce distress. If the progTCSs towards recovery is not rapid enough, the boric acid solution may be alternated with one of hot nitrate of silver, 1 : 1000 in strength. Should these means fail to give relief the patient must be referred to a specialist with a view to operative treatment.
DEFINITION.
The term "pelvic inflammatory disease" is applied to an extensive group of affections of an inflammatory nature, involving the pelvic viscera. The result of such an inflammation is the agglutination of the contiguous viscera, often associated with the formation of localized swellings, consisting of abscesses or accumulations of serum, which are walled off from the rest of the abdominal cavity above. These affections are so exceedingly common that they are seen by every general practitioner, and their treatment forms a large part of the surgical work which the gynecologist is called upon to do. The group of pelvic inflammatory diseases is subdivided into a number of specific affections, each one of which tends to differ from the others in its mode of onset, in its course, and in its termination; the group as a whole, however diverse its causes, is united by one peculiarity, namely, that of inflammatory reaction, which results in the formation of adhesions between the inflamed structures and the circumjacent peritoneum. •
In the first broad analysis of the subject inflammatory affections may be divided into two sorts: one which is infectious, resulting from the invasion of pathogenic organisms ; the other which is non-infectious and results from the irritative action of some chemical product, either of the uterine tubes or of the ovaries, upon the peritoneum, provoking an inflammatory reaction without the formation of pus.
The non-infective cases of pelvic peritonitis, as a rule, arise from the ovaries (excepting in the case of a tubal hematocele) ; the most conspicuous cases of this class are the extensive hematomata arising from diseased corpora lutea. The blood poured out under these circumstances provokes violent adhesive inflammation in the surrounding peritoneum, in which both ovaries are usually involved, being walled in by the dense attachments of the uterus, tubes, and bowels to one another.
The infectious cases, in most instances in which the avenue of invasion can be detected, are traceable from the uterus upwards, through the uterine tubes, and so onto the peritoneal surfaces. They differ from the non-
336 PELVIC INFLAMMATORY DISEASE.
infective, above cited, in that their chief seat is in the uterine tubes^ which may show extraordinary changes, becoming converted into serous or pus sacs (sacto-salpins), sometimes of great size.
ETIOLOGY.
The inflammation, whatever its cause, is usually traceable to a definite focus where it resides at first, and from which it extends intermittently to the surrounding structures. The focus is generally manifest in the greater intensity of inflammation, and the greater density of the adhesions at this point. It is important to note the fact that while the organ which forms the focus of the disease is often injured beyond the possibility of restoration, the adjacent organs are frequently only incidentally affected, being involved in the adhesions resulting from the pelvic peritonitis, and although affected, often not seriously injured structurally.
The chronic forms of pelvic inflammation, which are seen for the most part by the gynecological specialist, have, as a rule, been progTessing for months, and frequently for many years ; they are often ambulatory, visiting one oflice after another, and clinic after clinic, seeking relief.
The acute florid forms, on the other hand, are oftener seen by the general practitioner, who is called in where there is a fresh gonorrhea, and in the first attack of pelvic peritonitis ; or again, he sees his patient through her confinement, and then watches the development of a phlegmon on the pelvic floor, or a peritonitis in the puerperal period,
It is a matter of the utmost importance that the general practitioner, who handles the gross materials of all the specialties in his daily practice and separates such as need further elaboration to send to the specialist, should recognize clearly all his cases of pelvic inflammatory disease. As a rule, I am sorry to say, this group of affections is not promptly recognized to-day, and in many instances a diagnosis is forced upon the reluctant practitioner simply by the lapse of time, and by the fact that the patient continues to suffer and is failing in health, in spite of a course of polypharmacy. In this way a sort of diagnosis is made perforce, which is not creditable to the medical man, and on account of the serious loss of time, is often injurious to the patient. It is in order to bring the practitioner into closer touch with these cases, and to lay before him simple and satisfactory methods of making a diagnosis, without entering into unnecessary refinements, that these lines are written.
Looking at the pelvic inflammatory cases symptomatically, there are, in general, two groups, the non-sensitive and the sensitive. One of these, the non-sensitive, is an extraordinary class, in which there may be even widespread adhesions, more or less involving all the jDclvic organs, but the patient may liave no particular discomforts of any kind, and may not have complained of any pelvic disease at all, until some irregularity of function, such as excessive monthly periods, or a growing mass at length forces her to seek advice. At present, we are not in a position to explain the lack of pain in these instances. The diagnosis cannot be made by symptoms, for there are few or none, but only by a bimanual examination in the course of a routine investigation, when the adherent masses in the pelvis will be discoverable.
The sensitive group are those suffering from pain, which in practically all cases is present at the menstrual periods and which in the more pronounced cases becomes continuous and almost unbearable.
Tlie pain may be intermittent or continuous ; at times it is excessive, at others but slight, or altogether absent. Practically, all acute cases are very, painful from the start, and the suffering continues until the disease either disappears or subsides into a chronic state. The pain is usually localized in the pelvis, and, as a rule, the painful area can be covered by the palm of the hand laid upon the lower abdomen over the right or left ovarian regions. On the right side the pain is sometimes located near enough to the
the vermiform ajDpendix may be at the root of the trouble. When the pain becomes intense, it is apt to extend over the whole lower abdomen, into the iliac fossa, and down one of the legs, following the anterior crural and sciatic nerves, or into the lumbar region of the side affected, in other words, the lower abdomen and legs are involved.
The pain due to a bona fide pelvic disease differs from the more or less illdefined pains of a hysterical or a neurasthenic patient, in that the inflammatory pain has a definite habitat. The pain of inflammation is a fixed pain; it is never in one place to-day and then at some remote part of the body to-morrow, one day perhaps in the shoulder, and the next in the foot or the calf of the opposite leg, etc. It is a safe working hypothesis to conclude that a patient who complains of a definite pain, and who from day to day and week to week is definite in her complaint as to the character and site of the pain, has some gross trouble. This, I say, is a safe working hypothesis. It is not, however, safe to operate upon a patient upon such an indication; but, given such a definite complaint, I would give the patient an anesthetic, carefully examine the pelvic organs, and clear up the diagnosis in that way. As a rule, the pelvic inflammatory pain is gradually increased at the menstrual periods, becoming sharper with the congestion of the organs; in some cases it becomes intolerable at this time, but it is possible that the pain is not felt at all at the periods. In many instances, the pain is continuous, dull, aching, grinding, tearing in character, with exacerbations brought about by exercise, fatigue, etc. A sense of burning in the abdomen, often noted on the left side, over the pelvis or above it, is commonly associated with a neurosis without objective changes.
Fever is a variable factor; when there is no pus, there is, as a rule, no fever, or at most but slight elevations of temperature. When there is an acute infection or an exacerbation of an old infection associated with fever, there is an increase in the number of white blood cells in the blood (leucocytosis), from the normal seven to nine thousand wp to fifteen to thirty or more thousand. This leucocytosis is gTeater in the puerperal than in the gonorrheal infections, and runs a course fairly pa.ralleling the febrile curve. The absence of leucocytosis does not show the absence of an abscess in the pelvis.
When pus is present, and the process is not acute, there may also be no fever at all, or an elevation of only one half or one degTee. With the extension of an infection from a focus of su]3puration, however, the patient may run an acute febrile course for some days or weeks. Fever is found in all acute cases, varying in intensity with the character of the infection, and being most intense in the streptococcus puerperal patients.
In making a diagnosis of a pelvic inflammatory disease, close attention must be paid to the history, and often from this alone such strong presumptive evidence may be gathered, that a fairly accurate conjecture can be made.
comes to her plivsician with a free purulent vaginal discharge, the external parts may be more or less inflamed, and the cervix pouring out some secretions. After suffering from such symptoms for a few days or longer, she is seized with severe cramplike abdominal pains, with fever and great tenderness over the lower abdomen, so that she is obliged to go to bed. Or it may be that a young married woman comes with the same history ; the doctor discreetly takes the husband aside and asks him if he had any gonorrheal disease at marriage, and he acknowledges an infection a few months back, but says his doctor discharged him cured, after a brief treatment. Again, the same history repeats itself after a menstrual period, when the portals for infection are thrown open through the increased congestion and succulence of the mucous membranes. The same sort of an infection is also prone to occur in the puerperal period.
The examination in acute cases reveals great tenderness at the vault of the vagina and the most delicate manipulation shows that this extends out laterally over the pelvic floor. In one and all of these cases there is an acute gonorrheal process at work. The history points to the diagnosis, and the microscopical examination of the secretions, showing intracellular diplococci in the pus cells, proves it beyond question. A gonorrheal infection may be inferred in cases of women of loose life, who are continually exposed to infection ; or it may be suggested in married women by circumstances relative to the condition and habits of the husband, known only to the physician. In the unmarried, pelvic inflammatory disease is very apt to be due either to gonorrhea or tuberculosis. If the moral character is above suspicion, tuberculosis or corpus luteum cysts must be seriously considered. A gonorrheal infection may, as a rule, be proven from the character of the cervical discharge, and sometimes from the enlargement of the vulvo-vaginal glands ; or from a lingering infection in the urethral glands, in which pus is easily squeezed out by a little pressure under the pubic arch ; or it may be shown by the vaginal secretions, or from recrudescences of vaginitis, in which the gonococci become evident. Whenever it is possible, a little of the cervical secretion should be thinly smeared on a glass slide and examined under the microscope. If the general practitioner is not prepared to do this he can send the slide by mail to some one who is competent (see p. 276).
Puerperal cases often date from a bad labor with protracted use of forceps, followed by fever, and a slow getting up. These also are often gonorrheal in nature. If the examination of the discharge shows the absence of such a specific organism as the gonococcus, one of the staphylococci is probably at fault. The patient often comes with the definite statement that she has not been well since her last labor, or since a miscarriage.
Tuberculosis may often be suspected from the body habit, from the existence of tuberculosis elsewhere, from the family tendency; it may be associated with the uterine discharge and proven by curettage, and the finding of tuberculosis of an endometrium. Tuberculosis is apt to affect women in the first half of life who have not borne children.
When curettage is performed in pelvic inflammatory disease, the operator must be careful not to rupture any adhesions or to open an abscess by tractions on the uterus. If there are any lateral masses the uterus ought never to be pulled upon. If it is curetted, this should be done with the organ remaining in situ and with as little disturbance as possible.
Corpus luteum cysts have a tendency to rupture and pour blood into the cul-de-sac of Douglas, thus exciting an inflammatory reaction and leading to the formation of large adherent masses. An exactly similar process follows the rupture of extra-uterine pregnancy leading to the formation of the once much discussed hematocele.
Disease of the Vermiform Appendix. — The physician must always bear in mind that pelvic inflammatory disease is associated in not a few cases with disease of the appendix. This point is an important one, as the expectant plan of treatment is not suitable in cases where the appendix is concerned. This subject is more fully discussed in Chapter XXIV.
A further group of inflammatory affections, often bilateral, are associated with the small dermoid cysts, which may provoke a most violent inflammatory reaction. Dermoid cysts at every period of their growth are peculiarly liable to provoke a non-infectious irritative peritonitis with dense adhesions to the contiguous structures. These cases offer, perhaps, as good an example as could be found of a well-defined peritonitis in the absence of any micro-organisms. The invasion of the cyst by organisms is associated with febrile disturbances, increased pain, and the formation of pus.
Papillary cysts also form a peculiar group, almost always bilateral, in which the ovaries grow as large as the fist, and are filled with a mucilaginous material and papillary outgrowths which soon perforate the thin sac walls and spread on to the surrounding peritoneum. These cysts almost invariably provoke a violent inflammatory adhesive reaction. After taking a careful history and trying to get presumptive evidence of some one of these causes, the bimanual examination is made.
While a history of a fixed pain with exposure to infection, associated with or without vaginal discharge, may lead to a diagnosis of pelvic inflammatory disease, such a diagnosis can never be made with certainty until the disease is directly recognized by the examining finger. Upon introducing one or two fingers, the cervix may at once be noted to be immovable or relatively immovable. Carrying the finger a little farther up, a distinct swelling at the vaginal vault, posterior and lateral to the cervix, may make the diagnosis positive within a few seconds, even without any further investigation. Any swelling which is felt in this way by the vagina can also be more distinctly felt through the empty rectum as the finger enters the narrowed channel, back of the swelling, and is carried on above over its rounded, posterior eminences, which separate the finger from the uterus. If these distinct signs of inflammatory trouble are not readily found, it is well to suggest an examination under anesthesia. For the purpose of making a most complete anesthetic examina-
tion, it is often sufficient to give the patient nitrous oxide gas, but the addition of a little ether may be necessary in many instances to secure a complete relaxation. When the patient is under gas with the bowels well emptied, the cervix is caught by the tenaculum forceps and drawn carefully down, pulling the body of the uterus with it, while the finger is introduced into the rectum, and by invagination of the perineum, carried as higli up in the pelvis as possible, to some point not far below the promontory of the sacrum. With the vaginal finger or fingers thus hooked around the uterus, tubes, and ovaries, and used as a sensitive, posterior plane ready to recognize any transmitted motion and any varying degrees of hardness in structure, the upper or abdominal hand is used to make pressure upon the various pelvic structures and bring them within the reach and touch of the fingers in the rectum. In this way, the uterine body is outlined, the posterior surfaces of the broad ligaments are palpated, the ovaries are clearly felt, and the examiner has the assurance that if there were any enlargement of the uterine tubes, they would be felt also. Where an abscess is suspected he must be careful not to drag the uterus far down, and not to use force in touching the lateral structure, for fear of rupturing it.
The simplest form of pelvic infiammatory disease which can be found is an adherent ovary. To find this the physician must so far have mastered the technic of the bimanual examination that he is able to recogTiize and handle a normal ovary per rectum. The posterior surface of the uterus and the fundus being large objects are easily found with a little practice ; then, feeling gently out to the right or left of the cornu uteri just under the angle, the utero-ovarian ligament is first felt, and then, following this outwards, the ovary itself. It is hard, slightly irregular, or a little nodular, perhaps^ contains a large follicle, from two to three centimetres in diameter and always movable. If the ovary is adherent, it cannot be lifted from its bed, or else the little string-like adhesions are felt to snap as it is freed. Uterine tubes only lightly adherent, and not otherwise altered, cannot be felt.
It is most important to distinguish these pelvic inflammatory cases from cases of a sensitive pelvic peritoneum. It is not uncommon to see women who complain of extreme pain when any portion of the pelvic peritoneum is touched. For example, when a perfectly normal uterus is being palpated bimanually, they cry out with severe pain. This fact, namely, that the pain is complained of when normal structures are under touch, ought to put the examiner on his guard, so that he will attribute a like importance to the same complaints uttered when the structures lateral to the uterus, which cannot be so clearly outlined, are under examination. It will be seen from this that it is never safe to make a diagnosis from pain alone.
Prophylaxis. — There is but little use in uttering any warnings regarding the gonorrheal affections, as they are introduced under circumstances over which the temperate advice of the physician has practically no control.
This aspect of the question rests largely in the hands of those parents and educators who look at the formation of character and a chivalrous respect for woman as the chief factors in an education. Puerperal infection will be avoided by aseptic conduct of labor and the puerperium, as described in Chapter XIX. Over the tubercular affections, the corpus luteum cysts, and the neoplasms of the ovary, we can also exercise no control.
Forms of Treatment. — Treatment may be expectant, or palliative, or radical. In the acute forms there is rarely any call for active radical interference in the earliest stages. ^Tiere the highest skill is available, however, it is sometimes possible to cut short an acute attack, where, for example, there is a gonorrheal infection of the tubes, by opening the posterior cul-de-sac, and draining the peritoneum freely. This plan of treatment has been devised and successfully carried on by that able gynecologist, the late Dr. F. Henrotin of Chicago (Trans. Amer. Gyn. Soc, 1895, vol. 20, p. 232). In the more acute conditions, and where there is no fever at all, rest is the sheet anchor in the treatment. The patient ought to be flat on her back in bed, and the bowels ought to be kept emptied. Prolonged hot saline douches may be given, making the temperature of the douche as near 120° P. as the patient can comfortably bear it. A tablespoonful of salt may be added to the quart of
water, and the douche continued for from ten to twenty minutes. Patients who are suffering severely sometimes derive great relief from poultices on the abdomen. Where there is a painful swelling on the lower abdomen, an ice-bag over it with a towel intervening serves to restrain the inflammatory process and gives much comfort. In a more acute case, where there is manifest fluctuation, the vaginal vault should be opened. This is best done by bringing the patient to the edge of the bed or side of the table, with legs flexed on the abdomen ; the cervix is then exposed by retracting the posterior vaginal wall, grasped, and held forwards, while the vault of the vagina, just behind the cervix, is opened with a pair of scissors from side to side. The peritoneum is soon visible just above the incised vagina (Fig. 95), and this is also carefully opened, at once effecting an entrance into the abscess, or else exposing its wall which is laid widely open. After all the pus is evacuated, the cavity may be thoroughly wiped out with a pledget of gauze, grasped in a pair of long forceps, after Avliieh it is loosely packed with an iodoform gauze drain. The opening into the vaginal vault tends to close rapidly. It may have to be enlarged once or twice in the course of the convalescence, however, before the abscess cavity has completely collapsed.
FOEMS OF TREATMENT. 343
In a case which is clearly and beyond peradventure improving, the physician is warranted in waiting from week to week, keeping the patient under close observation. In a case which does not improve, or which grows worse, he should, after making a careful diagnosis, seek the advice of a specialist in abdominal surgery, either a gynecologist or a general surgeon, and consider the question of a more radical oiDcration, either by the vagina or by the abdomen. It is not our province here to enter upon the technic of these radical operations.
The treatment in a chronic case is either operative or nonoperative. All those cases should be operated upon in which there is a demonstrable abscess, or any large mass or masses, within the pelvis. It is important to do this, and to do it without delay, as the inflammatory cases with masses or tumors to the right and to the left in the pelvis are liable to exacerbations with rupture in the direction of the peritoneum, or into the bowel, or the bladder. Every case in which any lumpy or resistant areas are felt to the one side or the other should be looked upon as probably operative and referred to a specialist for an opinion.
The utmost that can be done for the non-operative cases is to wait awhile to see if ISTature cannot relieve all the symptoms and cure the disease herself. ISTature's great coadjutor in bringing this result about is Time. While waiting for the beneficial effects which are to accrue from time, the physician must exercise an intelligent supervision, watching the subsidence of the trouble from week to week, with gentle examinations from time to time, meanwhile prescribing such a regimen as will promote the end in view, while, at the same time, he restrains the patient from doing those things which will be likely to prove harmful. To these ends he enjoins much rest, late rising, and early bedtime, and rest for an hour after meals, forbidding active exercise and late hours. He must also see that the lower bowel never becomes clogged. Hot vaginal douches of plain hot water with table salt (two teaspoonfuls to a pint), once a day for say ten to fifteen minutes at a time, are often both refreshing and helpful. Some patients are helped by painting the vaginal vault with a strong tincture of iodine (Churchill's) about once a week, following this with a boroglycerid pack. This is done by nesting a teaspoonful of boroglycerid in a pledget of absorbent cotton, the size of the palm of the hand, tied with a string, folding this together, and placing it against the vaginal vault. The pack is removed in twelve hours by pulling on the string which hangs outside. I would repeat these packs about every third day. A douche must not be given while the pack is in the vagina.
Massage should not be given to the lower abdomen, although general massage is useful. Electricity, I believe, is of no service. When a case does not promptly improve, a specialist must be asked to see it ; by neglecting to do this a malignant tumor may be encouraged to groAv, or a case of pelvic inflammatory disease arising from the vermiform appendix may be overlooked and allowed to grow worse,
which cannot get better until the disease is removed by surgery.
I ^vish especially to call the attention of the practitioner to the propriety of conservatism in many of these cases which come to operation. It is always comparatively easy to do a radical operation, that is to say, to take out both tubes and ovaries; but a more restricted removal of the diseased organs only, will conserve, at least, the function of ovulation and internal secretion, and it may be that of conception too, thus saving the patient much distress of mind and avoiding tlie disagreeable sequelae of the extirpative treatment.
It sometimes happens that the physician, though he may not know as much as the specialist, is yet better able to safeguard the best interests of the patient, even on the operating table. This he can do in two ways, in the group of affections under consideration. In large abscesses he may cast his vote in the consultation in favor of pelvic drainage by the vaginal route. Paradoxical as it may seem, the worst cases sometimes get well in this way, with a good drain in the vault of the vagina, quicker than some of the apparently simpler cases which cannot be drained. At any rate, a patient with a big abscess can often be drained with perfect safety, when it would be most hazardous to attempt a complete extirpation. Later, if she needs it, the extirpation can be done with safety in the absence of pus.
Again, the attending physician may be called upon to decide for or against conservatism. To make an intelligent decision he must bear in mind the fact that in all cases of pelvic inflammatory diseases the ovaries are involved in adhesions simply because of the accident of their location close to the fimbriated extremities of the tubes, out of which the infectious materials are poured into the peritoneum. When the disease is of long standing, and the ovaries are withered through compression from the inflammatory exudate in which they lie embedded, it is of no use trying to save them. When the adhesions are not so bad, and the ovary, freed from its bed, appears comparatively healthy, it may be saved with the assurance that it will continue to carry on its functions perfectly, even though the tube has to be removed. Conservatism of the tubes in pelvic inflammatory disease is, as a rule, misdirected energy, but ovarian conservatism is well worth while.
If the patient is excessively anxious for offspring, the uterine tube may be amputated and its end left patulous. If then the ovary is not removed, at least a hope of conception is preserved, and this serves to ward off the distress of mind which would otherwise darken the life. If the whole ovary cannot be kept, a piece may be retained. If a good ovary is kept on one side and a good tube in the other, there is a fair hope of conception taking place.
When an ovary is the seat of a hematoma, and buried in a mass of adhesions, being itself converted into a mere shell, the uterine tube belonging to it, and the uterus when liberated from the adhesions, may prove entirely normal or else capable of perfect regeneration and restoration to normal fuuetiraial activity.
In considering conservatism these facts must be borne in mind :
(1) It is useless to run risks of a continuance of the troubles from which the patient is suffering, for the sake of preserving the menstrual function, if she is forty years old or more.
many chances of the return of the disease by leaving any crippled structures.
(4) It is dangerous to save tubes containing purulent or milky fluid. An old and apparently harmless salpingitis has been opened up, and the tube cleansed and dropped back into the pelvis, and this has resulted in the death of the patient.
will be less inclined to take chances with conservatism.
(6) As a rule, the results of conservatism are disappointing, and the patient ought always to be forewarned that it may be necessary to repeat the operation, and to make it more radical, if the first conservative effort proves a failure.
Steeiltty is a disease of married life aifecting the generative and procreative pcAvers of the contracting parties, so that the marriage remains fruitless. If either husband or wife is incapable of procreation, the effect is the same as though both were affected.
Sterility is absolute when an individual has utter incapability, and relative when the difficulty is removable and there is a possibility of offspring, if only the partner is sound. Some women are sterile because their partners are incapable of procreation. Sterility is relative or facultative when brought abotit by voluntary sexual abstinence or by practices which prevent conception. That wedlock also is jDractically sterile in which, though conception frequently occurs, the product is cast off in an unnatural state by abortion or miscarriage.
It is of the utmost importance to distinguish between male and female sterility, and the most notable advance in our knowledge of the subject within the past generation has been due to a careful discrimination in this respect. For example, when a wife appeals to a physician for relief of sterility, he does not now commit the blunder of focussing his attention upon her alone, but insists upon a careful investigation of the procreative powers of the husband as well.
One-Child Sterility. — There is one special and important form of sterility, known as '" one-child sterility," in which a woman conceives promptly after marriage, and then never does so again. Sometimes the reason is not discoveral)lc. V)Ut the majority of such cases arise from puerperal infection; or a latent gonorrhea, recrudescent in tlie puer]Teral state; or a fresh gonorrhea acquired from the incontinent husband. Again, a fibroid tumor starts to grow and interferes with future conceptions. In rare cases there is an atrophy of the uterus with more or less amenorrhea. The causes, as a rule, are not difficult to eluci-
Sterility is an affection which may be congenital or acquired, as, for example, in the male a congenital sterility may be associated with cryptorchism or epispadias, while an acquired sterility may be due to gonorrhea. In the wife the congenital form may be due to imperfect development of the internal genital organs, the acquired to pelvic inflammation. A woman is presumptively sterile who has not become pregnant within the first three years of married life.
NATIONAL IMPORTANCE.
The question of sterility is a problem of the highest national importance, for upon the fertility of the dual units (husband and wife) which go to make up the body politic depends the healthy national life. All wealth, all that is best in art and science, all precious stores of tradition may become worse than useless, a mere mockery of what might have been, if accompanied by a progressive sterility. Dr. Hunsberger has shown in an article on " Race Suicide " {Jour. Amer. Med. Assoc, Aug. 10, 1907) that among families which can properly have children the population will not materially increase if there are fewer than four children to each pair. The intention of the Creator expressed to the first pair in the primal command coupled with the first blessing (Gen. i:28) is rendered nugatory by sterility. Fertility is the natural outcome of right, clean living. Such a condition as a congenital, unavoidable sterility in either sex is rare ; a vast amount of that decadence which constitutes a national problem is of the avoidable kind, and such sterility is almost Avithout exception volitional ; that is to say dependent upon illicit sexual relations.
In tliis way the percentage of sterility is an index to the morals of a nation. If the birth rate sinks below the death rate of a community, immorality and vice of all sorts prevail, and, looked at from this standpoint, it will at once be seen that the treatment of sterility, when the disease is marked enough to affect national statistics, is a deep and a difficult, if not a hopeless problem.
Drs. Newsholme and Stevenson {Jour, of the Roy. Statistical Soc, Mar., 1906) have an interesting paper on this subject in which they point out as a source of declination, not increased poverty but the propagation of " the gospel of comfort," which is becoming the ethical standard for all civilized nations. Also the increasing practice of artificial prevention must mean a lower moral standard, because the increasing fertility in such poor countries as Ireland and ISTorway hardly accords with the attempt to explain sterility on economic grounds. ISTor, they further remark, is the decline due to physical degeneration affecting the generative powers a cause of decrease in fecundity. The presumption is that the fall is due to conditions within the control of the people— a social form of felo-de-se. The following table, prepared by Dr. Jacques
Average
The general conclnsion arrived at is that as the decline seemed almost universal and " people did not change their morality in a large number of different countries at a given time without some extremely definite cause," a strong economic factor, that is, " the gospel of comfort," was in reality the determining one.
Among the most valuable works dealing with this question from a broad standpoint is one by Matthews Duncan (" Sterility in Women." J. A. Churchill, London, 1884). Duncan found that even among the better class sterility was increasing. Five hundred and forty absolutely sterile women consulted him within five years. These had been married between the ages of fifteen and forty-two, and three hundred and thirty-seven had been wives over three years. He has considerable confidence in stating one in ten as very nearly the true amount of sterility of marriages in Great Britain ; for women delaying the commencement of fertility beyond sixteen months already exhibit a degTce of relative sterility.
The annual summary of births, deaths, and causes of death in England and Wales, and in London and other large towns, for the year 1906 shows that the marriages in England and Wales during the year 1906 numbered 269,734, corresponding to a rate of 15.6 persons married per 1,000 of the population at all ages. This rate was 0.3 per 1,000 above the corresponding rate in 1905, but was 0.2 per 1,000 below the average rate in the ten years between 18961905. The births registered in 1906 numbered 934,391, and were in proportion of 27.0 per 1,000 of the population at all ages; this rate was 0.2 per 1,000 below the rate in 1905, and lower than the rate in any other year in record ; compared with the average in the ten years 1896—1905 the birth rate in 1906 showed a decrease of 1.7 per 1,000. The deaths registered in 1906 numbered 530,715, and were in the proportion of 15.4 per 1,000 of the population; this rate was 0,2 per 1,000 above the rate in 1905. Compared with the average in the ten years 1896—1905 the death rate in 1906 showed a decrease of 1.4 per 1,000. (London Times ^ June, 1907.)
The main element, says Duncan, in expectation of sterility is the age at marriage, but statistics suggest other laws, namely, that the question of a woman's being probably sterile is decided in three years of married life, only seven per cent bearing after this period.
Another law is that when the expectation of fertility is greatest the question of probable sterility is soonest decided and vice versa, for it has been noted that of wives married from twenty to twenty-four who are all fertile, only six and two-tenths per cent began to bear after three years of marriage.
Also, in writing of age, he says that " although it seems absurd to rank marriage among the causes' of sterility, yet the conclusion that it is so, at least in the very young, appears to be inevitable."
STERILITY.
So that the Legislature, by raising or depressing tlie majority age, might exercise control over the population. In England about nine thousand young persons of the age of twenty and under twenty-one marry annually, and one hundred and thirty-nine thousand at twenty-one to twenty-five.
Another test of sterility given by this author is: How^ soon after marriage does a woman bear her first child ? Some statisticians give eleven and a half months, but Ansell, quoted by Duncan as the most accurate authority, gives data of six thousand and thirty-five cases, showing a mean interval of sixteen months.
DEVELOPMENT OF KNOWLEDGE.
The history of the recognition and treatment of sterilitj^ is fraught with interest no whit behind that of many other branches of medicine and surgery wdiich have undergone such remarkable evolution within the past two or three decades.
Until recently the conception which prevailed was that there was but one form — ^that w^hich was evidently commonest in Biblical days, when w^e read in the inspired record of the sterile women that '' The Lord had closed up all wombs" (Gen. xx. 18), and of the relief of such condition, "■ God opened her womb" (Gen. xxx. 22). With the increasing '^ civilization " of the world a number of new causes have become operative which were overlooked until recent times. Even so short a time ago as the days of Marion Sims, closure of the womb w^as practically the only condition recognized and all cases were subjected to the same treatment — dilatation. At this period — the sixties and seventies of the last century — the w^ife was always treated, the treatment being always one and the same thing.
I^oeggerath ("Die latente Gonorrhoea im weiblichen Geschlecht." Bonn, 1872), neglected and ridiculed like most pioneers who essay to overthrow settled convictions, was the apostle of the new doctrine which rightly threw the responsibility for the common sterility upon the uncured and often incurable gonorrheas transferred from the courtesan to the wife, from the bawdy house
ETIOLOGY OF STEKILITY IN THE MALE. 351
to the marriage bed. Slowly, very slowly, aided by the powerful pen of Max Sanger of Germany (Verhand. d. Deutsch Gesell. f. Gyn. u. Geh. Miinchen, 18S6) did the views of JSToeggerath become the conviction of the medical profession at large.
Following the discovery, of this writer, wrought out of his remarkable insight and analysis of his chemical findings, the extraordinary discovery of the gonococcus by N^eisser placed the question of the diagnosis of catarrhal and gleety discharges in both sexes beyond a peradventure and hastened the reception of ISTeisser's discovery by putting incontestable evidence into the hands of the profession. Had it not been for the work of ISTeisser, Bumm, Wertheim, and others, I suppose this important question would still be under discussion and the wife still receiving, as she readily accepts, all the blame for the often distressing situation.
and hitherto unsuspected.
It would be gratifying to add that pari passu with the discovery of these new causes have gone the therapeutics of the condition. Unfortunately, as is too often the case, therapy lingers with laggard feet outside the doors of etiology.
Although it is here my professed aim to deal with medical gynecology alone, I cannot discuss this important subject without giving at least brifef consideration to the question of male sterility.
It is crudely supposed and is everywhere accepted by the laity that ability to complete the sexual act is of itself siifficient proof that the husband is capable of begetting offspring and the responsibility for sterility does not rest on his shoulders, that is to say in more delicate and technical terms that potentia coeundi is equivalent to potentia generandil
cryptorchism.
It may also be due to extreme self-abuse in youth and the exhaustion of the sexual ]30wers by early excessive venery. I have seen one instance of a man postponing marriage until the sixties and then selecting a beautiful young wife rather that she might preside over his house than for love he bore her: he had no sex desire and, held in check by his indifferent wife, was unable to consummate the marriage relation.
All the conditions of male sterility belonging to this category are at once manifest, being allied to an impotence which is almost invariably a source of acute distress and shame to the victim, who for this reason rarely ventures to enter on the married state.
Such conditions are not affected by treatment, least of all by any of the wretched quack devices by which the victims are deluded from year to year to the depletion of their purses, but without quenching the spark of hope which renders them susceptible to the next lying advertisement of the lowest parasites prostituting the name of doctor. I would single out particularly the disgusting exhaustion ajDparatus employed to delude the poor victim by inducing a transient semblance of vitality. Under such circumstances the thoughts of the patient are best diverted into happier channels, and if unmarried, let the assurance be given that life holds within its compass a promise of nobler things than that of permitting the brain to revolve around the genital organs as the centre of interest.
The second group comprises males affected with gonorrhea, the destructive effects of which are seen in the epididymis, the vas deferens, the seminal vesicles, and the prostate gland. If through this cause both testicles are rendered functionless, or both vasa deferentia closed by an epididymitis or a deferinitis the result will be an azoospermia or a fluid in which there will be no living spermatozoa. A chronic vesiculitis or a chronic prostatitis will develop an oligospermia in which the living elements are few and far between or in which they are altogether absent, though dead ones or only those with feeble motile powers may be found — ^necrospermia.
A vesiculitis can be discovered by a rectal examination which reveals tenderness and fibrous thickening about the seminal vesicles. Pressure on these organs — " milking " them — will often induce a discharge into the urethra which can be examined at once. In the same way the prostatic secretion can be secured and examined. Casper (Monatsh. f. Urolog., 1900, vol. 5, p. 385) found prostatitis in eighty-five per cent of cases of chronic urethritis; that is, in a gTOup in which the disease had persisted over two months.
lected by Finger, this eminent authority found two hundred and seven cases of azoospermia, while Kehrer (" Beitrage zur klinischen und experimentellen Geburtskunde und Gynakologie," 1892, p. 76) found an azoospermia in tliirty and twenty-one hundredths per cent of ninety-six sterile marriages. Sanger, in analyzing 110 such marriages, found:
These data are sufficient to show the extreme importance of investigating the male in every case of sterility, and the determination of male sterility is easy if the microscope is used. It should be borne in mind that it is not enough to rely upon the general assurance of the man, and least of all upon that of the wife, that he " is all right."
The sperm is best secured for examination after a coitus condomatus, or by the act of withdrawal and the discharge of some of the semen into a small bottle which is corked and at once dropped into a bottle of warm water jacketed with flannel, which should be kept warm, not hot, until examined microscopically. In view of such examinations the husband should remain continent for four or five days, and will do best to break his abstinence in the early morning.
The physician must never forget that even though repeated examinations show azoospermia, at a later date a few living cells may be found and conception be possible. Such are some of the cases in which pregnancy occurs after years of sterile married life.
When, as the result of his analysis of the two factors involved in every case of sterility, the physician finds that the trouble lies at the husband's door it is his duty either to say nothing or to lay the blame where it belongs. But in no instance should the wife be allowed to suffer continual mental disquietude or be subjected to unnecessary treatments for an ailment which is not primarily hers. The fellow feeling which sometimes induces the physician to gloss over the husband's defect and lay an unmerited burden of worry and sorrow on the shoulders of the innocent wife is not creditable to our profession.
The hope of procreation is apparently forbidden by the conditions of azoospermia, but the cautious physician will always carefully avoid, for two reasons, giving a hopeless prognosis. First, the event may disappoint his expectations by the temporary nature of the condition in some cases. Every man with a large experience can recall cases where conception has occurred after ten, twelve, or even more years of sterility. Second, the effect on the man thus condemned may make him morbid or melancholic.
354 STEEILITT.
'• Lier and Aselicr, who examined the s-tatistics of primary sterility, that is to say of women who had never conceived, found in 227 cases in Prochownik's clinic, that 76 sought advice on account of sterility, 151 on account of various gynecological affections. The husbands of these women were examined in 132 cases, and it was found that 42, or 31.8 per cent, had no living sperm cell (azoospermia), while 11, or 8.3 per cent, were impotent; 41 of the men had infected their wives with gonorrhea, and only 38, 28.8 per cent, were healthy. According to these figures the fault lay on the side of the man in 71.2 per cent of the eases. In 39 cases where the husband was examined, or 29.5 per cent, there was a definite obstacle to conception on the part of the woman. There were 50 men who refused examination, and 27 of these had infected their wives with gonorrhea; 45 men could not be examined, for various reasons, and in this gToup 13 wives were found to have gonorrhea. ...
and found 397 cases of primary sterility and 21 cases of secpndary sterility.
"• I. Of these 397 sterile marriages both man and wife were examined in 110 cases. The examination of tlie semen showed normal sperm cells in 59 cases. In 13 cases there was deficiency of semen (oligospermia), in 37 there was azoospermia, and in 1 case impotentia coeiindi. Taking these statistics just as they stand we find a percentage of 46.4 in which the sterility was on the male side. Of the 59 men with normal sperm cells, there were 28 who had certainly had gonorrhea, and of this number the wives were infected in 14 cases, making the total proportion of male sterility in these 110 cases 65, or 59.1 per cent. Only 45 marriages could be found in which no blame could be attached to the husband. . . .
" These statistics approach closely to those of Lier and Ascher, which made the percentage of cases, in which both parties were examined and the fault lay with the husband, 71.2 per cent. Lier and Ascher found direct sterility caused by azoospermia and impotence in 40.1, and indirect sterility, through transmission of gonorrheal infection, in 31.1 per cent of their cases.
the following results :
" (a) Gonorrheal infection was found in 107 cases, or 34.8 per cent. In 28 of these cases, or 9.7 per cent, fresh gonorrheal infection was present, in the form of urethritis. Bartholinitis, endometritis, etc. In 79 women, or 27.5 per cent, there were inflamm.atory changes of the adnexa such as pyosalpinx, salpingo-oophoritis, and chronic peri-salpingo-oophoritis.
"(h) Besides these 107 cases in which the woman had gonorrhea with resulting sterility for which the husband was responsible, there were 33 men with gonorrhea whose wives showed no evidence of it. Of this number 16 had gonorrhea without involvement of the testicle; 11 had single epididymitis with the gonorrhea ; and in 6 there was a double epididymitis. As the semen of these men Avas not examined, it cannot be said with certainty whether the sterility was due to gonorrhea in them or to non-gonorrheal disease in the wife. The various affections found to exist in these 33 women were as follows :
" (c) Of the remaining 147 eases in wliicli the woman only was examined no gonorrheal infection was found, while there was no record of gonorrhea in the man, either through examination of the semen or admission on his own part. In the absence of any examination of the semen, it is not justifiable to charge the sterility to the wife, even though she is found to have a definite gynecological afi^ection. The genital affections in these cases are as follows:
" In the remaining cases where the pelvic organs were normal there was vaginismus in 2 cases; intact hymen in 1 case; loss of semen in 1 case; while in three cases which sought advice on account of sterility no hindrance to conception whatever could be found,
ETIOLOGY IN THE FEMALE.
Anatomical and Physiological Causes. — Bearing in mind that certain deviations from the normal sometimes cause sterility, it becomes important to consider first the anatomy and physiology of the female genital organs.
Atresia of vag.
"Fig. 96. — -Some of the Causes of Sterility Brought Together in One Diagram. These are: An infection of Skene's or of Bartholin's gland significant of gonorrhea; atresia of the vagina; stenosis of the cervix; a polyp hanging into the uterine cavity; fibroid tumors; a fibroid at the attachment of the uterine tube ; a parovarian cyst splinting the tube and separating it from the ovary ; a nodular salpingitis due to gonorrheal or tubercular inflammation; an atresia of the tube, of inflammatory origin; ovarian and tubal adhesions.
The various conditions likely to be found associated with sterility, when any demonstrable lesion exists, are shown for the sake of clearness and appeal to the eye in Figure 96, These may be traced categorically, step by step, from the vaginal orifice upwards :
Ovarian adhesions.
The vulva is significant only in so far as a small mons with small labia and a slight capillary development such as one sees in children approaching their teens, should at once put the physician on his guard, as this condition may indicate a similar want of development of internal organs.
Three things must be carefully noted in examination of the vulva in its deej)er portion where the vulvo-vaginal (Bartholin's) glands lie buried close to the entrance into the vagina and posteriorly. Each of these notable marks suggests the existence of a chronic gonorrheal affection.
( 1 ) The gland itself may feel like a little dense sclerotic mass the size of a small bean (see Fig. 97), the residuum of an old gonorrheal affection called by Sanger adenitis glandulce Bartholince scleroticans.
(3) The outlet of the gland where it discharges above at the vulvo-vaginal orifice near the hymen may appear intensely red ; it is often likened to a fleabite, and has been called the macula gonorrhceica. Caution, however, must be used in drawing an inference from the macula alone. It is, in my experience, not a safe guide. If the gland or its duct is diseased, careful squeezing may cause a little pus to exude which should be transferred to a cover slip and examined microscopically.
The Hymen. — A rigid or unruptured hymen shows that coitus has never been completed, if attempted. The signs of a defloration, whether accomplished digitally, instrumentally, or sexually, are always evident in the hymen. The most important sign is to be noted in its elasticity, which easily admits one or two fingers into the vagina without distress. If the well-oiled finger can be readily introduced into the vagina without eliciting a cry, a conclusion may be drawn that some penetrating body has entered the same channel. A single digital examination is thus sufficient to destroy the signs of virginity. Too often the occasion for such unnecessary rupture lies in the examination of a young girl who simply begins to complain of a dysmenorrhea. More than two centuries ago Severinus Pinseus uttered the sound dictum, " Magnum est crimen perrumpere virginis hymen." Let it be inscribed over the door of every consulting room.
The Urethra. — The urethra may appear swollen and red, bleeding to the touch and constituting a source of much distress, causing the patient to shrink from examination. This, too, is often due to gonorrhea.
Skene's Glands. — Often the seat of a chronic gonorrheal infection is found in Skene's glands (glandulse paraurethrales) manifested by a puffiness and eversion of the lips of the urethra, exposing one or both of the glandular orifices which normally lie concealed just within the external meatus. On squeezing the glands by pressing up under the urethra and milking them outwards with the finger tip a drop of pus may be forced out of one or both sides. If Skene's glands are empty, then it is well to dry the urethral orifice and to stroke the entire urethra dovmwards from the neck of the bladder to the meatus externus, taking up any discharge thus brought to light
dence of a chronic urethritis.
It should be borne in mind that a careful distinction must be made between a milky discharge often seen and due to an accumulation of epithelial debris within the glands and a purulent discharge. The microscope only is competent to decide.
In its chronic form a urethritis occasionally (in women rarely) results in a stricture of the urethra. This is readily found by attempting _ to pass an ordinary urethral catheter. A large experience justifies the statement that I have hardly seen more than six cases of strictural urethra in women.
The Y a gin a. — Two deformities in the vagina call for notice: fi.rst a double or septate vagina in which the canal is divided up to the cervix which presents two openings (or a), one in each half. This is a condition of arrested development in Avhicli the uterus may also be septate or two-horned, or in which while one-half of the uterus is developed the opposite half may remain rudimentary. Startling as this condition appears at first sight it does not cause infertility ; the real danger lies in the possibility of a conception tahine; place in the rudimentary side followed by early rupture, or in late rupture of the more developed side.
Second, there may be stricture of the vagina, either congenital or acquired. In both cases the vagina ends in a cul-de-sac, but in the congenital form the uterus above is undeveloped; in the acquired the uterus is not affected. It must be borne in mind that many of the cases formerly labelled congenital atresia were in reality atresias due to sloughing of the vagina occurring in the course of a scarlatina, a severe typhoid fever, or some other infectious disease in childhood.
An atresia may follow the sloughing incident to a difficult lal)(»r inducing a one-child sterility. An atresia well within the introitus may not be discovered until the medical examination is made, as the shortened vagina may lengthen from intercourse.
A reddened, inflamed, patchy, or granular vagina, with a milky secretion (colpitis maculosa or granulosa), is often evidence of an old gonorrhea. The excessive acidity of the vaginal secretion, which frequently excoriates the vulva and the adjacent skin, may also serve to destroy the spermatozoa. The reaction of the vaginal secretion must always be tested with blue litmus paper.
Another cause of sterility is shortness of the vagina, or, in the acquired form, a broken-down vaginal outlet which refuses to retain the spermatozoa. Patients often complain of the latter condition, namely, the escape of the seminal fluid, which is, to them, a seemingly self-evident cause of their condition, but it is doubtful how far it is really instrumental in it. I am not, myself, disposed to assign any great importance to it in the causation of sterility.
Affections of the ISTeck of tlie Uterus. — Between the vagina and the cervix there is a great change in anatomical conditions. The vault or laquear vagina?, where an abundance of semen is deposited, is exchanged for a narrow cervical canal, entered by a constricted orifice and leading up into a flat channel, also rigid, out through the uterine tubes and through the starshaped channel of the isthmial portion of the tubes into the labyrinth of folds in the tubal ampullae where the spermatozoa normally meet the ovum. Considering the complexity of the arrangement, the wonder is that the conjunction between the sj)erm cell and the ovum is ever effected. The progress of the spermatozoa may be hindered by various abnormal conditions, which are here considered in order.
Elongation of the Cervix (col tapiroides). — An elongate cervix lying in the axis of the vagina and projecting down toward the outlet may present an obstacle to the passage of the semen. This condition is, as a rule, associated with a sharp anteflexion of the uterine body, and its importance lies, not so much, perhaps, in the length of the cervix or in the flexion, as in the maldevelopment to which both conditions are due.
Smallness of the Cervical Orifice. — A diminutive opening of the cervix into the vagina is the only cause of sterility commonly recognized by the laity as well as by the general practitioner. When the orifice is minute (pinhole size) and no other probable cause can be found on careful examination, the condition is worth consideration as likely to be an efficient barrier to the entrance of the spermatozoa.
Diseases of the Uterus.- — Erosion of the cervix is characterized by an enlarged and puffy condition of the os, which lies in the centre of a reddened area presenting a granulated appearance. Such a condition may be due to hyperemia and swelling of the mucosa of the cervix, which having no other situation in which it can expand, rolls out at the cervical os and so becomes apparent at the vagina. In other cases the erosion is clearly a physiological extension of the cervical mucosa into the vaginal portion of the cervix. This is the innocent affection so often and so persistently treated under the name of " ulcers of the womb," a condition which, in reality, almost never exists.
Infections of the Cervix, Gonorrheal and Otherwise, Including Endocervicitis and Cervicitis. — A simple erosion of the cervix must not be mistaken for a gonorrheal infection of the cervical glands, which in some respects it resembles. A gonorrheal cervicitis or endocervicitis is characterized in the first place by a tenacious mucoid or muco-purulent discharge. This ropy discharge, so often seen in women, comes invariably from one source, and that is the glands opening onto the cervical canal. There is often a marked congestion and puffiness of the cervix, which bleeds easily on touch, and is inclined to bleed copiously when caught with tenaculum forceps. Sometimes there is a marked eversion of the cervical mucosa which allows the secretion to be seen issuing from the glandular orifice. This form of infection is deepseated and obstinate in character, persisting for years, and sometimes until
excellence the seat of a chronic gonorrhea.
Laceration of the Cervix. — Cervical laceration is sometimes a cause of one-child sterility; but a word of caution is necessary here against overestimating the importance of the condition from this point of view. Laceration of the cervix has been the bug-bear of the medical profession for about a generation, and it is now time it was laid in its grave. A simple laceration, by which the cervical os is converted into a slit, or else the cervix forms two distinct lips, more or less deeply notched on either side, must be regarded as physiological, and calls for no surgical interference whatever. How many women in whom this condition existed have been the victims of the meddlesome surgery of the past ! Even a deep laceration, converting the cervix into two well-defined flaps, has no bad effect upon the general health, though I am not prepared to deny that it may not act as a factor in the production of sterility. The serious cervical lacerations are those in Avhich there is an infection of the cervical glands with hyperemia, infiltration, and eversion, superadded to the laceration. Such cases of infected cervices undoubtedly operate to maintain sterility, both by the infiltration which they induce and by the tough secretion arising from them which plugs the cervical canal.
Cancer of the Cervix. — Cervical carcinoma is a disease usually asso-. ciated with an acquired sterility. The patient who has a cancer of the cervix has usually borne children, but ceases to conceive when the cancer appears. The affection has no practical bearing on the subject in hand further than
to relieve the retroflexion.
Infantile or Puerile Uterus. — Women with scanty or irregular menstruation due to a small uterus, of infantile or puerile form, rarely conceive at all. Such a uterus, however, must not be confused with one which is merely slightly smaller than the average. In the infantile type the body of the womb is tiny, the cervix disproportionately large, and the ovaries also infantile (see Fig. 58, p. 150).
Myomatous Tumors of the Uterus. — Sterility is so often associated with myomata that there can be no doubt of a causal relationship between the two. Many women in whom myomata develop at an early age never conceive at all ; others conceive and abort ; and others, again, who apply to the physician for relief from large myomata when they are in the late thirties or early forties, give a history of having borne one or two children. When we consider the disturbances of menstruation which exist in such cases, the watery discharges from the mucosa, and the changes in the size and form of the uterus, together with the frequent displacements of the tubal orifices, the compression and distortion of the lumen of the tubes and the frequently associated disease of the adnexa, we wonder that such women should conceive at all. Olshausen, who has written more than any living authority on myomata, collected 1,731 cases from various sources, and found on analyzing them that 30 per cent
were sterile. These figures, however, are probably not absolute. Scborler, following, as I have done in portions of this chapter, the excellent work of F. Schenk (loc. cit.), found in a statistical examination of 253 cases that sterility prevailed in 9 per cent of the polypoid myomata; in 18.70 per cent of the cervical: iu 24.7 per cent of the interstitial; in 38.8 per cent of the submucous; and in 47.8 per cent of the subserous. Yon Winckel found that of 108 cases examined bv him, 41.6 per cent had had only one child. These figures, however, are not in accordance with the general vital statistics of Saxony, which showed only 22.7 per cent of oue-child marriages in general.
After this apparently unanimous agreement touching the causal relationship of myomata to fertility, Hofmeier investigated 327 myoma cases and reached utterly different conclusions. He found, for example, that while 20.5 per cent of this group was sterile, 15.2 per cent of all his gynecological cases was sterile also. Thinking it hardly permissible to draw the conclusion that nivomata stood in direct causal relationship to the sterility, he pointed out that the average age of the women in it was forty-two years and that the sterile marriages had lasted, on an average, sixteen years. He considered it improbable that the fibroid could have begun to cause the sterility as early as the twenty-sixth year in the absence of any symptoms ; and therefore he was of opinion that as the sterility almost invariably dated from a time of life wlieu it was highly improbable that myomata existed they could not be supposed to exercise any influence upon its causation. For instance, out of 326 women with myomata, 202 had had children, an average of 3.2 to each woman. Xow the average of all the married women in Bavaria, Saxony, and Prussia, is 4.5 per cent, so that the difl^erence is not great. Here, also, Hofmeier considers that the sterility tegins too far back to have been influenced by the myoma appearing so many years afterward.
Hofmeier follows another line of argument when he notes that out of 503 cases of primary and secondary sterility, where there were no children, or only a sin2:le birth occurred within the first five years of married life, there were onlv 7 cases with fibroids, and of these 7, the sterility in 4 was explicable on other grounds. On the other hand, Hofmeier claims that the presence of mvomata in women of more advanced age actually favors conception, as he found that in a series of 23 pregnancies complicated with myomata, only one was under thirty, while 13 were lietween forty and fortv-seven years of age. He claims that this group of cases is evidence that myomata are the cause of an increased activity of the whole sexual apparatus, not of the ovaries alone, and that this is the reason the sexual organs preserve their function so much longer than is usual in cases of fibroids.
(2) That the influence of fibroid tumors is felt long before they are recognized clinically, and that they may prevent conception while still of small size, that is to say, twelve or fifteen years before they are perceptible.
(4) That while fibroid tumors, as a rule, are an obstacle to pregnancy, it may occur in spite of them, even in advanced cases. Such cases always come before the attention of the gynecologist.
with fibroids is the tubal and ovarian disease so often associated with them.
One important point which must be borne in mind in this connection is that a ease of sterility, otherwise inexplicable, may be due to small myomata which are discovered only upon a most searching examination. Furthermore, in cases of sterility where the husband is sound and no apparent cause for the condition can be found in the wife, a fibroid tumor should be suspected if the uterus is clearly larger than normal and somewhat irregular in form.
Diseases of the Adnexa. — This is an interesting group of cases belonging to a class which are peculiarly difficult to investigate on account of the inaccessibility of the organs, namely, those cases in which the sterility is due to disease of the uterine tubes or the ovaries. It is because it is difficult to get at these organs and therefore to obtain an accurate knowledge of their condition that they are frequently forgotten in the clinical examination.
Maldevelopment of the uterine tubes is sometimes the cause of sterility. Such tubes are unusually long, often tortuous, and with little or no distinction between isthmus and ampulla, a condition which has also been reckoned among the causes of extra-uterine pregnancy. Again, the lumen of the tubes may be compressed by a fibroid tumor and they are liable to be distorted and impeded in their movements by common peritoneal adhesions as well as bound down and flexed by them. A mild attack of gonorrhea, which passes out into the pelvic peritoneum through the tubes, is sure to be followed by more or less extensive adhesions involving these delicate structures and interfering with their function. In the case of hydrosalpinx the lumen of the tube is completely occluded, so that no ova can be transmitted to the uterus and sterility is the inevitable result. Again, a suppurative infection of the uterine tubes (pyosalpinx) is often an efficient cause of sterility, and when it occurs in a woman who has never borne children, it is usually the result of a gonorrheal infection. I have just examined a woman, married eight years, without children and exceedingly anxious to have them, who is suffering from a large abscess of the right tube bulging forward into the abdominal cavity under the abdominal wall as well as a smaller one of the left tube.
Diseases of the ovary are not often a cause of sterility. The ovary is peculiarly persistent in the performance of its function from puberty to the menopause. When the other structures in the sexual apparatus are maldeveloped, the ovaries may be elongate and smooth, with no follicles of an
infantile type (see Tig. 58, i\ 150). Large Graafian cysts, two inches or more in diameter, may be associated with sterility, but liow far they act in the prevention of conception is not yet determined. Blood cysts of the ovary are more serious hindrances, on account of the associated pelvic peritonitis imbedding both ovaries and tubes. Ovarian tumors, both cystic and dermoid, are an obstacle to conception, though they do not form an actual barrier to it. The most common cause interfering with the function of the ovary and preventing the extrusion of the ovum or its reception and transmission by the tube, is a pelvic peritonitis, due to an infection travelling through the uterus, out through the tubes, and onward to the pelvic peritoneum. The ovary, under
does so, however, is not as yet forthcoming.
General Diseases as a Cause of Sterility. — Many systemic affections are so constantly found associated with sterility as to demonstrate conclusively the existence of a causal relationship. The etiologic connection, in some cases, is quite clear, as when some general disease causes an atrophy of the uterus, that is to say, a withering in size of an organ which was previously of normal dimensions. A very severe labor may also cause uterine atrophy and thus occasion a one-child sterility. Other causes are tuberculosis and nephritis, as well as such acute infectious diseases as mumps, scarlatina, and acute rheumatism. The acute infectious diseases may also bring about a premature atrophy of the ovaries (see Chap. X). Conspicu-
FiG. 100. — One of the Possible Causes of Steeility. A monocystic tumor, with clear watery contents, splinting the tube and separating it widely from the ovary.
ous among the affections which may canse atropliy of the pelvic organs and consequent sterility are the chronic poisonings, alcoholism and morphinism. In both these conditions it is not uncommon to find a disappearance of the menstrual function for months at a time. Patients with aggravated heart disease also do not often become pregnant. Excessive fat seriously interferes with the function of the sexual organs ; for example, out of two hundred and fifteen such cases Kisch found twenty-one per cent sterile. Gebhard associates the changes in the ovaries under these circumstances with those in the thyroid gland and suprarenal bodies. An enormous accumulation of fat may sometimes interfere with conception through the mechanical hindrance which it presents. The relation of obesity to changes in the sexual organs is discussed in Chapter VIII.
Violent psychical disturbance may be the cause of the disappearance of menstruation for a long period of time ; such a case, for instance, is cited by Kisch, in which a woman went ten years without menstruating or conception, after seeing a child run over. The association of chlorosis with the disturbances of menstruation is interesting. According to Virchow there are tv/o varieties of this condition, one in which the sexual organs are imperfectly developed and another in which there appears to be an excess of development ; in the former group there is a complete amenorrhea and in the latter a monorrhagia (see Chap. VI).
Dyspareunia. — It is a moot question how far the absence of sexual desire (anaphrodisia) is responsible for sterility. If a sterile woman has no desire for the relationship and no satisfaction in its completion, she is sure to regard the fact as the cause of her disappointment and to give it a prominent place in her complaint. Kisch considers that the sexual feeling is a matter of importance, as he found twenty-six cases in which it was absent out of sixty-nine sterile women. Hegar, on the other hand, considers that the sexual inclination of women in general is, on the average, but slight and that it plays but little part in the question of conception. This group of cases may be divided, according to Strassmann, into three classes, namely :
I am myself inclined to believe that the simple absence of sexual desire, when the organs of generation are normal, has little or nothing to do with sterility. Sanger, quoted by Schenk, does not mention it once in a series of four hundred and eighteen cases.
Repulsion, on the other hand, may cause sterility, as in a case under my own care, where I discovered a rigid double liymen in a woman who had been married for a number of years. She told me that she had a strong repulsion toward the sexual act and that her husband had agreed not to touch
Pain is operative as a cause of sterility when, owing to some local affection at the vaginal orifice or above the vault, the distress excited by the marital approach is so marked that the husband either occupies a separate bed or at least approaches his wife only at long intervals. I have also seen cases in which a decided pain was complained of, particularly on the left side above the vaginal canal, where nothing abnormal whatever could be discovered, although sometimes the suffering could be reproduced by digital pressure. Such cases belong to the neuroses and are met with in the class of women who complain excessively of pain in the course of examination of the pelvic organs, although no disease can be found. The occurrence of a localized pain, situated deep within the pelvis and most frequently felt toward the end of the sexual act, should always excite suspicion of a pelvic inflammatory affection and lead to a searching examination.
Vaginismus, a term proposed by Marion Sims, was used by him to designate a condition found in a certain class of women, who shrink from, or absolutely avoid coitus on account of a hyperesthesia of the vulva in the neighborhood of the hymen which induces strong muscular contractions. Sometimes the nervous apprehension is so great that the adductor muscles are thrown into a spasmodic condition, preventing the separation of the thighs ; at others a lively nervous hysterical condition is excited, associated with a complete contraction of the sphincter vaginae and levator ani which hinders any approach (see Chap. XII). This group of cases must not be confounded, however, with those in which the patient is simply hysterical and seeks to avoid the sexual act from lack of desire, nor with those other cases where the hjoneneal vault is rendered exquisitely tender by little superficial ulcerative areas, a welldefined pathological condition of a gross character. Yeit considers that in some cases, where the vaginismus is due to a neurosis pure and simple, the condition is often attributable to masturbation inducing an excessive local irritability. I have not, myself, seen any instances which I could attribute to this cause.
The marriage of cousins according to Mantegazza and G. Darwin, cited by Schenk, does not seem to occasion sterility. Goehlert, however, quoted by the same vrriter, concludes from a study of the royal families of Europe that blood relationship in marriage, repeated for generations, is a serious element in its causation, showing that of one hundred and eighteen marriages related by blood in the dynasty of the Capetinger forty-one were sterile ; in the house of Wettin seven out of twenty-eight ; in "Wittelsbach nine out of twentynine ; in that of Hapsburg-Lothringen eight out of twenty-five ; that is to say, out of two hundred marriages between blood relations, sixty-five or thirty-two and five-tenths per cent were sterile.
The first step in the treatment of sterility is to investigate the canse, and the first thing to be done in such an investigation is to inquire into the condition of the would-be mother, remembering that only grave and for the most part self-evident diseases, whether local or constitutional (except diabetes and nephritis), are likely to hinder conception. The next point to be considered before planning a course of treatment, is whether one or both would-be parents are affected, and to this end the condition of the husband should always be investigated. As a rule, the husband should not be questioned in the presence of the wife, for every man who exacts purity in his wife in her antecedent relations will naturally profess before her to have lived up to no lower standard himself.
When the husband is questioned alone, it is worth while, in America at all events, to inquire whether his life before marriage was one of purity and continence. If he admits illicit relations, then it is well to ask whether he has had syphilis or gonorrhea, and, if he has had gonorrhea, whether one or both testicles were affected ; also whether he had a protracted gleety discharge with the gonorrhea, and whether such a discharge was present at the time of his marriage. The questioner must remember that many men, who have stimulated an old and latent gonorrhea into fresh activity in the first months of married life, are inclined to consider the resulting discharge as nothing more than the natural results of excess.
In examining both the man and his wife it is well to follow some scheme, like that adopted by F. Kehrer (loc. cit., p. 78), or like a somewhat fuller outline such as that which I present on pages 370 and 371. A series of records kept on a scheme of this kind would be of great statistical value in this country.
ISTo matter what the find in either case both husband and wife should always be examined. If the husband is found to be at fault, the gynecologist would do well to refer him to a competent andrologist (Sanger) commonly known to-day as a " g.-u. specialist." Pinard says that the husband should never be told that the case is hopeless, as he has known two or three to take their own lives under such circumstances. The physician may almost alwaj's assure the husband with azoo-, oligo- or necrospermia that there is a hope of his recovery, for numerous cases can be recalled, in the hands of different specialists, in which after repeated examinations a few living sperm cells have been found and where, though long delayed, conception has taken place.
(2) Is there any mechanical hindrance which prevents the progress of the spermatozoa upward into the cervix, through the uterus, and out into the uterine tubes, where conception normally takes place ?
He mnst then look for any gross disease of the vnlva, vagina, or cervix. 'Next he mnst examine the nterns in order to ascertain the presence of tumors or displacements ; and, finally, he must investigate the condition of the ovaries to determine whether there is any disease, characterized by enlargement, already evident on bimanual examination. If he finds no cause for the sterility in any of these localities, he reviews the case for a gonorrheal infection, taking specimens of urethral, vaginal, or cervical secretions for microscopical examination.
If nothing can be found on making the usual careful bimanual examination, the patient should be anesthetized and the pelvis explored. If no fault is then found, a thorough dilatation of the cervix should be done and, if called for, a curettage (see Chaps. IV and VII).
in Chapter XII.
In sterility of long standing, a retroflexion ought to be corrected. First a pessary may be tried, and then, if that does not relieve the situation, an operation, drawing the uterus forward by its round ligaments. Anteflexion of an extreme character is rather a sig-n of maldevelopment than a mere postural disorder. Here the cervix may be dilated and then divided back to the vault in the median line. A plug of gauze left in for a few days will serve to keep the wound open.
stenosis is still the commonest discoverable canse of sterility, and when no other condition can be found to account for it, it is safe to consider this the probable hindrance. The dilatation for its relief should be done thoroughly, at one sitting, using a small, a medium, and a large dilator in such a manner as to open the cervix widely, without tearing it.
The details of the operation are described in Chapter IV, but I add a word of emphasis here in regard to one or two important points. The best dilators for the purpose are the parallel dilators of the Goodell-Ellinger type. The cervix should be equally dilated in all directions, up to and including the internal os, until it is sufficiently stretched to admit a bougie eight to ten millimetres in diameter. I do not think it advisable to dilate the cervix every month. It is wiser to correct the trouble, and then let nature have a chance to regulate her functions. N^either do I place any great confidence in the various cutting operations practised on the cervix and still less on those more dangerous operations involving the cervical canal (discission). I have already spoken of two precautions which should attend every dilating operation, which, in my opinion, should never be called " a little operation " or " no operation at all " ; but it may be well to repeat my caution here.
(1) The physician must be sure that there is no intrapelvic inflammation, which would be liable to be lighted up by this manipulation. I have seen some distressing cases, in which the patient was said to have been " perfectly well until the doctor dilated the womb," after which a latent infection flared up, until the pelvis filled with pus, all in consequence of neglect of this precaution.
(2) The same care as to cleanliness of the vulva, the vagina, and the instruments must be employed as in a major operation. Carelessness in this particular also may light fires which can only be extinguished by the sacrifice of all the structures concerned.
In most cases where dilatation of the cervical canal is necessary, the patient suffers more or less from dysmenorrhea, and curettage is called for as well. It is well, however, to warn the patient that she must not expect conception to take place at the very next period, but be content to wait patiently for at least a year.
A uterine polyp may be suspected as the cause of the sterility when the menstrual flow tends to be hemorrhagic, or when the uterus is enlarged, or when the polyp can be seen or felt at the external os. It should be removed by surgical means.
Fibroid tumors may be removed by enucleation rather than by amputation of the uterus, with the hope of subsequent pregnancy in younger women. Out of ninety-four abdominal myomectomies, performed in my clinic, where pregnancy was hoped for, it occurred in thirteen. Of this number twelve went to term, and one miscarried. Out of thirteen vaginal myomectomies where pregnancy might be looked for, it took place in tM^o.
When no gross lesion exists, gonorrhea must be sought for. To this end a cover slip ought to be taken in every case, without exception, and examined for intracellular diplo cocci (gonococci). The discovery of gonorrheal infection gives the treatment a definite object, namely, that of removing the infection from its various resting places.
If the disease has progTessed as far as the peritoneum, involving the ovaries in adhesions and converting the tubes into sacs (hydro- or pyosalpinx) the case is not a hopeful one, as far as the cure of the sterility is concerned. If there is pus in the tubes, the best plan is to refer the patient to a gynecologist who may open them freely, and make a wide drainage opening below into the vagina; even under such conditions, conception may occur after the parts have recovered from the operation. Delicate restorative ojDorations done on closed tubes are but rarely successful in bringing about conception. When the gonorrhea affects the cervix, which is its seat of predilection, and where next to the tubes it does most harm, the best plan is to burn it out with a Paquelin cautery or scrape it out with a Craig's curette, as described in Chapter XL In one of my patients, thirty-two years of age, who had an acquired sterility of twelve years' standing, I found a large everted cervix pouring out a mucopurulent secretion. Three cauterizations with a Paquelin cautery, after Hunner's method, cured the discharge and fifteen months later she bore a healthy child (Mrs. S., Case-book XYI, Xo. 84, Jan., 1906). The vagina should be treated as described in Chapter XI, or as recommended by Sanger, with a fifty per cent solution of chloride of zinc, applied thoroughly with a large cotton applicator, care being taken not to burn the external genitals. Following this application a loose pack of gauze, coated with zinc oxide salve, may be inserted and left in situ for twelve to eighteen hours. Any gonorrheal affection of the external glands should be relieved, and an infected vaginal gland should be incised. Skene's glands (para-urethral) should be probed and cut down into through the vagina, so that they are opened and drained to the very bottom. This little operation may be done under a two per cent solution of cocain injected into the adjacent tissues.
History and general considerations, p. 375. Prevalence, p. 376. Organs usually affected, p. 376. A. constitutional as well as a local disease, p. 377. Description of the gonococcus, p. 377. Different tissues in which the gonococcus is found, p. 378. Gonotoxine, p. 379. Curability of gonococcus infection, p. 380. Clinical course and symptoms, p. 380. Acute gonococcus infection; sub-acute and chronic gonococcus infection, p. 380. Vulvo- vaginitis in little girls, p. 381. Latent gonorrhea, p. 384. Gonorrhea and marriage, p. 384. Diagnosis, p. 384. Treatment, p. 386.
GoN-ococcus infection is a Letter name than gonorrhea, timehonored though the latter is, because it does not carry with it necessarily the stigma of a venereal disease. This consideration is especially important in vulvo-vaginitis in children where there is often no suspicion of a direct venereal origin of the infection.
History. — The disease is of great antiquity; it was common among the Greeks and Komans, and even before that time there are references to it in literature. In the fifteenth chapter of Leviticus careful instructions are given to the Israelites as to the measures to be adopted to avoid contagion from a running from the urethra. It is not probable that the nature of the disease was fully appreciated until recent times, the term gonorrhea signifying a flow of semen (y6vo<f, semen, poia, flow). In the year 1857 Bernutz and Goupil published an authoritative treatise on the influence of gonorrhea in the causation of pelvic peritonitis and salpingitis. Its recognition as a frequent cause of serious uterine diseases was not determined, however, until Emil N'oeggerath issued a monograph on the subject in 1872. His paper on latent gonorrhea read before the American Gynecological Society four years later evoked a storm of protest from the medical profession. He claimed that gonorrhea in the male as well as in the female persists for life in certain sections of the organs of generation, notv/ithstanding its apparent cure in a great many instances. There is a form of gonorrhea in both sexes called latent gonorrhea, which may infect a healthy person with either acute gonorrhea or gleet. Latent gonorrhea in the female manifests itself as acute, chronic, or recurrent perimetritis, or ovaritis, or as catarrh of certain sections of the genital organs ; finally, about ninety per cent of sterile women are married to husbands wlio have suffered from gonorrhea either previous to, or during, married life.
376 GONOCOCCTJS INTECTION.
the investigation of the prevalence of the disease in women, as Tvell as its varied manifestations, on a proper scientific footing. It was nearly twenty years, however, before many observations based on exact bacteriological knowledge were put on record.
Prevalence. — The prevalence of gonococcns infection in women varies within wide limits, according to the views of different gynecologists. It is by no means uncommon in little girls, esj)ecially in institutions. This subject will be taken up in some detail farther on. It is sufiicient to say here that most of the cases of purulent vuNo-vaginitis in children are now believed to be of gono coccus origin. I have just noted the conclusions of Xoeggerath as to the frequency of this disease. Lomer found the diplococcus in sixty per cent of the gynecological patients of Schroeder's clinic, Sanger and Schwartz {Centrhl. f. Gyn., 1896, vol. 20, J), 1075) put the percentage of gonorrhea among all their patients, hospital and private, as low as twelve per cent. Taylor, viewing the matter from the standpoint of the venereal specialist, says that twelve per cent is a conservative estimate of the gonorrheal origin of all uterine diseases.
This great diversity of opinion can be accounted for in several ways. First, the difficulty of finding the scattered organisms in the chronic cases. In the acute cases and under favorable circumstances the gonococci are often not very numerous, only four to a dozen being found in one microscopical field. Second, we know that under certain conditions the cocci die, whether from lack of suitable nutrient material, from the activity of the phagocytes, or from other causes. But although they are dead, the tissues in which they occur are still infected, perhaps because of the " gonotoxine " generated in the dead cells. Third, the class of patients treated. We should expect to find gonorrhea most common among prostitutes, and statistics prove this to be the case. Among five hundred and thirty-three j3rostitutes, sick and well, examined in the regTilar routine by Huber (Wien. med. Wochenschr., 1898, p. 21) fifty-nine and sixtenths per cent had gonorrhea. Prowe (Centrhl. f. Gyn., 1901, vol, 25, p. 82) found gonorrhea in seventy-six and nine-tenths per cent of four hundred and seven sick prostitutes in San Salvador, Central America. Zweifel thought the number of women in his private practice who were ill because of the gonococcns was from ten to eleven per cent. Some writers place the percentage among private patients as high as twenty per cent. Obviously information on this point is difficult to obtain, for few statistics are published, physicians not caring to go on record.
Organs TJsually Affected. — The organs in woman usually affected by the gonococcns are the vulva, urethra, vagina, uterine canal, and uterine tubes (see Fig, 101), Destructive inflammation of the tubes and ovaries with peritonitis is common, Gonococcns inflammation of the rectum and gonococcns infection of the bladder with secondary ascending inilammation of the ureters and kidneys is not rare.
OKGANS USUALLY AFFECTED BY GONOEEHEA.
recent report to the Association, asserted that eighty per cent of the deaths from female pelvic disease are due to gonococcus infection. We have to consider not only the manifestations of the disease in the genito-nrinary organs hnt also its effect on distant organs, such as gonococcus arthritis, especially of the knee joint, and its effect upon the system, in causing anemia and debility. F. E,. Sturgis (Amer. Jour. Urol., IST. Y., 1904-5, vol. 1, p. 349) draws a parallel
Absc. ofBarth.gX.
Fig. lOL — The Various Sites in which the Gonorrheal Organism is Apt to become Implanted AND Linger. These are: Skene's glands; Bartholin's glands; the vagina (in the young); the cervix; the endometrium; the uterine tubes; and the ovarian follicles. The whorled arrows mark the sites in which the infection lingers by preference.
between the constitutional effects of syphilis and gonorrhea. He considers that many of the same organs are attacked by both diseases, and that gonorrhea may be Jikened to syphilis in the seriousness of the systemic disturbances it causes, not the least of these being impoverishment of the blood state and rheumatism, with attendant gonococcus endocarditis. Out of an ample experience as clinical professor of venereal diseases in the University of the City of ]^ew York, he deprecates the silly belief of those who consider gonorrhea as no more important than a cold in the head.
Description of the Gonococcus. — The gonococcus according to E. Bumm (J. Veit's " Handbu.ch der Gynakologie," vol. 1, p. 430), who has studied it extensively, belongs to the diplo coccus group as far as its form goes, and to the staphylococcus family in its mode of development. It is a pus-producing bacterium affecting chiefly columnar epithelium. The accompanying figure shows the shape of the coccus, not unlike two grains of coffee with the furrows on the concave sides, each half being generally separated from its sister half by a well-marked interval (see Fig. 102). Sometimes the two halves are joined at one end as shown, and sometimes they are of irregular size (Maslovski). The coccus measures about one and a quarter millimetres in diameter.
Figs. 102 and 103.
Orgaxism, Goxococcus of Neisser (102) A series of forms of individual cocci, biscuit-shaped and double, highlymagnified; (103) groups of cocci which are characteristic, especially the presence of the cocci within pus cells above. (From Veit, "Handbuch der Gynakologie," Bd. I, p. 430.)
It is sharply differentiated in appearance from the white corpuscle in which it has its habitat, so that it can be recognized with ease. It increases by division in vertical planes to form clusters, never chains, of new cocci. It takes the
aniline dyes with great readiness, but alwajs loses its color by the Gram method of decolorizing. In secretions it usually lies within the protoplasm of the pus cell, although occasionally it is found free.
Tissues in Which. Gonococcus Is Found. — The gonococctis has an especial affinity for the mucous membranes of man. It is not, as formerly thought, limited in its place of gTowth to the columnar epithelium. It has been found in the sub-mucous tissues of the vagina by Mandl ; in squamous epithelium by Bumm, Teuton, and others ; in the thrombosed blood vessels of the bladder, in the serosa of the peritoneum, and in the substance of the ovary by E. Wertheim; in the connective tissue of the uterine tubes by Kraus ; in the rectal mucous membrane by Fritsch ; in the uterine muscle by Madlener and Menge ; in the decidua and placenta of a nine months pregnancy by ]\Iaslovski, and in the urine of cystitis by Melchoir. Kronig (ref. to by F. Staehler, 2Ionatss. f. Geh. unci Gyn., 1903, voL 17, p. 77) found gonococci in the lochia of over ten per cent of two hundred and ninety-six lying-in women who had had child-bed fever. Lobenstine and Harrar {Bull. Lyijig-in Hosp., ]Sr. Y., Dec, 1906) found that the average birth-weight of the babies of " gonorrheal mothers " is less than that of babies of " normal mothers." Their deductions were based on the observation of fifty babies of gonorrheal mothers without fever, fifty babies of gonorrheal mothers with high temperatures, and one hundred and fifty of normal mothers. Xot only is the average weight less, but there is a greater permanent loss, babies of gonorrheal parentage gaining at the end of ten days only ten and nine-tenths per cent, while babies of normal mothers gain forty-nine and three-tenths per cent. They consider that gonorrhea occurring in the mother in the later months of pregnancy is the cause of a large number of premature births.
In places other than the genital organs and their neighborhood, the gonococcus has been found in the pus of inflamed joints by Stern and Jacquet; in the pus of an inflamed tendon sheath by Kronig ; and in the mucous membranes of the oral cavity, nose, middle ear, and the conjunctiva of the new born by Dohrn, Rosinski, Von Leyden, Kronig, and others. The gonococcus has been isolated also from a thrombus of the pulmonary valve in a case of ulcerative endocarditis by Lenhartz, and in the blood current by Amann, linger, Yon Leyden, and Michaelis. Amann proved the identity of the gonococcus by stain and culture, and, by experi-
rhea complicated by inflammation of tendon sheaths.
The gonococcus may he cultivated outside the body by using as a culture medium human serum in the form of hydrocele, ovarian, or ascitic fluid together with agar, and may be kept alive for several generations. It is to be noted that it grows only in neutral or alkaline media. Therefore the normal vaginal secretion made acid by the lactic acid bacterium of Doderlein is hostile to its growth.
Gronotoxine. — De Christmas (Ann. de Vinstitut Pasteur, 1900, p. 331) found that there is a toxic product of the gonoccoccus developed after the cultured organism is dead, and that this is capable of producing suppuration when injected into the eye of a rabbit. His work was confirmatory of the investigations of Wassermann (Berl. Min. WochenscJir., 1897, ISTo. 32, p. 685) and Maslovski (Ann. de gyn. et d'ohst., 1899, vol. 2, p. 483), who experimented with pure cultures of the gonococcus in nutrient media to which, after the cocci had attained their full growth, alcohol was added to destroy them and to precipitate the albumen. The dead cocci with the albumen were then filtered out of the fluid, mixed with sterile water, the alcohol driven off by heat, and the fluid so obtained used to inoculate rabbits and guinea-pigs. The injections were found to be exceedingly j)oisonous and produced both local inflammations and pyrexia typical of gonorrhea. The filtrate, when injected into the animals, had no effect, showing that the poisonous properties were in the dead cocci. Maslovski considered that when the gonococci die, a gonotoxine is developed in the body of the cocci, an endotoxine. It is to this toxine that the symptoms of gonorrhea are due rather than to the development of the gonococci in the organism. He found the toxine to have both a local action, inflammatory and suppurative ; and a general action, elevation of temperature, loss of weight, etc. Repeated injections of the gonotoxine produced no immunity, neither did injections of the pure cultures ; therefore there is no immunity in gonorrhea, and reinfection may take place in the same individual an indefinite number of times. This coincides with the clinical observations of the disease in man. According to the most recent and approved views mixed infection is not often present in gonorrhea. In other words the gonococcus generally has the field to himself. By the destruction of the surface epithelium as a result of gonococcus inflammation the conditions are made favorable for the invasion into the tissues of the stajDhylococcus, streptococcus and colon bacillus, which are frequently found after the gonococcus inflammation may be said to be at an end. It is likely that some, at least, of the manifestations of the later stages of gonococcus infection are due to the formation of the gonotoxine and not to the invasion of other organisms. Taking advantage of the discovery of the gonotoxine, some attempts have been made to treat gonococcus infection by the injection of antigonococcus serum (J. C. Torrey, Jour. Amer. Med. Assoc, vol. 46, p. 261, also J. Eogers, ibid., p. 263), but so far the results are not convincing.
Curability of Gonococcus Infection. — Jullien {Rev. iniernat. de med. et de cliir., Paris, 1905, vol. 16) discusses the curability of gonorrhea, adopting Wertheim's view that in chronic gonorrhea a fresh attack may be lighted up by a new culture ground. There is no real immunity, that is to say, if a man having chronic gleet, marries a healthy woman, she acquires gonorrhea from him, and then her gonococci are able to set up an acute process in the husband's urethra. This is the opinion commonly held to-day, but it is founded more on clinical observation than on bacteriological evidence. The importance of a man being cured entirely of gonorrhea before he is married is made doubly apparent. Most authorities maintain that the disease may be eradicated by persistent treatment conducted over a long period of time. Every individual who has once had gonorrhea should be assumed to be infected until the contrary has been proved.
Clinical Course and Symptoms. — Acute gonorrhea, as seen in prostitutes, is characterized by a chill, rapid pulse, elevation of temperature, pelvic pains, burning and smarting on urination, and, in the course of a few hours by a leucorrhea, at first mucous, but soon becoming purulent, the pus often being of a greenish hue and mixed with blood. The symptoms begin from twenty-four hours to eight days after infection. Exceptionally, they begin before twenty-four hours or are delayed as long as fourteen days. The disease begins most frequently in the urethra, just as in the male. The meatus urinarius, as I have already pointed out (" Twentieth Century Practice of Medicine," vol. 1, p. 665), is protected in the young woman by the labia urethrae. In the beginning of coitus the glans penis pushes against the labia and separates or invaginates them, bringing discharge from the male meatus directly in contact with the mucous membrane of the female meatus. The glands of Skene lie just in the edge of the female urethra; they are lined with columnar epithelium, the favorite habitat of the gonococcus. Therefore, it often happens that these glands are infected. Another favorite seat of infection is the glands of Bartholin, on either side of the entrance of the vagina just outside the hymen. These also are lined with a layer of columnar epithelial cells. The impact of the penis in its endeavor to enter the vagina causes more or less trauma of the tissues over these glands and gonococci laden discharge from the male meatus is rubbed into them. The vagina, lined with pavement epithelium and bathed in an acid secretion, is infected, although less commonly than the urethra. The younger the patient the more apt is the vaginal mucosa to be infected, because in the young, the pavement epithelium is softer and more like columnar epithelium. Hence the frequency of gonococcus vulvo-vaginitis in children.
The mucous membrane lining the cavity of the cervix uteri is thrown into folds and has branching glands lined with ciliated columnar epithelium. This is the situation next most commonly affected. Here the disease is prone to lurk, just as in the glands of Skene and Bartholin. An acute gonococcus infection generally involves the urethra, vagina and
cervical canal. It runs a course of six weeks. The inguinal lymphatic glands which receive infective material from the vulva and lower vagina may become inflamed and may suppurate, and the patient has a " bubo." This complication is more common in women of uncleanly habits. A gonococcus arthritis occurring during the course of the disease is a frequent complication.
Acute gonorrhea as described, except among prostitutes, is relatively rare. The symptoms of the invasion of the gonococcus in the genital organs of women are generally not pronounced. They are often, a smarting on urination and an increase of vaginal discharge. The only history of infection may be that a mucoid, unirritating, leucorrheal discharge became purulent and irritating, but even this sign may be absent. Perhaps the first symptoms to lead a patient to consult a physician will be due to tubal disease, a cervical catarrh, or a vulvo-vaginal abscess, so insidious are the stages of invasion of this disease. In the chronic forms of gonococcus infection the leucorrhea loses its purulent character and is generally abundant. The symptoms depend on the organs chiefiy involved, Avhether the vulvo-vaginal glands, the urethra and Skene's glands, the uterine canal, or the uterine tubes and peritoneum.
Vulvo-vaginitis in Little Girls. — Fluor albus in children was first mentioned in the eighteenth century, and, although it has been often referred to in treatises on the diseases of women and children, its serious import has not received sufficient attention. Sara Welt-Kakels {New York Bled. Jour., 1904, vol. 80, p. 689) observed in her clinic at the Mount Sinai Hospital, E'ew York, during the ten years from 1893 to 1903, one hundred and ninety cases of vulvovaginitis, or one and six-tenths per cent of all the children treated. The largest number occurred in children between the ages of two and five years and the disease was rare after the tenth year. I show in Figure 103 a retouched photograph of a case of gonorrheal vaginitis in a little girl eleven years old, sent to the Johns Hopkins Hospital wards ; the overflowing secretion as it pours out of the vagina into the perineum is characteristic. jSTot all of the cases were of gonococcus origin. L. Emmet Holt {New- York Med. Jour., 1905, voL 81, p. 521) reports the results of investigations made in the Babies' Hospital and other institutions for children in New York. When the new building of the Babies' Hospital was opened in 1902, a child with gonococcus vaginitis was inadvertently admitted. From this child, in spite of new wards and the cleanest of surroundings, eleven fresh cases developed, including three of gonococcus arthritis. The rule was thereupon established to admit no female child without a microscopical examination of the vaginal secretion. In another infants' hospital in the same city, where there was said to be no vulvovaginitis, smears were made from the vaginal secretion of one hundred infants and young children, the cases being taken in order, without selection. Twelve showed a yellow purulent discharge, and pus and gonococci were
comprises nearly all those in which the discharge is purulent; it is the most severe and most rebellious to treatment besides being the most common. Although the inflammatory symptoms disappear at the end of four to sis weeks, exacerbations occur. One author reports finding gonococci in the discharges after the disease had lasted four years. Gonococcus vulvo-vaginitis in children is contracted sometimes through sleeping with the mother, sister, or other female relative ; as a rule, the infection is indirect and accidental, being transmitted on contaminated bed linen, towels, sponges, or even by bathing in the same bath tub. A marked instance of the last mode of contagion was an epidemic of vulvo-vaginitis which occurred in the city of Posen, Germany, in 1S90 (ref. to by AYelt-Kakels, he. cit.), in which two himdred and thirtysix school girls, aged from six to fourteen years, were taken ill inside of eight to fourteen days with vulvo-vaginitis. They had all used the same public bath house, where, on account of limited accommodations, two or more children were required to bathe in one tub.
The statistics of venereal disease in children in my own clinic at the Women's Venereal Department of the Johns Hopkins Hospital Dispensary, under the charge of Dr. Flora Pollack, are as follows : In a series of one thousand three hundred and sixty-six patients, one hundred and thirty-nine, or ten and twentyone per cent, were children under fifteen years of age ; and of these, only three cases were congenital. Of the one hundred and thirty-nine children, ninetyfive, or sixty-eight and three-tenths per cent, who were not over ten years of age, were suffering from acquired infection. In a number of cases this infection is intentional, being due to a superstition, prevalent among the lower classes, that the disease can be gotten rid of, if it is transferred to a healthy person, preferably a virgin.
The different forms of venereal disease were distributed as follows: Gonorrhea, one hundred and thirteen cases, or eighty-one and forty-one hundredths per cent; syphilis with gonorrhea, fourteen cases, or ten per cent; and syphilis alone, twelve cases, or eight and sixty-two hundredths per cent.
Fig. 105. — Chart Showing the Ages at which Gonorrhea is Most Frequently Found between Eighteen Months and Fifteen Years. It will be seen that by far the largest number of cases occurs before ten years of age.
proportion of the cases (nearly seven per cent) are not over ten years old, a fact agreeing with the 'statistics of Welt-Kakels ( loc. cit. ) ; and there is every reason to believe that the infection in these children is not only acquired, but acquired through the intention of the other patty, actuated by the superstition just mentioned. i ^
384 Goxococcrs iicfectiox.
There are grounds for the belief that adhesions of the labia and prepuce, occlusion of the hymen and haniatocolpos, deformed uteri, and diseased uterine tubes are the sequela? of this disease. The complications are acute purulent peritonitis, arthritis and ophthalmia.
Latent Gonorrhea. — Latent gonorrhea has been referred to (see page 375). It explains why the gono coccus, even after years of apparent cure, may regain its full virulence. This brings up the question of the advisability of marriage in persons who have had gonorrhea.
Gonorrhea and Marriage. — In the case of the male it is the custom for genitourinary specialists to advise that marriage is permissible when there are no shreds in the urine, when the gleety discharge from the urethra has ceased, and when repeated examinations, made several days apart, show no gonococci in smears made from mucus from the meatus. There are cases on record, however, where these precautions have been observed and yet a gonorrheal process has been set up in the previously healthy wife. Other instances are numerous, where no disease was noted in the wife until the husband became reinfected by intercourse with a prostitute. It would seem as if reinfection was at the root of the trouble and would explain many of the otherwise inexplicable cases of gonococcus infection. In the case of women, repeated examinations of mucus from the meatus urethree, after expression of the urethra, Bartholin's glands, and the canal of the cervix uteri, found to be free from gonococci, prove that the disease is cured. It is to be remembered that clinical evidence shows that the disease is more easily transmissible by a previously infected woman at or about the time of menstruation. This fact is explained by the congestion of the genital organs always present at this time, with the consequent liberation from the tissues of more abundant flora of gonococci. Something may be due to a diminished acidity of the vaginal secretion, which is ordinarily destructive to the gonococcus. Examinations for the gonococcus should be made, if possible, near a menstrual period.
Instances will occur to the mind of every practitioner of large experience, where a man who has had gonorrhea has had subsequently a family of healthy children; but this must be considered the excejDtion, the rule being that such a man's wife is sterile, or has only one child, and that she suffers in the future from uterine disease. Prostitutes are notoriously sterile. The sterility is supposed to be due to gonococcus endometritis, to destruction of the ciliated columnar epithelium of the uterine tubes by gonococcus inflammation or to closure of their calibre from the same cause. Be that as it may, there can be no doubt that gonococcus infection is one of the most frequent causes of sterility in women.
Diagnosis.' — In the acute form of gonococcus infection the diagnosis is not difficult. It is established by a history of suspicious intercourse, followed in a day to a week by the symptoms enumerated on page 380 and the finding of the gonococcus in the pus of the discharges.
DIAGNOSIS. 385
In the sub-acute and the chronic forms the diagnosis is hard to make. It rests on a history of an unclean coitus; on the history of frequent and painful micturition (an acute urethritis being strong presumptive evidence of gonorrhea). It is not an uncommon experience to have the patient tell her physician that a little while after marriage she noticed that she had a leucorrhea which stained her linen and that her water smarted when she passed it. Questioning the husband at some subsequent time it is learned that he has had gonorrhea. Great tact should be exercised by the physician not to push his inquiries with the wife too far, because of the danger of causing marital troubles that no doctor can cure. In gonococcus infection of the innocent, by far the most common variety of the disease, it is seldom advisable to inform the woman of the exact nature of the disease she has acquired. It will never be done away with by too great frankness on the part of the physician. More is to be expected from missionary work with men, who should appreciate the dangers they run and the risks to which they are subjecting those nearest and dearest to them. Occasionally a patient will describe having had an adenitis in the groin or arthritis, but this is rare. The presence of the ''maculae gonorrhoicae " of Sanger {Centrhl. f. Gyn., 1896, p. 1073) is presumptive evidence of gonorrhea. These consist of a redness and puffiness, similar to the wheal caused by a flea-bite, at the orifices of Skene's glands and Bartholin's glands. The redness persists long after all active suppuration has ceased.
In examining a woman for chronic gonococcus infection it is important that she should come. to the examination without previous douching or cleansing of the genitals. She is to be examined in the dorsal position, on a hard surface, and in a good light. The labia are separated and the discharge removed gently with pledgets of absorbent cotton. Smears are made from the pus expressed from the orifice of a gland of Bartholin. The physician's forefinger is inserted into the vagina, making backward pressure on the perineum to gain room and to avoid pressure on the urethra. Then the urethra is stroked with the forefinger from above downward, and any secretion which may be present is expressed, gathered at the meatus on a sterile probe or applicator, and transferred to a cover glass. The orifices of Skene's glands are carefully scrutinized for the presence of surrounding redness and pus. A speculum is introduced into the vagina, and with the aid of a sterile applicator a smear is made from the discharge from the cervical canal.
The detection of the gonococcus by staining and Gram decolorizing in the discharges is proof positive of the disease. Some authors (Calmann, Klein, and Fritsch) have insisted on the necessity of making cultures of the gonococcus. On account of the great difficulties surrounding the growing of this bacterium outside the tissues of the human body this is seldom done in practice, although it may furnish valuable confirmatory evidence. Finding the gonococcus in bits of tissue removed at the time of operations on the genitalia is proof of the nature of the diseased condition. Too often the diagnosis of
the difficulty in finding the gonococcus.
Treatment. — In acute gonococcus infection rest in bed and scrupulous cleanliness are to be enjoined. It is not sufficient to tell the patient to be clean ; exact instructions must be given as to the details. A sterile pad or soft cloth fresh from the laundry should be worn constantly over the vulval region. When it is wet with discharge, it is to be burned and a new one applied. The genitals are to be bathed at least three times a day with warm half per cent boric acid solution, and oftener, if the discharge is profuse. The very great danger of carrying infection on the fingers to other persons or to other mucous membranes of the same person should be pointed out. By this means it is possible to avoid gonococcus ophthalmia, a serious and destructive disease, especially in adults; and gonococcus vulvovaginitis in children, to say nothing of gonococcus proctitis. Huber (ref. to in Centrhl. f. Gyn., 1889, p. 1508) found rectal gonorrhea in twenty-four and a half per cent of three hundred and eighteen prostitutes who had gonorrhea. It is important that the natural barrier of the sphincter ani should not be passed by a syringe nozzle or the examining finger during an attack of acute gonococcus infection. Because of the likelihood of spreading the infective material to neighboring organs it is unwise to use any further local treatment. It has happened only too frequently that gonococci of the cervical canal have been carried beyond nature's barrier, the internal OS uteri, by the physician's sound, with resulting endometritis and salpingitis. So also the passing of a catheter during the acute stage of gonococcus infection is very likely to be followed by infection of the bladder. Coitus must be forbidden and the husband is to be kept under observation, if possible. The diet should be bland and free from spices and stimulants of all kinds ; a milk diet is valuable. Large quantities of water should be taken to dilute the urine and wash away the gonococci, and the bowels should be moved daily with saline purgatives. Bromide, hyoscyamus, and opium in special cases are indicated to relieve pain and restlessness. A useful prescription to relieve painful urination is :
In the sub-acute and chronic stages of the disease the object of treatment is the destruction of the gonococcus together with the superficial layers of epithelium. It is important that the treatment should be thorough, and no nooks and corners overlooked. The patient is placed in Sims' position and a small Sims' speculum introduced. The Sims' speculum is better for this purpose than other specula because it covers a minimum surface of the vagina. In the Sims' position the folds of the vagina are eliminated to a large extent by atmospheric dilatation, and thus all portions of it may be brought into contact v^^ith the remedial agent.
The vagina and vulva are wiped thoroughly, first with successive pledgets of absorbent cotton held in uterine dressing forceps and dipped in warm water, and then with dry cotton. The canal of the cervix is swabbed several times with cotton-wound uterine applicators, dipped into a ten per cent solution of silver nitrate. Unless there is positive evidence that the infection has reached the uterine cavity proper, the tip of the applicators should not be passed through the internal os uteri. By steadying the cervix with a tenaculum, the treatment of the cervical canal can be accomplished in most cases without dilatation of the external os. l^ow and then slight dilatation with the Hanks' dilators will be necessary. The entire vagina is treated in the same way with pledgets of absorbent cotton soaked in silver solution until every fold and depression has been touched, the speculum being withdrawn as the posterior wall is painted from above down. The excess of silver solution is removed with dry absorbent cotton. The speculum is then lubricated and reintroduced into the puckered and whitened vagina, after which the entire cavity is given a copious smearing of vaselin, and two packings of non-absorbent cotton with strings attached are left in the vagina. Thus the danger of adhesion of the folds is obviated and the patient's comfort promoted. The packings are to be removed at the end of forty-eight hours.
The patient is now placed in the dorsal position. Unless there is evidence that the urethra has not become infected, a small Kelly endoscope (l^o. 8 or 9) is passed up to the neck of the bladder, but not into it. The urethra is then swabbed with cotton-wound uterine applicators, soaked in a five per cent solution of silver nitrate, the urethra being intolerant of a stronger solution except under anesthesia. As the reddened wall of the urethra rolls into the lumen of the cystoscope during its withdrawal, it is touched with the tip of the applicator. It is well to have at least two applicators ready for use and dipped in the silver solution before beginning the treatment, for economy of time is of value. The pain may be lessened in particularly sensitive patients by first inserting in the urethra an applicator with its cotton-soaked solution of cocain hydrochlorate (ten per cent). By holding the thumb against the shaft of the applicator the applicator may be withdrawn and the cotton left in the urethra. After five minutes the swabbing of the urethra with nitrate solution may be proceeded with. After the cystoscope is out of the urethra the orifices of Skene's glands receive special attention, so also the
orifices of Bartholiu's glands. In tlic chronic cases where Skene's glands are the seat of chronic infection they are to be injected with silver solution by means of a large hypodermic syringe needle, fitted into a two-inch
of infection it is necessary to lay open the glands into the vagina. This is done under cocain anesthesia, using the cotton soaked in cocain solution as described in the treatment of the urethra. A fine probe is inserted to the full length of the gland (half an inch) and the probe is cut down on with a bistoury.
FiG. 106. — Bext Hairpins Grasped in Artery Forceps AND Used as a Speculum to Expose the Anterior Portion of the Urethra, More Particularly the; Orifices of Skene's Glands.
an abscess has formed, it must
be opened under aseptic precautions, and the interior cauterized. After all the points of infection have received attention the vulva is smeared with vaselin, and the patient is instructed to remove the tampons in two days and report. It may be necessary to repeat the treatment several times, at intervals of two or three days. Protargol in ten per cent solution may be substituted for the nitrate of silver. It is less irritating than the nitrate, and, although not as germicidal, has given the best results clinically of all the many silver salts wdth the single exception of the nitrate. The number of drugs recommended for the treatment of gonococcus infection is legion. Among them, leaving out the silver salts, may be mentioned Churchill's tincture of iodine, corrosive sublimate, formalin, permanganate of potash, methyl blue, brewer's yeast and nascent carbonic acid gas.
TREATMENT IN LITTLE GIRLS. 389
If the vagina remains congested as a result of the cauterization with the nitrate of silver, it is best to luake several treatments with tampons soaked in ichthyol and glycerin (one drachm to one ounce) before renewing the more vigorous treatment. The nitrate of silver treatment is more or less painful, and in some patients it is advisable to administer a sedative after employing it. In cases where it is not possible to follow up this treatment, as where patients cannot be kept under observation or are subjected to reinfection, something may be gained by the use of vaginal suppositories of boroglycerid, gelatin, and protargol, two per cent. One or two of these suppositories, according to the size of the vagina, are to be inserted by the patient every night at bedtime and a napkin worn. Considerable benefit is obtained often in chronic cases by the daily use of a two-quart douche of hot permanganate of potash solution, 1 : 1500, or creolin, one half per cent.
The Dry Treatment. — In rebellious cases nothing is more efficacious than the use of iodoform powder dusted on dry elastic non-absorbent cotton tampons, so placed as to balloon out the vagina moderately, thus removing the folds from its mucous membrane. The packing should be done with the patient in the Sims' or the knee-breast position and repeated every third day, the patient removing the tampons on the night of the second day and taking a douche of permanganate of potash, 1:1500.
Treatment of Gonococcus Vulvo-vaginitis in Little Girls. — The mother is to be informed of the infectious nature of the disease and charged with the importance of carrying out the treatment with the greatest care. Strict attention is to be paid to cleanliness, and all cloths used about the child are to be burned after use. The mother or nurse is to prepare a warm solution of permanganate of potassium, 1: 2000, and place the child on her back on a table or other hard surface in a good light. The thighs are to be flexed and the hips placed on a rubber cloth or Kelly pad draped into a pail on the floor. The labia majora are separated and the discharge washed away from the vulva by gentle sopping with a pledget of absorbent cotton. The vagina is irrigated with a soft-rubber catheter attached to a syringe (either bulb or fountain syringe will serve). The frequency of the irrigations is timed according to the amount of the discharge ; if it is very profuse, two or three times a day, if less, once a day will be suflfieient. In the chronic stages of the disease a solution of nitrate of silver, 1 : 500, may be substituted for the permanganate of potash solution; often, it is a good plan to alternate the two. A sterile pad held in place by a T bandage prevents the spread of infection.
An excellent posture in which to treat a child is the knee-breast position, as shown in Figure 106. The nurse should first place a pledget of cotton saturated with a ten per cent solution of coca in against the hymen ; and after ten minutes the child is placed in the knee-breast position and a Kelly speculum (ISTo. 10) is introduced. This can l)e done without rupture of the hymen. The vagina then balloons out so that all parts are exposed to view, and can be easily treated with a three to thirty per cent solution of silver nitrate (see Eig. 107). This
Fig. 107. — Examination of a Little Child with Gonorrheal Infection of the Vagina. The figure shows well the relative size of the body of the child compared with the instrument and the hands of the examiner. The speculum, which is only 1 cm. in diameter, can be introduced without injury to the hymen. In the knee-breast position the vagina distends to a maximum wdth air and can be easily treated, as shown in the next figure.
treatment is not painful or alarming, but it is necessary, of course, to gain the confidence of the child before applying it. If the urethra is also involved, a five per cent solution of nitrate of silver is injected by means of small glass syringes, either into the meatus urinarius or over the entire vestibule, if the child will not keep quiet. Chafing is best relieved by inunctions of zinc ointment, unless the case is complicated by syphilis, when the parts must be kept dry; for this purpose a dusting powder of equal parts of calomel, bismuth subnitrate, and boric acid is best. Constitutional treatment must be added, selected in accordance with the child's age. No home applications are advised, other than cleanliness of the parts and the use of the ointment or powder just mentioned, as the mother cannot be trusted to carry them out. The child must return for treatment, at first on alternate days, and afterwards with lengthening intervals as the case improves.
The complications of gonococcus infection, such as stricture of the urethra, cystitis, proctitis, ophthalmia, suppurative adenitis and arthritis, should be given appropriate treatment.
Whatever the treatment employed, it should be persisted in until the discharges are free from gonococci. The poor, half -cured victims of gonococcus infection are a menace to the community and a stain on the fair name of the medical profession.
p. 408.
Secondary syphilis: General considerations, p. 411. Varieties, p. 411, Diagnosis, p. 412. Tertiary syphihs: Vai'ieties, p. 418. Diagnosis, p. 419. Syphilis of: Appendages to skin, p. 420. Alimentary system, p. 421. Respiratory system, p.
Syphilis is a chronic, contagious disease, intermittent in its manifestations, and indefinite in its duration. It is susceptible of being communicated from one individual to another by inoculative contact, direct or mediate, and is transmissible by inheritance.
THE CAUSAL AGENT OF SYPHILIS.
It has long been assumed that syphilis belonged to the class of microbian diseases, from analogies in its evolution and processes with other infectious diseases, the microbian origin of -^hich has been demonstrated. Many investigators have claimed the discovery of a specific organism as the pathogenic agent Since the discovery of the spirocheta pallida or treponema pallidum by Schaudinn and Hoffmann, in 1905, and the demonstration of its presence in the blood and lesions of syphilitics, it has been generally recognized as the specific germ of syphilis. At the present time, the etiological views of Klebs, Lustgarten, Van Xiessen, Jullien and de Lisle, Max Joseph and PiorkoTvski have only a historical interest. The spirocheta pallida is a spiral organism, having the form of a corkscrew. The filament is a quarter to one micro-millimetre thick and four to twelve micro-millimetres long. The spirals are steep, the ends being sharp, and often having long thread flagella. The average number of spirals is from eight to twelve, but sometimes there are more. Giemsa proposed a special stain for the spirochete, and lately, April, 1907, he modified the stain, in such a manner that the organism can be demonstrated in smears in a few minutes.
THE EVOLUTIONAEY MODE OF SYPHILIS. 393
ticallj all the manifestations of early syphilis, as chancre, papule, mucous patches, scaly patches, as well as in the blood, before, during and after the appearance of the early manifestations. In hereditary syphilis the spirochetae have been demonstrated as abundantly present in the fetus, in the placenta, and in sections from the internal organs, especially after the publication of Levaditti's method.
The spirocheta pallida is also found in smears from syphilitic lesions of inoculated apes. A doubt exists, however, as to the identity of the structure found in tissues with the real spirochete found in smears. It is claimed that the structure considered in tissues as a sjDirocheta pallida cannot be difPerentiated from other spirochetse and from various tissue elements. While the sj)irocheta pallida has been generally accepted as the germ producing syphilis, yet the rigorous conditions demanded by modern science as essential to the acceptance of the view that a specific micro-organism is the cause of an infectious disease, have not, in its case, been complied with.
These conditions are, first, that the specific organism should be found in the diseased tissues, and in the products of no other disease. Second, that the organism should be susceptible of cultivation outside the human body. Third, that when a product of pure cultures is introduced into the same species from which it was derived, it should produce an identical disease. Up to the present time, no culture has been made of this organism, and the scientific proof of its pathogenic role has not been absolutely demonstrated. Yet the constant presence of the organism in the lesions of both acquired and hereditary syphilis, would seem to afford the strongest presumptive proof of its being the causative agent. In addition, the prompt disappearance of spirochetae from the tissues after the use of mercury, has been frequently observed. In the present state of our knowledge, then, we may conclude that the spirocheta pallida is probably the pathogenic agent of syphilis.
Syphilis is characterized by a certain definite order or regiilarity in its evolutionary course which, though not absolutely constant, is yet sufficiently uniform to admit of its division into three periods or stages, classified as the primary, secondary, and tertiary stages.
When the virus is introduced into the organism, there is no appreciable evidence of its action during a period of three to four weeks, on an average of twenty-six days; this has been termed the period of primary incubation. There then appears at the point of inoculation a circumscribed infiltration, termed the initial lesion or chancre, which for a time constitutes the sole sign of the disease. It is probable that the chancre serves as a focus for the multiplication of the infectious elements, from which they are diffused into the system through the medium of the lymph and blood channels.
394 SYPHILIS.
visible manifestations of tlie disease upon the surface of the body, is termed the period of secondary incubation, "U'hich averages from six to eight weeks in duration. During the period of secondary incubation, there is an enlargement and induration of the nearest lymph glands and sometimes of the lymphatic channels leading thereto, with the development of various prodromal symptoms, chiefly of a subjective character.
Prominent among the prodromal symptoms vrhich precede the outbreak of general syphilis is syphilitic fever, vhich may be accompanied by headache, pains in the back and limbs, and other signs of constitutional disturbance. The febrile reaction of syphilis has no Trell-defined characters which can be considered as specific. In many cases it is so slight as to escape observation. Syphilitic fever rarely possesses clinical importance. It usually subsides spontaneously with the appearance of the eruption. There are numerous other symptoms, of a subjective character, which may occur in the early stage of syphilis, such as pains in the muscles, bones, and so forth. In addition to the rheumatoid pains, headache, arthralgia, or osteocopic pains along the prominent parts of the bony skeleton, may mark the invasion of syphilis, although the osteocopic pains are more pronounced at a later stage. During this primary period there is an alteration in the constituents of the blood, characterized by an increase of the white corpuscles and albuminous constituents, and a diminution in the number of the red corpuscles.
The secondary stage of syphilis is marked by an outbreak of generalized and symmetrical eruptions upon the skin and mucous membranes. The eruptions vary in form, in extent, and in severity, while exhibiting certain specific features which stamp them as the peculiar product of syphilis. They are not continuously present, but come out in successive gTOups, periods of activity alternating with periods of intermittence, in which no active symptoms are present. Exceptionally, the eruption may be continuously present during a prolonged period.
Between the second and third stages of syphilis there is an intermediate period, of exceedingly variable duration, in which the disease remains latent or there are only occasional manifestations. This cessation of activity may be permanent, marking the definite end of the disease, or it may, after a more or less prolonged period of latency, be succeeded by tertiary manifestations.
The tertiary stage is characterized by lesions of the deeper structures, the subcutaneous tissues, the muscles, bones, and internal organs. The tertiary lesions of syphilis are limited and localized, rarely symmetrical, with a progressive and destructive tendency, producing more or less extensive loss of tissue. The duration of the tertiary stage is practically indefinite. The disease may be latent for months or years, and then manifest renewed activity accompanied by general symptoms, indicating the revival of the infective process.
VARIATIONS IN THE TYPE OF SYPHILIS. 395
certain extent, arbitrary, and devoid of scientific accuracy. There is no definite chronological limit which separates the second and third stages of syphilis. The distinction between the two is based rather upon the character of the pathological process than upon the age of the diathesis. Lesions of a secondary type may continue to recur long after the completion of the secondary stage, it may be five to ten years later ; while, exceptionally, lesions which are pathologically of the tertiary type may be developed within the first few months of the disease. While there is no distinct line of demarcation between the two stages, it may be said in a general way that secondary eruptions are generalized, symmetrical in development, superficial in character, and show a tendency to spontaneous resolution. Tertiary lesions are non-symmetrical, deeper-seated, and do not exhibit the same tendency to spontaneous resolution. Instead of being reabsorbed, they tend to fibrous organization and fatty degeneration. During the secondary stage, the blood as well as the lesions contains the poison of syphilis, transmissible by contagion and by inheritance. When syphilis has passed into the tertiary stage, the disease was formerly considered no longer contagious or transmissible by inheritance, but since the discovery of the spirocheta pallida, and its demonstrated presence in gummata and other lesions of the tertiary stage, this view must be subject to modification.
Syphilis exhibits the widest variations in the type of the disease, as well as in the intensity, the multiplicity, and the succession of its manifestations, and in the severity and duration of their morbid activity. Many cases of syphilis are mild throughout their whole course, their essential benigTiity being expressed in the character of the surface manifestations, which impress the skin so lightly as to leave no trace. The entire manifestations may be confined to roseola, a slight papular eruption, and^ possibly, implication of the hairy scalp, with slight alopecia, all of which may disappear in a few months, and the patient afterwards exhibit no symptoms. In some cases, mucous patches in the mouth constitute the sole manifestation of the disease. According to Fournier, the secondary symptoms may be so mild and evanescent as to entirely escape the patient's attention.
In other cases, the eruption is generalized and universal, with an almost constant succession of outbreaks. Before one eruption has disappeared, another is in process of development, so that, in one form or another, the eruption is almost constantly present. There is also a great diversity shown in the character of the morbid process. In some cases, the lesions are dry and atrophic throughout the course of the disease. In others, the lesions are moist, with a marked tendency to suppuration. The ulcerative form not infrequently takes on the characters of phagedena. In another type, confined almost exclusively to women, the surface manifestations may be slight or absent, while
the nervous symptoms, in tlie shape of neuralgic pains, asthenia, hysteria, and so forth are pronounced, and constitute the almost entire symptomatology of the secondary stage. In still another class of cases, which Fournier has denominated syphilis secondare tardive, lesions of the erythematous or papular type, often associated with mucous patches, may continue to recur as late as the eleventh or twelfth year of the disease.
IRREGULAR SYPHILIS.
A great many cases of syphilis are characterized by an unusual mode of evolution. This deviation from the typical mode impresses certain peculiarities.upon the eruptive phenomena, and renders it impossible to classify them, as there is an intermingling or blending of secondary and tertiary manifestations, developed without order or regular sequence.
In the form known as "benign rapid syphilis," tubercles and gummata make their appearance before the complete disappearance of the papular or pustular eruptions, and there may be a simultaneous development of secondary and tertiary lesions during the entire course of the disease. The lesions, however, are essentially benign.
In malignant, precocious syphilis, the syphilitic process seems to skip over the superficial structures and to attack at once the deep tissues. Independent of the precocity of this process, the elements of malignancy are found in the violence of the irruption, the multiplicity of the lesions, their ulcerative and rapidly destructive character, and, very frequently, the presence of grave systemic complications. It was at one time supposed that the malignancy of syphilis was possibly due to a greater virulence of the infectious elements. It is now recognized that syphilis takes on a more malignant turn from circumstances connected with the general condition and nutrition of the patient. In other words, differences in the type of syphilis must be sought for, not in the quality or source of the syphilitic virus, but in the character of the soil in which it is implanted. Independent of the constitutional peculiarities of the patient, which may constitute an individual predisposition, there are numerous accidental conditions, of a general or local nature, which may modify the type of the disease. Among these etiological factors may be mentioned mental or bodily overstrain; the use of alcohol; tuberculosis, scrofulosis, and other debilitating conditions. In addition, local causes, traumatisms, various external irritants, the use of tobacco, etc., may aggravate local eruptions.
PARASYPHILIS.
The pathological significance of syphilis has been rendered much graver by the inclusion of a group of affections which are syphilitic in their nature and origin, but which do not respond to the effects of specific treatment. It is claimed that these morbid manifestations are not due to the direct action of the microbe, but result from the action of the syphilo-toxines, which
REINFECTION IN ACQUIRED AND IN HEREDITARY SYPHILIS, 397
impress the tissues in a manner peculiar to these products. It is asserted that the syphilo-toxines have a special and selective action upon the nerve tissue. In addition to functional disorders, such as neurasthenia, hysteria, tabes, general paralysis, epilepsy, leucoplasia-buccalis, and arterio-sclerosis, a large number of the dystrophies and degenerative changes peculiar to hereditary syphilis, are grouped among the parasyphilitic affections. It is also claimed that syphilis furnishes the etiologic soil for the development of many constitutional degenerative changes, leading to tuberculosis, diabetes, and possibly cancer.
It has always been held that one attack of syphilis protects against a second attack. A great number of authentic cases, however, have been recorded by different observers which would seem to establish beyond question the possibility of reinfection. Many such cases have been reported in which there was an interval of only a few years — in one case, two and a half years — ^between the first and second infection. In some cases the surface manifestations of a former attack were plainly evident and coincident with the eruptive phenomena of the second infection.
There is a general consensus of opinion among syphilographers that the subjects of hereditary syphilis gradually acquire a susceptibility to the contagion of syphilis, and are capable of contracting the disease from a new infection. In the hereditary form, it would appear that the immunity against infection gradually loses its force, and in many cases is extinguished at the age of puberty or else about the twenty-first year. There are many authentic cases on record of heredo-syphilitics who have acquired syphilis after the twenty-first year.
MORBID ANATOMY.
In the necessarily restricted limits of this article, an extended account of the pathology of syphilis cannot be entered into. It may be said in a general way that, histologically, syphilis belongs to the class of infectious granulomata. All the lesions of syphilis, irrespective of the stage of its evolution, possess the same histological characters. These consist essentially in an infiltration of round or embryonic cells in the connective tissue of the different organs, producing an inflammatory neoplasm or granuloma. The changes in the blood vessels may be intravascular, constituting endo-arteritis or endophlebitis ; or they may be of perivascular origin. Even in the erythematous syphilide there is, in addition to the hyperemia, a slight cell infiltration permeating and surrounding the Avails of the capillary vessels of the papillae and corium. The spirocheta pallida is found in the walls of the blood vessels and especially abounds in the perivascular infiltration.
In the SYpliilitic papule, which represents the fundamental type of all specific lesions, the process affects principally the papillary body. By extension of the process to the deeper parts of the derma and subcutaneous tissues, the tubercle or gumma is produced. According as the cellular proliferation affects one or another element of the skin, there are differences in the situation, the volume, density, and conformation of the lesions, but they are all united by the lines of histological identity.
A special feature of syphilitic infiltration is its tendency to increase by peripheral extension, so that the borders of a lesion always represent the most recent cell accumulation. Another distinctive feature is that the inflammatory neoplasm or granuloma is incapable of organization and tends to disappear by resorption or purulent dissolution. In certain lesions of the gummatous type there is a tendency to sclerotic or fibrous alterations, with caseous or other forms of gummatous degeneration. In lesions of the secondary type there is a resorption of the infiltration without permanent changes in the vessels. In lesions of the tertiary type the involutionary changes are due to partial or complete obliteration of the vessels and resulting ischemia, with caseous degeneration, the necrotic changes usually beginning in the centre and extending to the periphery.
THE SOURCES AKD MODES OF SYPHILITIC CONTAGION.
Sources of Contagion. — The sources of syphilis from which contagion is commonly acquired are the secretions of the chancre and of certain secondary lesions, more particularly mucous patches. The blood of syphilitics is inoculable, and consequently contagious, during the entire secondary stage. The lymph also is charged with the virulent principle of syphilis. It was formerly thought that the lymph conveyed the syphilitic contagion only when mixed with blood, but our knowledge of vaccinal syphilis shows that the perfectly clear lymph-vaccine vesicle from the arm of a syphilitic subject, without the slightest admixture of blood, is capable of conveying the disease. At what precise moment the blood becomes impregnated with the virulent principle, and at what moment it loses this virulent property, is not definitely known.
It was formerly supposed that none of the physiological secretions, as the milk, saliva, and semen of syphilitics is contagious. But recent developments in our knowledge of the disease has modified these conclusions. The possible contamination of the physiological secretions with the blood of glandular cells should not be overlooked. The tendency is towards the acceptance of the view that the semen may be contagious. Finger's experiments have shown that monkeys may be inoculated with syphilitic semen, with positive results. It is claimed that a positive result has been obtained by Voss, of St. Petersburg, who inoculated a girl with milk from a syphilitic woman. Levaditti, who has found the spirochete in the renal epithelium of syphilitic infants, suggests that even the urine mav contain contagious elements. The saliva of the
cretion of mucous patches in the mouth.
Modes of Contagion. — The virulent principle of syphilis is a fixed contagium, and may be conveyed from one individual to another by either direct or mediate contagion. While syphilis is commonly acquired through the direct inoculative contact of the genital parts in sexual intercourse, it may originate entirely independently of the sexual act. Syphilis may be acquired in the act of kissing from a mucous patch in the mouth. The nipple of a healthy nurse may be infected by the lips of a syphilitic infant, and a healthy infant may be infected from a syphilitic lesion on the breast of a nurse. As rarer examples of direct contagion, may be mentioned digital chancres of the surgeon or accoucheur from contact with syphilitic lesions, the bite of a syphilitic, the operation of skin-grafting, and so forth. Any object upon which the syphilitic virus has been accidentally deposited may serve as the medium of contagion, such as spoons, cups, forks, glasses, pipes, nursing bottles, children's toys, speaking tubes, sponges, surgical instruments, a tongue depressor or a catheter, the speculum, dental instruments, the razor, and objects used in industrial occupations, such as that of glass-blowers.
A healthy woman may serve as the conveyor of contagion without herself being infected, through the intermediary of syphilitic discharges deposited in the vagina by one individual from which the next comer is infected. A healthy wet nurse may contaminate a healthy infant after having given the breast to a syphilitic suckling. In vaccinating a number of persons, one of whom is syphilitic, the point of the lancet may be charged with his blood, and the next one in the series inoculated with syphilis.
PRIMARY SYPHILIS, THE CHANCRE AND BUBO.
Chancre. — Whatever may be the mode of contagion, the first effect of the virus is to develop at its point of entrance into the system a lesion of syphilitic character, designated as the chancre or initial lesion. The incubation period of the chancre is three or four weeks, on an average twenty-six days, although this period may be abbreviated or lengthened. The chancre first appears as a flat papule which increases in size and hardness ; the surface gradually becomes eroded, and furnishes a slight secretion which dries into a scab or crust. Ulceration of the chancre is caused by secondary infection. In most cases it is superficial; but it may become deeper, producing a cupshaped depression or excavated ulcer. In a few days the base of the chancre becomes indurated, and this induration, which constitutes the specific mark of the primary lesion, varies in density from a parchment-like thickening to a cartilaginous hardness. When grasped by the fingers, it feels like a hard, nodular body set into the skin. In many cases, however, the induration may be so slight as to be inappreciable. This is especially the case in chancres of the vulva. After the chancre has attained a certain development, it remains
stationary for two or three weeks, and then heals, leaving a pigmented spot which gradually disappears. The induration often remains after the surface has healed, and may persist for several weeks or months. The total duration of the chancre, when uncomplicated, rarely exceeds four or five weeks.
Chancres vary in form, dimensions, extent, and depth of ulceration ; the character of the induration present and the objective characters may also be modified by the intercurrent processes of inflammation, phagedena, gangrene, and so forth. The most common varieties are the superficial erosion; the ex-ulcerative chancre; and the excavated ulcer, or Hunterian chancre, the clinical difference between them depending upon the greater or less depth of the ulcerative action, and the more or less pronounced character of the induration.
The her pet if or m chancre consists of a cluster of vesicles resembling herpes progenitalis. The vesicles, instead of drying up and disappearing, coalesce, and the base of the ulcer thus formed takes on the characteristic induration.
The mixed chancre presents the objective characters of both chancroid and chancre. If the virus of the chancre and chancroid have been inoculated at the same time, the lesion first presents the characters of the chancroid and later the base of the ulcer becomes specifically indurated. In the mixed chancre there is simply an association without combination of the two viruses. It is worthy of note that the simultaneous presence of the bacillus of Ducrey and the spirocheta pallida has been demonstrated in mixed chancre.
It was formerly thought that the chancre was invariably single, but more careful observation has shown that it is often multiple. Diversity in the form of the chancre is often determined by the anatomical characters of the tissues upon which it happens to develop. Situated in the balano-preputial furrow, it is more apt to be elevated, with a nodular induration. Chancre of the meatus may affect one or both lips of the urethra and extend into the canal. In this situation it is apt to be erosive, and may take on a phagedenic action. Chancre of the urethra or concealed chancre, while comparatively rare, is clinically important, since it is frequently overlooked, and its sero-sanious discharge may be mistaken for that of chronic gonorrhea.
Chancres in the female, from their situation upon parts concealed from observation, and their indolent and painless character, often pass unperceived by the patient. They most frequently occur on the labia majora, extremely rarely upon the vaginal walls, but not infrequently upon the cervix uteri. When situated upon the inner surface of the labia or upon surfaces in contact and kept moist by the natural secretion, they are frequently transformed into mucous patches or condylomata.
primary lesion.
Extragenital Chancres. — The site of the chancre is determined altogether by the conditions of contact. While in the large majority of cases it is situated upon the genital parts, extragenital chancres are comparatively common. They have been found on almost every part of the body, except the soles of the feet; likewise every portion of the mucous surfaces accessible by contact may be the seat of infection, as the lips, tongue, tonsils, or the conjunctival, nasal, urethral, or anal mucous membranes. The three regions which may be regarded as centres of predilection are the perigenital, the mouth, and the breast, simply because these parts are most frequently brought into immediate contact with the infectious virus.
Labial Chancre. — Chancre of the lip is usually single, and occurs most frequently on the lower lip. Owing to the irritation to which the lip is subjected in taking food and other causes, chancre in this situation may develop into a hypertrophic form, simulating a malignant growth.
Chancre of the Tongue. — This is usually situated on the anterior third of the dorsal surface. It may occupy the side of the tongue, which frequently becomes ulcerated and fissured so that it may be mistaken for a beginning epithelioma.
Chancre of the Tonsil. — Chancre of the tonsil occurs much more frequently than was formerly supposed, as many such cases were not identified. It is usually attended by considerable redness, swelling and inflammatory exudation.
ISTasal chancre is comparatively rare. The contagion may be effected by means of the fingers, instruments, penholders, and so forth. A large number of cases of nasal chancre have been caused by catheterization of the Eustachian tube by contaminated catheters.
Chancre of the eyelid, affecting either the ciliary border or the conjunctiva, has been observed. Contagion may be effected indirectly by the fingers, or by contaminated towels ; or directly by coughing during the course of an examination of the throat of a person affected with secondary syphilis.
Chancre of the face is most often caused by kissing or by the use of infected shaving utensils. Occurring on the bearded portion of the face, it is frequently mistaken for ringworm, or even for epithelioma.
Chancres of the nipples most commonly occur from contamination through suckling a syphilitic infant. They are more apt to be multiple in this region than upon any other part of the body.
Digital chancres have a special interest for professional men, as they themselves are the most frequent sufferers from them. They are most commonly acquired by digital examination or manipulation in obstetrical, gyn-
ecological, or surgical work. In Fournier's statistics of forty-nine cases of digital chancre, thirty occurred in physicians. Their gi-eat frequency among professional men emphasizes the importance of using great circumspection in making vaginal examinations and in operations upon syphilitic subjects. They are most often contracted from mucous patches of the vulva or from mixed infections or concealed lesions in persons not known to be syphilitic. ]\Iany physicians called to a woman in labor, for example, are accustomed to make a digital examination without inspection of the genital parts, or without any knowledge of the condition of the patient's health. Cuts, abrasions, hang-nail, eczematous eruptions, or any break of the epidermis from whatever cause, may be a point of entry for the syphilitic virus.
Bubo. — Another phase of the primary stage of syphilis is marked by the indolent enlargement of the nearest lymph glands in the region of the chancre and sometimes the lymphatic vessels leading thereto, which may be traced in the form of thickened cords, constituting the so-called lymphangitis of syphilis. Induration of the lymphatic glands is the most constant and, from a diagnostic point, the most valuable sign of syphilitic infection. The process usually begins in the first or early in the second week after the appearance of the chancre. The glands in closest anatomical relation to the chancre, whatever its situation, are always the first involved. Usually one gland is first affected, and later a number of contiguous glands undergo the same process, forming a characteristic chain. The bubo of syphilis is firm, easily movable imderneath the skin, not painful on pressure, and without inflammatory complication. The three specific marks of mobility, hardness, and indolence serve to differentiate syphilitic glands from any other morbid process.
Diagnosis of Chancre. — The diagnosis of the initial lesion of syphilis is often a matter of extreme difficulty, and is not possible within the first few days, before it has become the seat of induration. The discovery of the spirocheta pallida in the secretions or smear from the chancre promises to facilitate an early diagnosis, but it must be borne in mind that while the presence of this organism is decisive of syphilis, the failure to find it does not exclude the disease. The result of an examination may be negative, owing to imperfection in the technic of the process.
The three most important elements upon which the diagnosis of a chancre is based are the period of its incubation, induration of its base, and specific induration of the neighboring lymph glands. Each of these signs may, however, have a deceptive significance. The date of infection cannot always be determined, the induration may be inflammatory, and the glands may be sympathetically swollen. So many sources of error are possible that the most experienced physician cannot always pronounce positively upon the syphilitic character of a venereal sore until the appearance of general symptoms.
DIAGNOSIS AND PEOGfNOSIS OF CHANCRE. 403
appear spontaneously after a comparatively short duration; moreover, they are multiple, while chancre is usually single. In herpetiform chancre, the contour of the lesion is more circular, the base becomes indurated, the border thickened and prominent, and the characteristic glandular complication invariably follows.
been mistaken for chancre.
In the great majority of cases where a patient presents herself with a sore upon the genitals, the diagnosis lies between chancre and chancroid. The differential features are : the period of incubation ; the single or multiple character of the sores ; the depth of ulceration ; and the peculiar punched-out ulcer, with its uneven, w^orm-eaten floor, undermined edges, and abundant purulent secretion of the chancroid, in contrast with the smooth surface and thin, sero-sanious discharge of the chancre. The induration of the chancre is sharply defined, while that of the chancroid is soft and shades off into the surrounding tissues. The bubo of chancre is almost invariably present, with enlarged glands several in number, hard, indolent, movable, and rarely suppurating. The bubo of chancroid occurs in only about one-third of the cases. It is usually single, inflamed, painful, and often suppurating. Confrontation, when practical, certainly affords a valuable indication, but its trustworthiness is impeached in all cases where promiscuous intercourse has been indulged in. In view of the frequent occurrence of mixed chancre, however strongly clinical probabilities point in favor of the chancroidal character of a venereal sore, the physician is not justified in positively assuring his patient that it may not be followed by constitutional accidents.
The diagnosis of extragenital chancre is rarely made in its developmental stage, partly because the suspicion of the physician or patient of its possible venereal nature is not aroused. The chief diagnostic features are, the prolonged persistence of the lesion during several weeks without undergoing marked changes, the induration at its base, and the enlargement of the nearest lymph glands.
Digital chancres are especially difficult of diagnosis, as they often present only a brownish or dusky-red infiltration, with a slightly indurated base with no characteristic features.
Prognosis of Chancre. — The prognosis of the chancre, viewed in its aspect of a local lesion, is always favorable. It is essentially self -limited, with a tendency to spontaneous cure, and healing generally without a cicatrix. When complicated with phagedena, gangrene, phimosis, or other inflammatory conditions, the local consequences may be more serious.
The prognostic significance of extragenital chancres is more unfavorable, as they are subject to numerous sources of irritation. Chancres of the lip, tongue, and pharynx are exposed to multitudinous causes of irritation from contact with food, spices, hot liquid, and so forth, while the constant movement of the parts in talking and swallowing interferes with the rest necessary to
permit of healing. Chancres of the tonsil, especially, have a bad prognosis, as the structure of the tonsil is favorable to syphilitic infiltration and its crypts constitute favorable breeding places for pyogenic cocci. Not infrequently, chancres of the tonsil are accompanied with malaise, fever, and other signs of constitutional disturbance, due doubtless to secondary infection. Chancres of the fingers, especially those of the panaris type, are proverbially painful, and apt to be attended with severe glandular complications. The pain is readily explicable from the character of the tissues involved, the structures being dense and resisting and the nail-bed endowed with exquisite sensibility. The digital chancre is subject to numberless causes of irritation, from pressure, painful contact, and so forth, besides being exposed to secondary infection from pyogenic germs. The septic process thus set up is not infrequently attended with severe lymphangitis, pyemia, and other complications.
Treatment. — Since the chancre has a tendency to heal spontaneously, expectant treatment alone is necessary in the majority of cases. Rest, cleanliness, and an aseptic dressing are usually the only measures indicated. The surface may be dusted with calomel, zinc oxide, or xeroform. When there is a tendency to suppurative action, mild astringents and the use of a black wash may be employed. In inflammatory conditions, with a tendency to gangrene, solutions of permanganate of potash and a mild lotion of chloride of zinc, or wet boracic acid dressings, are indicated.
Chancres in particular situations, as in the meatus, are best treated with bougies of iodoform or tents smeared with mercurial ointment. Cases of concealed chancre, with phimosis, require irrigations through a small flat-nozzled syringe, inserted under the prepuce. We^k solutions of bichloride of mercury or silver nitrate may be employed. The voluminous indurations, which sometimes remain after cicatrization, undergo spontaneous resorption, but their involution may be hastened by the internal medication of mercury. The induration of the lymphatic ganglia rarely requires local treatment. When they become painful from peri-glandular inflammation, the use of mercurial or belladonna ointment, to induce resolution, is of service.
Abortive Treatment. — The question of the possibility of destroying the syphilitic virus at its point of entrance, and thus preventing infection of the general system, has been settled by the test of clinical experience. Abortive treatment by excision or destructive cauterization of the chancre is condemned by its clinical results. Brandes excised a chancre ten hours after its appearance, without preventing secondary syphilis. ISTiesser stated that in a macaque, or monkey, in which the inoculated part was excised eight hours after inoculation, syphilis developed in the normal way. Experiments by Metchnikoff and Roux determined that the period of localization of the virus does not exceed twenty-four hours.
Of not less scientific interest and certainly of as much practical value as the discovery of the microorganism, the causative agent of syphilis, has been the development of accurate laboratory serological methods for determining the existence of the disease in suspected individuals. The employment of serum diagnosis has taught us that syphilis is even more protean in its clinical manifestations than had hitherto been suspected. It has shown furthermore that many persons supposedly cured still suffer with the disease. It has offered a means of early diagnosis and of accurate determination of the results of treatment. It has thrown as much light upon the diagnosis of syphilis as the Widal reaction has upon typhoid fever, and, furthermore, it has surpassed the latter method in indicating the results of treatment.
The medical profession owes this valuable laboratory test to Wassermann, E^eisser, and Brueck, who published their well-known paper in the Deutsch. med. WocJienschr., May, 1906, Vol. 32, p. 745. To Hideyo Noguchi, of the Eockefeller Institute for Medical Research, must be accorded great credit for simplifying the test and clearly putting before the practising physicians the methods of its use, (" Serum Diagnosis of Syphilis.")
Technic. — The test consists, first, in placing in a test tube a definite quantity of the suspected person's blood serum, with a definite quantity of an alcoholic extract of a syphilitic organ, notably the liver ; second, adding to this a definite quantity qf fresh guinea-pig blood serum and allowing this mixture to incubate a little while at a temperature of 37° C. ; thirdly, adding a definite quantity of immunized and inactivated rabbit's blood serum, and lastly, adding a known and definite quantity of sheep's red blood corpuscles in a salt solution suspension and then incubating at 37° C. for two hours.
If the suspected serum used is not syphilitic, there will be a complete hemolysis of the red blood corpuscles ; that is to say, they will go into solution and the hemoglobin will be diffused throughout the mixture. If, however, the suspected serum is syphilitic, no such reaction occurs, and the blood corpuscles remain intact.
The phenomenon is dependent on the fact that two kinds of substances must be present in all blood serum to cause it to hemolize red blood corpuscles ; these are called " amboceptor " and " complement," two groups of bodies whose chemical natures are unknown. Complement bodies occur in all fresh blood sera. They readily undergo destruction at a temperature of 56° C, and likewise at room temperature in two or three days. An amboceptor is not normally present in all sera, but can always be produced by injecting an animal with red blood corpuscles of another species. Such injections produce specific amboceptors for the corpuscles injected. The amboceptor is very stable, resists the temperature of 56° C, and remains in a serum kept on ice for a year. If a serum containing the complement alone is brought in contact with red blood corpus-
cles there is no action between the two substances. If amboceptor is brought in contact with its specific red blood corpuscle antigen there is an immediate union of the two. Blood corpuscles so united are spoken of as sensitized corpuscles. If thej are then brought in contact with sera containing complement the cells are immediately hemolized. Xeither the amboceptor nor the complement bodies can hemolize unless thej act together and in unison.
Of the five factors of the Wassermann test, three constitute what is called the hemolytic system. These are, the sheep corpuscles, the inactivated antisheep rabbit serum, which contains no complement but abundant amboceptor, and the fresh serum of the guinea pig, which contains complement. The other two factors are the suspected serum and the extract of the syphilitic organ.
"When a syphilitic serum is brought in contact with a syphilitic extract of the liver, as in Wassermann's test, there results a chemical combination, and this combination possesses the property of fixing the complement which exists in all fresh blood sera. It is upon this peculiar property of the syphilitic antigen and antibody that the test relies. Neither the syphilitic serum alone nor the syphilitic organ extract has this property. "We have said that complement is necessary to hemolysis. If, therefore, we combine a suspected serum with a syphilitic organ extract, and then add complement as it occurs in giiinea-pig blood, all of the complement will be taken up by the combination. Therefore, when we add the sheej:) corpuscles and the antisheep rabbit serum, there is no hemolysis, because there is no complement present to cause it. On the other hand, if the suspected seriun is not syphilitic, there is nothing present which will fix the complement of the giiinea-pig blood. It is, therefore, free to act with the amboceptor in the antisheep rabbit's serum, and there results hemolysis of the blood corpuscles of the sheep which are added.
It is not necessary to give in detail the technic of this somewhat complicated laboratory procedure. Many different kinds of combinations have been suggested, none perhaps so accurate, however, as this original Wassermann test.
XogTichi uses normal human corpuscles in place of the sheep's corpuscle, and furthermore, makes it simpler to employ the various essential factors of the test. Every physician is advised to read Xognchi's excellent analysis of his method.
In the actual carrying out of the test one must always employ two controls, one with a serum which is definitely syphilitic and one with a serum which is definitely nonsyphilitic. It is by this means that the practitioner sometimes gets the report of suspicious, suggestive, and so forth.
It cannot be too much emphasized that the practical carrying out of the work must be done by accurate quantitative methods, difficult for the general practitioner. It is simple for the physician to secure the blood serum just as for the AYidal reaction and send it to the nearest man prepared to make the test.
TVhen positive, the test is almost specific for syphilis. It has occasionally been noted in carcinoma and in scarlet fever. It occurs in a high jjercentage of leprosy and in some cases of yaws. Xone of these conditions are likely to
a positive reaction is rare.
An immense literature is available, giving statistics as to the percentage of positive Wassermann reactions in the various stages of syphilis. L. S. Schmidt {Jour, of Med. Assoc, for i^ov. 18, 1911, Vol 57, p. 1658) gives his own statistics, viz. :
Cerebrospinal syphilis 71
The reaction appears in the first week of the initial lesion in about twentyfive per cent of the cases. In the fourth week the percentage may have reached seventy per cent. During the secondary period a very high percentage of cases give positive reactions, practically all congenital cases do so. In cases thoroughly treated with mercury, the reaction disappears in a considerable proportion of the cases permanently ; in others it recurs after varying intervals ; in some, particularly the congenital types, it cannot be made to disappear,
Salvarsan has less power in determining the disappearance of the reaction even in cases where it gives most marked betterment of the clinical manifestations. However, in some cases a single dose may lead to the permanent disappearance of the reaction.
The employment of this reaction indicates that practically all prostitutes have syphilis ; it shows that at least fifty per cent of the mothers of hereditary syphilitic children, although they have never shown any signs of the disease, have it in a latent form.
A negative Wassermann reaction is not of so much value as a positive, and this is particularly true if the patient has been under treatment. It is more true of cases of tertiary and primary than of secondary syphilis. In acute secondary syphilis nearly all cases are positive.
The reaction is of great assistance in the treatment of cases because our present view is that no patient who presents a positive Wassermann reaction is cured. There should be, therefore, in every instance, examinations made at stated intervals until it is positively known that the reaction is permanently absent.
To sum up, the Wassermann test should be made in every case of suspected syphilis, and applied during the treatment as a means of determining whether a cure has resulted. It is thus possible to individualize the cases in their treatment.
SALVARSAN.
Salrarsan is an arsenical preparation, the proper name of wliicli is dioxydiamedo-arseno benzol, prepared under the direction of Prof. Paul Ehrlich by his chemist, Dr. Berthheim, and first put in the hands of a number of highgrade clinicians in September, 1909. The newspapers of the entire civilized world took up the question of this remedy, and long accounts of it occurred in a number of popular magazines, heralding it as the most marvelous drug of the ages, and attributing to it the power of completely curing syphilis in all of its stages by a single dose. Unhappily, this enthusiastic estimation of its value has not been proven by experience; it remains, however, a most valuable remedy, relieving certain cases of syphilis with great ease which resist mercury and potassium iodide. It also acts efficiently in some other cases.
The energy and determination shoT\Ti by Ehrlich and his collaborators in the preparation of salvarsan will always be held up as a model of scientific work. The very name 606 represents the number of this preparation in a long series of experiments made to find a specific for the disease.
Salvarsan is dispensed as a light yellow powder in a closed glass capsule, from which the air has been excluded and replaced by wood alcohol vapor. It is an acid substance and readily combining with an alkali and dissolving freely in water. Hata, experimenting with rabbits, showed that ten milligrams per kilo was sufficient to kill all the spirochetes in a single dose, and, furthermore, that this was only one-seventh of the lethal dose. In man a dose of one gTamme or more has been without bad effect. In the early months of its use the average dose was .3 grammes = 5 gTains ; the average dose now is .5 grammes = 3 grains. In the earliest reports it was thought that the first dose must be large enough to destroy all the organisms, and that if they were not destroyed by the first dose they became immunized against the salvarsan. This has since been proven not to be the case.
When injected into the body, salvarsan appears in the urine in about two hours, and may continue to be present, according to ITeuser (Med. Klin., April 9, 1911), in some cases for from three to nine months. When injected subcutaneously or intramuscularly, a large quantitity may lodge at the point of injection. When injected into the blood direct, as Bornstein (Deutsch. med. ^Vocllenscllr., Jan. 19, 1911) showed on animals, it is deposited principally in the liver, spleen and kidneys.
Methods of Giving Salvarsan. — Salvarsan has been given hypodermically, intramuscularly, and intravenously. The first method has been entirely abandoned owing to the pain, tendency to infection, and other troubles. The second method is still much used, but has marked disadvantages, in that a large part of the salvarsan frequently remains unchanged at the point of injection, leaving painful lumps which may remain for months ; in every case also there is much pain associated with this method. The best way is to inject it intravenouslv. A number of different technics have been used for the intra-
SALVAKSAlSr. 409
venous injections, all of them uniting in the common characteristic of giving the dose greatly diluted. The method recommended by Keidel and Geraghty (Journ. Amer. Med. Asso., Nov. 18, 1911, Vol. 57, p. 1660) is as follows: Dissolve the salvarsan in 100 c.c. of sterile salt solution; make alkaline by adding from 1.2 to 1.3 c.c. of four times normal sodium hydroxide solution; then add normal salt solution to bring the total value up to 240 c.c. When made in this way each 40 c.c. of the solution contains .1 grain of salvarsan. The injection is made by means of a glass syringe provided with a two-way stopcock. The needle of this syringe is forced directly into one of the superficial veins of the forearm near the elbow. This can be made prominent by placing a tourniquet around the arm. The dose should be about .5 grammes in the average case.
After this dose is given the patient should be put to bed and kept there, we think, for a day or two ; in many cases, however, the salvarsan is given and the patient allowed to immediately go home. Often there is a rise of temperature for a day or two after the dose. This is particularly noticeable if there are numerous and active lesions at the time the remedy is given. The remedy is contraindicated in, first, serious nonsyphilitic diseases of the retina and optic nerve ; secondly, severe diseases of the respiratory and circulatory system ; thirdly, in all cases where the patient is very low or in bad health due to other diseases than syphilis. It is indicated, first, in all cases where mercury cannot be tolerated ; secondly, in all cases where mercury has not cured ; third, in all primary cases ; fourth, in all cases which show a persistent Wassermann reaction in spite of treatment with mercury and potassium iodide.
As a general principle it has been observed that the results are truly remarkable in the primary cases and in these secondary cases with lesions on the mucous membrane. Some of these heal as if by magic. The results have been likewise notable in some of the cases where the patients are in very bad general health owing to the disease. Appended are extracts taken from the article of Keidel and Geraghty referred to. These extracts are a fair summary of the experiences of most clinicians who have employed the remedy. It is a great boon in the treatment of syphilis, but does not replace the remedies already in use. In some cases it acts where mercury will not and in others is inferior to the mercury.
Drs. Keidel and Geraghty say :
" Of the seventy cases treated those in the primary stage with chancres of from one to three weeks' duration gave the best results. Only one dose was given in each case and the sore healed proinptly. The results to date in this class of cases have been particularly gratifying, inasmuch as no manifestations of the disease have appeared, although periods of from two to five months have elapsed since the treatment.
" Another group of cases in which the results seem to be very satisfactory is that in which the patients have received the drug following a vigorous course of mercury for periods of from a few months to a year with the disease under
control at the time. Xone of the cases in this gronp have recnrred clinically, and in all that we have been able to follow serologically, the Wassermann reaction has remained negative. Some of the cases have now been under observation for six months.
" Cases with secondary or florid syphilis, however, although all of the lesions and clinical manifestations have promptly disappeared following the treatment and in many cases the Wassermann has become negative, almost invariably recur at a later date.
" In cases with the late recurring secondary and tertiary lesions, or in which more or less diffuse syphilitic processes are present in the body, an absolute eradication of the disease with one or more doses of the drug can scarcely be expected. In none of our cases of this type have we been able to accomplish permanent residts with salvarsan alone, although a marked beneficial effect on the lesions has almost always been observed.
" In almost every case in which visible lesions were present complete disappearance followed the injection, and marked improvement in the general condition of the patient was a constant feature. In all cases refractory to mercury, the response to salvarsan has been prompt and striking. The drug is indispensable for the treatment of patients who do not tolerate mercury. A study of our statistics does not warrant us in expecting a complete cure of syphilis and absolute immunity from recurrences in the majority of cases after the use of only one or two injections. A small number of cases which have been followed by us for four or five months without recurrences justifies the belief that one injection of salvarsan will effect a complete cure in some cases. Salvarsan is without doubt of equal value with a long course of mercury and potassium iodide in the cure of lesions. It has, however, the very great advantage of simplicity of administration and causes the lesions to disappear with great rapidity. Moreover, it saves the patient from the damage done by the luetic toxin during the period necessary for the control of the disease by means of mercury.
" We want particularly to emphasize the fact that the use of salvarsan has passed beyond the experimental stage. One should no longer make it his object to see how much good can be done with one or more injections of this drug, but rather of how much value it can be made to assume in the treatment of syphilis when combined with other drugs.
" The superior ability of salvarsan over mercury to rajDidly kill the Spirochetie pallid^e in the tissues has been demonstrated beyond question, and salvarsan has therefore been indicated in every case of syphilis, when not specially contraindicated, even in those cases in which it seems advisable to supplement it with the subsequent use of mercury.
'" From our experience at present, we strongly advocate a vigorous course of mercury following the injection of salvarsan continued for about six months, and then possibly followed by another dose of salvarsan. In the primary cases and those already well under control with mercury, it seems fairly probable that salvarsan may be sufiicient to eradicate the disease,"
SECONDARY SYPHILIS. THE SYPHILIDES.
The eruptions upon the skin and mucous membranes produced by syphilis are termed syphilides. While the macule, the papule, the pustule, and the tubercle represent the four fundamental types of syphilitic lesion, the combination or blending together of elementary forms has led to the necessity of using compound names, such as erythemo-papular, papulo-pustular, papulosquamous, pustulo-crustaceous, tuberculo-nlcerous, in order to define their anatomical characters with greater accuracy. Some writers recognize the vesicular or bullous syphilide, but the vesicular element is usually accidental, due to the intensity of the inflammatory process, and of limited duration. The bullous syphilide cannot be considered a distinct type, since lesions which begin as bullae rapidly undergo a purulent transformation; it is an exceedingly rare manifestation of acquired syphilis, found almost exclusively in the hereditary form.
General Characteristics.- — Although syphilitic skin diseases consist of the same eruptive elements as are met with in other forms of cutaneous disease, yet they are impressed with certain peculiarities which reveal more or less distinctly their specific origin, and often enable the skilled physician to recognize their nature at a glance. These peculiarities are associated with their mode of evolution, their polymorphism, color, configuration, gTOuping, the character of the scales, crusts, cicatrices, the absence of pain or other subjective symptoms. The distinctive features are especially manifest in their raw-ham or coppery color ; their symmetrical distribution in secondary syphilis ; and their tendency to form circles or segments, giving rise to the characteristic crescentic, serpiginous, and horseshoe shapes of the ulcerative lesions.
Varieties. — The early eruptions of syphilis, like the exanthemata of other blood poisons, may be distributed over the whole surface of the body, yet each eruptive form manifests a predilection for certain regions: the erythematous syphilide for the chest, trunk, and flexor surf aces ; the papular syphilide for the face, brow, margin of hairy scalp, back of neck, head, and limbs ; the squamous syphilide for the palmar and plantar surfaces; the pustular syphilide for the parts covered with hair; the ecthymatous eruptions most commonly affect the limbs, and principally the lower; tubercular lesions are found everywhere; moist papules have a predilection for the natural orifices, as the commissure of the lips, the entrance to the nares, the genital and anal folds, or any place in which the skin is thin and delicate and exposed to moisture and friction.
The apruriginous character of the syphilitic eruption constitutes a valuable differential sign. The patient may be unconscious of its existence, so far as subjective sensations are concerned.
The Erythematous Syphilide, variously designated as the macular syphilide, roseola syphilitica, etc., is the earliest as well as one of the commonest cutaneous manifestations of syphilis, appearing, usually, from seveii
to eight "weeks after the chancre. It probably occurs in nearly all cases, but from the absence of subjective sensations and the peculiarity of its localization upon parts habitually covered by the clothing, it may entirely escape observation. The eruption first appears on the sides of the chest and abdomen, less commonly on the limbs, and rarely on the face. It consists of rounded or oval spots, the color being at first bright red or pink, and disappearing upon pressure; later it deepens into a yellowish-brown pigmentation, unaffected by pressure. The spots vary in number and degree of coloration; sometimes they are few and scattered, at other times thickly disseminated, like the macules of measles. They may be so pale as to be hardly perceptible, giving the skin a faintly marbled aspect ; at other times they are vividly prominent.
The Maculo-papular Syphilide is an exaggerated or advanced development of the macular variety. The eruptive spots are slightly elevated, situated upon an erythematous base, and sometimes covered with fine desquamating scales. Occasionally, one or more larger papules make their appearance in the centre of the erythematous patch. After its complete involution, syphilitic roseola may recur a number of times during the first or even the second year of the disease. With each recurrence the spots are fewer in number, as well as larger, and paler in appearance.
Diagnosis. — S y p h i 1 i t i c roseola may be differentiated from simple roseola by the absence of febrile symptoms and itching, and by the coincidence of other signs of syphilis, such as the history of a chancre and the presence of enlarged glands.
The Macular Syphilide often resembles closely the eruption of measles. The characteristic development of the latter upon the forehead and back of the ears, the suffusion of the eyes, and the catarrhal symptoms are sufficient to make the diagnosis. A copaibal rash is sometimes mistaken for syphilitic roseola, but in the former the spots are redder, more rounded and discrete, and situated especially about the joints and on the backs of the hands. They are also characterized by an intense burning and itching. In its declining stage syphilitic roseola may be mistaken for pityriasis versicolor. The latter affection is easily differentiated by its yellowish-brown color, and the fact that the pigmentation may be removed by scraping or washing, while the syphilitic spots are unaffected by these means. Pityriasis rosea has also been mistaken for syphilitic roseola. The spots of the former are the seat of active desquamation, while the latter never desquamate. Erythema multiforme may be distinguished from syphilitic roseola as the eruption is more discrete, purplish in color, and chiefly affects the wrists, ankles, and limbs.
The Pigmentary Syphilide. — This comparatively rare manifestation of syphilis, which is also known as leu coder ma syphiliticum, may occur in the early secondary stage or as late as the third year. It is much more common in women than in men. Its favorite, though not exclusive seat, is the sides of the neck, sometimes the back of the neck and shoulders. It very rarely occurs on the face or extremities. It consists of irreo'ularlv rounded circles or
DIAGKOSIS OF THE SYPHILIDES. 413
islets, of a brownish color, isolated or confluent, not elevated above tlic surface, and not scaly. The true character of the pigmentary syphilide, and its relation to the syphilitic process, has not been definitely determined. It is probably due to some localized abnormality in the distribution of pigment matter, producing a loss of pigment in spots and a hyperchromia of the intermacular and surrounding spaces. The duration of this syphilide is usually prolonged. It is apparently uninfluenced by treatment.
While the nature and mode of production of the pigmentary syphilide is somewhat obscure, its presence is regarded as pathognomonic of syphilis. It must be disting-uished from uterine chloasma, which rarely affects the neck; from Addison's disease, in which the pigmentation is more diffused ; from vitiligo, in which the leucoderma is more pronounced, and in which there is an absence of hyperchromia which characterizes the pigmentary syphilide.
The Papular Syphilide. — The papular syphilide in the extent of its distribution, the variety of its lesions, its prolonged continuance, and its pathological significance, is the most important of the group of secondary eruptions. It usually makes its appearance from the third to the fourth month. It may immediately succeed, or develop coincidently with, the erythematous form, but its appearance may be postponed by early specific treatment. Recurring crops of the eruption may appear during the entire secondary stage, and even in the early tertiary stage; it often merges by insensible gradations into the tubercular form. The eruption consists of distinctly circumscribed, solid elevations, from the size of a pin-head to that of a lentil, and sometimes considerably larger, resting upon an erythematous base. In form they may be either prominent or flat. When the papule attains its full development, it is covered by a dry, shining skin, exceedingly tense over the surface from the cellular infiltration ; this, upon desquamating, forms a sort of collar of broken, partly detached epidermis around the periphery. The papules undergo involution, and the color, which at first is bright red, changes to a purplish-red, and then gradually fades out. According to their form, volume, and other objective characters, papular lesions have been classified as follows: the lenticular papule, the miliary papule, the squamous papule, and the moist papule. This division does not imply four distinct varieties, but indicates the varying form which the papular eruption assumes, according to its location and the mode of its evolution.
The Lenticular Syphilide. — This eruptive form is the most common and characteristic of the secondary manifestations of syphilis. The papules are rounded, oval, and slightly elevated, the lesion gaining in superficial extent what it loses in height. The surface is at first smooth and flattened; later it presents a depression in its centre, the desquamating epidermis forming a fringe. In certain localities the papule may attain the dimensions of a twenty-five or fifty-cent piece, and is then known as the nummular syphilide. The larger lesions present a firm, well-defined border, with a smooth, plain surface. Sometimes the margins are elevated with a shallow depression in the centre, which
The Miliary Papular Syphilide or Lichenoid Syphilide. — The small or miliary syphilide is perhaps the most infrequent variety of the papular form of eruption, representing a proportion of less than ten per cent. It consists essentially of an infiltration of the follicular structures. The infiltration is confined to the apex, and does not involve the base of the papule. The form is that of minute, conical or pointed projections, the size of a pin-head or millet-seed, gTouped in circles or segments of circles, each group consisting of from ten to forty lesions. These efflorescent patches are distributed over large surfaces, principally invading the trunk and limbs, back of shoulders, and sternal region. In another variety of the miliary syphilide, the papules are larger, more rounded, less numerous, and not so characteristically gTouped. This syphilide is characterized by being exceedingly persistent and rebellious to treatment.
As the name implies, the small papular syphilide or lichen syphiliticus presents certain resemblances to lichen planus. In lichen planus the papules are smooth, shiny, flat, and often have a central depression, giving them a slightly umbilicated appearance ; they have a tendency to group in placards. It is, moreover, quite pruriginous. When the miliary papules are closely aggregated and desquamate abundantly, they bear a resemblance to a diffused patch of psoriasis. Minute examination shows that the syphilitic papules are not confluent, but simply coherent at their bases, while the psoriatic papules are coalescent and the surface of the psoriatic patch is more or less uniformly covered with large scales.
The Papulo-squamous Syphilide. — An important modification of the papular type of syphilis is characterized by a marked proliferation of the epidermal elements, which collect on the surface in the form of dry scales, more or less adherent, simulating the appearance of psoriasis. The mildest manifestations of this squamous process are in the form of minute furfuraceous or branny scales, termed syphilitic pityriasis. A more pronounced development of the scale is often seen in the larger and more prominent lesions of the late secondary stage. A single papule may enlarge, or several papules may coalesce, forming diffuse patches, usually crescentic or circinate in form, covered with dry, adherent scales, and giving a most deceptive resemblance to patches of psoriasis.
In making a diagnosis between the two it must be remembered that the scales of a syphilitic lesion are thicker than those of psoriasis ; they are usually of a dirty-white color, and lack the glistening, silvery-white appearance and stratified formation of psoriatic scales. When the scales are detached from a syphilitic papule, the subjacent infiltration appears deeper, elevated at the border, and with a reddish-brown centre. When the psoriatic patch is denuded of scales, there is presented a hyperemic surface, with a number of bleeding points.
Circinate Papular Sypliilide in certain locations, wlien covered with yellowish, greasy epithelial scales, may present a strong resemhlance to the annular patches of seborrhea. They are differentiated rather by their history or the presence of other symptoms of syphilis than by differences in the objective characters of the lesions.
The Palmar and Plantar Syphilides. — Syphilitic papules upon the palms and soles present certain modifications in form and aspect, due to the thickness of the epidermis of these regions. They derive a special clinical interest and importance from the fact that they bear such a close resemblance to the lesions of psoriasis and eczema of the palms and soles that it is difficult to differentiate them. They may develop in the first, second, or third year of syphilis, or their chronological limit may be extended to five or ten years, or even longer. In the earlier period they are usually bilateral, later they are more often unilateral. The later lesions often appear in the form of flat, livid spots, the surface of which desquamates and comes off in scales. The papules may coalesce and form infiltrated patches, usually crescentic or circinate in form, with a tendency to heal in the centre while advancing at the periphery. In the natural furrows of the palms and fingers deep creases or fissures are apt to occur, occasioning much pain and inconvenience, which is aggravated by their exposure to pressure, friction, and other causes of irritation.
The designation of these syphilides as palmar and plantar psoriasis would indicate a marked resemblance or identity of the objective characters of the lesions. Psoriasis is rarely, if ever, limited to these regions, but when found there is always associated with the development of the disease upon other parts of the body. A psoriasiform eruption, limited to the palms, is almost pathognomonic of syphilis. The differentiation from eczema is exceedingly difficult and often impossible. Syphilis generally begins in the middle of the palm and spreads centrifugally. The coppery wall of infiltration which marks its advancing border is irregular and scalloped in outline ; its outer edge is sharply defined and terminates abruptly. Eczema, on the contrary, usually begins on the wrist or the root of the palm or fingers, or upon the dorsum of the hand, where syphilis is rarely found. Eczematous infiltration is more uniform and evenly distributed and the infiltration does not terminate so abruptly. Eczema is further distinguished by severe itching, which is absent in syphilis.
The Moist Papular Syphilide. — This type of eruption is found where the skin is delicate and moist, or in the natural creases, where contiguous surfaces come in contact. The epidermis becomes macerated and eroded, and there is a transformation of the dry into the moist papule. Moist, cutaneous papules may occur upon the genital or anal regions, on the breast of the female, the nates, and groin, between the toes, or wherever the skin is fine and humid. They are laden with the poison of syphilis and are ultra contagious. The spirocheta pallida is found, often abundantly, in the scrapings from these lesions. The condyloma latum is especially common in the vulvar region,
and also occurs in men on the scrotum and perineum. Tlie papules often fuse together and form large placards which may extend to the perigenital parts, often forming large cauliflower gTOwths, with fissures and ulcerations. The spirocheta j^^Hi^a is found abundantly in these condylomatous patches. On the mucous surface of the vulva the moist syphilide is seen in the form of erosions and mucous patches. They possess a special importance from the fact that they are the most frequent sources of the syphilitic contagion.
Condylomata lata are apt to be confounded with the vegetations of gon-, orrheal, chancroidal, and other irritating conditions of a non-syphilitic nature. The acuminate vegetations from chancroid or gonorrhea are more apt to be distinctly pedunculate, with a branched dendritic character of gTowth, and a more distinctly warty surface.
The Pustular Syj)hilide. — This type is more properly termed papulo-jDustular, as it represents an advanced stage of the papule. In some cases pustulation occurs so rapidly that the primary papular form is not distinguishable. Exceptionally, the eruption may begin as distinct pustules. The socalled vesicular syphilide may also be grouped under this division as the vesicular element is rapidly transformed into pus. While the macular and papular eruptions usually precede the pustular syphilide, the latter may exceptionally occur as the initial eruption. The early presence of the pustular eruption indicates a bad type of syphilis, since it is an expression of a depraved state of the patient's constitution. The more superficial forms are ranged among the secondary manifestations. The deeper and more destructive forms of a pustulo-ulcerous character may develop coincidently with distinctively tertiary lesions. Malignant syphilis is usually manifested in precociously developed pustular lesions.
In the acne-form syphilide the follicular structures, sebaceous glands and hair follicles are chiefly aflected. Suppuration takes place wathin the follicles. The lesions are of various sizes, from that of a pin-head to larger, situated upon a reddened infiltrated base. Upon the scalp this syphilide frequently constitutes one of the earliest of the secondary manifestations, but from its location it is frequently overlooked. It may occur upon the forehead, back of neck, shoulders, buttocks, and outer aspects of the limbs.
The acne-form syphilide bears a close resemblance to acne vulgaris. It may be distingaiished by the smaller, more uniform size of the papules, their dark, coppery color, and the absence of comedones ; the coexistence of other signs of syphilis is also a differentiating feature.
The variola-form syphilide occurs in the form of dull-red, infiltrated spots, the epidermis over which becomes distended, with a serous or sero-purulent fluid. In a few days they become flattened and depressed in the centre, with the formation of an adherent crust, formed by the drying of the purulent elements. It especially affects the face, trunk, and limbs.
This syphiloderm has an additional clinical importance from its resemblance to varicella or variola. The resemblance is heightened by the frequent occurrence of more or less febrile disturbance. From varicella it may be distinguislied by the absence of itching and other signs of inflammatory disturbance of the skin, and by its more chronic and sluggish develox3ment. The changes in varicella are more rapid. In addition, varicella is essentially a disease of childhood, while syphilis is more common in adult life.
From variola the distinction is not so readily made. Hutchinson says: " The simulation of the variolous eruption by syphilis is the most marked example of ' syphilitic imitation.' " The differential points are : the history of the case, the more chronic evolution and course of the syphilitic eruption, the brownish, coppery color of the lesions, and the absence of the intense prodromal symptoms which usher in an attack of small-pox.
The impetigo-form syphilide is a flat, superficial pustule, the exudation from which quickly dries into a greenish-brown adherent crust which, upon its removal, leaves an uneven surface. Not infrequently the crustaceous pustules run together and form patches, constituting tlie confluent impetiginous syphilide. In the variety known as impetigo rodens, the ulcerative process, instead of being limited to the superficial layers, involves the entire thickness of the skin. This form presents a great similarity to the ulcero-crustaceous lesions of the tertiary stage of syphilis.
The impetigo-form syphilide may be mistaken for impetigo vulgaris, as the objective characters of the lesions are very similar. In impetigo vulgaris the invasion of the eruption is more acute, and is attended by more or less heat and itching of the skin. The course of the lesions is much more rapid and the inflammatory areola disappears when the crust forms. From impetiginous eczema, this syphilide may be distinguished by the more sharply defined periphery of the lesion, the character of the crusts, and the absence of subjective symptoms. In eczema the discharge is thinner, forming yellowish, flaky scales, and is usually attended with intense subjective sensations.
The ecthyma-form syphilide, sometimes designated as the large pustular syphilide, may be described as a slight elevation of the epidermis, containing a turbid, cloudy fluid, which quickly desiccates, forming a dark-brown scab, beneath which ulceration takes place more or less deeply. The superficial variety does not differ essentially from the impetigo-form, except in the larger size of the pustules and its predilection for the lower extremities, where it is habitually seated. In the deep variety, the ulcerations are more extensive and profound, often assuming a serpiginous form; the edges of the ulcer are punched out or excavated; and frequently the crust does not completely cover the ulcer, but is surrounded by a r^ng of ulceration. The suppuration of ecthyma is usually profuse and of long duration. After healing, there remains a brownish cicatrix, which for a long time is surrounded by a coppery areola. The ecthyma-form syphilide is usually a late mani-
festatio]), except in iiialigiuint syphilis where it appears precociously. Xot infrequently, by the confluence of lesions of this type, large surfaces of ulceration are formed, accompanied by fever of a hectic character and other severe systemic symptoms.
This syphilide may be confounded with ecthyma vulgaris. The lesions of the latter are more furuncular in character, as well as more painful, while the suppuration is more superficial, with less tendency to form a crust. Varicose ulcers of the leg have also been mistaken for ecthymatous ulcers.
Itupia. — This is one of the most typical lesions of syphilis; the presence of characteristic rupial crusts may be regarded as pathogiiomonic. The term is applied to the accumulation of dirty -brown, distinctly laminated, conical-shaped crusts, covering a flat, superficial, ulcerated surface. The crust is formed by the drying of the pustular contents, and as the ulcerative process extends at the periphery, the crust is thickened by the addition of successive layers from beneath, each layer giving it a broader base while, at the same time, increasing its height. In this way the crust often assumes a conical or oyster-shell shape, and may rise from half an inch to an inch above the surface. Rupia may he ranked as a late secondary manifestation. In cachectic or debilitated persons, it may develop within the first six months, in which case it is usually associated with other evidences of precocious syphilis.
Varieties. — The Gummatous Syj^hilide. — Under this heading may also be grouped the tubercular syphilide. The tubercle is a small gumma developed in the deeper layers of the skin. It forms a small uodule, varying in size from a pea to a filbert or larger. The tubercles may be either localized or disseminated, discrete, or confluent. There are two varieties, the dry or atrophic and the ulcerative. In the former, resorption occurs without ulceration. In the latter disintegration and ulceration rapidly take place.
The dry or atrophic variety may develop comparatively early. It may be confined to the face, shoulders, or back of arms, or it may be disseminated over the entire surface of the body. When tubercles are grouped upon the face and brow, they give rise to the appearance known as '' leontiasis."
The ulcerous variety may be develo^Ded at any time, from the third to the fifteenth or twentieth year of the disease or even later. It does not differ essentially in form and volume from the preceding, but the tumors undergo a process of softening and breaking-down, becoming converted into ulcers which are deeply excavated and crateriform, wdth adherent edges, and an infiltrated border. The cavity left by this loss of substance tends to enlarge, healing at one point, extending in another, and often assuming a horseshoe or kidney shape.
VARIETIES OE TERTIARY SYPHILIS. 429
or tumors vary in size ; when deep-seated or flattened tliey may cause no projection above the surface. They are at first freely movable, indolent, and insensitive to pressure. Later on, they undergo a caseous degeneration, become adherent to the skin and soften in the centre, so that the morbid products, consisting of a honey-like material, are evacuated. The ulcer thus left is a circumscribed deep excavation, with thickened edges and uneven floor, covered with the debris of disintegrated tissues.
The serpiginous syphilides may have their origin in pustulo-crustaceous, tubercular, or gummatous lesions. The ulceration, at first circular, may become reniform or gyrate, spreading over large tracts of skin. Its extension is determined by the course of the infiltration, wdiich advances at one portion of the circumference, while cicatrization occurs at another. In the neighborhood of joints or of the natural orifices, the cicatricial contraction may result in loss of motion or stenosis.
The Vegetating Syphilide. — This does not constitute a distinct type. The tendency of lesions of the papular type to assume a condylomatous character under the influence of various local causes of irritation has already been referred to in connection with the flat condylomata. These papillomatous proliferations are determined by a hyperplasia of the papillae which become elongated and prominent, giving the vegetations a mammillated or verrucose aspect ; they may appear upon any of the ulcerative lesions of syphilis. The vegetating syphilide has a predilection for regions of the body provided with hairs, as tlife axillary folds, the genital regions, and the anal region. It is also found along the naso-jugal and naso-labial folds. The vegetations appear as irregular, round protuberances, of uneven size and elevation, and secreting a puriform fluid, which concretes into thin, yellowish crusts. The removal of the crusts reveals a red, rugous surface, made up of villous or flesh-like excrescences.
Diagnosis.- — A tubercular syphilide may present a marked resemblance to lupus vulgaris, especially when it is localized in regions for which lupus shows a predilection. The most characteristic feature is found in the peripheral enlargement by the development of new lesions, and their tendency to a serpiginous mode of advance. The tubercles of lupus are pinkish, translucent, or of an apple-jelly color, and more irregular in outline. The lupus process is, moreover, much slower in evolution than syphilis. Lupus generally appears in early life, before puberty, while acquired syphilis is essentially a disease of adult life. ISTotwithstanding these points of differentiation, it is often difficult to decide whether we have to deal with a lupus vulgaris or a tubercular syphilide, especially when the lesion is situated in the region of the nose. Both may occasion considerable destruction of tissue and consequent deformity. In lupus, however, the ulcerative process is more apt to destroy the alse and the tip and cartilaginous septum, but it does not attack the bony part of the nose. Syphilitic ulceration often begins in the bony structures and invades the superficial parts secondarily.
the tuberciilo-ulcerous svpliilide. The Imrd, everted border of epithelioma, the granulating, fungous character of the sore, and its limitation, as a rule, to a single lesion, together with the glandular enlargements, the accompanying cachexia, and the age at which it is more likely to occur, will serve for purposes of differentiation.
Leprosy. — The tubercular syphilide bears a most deceptive resemblance to leprosy, especially when the lesions are hypertrophied and situated upon the brow and the lobes of the ears. The leprous neoplasms are softer to the touch and larger in volume than the syphilitic; they occur upon an infiltrated base, with edema of the skin and ganglionic enlargements. Anesthesia is often present in a patch of leprous tubercles or its immediate neighborhood, but absent in syphilis. At a more advanced stage of leprous leontiasis its features are so characteristic as to admit of no mistake.
Ulcerative gummata may also be mistaken for varicose ulcer, but the presence of varicose veins, and their more frequent occurrence in the lower third of the ankle, while the gummatous ulcer has a special predilection for the upper and middle third of the leg, should serve as differential points.
AFFECTIONS OF THE APPENDAGES OF THE SKIN.
Syphilis of the Hair. — Loss of hair is one of the most common of the secondary manifestations of syphilis. It often occurs in connection with the syphilitic fever which precedes the earlier eruptions. It may be limited to the hairy scalp or it may affect the hairy growth of the entire body. Alopecia most often occurs without visible changes in the scalp, but during the secondary stage a variety of seborrhea of the scalp often develops, differing in many features from ordinary seborrhea. Instead of increased secretion, with desquamation, there is a diffused infiltration of the papillary layer and the hair follicles. Saboraud classifies syphilitic alopecia as one of the infectious alopecias due to a toxine, causing atrophy of the hair papillae and death of the hair.
In syphilitic alopecia there may be diffuse thinning of the hair of the scalp, or it may occur in patches which coalesce, forming polycyclic areas, which are quite characteristic. While usually limited to the hairy scalp, it may affect the eyebrows and eyelashes, and, more rarely, the hair of the axilla? and pudenda. The loss of the hair is not permanent, except when it continues to recur in connection with relapsing cutaneous manifestations. The later pustular and ulcerative lesions, involving the cutis in its entire thickness, destroy the hair follicles, leaving permanent bald spots upon the scalp, beard, or eyebrows.
Syphilis of the Nails. — The nail structures are affected by syphilis by processes which may affect both the nail and the matrix. In syphilitic onychia the alterations in the nails are usually the result of nutritive changes. They lose their brilliancy, become cracked, and friable, while the edges of the nail are broken, terminating in an irregular or jagged margin. Another variety of onychia is characterized by hypertrophy of the nail substance, the nail sometimes assuming a thickness of three or four times its normal size.
SYPHILIS OF THE ALIMENTARY SYSTEM. 421
In paronychia, tlie morbid process usually begins as a papule developed under the nail, or in the ungual fold corresponding to the lunula, or else along its lateral border, with more or less swelling of the bed of the nail. This lesion may ulcerate and give rise to exuberant granulations \vhich crowd the nail from its bed, resulting in its partial or complete loss. The new nail, ultimately regenerated, is apt to be misshapen or distorted. If the matrix be entirely destroyed, regeneration of the nail is not possible, and its bed is occupied by a rough, amorphous, horny substance.
The Oro-pharyngeal Cavity. — Syphilis produces lesions of the buccal mucous membranes, analogous to those of the skin. They are modified in their forms and jDrocesses by the anatomical peculiarities of the soil upon which they develop.
Erythema of the mucous membrane of the mouth and throat often develops coincidently with or precedes the cutaneous eruption. It consists of a diffused redness, which may resemble catarrhal angina, and which is usually most marked upon the arches of the palate and tonsils, or the posterior wall of the pharynx. The tonsils are often red and swollen.
The mucous patch is the exclusive product of syphilis, and is the most common and characteristic of the secondary synjptoms. It derives an additional importance from the fact that it is the most common and active source of syphilitic contagion. The mucous patch is a papule occurring upon the mucous membrane, usually superficial in character and of short duration, but reappearing with surprising facility. Its tendency is to recur repeatedly during the first two years, sometimes as late as the fourth or fifth year of the disease and even later. The typical lesion is a flat or slightly raised patch, of a cloudy, grayish-white color, formed by the thickening of the epithelium over a reddened infiltrated surface. Owing to the warmth and moisture of the parts, the epithelium becomes sodden and eroded. The patch may be single, or it may cover a large surface formed by the confluence of patches.
Upon the buccal mucous membrane and arches of the palate, the patches present a white opaline appearance, as if the membrane had been touched with a crayon of silver nitrate. At the tip and sides of the tongue, they are not rounded in outline, but are more apt to occur in the form of fissures or furrows, which may be converted into small, superficial, ragged ulcers. Upon the dorsum of the tongue, the lesions occur in the form of circular or oval patches, the surface being smooth, as if shaven, from loss of the papillse. Upon the tonsils the mucous patches are apt to become disintegrated, forming superficial or deep ulcers. At the angles of the mouth they are often complicated with fissures, and may be continuous with papules of the cutaneous surface.
Diagnosis. — Mucous patches are most often confounded with aphthae. The latter lesions, however, are more yellow in e(^lor, exhibit a cup-sluiped depression with a bright red border, and are exceedingly painful. The mucous
patcli is distingTiislied by its more superficial seat, and its grayish-white color., MiTCOUs patches may be distinguished from buccal herpes by a difference in grouping and the polycyclic outline of the latter. Each lesion is surrounded by epithelial debris formed by the remains of the purulent vesicle. Mercurial stomatitis may cause erosions, which may be mistaken for mucous patches. Their favorite seat is behind the last molar tooth and upon the sides of the tongue. The characteristic signs of mercurial stomatitis — salivation, fetid breath, and red, spongy gums — serve to differentiate it from mucous patches.
The tertiary lesions of the mucous membranes consist of tubercles and gummatous deposits, which may be limited to the mucous membrane or may be implanted in the deeper tissues. They are usually limited and localized, but may occur in the form of a diffuse infiltration.
Superficial glossitis is characterized by a circumscribed or diffuse thickening of the submucous cellular tissue, resulting in a lamellated induration, presenting a red, glossy appearance of the surface. Deep or parenchymatous glossitis invades the muscular tissues of the tongue, which becomes tumefied and sometimes enormously hypertrophied. The surface presents a rough lobulated appearance, which is quite pathognomonic. Ulceration may occur from accidental irritation.
Gummata of the tongue may develop in the mucous, submucous, or muscular tissues. Superficial gummata occur as small nodules beneath the epithelium, either singly or in groups. The deep or parenchymatous gummata are situated in the muscular substance of the tongue. Upon ulcerating they expose deep cavities, with overhanging, sloughy walls. They may assume a serpiginous form. Gummatous patches of the soft palate or palatine arch often do irreparable mischief by destroying the soft parts and perforating the maxillary bones. The tonsils and posterior walls of the pharynx may be the seat of tuberculo-ulcerous gummatous lesions.
Leucoplasia, or the so-called syphilitic psoriasis of the tongue, consists of flattened or grayish-white patches, usually developed upon the dorsum. They are due to thickening and condensation of the epithelium, which gives them a tough, leathery consistence. They rarely become eroded or ulcerated. Leucoplasia may affect the sides of the tongue, but rarely the under surface. Another favorite seat is inside the cheek at the angles of the mouth and lower lips. The duration of leucoplasia is practically unlimited ; in most cases, it persists for months or years, or even during life. It derives its chief clinical importance from the fact that it may undergo an epitheliomatous transformation, especially in persons who are addicted to the excessive use of tobacco.
Diagnosis. — Tertiary lesions of the buccal mucous membrane present many points of resemblance to tubercular ulceration and to epithelioma. Tubercular ulceration is more superficial than the gummatous ulcer, more painful, and may occur on the under surface of tlie tongue where syphilis is rare. It is frequently coexistent with tuberculosis of
the cutaneous surface. The diagnosis between syphilis of the tongue and epithelioma is, clinically, of the highest importance. Doubtless many cases have been operated upon for cancer of the tongue, which might have been cured by anti-syphilitic treatment. The chief points of distinction are the more circumscribed and vegetating character of the epithelioma, with hard everted borders, and its localization on the side of the tongue. It is more painful than syphilis and the neighboring glands soon become affected. The age of the patient also constitutes a differential sign. In doubtful cases, a histological examination should be made. Tertiary lesions involving the soft palate and tonsils may also present certain points of resemblance to tubercular ulceration and to cancer.
The Esophagus. — Syphilis of the esophagus is comparatively rare. Stricture of the esophagus may result from gummatous infiltration in the submucous tissues, followed by ulceration. More often the esophagus is secondarily involved from gummata in the mediastinal glands, which break through its walls producing stenosis with dysphagia.
Stomach.- — Syphilis of the stomach is much more common than was formerly supposed. Many cases of chronic gastritis, gastric ulcer, and, so-called, gastric cancer, are caused by syphilis. It is claimed that ten per cent of all cases of round ulcer of the stomach are of syphilitic origin. Unfortunately, there are no absolute sigTis which serve to demonstrate the nature of the gastric lesions, except the test of specific treatment.
The Intestine. — Syphilis of the intestine is rarely recognized in vivo, altliough numerous autopsies have disclosed the existence of syphilitic lesions occurring in the form of infiltrations localized principally in the upper part of the intestinal canal, which break down and form ulcerative lesions. The scars which result are flat and may cause stenosis of the canal. The symptoms may simulate those of typhoid. In cases of ulcerative enteritis, of obscure origin, anti-syphilitic treatment should be employed, especially when other specific manifestations are present.
The Rectum. — Syphilitic ulceration of the rectum derives its chief clinical importance from the frequency with which it is followed by stricture of the rectum. The cicatricial contraction may proceed from an ulcerative gumma or more frequently from a difl^use gummatous deposit in the ano-rectal walls, which degenerates into a retractile fibrous tissue.
The Liver. — Of all internal organs of the body, the liver is the most frequently subject to syphilitic changes. Affections of the liver, of a purely congestive nature, may occur in the secondary stage, accompanied with slight enlargement of the organ, icterus, and other symptoms of gastro-intestinal derangement. Of the late lesions of the liver, two forms may be distinguished, namely, interstitial and gummatous hepatitis. These two pathological alterations may be associated and may involve a portion of the organ or the entire liver. Chronic interstitial hepatitis may be either circumscribed or general. The changes are first hypertrophic, resulting in the irregular, lobu-
latecl condition characteristic of cirrhosis and accompanied -with emaciation, ascites, etc. Giinimata of the liver develop in the shape of pea to walnut sized masses, sometimes as large as a hen's egg, -which are embedded in the substance of the organ, and said to be more common in the right lobe. They undergo a condition of necrosis or caseous degeneration, with an increase of the connective tissue, and a disappearance of the liver tissue. In this way, large areas may disappear, or even the entire lobe.
The Naso-pharynx. — Tertiary lesions of the nasal passages, involving the cartilages and bones leading to necrosis and the jDrodnction of the offensive condition known as ozena syphilitica, are common to both acquired and hereditary syphilis. Perforation of the septum may occur, with destruction of the nasal bones, causing a flattening or falling in of the bridge of the nose, which, with a tilting up of the apes, constitutes a characteristic deformity. The ulcerative process may extend along the Eustachian tube and produce partial or complete deafness. Xaso-laryngeal ulcerations, clue to disintegration of gummatous deposits, may give rise to extensive ulcers, which may sweep away the epiglottis, vocal cords, and other structures of the larynx. These losses of structure are of a deforming and permanent character, interfering with phonation and swallowing.
The Trachea. — The trachea may also be attacked by tertiary syphilis. The gummatous infiltration soon leads to ulceration, followed by perichondritis and necrosis of cartilage. Perforation of the trachea, with a more or less permanent external opening, may occur. When healing of these lesions takes place, the cicatricial contraction often causes stenosis of the trachea, producing serious dyspnea or even an alarming apnea.
tubes.
Lungs. — Syphilis of the lungs occurs in the form of circumscribed gummata or diffuse infiltrations. Recent advances in our knowledge teach that syphilis plays a much more prominent role in the causation of lung disease than was formerly suspected. In many cases cicatricial and other changes, found post-mortem in the lungs, are recognized as due to syphilis.
The Heart. — Our knowledge of syphilis of the heart is a comparatively modern acquisition. There are many functional disorders of the heart, of a neurasthenic type, which are referred to syphilis as the exciting cause. Grave functional disorders of the heart may be due to changes in the central nervous
system, causing compression of or irritative changes in the vagus, but the more important pathological changes, which have been demonstrated by autopsy, have an anatomical foundation, and are recognized as due to tertiary syphilis. ISText to rheumatism, syphilis must be regarded as the chief factor in diseases of the heart. Three distinct morbid conditions are recogTiized as due to tertiary syphilis : myocarditis, endocarditis, and pericarditis.
Myocarditis is caused by small gummata in the muscular substance, with secondary degeneration of the muscular fibres, and the conversion of the cell infiltration into fibrous or sclerotic tissue. The gummata in the myocardium are usually of the miliary type, or else they form nodular tumors which undergo a fatty or caseous degeneration peculiar to syphilitic products. This destructive process may involve the papillary muscles and valves of the heart.
Syphilitic endocarditis and pericarditis are usually associated processes, consecutive to syphilitic disease of the myocardium. Dilatation of the heart, without evidence of valvular lesion, is said to be always suggestive of syphilis. ' '
Angina Pectoris. — True angina pectoris, caused by lesions of the aorta or coronary arteries is, it is asserted, always due to syphilis. Most authorities assign a predominating influence to syphilis in the causation of many diseases of the heart, of obscure origin. The advice of Semola is to fight the disease with iodides of mercury, even when there are no other manifestations of specific disease present.
Syphilitic Arteritis. — Since practically all the pathological lesions of syphilis are caused by changes in the blood vessels, it is not surprising that syphilitic arteritis, atheroma, arterio-sclerosis, aortitis, and aneurism should be classified among the manifestations of syphilis. The syphilitic origin of aneurism, in a proportion estimated at from fifty to seventy per cent or more, is well attested.
pericavernous gummata.
Epididymis. — Syphilis of the epididymis is exceedingly rare. It is usually manifested by a small nodule or tumor the size of a pea, or larger, situated upon the globus major. This hard nodule undergoes resorption spontaneously.
Syphilitic Orchitis. — Syphilis of the testicles is more common than is generally stated by text-book authorities. Slight infiltrations are often overlooked, as they are painless and do not lead the patient to apply to the surgeon for relief. Syphilitic affections of the testis, while occasionally occurring in the secondary period, may be properly classed among the tertiary lesions.
Interstitial Orchitis. — Interstitial orchitis may develop as an interstitial hyperplasia or thickening of the tissues of the organ. The organ becomes enlarged, heavier and harder than normal, though, as a rule, the process is at
first indolent and painless ; later there may be dragging pains. The interstitial growth may degenerate into fibrous or sclerotic tissue. jS^ot infrequently, its involution results in obliteration of the seminal tubes, atrophy of the testis, etc.
Gummatous orchitis of one or both testicles occurs in the form of nodules or tumors upon the surface or in the body of the testicle, which pursue the usual course of gummata in other organs. They become adherent to the skin and then break down, with a discharge of yellowish-white, fatty, or caseous material. The function of the testicle is usually entirely destroyed.
Diagnosis. — The diagnosis between syphilitic orchitis, tuberculosis, and cancer of the testicle, often presents difficulties. Tuberculosis usuall}^ begins in the epididymis, it is exceedingly slow in its evolution, more or less painful on pressure, and often involves the spermatic cord. Cancer of the testicle is more rapid in its evolution, and the fungation of the testis is common. Usually there is enlargement of the inguinal and other glands. The test of specific treatment is an important differential sign.
specific treatment.
Kidneys. — A possible etiological relationship between syphilis and many obscure affections of the kidneys has been recognized within the past few years. The frequency with which albumen is met with in syphilitic subjects is a matter of common observation. This was formerly attributed to the fact that the excretion of mercury sets up an irritation of the kidneys, with the production of considerable quantities of albumen, which cannot be differentiated from albuminuria due to other causes. Syphilis of the kidneys may occur as a diffuse hyperplasia, in the form of gnmmy tumors or amyloid degeneration of the vessels. Chronic syphilitic nephritis does not differ essentially in its symptoms from the interstitial nephritis due to alcohol and other causes. The pathological condition consists in fibrous infiltration of the kidney substance, and degeneration of the tubes. Gummatous deposits in the kidneys are comparatively rare, though they have been found postmortem in these organs. They may be situated upon the surface of the organ or embedded in the thickness of the cortical substance. Their presence usually gives rise to symptoms of parenchymatous nephritis. Amyloid degeneration is another result of sclero-gummatous changes. To what extent syphilis acts as a factor in the production of Bright's disease is not definitely determined. It has been stated that from twenty-five to thirty per cent of autopsies show renal lesions, attributable to syphilis, apart from amyloid disease, and that about twenty-five per cent of syphilitics die with lesions of the kidneys.
FEMALE ORGANS OF GENERATION.
Tertiary syphilis may affect all parts of the vulva, producing hypertrophic syphiloma of the lal)ia, simulating elephantiasis. Tertiary ulceration of the V7ilva, causing various mutilations and deformities, may result from the break-
SYPHILIS OF FEMALE ORGANS OF GENERATION AND OF MOTOR SYSTEM. 427
ing down of gummatous infiltrations. Syphilitic lesions of the vagina are rare, except when due to extension from lesions of the vulva. The uterus may be affected by syphilis, in the form of syphilitic endometritis and parenchymatous metritis. Gummatous neoplasms have also been found in the walls of the uterus post-mortem. In some instances they have been confounded with uterine fibromyomata; but their syphilitic origin has been proven by their disappearance under specific treatment. Gummata have also been found in the uterine tubes. A condition of chronic fibroid syphilitic salpingitis has been described.
readily made.
The peritoneum may be affected by gummatous peritonitis, simulating gonorrheal peritonitis. The pelvis may be the seat of tertiary syphilis in the form of osseous gummata of the bones of the pelvis.
Gummata of the Mammary Gland. — Gummata of the mammary gland, while comparatively rare, are sometimes met with, and may be mistaken for other tumors. The gummatous deposit in the gland often breaks down, forming a typical crateriform ulcer.
Muscles. — Syphilis may affect the muscles, tendons, bones, or joints. Syphilitic affections of the muscles consist of diffuse hyperplasias of the connective tissue, or the development of gummy tumors in the sheaths or in the substance of muscles. Both forms may result in atrophy of the muscular fibres, shortening, contractions, and impairment of function.
Tendons. — Inflammation of the tendon sheaths may occur in the secondary stage of syphilis. It usually affects the extensor tendons of the fingers, toes, biceps, and, less commonly, the tendons about the knee-joint, or the tendo Achilles.
Syphilitic affections of the bursae are uncommon. The bursa over the patella is most frequently involved, owing perhaps to the irritation or pressure to which it is subjected in certain occupations.
The Bones.- — Osseous lesions of syphilis may develop in the early stage, although the more characteristic changes in the bones occur in the tertiary stage. In the early stage they are limited to periosteal inflammation, rarely periosteal nodes ; gummatous deposits occur in and beneath the periosteum and in the bone substance. Gummata may develop on the skin or mucous membranes and involve the periosteum secondarily. This is especially liable to occur in regions where the bones have a thin covering, as over the external aspect of the tibia, cranium, clavicle, and so forth, and also the bones of the nose. The periosteum is destroyed and there is necrosis and exfoliation of the bone tissue. In other cases, the gummata are developed in tlie deeper tissues or spring from the periosteum. Suppuration is a comparatively rare termination of syphilitic periostitis. The gunmiata may, however, soften and break down,
more openings through which pieces of necrosed bone are often discharged.
Periostitis may also occur in the form of flattened or convex tumors, termed nodes, Tvhich vary in size from one-haK to two inches in diameter, and form a considerable elevation above the surface. They may disappear under specific treatment or become transformed into bony tissue and constitute exostoses.
Another manifestation of bone syphilis is osteomyelitis. It consists of a diffuse, gummatous infiltration through the cancellous structure, resulting in condensation and thickening of the bone. As a result of the osseous lesions, there is increased porosity of the bone and other structural changes, with increased liability to fracture from trivial causes.
ventosa.
Syphilitic Dactylitis. — Tertiary lesions of the gTmimatous type may affect the periosteum, or else be seated underneath the periosteum or in the medullary membrane of the phalanges. They may affect one phalanx or more. The swelling is usually fusiform or acorn-shaped, hard, firm, and terminating more or less aljruptly. Suppuration is rare ; most frequently involution occurs through resorption without disintegration of the giimmatous tissue. Atrophy and shortening of the bones, or the formation of a false joint, are not infrequent results.
The Joints. — The joints may be affected early in syphilis, giving rise to arthralgia, affecting more particularly the large joints of the shoulder, knee, and wrist. Hydrathrosis may also occur early. The effusion in the joint may be unaccompanied with any inflammatory phenomena. At a later stage syphilis affects the synovial membranes of the joints by processes similar to those affecting the periosteum, resulting in syphilitic arthritis. Several large joints may be affected, giving a most deceptive appearance to gonorrheal arthritis. Gummatous deposits in the articular ends of the joints or epiphyses, and more rarely, the diaphyses, occur in the tertiary stage. The gummata may break into the joint or form superficial sinuses ; the usual result, however, is fibrous anchylosis. It is not readily amenable to specific treatment, and demands surgical intervention. The bones of the vertebrae may also be involved by ginnmatous processes, simulating Pott's disease. Syphilitic spondylitis is a comparatively rare manifestation.
SYPHILIS OF THE EYE AND EAR.
Syphilitic affections of the eye, especially of the fundus, and paralysis of the nerves supplying the eye, are often a manifestation of brain syphilis, and possess a grave significance.
Cornea. — Syphilitic affections of the cornea are exceedingly rare in acquired syphilis, although quite common in the hereditary variety. Syphilitic keratitis may manifest itself in either the punctate or diffuse form. Inter-
Iritis. — Of all specific affections of the eye which come under the observation of the venereal specialist, iritis is the most significant, not only on account of its comparative frequency, three to four per cent in acquired syphilis, but from its frequent unfortunate results upon the integrity of the vision. In the tertiary stage it is comparatively rare, usually developing in the early secondary stage, about the sixth month after infection. There are tv^o forms of syphilitic iritis, the serous and plastic. In the serous form, the eye presents a pinkish-red appearance from the injection of the ciliary vessels, with the presence of small white spots or deposits on the posterior surface of the cornea. There is increased lachrymation, accompanied with subjective sensations of supraorbital pain and sensitiveness to light. The milder form usually clears up under suitable treatment, without permanent changes. Plastic iritis represents a more aggravated form. The congestion of the ciliary vessels is much more marked, the iris is hazy and muddy, and the outline of the pupil irregular, presenting often a scalloped appearance, due to adhesions with the anterior capsule of the lens from effusions of plastic lymph. On account of these adhesions and thickening, the pupil does not readily respond to impressions of light ; the opening of the pupil may be permanently occluded from loss of dilatability. Gummatous iritis is comparatively rare. The gumma may appear as a small yellowish-red neoplasm springing from the iris, and may attain to a considerable size, entirely filling up the pupillary space. One or both eyes may be affected.
Retina and Optic Nerve. — Syphilitic cyclitis, choroiditis, disseminate choroido-retinitis, optic neuritis, papulitis, and the various atrophic changes which may follow syphilis of the retina and optic nerve, come more especially within the province of the ophthalmologist.
Motor Affections, — Paralyses of the nerves supplying the eyes are almost exclusively due to syphilis. The diplopia is distinguished accordingly as paralysis of an abductor or adductor muscle occurs. Paralysis of the third nerve causes dropping of the eyelids, immobility of the globe, deviation outward of the external rectus, and dilatation of the pupil. Seventy-five per cent of all cases of ptosis are due to syphilis. Paralysis of the sixth nerve produces deviation of the eye inward and diplopia. Paralysis of the fourth nerve commonly occurs in connection with paralysis of other cranial nerves. The motor aff"ections of the eye may be caused by a multiplicity of lesions, as gummatous deposits in the nerves and meninges, or pressure from gummata, as well as arterial changes at the point of origin of the cranial nerves or along their course. They are frequently associated with hemiplegia or other evidences of implication of the nervous system.
Syphilis of the Ear. — As before intimated, the ear is usually affected by ulcerations in the naso-pharyngeal cavity, leading to the occlusion of the orifices of the Eustachian tube ; or, the ulcerative process may involve the middle ear
from extension along the course of tlie tube. The more serious affections of the auditory nerve resulting in syphilitic deafness and deaf-mutism, although met Avitli ill the acquired form, are more common in hereditary syphilis, and are often associated with other dystrophies peculiar to heredo-syphilis. The pathology is obscure, as the complete loss of function of hearing may be sudden, and occur without appreciable lesion of the auditory apparatus.
The advances made in our knowledge of the pathology of the nervous system have singailarly amplified our conception of the importance of the pathogenetic r(51e played by syphilis. At the present day syphilis is recognized as the chief etiological factor in organic diseases of the nervous system, and one of the principal causes of dementia.
Syphilis of the nervous system embraces a vast array of morbid manifestations. There is scarcely any functional or organic disease of the brain, spinal cord, or nerves which may not be produced by syphilis or its symptoms accurately simulated. The restricted limits of this article will not permit a detailed description of the varied and multiple manifestations of syphilis of the nervous system. Certain functional phenomena met with in the secondary stage of syphilis, such as cephalalgia, sternalgia, analgesia, muscular tremors, hysteroepileptiform spasms, etc., are due to the impression of the poison ujDon the nervous system. The headache of syphilis is characterized by its intensity, its diffuse character, and its tendency to nocturnal exacerbation.
The more important syphilitic affections of the nerves belong essentially to the tertiary period. They are usually met with after the third year, exceptionally within a few months after the initial lesion. According to Fournier's statistics, embracing seven thousand two hundred and forty-nine tertiary accidents, occurring in five thousand six hundred and ninety-eight cases, the relative frequency of nerve lesions was shown by the fact that there were two thousand three hundred and ten cases of nerve affections, thirty-one per cent, almost one-third, implicating the nervous system. Among these, there were nine hundred and three cases of cerebral syphilis, one hundred and ninety-six cases of medullary syphilis, one hundred and sixteen cases of general paralysis, and nine hundred and forty-three cases of tabes.
While cerebral syphilis may appear within the first year of the infection, it increases in frequency, and attains its maximum in the third year, with a progressive decrease to the tenth year and beyond. Tabes rarely appears before the second year ; the majority of cases develop from the fifth to the ninth year. General paralysis is rare before the fifth year, the larger proportion of cases occurring between the sixth and twelfth years, and being most marked in the tenth year.
The lesson to be learned from these statistics is that the worst effects of syphilis of the nervous system develop from the fifth to the tenth year of the disease.
Among the predisposing causes which determine the localization of syphilis toward the nervous system may be mentioned hereditary predisposition to nervous disease, nervous exhaustion, and alcoholic and venereal excesses. It is to be noted that many severe examples of brain syphilis have been found in persons wdiose initial symptoms were mild and insignificant, and who had not received specific treatment. Fournier regards the absence of specific treatment as the chief cause of tertiary manifestations.
ninges, and in the substance of the nerve.
(3) By compression of the brain, cord, and nerves from morbid growths which may result from exostoses of the cranial bones and spinal vertebrae, by thickening of the dura mater, or by narrowing of the bony canals through which the nerves pass.
Probably syphilitic endo-arteritis and peri-arteritis, caused by the development of gummatous nodules or infiltrations of the coats of the cerebral vessels, is the most common cause of pathological alterations in the nerve substance. These deposits lead to obliteration of the lumen of the vessels and consequent ischemia and circumscribed softening.
Of the meninges of the brain, the dura mater is the most frequent seat of tertiary lesions, consisting of gummata or diffuse infiltrations resulting in thickening and sclerosis. Gummata of the dura mater may extend along the pia mater and invade the brain by a direct growth. Gummata of the brain substance usually originate in the pia mater or subarachnoid space. They grow towards the cortex of the organ, or may penetrate the gray substance, sometimes encroaching upon the white matter. They are most frequently seated in the optic tract, the anterior lobes, at the surface of the frontal convolutions, the pons Varolii, and the base of the brain.
In addition to the varied and multiple phenomena which characterize brain syphilis, such as monoplegia ; hemiplegia, often bilateral ; insanity ; epilepsy, etc., there are various neuroses of the peripheral nerves, more especially the ulnar and sciatic, which may occur as a syphilitic process. Such neuroses may be limited to sensory disturbances of a more or less painful character, and later may result in motor atrophic disturbances.
Spinal-cord. — According to Gilles (de la Tourette), more than half the cases of diseases of the spinal-cord are due to syphilis, exclusive of tabes, which considerably increases the proportion. Syphilitic processes may affect the meninges or the interstitial tissue of the cord itself, causing meningitis or myelitis. The two are most commonly associated as meningo-myelitis, or the latter may be due to passive pressure from exostoses and caries of the vertebrae. Paraplegia, paralysis of the bladder, and sphincter ani, ataxic symptoms, with the group of sensory disturbances peculiar to tabes, may result from syphilis of the cord.
The susceptibility of syphilis to hereditary transmission is a fundamental character of the disease ; it may be transmitted to the offspring directly by the infected sperm of the father, or from the infected ovule of the mother at the time of impregnation, or the infective principle may be conveyed through the medium of the utero-placental circulation during the course of pregnancy.
The terms " congenital " and " hereditary " syphilis are often used indiscriminately, but we must recogTiize the fact that " congenital " is a broader term than " inherited," All that is congenital is not inherited, and much that is inherited is not apparent at birth. Properly speaking, the term hereditary syphilis is ap-plied to cases of germinal infection through the spermatozoon or ovum. Congenital syphilis embraces, in addition, cases of post-conceptional syphilis conveyed through the placental circulation in the course of pregnancy.
Paternal Transmission of Syphilis. — A syphilitic man may beget a syphilitic child, and the mother remain exempt from signs of contamination. The paternal influence is, however, comparatively restricted in its duration, being rarely manifest after .the third or fourth year. As regards its effect upon the fetus, the mortality of the offspring is given as twenty-eight per cent, and the morbidity as thirty-seven. The question of the paternal transmission of syphilis to the fetus without the preliminary infection of the mother has been the subject of prolonged controversy ; clinically, the afiirmative evidence rests upton the following gTounds :
has afterward acquired syphilis.
The statistics of Kassowitz, Mewes, Anton, Hochsinger, Fournier, and others, would seem to show in the most positive manner that in hundreds of pregnancies which terminated in abortions, still births, and syphilitic children, the mothers remained absolutely healthy or, at least, exempt from all signs of the disease. It has been alleged that it is impossible for the spirochete to permeate the spermatozoon as it is the larger of the two bodies; but, on the other hand, it has been suggested that the fluid part of the semen may serve as a vehicle for the spirochete, or that it may attach itself to the spermatozoa as it does to the red blood corpuscles (Eilli and Vockorodt). Moreover, syphilitic semen has been successfully inoculated in chimpanzees by ISTeisser and Tinger.
Maternal Transmission. — A syjjliilitic woman may bring forth a syphilitic child, the father being perfectly healthy. The transmissive power of the mother is mnch more active and prononnced than that of the father. The mortality is given as sixty per cent and the morbidity as eighty-four per cent. It is also much more prolonged in duration, five or six years, or longer.
Mixed Transmission. — When both parents are syphilitic at the time of fecundation, the transmissive power of syphilis acquires its maximum of intensity, causing a morbidity of ninety-two per cent, with a mortality of sixty-eight per cent in private practice, and eighty-six per cent in hospital practice. Very often the mortality is one hundred per cent, thus extinguishing in toto the posterity of certain families.
Syphilis by Conception. — The term " conceptional syphilis " is applied to a class of cases in which a healthy mother is infected by the syphilized fetus, procreated by a syphilitic father who may, at the time, be exempt from any cutaneous or mucous membrane manifestations, and incapable himself of directly communicating the disease to his wife. The fetus serves as the intermediary agent for the transmission of the disease, by means of the uteroplacental circulation, from the father to the mother. Syphilis contracted by the mother in this way may be made evident by positive signs of the disease during pregnancy or later. In many cases there is an exemption of the skin and mucous membranes from the more characteristic manifestations of syphilis, and the disease may not reveal itself until some years later, ivhen it does so by severe tertiary manifestations. The relative mildness of conceptional syphilis in the mother has been attributed to the more gradual syphilizing effect of the morbid germs and their toxines through the placental walls. So far as the child is concerned, the influence of the paternal infection is often fatal, resulting in its death and premature expulsion.
Modifications in the Hereditary Influence. — The age of the syphilis, specific treatment, and other circumstances modify the hereditary influence of the parents. Time exerts a marked attenuating influence upon the diathesis, there being a progressive enfeeblement of the parental infection, as shown in the series of successful pregnancies. Abortions may take place at a more and more advanced period of fetal development, until finally they cease, and a pregnancy results in a child living, but syphilitic ; still later in children bearing no trace of the disease. Specific treatment may also suppress or hold in temporary abeyance the influence of the parents. A mother may have one or more abortions from syphilis ; and then if she be subjected to active treatment, and pregnancy occur, she may bring forth a healthy child. If treatment be now discontinued, the next pregnancy may result in a syphilitic child. It has been shown that treatment of syphilitic women by mercurial inunction reduced the number of abortions more than fifty per cent. The remarkable effect of specific treatment in correcting or neutralizing the hereditary influence of syphilis is, however,
Post-conceptional Syphilis. — A woman, healthy at the date of conception, may afterward contract syphilis and transmit it to her child in utero, the father being absolutely healthy. The danger to the child is less the later in pregnancy the infection occurs. It may be laid down as a general ride that contamination of the fetus is not probable if the maternal infection takes place after the seventh month of pregnancy. JSTumerous statistics demonstrate the pernicious influence of post-conceptional syphilis upon the offspring, when the infection occurs between the second and sixth months. The death of the child in utero is the most frequent result.
Effects of Syphilitic Heredity. — Whether the infection is communicated through the sperm cell, the ovule, or the utero-placental circulation, the uterine death of the fetus is the most habitual expression of hereditary syphilis. Hereditary syphilis is one of the most common causes of abortion. This may be due to changes taking place in the placenta. Certain pathological changes may occur in the various organs of the fetus, diffuse or gummatous infiltrations of the bones, liver, lungs, kidneys, nerve centres, and other organs. Hepatic lesions and lesions of the nerve centres constitute the most prolific cause of death of syphilitic children. The syphilitic child may be born alive, with characteristic evidences of syphilitic taint. It may be born apparently healthy, and after a certain period, usually within a fcAv weeks or months, begin to show the stigmata of the parental disease ; or definite symptoms may be delayed, with especial liability to appear at the period of second dentition, the period of puberty, or not until the twentieth or thirtieth year or later (late hereditary syphilis). Many lesions, formerly referred to scrofula or tuberculosis as the generating cause, are now recognized as being due to syphilis. Evidences of hereditary syphilis may be manifest in symptoms peculiar to syphilis, and which are met with in the acquired form, or by certain lesions which are the result of changes impressed upon the fetus in its formative stage, and which take on the characters of arrested development, or degenerations due to perversions of nutrition. These dystrophies may be limited to a single organ or system of organs, or they may affect the entire body. The spirocheta pallida is found in the greatest abundance in the heredo-syphilitic lesions and in the internal viscera, as well as the various lesions of the skin.
Manifestations of Hereditary Syphilis. — Even when the child is born alive and apparently healthy, there is usually an outbreak of specific eruptions within a short period, ranging from the second week to the first or second month. One of the earliest and most characteristic manifestations of hereditary syphilis are bullous lesions of the palms and soles. If pemphigus is present at birth, it always carries with it a grave prognosis. Another early manifestation is syphilitic eoryza, caused by structural changes in the mucous membranes of the air passages. This condition, known as the " snuffles," is almost pathognomonic of inherited syphilis, and carries with it a certain significance, as the obstruction in the nostrils may be so complete as to prevent the child from nursing.
MANIFESTATIONS OF HEEEDITAEY SYPHILIS. 435
The skill and nuicons iiiembrane nianifestatioiis of hereditary syphilis are similar to those of the acquired form, as erythema, papules, pustules, and tubercles. On account of the delicacy of the skin, papules are quickly transformed into mucous patches ; the moist or humid form predominates. Fissures and condylomatous patches about the mouth, genitals, and anus are much more common. Lesions of the viscera often coexist with the early cutaneous manifestations. Death most often occurs from gastrointestinal complications, from marasmus, or from cachexia impressed upon the organism. The severity of inherited syjDliilis is generally exhausted during the first tv^^o or three years of infantile life. This period may mark a definite end of the disease, or a new train of symptoms may arise in connection with the second dentition.
Hereditary syphilis is further differentiated from the acquired form by certain processes which are its exclusive products, as peculiar changes in the bones, dental malformations, lesions of the eye, and of the auditory apparatus. The milk teeth of syphilitic children are apt to be malformed, chalky, and lost early. The peculiar dental changes characteristic of inherited syphilis are displayed in the permanent central incisors, which are denominated " syphilitic test teeth." This specific abnormality consists in the narrowing of the cutting border of the teeth, giving them a peg-shaped form, Avith a peculiar crescentic-shaped notch of the cutting edge. Besides this, they are apt to be smaller, and converge towards each other with a large interspace. These dental abnormalities, interstitial or parenchymatous keratitis, and deafness constitute specific characteristics of inherited syphilis.
Independent of these various lesions of particular structures and organs, hereditary syphilis may reveal its specific origin by certain characters expressed in the physiognomy and the physical and mental development. The newly born syphilitic infant is variously described as a small, wizened, puny, weakly creature. It has a peculiar aged appearance, the " old man look," as it is termed, which is quite pathognomonic. The skin is loose and flabby, the hair scanty, and the nails undeveloped. The complexion is usually of a pale, grayish, cafe au lait color, presenting a marked contrast with the pinkish or rosy hue of health. The vital capacity of the infant is materially impaired. The influence of syphilitic heredity is often manifest in a latent debility or inherent incapacity for life. The child succumbs to slight ailments, often without any apparent cause. It dies without reason, so to speak, and the autopsy may reveal nothing that can be assigned as the cause of death.
A second type of inherited syphilis is characterized by slowness or retardation of development, the growth being stunted and dwarfed. Such children grow slowly ; they walk, speak, and develop their teeth slowly, and seem to remain long in a state of infancy. The genital organs are often rudimentary and undeveloped. The term " infantilism " is employed to express the sum total of these characteristics. The intellectual development is likeAvise
ficiency of the mind or from a kind of intellectual asthenia.
The malformations and dystrophies of infantile syj^hilis are too numerous to describe in detail. The rachitic type, with large head, occupied hy hossy growths, incurvation of the tibia, pigeon-breast malformation of the thorax, curved spine, deformed pelvis, etc. There is another gToup of dystrophies which present a marked deviation from the normal type, with resulting monstrosities. Fournier terms such cases an exaggeration or amplification of dystroj)hies.
TRANSMISSION OF SYPHILIS TO THE THIRD GENERATION.
Clinical observation shows most conclusively that certain dystrophies and organic defects in the subjects of hereditary syphilis may be transmitted to the third generation. The question which divides medical opinion is whether heredo-syphilitics may transmit their disease in a virulent form, charged with contagious activity. Theoretically, there is nothing in this view inconsistent with the most recent advance of our knowledge. Xeisser's experiments in successfully inoculating monkeys with sypliilitic products from the ovary and from gummatous lesions as late as the seventeenth year of the disease, together with recent researches which show that the spirocheta pallida may be demonstrated in syphilitic lesions at the age of puberty or later, lend support to this view. We have overwhelming testimony which shows in the most positive manner that the influence of heredo-syphilis in determining abortions, still-born chikb-en, and various dystrophies is scarcely less marked than that of acquired syphilis. Fournier gives statistics of one hundred and sixteen examples of transmission to the third generation: out of three hundred and sixty-seven pregnancies there were one hundred and eighteen abortions ; fifty-nine early births ; and one hundred and ninety-t^vo survivors, a mortality of forty-eight per cent. Of the survivors only thirty-one appeared free from hereditary syphilis. The only element of doubt in these cases is the possible intervention of acquired syphilis as a factor.
Fournier gives a detailed report of eighteen families in which the condition
of the gTandparents, the parents, and descendants was distinctly known. In these eighteen families, there were eighty-five pregnancies which terminated as follows : Twenty-five abortions, two of which were twins ; thirty infants born dead, or dying within a short time ; thirty living children. In another table he gives the issue of forty-six families of heredo-syphilitics : one hundred and forty-five pregnancies, terminating in forty-five abortions ; thirty-six still-born,
dystrophies as characterize hereditary syphilis in the second generation.
While wc cannot conclude that syphilis is transmitted in its essential nature as a virulent contagious disease to the third generation, yet it is well known that heredo-syphilis kills the product of conception or transmits to the survivor an impaired vitality with various dystrophies, and thus constitutes a chief factor in the physical, mental, and moral degeneration of the race. Erom an exhaustive study of heredo-syphilis Tarnowsky concludes that syphilis has an incomparably more fatal influence upon the species and on society, than on the individual.
The question of the abortion of syphilis by destroying the virus at its point of entrance has already been considered. The failure of abortive methods such as excision or destructive cauterization of the initial lesion is jorobably due to the rapidity with which the infection of the system takes place through the lymphatics and blood vessels.
Remedies. — Two drugs, mercury and iodide of potassium, constitute the basis of all specific therapeutic treatment of syphilis. In the treatment of eruptions of the secondary stage, the action of mercury is prompt and curative; it abates their intensity and, hastens their involution. Iodide of potassium finds its special application in the treatment of lesions of the gummatous and ulcerous type, and the interstitial hyperplasias of the viscera ; the rapidity of its action in melting away gummatous deposits and arresting ulcerative processes is most marked. For the lesions of the intermediary stage, the use of these drugs in combination, constituting the so-called " mixed treatment," is often more efficacious than either alone.
Object of Treatment. — Syphilis is intermittent in its manifestations, and after apparent cure the disease may reveal itself months or years later by tertiary manifestations of the gravest significance. The object of treatment then is not simply to cure existing manifestations, but to prevent their development in the future. Clinical experience shows that the active use of mercury through the first two or three years of syphilis constitutes the most reliable safea:uard against tertiarv manifestations.
Fournier insists that a sufficient mercurial treatment affords a preventive guarantee, if not complete, at least relative, against tabes and general paralysis. His careful study of six hundred and fifty-five cases shows that tabes or general paralysis followed in only 5.56 per cent of cases which had been subjected to a careful mercurial treatment for three years or longer ; while 95 per cent, or to be more accurate 94.44 per cent, succumbed to short and insufficient treatments.
General Considerations in the Administration of Mercury. — There are certain principles ^^ertaining to the use of mercury, in the treatment of syphilis, which clinical experience has established as fixed and definite. Mercury
should be given in moderate but efficacious doses, and not pushed beyond tho production of its primary physiological effects. The production of salivation, and other toxic effects of large doses of the drug, is positively pernicious. Its influence upon the eruption, and the toleration of the patient's system, should be the measure of the dose. The two principal plans of administering mercury are known as the " tonic treatment " Ijy the continuous use of small doses and the method of '' intermittent treatments." In laying down rules for the treatment of syphilis, the most practical questions are : when should specific treatment be commenced; how should it be given; what should be its duration?
The projDer time for beginning specific treatment is when the diagnosis is positively established. Since, in the large proportion of cases, the appearance of the eruption constitutes the necessary confirmation of the diagnosis, most authorities counsel delay until the appearance of secondary manifestations.
An undue importance has, perhaps, been assigned to the choice of the method of giving mercury. Its effects are much the same through whatever channel of entrance it is introduced into the system. The choice of the method should not be determined by rule or theory, but governed by indications furnished by the condition of the patient, the stage of his disease, and his morbid aptitudes. For example, a patient with dyspepsia, a weak, irritable stomach, or a tendency to diarrhea, should not be subjected to the ingestion of a drug which will still further derange his digestive functions.
Ingestion. — This is, perhaps, the most convenient method of giving mercury, and is commonly employed in this country, France, and England. It may be administered by the mouth in the form of a pill or mixture. The chief mercurial preparations employed are the protoiodide pills, each containing one centigramme (about one-sixth of a grain), from one to three of which may be given three times a day, after eating; Hydrargyrum cum creta, in tablet or pill form, one to two grains, three times a day. Dupuytren's pills and the ordinary blue pill, are also used in the treatment of syphilis. My own preference is for the protoiodide. If this preparation should be foim.d objectionable on account of its tendency to produce gastro-intestinal derangement, it may be combined with opium ; or some other preparation of mercury, such as the t annate or salicylate, may be substituted. Mercury may be given in solution, in combination with bitter infusions, or the tincture of iron. Among the standard prej^arations or solutions, the liquor of Van Swieten may be mentioned, or mercury combined with iodide in the syrup of Gibert, which is a favorite prescription in the Paris hospitals.
Inunction. — This is the oldest method of administering mercury in the treatment of syphilis. It still retains its popularity, especially in Germany, where it is regarded as the sovereign method. It consists in making frictions over different regions of the body with mercury or one of its salts combined with a fatty substance, us in the blue ointment, (U* some one of the numerous
HYPODEEMIC METHOD OF TREATMENT. 439
modifications which have been made of it. This method is serviceable in securing the rapid action of mercury. It has the decided disadvantage of uncleanliness, and of causing cutaneous irritations. The skin of many patients is so exceedingly sensitive to external irritation, that the inunction method in such cases is impracticable. Inunction finds its special application when we wish to secure the intensive action of the drug, in the case of children, of pregnant women, and in all cases where gastro-intestinal irritation is liable to follow its ingestion by the stomach. The technic used in inunctions is too well kno^^Ti to justify its description in detail.
Hypodermic Method. — This is a comparatively recent innovation upon older and established methods. It has the advantages of greater convenience, combined with scientific accuracy. It is also claimed that the action of the drug is more promptly curative when given hypodermically ; that the maximum effect is obtained with a minimum dose; and that it rarely causes salivation, or irritation of the stomach or intestines.
Two classes of mercurial preparations are employed for subcutaneous injection: soluble injections, which are introduced every day or every other day, and are promptly eliminated; and insoluble injections, which are gradually absorbed and are given, on an average, once a week. The principal soluble preparations used are: the bichloride, the biniodide, the benzoate, and more recently, the cacodylate, the salicylo-arsenate, etc. The soluble injections are usually painful, and the necessity for their daily repetition renders them impracticable in most cases. The chief insoluble preparations are: the gray oil, calomel, and the salicylate of mercury. These are absorbed slowly, and only require repetition at several days' interval. The gray oil and calomel injections, although efficient, are apt to be painful, and not infrequently give rise to indurations, nodosities, and abscesses at the seat of puncture. ISTo such objection applies to the intramuscular injection of the salicylate of mercury combined with benzoinol, in the proportion of twenty-four grains to the ounce. Injections of this preparation are comparatively painless, and seldom give rise to local irritation. ''
The site usually chosen for the intramuscular injections of mercury is the upper inner third of the buttock, since the surface of this region is little sensitive, and there are no vessels or nerves of importance to be avoided. The injections should be made with antiseptic precautions, and should be inserted deeply into the muscle, the buttocks being used alternately. The ordinary dose of the insoluble preparation would represent from three-fourths to one and a half grains of mercury. Intramuscular injections of mercury have a special value in severe lesions of the tertiary type, especially in cases where the patient has taken an insufficient mercurial treatment in the early stage. It often causes the disappearance of lesions whicli do not yield to iodide of potassium, or to the use of the drug given by the moutli.
employed in the ordinarj treatment of syphilis. Intra-venons injections of mercury have not justified the claims of their originator. The serumtherapy of syjDhilis, whatever may be its future, has no scientific basis at the present day.
The iodide of potassium is the remedy par excellence for the tertiary manifestations of syphilis. It is also valuable in the early stage for the headache and osteocopic pains, and in the treatment of pustular lesions, which show a tendency to ulcerative action. The various tertiary affections of the bones, the gummato-ulcerous and specific lesions of the viscera and nerves, come within the range of its curative action. Iodide of potassium is not so toxic in its effects as mercury, and may be given with impunity. There is, however, a mistake on the part of many specialists, in giving enormous doses of iodide of potassium, as large as one-half to one ounce per diem. These massive doses are not necessary in order to develop the full therapeutic efficacy of the drug.
In resorting to mixed treatment, the biniodide of mercury is the preparation most generally employed in combination with iodide of potassium. When the latter is given alone, the most convenient mode of administration is in the form of a saturated solution. It may be associated with a bitter infusion, with a view of assisting digestion, or with various syrups to render it more palatable. An admirable combination is its admixture with the elixir of lacto-peptin, one to four.
The duration of the treatment of syphilis is usually from three to four years. Under certain conditions, complementary or supplemental treatments are given at intervals during five or six years, or longer.
While the value of this general scheme of treating syphilis has been established by experience, it is to be understood that no rules of treatment can be formulated which shall apply to all cases. The treatment of syphilis cannot be reduced to the terms of a mathematical formula — so many months of mercury followed by so many months of iodide of potassium. There is no class of diseases which so well illustrates the principle that uniformity of practice is not a good practice. The treatment must be modified and adapted to the quality or type of the disease. Many conditions relating to the constitution of the individual, his inherited or acquired predispositions, and his habits of life, must be taken into consideration. The indications are to treat the patient as well as ' the disease. Unfortunately, all men are not equal before syphilis. Common observation shows an immense difference in the character of syphilis in different individuals, in the multiplicity, severity, succession, and duration of its manifestations. While, in the majority of cases, active treatment during the secondary stage marks the definitive end of the disease, yet long-continued observation shows that active and prolonged treatment does not afford an absolute guarantee against tertiary manifestations. Independent of what are termed " factors of gravity " of syphilis, there are certain pathological predispositions which contribute toward the perpetuation of the syphilitic process in certain individuals. The neuropathic predisposition which
FOUKWIEK S VIEWS ON TKEATMEKT OF SYPHILIS. 441
comes from the hereditary make-uj) of the individual, or which may he acquired by weakening of the nervous system from overstrain, worry, or excesses and dissipation, constitute a powerful predisposing cause of nerve syphilis. Such individuals are predestined, so to speak, by virtue of their neurotic heritage, or acquired predisposition, to the serious dangers which come from syphilis of the nervous system. Such cases should be subjected to an anti-nervine as well as an anti-syphilitic treatment, and this treatment should be especially intensified at periods when the cerebral manifestations of the disease have their habitual development. Fournier is a strong advocate of the chronic intermitted method of treating syphilis. He believes that mercury acts as a sort of vaccine against the syphilitic virus, and that, like vaccination, its protective influence is exhausted or attenuated by time. He insists, therefore, that in certain types of cases, there should be a series of cures or repeated mercurial re-vaccinations, in order to suppress the tendency to these explosive accidents. And further, that these treatments should be approached as nearly as possible to the periods of the greatest imminence of nerve syphilis, that is, from the fifth to the tenth year.
In his latest brochure (" Pour en Guerir," Paris, 1907) Fournier declares that three conditions are necessary for the cure of syphilis, namely: (1) Good health, (2) good hygiene, and (3) good treatment. In all cases, the general health of the patient should be built up, and his power of resistance against the disease strengthened. In neuropathic individuals especially, the nervous system should be toned up, and all debilitating and depressing influences, such as nervous overstrain, excesses of all kinds, and alcoholic and venereal excesses particularly, should be avoided. These hygienic measures are of the highest possible value, and are scarcely subordinate in importance to specific treatment.
The hygiene of the mouth is of especial importance, even before specific treatment is begun. A systematic supervision of the mouth may be considered an absolute necessity during the entire course of mercurial treatment, not only with a view of preventing mercurial stomatitis, but also of preventing specific manifestations which are the direct result of local irritation. The irritating
influence of tobacco upon the mucous membrane of the mouth and throat, as well as its depressing influence upon the vital functions, render it especially objectionable. Tobacco should be absolutely interdicted during the first year of the disease, and longer, if there is a tendency to localization of the disease in the mouth, in the shape of mucous patches or leucoplasia. The importance of this is emphasized by the consideration of the fact that leucoplasia is the almost habitual precursor of cancer of the tongue. In Fournier's statistics of one hundred and ten cases of lingual cancer, seen in private practice, one hundred and seven occurred in syphilitic smokers who were, for the most part, heavy smokers. He declares that syphilis alone does not produce cancer. It requires for its genesis a collaborator, and this collaborator is tobacco. The influence of alcohol in provoking and aggravating the manifestations of syphilis is too well known to require eiupliasis.
Local Treatment. — Experience ^vitll tlie dermic method has shown that merciirv causes the lesions of syphilis to disappear more rapidly in the immediate vicinity of its application than upon remote parts of the body. The superficial and generalized eruptions of the secondary stage are usually promptly repressed by the internal use of mercury alone. When a papular eruption is situated upon an exposed part, as the nose or the face, its involution may be hastened by the use of ointment of ammoniated mercury or an ointment of the oleate of mercury, or a weak solution of bichloride in glycerin. The unsightly pigmentations upon the face and forehead, which often remain some time after the lesions have disappeared, clear up more rapidly under the influence of a bichloride lotion or ointment. Mucous patches of the mouth and throat disappear more readily under the influence of local treatment, than from the internal use of mercury. The patches may be touched with nitrate of silver, the solid stick, or in solution, or they may be painted with a solution of chromic acid, fifteen to forty grains to the ounce. For leucoplasia and other sclerotic conditions of the tongue and cheeks, the acid nitrate of mercury may be used with advantage.
Affections of the nasal mucous membranes are best treated by frequently cleansing the passages with Dobell's solution or other antiseptic douches ; afterwards calomel or aristol may be thrown up by means of a powder projector. In the treatment of moist papules, and mucous patches of the integument, it is well to keep the surface well powdered with calomel and oxide of zinc and separated from contact by the interposition of dry lint or absorbent cotton. The condylomata about the scrotum or vulva, or around the anus, should be frequently cleansed with a weak Labarraque solution (for formula see Chap. XIII, p. 324). A powder of salicylic acid, 10 grains, boracic acid, 30 gTains, and calomel, 1 drachm, will cause these lesions to rapidly melt away.
For the scaly eruptions upon the palms and soles, which are almost always characterized by obstinacy to constitutional treatment, white precipitate or blue ointment may be applied, often with good results. The diachylon plaster or the emplastrum hydrargyri, constitutes a most excellent application for the so-called " syphilitic psoriasis " of the palms and soles.
For the pustulo-crustaceous and ulcerous lesions, mercurial ointments or a mercurial plaster will be found serviceable. In the deep ulcerative lesions, which are especially apt to occur on the leg, strapping with the emplastrum de Vigo, and an occasional touching up of the indolent granulating surfaces with nitrate of silver, materially hastens the cure. The painful periosteal swellings and osteocopic pains may be relieved by painting with tincture of iodine or the application of mercurial plaster. "When the joints are affected, counterirritants and immobilization are indicated. Often surgical intervention is required.
relief.
Treatment of Infantile Syphilis. — The treatment of infantile syphilis, whether hereditary or acquired, requires certain modifications in the treatment best adapted for adults. On account of its tendency to produce gastro-intestinal irritation, the internal administration of mercury is, as a rule, contraindicated. In some children the drug does not develop intestinal irritation, and it may be given in the form of mercury with chalk.
In the majority of cases, however, inunction with blue ointment, the oleate of mercury or mercurial baths, are used in the treatment of infantile syphilis. The inunctions may be made over different regions of the body, a different surface being selected for each application. A convenient method of inunction is by smearing the child's flannel band with blue ointment. The movements of the child will be sufficient to cause its absorption.
On account of the delicacy of the child's skin, syphilitic lesions are apt to assume the moist form. The child should be frequently bathed, and the lesions dusted with protective powders. Mercurial baths, prepared by the addition of a weak alcoholic solution of the sublimate to the ordinary bath, with or without chloride of ammonium, is a cleanly and convenient method of employing mercury. The existence of large abraded or ulcerated surfaces would constitute a contraindication. Many authorities recommend subcutaneous injections of mercury in the treatment of infantile syphilis.
The treatment of hereditary syphilis by the administration of specific treatment to the mother or wet-nurse during the period of lactation is of doubtful value. It is questionable whether the milk is materially modified by the action of mercury or whether the mercurialized milk of the mother exercises a curative inffuence upon the syphilis of the child. Iodide of potassium finds its special application in the treatment of the late or tardy manifestations of hereditary syphilis which develop at the period of second dentition, of early adolescence, or later.
SYPHILIS AND MARRIAGE.
Two fundamental characters, contagiousness and susceptibility of hereditary transmission, give to syphilis an altogether special importance in relation to marriage. The statement has been made that syphilis constitutes a far greater danger to society and the race than to the individual. The chief significance of syphilis as a racial danger comes from its hereditary effects. The vast array of morbid phenomena, dystrophies, and degenerations, which make up the pathology of hereditary syphilis has its chief source in marriage. In
addition, hereditary syphilis undoubtedly creates a terrain or soil favorable for the reception and germination of tubercle bacilli and perhaps other bacilli. It does this by impoverishing the organism and diminishing the capacity of resistance against microbic invasion.
Syphilis is the only disease transmitted in full virulence to the offspring, killing them outright or blighting their normal development. From the viewpoint of race perpetuation syphilis is antagonistic to all that the family represents in our social system. The social aim of marriage is not simply the procreation of children, but of children born in conditions of vitality, health, and physical vigor. The effect of syphilis is to so vitiate the procreative process as to produce abortions, or else a race of inferior beings, endowed with defects and infirmities and unfit for the struggle of life. It is this pernicious effect of syphilis upon the offspring which gives to the disease a dominant influence as a factor in the degeneration and depopulation of the race.
Apart from its hereditary risks, the important relations of syphilis with marriage are emphasized by its quality of contagiousness. Owing to its multitudinous modes of contagion, syphilis, introduced into marriage, often becomes the origin of numerous innocent infections which are communicated in the ordinary relations of family and social life.
There is no department of preventive medicine which is more important or yields results of higher value to the welfare of the family and society than the safeguarding of marriage from syphilitic infection. The sanitary office of the physician is: (1) To prevent the introduction of syphilis into marriage; (2) when syphilis has already been introduced, to circumscribe or limit its effects. The intelligent exercise of this protective duty demands not only professional knowledge, but wisdom, tact, and experience, especially in dealing with the numerous and complicated situations which are created by the introduction of syphilis into marriage.
Before Marriage. — There are certain practical questions which have an important bearing upon the intelligent discharge of the responsible duty of shielding the innocent from infection.
Should the syphilitic man marry ? That most men have some conception of the contagious and hereditary influence of the disease, is evident from the question so frequently propounded to the physician by the man who has contracted syphilis — Can I marry and have healthy children?
To this question the physician is justified, in the large proportion of cases, in giving a reassuring response, exception being made of a class of cases presently to be referred to, in which the individual is incapacitated for marriage by reason of his own personal risks from the disease. Observation shows most conclusively that after a certain period of probation, during which he has been subjected to active treatment, the syphilitic man may marry and not infect his wife, and beget children who remain free from any sign of syphilitic taint. There is no fact better established than that the contagious and transmissivo power of syphilis may be extinguished by time and treatment.
To the next question wliicli frequently follows the first — When or how soon can I marry ? — the response is not so direct or positive. It may be laid down as a cardinal principle, which must serve as the criterion of the physician's advice in all cases, that no syphilitic should marry so long as he is capable of infecting his wife or transmitting the disease to his offspring. While the contagious stage of syphilis is not the exact measure of the duration of its hereditary influence, there is a certain concordance between the two periods. A syphilitic husband who has no contagious lesions on his person may be dangerous to his wife through conceptional syphilis.
Certain facts of our knowledge bearing upon the duration of this period may be summarized as a basis for the physician's judgment: (1) The duration of the period of the contagious and transmissive power of syphilis does not admit of mathematical expression. It varies in different cases. (2) The type of the disease, the constitutional peculiarities of the patient, the presence or absence of certain conditions which are recognized as factors of gravity in syphilis, and especially the treatment employed, all exert a modifying influence. (3) All these elements should be taken into consideration in deciding upon the admissibility of a syphilitic man to marriage ; each case should be studied upon its individual merits. (4) The advanced age of the diathesis, a prolonged immunity from specific manifestations, and suflicient specific treatment are the surest guarantees of safety.
It may be positively affirmed that the chronological completion of the secondary stage does not mark the limit of its contagious activity, as formerly supposed. There are well-authenticated observations which prove in the most positive manner that the late lesions of syphilis, occurring five, six, or ten years later, may exceptionally be sources of contagion. Fournier has recently reported a case of contagion of the wife occurring in the seventeenth year from a mucous patch in the mouth of the husband. The advice of certain authorities, notably Hutchinson, that " if treatment has been continued from two to two and a half years from the date of the chancre a man may safely marry," is medically a mistake, and socially a danger.
Unfortunately, in the present state of our knowledge, there is no scientifically accurate means of determining the precise date which marks the definite disappearance of the virulent principle. If the spirocheta pallida be proven to be the causal agent of syphilis, it is possible that improved methods of technic will enable us to positively determine the presence or absence of these organisms in the body.
In the absence of any trustworthy test, reliance must be placed upon the facts of experience and observation. A careful interpretation of these facts shows that in the immense majority of cases the contagious activity of syphilis and its hereditary transmissibility are not manifest after the fourth year. It may therefore be concluded that when the syphilitic diathesis has been subjected to the double depurative action of time and treatment during a period
of four years, and there has been an exemption from all manifestations during the last twelve or eighteen months, it is scientifically safe for the syj^hilitic to marry. This, however, is not a formula based upon mathematical certainty, but rather upon a calculation of probabilities.
In cases where active manifestations of the disease still continue to recur after this period, especially when they consist of lesions of the mucous membranes, marriage cannot be sanctioned with safety. Observation shows that recurrent mucous patches of the mouth are the almost exclusive source of late contaminations in marriage.
Even after the dangers of syphilis, from the standpoint of its contagiousness and transmissibility by inheritance, have been silenced by time and treatment, a syphilitic man may be incapacitated for marriage by reason of his personal risks from the disease. Unfortunately, syphilis often yields a late harvest of tabes, general paralysis, and other lesions of the general nervous system — affections for the most part disabling and incurable — ^which may ruin the patient's health and entirely incapacitate him for the responsible position of the head and support of a family. The existence of such conditions constitutes an express permanent contraindication to marriage.
Of all menaces to the health and life of the individual, lesions of the nerve centres are most common and most to be feared, and it is within the sphere of the nervous system that we must look for indications which point to a menacing character of the diathesis. In persons of neuropathic constitution, especially, the determination of syphilis toward the nerve centres, the eyes, and the organs of special sense always carries a grave prognostic significance, and in such cases the period of probation should be lengthened until there has been a prolonged exemption from all evidences of implication of the nervous system.
The consideration of this subject would be incomplete without reference to the result of the physician's advice in counselling the postponement of marriage of a syphilitic until time and treatment render such a step safe.
In the majority of cases the individual who consults the physician in rea-ard to his fitness for marriage, does so with the honest intention of accepting and abiding by his counsel. However prolonged the probationary period, he conforms to the conditions imposed. Unfortunately, there are many cases where for reasons personal to himself — it may be financial or other considerations— the patient, although fully instructed as to the danger to his prospective wife, and the practical certainty of infecting her, nevertheless refuses to postpone his marriage. He prefers to take the chances — or rather subject his wife to the chances — of infection. Does the physician fulfill his entire duty in simply refusing to sanction the marriage ?
In this connection it may be said that the view is held by certain writers that the sanction of marriage does not properly come within the physician's province. In the most recent English text-book on Syphilology, the author gives expression to his view as follows : " Is it any business of the medical
man to give his sanction to marriage at all? The duty of the medical man ends with pointing out to his patient the possible eventualities in case of marriage." In other words, the poisoning of an innocent woman with syphilis is a matter between husband and wife with which the physician has nothing to do. This view seems subversive of the high ideals of preventive medicine. It is the recog-nized duty of a physician in the presence of any contagious disease to protect others from the risks of infection. In the case of diphtheria, smallpox, or any infectious disease, the physician may discharge this duty by notifying the health authorities, who take proper precautions to protect others from the spread of the disease. In the case of syphilis, where there is a question of its introduction into marriage, the physician's protective duty embraces not only the prospective wife, but the children she may bring into the world, and through them the interests of society. Unfortunately, syphilis is without the pale of prevention or even recognition by the official authorities, and the physician stands as the only protector of the interests of the future family. The question is whether his socio-sanitary duty to preserve others from infection falls below his duty to protect his patient in infecting them. The answer to this question trenches upon the domain of professional ethics. In the solution of this problem, where the physician is confronted with a divided duty, common sense, as well as humanity and conscience, should be invoked.
The medical secret in relation to professional conduct is too complicated and delicate to be properly considered within the necessarily restricted limits of this article. In Prince Morrow's work (" Social Diseases and Marriage ") the question is discussed in all its bearings and with especial reference to the case of a syphilitic man, who, despite the warning of his physician, proposes to carry out his intention to marry, with the practical certainty of infecting his wife. One quotation may be permitted, which applies to this class of cases:
" While the obligation of the medical secret is in the general interest of the social order and should be maintained as a fixed principle of professional conduct, it may be admitted that a situation of a peculiarly aggravating character may present itself where the patient shows himself an exceptional sort of brute by the obstinacy with which he adheres to his criminal purpose after he is assured that he will almost certainly infect his wife — in such a case the physician, knowing all the circumstances and fully apprecia:£ing the tragic significance of such a step, must be guided by his own lights and conscience. If he should consider the criminal intent of this man as entirely without the pale of professional protection and refuse to stifle his own feelings as a man of heart and conscience, who shall condemn him ? Such a physician is far more likely to prove loyal to the highest ideals of ethical duty in his relations with his patients in general, than the one who views these social catastrophes with a cold-blooded indifference, disclaiming all personal responsibility, and
After Marriage. — While it is the duty of the physician co employ any justifiable means to j^revent the premature marriage of a syphilitic patient, yet it most often happens that he is not consulted until after the disease has been introduced into the family.
before marriage, or he may have contracted the disease yost nuptias.
The situations created by the introduction of syphilis into marriage are varied and complicated, and render the physician's task most difficult and delicate. The husband may be syphilitic and the wife uncontaminated, the wife may be contaminated and also pregTiant.
When a married man has syphilis, the first indication is to prevent contamination of his wife, the second is to guard against pregTiancy. He should be treated actively and energetically, with a view of supjDressing as promptly as possible all sources of contagion. The interdiction of pregnancy should be absolute, until time and treatment have exerted an attenuating and corrective influence upon the diathesis.
If the wife has become infected and pregnancy has taken place, she should be most energetically treated during the greater part of the period of her pregTiancy. Specific treatment, judiciously employed, does not tend to produce abortion. When the pregnancy results in a child living, but syphilitic, it should always be nursed by the mother, even though she may have apparently escaped the contagion in carrying it. It is a law of syphilis, first formulated by Colles, that a child, syphilitic from birth, never communicates the disease to its nursing mother.
The saddest feature of conjugal infection is that the wife rarely receives the benefit of prompt and efficient treatment. In practice it will be found difficult to treat a woman during the prolonged period necessary to cure the disease and conceal from her the nature of her trouble. If the husband can be persuaded to avow the nature of his disease, the situation is simplified and there may be an intelligent cooperation on the part of both with the physician in avoiding the deplorable results which come from transmission of the disease to the offspring. Incredible as it may appear, many husbands employ every possible means to prevent their wives from consulting a physician from the fear of the exposure of their own infidelity, which must come from the wife's knowledge of the nature of her disease.
It is not to be assumed that all husbands who infect their wives with syphilis are of this class. Many of them are overwhelmed with regTet and remorse, and are anxious that the wife should receive the most thorough treatment possible, render these circumstances, where a syphilitic patient calls in the physician to attend his wife, the important question conies up whether the wife should be informed by her physician of the nature of her disease? The fi^ed rule of professional conduct in these cases, from which
PROPHYLAXIS THEOUGII EDUCATION. 449
there should be no deviation, is that no information, nor hint even, of the nature of the disease, should come from the physician. It matters not what may be the feelings of indignation or disgust he may entertain for the man, he must zealously guard the secret of the patient. The harm has been done and cannot be undone. The main indication is to limit its ill effects.
It is a lamentable fact that the vast mass of disease and misery engendered by the introduction of syphilis into marriage, through the infection of the wife, with all its train of hereditary horrors, has its origin in the voluntary act of the husband and father. It would appear almost incredible that a man would voluntarily expose the woman he has vowed to cherish and protect to the risks of an infection which not only endangers her health, but poisons the very sources of the life of his children. And yet observation shows that syphilitic infections in married life are by no means rare ; on the contrary, they are frequent, much more frequent than is commonly supposed. They occur in every class and rank of society, not only among the poor and ignorant, but among the intelligent and well to do.
Statistics embracing all classes of women show that of women infected with syphilis, twenty per cent, or one in every five, is contaminated by her husband. Excluding the abandoned or vicious class, practically all women who acquire syphilis receive the infection from their husbands.
The only extenuating feature of these social crimes is that while infections in marriage are voluntary, they are for the most part ignorant infections. The opinion of those who have had large experience in dealing with marital syphilis is concurrent upon this point: the basic cause is ignorance. The man who carries disease and death into his family most often does so because he does not know its terrible consequences to his wife and children; he does not know its modes of contagion, nor the duration of its transmissive capacity. Few men, even among what are termed the educated classes, have any correct knowledge of the most common sources of syphilitic contagion. They do not know that in the large proportion of cases contagion is affected through the medium of mucous patches.
In the popular conception genital sores are the only source of contagion and when the chancre heals there is no danger of infection. This belief is not surprising in view of the fact that fifty years ago Ricord's doctrine, " the contagion of syphilis begins and ends with the chancre," was generally accepted by the medical profession.
In this connection it may be said that almost all popular errors about syphilis are but the discarded opinions of the medical profession, such for example as " syphilis is readily cured and there's an end of it." " A few months' treatment is sufficient for a cure." " After two years, or at the most two and
450 STPHTLIS.
The recognition of the chief cause of marital syphilis suggests the logical remedy — Education; that is to say, a general enlightenment of the public respecting the dangers of syphilis to the individual and to society, as well as its modes of contagion, direct and indirect. It may be said that individual enlightenment may now be had by the syphilitic patient consulting his physician. While the sanitary office of the physician in safeguarding marriage from syphilis is of the highest importance, yet it must be admitted that its preventive value is comparatively restricted, as, unfortunate^, considerations of health rarely enter into men's matrimonial schemes. Only a small percentage of syphilitic men consult a physician as to their fitness for marriage and parentage. Among the well-to-do classes the advice of the physician is sometimes sought as to the propriety or safety of marriage, but among the poorer classes the physician is rarely consulted. Then again, the physician is not armed with authority to enforce the conditions his judgment may impose; his only weapons are enlightenment and persuasion. While it may be comparatively easy to persuade a syphilitic man whose marriage is a dream of the future to relinquish all idea of its fulfillment until he is no longer dangerous to his prospective wife and children, yet in practice the situation presented is often quite different. The physician is not consulted until after an engagement is entered into, possibly the date fixed and all arrangements for the marriage completed.
A by no means inconsiderable experience has convinced me that the intervention of the physician in this class of cases is practically hopeless. The patient, though fully enlightened as to the possible and even probable dangers of a premature marriage, can find no easy way of retreat. A postponement of the marriage during the necessary period of probation and treatment is often equivalent to a rupture of the engagement. Often he can give no explanation without the humiliating alternative of avowing the true cause. In most cases he marries at the time appointed, and his wife and children suffer the consequences of his criminal folly.
It is evident that enlightenment, to be efficient as a prophylactic, must be timely; that is to say, it must be given before the nearness of marriage enters as a complicating factor in the situation.
All these facts emphasize the especial importance of educating the rising generation of young men, those who are destined as future husbands and fathers to continue the race. Practically all young men include marriage at a more or less remote future in their scheme of life. Every young man should know that the contraction of syphilis may not only seriously compromise his ovm health, but lead to a forfeiture of all those hopes and aspirations which find their fruition in a safe, honorable, and fruitful marriage. A knowledge of these facts should be so universal that no man who aspires to marriage, whatever his degree of intelligence or station in life, should be ignorant of the danger and criminality of carrying syphilitic infection into his family.
advances made in onr knowledge of syphilis which especially emphasizes its social dangers and tlie importance of prophylaxis. In our college curricula this jihase of preventive medicine is rarely touched upon, and in our text books on syphilis its important relations with marriage receive brief and entirely inadequate consideration.
In the writer's experience quite a number of syphilitic men who have married prematurely and infected their wives have declared that their marriage was sanctioned by a physician. Without lending a too credulous ear to statements designed to shift responsibility to the shoulders, of another, there is reason to believe that many physicians are too lax and indulgent to the wishes and inclinations of their patients. They are disposed to view the m^atter from the standpoint of the interested party and impose only the minimum of delay. Many physicians still hold the dangerous view that a syphilitic man may safely marry after two and a half years, irrespective of the character of the diathesis or the treatment employed.
The practical question remains, how and through what agencies can this prophylactic education be imparted to the public ? A detailed consideration of " ways and means " cannot be entered into here. Reference may be made to the campaign of education recently inaugurated in this country by a Society organized for this purpose. The educational policy of this Society embraces in its objects two essential features, " Publicity of evils which have always been covered up and concealed," and " Sex instruction."
Education of the rising generation in a knowledge of the origin of life, the physiology and hygiene of sex, and the dangers both physical and moral, which come from the irregular exercise of the sex function, will, it is believed, tend to promote clean living and thus secure the ideal prophylaxis which is to prevent the contraction of disease which unfits a man for marriage.
It is also believed that exposure of the dangers to the family and society which come from the introduction of syphilis into marriage will create a healthy, humane public sentiment which will no longer tolerate the crowning evil of our social life — the infection of virtuous wives and innocent children.
ABORTION.
Definition, p. 452. Frequency, p. 452. Etiologj' : Causes due to o^'^lm, p. 454 ; causes due to mother, p. 455. Mechanism, p. 457. Symptoms and diagnosis, p. 458. Complications, p. 460. Treatment, p. 460. Septic abortion, p. 470. Criminal abortion, p. 473. Artificial abortion, p. 473.
The expulsion of tlie oviim from the uterus before tlie sixteenth week of pregnancy is called by American obstetricians, abortion; from that time to the twenty-eighth it is commonly known as a miscarriage {partus immaturus of the Germans) ; and from the twenty-eighth week to the fortieth, a premature delivery {partus preinaturus) . A distinction between the first and second conditions may seem arbitrary and artificial, but there is reason for it in the changes from the chorion to the placenta and in the difference in the mechanism of expulsion of the uterine contents. In the consideration of abortion the fetus plays but a small part, while the secundines (chorion, amnion, and decidua) are of the greatest importance ; in the case of premature delivery and delivery at term the relative importance of the two things is reversed.
HISTORY.
The history of abortion reaches back to the oldest writers. Celsus truly attributes many cases of abortion to dysentery, and says : " when dysentery is accompanied with fever the woman usually dies." I have often been astonished at the close observation of the ancients in regard to abortion. The fact that it is more dangerous than birth at full term was fully recognized by them, and Hippocrates notes the frequency witli which some women abort repeatedly at the same month (Haeser's " Geschichte der Medicin," 1875). Their views on the subject were so correct that it is a matter of surprise to find they did not regard the induction of abortion in the early months as a criminal offence. In this respect, however, they are only in accord with the views prevailing to-day, for it is a common impression, even among educated persons, that so long as no life can be recognized there can be nothing wrong in causing abortion ; an idea which it behooves us to do all in our power to eradicate.
STATISTICS IN KEGAKD TO FKEQUENCY, 453
are possible from our case-books, although we at once encounter a stumblingblock in the fact that in these we have to do with sick women. An analysis of eleven hundred and one cases, taken from the case-books of Dr. Edward J. Ill, of 'New Jersey, shows that out of this number there had been six hundred and sixty-three who had had more than one child ; three hundred and fifty-four who had had only one child ; and eighty-four who had had abortions only. Among the six hundred and sixty-three multiparaj there had been four hundred and eighty-five abortions, which amounts to about one abortion to every five pregnancies. Among the primiparse, that is, women who had had but one child, there had been one hundred and forty abortions, that is, about one abortion to every two and five-tenths pregnancies; while the remaining eighty-four women, who had never carried a child beyond the fourth month, had had one hundred and three abortions. The large proportion of abortions in the primiparse may be accounted for by the fact that their labors were, in many cases, severe. These figures are not in harmony with those of some other observers, but it must be remembered that these women were affected with some pelvic lesion and were thus more subject to spontaneous abortion.
These figures show how uncertain such statements must always be, and that in order to get accurate statistics they must be taken, after the menopause, from a large number of women. All that can be said on the subject is that a consultation of the works of most authorities shows them to agree that the frequency of abortion to birth at full term is from one in five or six to one in ten, and that the third month is the time when it most frequently takes place. It seems also to be generally agreed that as women grow older they are more subject to abortion, which is what would naturally be expected, as the pelvic organs become more subject to pathological changes as life advances. Stumpff gives the following figures on this point (Munch, med. Wochenschr., 1892, I^Tos. 43 and 44) :
It is a matter of common opinion that abortions are most apt to occur at times when the patient would naturally expect a return of her menses. Contractions of the uterus, induced by the customary ovarian stimulation, may be the cause of abortions at these times; or the death of the fetus may excite renewed activity of the ovary. I have sometimes observed that an exceptionally large number of abortions occur midway between two expected periods, for example, at six or at ten weeks.
There are always more cases of abortion among multipara^ than primiparse, but this is simply because multipara? are in the majority and also because they are more subject to uterine derangements. The causes of spontaneous abortion must be looked for in both mother and child, but a study of a number of such cases shows that mechanical and psychical influences are much less frequently concerned in their etiology than true pathological conditions of either the ovum or the parental organism. The term habitual abortion is much used, but it does little toward an understanding of either the pathology or the causation of the condition.
Causes of Abortion Due to the Ovum. — Many observers have noticed the occurrence of various malformations and changes in the normal growth of the ovum as a cause of abortion. As far back as 1S39, Allen Thomson {Edin. Med. and Surg. Jour., 1839) called attention to the presence of adhesions between the back of the fetus and the membranes. The origin of such malformations is not known. Some observers have attributed them to the spermatozoa, especially in chronic alcoholism, but how far this is really in action as a cause is difficult to say.
The primary death of the fetus may be induced by imperfect vascularization of the amnion. Hemorrbages into the chorion caused by trauma are said to be the occasion of some of the deformities of the fetus, as well as adhesion of the fetus to the amnion. Hydr amnion in early pregnancy is more likely to be the result of the dead fetus than the cause (L. Seitz, v. Winkel's " Handbiich der Geburtshiilfe "). Hegar ("Beitrage," 1902, Band 6, Hft. 2), in a study of twenty-four abortions, found that in eleven there was primarily disease of the fetal membrane, the degeneration beginning in the chorion. Bar (Frommel's " Jahresbericht," 1903) has shown that a faulty insertion of the ovum into the horn of the uterus may give rise to premature uterine contractions and consequent expulsion of the product of conception. Again, a low insertion of the ovum, leading to placenta pra?via, is sometimes a factor in abortion.' Hemorrhage into the chorion, and between the chorion and the decidua, commonly known as "molar pregnancy," is a common cause of death of the fetus ; in such cases it rapidly disappears, as if by absorption, leaving the amnion as a small bag containing a little clear or slightly blood-stained fluid. It is most commonly in these cases tbat we meet with tbe so-called ^'missed abortions," a condition where the product of conception remains in utero for weeks, or even months, without any evident symptoms. Xow and then a hydatidaform degeneration of the chorion results in abortion, and this condition was well known to the ancients. The fetus may also die from infection, without any disease of the mother; one case lias been re])orted in wliich the fetus had smallpox, while the motlier renuiined well ( S. Cliasan). Eare cases have been described of abor-
growth.
Causes of Abortion Due to the Mother. — Various infections of the mother maj cause death of the fetus. According to Charpentier (Centrbl. f. Gyn.j 1898, vol. 22, p. 198) measles was the cause of abortion twentythree times in fifty-one cases. Scarlet fever, smallpox, typhoidfever, pneumonia, erysipelas, appendicitis, and other febrile disorders are frequent causes, and the fact that abortions occur most frequently in them when the temperature is high, shows a relation between its occurrence and the severity of the disease. As regards the chronic infections, abortions have been attributed to tuberculosis in the mother in a few cases (BirchHirschfeld).
Syphilis has always played a large part as a causative factor in abortion, but while there is no doubt as to its influence as a cause of premature labor, its share in the etiology of abortion is more difficult to determine, because of the absence of definite syphilitic lesions of the ovum or fetus before the sixteenth week. L. Seitz (v. Winkel's " Geburtshlilfe ") attributed five abortions in one hundred and nine cases of pregnant syphilitics, or four and one-fourteenth per cent, to the influence of the syphilitic poison. Other authorities give syphilis as the cause of abortion in from four and three-tenths per cent to twenty-five per cent. Seitz, after a thorough sifting of the question, insists that the more recent the infection the more likely is there to be an early termination of the pregnancy. Syphilis has for a long time had the reputation of inducing recurrent abortions. I might, however, state that I have never but once been able to control recurring abortions by means of any syphilitic treatment. In the single case the patient, who was known to be syphilitic, aborted six times, and then after five months anti-syphilitic treatment gave birth to a living and healthy child {Med. Bee, Oct. 6, 1894).
the decidua.
The part played by trauma in the causation of abortion is difficult to decide in any given case. A most careful examination of the uterine contents, placenta, chorion, and fetus is imperative before an opinion can be formed. If shortly after the occurrence of trauma an abortion occurs in which there is an old degeneration of the decidua with small-celled infiltration, atrophy of the chorionic villi (Oliver, Brit. Med. Jour., Feb. 15, 1902), hemorrhages undergoing • some organization, or maceration of the ovum, it may be confidently stated that the traumatic influence is not concerned in the abortion (Hegar, " Der Abort.," 1002). From a medico-legal point of view the question of trauma is of great importance.
Psychic disturbances and excessive cohabitation, especially when the latter takes place at a time Avhen menstruation might otherwise be expected, are frequent causes of abortion.
Acute poisoning by means of alcohol (Drappier, Frommel's "Jahresbericbt," 1896), phosphorus, lead and other poisons is a factor in abortion. It is also important to remember that certain drugs, such as aloes, senna, and other purgatives may induce abortion with sensitive patients, though, fortunately, only when administered in excessive doses. Cotton- root, a popular remedy in the Soutli, has the reputation of being responsible for causing abortions, as well as savine, tansy, and oil of pennyroyal; the two last are said to be less efficient than the others. The effect of cottonroot upon the muscular contractions of the uterus is apparent in many cases of uterine myomata where the main symptom is an excessive flow, when it is given for several days before menstruation appears, and kept up while it lasts. Iron also has been known to cause uterine contractions.
Certain diseases of the genital organs are a prolific cause of abortion, especially endometritis, more commonly in the hyperplastic and hemorrhagic forms, l^ot infrequently a chronic metritis (really hyperplasia of the inter-muscular cellular tissue), coupled always with an endometritis, may be looked for as a causative factor. The same thing can be said of retroversions and retroflexions of the uterus, with their accompanying endometric changes.
The various forms of decidual inflammation, gland hypertrophy, general diffuse hypertrophy, and polypoid thickening, are believed to be causal factors (Hurdon, " Gynecology and Abdominal Surgery," Kelly and Xoble, vol. 1, 1907). Inflammatory changes in the decidua are probably a more frequent cause than is commonly suspected.
Injury to the cervix has been shown by T. A. Emmet ("Principles and Practice of Gynecology," 188i) to be a frequent cause of early interruption of pregnancy, though he makes no distinction between miscarriages and abortions. Olshausen {" Klin. Beitrage f. Geburtshiilfe imd Gynakologie," Feb., 1884) has drawn attention to the same fact. A patient of mine once had fourteen abortions in succession, and then, after an operation for deep laceration of the cervix, became the mother of a living child. Amputations of the cervix are not, in my own opinion, the cause of abortion to any great extent.
Abortions at the fifteenth or sixteenth week are often due to retroflexion and retroversion. Prolapse of the uterus and pelvic adhesions are factors in producing premature contractions of the uterus. Abortions are sometimes due to shortened and sensitive utero-sacral ligaments and indurations in the base of the broad ligament. In these cases several successive abortions have occurred, the patient going longer with each pregnancy ; the pregnancies were accompanied by pain in the affected side. Similar cases have been reported by Kleinwachter (ZeitscJir. f. Geh. u. Gyn., 1903, vol. 49, p. 1). I have never yet seen an abortion in a myomatous uterus, though it is reported to be moderately frequent.
Operative procedures during pregnancy are quite frequently a source of trouble, though ovarian tumors, and even pedunculate and sessile myomata, have been removed without interfering with its progress. I once removed a sessile myoma weighing sixteen pounds from a uterus five months pregnant without injuring the product of conception; the patient went to full term. Even lacerations of the cervix have been operated upon without untoward result. It is well known, however, that operations on the cervix, the vagina, the external genitalia, and the breasts are peculiarly apt to excite the uterus to contraction; and experience has shown that from twenty to thirty per cent of cases operated upon during pregnancy abort.
The mechanism of abortion is somewhat different from that of miscarriage, the conditions treating mainly of secundines and the fetus playing a less important part. It is worthy of a careful study, for a knowledge of it is of great assistance in the treatment.
An accumulation of blood between the decidua vera and the uterine wall sometimes occurs, and when this hemorrhage is slight, it produces no contractions of the uterus nor disturbance of the circulation of the fetus, and the pregnancy may possibly go on to term. If, however, contractions of the uterus occur, the entire ovum is forced into the cervical canal, dilating it until the two cavities are converted into one. In such cases the patient has usually a slight flow before the uterine contractions are felt. This is the common, it might be said the normal, mechanism of an abortion, as all membranes are cast off with the egg and the uterus remains in the best shape for a regeneration of its mucous membrane and involution of its muscular apparatus. If, however, the decidua serotina is adherent, the decidua vera is drawn back over the ovum as it is expelled from the uterus, and appears as a long cord which may be replaced over the ovum. When, owing to violent uterine contractions, the decidua breaks, the ovum with its shaggy chorion may be expelled into the vagina and the decidua follows later, if at all.
Some good authorities assert that the decidua may remain, either wholly or in part, and regenerate to a normal mmcosa. Others maintain that retention is fraught with danger to the patient and occasions endometric changes. Retention of the decidua, unless it becomes saprophytic, septic, or hemorrhagic, rarely produces any trouble and it commonly regenerates into a normal mucous membrane ; at all events the danger of retention of the decidua has been much overrated.
It sometimes happens that the whole product of conception is expelled from the uterine cavity into the cavity of the cervix, dilating the latter sufficiently to accommodate it, but failing to dilate the os. In such a case the examining finger finds the cervix balloon-like, with an extremely small os, usually easily dilated, and cleans it out with a sweep. This condition was formerly misun-
derstood, and led to tlie erroneous belief that the ovum might become attached to the cervical mucous membrane (Rokitanskj, Monatsschr. f. Gehurtsh. u. FrauenJcr., 1861, vol. 17). In certain other cases the os is widely dilated, but the whole product of conception remains in the cervical canal, because the uterine contractions fail to expel it, and under these circumstances also it can be cleaned out with a sweep of the finger. Occasionally, however, the uterine contractions force everything into the vagina.
in connection with the question of diagnosis.
The diagnosis of abortion rests, first of all, upon the diagnosis of uterine pregnancy. The diagnosis of early pregnancy is by no means always easy, and it may require close inquiry into the history as well as careful manual examination of the pelvic organs (see Chap. YI, Fig. 59). The diagnosis is most difiicult in multipar^e, because the physician may be dealing with a pathological increase in the size of the uterus. The diagnosis of pregnancy being made, the next step is to look for symptoms of abortion, the most prominent and constant of which is a bloody discharge from the uterus. It is important for the physician to assure himself that the flow actually comes from the uterine cavity and not from injuries or diseases of the vagina. As I have said, this flow proceeds from a separation of the decidua from the uterine wall, although in rare instances it may come from the mucous surface of the decidua, and when this is the case abortion is not likely to occur. The etiology of abortion should be considered in the diagnosis, and the possibility of willful interference and its character should not be lost sight of, for the prognosis may depend on this.
The most important symptoms of a threatened or imminent abortion are a slight flow of blood after a cessation of the menses and a sense of uneasiness in the pelvis. These may subside under proper care and treatment and the pregnancy go on to full term, a fact which must be carefully lx)rne in mind in every case of abortion. When, however, the bleeding continues and the uterine contractions increase in severity, accompanied with pain in the back and over the pubes, with a frequent desire to urinate, abortion will certainly occur. A threatened abortion is most apt to be confounded with the beginning rupture of a tubal pregnancy. Here also we have more or less of a flow of blood after a cessation of menstruation, besides acute pelvic pain, often simulating menstrual pain. An error in diagnosis between these two conditions is liable to be followed by the most serious consequences, and in these days of indiscriminate curetting especially, it must be guarded against.
A flow of blood anfl uterine contractions may be present with an intrauterine polyp and simulate abortion. The history of previous attacks of the kind, the unlikelihood of a cessation of menstruation, and the absence of all symptoms of pregnancy should point in the proper direction. Occasionally
Whenever a patient has missed one or more monthly periods and has a show of blood, our suspicions must be directed to the possibility of abortion. It is always wise to suspect every woman of being pregnant until the contrary is established in order to prevent calamities. For a patient may consult a physician in perfect ignorance of her condition, or she may intentionally mislead him, in the hope that a pelvic examination will induce an abortion.
Occasionally, a case occurs in which it is difficult to say whether the physician is dealing with an abortion or with its after effects. When most of the secundines have been retained, the uterus may still seem large and flabby; the great softness of the supra-vaginal portion may remain and suggest that pregnancy continues. If, however, the uterus can be felt to contract under the examining finger, that is to say by bimanual palpation, it is certain that most of the product of conception has been expelled, and probably quite recently. In a later stage this sign no longer holds good, and it may be impossible to make a diagnosis without a microscopical examination. The size of the uterus as compared with the time of probable pregnancy should always be considered most carefully.
When the diagnosis of imminent abortion is decided upon, the physician's first duty is to determine whether the abortion is or is not inevitable. It is inevitable when regular uterine contractions take place and when parts of the product of conception have been expelled. It is rare for a pregnancy to continue when the ovum can be felt through a dilated canal. Sometimes a sudden cessation of the gastric symptoms of pregnancy indicates death of the fetus, and should be considered in the physician's opinion. Finally, it must be ascertained whether the uterus has entirely expelled its contents, or whether there are still remnants of the product of conception; in other words, whether there is an incomplete abortion. It is wise to proceed slowly and carefully in the formation of an opinion upon this point. When there is a gradual diminution of the flow, and a cessation of pain, the abortion is probably complete ; when the flow continues with occasional exacerbations it may be assumed that pieces of the decidua are still in utero. It is well, however, to look for further symptoms. If the abortion is not complete, the body of the uterus is probably soft and much thicker in the antero-posterior diameter than normal; and there will be still much compressibility of the supra-vaginal portions of the uterus (H. Sellheim, MilncJi. med. WocJienschr., 1902, ITo. 10). In an abortion of the fourteenth or sixteenth week bimanual compression of the uterus produces occasionally a sense of grating or crackling that indicates a separation of the placenta. An easily dilatable cervix is always suggestive of incomplete abortion.
PROGNOSIS.
The prognosis in abortion depends much upon its causation. Women rarely die from spontaneous abortion, though it is occasionally followed by illness, as shown by chronic endometric changes and subinvolution, and, more rarely, tubal and peri-uterine inflammations. The only fatal form of disease associated with abortion is chorio-epithelioma, which is more frequent than has been supposed.
The prognosis must be more guarded, hoAvever, when abortion is the result of criminal interference. Olshausen (Stock, I. D., Berlin, 1897)attributes eighty per cent of all septic abortions to criminality. Various other authorities place the proportion of criminal abortions at from five to fifty per cent of the total number.
(1) Preventive Treatment. — In the case of a woman who has repeatedly failed to carry the product of conception to term, the treatment must often begin before pregnancy occurs. The symptoms, both subjective and objective, must be carefully analyzed and any defect suggested by them remedied. If there is any history of syphilis, the prospective father should be
treated as well as the mother. Such treatment too often fails, because of the well known apathy and carelessness of the syphilitic, and therefore strenuous exertions must be made in regard to it. Some writers strongly advise the iodides in syphilitic cases; others prefer mercury alone. It is probably immaterial which course is pursued, provided whichever is adopted is kept up persistently. If syphilis can be excluded, the physician's duty as regards the husband is for the time at an end ; it is true that he is often responsible for the occurrence of repeated abortions, even when he is not syphilitic, but there is no way at present of proving it.
In the treatment of the woman any disease of the uterus should be the object of attention. If there is a hyperplastic endometritis, a thorough curettage, followed by an application of equal parts of tincture of iodine and carbolic acid, should be tried. A laceration of the cervix must be repaired, and if there is much erosion of the cervical membrane or degeneration, either cicatricial or cystic, the cervix should be amputated. If the; uterus is large and soft the following prescription is often of service :
This should be given for a month, unless contra-indicated by the appearance of a rash, or much mental depression, both of which results are rare. Large douches of hot water taken daily, with the patient in the dorsal posture, will assist in reducing the size of the uterus, and glycerin tampons inserted every second day are useful for the same end. The patient can introduce the tampons herself by means of a Thomas cupping glass, leaving it in place overnight.
Displacements of the uterus should be corrected by some one of the means at our command. Piles and fissures in ano must not be overlooked as possible sources of irritation. Whenever there is a general enteroptosis, a well-fitting abdominal support should be worn; not one which pushes the abdomen inward, but one that lifts it up. General hygienic measures must not be omitted, such as suitable clothing, proper exercise in the open air, cool to cold water sponge baths on rising, and wholesome, easily digested food. In fact the physician will always find that it is worth while to inquire into the patient's habits of life, for he may discover something which w^ill greatly assist him in understanding the case.
When the patient is already pregnant, but no symptoms of abortion have as yet appeared, the history of former accidents should be carefully studied. If it proves on investigation that the earlier abortions have been in the habit of occurring at the time when a menstrual period might otherwise be expected,
the ]3atient mnst be kept quietl}^ in bed and free from all care at sucli times. Dr. Ill keeps his patients in bed for three or four days and gives the dates at which the rest should begin; he also prohibits all sexual intercourse shortly before, during, and immediately after such times, and advises the avoidance of all alcoholic beverages, coffee, and tea. He has found potassium bromide in doses of ten grains, given in milk, three times daily after meals extremely useful. The bromide has a marked effect in reducing sexual excitement ; larger doses are rarely required. The bowels should be moved daily by Rochelle salts in the shape of a Seidlitz powder, or, in plethoric women by a tea spoonful of salts of Carlsbad in a tumbler of warm water before breakfast.
Malpositions of the uterus should be corrected, but only the gentlest and most careful manipulations should be used, lest the very event which is to be prevented should occur. If there is a retroversion, or a retroflexion, or a combination of the two (which is the usual condition of things), the uterus should be replaced and kept in place by a pessary of small size. If it is not easily replaced by careful manipulations, it is best to desist and order the patient to lie in the knee-breast jDOsture for from five to ten minutes daily, on a level cushion placed upon the floor, not on a bed. If the vulva are separated slightly at the same time, the air will rush into the vagina and enhance the postural effect.
Viburnum pruni folium may be given for Aveeks or even months at a time as a uterine sedative, and it has been highly spoken of for that purpose. It is best given in the form of the fluid extract, in twenty drop doses every four hours during the day. Iodide of potash with iron has been suggested for the treatment of habitual abortions, no matter what may be their cause (Lomer, Zeitschr. f. Get. u. Gyn., 1901, vol. 46, p. 306). In nervous and excitable women tincture of valerian or valerianate of zinc is serviceable.
When abortion is threatened or imminent, the history of former abortions must again be carefully studied, as regards character, relation of occurrence to regular menstrual periods, and age of former interrupted conceptions. If the former abortions have been preceded by a slight flow, at or near a time when menstruation would be expected, the patient must be put to bed immediately on the appearance of the first symptoms of a flow of blood or of pain. The case need not be regarded as hopeless, for even large hemorrhages may not be followed by abortion, and the patient may be encouraged accordingly. She must be kept absolutely quiet with small doses of opium (0.02 grams, or one-third of a grain, every two or three hours), preferably often repeated, not so much for the effect of the drug on the uterus as for the general quieting influence upon the system. Cannabis indica in the form of the tincture, given in ten drop doses every two hours, is sometimes most satisfactory. Yiburnum pruni folium and asafoetida are highly recommended, and both of them can be- given indefinitely, which is not the case with the other
TREATMENT DURING PROGRESS OF ABORTION. 4g3
drugs mentioned. The bowels should be kept open by means of a mild laxative, jDreferably a saline. All excitement, both mental and physical, should be carefully avoided, sexual intercourse prohibited, and a very light diet advised. The importance of absolute mental quietude cannot be overestimated nor too much impressed upon the patient's friends. It is a good plan to keep the patient on her back with the foot of the bed elevated from ten to twelve inches, and only a small pillow under her head ; this posture reduces the influx of blood into the pelvic organs and has a marked tendency to empty the veins. In many instances it will tide the patient over a critical period.
Vaginal examinations, whether instrumental or digital, should be restricted; the use of light tamjDonade of the vagina, advised by some authorities, is of no service, and often proves fatal to the ovum. A light hot-water bag over the pubes sometimes relieves the uterine contractions. The patient must be kept in bed for several days after the flow and the pains have ceased, and only gradual, careful exercise should be permitted when she first gets about again. The importance of easy evacuations of the bowels must be insisted upon.
When the flow continues for a long time, weakening the patient to a marked degree, it may be necessary to hasten the abortion, but so long as there is any likelihood of a living fetus, the advice and concurrence of a second practitioner should be asked before taking active measures.
Treatment during Progress of Abortion. — If, in spite of all endeavors, abortion takes place, the treatment may be either expectant or active. These two forms of therapy should not be regarded as diametrically opposite, but rather supplemental, one to another. The expectant plan of treatment is right and justifiable up to a certain point, just as it is in labor at term; but when the natural forces fail, or dangerous hemorrhage appears, active treatment must be vigorously enforced.
Expectant treatment may be furthered by such drugs as ergot and gossypium, which must not, however, be given in large doses for fear of causing tetanic contractions. This is especially true of ergot, which has, at times, a tendency to contract the cervix.
The dangers of expectant treatment lie in the fact that the patient may suffer great detriment to health by reason of prolonged confinement and improper involution of the uterus, and also it may afford opportunity for septic infection. Hellender has reported an important and interesting investigation into seventy-four prolonged abortions in which not one uterus remained sterile ; all contained bacteria though only twenty of the patients had any fever (Deutsch. Gesellsch. f. Gyn., 1903). Bacteria find their way into the uterus along with coagula of blood or membranous material which hang from the cervix. Sepsis is also to be feared when many instrumental or digital examinations are made, indeed, it is true in abortion, as in labor, that the more numerous the examinations the greater the danger of sepsis. The bad habit which some women have of making digital examinations themselves, is undoubt-
of abortion which is the result of criminal interference.
In abortion we have to do with a pathological process where nature does the work of repair with greater tenderness and completeness than we can, and therefore there should be here, as in all surgical work, distinct indications for active treatment. So long as the patient's health does not suffer, the expectant plan of treatment may safely be continued. An important indication for active interference is excessive hemorrhage, which is most common in the twelfth to the sixteenth weeks, when the vascularization of the parts is great. Hemorrhages also occur, now and then, in the earlier months, but life is rarely endangered by them at this stage. If the hemorrhage is slight and the ovum has not ruptured, it is well not to be too hasty in active treatment. Excessive hemorrhage can often be prevented by bringing about uterine contractions and securing separation of the decidua, and the longer pregTiancy has continued the more important is this measure — the hemorrhage at the fourth month is often appalling. A most satisfactory way of carrying out this measure is the introduction of a firm vaginal tampon of iodoform gauze, which is left in situ for from twenty-four to forty-eight hours. In cases where the cervix closes upon the secundines after expelling the fetus, a vaginal tampon will often cause a reopening of the canal. Iodoform gauze is most satisfactory because it is less apt to take on a foul odor in course of time than plain sterile gauze. The gauze should be a strip five yards long and three inches wide and the tampon should be applied with the patient in the Sims, or better still, in the dorsal posture, when most attention can be paid to cleanliness. A Sims speculum should be used to retract the perineum and the gauze is pushed up along the hollow of the blade with a dressing forceps, taking small lengths and pushing them well into place, much after the maimer of a dentist when filling a tooth. Thus Douglas' cul-de-sac is first filled, then the right fornix, then the left, then the vault anterior to the cervix, and lastly the vagina.
It is hardly necessary to say that a vaginal tampon has lost its usefulness when the product of conception has been forced into the cervical canal. Its removal is best accomplished by means of a small right-angled tenaculum, slipped along the posterior wall of the vagina. The gauze is caught and withdrawal Avith but slight inconvenience to the patient. It often happens that the whole product of conception is found in the vagina when the tampon is removed. Astringent tampons should never be used, because of their irritating effect upon the vaginal mucous membrane and the danger of furnishing a nidus for septic infection. Styptics, whether vaginal or intra-uterine, are, in my own opinion, of no use at all.
Intra-uterine Tampons. — Uterine tampons are occasionally service* able in the control of hemorrhages, by their power of inducing uterine contractions. They also assist in the separation and possibly in the expulsion of the uterine contents, besides checking hemorrhage, dilating the cervical canal, and preparing the uterus for further manipulation, if necessary. A uterine
tampon should never be used, however, when a vaginal one will suffice, for the danger of sepsis as well as of injury to the uterine wall is much gTeater; moreover, there is no certainty that the hemorrhage is permanently relieved, for the bleeding decidua may remain in utero. The indications for the use of uterine tampons are:
or sponginess of the uterus.
Method of Introducing Uterine Tampons. — The best material for a uterine tampon is ten per cent sterile iodoform gauze, in strips two inches wide and five yards long. These should be kept in readiness in screw-capped bottles, covered with a piece of sterile cotton or plain sterile gauze ; the outside gauze can be used to wipe the vagina dry. The patient must be prepared as for a major operation, on account of the risk of septic infection. The vulva should be shaved, and scrubbed with soap and water; the vagina flushed with a solution of bichloride of mercury (1: 5000). The patient is then placed on a table, in the dorsal posture, with a Kelly pad, real or extemporized, under the buttocks and her feet held up by stirrups. Sterilized towels should be laid over all adjacent parts, the vulva alone being exposed. When sterilized towels are not in readiness, they may be prepared by placing the towels in a basin with a definite amount of bichloride of mercury, after which boiling water is poured over them in amount sufficient to make the solution 1 : 1000. The cervix is exposed to view by means of a single-bladed Sims speculum (see Fig. 108), inserted in the vagina, and then drawn towards the neck of the bladder by an American bullet forceps, so as to straighten the cervical canal. While these preparations are being made, the parts are sprayed with a solution of bichloride (1 : 5000), and when all is in readiness this is shut off. The vagina is first wiped dry with the piece of iodoform gauze already mentioned, and then one of the strips of prepared gauze is introduced into the uterus and carried well up to the fundus by means of a Bozeman's dressing forceps or a Kelly's gauze packer. It must be carried up into both horns and the whole cavity gradually filled. Iodoform gauze is preferable, in spite of the great opposition to its odor and the danger of iodoform poisoning, because it becomes less foul in the course of twenty-four to forty-eight hours than plain sterile gauze. This is on account of the decomposition of iodoform, by which iodine is liberated, this
466 ABOETioisr.
being one of our best and least harmful antiseptics. In cases of emergency a roller bandage of gauze, two inches wide, can be boiled for five minutes in a bichloride solution (1 : 1000), or a boric acid solution (1 : 100), and thoroughly wruns out. The gTeatest care should be used not to let the gauze touch any part of the body except the vagina while it is being introduced. Iodoform
OF THE VaGIXA AXD THE CeRVIX IX THE TrEATMEXT OF AX IxCOMPLETE AbORTIOX.
gauze can be allowed to remain in place for two days but one day is sufficient in most cases. The bichloride gauze must not remain longer than twenty-four hours and it should preferably be removed earliey.
An intra-uterine tampon should never be used except through a speculum and under the most stringent antiseptic precautions. Special difficulty will be encountered when the uterus is unusually soft or retroflexed. The introduction of the tampon must lie preceded by anteversion of the uterus, when it can be accomplished, and the gauze packing must be controlled by a hand on the abdomen, for much harm may be done by anything but the most delicate manipulations.
Massage of the Uterus. — Bimanual massage and expression accomplishes for the aborting, non-contracting uterus what Crede's '' TIand-griff " does for the expression of the placenta from the puerperal uterus at term. Hemorrhage can quite often be controlled without intra-uterine interference, but expression of the secundines is not often accomplished without it. The method is especially serviceable when the patient is bleeding profusely and nothing is ready for intra-uterine treatment.
Method of Massage. — Two fingers of the right hand are placed anterior to the cervix against the corpus uteri with the palmar surface forward, while the left hand seeks the posterior wall of the uterus. The left hand presses against the finger in the vagina by a rotary movement ; it is important that the fingers in the vagina should be kept absolutely quiet, and especially that no rubbing or boring motion should be made with them. All motions must be made by the external hand, the internal hand being used as a fixed point or fulcrum. If the whole of the fingers on the external hand are used and the compressing force increased gradually and with gentleness, the patient experiences little pain and makes little resistance ; if, on the other hand, only the tips of the fingers are used, the pain is unbearable.
When the hemorrhage has been controlled by this means, the uterus is well contracted, and the secundines not expelled, the physician can proceed to attend to the further treatment of the case according to the indications, at his leisure.
Mechanical Evacuation of the Contents of the Uterus. — The removal of the uterine contents is without comparison the best treatment for hemorrhage accompanying abortion, but it must be remembered that repeated attempts to clean the uterus are fraught with great danger to the patient because of the likelihood of septic infection. Mechanical evacuation should be done thoroughly and with all the aseptic precautions that a conscientious practitioner has at his command. It makes little difference whether it is done manually or instrumentally so long as it is done thoroughly and with cleanliness. In the last month in which abortion can occur (twelfth to sixteenth weeks) with a dilated cervical canal and a soft uterus, the finger answers the purpose, provided the fundus can be reached by it and the uterus is freely movable. If, however, the fundus uteri cannot be reached without the introduction of half the hand into the vagina, the procedure is of doubtful value. The finger in the uterus should be controlled by the hand on the abdomen, by which the uterus is pushed down to it; in this way really good contractions can be secured. Extensively adherent particles of the decidua and chorion are difiicult to reach, especially when they are situated in the horn, and such cases may require instrumental interference. Further advantages of the finger are the positive knowledge afforded by it that nothing remains in utero ; the fact that hemorrhage is not excessive after its use, as the finger acts as a tampon to the cavity ; and, finally, the limited number of instruments required. In the early months, however, the finger is useless unless the product of conception has come down into the cervical canal. Unfor-
overestimated.
Extensive injuries are hardly possible when the finger alone is employed to empty the uterus ; they generally arise from instrumental interference, whether by the curette or the forceps. Twenty inches or more of intestine have been drawn out through the uterus with forceps, and in other cases the omentum has been drawn into the uterus with the curette. Emulsions and bichloride of mercury solutions liave been poured into the peritoneal cavity. This is a good place to emphasize incidentally the importance of sending immediately for an abdominal surgeon when an accidental perforation has occurred. The physician in charge of the case should instantly stop all attempts at further intra-uterine work and place an iodoform gauze tampon in the vagina, while waiting for the surgeon. Instrumental interference under these circumstances is not only admissible, but absolutely indispensable.
The extremes of opinion as to the use of the curette in mechanical evacuation of the uterus are differently represented by two observations. Kneise {Miinch. med. Wochenschr., 1903, Xo. 13) calls attention to the fact that in the University Clinic at Halle, only one per cent of abortions required such assistance. He reports five hundred cases. On the other hand, Dumitriu (Erommel's Jahreshericht, 1905) reported that out of one hundred abortions he has used the curette ninety-one times.
The danger in using the curette is not so much from the risk of perforation (provided it is in careful and gentle hands), as it is in failure to do the work thoroughly, or, in other words, to remove the secundines. This danger can be avoided by :
(2) A thorough understanding of the consistence of the uterus. The importance of this condition cannot be overestimated. The septic uterus is extremely soft and the danger of perforating it necessitates the utmost gentleness in the use of the curette. Only one of a large size should ever be used.
(Y) Refraining from the use of the curette when, at the end of the fourth month, the whole placenta is in the uterus, and reliance instead upon the dilating tampon, the finger, and the polyp forceps.
Method of Mechanical Evacuation. — In the majority of cases it is necessary to give an anesthetic, but in cases where this is troublesome or impossible, the difficulty may be overcome by the administration of one-tenth
of a grain of morpliin liypodermically just before the mechanical evacuation. The patient must be thoroughly cleansed and prepared as described under the head of uterine tampons, after which she must be placed upon a table, not a bed, with a Kelly pad under the buttocks. The field of operation is thoroughly scrubbed after the patient is under the anesthetic, and the surrounding parts protected by sterile or bichloride towels. The following instruments are essential: A single-plate Sims speculum (Fig. 109, p. 466) to retract the perineum; a bullet forceps ; Ellinger's and Goodell's dilators or else steel sounds to number thirty-six (French). I have sometimes used Kelly's urethral dilators, sometimes with good results.
Sponge or laminar i a tents are rarely used to-day; if they are employed they should be enclosed in a thin rubber tube which is filled with water after its introduction into the uterus ; the upper end of the tube should be closed with a string before insertion, while the lower end is closed after the water is injected. By this method of procedure most perfect asepsis is secured. After the cervix has been exposed by the speculum, and drawn towards the pubes with the bullet forceps, the canal is dilated, if necessary. When the abortion is one of less than ten weeks, the curette can be introduced immediately after the dilatation and the uterus cleaned by gentle motion from above downwards. The physician should accustom himself to curetting the cavity in regular order, thus : the posterior wall, the anterior wall, the left side, the right side, and the horns should be scraped in the order given. After the twelfth week the curette is apt to slide down the membranes, and it will be necessary to use a large placental forceps with dull edges to start the placenta, after which the curette can be used to finish the work. Under all circumstances the curetting must be done with thoroughness, after which the cavity is irrigated with a sterile normal salt solution, or a solution of bichloride, 1 : 5000, great care being taken that there is a free flow from the canula or the uterus. The moment the flow stops, the instrument should be withdrawn.
In an abortion during the early months a strip of gauze should be placed in the uterus, reaching up to the fundus, and removed in twenty-four hours. If the case is late in the fourth month the cavity should be well, but not rudely packed, and a second strip used to fill the vagina. This procedure not only stops hemorrhage but sets up firm contractions, drains the uterus, and assists in a prompt involution of the organ. The gauze is removed in twentyfour hours. A large dose of ergot or gossypium will assist materially in assuring a firm contraction. Three large doses of one teaspoonful each may be given on the day after operation, four hours apart. Quinine has been reported as giving excellent results as a uterine contractor ; it should be given in solution every ten minutes, but not more than two or three doses in one day (Walther, Zeitsch. f. Arzt. Fort., 1903, ^o. 20-21).
Special precautions must be employed in the case of the retroflexed, fixed, soft, friable uterus and in one which is acutely inflamed. The latter will be spoken of under the head of septic abortions.
After-treatment. — It is wise to keep the patient in bed for from six to ten days. All douches and local interference of any kind should be avoided, unless some special indication arises, as unnecessary and therefore useless. The patient must be kept clean and a vulvar pad should be worn. For urination and defecation a commode may be used, if she is able to sit up at all; the urine should not be drawn if it can possibly be voided, for fear of a septic cystitis. Before the patient gets up, it is wise for the physician to assure himself of the proper involution of the uterus, taking into account the time since the abortion took place. If the uterus is not in proper condition suitable treatment should be instituted.
or sapremic condition.
By septic abortion is meant an infection of the uterine cavity and its contents with pathogenic germs, with the production of fever and possibly chills. It is one of the most frequent conditions met with and is commonly the result of criminal intent. Olshausen attributes eighty per cent of all septic abortions to criminal interference. This was in the days when physicians rarely interfered in the normal mechanism of abortion, except to remove from the cervix what had been forced into it by the uterus. Septic abortion is less frequent in women of middle life than in the young, a fact easily explicable by the more delicate fabric of the tissues in youth. The same thing is true of septic peritonitis, due to the fact that there are fewer lymphatics in the old than in the young.
The sapremic condition is not very frequent. It should be treated by the establishment of thorough drainage and prompt removal of the decomposing uterine contents as already described (see mechanical and manual evacuation of uterus). It is hardly necessary to say that j^erfect asepsis is essential to success.
The treatment of septic abortion in the early stages is the same as that just mentioned. It will be wise to place the patient on a liquid diet as long as there is much fever. An ice bag above the pubes is good as long as the temperature is above 101° F. ; a towel should always be placed between the ice bag and the skin. While the cold is pleasant to the patient as long as there is fever, the reverse obtains when the temperature is below the point
SEPTIC ABOETIOlSr. 471
just given. To carry out this treatment properly the temperature should be taken every three hours ; a rectal temperature is the only safe one to take. If the towels are constipated a saline cathartic will relieve the patient. The greatest care will have to be exercised in all manipulations when the process has advanced, on account of the softening of the uterus or its surrounding tissue. Lymphangitis and phlebitis are common complications ; tubal and ovarian abscesses also occur, but less frequently, unless the case is of a gonorrheal character. When these complications occur the treatment already described is not sufficient and therapeutic measures suited to the special indications must be adopted.
When the abortion occurs during the earlier months and there is little periuterine complications, an injection of a ten per cent mixture of iodoform in glycerin should be made into the uterine cavity through a small softrubber catheter and a glass syringe, and the vagina filled with iodoform gauze. The catheter should be small, and an easy outflow of the mixture should be assured ; a solid tube must never be used for the purpose. The injection should be made slowly and without any force.
If the case has arrived at or near the fourth month and the septic process is kept up by particles of dead matter, or, in other words, the pathogenic organisms are fed by them, I would recommend an intermittent alcohol intrauterine injection as by far the best mode of treatment. It is absolutely harmless and easy of application even by the most inexperienced, after the drain has once been into the uterus, and it disturbs the patient to but a slight extent, as after the first application she is not again removed to a table. Besides the instruments enumerated (see p. 469) the operator must have a soft round catheter (No. 20, French) to which is fastened by a glass joint another tube about sixteen inches long, armed with a small glass funnel or the barrel of a glass syringe. Two pieces of string about sixteen inches long a^e boiled with the rest of the instruments. The patient is prepared as already described, and the operator proceeds as in evacuation of the uterus until he arrives at the introduction of the gauze. He then takes a careful measurement of the depth of the uterus and ties a string with a clove hitch to the portion of the catheter which will be exposed just outside the cervix when the instrument is inserted into the uterus as high as the fundus. The catheter is introduced into the uterus up to the fundus and a small strip of gauze packed up into the uterus as far as each horn. The string spoken of is then tied to the gauze strip and the vagina packed with the remainder of the gauze. The purpose of the string, which ties the gauze to the catheter, is to prevent the catheter being pulled out by , accident, for if this were to occur, it would be necessary to remove the gauze in the vagina. The rubber tube with the funnel is fastened to the catheter and a twenty-five per cent solution of alcohol poured into the catheter through the funnel, until it begins to flow from the vagina. This douche must be repeated every two hours. In private practice among the less fortunately situated, where no trained nurse is at hand, the physician should make the
He should give the attendant an empty, clean, two-ounce bottle and direct her to fill it with the dilute alcohol and pour it into the funnel every two hours. The funnel and tube are placed on a clean towel on the patient's abdomen and held there by a binder. The apparatus does not annoy the patient and she does not have to remain flat on her back. The only pain produced by the treatment is that caused by the first flow of alcohol over the perineum. The catheter should remain in the uterus for five days, unless the temperature falls below 101° F., taken in the rectum, but, as it drops, the injections are given less frequently. When the temperature has remained below 101° F. for twenty-four hours, the dressing may be removed. If there is no improvement in the septic condition during the first twenty-four hours there is probably some abnormal condition outside the uterus.
By means of these injections the endometrium is constantly bathed in a twenty-five per cent solution of alcohol. The gauze is the agent which carries it through the cavity of the uterus and is itself constantly kept clean by the fluid. A second
ARTIFICIAL ABOKTION. 473
satisfactory. Figure 109 shows the method in action. The thumb-screw near the funnel is placed there to keep the tube full of the dilute alcohol and facilitate its flow by gravity when the funnel is filled and the thumb-screw opened. If this treatment is pursued in the later months of pregnancy a small-sized stomach-tube answers the purpose.
Extensive peri-uterine disease, when it exists, must be met by such treatment as has been described. Extirpation of the uterus has not met with much encouragement. If the sepsis is still confined to the womb, it is hardly justifiable, wliile if the infection has gone beyond the uterus, it is useless.
Hemorrhage and sepsis are not the only indications for evacuation of the uterus, although they are all that have been discussed. A woman cannot be allowed to go on indefinitely with retained secundines, simply because they produce no dangerous symptom. The constant loss of blood, the inability for exertion, the annoyance induced by the uncertainty of the future, and the convenience of her physician, are all factors to be considered, always provided that the death of the fetus is certain.
CRIMINAL ABORTION.
In criminal abortion, mechanical, electrical, and medicinal agents are all employed. So far as the moral aspects of the question are concerned they are equally bad ; so far as the injurious effects upon the woman are concerned, the medicinal are the least harmful and least successful, while the mechanical method of thrusting a sound into the uterus affords the greatest risk of sepsis. The criminal abortionist often combines the electric method with the mechanical one, in which case he is apt to get the ill effects of the latter. To what extent the medical profession is responsible for the murder of the unborn is shown by the fact that women often use gum catheters themselves and are sufiiciently Avell posted to boil them before their insertion. The punishment of such criminals is always difficult, as popular sympathy is rather with the abortionist and murderer, and the witness is apt to be an unwilling one.
When the continuance of pregnancy threatens life, the claims of the mother have a prior right to consideration and it is the duty of the medical attendant not only to suggest, but to urge its termination. The following conditions justify the induction of abortion:
Pernicious vomiting is one of the most important indications for the induction of artificial abortion, and when its existence can be clearly shown, the pregnancy should be promptly brought to an end. ]^ot all forms of troublesome and persistent vomiting, however, are pernicious, and it is most important to distinguish between the real pernicious variety and that which is only an exaggeration of the nausea which is one of the commonest accompaniments of pregnancy. When the patient vomits persistently at intervals all day and all night, the vomiting being associated with the ejection of bile ; . when the condition becomes so aggravated that no food whatever is retained, and the patient's strength is so exhausted that she is confined to bed for the greater part of the time; and when this condition of things has lasted for from ten days to a fortnight, it is almost certainly pernicious.
In all cases of severe nausea it is extremely important to determine the relationship of the ammonia output during pregnancy to the total amount of nitrogen in the urine. The proteids of the food are the source of the nitrogen, and nitrogenous waste products represent proteid waste. The average waste in the ordinary individual is fifteen grains in twentyfour hours. It is most important to remember that the clinical manifestations are not necessarily in proportion to the increase of ammonia output. In neurotic women, vomiting may be excessive with little or no increase in the proportion of ammonia, whereas in other cases where vomiting is comparatively slight, the ammonia output is dangerously large. The necessity for inducing abortion must be decided solely by the increase of ammonia, and whenever this rises above ten per cent the uterus must be relieved of its contents without delay. To ascertain the point positively, a careful chemical analysis must be made, determining the relation between the ammonia and the total amount of nitrogen in the urine. If the physician is at a distance from a chemical laboratory, he should take six ounces of the urine, add to it a teaspoonful of chloroform, and send it to the nearest well-equipped laboratory.
Acute Bright's disease undoubtedly affords an urgent reason for emptying the uterus, and whenever there is the slightest suspicion of the presence of a nephritis its existence or non-existence must be determined without a moment's unnecessary delay.
In grave constitutional disorders which may end fatally it is the prerogative of the mother to decide whether or not she will go through with the pregnancy. Such diseases are: Aneurism, cerebral disease, cardiac disease, a rapidly advancing phthisis, etc.
constitutes an urgent reason for inducing abortion.
Pyelitis. — A mild case of pyelitis is often relieved by rest in bed, urotropin, and drinking large quantities of water. In some cases excellent results have been obtained by catheterization of the kidney and irrigation of the pelvis. In more severe cases, however, with a large amount of pus, fever, and perhaps pain in the kidney, the only pos-
In addition to the cases which come under one of these five fundamental indications, the advice of the medical man may occasionally be sought under circumstances of a special character. For example, he may be urged to induce an abortion in the case of an illegitimate pregnancy, and here it is his duty to give an unqualified refusal, no matter how pitiful the circumstances may be, nor how strong the reasons for " saving a young girl's reputation." Again, he may be importuned by a wife worn out by frequent child-bearing and dreading the exhaustion consequent upon another pregnancy and labor, with the added fatigue of lactation and of caring for another infant. 'No matter what reasons may be brought to bear, the upright physician must maintain the principle that in entering upon the married state, husband and wife covenant to bear the burdens it naturally imposes, and to make such sacrifices as are demanded by proper standards of right, clean living, even at the expense of loss of health, as well as of plans and social opportunities upon which their hearts may be set. The position of a husband and wife who have a young family to support and look forward with anxiety to an additional burden when strength and means are already taxed to their utmost, is a sad one, and the duty of the family physician is not confined to a refusal to consider the question of an abortion. He should step in as a friend as well as a medical adviser, using all his influence to dissuade the parties concerned from a measure so fraught with peril to the moral nature, as well as to health and even life, trying further to persuade them to take a wider view of such an act in its relation to the character of the individual and to the community at large.
Method of Artificial Abortion. — When the preservation of either the health or life of a woman is at stake, it is not only justifiable, but absolutely obligatory, to interrupt a pregnancy. This should be carried out with the greatest care in order to escape the dire results of hemorrhage and infection so common after improper and careless work. The two chief things are to comply with perfect asepsis and to effect a complete dilatation of the cervix. Unless the operation meets these two cardinal prerequisites it should not be done. Perfect asepsis guards against infection and a complete dilatation of the cervix makes possible a control of hemorrhage which otherwise may be very severe. To be compelled to rapidly dilate a cervix to relieve a dangerous hemorrhage due to abortion is a very unpleasant task. Such is the condition frequently met with where abortions have been caused by introducing a sound into the uterus. The friability of the cervix and the resulting tears are astonishingly common. Happily, the vaginal C?esarean section introduced by Dlihrssen gives us an alternative in these cases. I advise it in all cases where a rapid dilatation is necessary, as, for example, in a placenta prawia.
An effectual and simple method of causing abortion is as follows : The patient's vulva and surrounding parts are carefully shaved, cleansed with soap and water, and sterilized with alcohol and 1-1,000 bichloride solution. The
patient is then put in the Sims left lateral posture, the perineum is retracted Avith a speculum, and the cervix grasped with tenaculum forceps. The vagina is then cleansed with a tincture of green soap and water, ninety-five-per-cent alcohol, ether, and 1-1,000 bichloride solution, after which it is carefully dried out. A large male rubber catheter, which has been sterilized by boiling, is then introduced well up into the uterus; the vagina about the catheter is loosely packed with sterile gauze. All of this can be carried out without any anesthesia, in the patient's bed or in the operating room. The patient is then kept in bed, and, as a rule, within twenty-four hours the cervix will be completely dilated and the abortion over. Prior to the third month the abortion is frequently incomplete, later it is nearly always complete. Indeed, after the third month a complete abortion usually results from merely dilating the cervix, rupturing the membranes, and allowing the escape of the contained amniotic fluid. When, after a complete dilatation of the cervix, there is evidence that the ovum or parts of it have not come away, as indicated by bleeding or continued pain, the jDatient should be anesthetized, put in the perineal posture on an operating table, and the ovum separated from the uterus by the finger introduced through the cervix. The hand during this procedure should always be covered with a thin rubber glove. The finger can often be supplemented by the use of the placental forceps and the dull curette. Instruments should be employed, however, with the greatest care, and, as a rule, the finger is all that is necessary. At the conclusion of the removal the entire uterine cavity should be carefully gone over by the finger. If this precaution is not taken, pieces of placenta or membranes will frequently be left in, however careful the operator may be. In one case a competent obstetrician of my acquaintance, after doing what he considered a complete abortion, was distressed to have his patient showing signs of further trouble. At a second operation he discovered that he had left twin foeti in the uterus, having neglected to palpate with the finger.
At the conclusion of the removal of the ovum the uterus can with advantage be washed out with hot sterile, normal salt solution. If there is still hemorrhage, which is infrequent, the uterus should be packed with an iodoform gauze pack, to be removed in twenty-four hours. x\.fter removal, full doses of ergotol are of advantage in bringing about a contraction of the uterus and a cessation of the hemorrhage.
INJURIES AND AILMENTS FOLLOWING LABOR.
Importance of prophylaxis, p. 477. Sequelae of labor: Physiological, p. 477; abnormal and pathological, p. 478. _ Prevention of sequelae: Use of forceps, p. 482; protection of perineum, p. 483; repair of perineum, p. 484; repair of cervix, p. 486; precautions against infection, p. 486; use of catheter, p. 486; choice of nurse, p. 487.
Inasmuch as a large number of gynecological affections date from childbirth, there is manifestly a wide field for the exercise of prophylaxis in obstetrics. The prevention of a large amount of serious gynecological work lies in the hands of the general practitioners who are caring for women in childbirth to-day. May I add that it is a far higher function of the profession to prevent a thousand cases of rupture of the perineum than to cure the same number by appropriate surgical operations, however brilliant or however praiseworthy the latter may be.
SEQUELS OF LABOR.
Labor is a physiological process ; therefore, if the mother is in good health, if her pelvis is normal, and her tissues in good condition, she should rise up from her bed a perfectly sound woman, provided, of course, that the child presents no abnormality, and that the labor has been well conducted. Even in a perfectly normal labor, however, certain slight injuries and changes are liable to occur of so slight a character that they may be regarded as physiological.
flexion, descensus, and prolapse.
Infections of both the upper and lower genital tracts, including the uterine tubes, the uterus, the cervix, the pelvic cellular tissue, the vagina, and tlie perineum, as well as the bladder. Venous thrombosis in the broad ligaments.
most frequently found after an unsuccessful attempt to denude and unite the torn cervical lips.
which serve to fix the uterus to the pelvic wail. Rarely the cervix survives the injury with a fistula in one side (see Tig. 111). As a rule a defect such as that seen in the illustration is due to an attempted closure of a central tear, which has not resulted, successfully. Radiating scars are found at the pelvic outlet, beginning in the perineum and extending upwards in a " Y " shape into the right and left sulci. In rare instances, the perineum is simply in-
MECHANICAL INJURIES CAUSED BY LABOR.
filtrated, and still more rarely, the child is born per anum. The extreme form of injury at the pelvic outlet is a complete tear (see Fig. 112) dividing the septum between the rectum and the vagina and throwing both outlets into one common cloaca. Among the tears which eventually become serious in their consequences, but are often not perceptible at the time they are
Sometimes this is
made, is the injury received from the separation of the attachments of the levator ani muscle from the rectum. This injury, associated as it is with the tear of the perineum, results in an entire loss of support to the lower part of the bowel, with the formation of a rectocele, or the eversion of the lower vaginal wall. The outlet thus presents an appearance described as relaxed (see Fig. 113). The relaxed outlet is recognized by the vertical direction of the levator fibres, just behind the pubic arch, replacing the strong band felt when the posterior vaginal wall is lifted up in the unbroken ring. It is a good plan, in order to be precise as to the degree of the breaking down of the outlet, to use an instrument like that shown in the figure (see Fig. 114). By separating its blades to a maximum without using more than slight force, the degree of relaxation is read directly in centimetres from the scales attached to the handles of the calibrator.
lierent or distended with pus; with an Gndometritis of the body of the uterus; with an infection of the cervical glands (endocervicitis) ; a troublesome vaginitis; an infection of the vulvo-vaginal glands ; or a cystitis.
Complete exhaustion of the nervous system is sometimes seen in a patient who, without any serious apparent injurj^, has passed through her confinement as an o^^erwhellning experience, requiring the expenditure of all
Fig. 113. — A i yric allt Relaxed Vaginal Otjtlet. The perineum Is well preserved, but it is e\ddent that the structures above have no support and the anterior and posterior walls are rolling out. Note, too, the flattening of the cleft at this point.
her individual nerve force ; and, like a plant which is capable of producing but one flower and then goes to seed, she remains exhausted for years or even for her whole remaining lifetime. It is often seen in women who have borne a
Fig. 114. — A Vaginal Outlet Calibrator. This instrument measures the size of the vaginal outlet on the grackiated rod, as the handles are squeezed together with gentle force, separating tlie distal end of the instrument until resistance is experienced.
infection of the uterine tubes v^ith a retroflexed adherent uterus ; or a vesicovaginal fistula due to sloughing of the anterior vaginal wall with a complete tear of the perineum ; or nervous exhaustion with more or less extensive mechanical injury.
PREVENTION OF SEQUELS.
If the general practitioner who attends obstetrical cases could anticipate and prevent these injuries, gynecological work would be greatly reduced and largely limited to the treatment of venereal diseases, tuberculosis, and tumors. Prevention does undoubtedly lie to a great extent within the power of the medical attendant at obstetrical cases, for the following conditions are more or less completely under his control :
To effect tbese ends obstetrics must be regarded as tbe one brancb of medicine "u-bicb constitutes a universal specialty for all pbysicians in general practice, and obstetrical cases must be taken more seriously tban is tbe fasbion to-day. Tbe man wbo assumes tbe cbarge of an obstetrical case must never get into a burry to bave it over ; be must be vrilling to spend bis time at tbe bedside of bis patient, and to wait as long as may l^e necessary for tbe T\'eal of tbe belpless Avoman ^vbo trusts ber life and ber bealtb to bis care. He ougbt to l3e ^vell skilled in tbe use of tbe obstetric forceps and to be fully convinced tbat tbeir use may be a great evil as well as a great boon to a v^oman in tbe tbroes of cbildbirtb. To make tbe best use of tbe obstetric forceps tbe following rules must be observed :
Use of Forceps. — (a) An accurate aseptic surgical tecbnic, including a careful cleansing of tbe vulva and of tbe vaginal introitus witb soap and water, followed by an antiseptic solution. A vaginal doucbe is not ordinarily required. Tbe forceps must be tborougbly sterilized by boiling, and tbe bands of tbe operator, after tbe usual surgical cleansing, sbould be covered witb sterilized rubber gloves.
(h) Successful forceps deliveries demand tbat the operator sbould bave a knowledge of tbe normal and abnormal mecbanism of labor ; be must also recognize tbe exact position and presentation of tbe fetus.
(c) Mecbanical skill and manual dexterity render tbe operator more efficient, but tbe most skilful use of tbe ordinary forceps cannot equal tbe precision of an axis traction forceps, even in less able bands.
(d) A practical knowledge of pelvimetry is of tbe utmost value. Pelvimetry need not, after all, be sucb a bugbear as it is. Only five or six measurements are called for, and tbese are always easily made witb a tape measure and a pair of calipers.
(e) Tbe pbysician must make it a fixed rule never to operate through an undilated cervix. Disregard of this rule, together witb a faulty tecbnic, is tbe cause of many of tbe disastrous forceps deliveries. Tbe skilled operator appreciates tbe necessity for preliminary dilatation of tbe lower birth canal, and when the natural forces fail, be is familiar with the usual excellent methods available to secure such dilatation. These are, iu order of their safety: Eubber bags, such as the Pomeroy and Voorhees, or, best of all, tbe old pear-shaped bags of Champetier de Pabes ; manual methods, such as those of Philander A. Harris and J. Clifton Edgar; and the graduated metal dilators of the Hegar type. Xext to rigid surgical cleanliness, I know of nothing which contributes to tbe safety of forceps deliveries so greatly as tbe securing of complete dilatation of tbe lower birth canal prior to the application of the forceps.
every other consideration, the medical attendant ninst not aUow himself to yield to the natnral temj^tation to grasp a foot as soon as it can be felt, and drag it through the undilated cervix. It is best to finish the dilatation with the fingers while the patient is under the influence of the chloroform. There are two methods of finger dilatation: That of Harris (Amer. Jour. Ohst., 1894, vol. 29, p. 37), by stretching the cervix through the introduction of the index finger and the thumb, which is best when the head is well up; and that of Edgar (" Obstetrics ") by pulling the cervix apart, which is better when the head is low down on the cervix.
The obstetrician will do well to make use of high forceps operations but rarely, and when it is necessarj^, to use an axis-traction instrument, like the Tarnier. The physician who uses the axis-traction forceps ought to have a clear mental picture of the direction of the pelvic axis in which the head lies at any particular moment ; in general, he first pulls down towards the pelvic floor, then out under the pubic rami, and then upwards. The alternative is to wait with patience for a considerable period, so as to give the cervix a long time to dilate, and the head time to accommodate itself by moulding its form to the pelvic canal. Serious harm is often done through trying to assist nature overmuch by working the cervix back over the head, or by stretching it with the fingers. If the head gets wedged at any point, an injudicious use of the forceps will cause a slough, which, as a rule, extends through into the bladder, or sometimes into the rectum. In J. W. Williams' clinic at the Johns Hopkins Hospital the custom is to interfere if the head remains wedged in one place for two hours. Good evidence that the frequent use of the forceps is really an abuse is afforded by the fact that so many excellent practitioners, especially in country districts, manage hundreds of cases without resorting to them in a single instance. When it is really necessary to use forceps, it is usually possible to avoid injury to the bladder by first emptying it with a catheter ; a rubber one is best for this purpose. My associate. Dr. G. L. Hunner, was once called upon to take a glass catheter out of a woman's bladder ; it had been broken off by the descent of the head in a pain which came on as the bladder was being emptied.
It is also important that the physician should not be in a hurry to determine the third stage of labor. He should give the placenta at least an hour to effect a delivery, and previous to this time should not do more than use moderate force in pushing down from above. If the placenta is not delivered into the vagina by this time, it may be attached to the uterus as the sequel of an endometritis. The best method to remove it then is by introducing the gloved hand into the uterus and using the edge of the hand as though it were a knife, to scoop or cut the placenta off from the uterine wall. The cord should never be pulled upon as a means of delivery.
Protection of Perineum. — The perineum is best protected by restraining the head from passing suddenly and precipitately through the outlet under the force of a violent expulsive pain. Precipi-
tate delivery tliroiigh tlie vagiiia and the vulvar riiiij; is especially likely to occur during forceps deliveries. Kiii:)ture of the perineum can best be prevented by one of two methods. The first of these depends upon the judicious use of chloroform ; when the head reaches the vulva and begins to distend the ring of the vaginal outlet, two or three drops of the anesthetic with the first pain, four or five with the next, and so on until the head escapes, by which time the patient is completely anesthetized. The other method is by resistance of rapid dilatation of the outlet and expulsion of the head. This is accomplished by making pressure upward and inward, holding the head back and so, in part, preventing the powerful propulsive force of the uterus above the body. In making such pressure, a gauze pad should be placed on the perineum. The head must never be extracted from the vulva by one effort of traction; it should be brought down slowly and deliberately, as far as possible after nature's method, either by allowing it. to return between the pains and come down a little further next time, or by removing the forceps and letting nature finish her work unassisted. Hasty obstetric work is a source of much danger to parturient women, just as it has ever been since men discovered how to assist nature in this respect. Obstetricians do not lay stress upon shoulder tears.
Immediate Repair of the Perineum. — If the perineum is deeply torn it is wisest to sew it up at once. It is the practice at the Johns Hopkins Hospital to close the perineal tear after the birth of the child and before the delivery of the placenta. This is a good plan, because it keeps the physician actively engaged, it saves time, and it tends to greater deliberation in dealing with the placenta. In order to repair the perineum, the patient is brought to the edge of the bed, after which the wound is exposed with retractors, and then closed with silkworm-gut sutures, extending, when necessary, up each vaginal sulcus and on the perineal surface (see Figs. 115 and 116). If the injury goes through into the bowel, the sutures on the bowel surface must be passed with special care in order to secure an accurate approximation (see Fig. 118). The sutures in the perineal wound should not be tied tight, in order to allow for swelling of the tissues. Tight sutures are apt to cut through into the wound itself. Each suture should be passed about one-third of an inch from the margin of the wound ; for doing this I use a large curved needle, held in a strong needle holder, armed with a silkworm-gut suture. This is passed from one side well down to the bottom of the wound and then up and out at a corresponding point on the opposite side of the tear (see Figs. 117 and 118). Two or three of these sutures are sufficient to close a large wound; it is a mistake to put in a number of sutures, as in the secondary operation. It does no harm to allow for a little drainage between the sutures. The sphincter ends are best united by a suture of silkworm-gut, which transfixes the muscle and passes up through the vagina. The remainder of the perineal and vaginal wound is closed by a series of interrupted silkworm-gut sutures.
Fig. 115. — A Partial Tear of the Perineum Extending tip Both Sulci and Out onto THE Skin Surface. Two sutures passed as shown in Fig. 115 serve to unite the torn surfaces.
Surfaces United.
Fig. 117. — A Deeper Tear of the Perineum Extending Farthest up the Left Sulcus. The surfaces are best united by passing .silkworm-gut sutures in the order indicated, and then tying them snugly together.
Fig. 118. — A Complete Tear of the Perineum Involving the Sphincter Muscle. Sutures should b'e passed in the order indicated. Suture 4 transfixes both ends of the sphincter and serves to unite them.
Repair of the Cervix. — If a persistent hemorrhage occurs in the presence of a well-contracted uterus, a torn cervix should be suspected. Its existence can he demonstrated by bringing the patient to the side of the bed and retracting the perineum, at the same time catching the anterior and posterior lips of the cervix with forceps and pulling them together. A bright stream of blood is sometimes visible between the lips of the tear. Repair is effected by passing t\vo or three chromicized catgut sutures with a stout curved needle and tying them at once.
tion to personal cleanliness. It would be well if it were a rule for all
obstetricians to wear thin rubber gloves, and to make as few examinations as possible during the course of a labor. For some eighteen years it has been my own habit to wear a sterilized suit of clothes when attending an obstetric case ; if this is too much to ask of the general practitioner, he might at least wear a sterilized gown, and this precaution, together with the use of rubber gloves, and the surgical cleanliness of the field of operation would relieve him from much of the responsibility which must always arise in connection with puerperal infection (see Fig. 119). The man who attends obstetrical cases ought to be extremely careful about coming in contact with infectious material between times. For example, he should never examine a puerperal infection unless protected by rubber gloves, and in driving he should wear gloves which can be washed and boiled. The use of an obstetric cushion, especially among the poorer class of patients, is valuable in the conduct of labor, as it always leaves the bed clean and minimizes the amount of washing to be done afterwards. The cushion ought to be covered with a sterile sheet, and as the amnion escapes, it can be dried up with a sterile cloth or absorbent cotton. If the cushion becomes infected, it can be sterilized by boiling or by soaking in a strong antiseptic solution (bichloride of mercury, 1:1000).
TJse of the Catheter. — If it is necessary to catheterize the l)ladder after labor, the greatest care must 1:0 exercised to have a clean well-l)oiled catheter fXo. 3), to cleanse the orifice thoroughly with clean warm boric acid solution before introducing it; and then to insert it with the greatest caution under direct inspection, taking pains to avoid trauma.
the end which enters the bladder.
Choice of a Nurse. — ^The nurse is a potent factor in the weal or woe of the obstetric patient. Careless midwives, who go from place to place, indifferent to all considerations but the fee which they expect to receive, often carry with them the seeds of infection, and their progress might easily be traced by the funerals which follow in their train. In this country we stand greatly in need of a well-trained corps of midwives, regulated by proper laws ; such a body of women, in fact, as is found at present only in Germany. The physician ought, at least, to know about the cases a nurse has recently attended. He should be sure that she has no infectious disease, no ozena, nor any sore about her person ; he should assure himself that she is not meddlesome nor anxious to give douches, and that she is fully instructed in the details of the correct antepartum toilet of her patient, as well as in the surgical care of the genitalia and of the breasts.
FIBROID TUMORS.
Definition, p. 488. Structure, p. 488. Classification, p. 489. Frequency, p. 493. Etiology, p. 494. Life history, p. 494. Degeneration, p. 495. Complications, p. 496. Symptoms : Hemorrhage, p. 497; pain, p. 498: leucorrhea, p. 498; anemia, p. 498. Diagnosis, p. 498. Effect upon neighboring organs, p. 503. Effect upon distant organs, p. 504. Treatment: Electricity, p. 507; ergot and hydrastis, p. 508; stypticin, p. 508; thyroid extract, p. 508; gelatin, p. 508; hot douches, p. 508; paclang for hemorrhage, p. 509; intra-uterine treatment, p. 509; curettage, p. 510; general considerations, p. 510. Fibroid tumors and pregnancy, p. 512.
Fibroid tumor, myoma, or fibromyoma of the uterus is a nodular growth, springing from some portion of the uterus, usually, but not always, above the cervix, and varying in size from a microscopic node to a mass or masses filling the pelvic and abdominal cavities ; the largest fibroid on record is one removed at autopsy by William Hunter, which weighed one hundred and forty poimds.
STRUCTURE.
Fibroid tumors are generally rounded in shape with a smooth exterior; they are single or multiple (as many as a hundred and fifty have been found in one uterus, see Bland Sutton, Brit. Med. Jour., 1901, vol. 1) and of a firm consistency, though a predominance of muscular tissue in their structure, or the presence of degenerative changes, may render them softer. They are made up of tissues similar to those composing the myometrium, namely, unstriped muscle and connective-tissue fibres. On section the tissues are seen to be arranged in a disorderly interlacement of muscular and connective fibres, which in the larger masses are grouped in more or less definite whorls, somewhat resembling knots in a piece of wood. Between the groups of fibres run arteries, veins, and lymph channels, derived from the normal vessels of the uterus, which at first ramify beneath the capsule of the tumor and then plunge directly into its interior. The individual tumors are encapsulated in the uterus, in such a manner that they can be shelled out without tearing the walls. They are classed as " benign tumors " because they do not penetrate and ramify throughout the surrounding tissues, nor cause destruction by metastases. These tumors, as a rule, are poorly nourished, because they derive their blood supply from the surrounding constricted uterine tissue, but occasionally they are supplied by large vessels formed in the adhesions between them and surrounding organs.
CLASSIFICATION.
Fibroid tumors may be classified according to their component parts, tbose containing an excess of muscular tissue being called myomata, those in which connective tissue predominates, fibromata or fibroids. There is still another group, called adenomyomata, characterized by presence of glands similar to those found in the uterine mucosa. These tumors are frequently diffuse and may or may not be definitely encapsulated. Fibroid tumors are further classified according to their situation in the uterus, as
Fig 120 Illustrates How the Location of a Myoma May Determine the Form which the
Myoma Assumes. The upper left hand figure shows three typical points of origin. The upper right hand figure shows a myoma developing from a focus in the posterior wall. The lower right hand figure shows one developing from a focus in the anterior wall. The lower left hand figure shows one developing from a focus in the fundus.
follows: (1) Subserous, including (a) intraligamentous tumors and (h) tumors of the cervix; (2) interstitial; and (3) submucous. They are also classified by their number and size, for instance, a multiple
These tumors have the greater
fibroid, a large interstitial fibroid of the posterior uterine wall, a small fibroid of the anterior wall, and a small subserous fibroid springing from the fundus uteri.
Subperitoneal Fibroids. — All fibroid tumors originate in the uterine muscle, therefore they are interstitial in the beginning (see Fig. 120), but if the tumor develops in the outer wall of the uterus and grows upward under the peritoneum it is called a subperitoneal fibroid (see Eig. 121). In
such growths the greater part of the
periphery is outside the uterine wall and they have no considerable amount of covering of uterine tissue. Their size is large or small relatively and, as a rule, the greater the size of the tumor the more is it separated from the uterus. If, instead of developing under the serosa, the tumor separates the folds of the broad ligament, it is called
m o r .
part of their circumference outside of the uterus and are not covered by uterine tissue. Xoble (" Gynecology and Abdominal Surgery," Kelly and Xoble, 1907, vol. 1, p. 669) states that he found this variety of fibroid tumor in three and a half per cent of two thousand two hundred and seventy-four cases of fibroids examined by him. Tumors originating in the lower posterior segment of the uterus and growing first into the cervix and then into the posterior pelvis possess the same characteristics, as well as those rare growths which begin in the cervix itself and develop away from the uterus. The cervix, it is true, has no covering of peritoneum, but as the tumor increases in size and rises in the pelvis it pushes the peritoneum before it, and therefore this class of tumors may be included among the subserous. In all subperitoneal fibroids the shape of the uterine cavity is little if at all altered.
Interstitial Fibroids. — (Intramural or intraparietal.) — These tumors are situated in the wall of the uterus and surrounded by a covering of uterine musculature. They may or may not alter the external contour of the uterus, but the uterine cavity is almost always lengthened, broadened, and often rendered asymmetrical by them. The fundus of the uterus in the case shown
DEVELOPMENT OP SUBMUCOUS FIBEOIDS.
in Figure 122 was lifted as high as the umbilicus and the canal proportionately lengthened. They sometimes develop into the uterine cavity and are covered by mucosa with little if any of the uterine musculature (see Fig. 123).
Submucous Fibroids. — Of all three varieties of fibroid tumors, the submucous occasion the greatest changes in the shape and dimensions of the uterine cavity. In a large tumor, starting in the lower part of the uterus, the distortion of the uterine canal may be extreme. The pressure exerted by the tumor on the nervous mechanism of the uterus excites reflex uterine con-
AND Enormously Lengthen the Canal of the Uterus.
tractions, which by their expulsive ppwer cause the tumor first to become pedunculate, after Avhich the pedicle elongates until the internal os is dilated, and, in favorable cases, the tumor is delivered. More often, however, necrosis of the tumor sets in before delivery is accomplished and we have a sloughing fibroid. A pedunculate submucous fibroid, if small, is
which is one of the manifestations of glandular endometritis. The
German authorities maintain that the mucous membrane of the corpus uteri shows evidence of glandular and interstitial endometritis in all forms of fibroids and especially the submucous variety. CuUen, however (" Cancer of the Uterus," 1900, p. 535), denies this opinion, stating that the mucous membrane in fibroid tumors is generally normal ; but, he adds, " it must be borne in mind that polypi may also be present " (see Fig. 124) ; he further notes that there are various degTces of atrophy, and of glandular hypertrophy, and that mild degTees of endometritis are sometimes present. In many fibroids the endometrium shows signs of hyper-
FREQUENCY.
Fibroid tumors are the most common of uterine growths. The relative number of women with fibroids was stated by S. H. Bayle {Diet, en 60 tomes, Paris, 1813, vol. 7, p. 73), as long ago as 1813, to be twenty per cent of all who were over thirty-five years of age, and for many years his statistics were generally accepted. Others, however, have arrived at different results; J. M. Klob, for instance (" Path. Anat. Female Sexual Organs," Eng. transL, 1868, p. 177), asserts that forty per cent of the uteri of women dying after their fiftieth year contain fibroids ; the exact frequency of these growths, therefore, has yet to be determined, but one fact definitely established is that they occur most often during the period of sexual maturity, that is, between the ages of thirty and fifty, being rare before twenty and after fifty-five years of age. Gusserow (Hart and Barbour, " Manual of Gynecology," 1904, p. 424) found that out of nine hundred and nineteen cases of fibroids there were only fifteen under tw^enty years of age and only seventeen over sixty ; the highest percentage, thirty-eight and eight-tenths, was between the ages of thirty and forty, while the next highest, thirty-six and seven-tenths, was between forty and fifty. It w^as formerly supposed that fibroids were almost invariably present in the negro race after the thirtieth year (T. G. Thomas, " Diseases of Women," 1872, p. 485), but more recent observers are of a different opinion; J. W. Williams, who represents the extreme reaction from this opinion, found them only two per cent more frequent in negroes than in whites in three hundred and seventy-five cases analyzed by him at the Johns Hopkins Hospital.
It is not yet determined whether filjroids are more common among single women than married; Bayle {loc. cit.) and otlier authorities thought that they were, while Gusserow, Dupuytren, West, and others held that they were not.
The etiology of fibroid tumors is still shrouded in mystery, although the problem has been studied assiduously by many investigators during the last fifty years, amongst whom are Klebs, Kleinwachter, Gebhard, Connheim, Virchow, and Gottschalk ; many hypotheses have been advanced, but, so far, none has been proved. An ingenious theory, recently advanced, is that of A. Claisse (These de Paris, 1900), wdiich attributes them to an infection of the uterine mucosa, giving rise to subacute inflammation causing proliferation of the round cells which are transformed into fibrous tissue. Heredity has been supposed to play a part in the causation of fibroids, Hofmeier, Yeit, Kleinwachter, and others considering it a predisposing cause ; a fact substantiated by the appearance of fibroid tumors in different members of the same family. Sexual irritation, such as masturbation, or abnormal sexual practices, has even been assigned as a cause of myoma by Yeit ("Handbuch der Gynakologie," 1897, voL 2, p. 452) and other writers, but while the chronic congestion arising from undue irritation of the genital organs may assist the growth of a fibroid, it is difiicult to see how it could originate one. It is probable that many fibroids are of congenital origin; a plausible theory is that which tries to harmonize fibroids with other tumors by assigning them to a fetal misplacement of the tissues, according to Cohnheim's theory. Age plays the most important part in bringing about the growth of the tumors, for they almost always become manifest late in the child-bearing period. As regards race, they are undoubtedly most common in negroes. Family is undoubtedly a factor in their causation, as two, or even three sisters have repeatedly been operated upon for them.
The development of a myoma may be very slow. I have known one case which was under medical observation for twenty-five years before operation and two years afterwards (" Operative Gynecology," 2d edition, 1907, vol. 2, p. 347), where a large interstitial tumor, with a uterine cavity measuring eight or nine inches, became larger, subperitoneal, and pedunculate, so that at operation it was found attached to a small uterus by a pedicle one centimetre long by three broad ; it weighed fifty-nine pounds. The direction of the growth is a matter of importance, for upon the course taken its subsequent fate often depends. For instance, if it growls so as to become subserous it may become pedunculate and in course of time become separated entirely from the uterus, receiving its nourishment through adhesions to surrounding struc-
LIFE HISTORY AND DEGENERATION. 495
tures; such cases, however, are rare. If, on the other hand, the tumor grows towards the uterine cavity and becomes of tlie submucous variety it is often extruded through the external os. In either case the blood supply to the tumor is interfered with and there is danger of necrosis and degenerative changes. If the tumor remains in the substance of the uterus as an interstitial fibroid, its nourishment is established on a surer footing. It is possible for all tumors, and especially small ones, to remain in a quiescent state for an indefinite period. Bland Sutton (" Tumors Innocent and Malignant," 4th edition, 1906, p. 187) calls attention to the latent, or seedling fibroid, in regard to which he says : " If a number of uteri from women between the twenty-fifth and fiftieth years be examined by the simple means of sectioning with a knife, in a large proportion- of these uteri a number of small rounded fibroids, resembling knots in wood, will appear, their whiteness being in strong contrast to the surrounding muscle tissue. These discrete bodies, in many instances no larger than mustard seeds, are in histologic structure identical with the fully grown tumors." Under these circumstances, we can never be sure when fibroids are removed at an operation that all of them have been taken out, and therefore a patient cannot be assured that other fibroids will not grow. In some cases the tumors increase very rapidly in size. Their rapidity of growth is usually in inverse proportion to the age of the patient. The younger the patient the more rapid the rate of growth. Soft tumors grow faster than hard ones; they increase rapidly during pregnancy and diminish markedly after delivery, while after the menopause much increase is uncommon. Just before each menstrual period they become larger and decrease in size when the flow has ceased ; in many instances they lessen after the menopause, but not invariably. All these facts must be kept in mind when a patient is examined at intervals to determine the relative bulk of a tumor.
DEGENERATION.
There are certain structural alterations in fibroids, the causes of which we do not know, except that sometimes they can be explained by the presence of an arteriosclerosis and a diminished blood supply. An increased formation of fibrous and hyaline tissue occurs in practically all myomata, and when the process is extensive, necrosis takes place at the centre of the growth, resulting in the formation of a cyst cavity with walls of irregular outline. Hyaline degeneration w^as noted in three and one-tenth per cent of two thousand two hundred and seventy-four cases of fibroids collected from literature by IsToble {loc. cit., p. 669). Some degree of hyaline change is exceedingly common. Fibroids may become progressively indurated, especially after the menopau,se ; small hard tumors being found at autopsies on old women when their presence has not been suspected during life.
495 PlBKOtD TUMORS.
effected by deposits of phosphate and carbonate of lime formed near the centre or the periphery of the tumor which make either a bony framework (not, however, true bone) or a shell; the tumor is rarely entirely solidified, but it nuist be remembered that small areas of calcification are extremely common.
Softening of a fibroid tnmor may be due to several causes. Colloid or myxomatous degeneration is characterized by the effusion of mucous material between the muscle bundles and distinguished from edema by the proliferation of round cells in the interstitial tissue. Noble {Joe. cit.) found myxomatous degeneration in three and four-tenths per cent of the cases he collected from literature. A proliferation of connective tissue becoming colloid during pregnancy has been noted by Doleris (Arch, de tocol., janv. et juin, 1883, pp. 1, 363). The diminution in size after delivery has been attributed to fatty degeneration, and Gusserow ("Die ISTeubildungen des Uterus," 1886) has called attention to the fact that fatty degeneration of a fibroid has been demonstrated microscopically in only three cases, those of Freund, A. Martin, and Brunnings, where there had not been resulting diminution in the size of the tumor as well. There is one form of fibroid, called lipomyomata, in which a portion of the tumor is composed of fatty tissue; such a case has been described by E. Peterson (Amer. Jour. Ohst., 1904, vol. 49, p. 393). Edema is often observed in fibroids and may be considered as an early stage of necrosis ; it is most frequently seen in the subperitoneal tumors. Fibro-cystic tumors result from the breaking down and liquefaction of areas of degeneration in myomata, and when this degeneration is extensive on account of the fusion of the different foci, a large cyst with irregularly shaped walls may be formed.
Amyloid degeneration in a fibroid polyp has been reported in a single case by C. B. Stratz (Zeiischr. f. Geh. u. Gyn., 1889, vol. 17, part 2, p. 80). Suppuration arises from infection of the tumor with bacteria derived from the intestinal canal, the genital tract, or the blood ; prolonged pressure of a tumor on the bowel, or an adherent vermiform appendix may permit easy penetration of the micro-organisms. Infection, especially in the case of a submucous fibroid, may also proceed from instrumental or digital invasion of the uterine cavity for exploration or curettage. Gangrene may result from degeneration, or from torsion of the pedicle, and micro-organisms may or may not play a part in the necrobiotic process.
Sarcomatous degeneration occurred in two per cent of the cases collected by Noble {loc. cit.) ; and Winter {Zeitschr. f. Geh. u. Gyn., 1906, vol. 57, p. 19) found sarcoma in four and one-third per cent of two hundred and fifty-three tumors in which sections were taken from different parts of the growth.
COMPLICATIONS AND SYMPTOMS. 497
described as springing direct from the glands within the tumor. In a study of four thousand eight hundred and eighty consecutive cases of fibroid tumor, ISToble (loc. cit., p. 670) found cancer in two and eight-tenths per cent; in his personal experience with three hundred and thirty-seven fibroids, cancer of the fundus was present in two and six-tenths per cent and cancer of the cervix in one and four-tenths, and as women without fibroid tumors have cervical cancer ten times as often as cancer of the fundus, he concluded that there must be a causal relation between fibroma and cancer of the body of the uterus (adeno-carcinoma of the endometrium).
Disease of the tubes and ovaries due to infection is not an infrequent complication of fibroid tumors. C. Daniel studied this subject in Pozzi's clinic {Rev. de gyn. et de chir. ahd., 1903, vol. 7, pp. 25, 196) and found that in most cases where the complication occurred, the ovaries, or the ovaries and tubes together, were diseased; the tubes alone were rarely affected. He collected one hundred and thirty-nine cases from literature in addition to those under his own observation and found that the tubes alone were affected thirty-two times ; the ovaries alone seventy-nine times ; and the tubes and ovaries together twenty-eight times. In seventy cases observed in Pozzi's clinic the most common complications of this kind were catarrhal salpingitis, purulent salpingitis, hematosalpinx, and cystic degeneration of the ovaries. In ISToble' s cases (loc. cit., p. 668) complications in the uterine appendages or in the pelvis existed in thirty-seven per cent. In Pozzi's clinic, lesions of the tubes and ovaries occurred in fifty-nine per cent of the myoma cases. It must not be forgotten, however, that these large percentages were found among women who entered the hospital for operation for fibroid tumors, and it is hardly fair to assume that all fibroids are subject to complications to the same extent; in fact, most of the statistics founded on cases collected from the literature of the subject are open to the objection that they deal with an abnormally large proportion of fibroids which are giving rise to active symptoms.
SYMPTOMS.
The symptoms of fibroid tumors are: Hemorrhage, with its resulting anemia, pain, leucorrhea, constipation, frequency of urination, dysuria, and retention of urine, the four latter symptoms being the result of pressure on rectum, ureters, bladder, or urethra.
Hemorrhage. — The bleeding caused by fibroid tumors may be in the form of menorrhagia or metrorrhagia, but most frequently the former. It is a symptom most common in the submucous variety of tumor, less frequent in the interstitial form, and rarely seen in the subserous growths. As, however, most fibroid tumors are multiple, it is not always easy to say which form predominates in a given case of hemorrhage. The submucous tumors cause bleeding by enlarging the surface of the endometrium, the total number of square inches being increased many times in the case of large growths. Dia-
pedesis of red Idood corjinscles tlirougli the walls of the capillaries of the endometrium takes j)lace iu proportion to the extent of surface involved ; hut venous congestion, occasioned by the pressure of the tumur on die thin-walled veins, is supposed to be the principal causal factor in the mechanism of hemorrhage in fibroid tumors, the arteries with their thick elastic walls being better able to withstand pressure. The increase of the menstrual flow may be but slight, or it may amount to excessive hemorrhage requiring active treatment ; the size of the tumor bears no relation w^hatever to the extent of the flow, small growths sometimes causing the greatest hemorrhage. It is a curious fact that with some women the flow is greater when they are lying down than when they are up and about, a fact exactly opposite to the usual condition of things in menorrhagia.
Anemia is such a frequent result of hemorrhage that the indications of it, as a pale face, colorless lips, eyes of pearly white, flabby muscles, a bounding but compressible pulse with increased rapidity on the smallest excitement, breathlessness, and a feeling of languor are well known to everyone. The red blood corpuscles may fall to one-fifth or less of their normal number (5,000,000) and the hemoglobin to thirty per cent; hemic murmurs are usually present.
Pain. — Pain may or may not be present in fibroid tumors, and when it does occur, is variable in amount; it assumes several forms: as a dull resistant pain in one or both groins or across the abdomen, a be a ring- down pain, or a backache, and these varieties may exist separately or conjointly. It may be referred to the thighs or the legs in consequence of the pressure of the tumor on the sacral plexus of nerves. Pressure on a ureter may cause pain, but the rectum and bladder are generally tolerant of pressure so far as pain is concerned, their disturbance when pressed upon showing itself in derangement of function. Dysmenorrhea occurs in about twenty per cent of the cases of fibroid tumors (see Chap. IV, p. HI), the cramp-like pain being often severe. It must be remembered, however, that an uncomplicated fibroid rarely gives rise to much pain, and therefore the presence of pain, especially if severe, indicates a pelvic inflammatory complication. Pain, as a rule, arises from the pressure of a growing tumor ; expulsive pains are found when the tumor becomes pedunculate and can be extruded either in part or wholly at the external orifice.
Leucorrhea. — A vaginal discharge is rare in fibroids except in the submucous form, when, if the tumor is necrotic, the discharge is malodorous. A profuse watery discharge associated with fibroids should always excite suspicion of cancer.
The diagTLOsis of large fibroid timiors is a comparatively easy matter, but the detection of small ones is often difficult, for the svmptoms are not of much assistance, except that painful and protracted menstruation with a
DIAGNOSIS OF SUBPEEITONEAI, EIBEOIDS. 499
history of sterility or of early iniscarriugcs are suggestive of myoma. The chief reliance in diagnosis must be npon bimanual palpation and the passage of the uterine sound. The first point in diagnosis is always to determine the relation of the tumor to the body of the uterus.
Subperitoneal Fibroids. — If the tumor is a single mass, bimanual palpation will show whether it is connected with the uterus. To determine this point, the tip of the forefinger must be placed in the vagina on the cervix and the other hand on the abdomen; if, on moving the tumor with the external hand, the cervix moves at the same tim.e, the fact of connection is established. The growth should always be outlined as accurately as possible, but the laxity and the thinness of the abdominal walls greatly influence paljDation; it is easily and thoroughly done when the abdominal walls are thin and lax, but when the patient is inclined to corpulence, it may be extremely difficult. In cases where the tumors are small, the ovaries can be located and mapped out; an attempt to do this should be made in every case. If the tumor is pedunculate, it must be distinguished from an ovarian cyst, which is easy, if fluctuation can be detected ; this point is determined by making firm pressure against the tumor with the finger in the vagina and tapping with the fingers of the hand on the abdomen when, if fluctuation is present, the taps will be transmitted as waves to the finger in the vagina. If the contents of the cyst are thick and semi-solid, as in the case of dermoid cysts, the fluid waves will be absent. Some ovarian cysts, it is true, are as hard as fibroids ; but, as a rule, fibroids are solid, there is more than one nodule, and the nodules are of stony hardness. If the tumor, or tumors, are large enough to distend the abdomen, the uterus is drawn up in the pelvis, but this does not take place in the case of an ovarian tumor.
A pedunculate cystic myoma may be distinguished from an ovarian cyst tumor by grasping the cervix uteri with forceps and pulling it well down. The tumor is then grasped through the abdomen on its under surface and pushed up toward the diaphragm. If, the moment the tumor is displaced, the instrument in the cervix is pulled upon also, the tumor is uterine. It takes a little time and displacement before the cervix and the tenaculum forceps are pulled upon in the event of the tumor being ovarian. A careful rectal palpation reveals the pedicle of a fibroid attached to the uterus, while it shows that an ovarian cyst is lateral and replaces the normal ovary, which cannot be found.
Whenever the sound is passed, it must be with due regard to the probable direction of the uterine canal, as determined by bimanual palpation, and strict antiseptic precautions must be observed; the date of the last menstruation must always be ascertained so that pregnancy may not be unwittingly interrupted. In the case of subserous fibroids the uterine canal will not be found lengthened.
Pregnancy. — A fibroid tumor is not always easily distinguished from pregnancy, and it is still more difficult to recognize a pregnancy complicated with fibroids. The diagnosis must be made by the following signs :
ment corresponding to the period of time which has elapsed.
In the case of a fibroid associated with pregnancy, mistakes have been made by the best ]3hysicians, but this is usually because they have been taken off their guard, and finding an evident large myomatous uterus have neglected to inquire as to the menstrual function and other changes suggesting pregnancy.
Pelvic inflammatory exudate may complicate fibroid tumors, but is seldom mistaken for them. In such inflammation the mass is brawny and fills in the chinks of the pelvis, and there is a history of fever, even if the thermometer does not reveal its presence at the time of the examination.
Cancer of the pelvis, originating in the ovaries or the uterus, may be mistaken for fibroid tumor, but it should be differentiated by the fixity of the infiltration and the lack of definite outline in the tumor.
• x\scites is occasionally associated with large tumors, and its presence is shown by the fact that a change of position in the patient causes a change in the position of the fluid, wliich may be mapped out by its percussion flatness.
Intraligamentous Fibroid. — This form of fibroid is situated at one side of the uterus, its situation being shown by the sound, even if it cannot be palpated; it is low^ down in the pelvis and can often be felt projecting into the vagina. Its mobility is limited on account of its attachments and its situation.
Interstitial Fibroid. — In these tumors the uterine enlargement may be symmetrical or asj-mmetrical ; in the latter case the diagnosis is easy, in the former pregnancy must first be excluded (see Tig. 127). To do this the history must be carefully taken, especially as regards amenorrhea ; the elastic feeling of the pregnant uterus must be sought for as well as softening of the cervix, and bulging of the anterior segment. If there is the slightest suspicion of pregnancy, the sound must not be passed. In interstitial fibroids, hemorrhage is a prominent symptom, and the uterine canal will usually be
Fig. 127. — Globular Myomatous Uterus presenting Form of Pregnant Uterus at Term, with Adaptation of the Lower Part of its Form to that of the Pelvic Cavity. The lower part of the tumor is subperitoneal, and the cervix is displaced up to the level of the pelvic brim. Two peritoneal adhesions are shown above the cervical opening. Seen from behind. Hystero-myomectomy. Recovery. Path. No. 325. ^ natural size.
Submucous Fibroids. — In almost all cases of submucous tumor, there is a history of hemorrhage, and bimanual palpation shows an enlargement of the uterus, even in small growths. The diagnosis is established by the sound, and, if necessary, by digital exploration of the uterine cavity. The sound shows enlargement and distention of the uterine cavity ; but, if the tumor is situated at the fundus, nothing but digital exploration will decide whether it is sessile or pedunculate, although something may often be ascertained by the tactile perception transmitted through the exploring sound. If a digital exploration of the uterine cavity is to be made, the cervix may sometimes be dilated by a series of Goodell-Ellinger dilators, three sizes, followed by large Simon dilators. In cases of hard resistant cervices, however, it is best to incise the anterior wall of the cervix (" Operative Gynecology," 2d edit., vol. 1, p. 596), repairing the cervix by suture after the exploration is finished.
A sessile submucous fibroid of the fundus may be mistaken for adenoma or adeno-carcinoma ; the only means of distinguishing between the two is the removal of a piece for microscopic examination.
inversion, or, if it is slongiiing, for cancer of tlie cervix (see Fig. 128). It is distinguished from cancer by ascertaining that the sound may be swept entirely around it and that the cervix itself is free from disease ; and from in-
tumor is necrotic.
version by observing, through bimanual recto-abdominal touch under ether, whether the fundus uteri is in its normal situation; moreover, an inverted uterus is usually, thougli not invariably, sensitive to touch.
EFFECT UPON NEIGHBORING ORGANS.
The uterus is more or less limited in its movements bj its attachments to the vagina and the broad ligaments, and if a fibroid tumor develops in its substance it may displace the bladder, or press the rectum, the urethra, or the ureters against the bony framework of the pelvis. Such pressure, hoAvever, rarely causes retention of urine, because the bladder adapts itself readily to misplacement and the urethra is protected by the pubic arch (see Fig. 129).
Symptoms in Both Rectum and Bladder.
Constipation from interference with the function of the rectum by pressure from a fibroid is of common occurrence, and injury of the ureters and kidneys from pressure on the ureters is much more frequent than was formerly supposed. J. H. M. Knox (Amer. Jour. Obst., 1900, voL 42, pp. 348, 496) has reported a series of cases of compression of the ureters observed during operations on fibroids at the Johns Hopkins Hospital. Of all the different forms of fibroids, intraligamentous growths and tumors developing from the cervix are most apt to compress the ureters as well as to displace them upward ; they also cause the greatest amount of interference with the enlargement of the uterus during pregnancy and with delivery.
Fibroid tumors are also a cause of abortion. Lefour (These d'agreg. cle Paris, 1880) noted thirty-nine abortions, or twelve and seven-tentbs per cent, out of three hundred and seven cases of pregnancy; the mother dying in fourteen; and ISTauss {These de Halle, 1882) found that abortion took place in forty-seven cases, or fifteen per cent, out of two hundred and forty-one cases.
Delivery is obstructed by tumors situated in the lower uterine segment ; when they develop in the substance of the uterus, they generally interfere with involution, and may be the cause of post-partum hemorrhage and subinvolution.
The presence of a fibroid is not an absolute bar to pregnancy, nevertheless it is a frequent cause of sterility. Olshausen (" Myom und Schwangerschaft," J. Veit, " Handbuch der Gynakologie," vol. 2, p. 765) collected statistics on the subject from nine different observers, including Scanzoni, Schroder, and Hofmeier, which showed that out of one thousand seven hundred and thirty-one married women with fibroid tumors, five hundred and twenty, or thirty per cent, were sterile. He considered this figure too high, however, because many women with fibroids only consult a physician on account of sterility, and those who become pregnant do not often consult a physician at all.
EFFECTS ON DISTANT ORGANS AND ON THE SYSTEM IN GENERAL.
Anemia. — One of the most common results of fibroid tumors is anemia, induced by prolonged and repeated hemorrhages ; the hemoglobin may be reduced as low as thirty per cent, or even less, and the red cells to one million. The affection is a serious one and is sometimes difiicult to correct, even after the loss of blood has been stopped. Acute hemorrhage rarely proves fatal in fibroid tumors, but the continued loss of blood produces a condition of lowered vitality and a disposition to thrombosis, embolism, or phlebitis, which, in extreme cases, contra-indicates operation for removal of the gro^vth. Some authorities state that the hemoglobin should be at least fifty per cent before a hysterectomy is undertaken. I have operated upon twenty-three patients who were completely exsanguinated, and with a hemoglobin count below thirty and even below twenty per cent, and I have lost but two cases from this cause. It occasionally happens that several years elapse before a profoundly anemic patient regains good health after the cause of the loss of blood has been removed.
Heart Disease. — The frequency of cardiac palpitation in fibroid tumors has been noted by W. L. Burrage (Amer. Jour. Obst., 189i, voL 29, p. 320) ; it appears to be quite independent of actual heart lesions, there being no evidence of enlargement or of adventitious murmurs, and it is possibly the effect of anemia, in which case we should expect to find hemic murmurs. The exact relation between fibroids and heart disease, however, is not knoT\Ti. Certain degenerative changes in the heart and blood vessels, such as brown atrophy, fatty degeneration and fattj" infiltration of the heart muscle.
and clironic endocarditis, as well as sclerosis of the arteries, have heen noted by different students of this point, notably Hofmeier, Fenwick, Strassman, Lehmann, Boldt, Pellanda, Winter, and Fleck, cited by ISToble (loc. cit., p. 671). Winter found the heart itself perfectly normal in sixty per cent out of two hundred and sixty-six cases examined with reference to this point by a sjDCcialist in internal medicine, valvular disease was present in but one per cent, and dilatation and hypertrophy in six per cent. It is difficult to see how lesions of the heart can be caused by fibroid tumors of the uterus, and I think Ave may agree with Winter that, in the present state of our knowledge, almost all the cardiac symptoms associated with fibroid tumors should be attributed to consequent derangement of the nervous system or to grave anemia. It is well to remember, however, that heart disease may accompany fibroids, though not in a causal relation.
Immediate Danger to Life. — Fibroid tumors may under certain conditions be a direct menace to life. C. Pellanda (" La mort par fibromyomes uterins," Lyon, 1905) states that out of one hundred and seventy-six fatal cases of fibromyomata studied by him, death was due to hemorrhage in six and fourtenths per cent. Acute abdominal emergencies of different kinds, arising from infection of the tumor, are by no means unknown. Rupture of the uterus, due to obstruction of labor by fibroids, has been known to occur. As a rule, however, fibroid tumors endanger life indirectly by their degeneration and their complications which interfere with the function of distant organs and by their effect upon the general health. They can also destroy life by pressure on the ureters, by cardio-vascular changes, and by septic infection, as well as by embolism. A serious complication is a bad pelvic inflammatory disease.
It is now generally agreed that the only curative treatment for fibroid tumors is surgical in its nature; therefore, all other forms of treatment may be classed as palliative, though they are none the less important on that account. Fibroid tumors, as I have said, increase in size just before menstruation when pelvic congestion is greatest, and diminish in size after it is over,, when the congestion is past. Anything, therefore, which lessens pelvic congestion and consequent engorgement decreases the size of the tumor. This fact is the basis of the treatment of abdominal tumors by irregular practitioners, who give the patient powerful cathartic pills which cause violent purging. In a case of this sort under my observation, a woman with a large abdominal tumor had been taking such pills until she had an exfoliative enteritis ; the tumor was much reduced in size while she was taking the pills, and she was told by the quack w^ho prescribed them that the tissue passed per anum consisted of portions of the growth cast off in that manner, an opinion which satisfied the poor soul, though she was growing weaker daily.
There is in these days a tendency to exaggerate the seriousness of the complications and degenerations of fibroids, and those who promulgate these teachings are wont to recommend the removal of all fibroids.
Rest and Care. — It must always be understood in the treatment of fibroids that a fibroid tumor without complications and not giving rise to symptoms does not require any treatment at all. In cases where the only symptom is an excessive menstrual flow, rest in bed for several successive days at each menstrual period, systematically carried out, will be found to control the loss sufficiently to postpone serious anemia indefinitely.
Every woman with a fibroid tumor should be seen and examined by a physician about every six months so that changes in its situation, density, and size may be noted, as well as the presence and effects of hemorrhage and pain; under such conditions most fibroids are really benign tumors. ISTot by any means every fibroid requires operative treatment, though what we now know of the associated maligTiant changes in the uterus has greatly increased the indications for operation and brought them nearer to the indications for it in the case of ovarian tumors.
A subperitoneal tumor of small size, if it causes no symptoms, requires no treatment, although it should be carefully watched. If it increases in size and becomes wedged in the pelvis, or if it causes retroversion by traction on the uterus, it should be pushed up into the abdomen by bimanual manipulation, with the patient in the knee-breast posture, traction on the cervix being made at the same time with a tenaculum. By this means the uterus is replaced and pelvic congestion, a condition favoring enlargement of the growth, is lessened. In some cases of this kind it is well to fit a pessary to keep the uterus in place and to prevent the return of the fibroid to the pelvis, especially if the patient is near the menopause ; it must be understood, however, that should evidences of degeneration, tenderness, or softening appear, the pessary must be removed.
An interstitial or a submucous fibroid should receive the same treatment. In the event of hemorrhage or of severe pain much benefit may be derived from the use of intra-uterine sralvanism.
TREATMENT BY ELECTKICITY. 507
Electricity. — For many years electricity was supposed to have a selective effect on the tissues composing a fibroid. As far back as 1869 Ciniselli of Cremona {Mem. presents a la soc. de cliir. de Paris, 1869) published the results of his treatment of fibroids by the electro-chemical method, in which the galvanic current was passed through the tumor by means of two needles, inserted into it through the vagina. Cutter, in America, Keith, in London, and Apostoli, in Paris, were the chief advocates of the electrical treatment in the last thirty years of the nineteenth century. Their treatments were intra-uterine and made by puncture. Galvanism was used as high as two hundred milliamperes. There is no positive evidence that electricity causes diminution in the size of fibroid tumors, and on the other hand, the dangers attending the puncture treatment through possible injury to the bladder, the intestine, or the ureter, by the introduction of pathogenic organisms, have been manifest to all, so that this form of electrical treatment has been abandoned. The intra-uterine abdominal form, however, with small or moderate doses (ten to fifty milliamperes) is of great value in controlling hemorrhage, relieving pain, and improving the general nutrition. A platinum electrode two inches in length attached to a hardrubber stem, or a platinum electrode protected by a sliding rubber sheath is inserted into the uterus under strict antiseptic precautions. A wire gauze pad, eight inches by four, covered thickly for the depth of an inch with absorbent cotton, is soaked in hot water, soaped, and placed on the abdomen ; the positive pole is connected with the uterine electrode and the negative pole with the gauze pad, after which, with the aid of a rheostat, a current of from twenty to fifty milliamperes is gradually turned on. The treatment should last from six to ten minutes and be repeated every third day.
The positive pole has a drying hemostatic effect locally on the endometrium.. The galvanic current improves the nutrition of the tissues of the body and thus promotes good health. La Torre (Societd lancisiana degli ospedale, Rome, Dec. 9, 1889) found that electrical treatment stopped or diminished hemorrhage in seventy to ninety per cent of fibroid tumors ; relieved or diminished pain in fifty to sixty per cent; and improved the general health in sixty to eighty per cent. Burrage (Amer. Jour. Obst., 1894, vol. 29, p. 320), after treating fifty-four cases, found the pain relieved in sixty per cent ; hemorrhages permanently cured in thirty per cent; and the general health permanently improved in eighty-four per cent.
If relatively small doses of galvanism are employed, the risk of causing stenosis of the uterine canal is obviated; larger current strengths are painful, cause vesicular eruptions on the skin of the abdomen, and have no beneficial effect on the tumor. Galvanism, given with a vaginal electrode, is sure to cause injury of the mucous membrane of the vagina, even with small dosages. If the uterine cavity is large and distorted, it is impossible to reach all parts of it with any electrode, no matter how ingeniously constructed ; therefore, in such eases, other means for the control of hemorrhage must be employed. This treatment is the work of a specialist.
Ergot. — Hypodermic injections of ergot have teen employed in the treatment of fibroid tumors since the time of Hildebrandt, who first used the drug in 1872 (Berl. hl'in. Wockenschr., 18 Y2, 'No. 25). From the known effect of ergot in causing contractions of the uterine muscles, it was supposed that the prolonged use of it could diminish the size of fibroid tumors, but years of trial and much discussion have failed to demonstrate any efficacy in this respect. As a means for the control of hemorrhage, however, ergot is of distinct value, as well as the fluid extract of hydrastis canadensis, which at one time was supposed to cause shrinkage of the tumors by its contractile effect on the blood vessels. Ergot may be given in the form of the fluid extract in doses of fifteen to twenty drops in water every two hours. The fluid extract of hydrastis is given in doses of twenty-five drops, two or three times a day ; or the two drugs may be given in combination. Hydrastis is more apt to disturb the digestion than ergot, and must, therefore, be given with circumspection.
Stypticin, a micro-crystalline, yellow powder, soluble in water and having an intensely bitter taste, has given good results in some hands. H. J. Boldt (Amer. Med., 1904, vol. 60, p. 93) treated thirty-five cases of fibromyomata with this drug, and obtained satisfactory results in thirty-one per cent of them. Boldt recommends doses of two and a half to five grains repeated at intervals of two or three hours. Three to five grains in a ten per cent solution, injected subcutaneously into the buttocks, produces a quick effect.
Thyroid extract, in doses of five grains, three or four times a day, has given good results in some cases of myoma. Great caution must be observed in the use of it, however, and should the heart action show the slightest evidence of disturbance, in rapidity of action, irregularity of the pulse, or cyanosis of the face or lips, it must be discontinued at once. It is best to begin with a dose of two grains and increase it gradually up to five grains.
Gelatin has proved useful in the control of hemorrhage from fibroids in some cases. A ten per cent sterile solution has been put upon the market by various manufacturers, and this may be used for hypodermic injections, diluted one half with hot sterile water, one hundred to five hundred cubic centimetres being injected into the buttocks. The injection of gelatin into the uterine cavity has been described on page 187. The gelatin is most useful in cases where the blood coagulates more slowly than usual (that is to say takes more than three to four minutes). Calcium lactate also is of value in this class of cases, given in doses of twenty gTains, three or four times a day, for long periods of time.
Prolonged hot vaginal douches are of great benefit in controlling hemorrhage in many cases. If one is to be given, the patient should be in her night-dress, and should lie on her back with the buttocks raised higher than her shoulders by means of a douche pan placed under them. At least six quarts of water should be used at a temperature of 110° to 120° E. ; the fountain syringe or douche pan is hung not more than three or four feet above the patient and the usual hard vaginal nozzle employed. After the douche, the patient should rest
holic beverages, prohibited.
Packing for Hemorrhage. — Many of the mechanical measures for checking hemorrhage have been described already (see Chap. VII, p. 186). One of the best of these is packing the vagina with wool or cotton tampons covered with vaselin. The patient should preferably be in the knee-breast posture, or that of Sims ; a large quantity of vaselin and tampons of small size should be used, the vagina being packed as tightly as possible. If this treatment is not efficacious, the uterine cavity should be packed with aseptic gauze covered with vaselin. To do this the cervix must be dilated by means of Hanks dilators sufficiently to admit a Burrage uterine speculum ; the end of a long piece of gauze, one inch wide, is carried well down to the fundus with a forked packer, and the cavity packed from the fundus down, after which the vagina is packed with vaselin tampons. The gauze must be all in one piece and the end should project from the external OS. Some gynecologists soak the gauze in a ten per cent sterile solution of gelatin instead of vaselin, and get good results. E. C. Dudley (" Principles and Practice of Gynecology," 4th edition, p. 359) cites a remarkable case in which intra-uterine sterile gauze packing not only, controlled hemorrhage, but resulted eventually in the almost total disappearance of a large fibroid tumor.
It is not proper to go on treating a woman suffering from hemorrhage month after month, and the lines of treatment suggested here are rather for adoption while waiting to carry the patient to a surgeon. A patient who needs packing for hemorrhage is clearly a surgical case.
Intra-uterine Treatment. — It must always be remembered that in the invasion of the uterine cavity the utmost caution is necessary, for even with the strictest aseptic precautions, sepsis has followed the simplest intra-uterine treatments. Kubinyi (Centrbl. f. Gyn., 1904, voL 28, p. T75) reports the case of a primiparaj, forty-two years old, who had a multiple fibroid filling the lower abdomen attended by menorrhagia ; she had been treated by an intra-uterine injection of iodine on three successive days, and five days later she had high temperature, pain, chills, and a foul vaginal discharge. At the end of a week, as she still appeared septic, the abdomen was opened and supra-vaginal hysterectomy performed, when it was found that there was a necrotic area in the endometrium with thromboses of the vessels extending into the tumor.
Pincus (" Atmokausis und Zestokausis," Wiesbaden, 1903) points out the dangers attending treating the interior of the uterus in the case of myomata with live steam, although a strenuous advocate of it as a therapeutic measure in many other pathological conditions. In fibroid
advised.
Curettage, which is so valuable in relieving uterine hemorrhage associated with disease of the endometrium, is of much more limited value in the treatment of myomata. Moreover, it is frequently followed by sloughing and resulting infection of the tumor. It may be definitely stated, therefore, that curettage, like other forms of intra-uterine treatment, should not be employed for myomata.
General Considerations. — The treatment of a pedunculate submucous nodule is exclusively surgical. It is not good treatment to administer ergot to a patient with a fibroid of submucous evolution in the expectation that the uterine contractions will cause extrusion of the tumor. If the tumor does not occasion excessive hemorrhage, the patient may be treated with iron and constitutional tonics until the tumor becomes pedunculate in the natural course of development. If the hemorrhage is excessive, and the methods already described are of no avail, the uterine cavity may be packed as already described. The stimulation has been known to cause the extrusion of the tumor from the uterine wall.
If the tumor is pedunculate, it should be removed under strict aseptic precautions. The growth should be seized with four-toothed volsella forceps and twisted until it comes away; if hemorrhage follows, it can usually be controlled by swabbing the interior of the uterus with pledgets of gauze soaked in equal parts of the tincture of iodine and pure carbolic acid, taking care first to protect the vagina with gauze. Should the bleeding be excessive, it must be controlled by irrigating the interior of the uterus wdth scalding water, and if this fails, by packing with dry gauze. Wlien the pedicle can be seen or felt, it can be tied with catgiit and cut off distally to the ties. It may be necessary to use the uterine scissors to separate the tumor or to trim out bits of tissue by the twisting process. If exploration of the uterine cavity with the finger (see p. 501) reveals the presence of several tumors and an extensive operation is indicated, the case should be referred to a gj^necologist.
If the tumor is sapping the patient's strength by pain, or hemorrhage with its attendant anemia, a radical operation should be advised ; and the same advice obtains if there are degenerative changes or if jDregiiancy is prevented. Due regard must be shown, of course, to the most favorable time for operation as regards symptoms, the possibility of future pregnancies, and the condition of the general health. It is not sufficient to make a diagnosis of fibroid tumor, decide upon operation, and appoint a day for it; no radical operation should be advised until the physician has become thoroughly familiar wdtli all the circumstances of his patient's social condition, as well as with the facts concerning the tumor itself, and the symptoms it excites.
tem. The percentage of liemoglobin and iJie number of the red Llood corpuscles should be determined; the urine should be examined; the heart and lungs auscultated and percussed and any abnormalities noted; the skin must be put into good order by hot baths; anemia corrected by iron and arsenic; and heart tonics and diuretics ordered, if indicated. ISTo radical operation should be performed if there is an advanced nephritis, or a persistent glycosuria. A pyelitis may be helped by taking the pressure off the ureter. In bleeders it is frequently necessary to check hemorrhage by artificial means during several menstrual periods, at the same time administering iron and ordering forced feeding until the patient is in proper condition for operation. Some patients are in such an impoverished condition that it is of the utmost importance to save every drop of blood, and time spent in preparation for operation in such cases is well expended.
provided
Fig. 130. — Showing a Globular Myomatous Uterus Delivered through an Abdominal Incision. The hands are employed merely in showing the tumor.
terectomy in competent hands
are now so satisfactory, and if any operation is performed, it is better to remove the tumor altogether and thus obviate the risk of subsequent degeneration and other harmful effects (see Figs. 131). Myomectomy should always be preferred in a young woman, there are no complicating conditions, such as extreme anemia, in which
case the prime indications are to check hemorrhage and avoid a protracted operation. Myomectomy is, however, a more dangerous operation than hysteromyomectomy (supravaginal operation). In three hundred and six cases of myomectomy in my practice there was a mortality of four and a half per cent in contrast to a mortality of three and one-tenth per cent in six hundred and ninety-one eases of hysterectomy. Xoble {loc. cit., pp. 711, 712) gives the mortality of myomectomy in the hands of trained gynecologists as from three to five per cent; of hysterectomy (supravaginal operation) as two to four per cent : and of total hysterectomy nearly double that of hystero-myomectomy. In badly complicated cases and in untrained hands the mortality of these operations is as high as ten, twenty, or even thirty per cent.
The most favorable time for a radical operation on a fibroid tumor is just before a menstrual period, because at this time the blood-making organs have had the best opportimity to make good the loss of blood, and, in the case of tumors causing dysmenorrhea, the patient has had- a chance to rest from the depressing effect of the pain of the last period.
FIBROID TUMORS AND PREGNANCY.
TThen fibroid tumors are associated with pregnancy it may become a nice question whether to let the patient go to term, or to provoke an abortion, or to do a radical operation, removing the uterus, the tumors, and the ovum all in one mass. The first point of importance in such a contingency is, as a rule, to realize that a fibroid tumor is not a serious complication, and therefore it bv no means calls for interference from the mere fact of its existence. Again, if the case is watched throughout the pregnancy as it should be, the danger of non-interference is but slight. T\'hen the fibroid gTowths are numerous, nature eenei-allv steps in herseK to relieve the situation by causing a spontaneous abortion.
The cases which require interference are those in which a large tmnor springs from the cervix and chokes the pelvis below the preg-nancy, or else those in which a tumor springing from the posterior half of the uterus is immovably wedged in the pelvis. Often a case which looks grave at the outset rights itself as pregnancy advances by the ascent of the tumor and requires no interference.
Tumors in the upper part of the uterus do not often complicate pregnancy or labor. The real complication in large tumors begins after delivery, when there is a gTeater liability to hemorrhage. In all doubtful cases, perhaps in all cases without exception, a conservative specialist ought to be consulted.
remedial measures, p. 542.
The litems is by far the most frequent seat of primary cancer, and the disease in that situation is so prevalent that no busy general practitioner passes a year without the opportunity of observing one or more cases in his own practice. It is of the utmost importance, therefore, that the physician in general practice should be perfectly informed on all its diagnostic features, for the recog-nition of this frightful scourge in its early stages depends largely upon him. It is the general practitioner also who must bear the daily burden of treatment in cases where the disease is not discovered until it is too late to adopt radical measures of relief, as well as in those in which it recurs after a futile operation.
The ravages of the disease upon the contiguous pelvic organs are well shown in FigTire 132, where a cancer beginning in the cervix has extended up into the body of the uterus ; down onto the vagina forward into the bladder, forming a vesico-vaginal fistula ; and backward into the rectum, which is extensively involved. If we could see the lateral extensions also, we should find both broad ligaments choked and the disease extending up to the pelvic walls.
The etiology of cancer is a subject upon which the general practitioner should be carefully posted, in order that he may, by his judicial advice, prevent injustice being done to an already overburdened and distressing class of sufferers. Evidence gathered from widely spread sources shows a growing impression among the laity that cancer is " a catching disease." This notion is fostered, on the one hand, by certain physicians who draw conclusions from a few data and express themselves in print upon a subject which they have not studied in all its bearings ; and, on the other, by the attitude of the press throughout the country, as well as that of some pseudo-medical journals, which seem always ready to foster the idea that cancer is contagious. This phase of the subject has been carefully investigated by W. S. Bainbridge {Bost. 34 513
Fig. 132. — Sqtjamots-celled Carctn-oma of the rER-^ix vtjtr Extension' to the Bladder antj Rectt^i and Formation of a Vesico-vaginal Fistitla. (Natural size.) A sagittal section of the uterus, bladder, and rectum. The upper part of the vagina and the greater part of the body of the uterus are occupied by a new gro-«-th and the ceirical landmarks are entirely obliterated. At the cer\-ieal site the gro-n-th has broken do-mi; its upper margin is irregular but sharply defined, and stands out clearly from the uterine muscle, Trhich is much darker in color. Along the lower or vaginal limit the growth is considerablv elevated and overhangs the normal mucosa. At the point where the carcinoma has implicated the bladder it measures over 1 cm. in thickness and extends downwards to the inner urethral orifice. At the trigonum the bladder wall has broken down, with the formation of a vesico- vaginal fistula 1.5 cm. in diameter with ragged margins. The mouth of ureter, which is surrounded by a little mound of carcinomatous tissue, is seen a short distance ■within the inner urethral orifice. In such a case as this the bladder is not usually so large, as it commonly undergoes contraction after a fistula is formed from lack of the usual distention.
expressed lier determination never to nurse another cancer patient, on account of the personal danger incurred by doing so. In another instance, a patient with cancer was practically evicted by fellow-boarders afraid of acquiring the disease. A still graver case is one in which the entire corps of nurses in a hospital in the County of Kings, ISTew York, struck in a body, positively refusing to remain in the hospital if required to take care of a cancer case.
There can be no doubt that this notion of the contagiousness of cancer is in part fostered by the recent reversal of the attitude of the entire medical profession towards the tuberculosis question. Only a generation ago, it was positively held that tuberculosis was in no sense either contagious or infectious, v/hile to-day a high degree of both contagiousness and infectiousness is recognized. The argument by analogy from tuberculosis to cancer is too strong to be resisted by the laity.
While there are some well-authenticated instances of the remarkable prevalence of malignant tumors in families within a few generations, nothing has been proven from tliese data beyond the fact that there may exist the same hereditary predisposition, found in many other forms of disease, such as infections, cerebral apoplexy, etc. An hereditary influence can be traced in from one-third to one-fourth of the cases. Roger WiUiams, in 1892, reported one hundred and thirty-six cases of carcinoma of the breast, with a history of heredity in twenty -nine and two-tenths per cent ; there were forty-eight cases in thirty-three families. He cites among others the well-known fact that the father, the brother, and two sisters of ]^apoleon all died of cancer of the stomach, to which he himself finally succumbed. Broca records sixteen deaths from cancer in a family of twenty-seven members. Chantemesse and Podwyssotsky declare that heredity in the case of a neoplasm is in reality but an inheritance of a predisposition to allow of the implantation of the parasite which they consider the true cause of the disease. Bainbridge urges that most of the arguments used to prove heredity can be employed with equal force to demonstrate a transmission by infection. Conclusive evidence on either side can be reached only after further investigations.
Cohnheim was the originator of the theory that in course of development certain cells were misplaced into tissues where they did not normally belong, and that it is from these misplaced cells that tumors take their origin. This interesting speculation, although widely discussed, has not, as yet, received positive confirmation.
(4) Tlie reports of cases of coexistent or coincident cancer in families of human beings, supposed to be the result of accidental infection. In a disease so excessively common, the instances of coincident cancer occurring in people brought frequently into close contact with one another may readily be disposed of as mere accidental coincidences. As to the transmission of malignant tumors by means of experimental propagation, as Bashford has said, this demonstrates nothing more than that the cells of the tumor in one animal continue to proliferate in another animal, and this affords no proof touching the contagiousness or infectiousness of cancer in general. 'No facts have yet been adduced which prove that cancer can be conveyed by the ordinary contacts of human life.
In the present status of our knowledge, it is sufficient for the general practitioner to insist, on the one hand, that there is no danger of any member of the family catching the disease ; ■ and, on the other, to recommend that the same care and precaution should be taken as are proper during the treatment of any infected wound, for the protection of the healthy from contact and contamination. The cancerous wound should be kept as clean as possible by frequent cleansing; those who handle it should do so with protected hands, using forceps and other instruments as far as possible, while the cloths employed for dressings on the diseased surface must be burned immediately. Douching vessels must be kept for the patient's exclusive use and articles of clothing worn by her should not be put on b}^ others. It is better for a patient with cancer to occupy her own bed and use her o^vn separate bed-linen. Such reasonable care as this will satisfy the laity that everything possible is being done, and thereby secure their confidence when assured that the situation calls for nothing more. By doing this we shall avoid imposing unnecessary burdens upon sufferers who are already sufficiently pitiable, without the distress of complete seclusion and ostracism, not to say neglect.
In regard to the question of heredity I may say here that in forty out of forty-nine cases of squamous-celled cancer of the cervix treated at the Johns Hopkins Hospital, no history whatever could be obtained of malignant disease in the family ; and in only two of the remaining nine was there any record of cancer in the uterus. In eighty-two per cent of these cases, therefore, hereditary influence could be excluded. In thirteen cases of adeno-carcinoma of the fundus there were only two where cancer had occurred among near relatives, and in neither of these was it situated in the uterus. These figures, it will be seen, are even less favorable to hereditary influence than those cited above.
DIAGTiTOSIS FEOM CLINICAL HISTORY. 517
seems to be borne out in the case of cancer of the breast and of the nterns. There is no donbt that the injuries inflicted upon the cervix uteri during labor are a definite causal factor in subsequent cervical carcinoma. ISTinety-eight per cent of the cases of squamouscelled carcinoma of the cervix in my clinic at the Johns Hopkins Hospital had had children, so that the proportion of cases in nulliparae was extremely small. In my private practice I have seen, in all, but three cases of cervical cancer in nulliparae, and in one of these the cervix had been forcibly dilated. Emmet mentions the occurrence of a cervical cancer in a woman who had never had children, and here also the cervix had been dilated. My associate, Dr. C F, Burnam, however, has recently had a case in a nullipara where there had never been any operation on the cervix, and similar cases have been reported by W. H. Weir (Amer. Jour. Obst., 1900, vol. 42, p. 377) and others. H. J. Boldt has been able to demonstrate the disease in its very incipiency in a laceration of the cervix. In advance of the local examination the fact that the patient is a nullipara is always strong presumptive proof against cancer of the cervix uteri.
In making a diagnosis of uterine cancer three lines of investigation must be considered, namely, the clinical history ; the local signs ; and the microscopic examination. The local signs and the microscopic examination afford the most accurate information, but the clinical history is not without great significance.
CLINICAL HISTORY.
Age. — All statistics conspire to prove that cancer of the uterus is most frequent about the time of the menopause. R. R. Huggins suggests that the injuries sustained by the uterus during parturition render the cervix unusually susceptible to cancerous disease during the years when the degenerative changes accompanying the menopause are taking place. Before the cessation of menstruation the number of cases of cervical cancer is relatively larger than the cases of cancer of the fundus, whereas after menstruation has ceased, the opposite is true. Squamous-celled carcinoma may occur even in the twenties, but this is exceptional. Since the year 1900 I have seen several cases of cancer of the cervix at the Johns Hopkins Hospital in patients between twenty and thirty years old. Not many cases, however, begin either before forty or after sixty.
Menstrual History. — Menstruation is usually regular until the carcinoma begins to become active, and then, as a rule, it is profuse. In those patients who have passed the menopause before the carcinoma appears there is usually a history of normal regular menstruation up to the time of cessation. There does not appear to be any relation between menstruation and the occurrence of cancer.
518 CANCER OF THE UTERUS.
Vaginal Discharge. — A discliarge is present in all forms of cancer and it may be the first symptom of the disease. In cancer of the fundus it often appears before the hemorrhage. It is usually thin, watery, colorless, and irritating, and sometimes has a characteristic penetrating odor. Occasionally it is purulent and often it is blood stained.
Hemorrhage. — Loss of blood is perhaps the most important symptom of cancer and should not fail to receive immediate attention. Before the menojDause it may occur with the menstrual j)eriods, as an "increase in amount or an extension of duration; or there may be more or less profuse hemorrhage during the intervals. In cervical cancer the bleeding is apt to come on suddenly after some unusual exertion, as lifting a heavy weight ; after coitus ; or with defecation. It is an earlier and more frequent sjonptom in cancer of the cervix than in cancer of the fundus.
Pain. — In the early stages of carcinoma patients rarely complain of much suffering; with further progress, however, there is a persistent, dull, heavy pain in the back or cramp-like pains in the uterus; as the disease advances and the growth presses upon adjacent organs and nerve trunks, the pain extends to the thighs, the knees, and even to the calves of the legs, following the course of the sciatic nerves. Cases are occasionally seen in which there is no pain throughout, but, as a rule, the suffering in the latter stages is a marked and peculiarly distressing feature.
Emaciation. — Loss of flesh is rarely well marked in the early stages of uterine cancer, indeed, the fact that the patient has lost flesh is good evidence that the disease has made progress ; in some cases the body remains well nourished even to the end. The degree of emaciation depends upon the condition of the patient's appetite as well as upon the direct effect of the disease and the absorption of toxines upon the metabolism of the body.
Cachexia. — There is a peculiar lemon-colored appearance of the skin which is characteristic of malignant disease of all kinds and is most suggestive to the practised eye. It is due, according to Klemperer {Cliarite Annalen, vol. 16, p. 138), to the fact that more nitrogen leaves the body than is taken in. Like emaciation, it is a symptom of the later stages.
Any woman between thirty-five and sixty who comes to the physician complaining of increased menstruation, of metrorrhagia, of pelvic pain, or of vaginal discharge should be examined without loss of time on the suspicion of cancer. The old-fashioned jDractice of treating her tentatively for a time, in the hope that the symptoms will subside, cannot be too strongly condemned. If cancer of the cervix exists it can easily be recognized, even in its earliest stages. It is well to remember that an ulceration of the cervix at that age is practically always cancerous, bearing in mind that an "^erosion" is not an ulceration. If there is no evidence of cancer of the cervix, and no definite cause for the symptoms can be found, the uterus should be curetted and the scrapings examined with
the microscope. It is well to remember that it is sometimes necessary to examine many slides, and even to cnrette more than once before the evidence of cancer is secured. The earlier the stage and the more limited the disease, the more difficult it is to find.
G. E. Shoemaker (N. Y. Med. Jour., 1905, vol. 83, p. 1092) mentions a case in which a woman of forty, who had had nine children, complained of constant uterine hemorrhage for three months. On examination the uterus was found enlarged, and curettage was therefore done to confirm or confute the susj^icion of cancer. A grating sensation was noticed near the fundus, but on microscopic examination at first no cancer was found; then after a number of slides had been studied the evidence was forthcoming, and a hysterectomy was performed, when it proved that the only spot where the malignant disease existed was a little nodule, hardly larger than a grain of corn, in the upper third of the uterus.
A most potent cause of failure in the treatment of uterine cancer is neglect on the part of the patient to apply for advice until the disease is so far advanced that an operation offers no hope. It becomes a matter of vital importance, then, that the public should be well informed as to the symptoms which ought to excite suspicion, and which proclaim the necessity for immediate competent medical investigation.
D. H. Craig (N. Y. Med. Jour., 1905, vol. 82, p. 65) investigated the histories of seventy-eight cases of uterine cancer and found that in forty-five of them the first symptom noticed by the patient was a leucorrhea; in twenty-two cases it was hemorrhage, varying in amount from the slightest stain to profuse bleeding; while in the remaining twelve cases, pain was experienced several weeks before any other indication appeared. The presence of any one of these three symptoms should never be overlooked in a woman over thirty-five. A certain difficulty, however, as Craig points out, arises from the fact that in the earliest stages of cancer the vaginal discharge has no special characteristics which may serve to distinguish it from the leucorrheas with which the majority of women suffer.
The education of the public mind on this question is peculiarly important on account of the prevailing impression that irregularities of menstruation and the existence of vaginal discharges are a feature of the normal menopause and must be accepted as a matter of course. Even metrorrhagia receives surprisingly little attention, because accounted for in the same way. In women who have passed the menopause there is a sort of reckless tendency to ascribe any hemorrhage from the vagina to a return of menstruation. But as Shoemaker observes (loc. cit.) "when a year or two has passed after a normally established menopause, the appearance of blood, if only a small spot, from the genitalia often means cancer. It need not be persistent ; it need not be abundant ; its very presence more than a year after the menopause is sufficient to arouse grave apprehensions of malignant disease."
of the fundus or the cervix, from which the jDatient has noticed symptoms only Avithin three or four weeks. Such experiences generally occur with women wlio have nearly reached the menopause and make imperative the solemn command to every physician to investigate at the earliest opportunity any sign or symptom referable to the pelvic organs.
The instruction of the public at large as to these facts is the duty of the general practitioner and by its performance he has it within his power to save manv lives. The only cure for cancer of the uterus is extirpation, and statistics show that when the case is in the surgeon's hands sufficiently early, the number of permanent cures is by no means small. Eighty per cent of the cancers of the fundus of the uterus at the Johns Hopkins Hospital were permanently cured; and, while the figures as to cancer of the cervix are not so encouraging, being fifteen to eighteen per cent cured, this percentage will be largely increased when the necessity for early operation is widely appreciated by the medical profession and the laity at large.
There can be no doubt that the most important agent in the instruction of the public is the general practitioner. Almost all women, and married women especially, have a more or less intimate acquaintance with some physician with whom they converse at one time or another on the subject of their own health or that of their relatives, and in whose opinion they place great confidence. If every family physician would make it a point to take advantage of the opportunities afforded him by such relations, to point out the significance of hemorrhage, vaginal discharge, and pelvic pain occurring about the time of the menopause, he would accomplish more towards diminishing the death rate of cancer than can be done by any other means we can command at present.
Two kinds of cancer are found in the uterus: (1) those which begin to STOW in the cervix (see Fig. 133), and (2) those which start in the body of the uterus, at some point above the internal os uteri (see Fig. 131). The great practical difference between the two lies in their radically different clinical course, cancer of the body gTowing slowly, affecting the glands, and extending outwards only in the later stages, while cancer of the cervix affects the glands early, and spreads with the utmost rapidity into the neighboring tissues.
Cancer of the Cervix. — On making a vaginal examination in cancer of the cervix the conditions which the examiner finds vary greatly according to the stage of the disease, which may conveniently be divided into three classes: (1) of enlargement; (2) of breaking down; (3) of craterous excavation. These various locations and the course of a cervical cancer are shown in Figures 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140 and 111.
lips appears nodular, puffy, and has a slightly glazed appearance,
Fig. 133. — Sqtjamoxjs-celled Carcinoma of the Cervix; Carcinomatous Mass Springing from the Anterior Lip. (| natural size.) Uterus opened and showing the posterior aspect. A cauliflower growth is seen on the cervix ; the uterine tubes and the ovaries are uninvolved.
Fig. 134. — Adeno-carcinoma of the Body of the Uterus with Extension to the Left Roxtnd ' Ligament, (f natural size.) The uterus was nearly twice its normal size. The cervix and the lower part of the bodv present the usual appearance, but the upper half of the body is occupied by a friable-looking growth which has involved the entire thickness of the uterine walls (a). In the left round ligament is a definite nodule (b), while between the left tube and ovary, and followmg the course of the lymph channels from the body of the uterus, are three small, oval, carcmomatous nodules (c). The appendages on both sides appear to be normal. (After W. W. Russell.)
with one or more enlarged vessels coursing over it, and perhaps a few teatlike processes projecting from its surface. The examining finger usually brings away a little blood, which is most significant. In some patients, seen early, this is all that can be found; or, possibly, there is already a small mulberry-like mass. In many instances, unfortunately, the vagina is already more or less filled with a cauliflower gTowth which is extremely friable, breaks down under the examining finger, and at times bleeds profusely. If this growth is traced to its attachment it will be found springing from one of the lips of the cervix. In the first stage of the disease this cervical involvement is all that can be found, the vaginal mucous membrane below the cervix appears normal, there is no thickening in either of the broad ligaments, and the uterus still remains freely movable, unless fixed by some associated inflammatory process.
In the second stage the growth has begun to break down and disappear. The margins of the cervical lips are swollen and livid and within the margin is a rough, uneven, scooped-out area readily detected by
Fig. 137. — More Advanced Stage of the Disease SEEN IN Fig. 136. The cancer has invaded both Ups and extended to the posterior vaginal vault.
Fig. 139. — More Advanced Stage of Disease Seen in Fig. 138, showing the Breaking down in THE Center and the Formation of a Crater.
there with necrotic tissues. The advancing margin of growth is marked by a hard ridge covered with the vaginal mucosa. The body of the uterus, as a rule, remains unchanged in cervical cancer. Sometimes it is as large as a two
Fig. 140. — Early Stage of Columnar-celled Cancer of the Cervical Canal. The disease is not manifest to inspection of the cervix but to the toucli of the cervix feels greatly thickened.
Fig. 141. — More Advanced Stage of Disease seen IN Fig. 140. A crater-like cavity is formed. The progress of the growth of carcinoma of the cervix is shown in more detail in "Studies in Gynecology," by J. A. Sampson, 1907.
Again, at a later stage all trace of tlie cervix will have disappeared, and the vaginal vault is occupied by a hole surrounded by a puckered, hard, nodular tissue, while from the opening issues a foul brownish discharge. The mucosa of the surrounding vaginal vault is often intact, but the underlying tissue is indurated, owing to the extension of the gTOwth, while isolated nodules are seen and felt lying just underneath the mucosa in any portion of the vagina. Sometimes the entire vaginal vault is enlarged and lined by a necrotic and friable carcinomatous tissue, while the
THE Disease has Advanced to the Bladder and the Rectum.
surface of the vaginal mucosa is covered by little shaggy tufts of the cancerous gTOwth. In more advanced stages all anatomical relations are lost; the entire upper part of the vagina is choked with the cancer, and the urine trickles down into the vagina through a vesico-vaginal fistula; the rectum may be involved and the feces pass also per vaginam (see Fig. 142).
DIAGNOSIS FROM MICEOSCOPIC EXAMINATION. 525
which the physician has mistaken a red everted cervix (so-called "erosion") ; or a cervix covered with multiple, red, plaque-like, bleeding areas; or a hard nodular everted cervix containing multiple cysts (ISTabothian follicles), for a cancer.
These cases can be distinguished from cancer by the following marks: In the everted mucosa, the longitudinal striae can often be seen on the smooth glistening mucosa, and this shows no particular liability to bleed upon handling. The plaque-like areas, which are so prone to bleed, are in reality superficial erosions, but differ from cancer in being superficial and isolated or multi]3le. The jSTabothian cysts are easily recognized by puncturing them with a sharp-pointed scarifier, when the mucilaginous contents escape and the cyst collapses; they may feel like shot and are isolated and covered wuth velvety mucosa. In general the cancer is hard and granular, breaking down under the finger, and bleeding readily.
Cancer of the Fundus. — In cancer of the fundus the body of the uterus may be enlarged to the size of a three months' pregnancy, while at other times it is nearly or quite the normal size. The diagnosis in the early stages of cancer of the fundus must depend almost entirely upon the history, and upon a microscopical examination of scrapings from the endometrium. It is, in fact, in this variety of cancer that curettage is of such importance. The diagnosis of cervical cancer is easily made from the visible and tangible local signs, while the disease is still in a sufficiently early stage for radical operation to offer prospect of a cure, but in cancer of the fundus the only means of accurate diagnosis in the early stages is the microscopical examination of scrapings from the mucosa. In the later stages the palpation of alternate hard and soft areas in the enlarged fundus helps to distinguish the disease from myoma. In rare instances, carcinoma of the fundus projects through the cervix as a rounded or pyriform mass and simulates a sub-« mucous fibroid. My associate. Dr. Guy L. Hunner, had such a case, in a woman of sixty-one years of age, who had had irregular bleeding for eleven years; and the true nature of the growth was not suspected until the patient was anesthetized, when the tumor was found to have a broad origin in the fundus, and bimanual examination demonstrated hard and soft areas throughout the uterine walls.
MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION.
If cancer of the cervix is suspected, a wedge-shaped piece is removed for microscopic examination; when cancer of the fundus is in question, the cavity of the uterus is curetted and the scrapings examined by the microscope. When a piece of the cervix is to be removed, the cervix is drawn down by bullet forceps, and a wedge-shaped piece, about one centimetre broad at the base and one centimetre in length from base to apex, is excised with a sharp knife. The raw surface is then cauterized to stop hemorrhage or it is approximated by two or three silk or catgut sutures. As a rule this operation is not
The operation of curettage of tlie fundus (see Fig. 143) has been already described in Chapter VII (see p. 189), but it is of great importance that it should be performed with extreme thoroughness, since it may happen, in an early stage of the disease, that the diseased tissue is the only portion left behind. The curettings must be caught by the spoon as they emerge from the external os, and placed at once in the hardening fluid (formalin, ten per cent). If the curettings should demonstrate a malignant disease, no time should be lost in sending the patient to a specialist for radical operation. There is an impression among some surgeons that curettage tends to hasten the extension of the disease, but in our gynecological work we cannot avoid it.
The tissues may be studied at once by the method described in Chapter VII (see p. 192) ; or they may be placed in a hardening medium and studied at leisure. In cases where the services of an experienced pathologist cannot be secured and the physician's knowledge of pathology is not sufficient for so important a task, the specimens can be sent in the hardening medium to one of the large hospitals and an opinion obtained from the pathologist connected with it. It is practically impossible by description, even with the best illustrations, to equip the average practitioner with the ability for making a certain microscopical diagnosis of cancer of the uterus. It is true that with the courses in histology and pathology now offered in most of our jDOst-graduate medical schools, the graduate shoidd be able to easily identify the characteristic microscopic section of cancer of the uterus ; but not all microscopic sections, even in pronounced carcinoma, are characteristic, and there are many conditions of the cervix and endometrium, such as hypertrophies, inflammations, polypoid growths, hypertrophy of the glands, etc., which yield microscopic sections so suggestive of carcinoma that none but the experienced pathologist should be trusted with the final opinion. Special warning is in order at this time because of the many pathological laboratories now being conducted, often by drug firms, on a purely commercial basis. Xo physician should trust the report of a laboratory without knowing posipathologist making the report has had special examination of uterine scrapings.
also to follow some systematic method of examination.
When the piece excised from the cervix is examined, the vaginal portion is looked at first, in order to ascertain whether the squamous epithelium shows the proper number of layers, if its cells present the usual appearance, and if there is any tendency to invasion of the underlying tissues. Also, if there is any small round-celled or polymorpho-nuclear infiltration between the individual cells. An increased richness in the blood supply is also to be noted. In examining the cervical portion of the specimen the exact point where the squamous epithelium ends and the cylindrical begins must be observed, any irregularity of the surface occasioned by the mucosa being gathered up into small polypi should be observed; the shape of the polypi, if present ; the character of their lining, whether one layer of epithelium or more ; the uniformity or irregularity of the individual cells, and their tendency to invade surrounding tissue; and, finally, the condition of the stroma.
When we find a small round-celled infiltration of the stroma between the individual cells, increased richness in the blood supply, a tendency on the part of the epitheliiun to gather up into finger-like projections, or in the cervical portion any change in the shape of the glands, and any proliferation of their epithelial lining, there is good reason to suspect a carcinoma and the specimen should be further carefully studied for evidences of new gland formation and invasion of the underlying tissues.
In examining the uterine mucosa from the body of the uterus, it must be remembered that under normal conditions a teaspoonful of scrapings is all that can be obtained, and the presence of more should arouse suspicion. ISTormally, the mucosa comes off in long ribbons about two or three millimetres broad and one to one and a half millimetres thick, but where malignant disease is present, the scrapings are usually large, irregular, or cuboid masses about one centimetre in diameter. The tissue is friable, and on careful teasing it is often possible to make out a threadlike branching appearance on the surface. Masses of tissue are also found in retained secundines, polypoid and ulcerative endometritis, and necrotic myomata.
Histologically, the character of the mucosa must be studied in order to observe whether it is smooth or gathered up into polypi, or papillary or tree-like growths, etc. Its relative thickness and the character of the surface epithelium must be noted ; also the shape of the glands on cross-section, as to whether they are round, convoluted, or branching; whether they are uniformly distributed or lie closely together ; whether the gland epithelium forms one or several layers ; and whether the individual cells present a normal appearance. The glands, if there are any, must be noted. In examining the stroma the points to be considered are : whether it is dense or rarefied ; the character of
Fig. 144. — Normal Endometrium from a Patient Thirty-three Years of Age. (80 diameters.) J. H. H. Gyn.-Path. No. 704. The surface is even, the epitheUal covering well preserved. Two glands are ^^sible opening on the surface. In the superficial portion the glands are few in number and are round on cross-section, but in the neighborhood of the muscle thej^ are cut obliquely and are slightly dilated. The gland epithelium is e-verywhere intact. The stroma is uniform in density and consists of cells with oval vesicular nuclei. Most of the spindle-shaped nuclei seen in the stroma belong to the endothelium of the capillaries, b indicates the line of junction between the mucosa and the muscle. Sections of several glands are visible in the muscle, their epithelium being unaltered and the glands themselves surrounded by the stroma of the mucosa. (From T. S. Cullen, "Cancer of the Uterus.")
Fig. 145. — Adeno-carcinoma of the Body of the Uterus. (130 diameters.) J. H. H. Gyn-Path. No. 324. o, May be compared to a m.ain stem, from which arise many secondarj' stemis, which, in turn, give off delicate terminals consisting entirely of epithelial cells. In order to appreciate the tree-like arrangement the drawing should be turned upside down. The glands may be arbitrarily divided into groups, a, h, c, d, and e, by the stems of stroma /, g, and h. The stems are covered by several layers of cylindrical epithelium, while projecting into the gland cavities are long slender ingrowths of epithelium devoid of stroma as seen at i. Very delicate ingrowths consisting merely of two layers of epithelium are visible at k and k. At points indicated by I, the epithelium is several layers in thickness. At vi there is also considerable thickening and polymorphonuclear leucocytes are visible, which have wandered out between the epithelial cells. At n numerous polymorphonuclear leucocytes are seen in the gland cavities. From the tree-like arrangement and the peculiar glandlike grouping, adeno-carciiaoma may be readily diagnosed. (From T. S. CuUen, "Cancer of the Uterus.")
The cancer question from a therapeutic standpoint has a threefold aspect:
(1) the discovery of the cause ; (2) the effort to reach the cancer sufferers at an earlier stage of the disease while it is still curable ; (3) the working out of a more radical operation. The latter condition has been so well met by the labors of J. G. Clark, Sampson, Eiis, Wertheim, and others, that it seems impossible to take a single step farther in that direction.
The working out of the cause of cancer is to-daj a question of laboratory investigation, and no notable progTCSs is as yet observable, in spite of countless investigations by an army of skilled workers, and in spite of repeated announcements proclaiming the great discovery; it still lies in the womb of the future, undemonstrated, and utterly unknown.
The only avenue open with certainty to progress to-day lies in the direction of discovering our cases of cancer at an earlier stage in the disease, and this strategic point lies, as I have said, almost wholly in the hands of the general practitioners of our land. I would like to make this fact, and the consequences which flow from it, the point of greatest importance which I wish especially to emphasize in this chapter.
Can we, by a determined attack upon this point, effect any appreciable change in the present deplorable state of affairs within a reasonable period of time, say five or ten years ? This question is best answered by considering what has already been accomplished on these lines in Germany.
G. Winter of Konigsburg in the year 1902 undertook to improve the mortality statistics of cancer of the uterus in the only way open to him at that time and in the only way by which it is as yet possible for the surgeon to bring about an immediate improvement in his ultimate results, namely, by a series of letters addressed to physicians ; by a series of articles published in the medical journals; and by articles appealing directly to the laity and appearing even in the leading daily papers. In these communications he instructed the medical profession at large as well as the laity, as to the earliest signs of cancer, and as well as the supreme importance of seeking immediate relief by surgical measures when these signs were noted. One of these personal appeals to his medical brethren was a brochure entitled " The Warfare against Uterine Cancer, a Word to All Operators for Cancer," Stuttgart, 1904. In the CenfraJhlatt fi'ir Gyndlfologie, 1904, vol. 28, p. 441, he gives a resume of the results of this interesting propaganda, w^here he insists upon the following important facts with which every physician ought now to be familiar : ( 1 ) Any immediate improvement in the final results of operations for cancer must depend upon the performance of the operation at the earliest possible moment.
(2) It is possible to secure patients for operation regularly within four weeks after the appearance of the first suspicious symptom and it is well worth the effort. (3) The chief difficulties in the way of the operator, and the cause
PROPHYLAXIS. 531
of so many cases applying for relief too late, lie in the fact that (a) the lay public is grossly ignorant of the possible significance of the early symptoms of cancer, and is, therefore, inclined to ignore them until too late, and (5) the physicians who first see the patients fail to examine them promptly, and at the first visit, as they ought to do. A few, to their discredit be it said, actually seeing an early cancer, persist in treating it as an ulcer, until the favorable period has passed and the disease has advanced too far for radical treatment. In Germany a most important step has been taken in seeing that midwives are better informed. The convincing statistical results of Winter's interesting propaganda are as follows:
Out of eighty-four women who applied to a physician after the issuance of the instructions, only five were not immediately examined — eleven per cent. This contrasts favorably with fourteen and two-tenths per cent before the letters of instructions to physicians.
In the second place, in response to his invitation, many physicians made use of the facilities of Winter's laboratory, to secure a microscopic examination of tissues in suspected cases. Out of this largely increased number of specimens sent for an examination and an opinion, a number of cancer cases were found. As Winter remarks, it is evident from this that the seed sown fell on fruitful ground in the consciences of the physicians addressed.
Touching the midwives, eight cases of carcinoma first applied to them, and only one entirely neglected her duty in the matter. The result of the appeal to the midwives through the instructions was almost perfect. As to the lay public, the most iiuportant reasons for neglecting the early symptoms of cancer are ascribed to indolence, ignorance, false modesty, fear, poverty, and lack of time. The appeal to the public was made through a leading daily paper, in an article entitled " The Dangers of Cancer in the Lower Part of the Abdomen, a Word of Warning to Women," by Prof. Dr. Winter, of Ivonigsburg. In this article, giving explicit details, he shows the public that most cancer cases are curable, if only they are taken in time, because the disease begins as a purely local affection. He further makes it clear that an operation is the only possible way by which the disease can be cured, a*nd that the responsibility for so many failures lies with the patient who comes too late to be helped, a delay due largely to her ignorance of the early symptoms of the disease.
That cancer is frightfully common he proves by a reference to the statistics of East Prussia for the year. He also urges that it is important to go to the right place to secure relief immediately upon the appearance of any suspicious symptom.
The most important symptom he states is an irregular discharge of blood, particularly among women of a more advanced age, and especially in those who have passed the menopause. He calls special attention to the fact that cancer in its early stages does not cause pain and therefore its absence has no significance.
The dwindling percentages in the right-hand column show the effect of the letter of instruction upon the profession as well as upon the public. ISTinety per cent of the patients, after the instructions had been issued, applied for operation within two weeks after first seeking the advice of a physician. The operability of the cases applying to him increased from sixty-two per cent before the instructions to seventy-four per cent afterwards.
It is sufiiciently evident from these facts that a warfare against uterine cancer, carried on in the ranks of the general profession and also among the laity, may yield extraordinary results, even witliin so short a time as one year.
It is evident also, I think, that if we, too, here in America would make any immediate material progress in dealing with the cancer problem in this country, we must bravely follow Winter's initiative, however distasteful such a course of publicity may be, and however much it may be opposed to the time-honored precedents (shall I say prejudices?) of the medical profession.
I further urge two things which I have dwelt upon before, namely :
(1) In from six to eight weeks after every confinement the medical attendant should see his patient, with the object of making a careful inspection and of noting in his case-book the extent of the traumatism caused by the labor and just what lesions remain.
(2) Every woman who has borne children should be examined by a competent physician at least once every year until she is fifty-five years old. The effect of an adoption of these rules would be prompt discovery of an enormous number of cancer cases in their very incipiency. That such a course w^ould be distasteful to women at large, I do not doubt, but drastic measures are often necessary to purge ill humors, and who would measure such a trifling sacrifice against the great gain of even a small increase in the percentage operability of this distressing and to-day largely hopeless class of cases ?
The proper treatment for cancer whenever it is possible to carry it out with any reasonable hope of permanent success is by extirpation, and it is the only one which affords any prospect of a cure. Every case is operable in which it is possible to move the uterus freely. If the uterus can be pushed readily up-
CASES FAVORABLE FOE OPERATIOF. 533
wards by a finger resting on the cervix, it has lost little or none of its natural mobility, and in cervical cancer this fact tends to show that the disease has not extended beyond the confines of the cervix. Every such case should be placed in the hands of a surgeon who has had considerable experience in doing hysterectomy for cancer within a week after the physician has been consulted; moreover, the surgeon should be one who takes a hopeful view of the ultimate outcome in early cases.
The hopeless cases are those in which the uterus is fixed, as if anchored, by an exudate extending from the cervix uteri out to the pelvic wall on one or both sides. Even in such cases, however, it is well to consult a specialist. Let the physician note well that the cancerous uterus may also be fixed in several ways which may serve to confuse his diagnosis when he tries to determine the operability of a given case. Coincident pelvic inflammatory disea.se may so fix the uterus that it seems locked fast and immovable. A big pyometra may also fix it. Yet neither of these conditions does more than slightly complicate an operation which may be otherwise easy. If the cervix is stuffed and the vaginal vault choked with a cauliflower cancerous mass, this may interfere with mobility, but when the mass is curetted away, the uterus becomes quite movable. Again, I repeat, it is best in all cases, even apparently hopeless ones, to see the case with a specialist in order to give the patient the benefit of his judgment before she starts down that long sad road of suffering, humiliation, and ostracism to the gateway over which is written nonquam revertitur.
If the cancerous uterus can be removed, even though the ultimate success of the operation in eft'ecting a permanent cure is doubtful, it ought to be done, for two reasons: In the first place, if the disease returns, it is often in a less distressing form, characterized by the absence of foul discharges and hemorrhages, and that, in itself, is a great gain. In the second place, a case which seems hopeless at the time of extirpation may run for years without a recurrence. I know of several instances in which I was ready to give a hopeless prognosis at the time of the operation, where the patient has remained well for a number of years ; in one it was my confident expectation that . the disease would return almost at once, and yet at an autopsy made ten years later no cancer was discoverable.
In the present state of our knowledge upon the subject there are many cases which do not com.e into the physician's hands until it is too late for operative measures, while there are others in which operation is only temporarily successful, the disease returning after a longer or shorter time. In both these cases the question of palliative treatment becomes of great importance, in order that the distressing symptoms associated with the disease may receive as much alleviation as possible. Lessening of the foul discharge and relief of pain, besides buoying up the sufferer's spirits in the thought that something is being done for her relief, are of immense benefit in making life bearable to her in the last stages of so dreadful a malady. Because cancer in an advanced stage is an incurable disease, there is no reason why the physician should fold
are here discussed seriatim.
Curettage. — Even far-advanced cases where there is marked cachexia, a foul discharge, nausea, and progressive emaciation, are often much benefited by curettage, by means of which the masses of diseased tissue are removed and a clean cone-shaped excavation remains behind. The severe pain, so often present in advanced cases, is frequently due to the cervix being choked with retained discharges resulting in the formation of a pyometra (see Fig. 146), and the evacuation of this fluid will be followed by complete relief if the cervix is kept open. It is remarkable how much improvement
CURETTAGE OF UTERUS.
tient's color returns, her appetite improves, slie ceases for a time to lose flesh, and is able to enjoy life while the improvement lasts. The curettage may be repeated four or five times during the course of the disease.
The parts are exposed as shown in Figure 14Y, after which the friable and most redundant portions of the diseased tissue are best removed by the aid of the index and middle fingers, and it is astonishing how much tissue can be taken off in this way. The sharp, serrated spoon curette (see Eig. 148, or the loop curette, Fig. 149) is then used, being held firmly and moved rapidly and boldly as it breaks down the diseased tissues under the guidance of the index finger, which locates the points to be curetted and also prevents the instrument from advancing too far in the direction of the bladder, the rectum, or the peritoneal cavity. The limit of diseased tissue which can be removed in this way is recognized by the scraping sound and sensation, indicating that a firm hard base has been reached. Less blood is lost by working rapidly down to healthier tissue than by a slower procedure which allows the rigid, diseased vessels to bleed; but when the disease has extended so far that the operator does not feel sure whether the next effort will not invade the bladder, rectum, or peritoneum, it is important to advance more slowly, controlling the curettage by repeated examinations. A finger in the rectum or a sound in the bladder will assist in determining the thickness of the septa.
If the peritoneal cavity should accidentally be opened, an iodoform gauze tampon must at once be packed closely within the rent and the operation continued until all septic and sloughing masses have been removed, down to a clean wound surface. The vagina is cleansed, the gauze removed, and a fresh pack inserted, which enters a short distance into the pelvic cavity. This is allowed to remain in place for three or four days, when it is removed and a fresh one inserted.
Cauterization. — TTlien tlie bleeding following curettage is very profuse, it is sometimes necessary to cauterize in order to control it ; and there are many cases in which cauterization is desirable for its ovna. sake, either with or without curettage, W. B. Chase has given a good description of the method of using the actual cautery, which I quote (Amer. Jour. Obst., 1904:, vol. 49, p. 83 : " Where large areas of ulceration are attacked and the tissues are friable, the curette may be first used to advantage. This is likely to result in pretty active hemorrhage. The hemorrhage may be controlled by the application of pledgets of cotton applied with pressure, first dipped in dilute acetic acid, usually of half strength, or by the use of the adrenalin chloride. After this the cautery knife is apj)lied at a dull red heat imtil the surfaces are thoroughly charred. The after dressing consists of five per cent iodoform gauze, reapplied daily after the parts have been cleaned with peroxide of hydrogen. In all manipulations of the cervix the gTeatest gentleness should be used. The use of bivalve specula should be avoided, as they are likely to impinge upon the cervix and occasion hemorrhage. Dressing is best done with the patient in the Sims' position, and the parts exposed by means of a Sims' speculum. The only exception is when the posterior vaginal wall is involved. The slough separates usually in from one to two weeks. Daily dressing must be faithfully applied every day until healing follows, or, if it should not ensue, the dressings must be continued in order to keep the parts as aseptic as possible."
When healing is imperfect and unhealthy granulations reappear, they may be touched with carbolic acid or nitrate of silver, pure or diluted as the case may indicate. After the first day or two the parts should be douched, when the gauze is removed by a solution of lysol (one drachm to a quart of normal salt solution), or the same amount of a fifteen-volume formalin, one drachm to a quart, or a weak solution of tincture of iodine.
A certain skill is required in the use of the thermo-cautery. The cautery knife must be of just the right temperature ; that is to say, hot enough to burn the structures and not hot enough to disintegTate them too rapidly, which causes trouble and hemorrhage. Great care must be taken to avoid going beyond the area involved and injuring the bladder, the ureters, the rectum, or the intestine. jSTo pain is experienced, as a rule, from the use of the actual cautery, provided the cutaneous surfaces are untouched; on the contrary, nothing so effectually relieves the pain caused by the disease as the actual cautery. The vaginal surfaces may be protected from injurious heat by using strips of asbestos paper of proper size and shape.
The choice between a portable galvano and a Paquelin cautery is largely a matter of circumstances and convenience. The liability of most galvanocautery batteries to get out of order is an objection, and it is never safe to begin a thermo-cautery operation without a second apparatus, either galvanic or Paquelin, in reserve. In some cases the cauterization may have to be repeated at intervals of two, three, or six months.
PALLIATIVE TREATMENT. 537
X-Ray. — H. K. Pancoast, official skiagrapher of tlie University of Pennsylvania Hospital, expresses the following opinion as to the results of X-ray treatment of uterine cancer (Kelly-Noble, " Gynecological and Abdominal Surgery," 1907, vol. 1, p. 321) : " The X-ray may prolong the life of the patient. This is a fact worthy of recognition in many instances. The relief of pain has been observed by reliable authorities, and so frequently, too, that it must be recognized as a commendable result due directly to the treatment, and not to psychic effect. Pain is relieved in a large percentage of cases. This probably results largely from the direct anodyne effects of the rays. When the pain is due to presence of a mass upon the large nerve trunks, little relief can be expected. A lessening of the discharge and a decrease or a cessation of hemorrhage are frequently among the favorable results, and are often brought about early." It seems, therefore, that when it is possible to bring the patient under the care of a reliable radiograjDher and the expense of the treatment is within her means, it is worth while to test its efficacy in any given case. Unless a really reliable X-ray operator is at hand, however, it had better not be attempted, as the careless or unskilful use of the method has produced the most disastrous results.
Radium. — The salts of radium used in pencils containing not less than 15 and preferably from 30-50 milligrams, are valuable adjuncts in treating some cases of malignant diseases of the pelvic organs.
First of all, let it be noted that radium is not a substitute for surgery, its use here is supplementary to the surgical operation. But it does do what surgery cannot possibly accomplish. Its field of greatest usefulness in cancer of the cervix is after extirpation. Here we have to note two classes of cases : First those in which it is manifestly impossible to extirpate the disease, and here the radium is used to effect those more distant operations inaccessible to the knife. I have, for example, opened the abdomen and literally carved a large cancerous uterus out of its widely impeded bed and then given several weeks of all night treatments with an average dose of 32 milligrams. The effect of this was to cause a remarkable shrinkage in the hardened diseased tissues and a manifest improvement in the patient's condition; relief of pain and cessation of hemorrhage and for a time apparently complete cure. But I have not yet seen an advanced case of this kind which did not later recur. Wickham, however, has reported two such cases.
Secondly, radium is of the utmost value in treating recurrences at the vaginal vault. I had a case which recurred in the right vault about a year after operation, the disease extended like a finger back to the posterior pelvis. I thrust the radium pencil into it for twenty-four hours on three occasions and she recovered perfectly with no recurrence in two years.
Another use for radium is in cancer and other tumors of the bladder. I have at present under my care a woman sent to me by Dr. Guy L. Hunner, with an inoperable bladder, carcinoma projecting far out into the organ, fixed and occupying the whole left wall, edematous and looking like a cockscomb. This has disappeared under treatments, until in place of the redundant fungating masses
we have an ulcerated surface with remarkable general improvement and suppression of the immense hemorrhages filling the bladder with clots and causing previously uncontrollable agonizing pain.
each year will add to our acquisitions.
Methylene Blue. — The treatment of cancer by methylene blue was first introduced in 1891 by Professor Mosetig-Moorhof, who read a paper before the Vienna Society of Physicians ; and almost at the same time one appeared by two Italians, Cucca and Ungaro (Rassegna d'ost, e gin, 1891, vol, 26, p. 598). The first person to advocate the use of the method in this country was Willy Meyer {N. Y. Med. Jour., April 11, 1891), and its application to uterine cancer, either of the body or the cervix, has been especially investigated by H. J. Boldt {Merck's Bull., Jan., 1893).
The cancerous tissue is first thoroughly curetted with the sharp curette and the bleeding surface tamponed with dry iodoform gauze. Twenty-four to fortyeight hours later the gauze is removed, and after proper disinfection of the field of operation the methylene blue is injected. The patient is placed in the Sims' position and the surface exposed to view by means of a Sims' speculum and a Hunter's depressor. The parts are thoroughly dried with aseptic absorbent cotton and the needle is introduced to the fundus uteri, the syringe having been filled with an aqueous solution of blue (pyoktanin), 1 : 100. The needle is inserted any distance from half a centimetre (one-fifth of an inch) up to its full leng-th, according to circumstances. The depth to which it is introduced is governed by the thickness of the part where the injection is made. While pushing the needle still deeper, the fluid is gradually pressed out by the piston so that the deeper tissues are infiltrated by fresh staining fluid. One syringeful will answer for two or three punctures. The fluid is next injected into the parametria on both sides, then into the posterior vaginal wall, and lasth- into the anterior infiltrated vaginal wall, sometimes making as many as fifteen " punctures at one treatment. It is best to begin with the most distant point, because on withdrawal of the needle some of the fluid returns through the needle puncture and discolors the tissues adjoining, a thing which would interfere with the requisite amount of precision for succeeding injections did it occur more proximally. A large cotton tampon is introduced into the vagina in front of the cervix and some protection must be worn, for even with the greatest care the clothing is apt to become stained. On the second day after the injection, the patient removes the tampon by means of the string attached to it, and uses a douche of warm water, after which she returns to the doctor's office for another treatment. The injections are repeated every second day for some little time.
Methylene blue has been given by the mouth in cases where the emplo^mient of injections was difficult or impossible, and has been strongly recommended by Dr. Abraham Jacobi {Jour. Amer. Med. Assoc., 1906, vol. 47, p. 1515). Dr. Jacobi claims that this method of administration is prefer-
able to local injections, because the latter are very painful and patients are unwilling to submit to them for any length of time. He has used the internal method of administration for fourteen or fifteen years and obtained the best results from it.
The drug is given in pill form in doses of two grains a day, increasing slowly up to three, four, or six grains. Larger doses have been given, but in Dr. Jacobi's opinion, they are not required. It is a good plan to have each pill made up with the extract of belladonna, to as much as three-fourths of a grain in twenty-four hours ; but if the dose of methylene blue is increased, the belladonna must not exceed the original amount. Arsenious acid, onefortieth to one-twentieth of a grain; strychnin, one-sixtieth to one-fortieth of a grain; or nux vomica, one-half to two grains, may also be combined with the methylene blue. Patients should be warned at the beginning of the treatment that the urine will be stained blue from the drug, and that a stain on the linen cannot be removed. It is sometimes stated that methylene blue internally will cause dysuria, but in Dr. Jacobi's experience this does not often happen. He believes the use of the belladonna prevents this effect.
In many of the cases reported, the methylene-blue treatment has been effectual in relieving pain, in improving the functions of the affected part, and improvement of the general condition. Moreover, it is claimed that with the steady use of it, it is possible to avoid the use of morphin up to the last stages of the disease. Locally, there is a more healthy appearance of ulcerating surfaces with cicatrization towards the edges ; the discharges become scanty and less offensive, and shrinkage occurs in the growth itself.
It occasionally happens that the administration of the drug, whether by injection or by the mouth, is followed by disagreeable symptoms. There is nausea, vomiting, a weak slow pulse, headache, and general malaise, which appear, as a rule, on the day of injection or the day following. Now and then there is a slight rise of temperature. Locally, there is sometimes edema around an injected area, accompanied by slight redness and pain on pressure, but these disturbances disappear quickly. The only really serious result which has been known to follow the use of the remedy is the formation of sinuses which give exit to a dark blue fluid. Sometimes a few of these softened foci join and form a swelling containing pus. When this happens, the abscess must be opened, not by the customary long slit, but by a small puncture just sufficient to let out the fluid. This accident, however, does not occur often and seems to be associated with the use of strong solutions.
The injection of methylene blue into the uterus requires not only the most rigid antisepsis, but considerable knowledge of surgery, and unless the physician has had a good deal of surgical experience, it is best for him to administer the drug by the mouth. Whichever method he employs let him make sure that the preparation of the drug is perfectly pure and unadulterated.
be given in subst-ance in capsules, or the fluid extract may be used. The dose varies from four to six gTains a day according to the individual susceptibility. In primary carcinoma it is best to begin with large doses, but in the recurrent form small ones answer better. Some physicians are of opinion that the remedy is more successful in secondary carcinoma than in the primary form.
Trypsin. — The use of trypsin in the treatment of carcinoma was suggested by Beard of Edinburgh, whose experiments on mice afforded the hope that it might be of gTeat service. Opinion seems still to be divided, however, on the question of the beneficial results derived from it, and some persons have reported considerable harm arising from it, e. g., "W. A. Pusey {^Jour. Am. Med. Assoc, 1906, vol. 16, p. 1763).
Acetone. — The treatment of inoperable carcinoma by means of acetone is strongly advocated by George Gellhorn {Jour. Amer. 2Ied. Assoc, 1907, voL 48, p. 1100), and should the future fulfil the present promise, there is no doubt that it will be a valuable palliative form of treatment. Dr. Gellhorn experimented for eighteen months with different chemicals which he thought might offer some improvement in the existing conditions for treatment of inoperable cancer, and finally found that he obtained unexpectedly good results with acetone, in regard to which he says : " In the limited number of cases in which it has been employed it seems to have successfully met the chief requirements in the treatment of inoperable cancer of the uterus."
Acetone is present in all normal urine and is familiar to the clinician from its occurrence in the urine in diabetes mellitus, in certain forms of digestive disturbance, and in some cases of carcinoma. It is a transparent, colorless, mobile, and volatile liquid with a characteristic pungent sweetish taste and odor. If applied to the skin, it causes a sensation of cold. Tissues j)laced in it shrink and harden rapid;ly owing to its intense hygTOscopic qualities, and if left in the fluid more than haK an hour they are, as a rule, too hard for the microtome knife. It was Dr. Gellhorn's idea to utilize these hardening powers for practical purposes. If the ulcerating surface of the cancer could be hardened, in vivo, the discharge could be checked and the escharotic portion would be cast off. The resulting free surface could then be hardened, and it would, perhaps, be j^ossible to harden deeper portions, or even the entire tumor, thus rendering the malignant growth temporarily harmless.
The treatment must, if possible, be preceded by a thorough curetting of the ulcerating area. The curetted cavity is then carefully dried with cotton sponges, and from one-half to one ounce of acetone is poured into it through a Ferguson or some other tubular speculum. The narcosis may then be interrupted and the patient left in the same position from fifteen to thirty minutes. The acetone is then allowed to run out through the speculum by lowering the pelvis, and the cavity is packed with a narrow gauze strip soaked in acetone. The healthy mucosa of the vagina and the vulva ai'e cleansed with sterile water and dried. After the preliminary curetting and cauterization the regular treat-
fifth day after the operation.
For the preliminary treatment the patient must, of conrse, be in a hospital or in her own house, but the further treatment may be administered in the physician's consulting room. It is done without an anesthetic and may be given with the patient on the ordinary examining table or chair. The pelvis of the patient is raised and the tubular sj)eculum inserted into the cancerous cavity; it is then filled with acetone, and may be held in place by the patient's hand for half an hour, after which it is emptied in the manner above described. Care must be taken to prevent the acetone from running over the vulva and the perineum. As the cancerous area diminishes, smaller and smaller specula can be employed.
The immediate effect of the treatment is to check any slight oozing almost immediately. The surface of the crater is covered with a thin, whitish film, which becomes light brown wherever there is an extravasation of blood. The normal vagina is not appreciably irritated. On the vulvar mucosa and the outer skin an excess of acetone produces a faint whitish discoloration, which soon disappears. Tliere is no pain from the cauterization, although a slight stinging sensation may be experienced if the acetone has touched the skin. This passes away rapidly, however, if the affected part is washed with cool water. Anodynes are not needed after the treatment, except in special cases. One of the most distinct beneficial effects is a marked reduction of the intense odor. The discharge becomes watery, then gradually subsides, and with it disappears the intense and disagreeable odor attending it. The hemorrhages also cease to recur, and after two or three weeks of treatment a considerable diminution in the size of the cavity may be noticed. Its walls become smooth and firm, there are no more polypoid excrescences, nor can the finger remove any friable tissue.
The absence of hemorrhages and weakening discharges causes a great improvement in the general condition of the patient ; on the other hand, sensations of pain caused by the extension of the cancer to adjoining organs or nerve trunks beyond the reach of the acetone are not relieved and require the use of an anodyne as before. In Gellhorn's experiments frequent examinations of the urine were made, in order to ascertain if there was any absorption of acetone into the organism, but they were all negative.
The number of cases upon which the acetone treatment has been tried is, so far, too small to form positive conclusions; the results, so far as they go, are, nevertheless, so good that it seems reasonable to hope that a valuable palliative measure for inoperable cases has been found. Even though the pain is not affected by it, the relief from hemorrhage and from the characteristic odor, which is one of the most distressing features of the disease, recommends the treatment most highly to our notice. The ease with which it can be conducted by the general practitioner, and the absence of ill effects, add greatly to its value.
General Eemedial Measures. — In all cases of inoperaLle cancer, every care must be taken to keep the patient's general condition as good as possible. Her digestion and appetite ninst be kept np by appropriate measures, and she must have as much fresh air as possible. In the use of remedies for the relief of pain the greatest caution must be exercised. It is sometimes said that there cannot be any objection to the unrestricted use of opium v^hen there is no possibility of recovery, but it must be remembered that, unless the resources of opium are carefully husbanded, they will fail before the close of life, and the patient will be left with no protection against suffering at the time when it is most intense. Even the largest doses will at last prove ineffectual. It is best, therefore, to avoid the use of opium as long as possible, and when this can no longer be done, it must be given carefully by the physician or the nurse, and the amount modified according to necessity.
In the beginning of the disease, before the pain has become intensely severe, relief may be obtained from the coal-tar preparations such as phenacetin, antipyrin, and others. Aspirin, the acetic ether of salicylic acid, has been highly spoken of in this connection, especially by Ludwig Goth (Med. Bldtt., Feb. 11, 1904). It is said to relieve pain very quickly and without disagreeable aftereffects. The dose is one gTamme (fifteen gTains) daily. If this dose does not give relief it is of no use to continue it.
have been recommended for relief of pain and for disinfection of the vagina.
Opium is best administered at first in the form of codein, one-fourth of a grain, increased as occasion requires. When this fails it will be necessary to have recourse to opium itself, which generally does better than morphin. It is well to administer it at first disguised in some stimulant, such as wine of coca. The patient, ignorant of the drug, will not learn to depend on it.
Hemorrhages, when they occur, are best controlled by douching with hot water and packing with gauze. Vinegar and ice-water have been recommended as excellent styptics. Adrenalin has been used very successfully in the hemorrhages of carcinoma. Peters (Zeitschr. f. Gyn., 1904, ISTo. 27) recommends it in normal salt solution of 1 : 2000 or 1 : 3000. This is applied for two minutes to the cavity of the uterus.
Throughout the illness the vagina should be frequently washed out with Labarraque's solution (see Chap. XIII, p. 324) as a disinfectant and deodorant. Creolin, 1: 500, is also useful for this purpose.
It is of great importance to keep the surroundings of the patient cheerful. But if she supposes that a knowledge of her real condition is being withheld from her, uncertainty and suspicion may react most unfavorably on her. If she asks direct questions they should be truthfully answered, and if she seems to be fretting in silence it is best to draw out exactly what are the extent of her suspicions and deal with them as fully as seems necessary to ensure her peace of mind. Her family, or at any rate some responsible member of it, should be fully informed of the nature of the disease and its progTess.
Cystitis is an inflammation of the bladder, caused by microorganisms; it is associated with the discharge of pus and sometimes of blood in the act of urination, which, as a rule, is increased in frequency and painful. Cystitis is, therefore, an inflammatory affection and must be distinguished from simple hyperemias, such as are often found in the trigonum of the bladder and present many appearances of inflammation, but without any evidences of infection and without pus in the urine. Cystitis is also readily distinguished from the frequent urination (pollakiuria) often noted in nervous patients, or in those whose urine contains some irritating substance.
There are different kinds of cystitis, and it may be classified in a variety of ways. First, according to the intensity of the disease. In some cases it is so mild as to escape the attention of the patient ; in others, so intense as to make life itself a- burden.
Second, into acute and chronic forms, a most important classification. The acute are marked by suddenness of onset and intensity of symptoms, but they are of short duration, passing soon into the chronic stage. Most cases develop slowly and are chronic from the first.
Third, according to location. The patch of cystitis may be seated in the vault of the bladder, in the posterior wall, or at the base. The disease may be limited to one of these foci, or it may spread out from one or from several of them until the entire bladder wall has an angry, beefy-red appearance.
titioner.
Fifth, according to the portal of infection. When the bladder is infected by organisms carried directly to it by the blood, the infection is primary ; and when the organisms proceed from a focus of infection in some other organ, as the kidney or one of the uterine tubes, it is secondary.
Sixth, according to the direction in which it progresses. Cystitis is ascending when the infection is introduced from below, and ascends from the urethra upwards; descending when it is introduced above, and proceeds •from the kidney downwards.
A latent cystitis is not infrequently seen in surgical patients, examined as a matter of routine for urinary infections before operation, whether they complain of any bladder symptoms or not. This group of cases is an important one, as the recognition of the disease before operation in any given case relieves the surgeon of responsibility, and refutes any imputation of having caused the trouble by neglect, in the event of an exacerbation during convalescence.
The commonest source of cystitis in these days is the urinary catheter, especially when emploj^ed during the puerperal period or after surgical operations. Put a catheter in unskilled hands, and cystitis is pretty sure to follow its use. The blame for lack of skill may fall upon the shoulders of the doctor, as well as of the nurse, the latter of whom is too often made a scapegoat. I know of an instance of an old practitioner who catheterized a patient in hard labor, introducing the catheter several times. The baby was born dead and a number of curious little holes were found punched into its brains. These were produced by the catheter, which had been forced through the urethra and then through the baby's skull. An unclean catheter will cause cystitis in the vast majority of cases, but with proper attention to cleanliness no trouble will ordinarily arise from its use.
The reason cystitis so often dates from confinement, and especially from repeated catheterization in the puerperal period, lies in the fact that in difficult labor the bladder is always more or less injured, the resisting powers of the patient are lowered, and the lochia bathing the external genitals and the urethra are a constant source of infection. Added to this is the awkward position of the patient as she lies in bed and the swollen condition of the vulva. A catheter introduced under such circumstances, even if considerable care is taken, is pretty sure to convey some infection.
The cystitis which arises after an operation is also occasionally unavoidable, even with the best skill and technic. This is undoubtedly due to the reduced condition of the patient, who has passed through the shock of an operation and whose reparative processes are consequently much below par. Under these circumstances she is unable to resist an infection which would be easily thrown
off under normal conditions. The attending circumstances of pelvic operations are frequently so damaging to the bladder that the wonder is, not that we have cystitis, but that it does not develop oftener. Take, for example, a hysteromyomectomy or an abdominal hysterectomy for carcinoma, and we have to do with patients under conditions most favorable for the development of cystitis, as follows :
tion during convalescence.
(8) Constraint of posture after operation, when the patient lies on her back and is unable to empty her bladder properly on account of the unusual position, so that there is either an overdistention or a residuum of urine after voiding.
which further lowers resistance.
With all these favoring conditions it is not remarkable, as I have said before, that cystitis is a common complication of the convalescence in pelvic surgical cases. The reason for the frequency of cystitis in those cases which have to be catheterized repeatedly, is found in the fact that the external urethra and the parts of the urinary canal adjacent to the external orifice are normally the habitat of a profuse bacterial flora, especially the colon bacillus.
The history of a patient suffering from cystitis often throws great light upon the case. In young women and unmarried women, where the disease is seen in an aggravated form and there is a history of suffering of years' standing, where the urine is cloudy, and there is a continual desire for urination night and day, the disease is apt to be tubercular, and to arise from a tubercular infection of one or, it may be, both kidneys. Often there is no complaint whatever of any discomfort in the loin, even with an aggravated disease in the kidney. These cases are frequently mistaken for primary vesical tuberculosis, whereas a primary tuberculosis of the bladder is one of the rarest of urinary affections. In women, a vesical tuberculosis is almost always descending from the kidney; while in men, it may be ascending from the genital organs or descending through the ureters.
Again, a patient, a married woman, may state that she dates all her vesical difficulties from a confinement, when it was necessary to catheterize her frequently. Cases of this kind are, as a rule, colon bacillus infections. Sometimes the patient blames a physician or a nurse unjustly, in response to the
I give here two typical histories, one in which the pain began sharply and the cystitis is referred to a particular event; another where the cystitis came on gTadually, from no known cause.
Case L— Mrs. A. L. M., age forty, April, 1907 (San. Xo. 2421). Her family history was negative, she had always had good health, and was the mother of four children. Up to the time of her admission to my private hospital she had never had any bladder or kidney trouble, and the urinary examination showed clear urine, a specific gTavity of 1.018, acid reaction, no sugar, no albumen, and no abnormal microscopical elements. The cervical cancer was favorable for operation, as it was still limited to the uterus. An abdominal pan-hysterectomy, after the method of Wertheim, was performed. Subsesquent to operation the patient had to be catheterized, and three days later she began to have intense burning pain in the bladder with a great desire to void urine. The pain was excruciating. Examination of the urine showed abundant pus, some red blood cells, considerable bladder epithelium, and a pure culture of the colon bacillus. The patient was at once put on urotropin, fifteen grains three times daily, and was given all the water she could drink. In addition to these remedies, the bladder was irrigated daily with a solution of boracic acid. After the first few days the pain and
discomfort ceased, but for a month there continued to he some pus cells present in the urine and some bacteria, and it was not until nearly six weeks after the operation that the urine was perfectly normal. The patient was discharged a few days later, and went home cured of her cancer and relieved of her cystitis.
Case II. — Miss E. E., age twenty-seven, May, 1907 (San. :^o. 2443). This patient complained of pain and frequency of urination. Her family history was entirely negative as to bladder disease or nervous ailments. Her health had never been strong, though appetite and digestion were always good. Menstruation had been always regular, painless, and in every way normal. The bladder trouble had begun insidiously three years before. At first there was nothing more than a slight increase in the frequency of urination, but this increased gradually and became associated with pain. The condition continued to develop in spite of local treatment carried out by her physician, until the patient had lost much flesh and was in a great deal of pain. The urine, examined on the day of her admission to my private hospital, was of normal acidity, with a specific gravity of 1.030 ; it contained no pus, no blood, no casts, and no bacteria. Examination of the bladder showed it to be of normal size with about four hundred cubic centimetres' capacity. Its appearance was normal everywhere except for an area of reddening and ulceration in the vertex, lying in a transverse direction. This was about four centimetres long by one wide. The ureteral orifices were perfectly normal and secreting actively. An attempt was made to treat this patient by local applications and by irrigations, but the treatment caused such intense pain that it had to be abandoned. I then made a suprapubic opening into the bladder and excised the ulcer as well as another small piece of the bladder, which was reddened. The wounds in the bladder were sewed up with catgut and the suprapubic opening closed with it. The healing was prompt and the relief almost immediate.. The second examination of the urine in this case disclosed a colon bacillus infection Avith some pus, and this persisted until after the operation. When the patient finally left the hospital there was no infection and no pus in the urine.
A case of this kind, in a young unmarried woman, coming on insidiously, and with an almost clear urine, is highly suggestive of tuberculosis ; in this case it was only after the administration of tuberculin and the repeated inoculation of guinea-pigs with negative results that it was excluded.
Local Symptoms. — Frequency of micturition is one of the cardinal symptoms of cystitis, and there is no true cystitis without it, yet on the other hand there may be urgent desire and great frequency without any cystitis at all. This is the rock on which the general practitioner is often wrecked, when he hazards making a diagnosis of cystitis from frequency of urination alone. The frequency varies from an evacuation every hour or half hour to one every ten or fifteen minutes day and night, or to a constant tenesmus and strangury.
548 CYSTITIS.
The desire to void oftener than usual is, as a rule, the first symptom noted bj the patient and the last to subside, often persisting even after the entire disappearance of pus and bacteria from the urine. Frequent urination, therefore, and pain, are the chief symptoms by -^hicli the patient judges as to her OA^TL improvement.
Pain is a symptom not always felt at first; it usually follows frequency of urination. "When felt it is localized in the bladder and does not radiate ; it is of a burning, cutting, bearing-down character, and varies from a simple annoyance at the time of urination or before it to an aggravated continual suffering, from which there is no relief, day or night. The pain of a cystitis is easily provoked by the introduction of a soim-d into the bladder, a proceeding which is often followed by bleeding.
In all cases of cystitis, the pelvis ought to be examined as a matter of routine, to see if there is any tumor pressing on the bladder or any inflammatory disease about the uterus.
The presence of pus in the urine may simply be due to a lingering gonorrheal urethritis, which is usually manifested by a reddened sensitive external urethral orifice. A pyelitis is distinguished by the presence of pus in tlie urine, without the presence of the other sigTis of a cystitis, and also by the amount of albumen found in the urine, which is larger than can be accounted for by the amount of pus found. A urologist, by catheterizing the ureter, will be able to trace the pus to its source above. As I have said elsewhere, an acid pyuria, without organisms easily found and growing on the common culture media such as agar or gelatin, is due, as a rule, to a tubercular kidney.
General Symptoms. — Fever, headache, loss of appetite, constipation, and emaciation, are noted only in the most aggTavated cases of cystitis. By the time the patient is so far reduced, she keeps her bed, as a rule, all the time. In the presence of such general symptoms, especially if they persist, the practitioner should quickly make up his mind that he is dealing with some severer ti'ouble of which the cystitis is only a part. In the vast majority of such cases the trouble is a kidney infection.
There can be little doubt that a cystitis exists when the patient is troubled with frequent urination and passes milky or turbid urine with pain. It is important to examine the urine immediately when passed, so as not to mistake urine rendered cloudy by chilling and deposition of phosphates for infected urine carrying pus. Only the more marked cases of cystitis can be diagTiosed in this rough manner. The better plan is to cleanse the orifice of the urethra thoroughly, take a catheterized specimen, and either examine it microscopically, or send it to a pathologist for examination and report. Five grains of chloral or ten drops of chloroform to the ounce will keep the urine from undergoing decomposition on the way.
I might lay down the general rule that whenever a patient complains of frequency of urination and the trouble is persistent, the physician should make a microscopic examination of the urine. If the urine has been voided, two serious sources of contamination must always be allowed for: first, a little admixture of leucorrheal discharge furnishes pus, and in the second place smegma bacilli often give rise to a faulty diagnosis of tuberculosis. It is necessary, therefore, in case pus or suspected tubercle bacilli are found, to secure a catheterized specimen for the next examination. This will often relieve a seemingly serious situation.
The practitioner, if inclined to do a little experimental work with a guineapig, can easily clear up the diagnosis of a tubercular cystitis by collecting a little of the sediment of the urine in a hypodermic syringe and injecting it under the skin of the groin of a guinea-pig, after carefully washing and shaving the area to be punctured. If tubercle bacilli are present, distinct nodules can be felt two or three weeks afterward in the enlarging inguinal glands, and if the animal is killed a little later, the tubercular glands are easily recognized. A small dose of tuberculin, say one to three miligrams, given under the skin, will also provoke a decided fever when the disease is tubercular, the temperature rising to 103°, 104°, 105° F., with marked local reaction at the site of the disease. The local reaction manifests itself in pain and also by the excretion of bacteria and pus in the urine.
If pus is found in the voided urine, it must be remembered that it may come from the kidney, even when the patient has definite vesical symptoms. The general rule may be laid down that in every case of cystitis, the kidneys must be borne in mind by the investigator from the very beginning of his treatment to the end, unless he is able himself, or has called in a friend skilled in urology, to catheterize the ureters, and to prove that while, urine containing pus comes from the bladder, that wdiich comes from the kidneys is free from it.
Whenever there is any fever associated with a cystitis, for which there is no other obvious cause, and such conditions as malaria are excluded by blood examinations, the. examiner must always suspect a latent pyelitis as the primary source of the cystitis or of the cystic symptoms. A pyelitis of this kind often gives rise to no symptoms whatever tending to draw attention to its existence.
A valuable fact to bear in mind here, is that in pyelitis the percentage proportion of albumen is generally markedly greater than that found in a cystitis containing a like amount of pus. Moreover, the cystitis albumen ring is thin and faint, while pyelitis in the greater number of cases yields a welldefined ring.
When there is a proteus infection and in consequence an. alkaline urine, the pus cells become converted into a mucoid substance, the urine is slimy and stringy, and contains no well-defined pus cells which can be seen
pyuria without pus.
As already said, a patient who has a ^jersistent acid pyuria, lasting for months and years and slowly getting worse, has, as a rule, a tubercular kidney. The great majority of tubercular kidneys give such a history as this and they generally suffer for years before the disease is recognized. When a patient has a pyuria with some symptoms of cystitis and no bacteria are found in the urine, after making the usual examination, it must always be remembered that the later histories of similar cases have often proved them to be tubercular. The colon bacillus is the commonest infecting organism, and it may follow the introduction of an unclean catheter, or even repeated catheterizations carefully performed, in the puerperal period or after gynecological operations when resistance is lowered. An intense distressing cystitis, with pus and blood in an alkaline urine, due to a p rote us infection, is often encountered.
he notes marked improvement as
the result of his efforts ; if he does not, it is imperative to directly inspect the bladder through an openair cystoscope (see Fig. 150). There are urologists in every large city who are familiar with these instruments and capable of using them skilfully. Many general practitioners, especially those accustomed to use throat instruments, find themselves perfectly competent to employ these little instruments, to examine the bladder, to make a diagnosis, and to apply treatments. It is true that the cystoscope has thus far rested for the most part in the hands of specialists, but that is simply because it is comparatively new and its field is a new one; moreover, the technic of the treatment of these disorders has been in the process of evolution. Xow that all difficulties and obstacles are overcome, there is no reason why the general practitioner should not take over as much of this work as he has inclination and skill to assume.
sories :
Fig. 150. — Shotvs Ma^-xer of Holding Cystoscope, Preparatory to its Introductiox into THE Bladder. The thumb presses upon the handle of the obturator.
Fig. 151. — Shows Patient in the Knee-breast Posture. The left hand of the examiner separates the labia and exposes the urethra, while the right hand begins the introduction of the cystoscope. Note the upward direction which the cystoscope first takes.
An applicator for treatments.
An examination of this kind can be made, as a rule, under local anesthesia by inserting a pledget, saturated with a ten per cent solution of cocain, just inside the urethral orifice. In ten minutes the mucosa will be so benumbed that the little conical dilator can be inserted, and, with a rapid movement, the urethra can be stretched wide enough to admit a 'No. 10 speculum (ten millimetres in diameter). The speculum is then introduced, as shown in the figures (see Figs. 151 and 152), the patient being in the knee-breast posture. It must be remembered that the urethra describes an arc around the symphysis,
Inspection of the Interior of the Bladder.
and in introducing the speculum, it must be made to follow a similar arc. The light is then reflected into the bladder from the head mirror, and the entire inner surface can be easily inspected (see Eig. 153). If there is an accumulation of urine in the vertex, it can be removed with the suction apparatus
(see Fig. 154). If this apparatus is sterile, uncontaminated urine can thus be secured and examined bacteriologically as well as chemically. If the bladder is in a very bad condition, it is preferable to make the first examination under complete anesthesia, so as to avoid suffering and any straining efforts. In looking into a normal bladder, the walls appear dull and whitish, and are
traversed by vessels like the background of the eye, which divide up like the little branches of a stream, leaving between them the whitish non-vascular areas. When there is any inflammation, the white areas become flushed, pale red, or rose red, or even intensely
IN the Bladder during Examination.
beefy red. The mucosa swells and becomes hazy, and the vessels disappear, until, in the most severe "cases, no vessels at all are visible. In milder cases of inflammation, the cystitis is seen to be localized about the trigonum, or upon the posterior wall, or at the vertex. There is often an intense area of inflammation, which gradually shades off into neighboring sound tissues.
Our present conception of cystitis influenced as it has been by these local examinations is very different from that entertained two decades ago. The idea of cystitis then was that the whole inner surface of the bladder was inflamed. ^N'ow it is known that the patchy cystitis, with areas of normal bladder mucosa between the inflamed foci, is much the commonest form.
and painful micturition alone. These two symptoms may be found Avith stone in the kidney, stone or foreign body in tlie bladder, or the irritation produced by a neighboring gynecological inflammation. To make a probable diagnosis of cystitis there must be the added element of pus in the urine; though even here the disease may not reside in the bladder but in the renal pelvis above, in some exceptional cases. The crucial sign of cystitis is the inflamed bladder as seen through the cystoscope.
Tubercular forms of cystitis are apt to show areas of ulceration, and if, as is usually the case, the disease is a descending one, the most marked ulceration is around the ureteral orifice of the affected side. Distinct tubercles are not often seen. In proteus cystitis, the bladder shows patches of intense, almost glistening white concretions, seated on a base of intense inflammation. The value of such a local examination is evidently very great. ISTot only is it a source of encouragement to see that the disease is often more localized than had been suspected, but it is valuable for the sake of comparison from week to week in determining whether or not the patient is improving, or whether there is some rebellious area which refuses to advance further on the road toward healing.
Stone in the bladder and kidney.
If pus and bacteria are absent the disease cannot be a cystitis, even though the patient urinates frequently. Frequent urination of this kind is foimd in diabetes, as well as in hyperemia of the trigonum of the bladder in nervous patients, where the urine is excessively acid.
Preventive Treatment. — Here as elsewhere in medicine, it is far more important to prevent the disease and all its attendant suffering, than to cure it when already arisen; for it is always easier to prevent a disease than to cure it. Many cases of cystitis could, undoubtedly, be avoided by careful prophylaxis. These are, especially, those which follow confinements and surgical operations, when it is very important to watch the bladder and to make sure that it does not become overdistended, atonic, and liable to accumulate large amounts of residual urine which is prone, in the weakened condition of the patient, to become foul.
following confinements it is important to steer between difficult extremes : on one hand catheterizing too often, and on the other hand, not often enough when there is a tendency to overdistention of the bladder. It is a good plan in a first confinement to teach the patient before delivery how to use a bedpan in emptying the bladder as she lies on her back in bed. If the bladder can be felt after confinement distended above the symphysis, it ought to be emptied. One important way of avoiding overdistention of the bladder is always to use the catheter to empty it before applying the obstetric forceps. The discharges are kept sweeter and cleaner, if every time the patient is changed or catheterized, a powder (one part iodoform and seven parts boric acid) is sprinkled within the outlet.
ISTot uncommonly, a patient who is voiding very frequently is really suffering from overdistention of her bladder. If there is much lower abdominal pain, and a careful palpation of the lower abdomen or vaginal examination justifies the suspicion that the bladder is overdistended, the question is quickly set at rest by catheterization.
On the other hand, it is necessary to be careful not to interfere too early or too often. There is, on the part of some surgeons, a tendency to meddle too much with the bladder and to catheterize with too great a regularity. There should be no prescribed rule establishing the use of the catheter in all cases at certain intervals of time. Many patients, if they are allowed to suffer a little inconvenience from the distending bladder, will, from this very fact, urinate spontaneously after waiting a while, and will then be able to take care of the vesical function themselves. Moreover, if the catheter is resorted to early, the patient becomes dependent upon it, and its use may have to be continued for several weeks. With the protracted use of the catheter, the risk of infecting the bladder is enormously enhanced, and, like the pitcher which goes often to the well, the break in the technic with resulting infection occurs at last, and cystitis is established.
As regards the avoidance of post-operative cystitis, too much importance cannot be laid upon not using the catheter at all. A patient, even after a severe operation, had better be propped up in bed supported by her nurse than undergo a catheterization. It is also advantageous to teach the patient to void urine when lying down before the operation. In the last two thousand cases in my service at the Johns Hopkins Hospital the patients were not catheterized and there were only twenty-four cases of marked cystitis after operation. This is in decided contrast to our old records, where every patient was catheterized as a matter of routine for a number of days. Twenty-two of these twenty-four cases followed abdominal operations ; but in all of them cystitis developed afterwards, in spite of the fact that there was no catheterization. The average case of post-operative cystitis, due to catheterization of the urethra when there has been no serious disturbance of the bladder by operation, is a mild affair and yields readily to treatment. On the other hand, in the extensive operations necessitated by cancer of the cervix, there is such
incurable.
In using the catheter all necessary precautions should be taken in every instance. In the first place, the nurse or the doctor who handles infected cases ought to wash the hands thoroughly, scrubbing them with soap and hot water after every treatment, as well as before each new treatment. The patient to be catheterized is then:
(1) Exposed as she lies upon her back, with knees drawn up and separated. The vulva is held widely open with thumb and forefinger of the left hand, so as to give a perfect exposure of the urethral orifice.
pair of sterile forceps.
(6) She cleanses thoroughly the urethral orifice and the adjacent portions of the vestibule, using several pledgets of cotton one after the other, and applying the solution efi^ectively, but taking care not to rub hard, and not to hurt the patient or abrade the delicate tissues. Having thus cleansed the field she then takes a sterile glass catheter from a receptacle. The catheter with a piece of rubber tubing on the end, three or four inches long, is held delicately poised between thumb and index finger.
(Y) The end of the catheter is dipped in sterile sweet oil, introduced into the urethral orifice, and with a slightly curved motion, following the curve of the under surface of the symphysis by dropping the outer end as it is carried upwards and inwards, it is introduced into the bladder. The catheter must never be grasped firmly with the fist, as though the nurse were determined to overcome any obstacles encountered by a main force ; neither must it be pushed straight in, as though the urethra were a straight tube.
(8) The urine running out of the rubber tube is collected for examination, if desired, in a suitable vessel. Uncontaminated urine is easily secured for bacteriological examination by drawing the rubber tube off from the end of the catheter while the urine is still running, and letting a few drops or a few cubic centimetres run into a sterile agar tube.
The two objects in catheterization are, first, to introduce the catheter without carrying in any infectious material, which is effected by exposure and cleanliness; and, second, to avoid any trauma or
the catheterization is done without hurting the patient at all.
I am aware that the above method of catheterization sounds very much like a small surgical operation, but unless all these precautions are taken, it is impossible to avoid causing a certain number of distressing cases of cystitis, and it is a matter of primary importance that our nurses, as well as our practitioners, should be taught to consider this little procedure as parallel in dignity to a minor surgical procedure. It is the constant necessity of exercising such care as this in every relationship between themselves and the patient which raises the calling of physician and nurse to the dignity of a skilled profession, and makes the difference between a true practitioner and a quack. When the physician finds that it is going to be necessary to catheterize his patient more or less frequently during a convalescence, as after a severe confinement, one of the best prophylactic agencies is the use of uro tropin, say ten gTains three times a day until the danger of infection is over. Urotropin finds its best field as a preventive in such cases, and as an indispensable adjuvant in treating fresh infections ; it is less effective in old, well-established cases of cystitis. It seems to have more effect upon the colon bacillus than upon any other organism; it is useless in cases of tuberculosis, and is probably most effective in cases of cystitis and pyelitis following typhoid fever. In surgical cases, prophylaxis can do a great deal to prevent cystitis following and complicating the convalescence. With this in view, the surgeon should handle the bladder as little as possible and avoid all bruising of its tissues, especially any violence in rubbing down or detaching the bladder from the cervix uteri. If the bladder is widely detached from the uterus, as in hysterectomy, the vaginal and peritoneal surfaces should be brought together so as to cover over the wounded surfaces and limit the area of suppuration, protecting the bladder. In our hysterectomies for cancer of the cervix, my former resident, Dr. John A. Sampson, found that a drainage of the bladder by artificial vesico-vaginal fistula prevented the occurrence of cystitis, which was exceedingly common without it.
Treatment of an Existing Cystitis. — In treating a cystitis which has already become established, we must at once separate those cases which come on in the young gradually and without apparent cause, or with such an alleged cause as catching cold, as well as cases of long standing, from those which have begun within a period of, say, a few weeks, from some easily assignable cause, such as a trauma from operation or a confinement. Cystitis in the young is very apt to be due to a tubercular infection, and this fact must always be borne in mind until the nature of the infecting organism is definitely and positively known. All persistent acid pyurias in young people are presumptively tubercular until the contrary is proved. If tubercle bacilli are found in the urine, the case is not one which is amenable to medical treatment. When tubercle bacilli are found, the case is almost certainly one of tuberculosis of the kidney, with sec-
ondary involvement of the bladder. It is often hard to convince a general practitioner of this fact, because these patients not only frequently eonijilain first of the bladder, but ofttimes the entire complaint throughout the whole illness is vesical, so that great astonishment is expressed when the conjecture is hazarded by the specialist that the kidney is the real seat of the disease.
A gonorrheal cystitis usually dates from a florid attack of gonorrhea, affecting the genitalia as well as the urinary organs, and beginning withan acute urethritis and cystitis.
It is important to remember that an infection, primarily tubercular, is often followed by the invasion of other pus-producing organisms, which cause more or less extensive suppuration and a marked febrile reaction. Albarran, of Paris, has dra^vn particular attention to this class of cases.
A cystitis beginning to run an acute course, with frequent urination and the passage of pus, mucus, and blood, ought not to be subjected to any active local treatments. Catheterizations and irrigations, and local medications of all sorts, as a rule, only serve to aggTavate the disease, which often tends to heal spontaneously without meddlesome interferences. The best treatment for an acute cystitis is absolute rest in bed, a nutritious soft or liquid diet, and abundant diluents by the mouth, say a tumbler of water containing twenty grains of citrate of potash every two hours. If the pain is severe, a belladonna and opium suppository is the best sedative we can use.
M. et ft. suppository 1.
I would, as a rule, confine the patient to a milk diet or its equivalent, and allow fruits, but cut off all red meats and condiments. A prolonged hot vaginal douche (110° E.) g-iven for ten to fifteen minutes twice a day may alleviate the inflammation. Hot applications, poultices, or fomentations of flannel wrung out of hot water over the lower abdomen are valuable adjuvants.
Urotropin should be given, five grains every three or four hours for some days at the beginning. If this makes the urine more irritating, the dose should be lessened or suspended.
I find the following drugs of occasional assistance: Fluid extract of triticum rejens, fluid extract of zea mais, oil of sandal wood, copaiba, methylene blue, sweet spirits of nitre.
I do not know anything as to the real value of the old remedies once held in such repute, namely, uva ursi, buchu, pareira brava, pipsissewa. The methylene blue in doses of three grains three times a day, in capsules, sometimes quiets pain, but does not control the disease.
Triticum and zea mais serve to make the urine bland, given in doses of half a teaspoonful, well diluted, every three or four hours. Oil of sandal wood and copaiba are given in five to ten minim capsules after food. They sometimes do good, but oftener they upset the stomach. Sweet spirits of nitre in doses of one teaspoonful every two or three hours, well diluted, also relieves pain and is valuable in mild cases. Tincture of hyoscyamus in thirty drop doses may be given every two or three hours by mouth. It is well to dilute freely all medicines taken by mouth.
If instead of subsiding, the
case continues to run a peracute course, as in diphtheritic cystitis or in the sloughing form following a severe labor, but one plan
tilted. The jJaii iiiu>t lir definite, and the physician slioiild make up his mind not to contiune it indefinitely, but to abandon it for a more aggressive course in case there is no marked improvement in a reasonable period of time. A mild course of treatment consists in rest, keeping the patient at the same time as much in the fresh air as possible, and in the winter out in the sunshine, the due regTilation of the bowels, and daily or every other day treatments of the bladder. The simplest plan of treatment is the following: A Dickinson two-way glass catheter (see Fig. 155) is used, with a bulb holding about an ounce of a 1:1500 nitrate of silver solution on the upper catheter. The catheter is introduced with extreme gentleness, and the urine in the blad
THE Bladder.
der allowed to run out. Then after stopping up the lower end of the catheter, the bulb is slowly squeezed until the silver solution is forced into the bladder. The patient retains this fifteen or twenty minutes, if possible, before voiding again. If the 1 : 1500 solution gives no discomfort, the sti'ength should gTadually be increased until 1 : 1000, 1 : 500, or even 1 : 100 is used.
M. S. Inject warm into bladder.
A strong stock solution of boric acid may be made up and diluted as used. If these instillations do not give prompt relief, or for any reason are not well borne, irrigations may be used, the bladder being washed out with a half saturated warm solution of borax, or with a boracic acid solution as hot as can be borne, following this by an injectioii, through the irrigating funnel (see Fig. 156), of a nitrate of silver solution 1:1000 or stronger as the patient is able to bear it. In some cases the irrigations and instillations may be alternated with advantage. After a certain line of treatment has been carried out for two or three weeks, there is often a distinct gain in changing to another line of treatment for a time. It seems as though we catch the bladder by surprise, and are able to get a hold on the disease, which has become used to the first method of treatment.
(3) If a short course of treatment, such as that prescribed above, does not promptly relieve the cystitis, a specimen of urine should be taken by catheterization, five grains of chloral added to the ounce, and sent to the nearest laboratory for examination and report. I suggest this here for the convenience of practitioners who are at a reasonable distance from laboratory convenience but have not been accustomed to using them. It is really advisable, as a rule, to take this step at the outset, as it will save the occasional mistakes in treating tubercular cases which demand surgical treatment from the first, and are never much benefited by mild local measures. If, with rest, and drugs, and diet, and instillations, and irrigations, the cystitis holds on, showing no signs of marked improvement, the next step is
(4) Topical Treatments. — It is one of the healthy signs of the day that many general practitioners are closely enough in touch with the various specialties to perform certain minor surgical operations, to operate for an urgent appendicitis, and to apply treatments to the throat and nose, as well as to undertake a variety of lesser gynecological procedures. Such men, if familiar with the use of the head mirror, could also with a little pains ^distinguish inflammatory patches in the bladder through my open air cystoscope and apply topical treatments when the areas involved are not too large. To do this it is necessary to put the patient in the knee-breast position and to look into the bladder in the manner described in the section on examination of the bladder (p. 552). The bladder, expanded with air by posture, is emptied by suction, when the inflammatory areas are seen through a speculum two-fifths of an inch in diameter. It is equally easy to use an applicator and to touch the affected spots with a two to five per cent solution of silver nitrate. Such treatments may be applied every three to five days, irriga-
tions and mild instillatious being used in tlie meantime. Any case wliicli fails to improve rapidly ongiit not to be held onto indefinitely, bnt should be sent to a trustworthy urological specialist.
(5) Opsonic Treatment. — The profession looks with eager interest to-day towards the opsonins for relief from chronic infections. I do not know that this plan has as yet had any satisfactory trial in bladder disease. The proper course for opsonic treatment would be to make a culture from the patient's urine and to inoculate the organism causing the cystitis; then from this to make a vaccine of the dead organisms, which is injected as a toxine to inhibit the activity of the living germs in the vesical tissues by stimulating the production of antitoxines in the patient's body. These toxines for the various organisms can be secured to-day from several enterprising firms who can keep them in stock.
(6) Drainage of the Bladder by the Yagina. — This method of treatment belongs to the realm of the surgeon, and it is not my purpose to dwell upon the operation here, further than to indicate that the drainage may be quickly and efliciently made by putting the patient in the knee-breast posture and then opening the air-distended bladder through the vagina by pushing a knife through the septum in the middle line between the internal urethral orifice and the neck of the uterus. Such a drain should be kept open by sewing the vesical to the vaginal mucosa ; unless this is done, the wound closes too rapidly to be of much service. When the simple drainage does not suffice, irrigations entering through the urethra and running out by the drainage opening may be kept up for from two to four hours each day (see Fig. 157) ; or the patient with the drain may be put into the tub for several hours each day. Under such treatment marked improvement usually takes place in the course of a few months. If after several months the bladder is cleared up to one or two red and bleeding areas the surgeon should then be sought to excise these by a suprapubic operation. By one or another of these methods practically all cases of cystitis, except tubercular cystitis in the last stages, are amenable to treatment. I know of no disease, however, which requires more constant exercise of good judgment in devising plans of treatment and in persisting in spite of many discouragements for sometimes as much as several years. Some of the best results I have ever seen have been gained by treatments extending over three or four years. In the end, however, the disease was cured, health restored, and the patient delivered from a distressing malady. The result in such a case makes all the labors trifling in comparison however onerous they may have seemed at the time. The following case illustrates how much may be accomplished by sustained effort in these cases.
The patient's family history was good and menstruation had always been regular and painless. She had been married fifteen years, but had never had a child; she dated her trouble from marriage. About fourteen years before coming to me, she began to have a severe leucorrhea, and her physician, in
LOCAL TEEATMENT.
order to cure this, put a stick of silver nitrate into the urethra, which caused sloughing of the entire mucous membrane. This caused her intense suffering for weeks and left her with a permanent incontinence. She was then examined by a distinguished Chicago surgeon, who told her that the sphincter had been entirely destroyed. She had had, in all, about eighteen ojDerations to cure the incontinence, and finally had a spout-shaped urethra made for her. By putting a pledget of cotton underneath this, she obtained fair control over the bladder, nevertheless there was a considerable irritation in it as well as pain. The urine contained the colon bacillus and a few red blood
Bedpak.
cells. An examination of the bladder by the cystoscope showed a normally shaped bladder of normal capacity. The mucosa looked fairly normal, except for an ulcerated area on the posterior wall. This ulcerated area had been treated for months by one of my associates with local applications without relief. I opened the bladder suprapubically, examined its interior, and found that there was only one place of disease, namely, an ulcer on the posterior wall, which was three centimetres long and two wide, I excised this ulcer.
sewed up the bladder wall with fine catgut, and also closed the suprapubic opening. To help the incontinence I used a paraffin injection under the urethra. The patient was discharged a month later feeling well, with perfect continence, and a normal looking bladder. This was one of those resistant cases which yield to nothing but a surgical operation.
A simple but valuable form of drainage which sometimes works admirably is effected by the insertion of a self-retaining catheter through the urethra. Some urethrse will tolerate this instrument quite well and for a long period of time. The catheter serves to keep the bladder emptied and at rest, while at the same time it affords a way of irrigating the bladder as often as may be necessary without the distress occasioned by catheterizing the patient every time. One of my cases did well in this way under a constant irrigation with a weak boric acid solution. This was affected by fastening two small rubber catheters together with rubber cement and introducing them into the bladder ; they were held in place by a perineal pad fastened with a tape around the waist. The fluid ran in slowly through one catheter, circulated in the bladder, and escaped by the other. This avoided the making of a vesicovaginal fistula.
FUNCTIONAL NERVOUS DISORDERS MET WITH BY THE GYNECOLOGIST.
Introduction, p. 565. Varieties of functional neuroses: Hysteria, p. 566. Neurasthenia, p. 567. Hypochondria, p. 568. Psychasthenia, p. 569. Diagnosis of functional neuroses, p. 572. Prognosis, p. 576. Treatment, p. 576.
INTRODUCTION.
Many patients who complain of symptoms referable to the genitourinary organs, the lower abdomen, or the back, and who appeal to the gynecologist for aid, are, in reality, suffering from nervous disorders and require treatment directed toward the nervous system rather than local therapy. Unless the gynecologist is familiar with the general characteristics of the functional neuroses, he will often be led astray in diagnosis, and will be induced to institute local measures of treatment, which, by focussing the attention of the patient upon her symptoms, will lead to their perpetuation rather than to their amelioration. If, on the other hand, he has learned how to unmask the functional neurosis, and, having attained this point, to direct his treatment toward the general condition of the patient, he will often score successes quite impossible otherwise, he will enhance his own reputation, and increase greatly the value of his service in the community.
In the functional neuroses, the symptoms presented by the patient may resemble very closely those of organic disease. Frequent and painful micturition may excite suspicion of the existence of a urethritis or a cystitis. Pain in the back or in the legs may suggest some uterine displacement. Hyperesthesia in the ovarian region may make the gynecologist think of a serious ovarian disease ; difficulty in walking may suggest disease in the sacro-iliac joints, or a sciatica; nervous disturbances of intestinal origin may cause fear of the existence of organic lesions in the large bowel or its neighborhood. Dysmenorrhea and headaches in the neurotic are often considered indications for dilatation and curettage. Such examples might be multiplied almost indefinitely, and every working gynecologist, who has had his eyes opened to the functional disturbances of the nervous system, is familiar with the manifold ways in which the symptoms may ape those presented in organic disease. It seems worth while, therefore, in a work on medical gynecology, to direct attention to some of the general characteristics of the functional
neuroses; to discuss the diagnosis of these disorders at least briefly, paying special attention to the means of differentiating them from certain organic affections with ^vhich they may be confounded; and, also, finally to outline the modern mode of treatment directed toward the nervous system in general, rather than toward the local manifestations.
VARIETIES OF FUNCTIONAL NEUROSES.
There is still much discussion even among internists as to the proper classification of the abnormal neural and mental phenomena which we are considering, Xo two neurologists, perhaps, will agTee entirely as to classification and terminology. The various functional neuroses seem to go over into each other, without very sharjD limitation, and some writers suggest that we do away with the special terms, and group all these deviations from the normal under the general title of the psyc hone u roses. Those who have had much experience, however, in the study of these disorders are able to recognize certain toleral;)ly definite types, Avhieh recur over and over again, and for convenience of description and record it is desirable that to these types special names should be given. At least five such types are worthy of general recogTiition, namely, hysteria, neurasthenia, traumatic neurosis, hypochondria, and psychasthenia. For a full description of the phenomena in these various types, the special text-books of jSTeurology and Internal Medicine must be consulted. For the purpose of this volume, however, a few brief sentences of definition will suffice.
Hysteria, contrary to a widely prevailing opinion, is a relatively rare disease. Xeurologists now understand by it a very definite type of nervous disorder, and eliminate from it many of the bizarre nervous symptoms which, to the uninitiated, imply manifestations of hysteria. The most striking feature of hysteria is the extraordinary susceptibility of the patient to suggestion. The disease is in reality a mental disease, and should be so regarded, especially in treatment. The symptoms which the patients present are both bodily and mental, but the mental symptoms predominate, and are by far the most important to understand. It is common to divide the symptoms of hysteria into two great groups, the so-called stigmata, and the so-called accidents of hysteria.
By the stigmata of hysteria are meant the phenomena of the disease which tend to be permanent. These include the hysterical anesthesias, the hysterical amnesias, the hysterical aboulias, and the hysterical alterations of character.
By the accidents of hysteria are meant the more transitory and episodal phenomena of the disorder. Under this heading of accidents are included the convulsive crises, the paralyses, the contractures, the somnambulisms, and the deliria which may occur.
NEURASTHENIA. 567
due to abnormal ideas in the minds of the patients. It is not to be understood, however, that the symptoms are not real ; nothing can possibly be more real to a patient than the symptoms of hysteria. The remarkable fact about the symptoms is that they can be produced by suggestion, and that they are curable by persuasion (pithiatic phenomena in the sense of Babinski).
Neurasthenia is a much more common affection than hysteria, and a large number of patients who suffer from true organic disease become neurasthenic later on as a result of the strain upon the nervous system, due to the organic affection. Still many of the cases develop in the absence of a demonstrable organic disease, owing to an improper mode of life or to mental or physical overexertion ; they may also arise from faulty nutrition, or from the effects of some nervous shock, or prolonged nervous strain. In this disease, often designated as " irritable weakness," the patients are frequently more excitable than normal, but are incapable of enduring activity, owing to the tire which results from the exercise of almost any function. The symptoms in neurasthenia are both psychic and somatic. They vary greatly, but certain of theni recur so frequently that they deserve special mention. Perhaps the most constant symptomatic feature in neurasthenia is fatigability. The patients complain that they can do nothing without an excessive feeling of fatigue ; if they walk, if they read, if they try to follow their ordinary occupation, they are soon forced to desist by an overwhelming feeling of exhaustion. Associated with these symptoms of fatigue, headache or a sense of pressure in the head, pains in the back, and sleeplessness are frequently complained of. It is not surprising that patients with these symptoms should become mentally depressed, and the mental state is often clearly recognizable in the facial expression.
JSTeurasthenic patients very frequently complain of disturbances of the digestive apparatus, circulatory apparatus, and the genito-urinary apparatus. The symptoms may be referred to one of these systems alone, or to two or more of them simultaneously.
Among the disturbances of the digestive apparatus most frequently complained of are the various forms of indigestion; the neurasthenic finds that she is upset by certain kinds of food ; she may complain of a heavy feeling, of soreness in the region of the stomach; she suffers from gaseous eructations, and from distention of the abdomen with gas ; sometimes she is nauseated, and occasionally asserts that the eating of certain articles of food is invariably followed by vomiting or regurgitation; she is sure that she has an idiosyncrasy for milk, or for vegetables, or for some one of the varieties of food which enter into the daily diet of the normal individual. Constipation is very frequent, and many of these patients resort constantly to laxatives, purgatives, or enemata for relief. More rarely a troublesome diarrhea is complained of.
Among the circulatory symptoms presented by neurotic patients may be mentioned the subjective palpitation, pain or anxiety in the precordial region, with throbbing of the abdominal aorta, and of the
often very troublesome.
Of the genito-urinary disturbances met with among neurasthenics, frequent or painful micturition, imperative micturition, and nocturnal micturition, flattering feelings in the region of the bladder, anomalies of the menstrual flow (quantity, quality, pain), disturbances of sexual desire and sense, and the like, are not unusual.
In searching for the etiology in these neurasthenic cases, the physician who knows how to ferret it out will be surprised to find how often the cause lies in some ethical or social relation which has been responsible for a great nervous shock or strain. This fact cannot be too carefully borne in mind, inasmuch as treatment will often prove unavailing while the cause is permitted to persist. Another fact which the medical practitioner should never forget in connection with neurotic patients is, that a neurasthenia producing symptoms referable to the genito-urinary, the circulatory, or the digestive apparatus maybe due to the existence of some obscure organic disease in some other part of the body, far removed perhaps from those parts to which the symptoms most complained of are referred. A beginning apical tuberculosis, a slowly developing brain tumor, an uncorrected anomaly of* refraction, a persisting sinusitis, an over-function of the thyroid gland, a hypertrophic osteo-arthritis of the spine, or a flat-foot may be the organic basis of nervous symptoms which give no clue as to their origin. In no part of medicine, therefore, is it more necessary to make a thorough systematic routine examination of the whole body than in patients coming to us with neurasthenic symptoms.
The condition known as traumatic neurosis is perhaps not so often confused with gynecological diseases as some of the other fimictional neuroses. After railroad accidents or other traumatisms, however, patients may develop symptoms, the result ' of the nervous shock, which so closely resemble disorders belonging to g^mecology that they appeal to that quarter for aid. When a thorough gynecological examination reveals the absence of local disease, sufiicient to account for the symptoms complained of, the gynecologist will do well to seek for psychic or physical trauma which might give rise to a so-called traumatic neurosis.
Hypochondria is much more commonly met with in men than in women, but it does occur in the latter, and the g;>mecologist should be familiar with the symptoms which hypochondriacal patients complain of. In this disorder it is the nosophobia or fear of disease which is especially characteristic. Our bodily organs are supplied with sensory nerve fibres along which impulses are carried centripetally to the brain. In normal life these impulses, though of the gTcatest importance for the coordination of the activities of the body and for tlie maintenance of normal conditions in the vegetative and psychic life of the individual, go on below the threshold of consciousness ; we are totally un-
PSYCIIASTHENIA. 569
aware of them. In hypocliondriacal conditions these centripetal impulses no longer remain subconscious; the patient begins to feel abnormal sensations in various parts of her body and attempts to interpret them. Her general sense of life and her general bodily consciousness are different from what they were before. She complains of feeling badly and describes vague distressing sensations which keep her in a constant state of discomfort ; her mood alters and she may become very much depressed, fearing the existence of serious disease in some one of her organs. It is often very difficult to convince the hypochondriacal patient of the non-existence of demonstrable organic disease. The abnormal sensations and the continual discomfort are such real things in the psychic life of the patient that any amount of argumentation on the part of the physician frequently fails to allay the patient's fears.
Psychasthenia. — A mental disorder which is extremely common, but which has only of late been adequately recognized, is the condition which is now designated as psychasthenia. In some one of its manifestations it is perhaps the commonest functional nervous disorder which the gynecologist will meet with. Any physician who sees a large number of patients each day is sure to have among them several who present psychasthenic phenomena. The psychasthenic state was formerly confused with hysteria on the one hand, and with neurasthenia on the other, but since the very careful investigations of Pierre Janet, of Paris, medical men have been taught how to differentiate this state from the others to which it is more or less closely allied. The severer forms of the affection have been well described by C. L. Dana, of J^ew York, under the term phrenasthenia, and English writers, notably Hack Tuke and Mickle, have written of several varieties of the disease under the captions of " imperative ideas " and " mental besetments." In this country a large number of psychasthenic states have been included in descriptions of neurasthenia; thus, for example, the various phobias described by Beard are now separated from neurasthenia proper, and classified under the heading of psychasthenia. Too much stress, however, must not be laid upon classification. It is perhaps impossible to draw a distinct line between psychasthenia in its milder forms, and some of the neurasthenic states, and even hypochondria is regarded by some as a mental state which may occur either in neurasthenia or psychasthenia, or in the early stages of the more outspoken psychoses.
A careful study of Janet's book, entitled " Les Obsessions et la Psychasthenic," Paris, 1903, can be heartily recommended to any one who desires to familiarize himself with the main features of this remarkable disorder. Psychasthenic patients suffer almost constantly with the sense of incompleteness or of insufficiency, from disturbances of the feelings of reality, and from other symptoms referable to the lowering of the so-called psychological tension. It is probably owing to these fundamental disturbances that the other phenomena, which are clinically, perhaps, more characteristic of the malady, develop, namely, the obsessions, the
pseudo-liallucinatioiis, the impulses, the mental manias, the tics, the forced agitations, the fears, the anxiety conditions, the sense of strangeness and unrealitv, the phenomena of depersonalization, and the like.
The imperative ideas or obsessions presented by psychasthenic patients differ much in content ; the idea has a permanence, entirely out of accord Tvith its importance and its practical utility ; it comes up into the head of the patient over and over again in spite of herself, and do what she vill, she cannot rid herself of it. Sometimes it is an idea of sacrilege, sometimes an idea of crime, sometimes an idea of shame regarding herself or her body, or, perhaps, an idea of incurable disease. Every gynecologist is familiar with the patient who, in spite of repeated assurances to the contrary, is convinced that she has some serious disorder of her ovary, of her uterus, of her bladder, or of her kidney; the whole intellectual interest of the patient centres in her health, or in the disorder of that health which she assumes does exist. Very frequently some painful thought is associated with some normal process in the body ; indescribable anxiety is associated with the function of micturition, or of defecation, for example. Other patients have a sense of shame connected with their bodily appearance; they are too fat, or they are imperfectly developed in some part, or they complain of some peculiar movement of the body, or of abnormal blushing, or of persistent pimples, or of abdominal distention. The most bizarre idea may become focal in consciousness, and despite the greatest effort to become marginal, remain focal. It is curious that most of these fixed ideas are associated in a certain degree with self-accusation. Indeed it is the scrupulosity of the psychasthenic patient which often characterizes her especially.
When the patients complain of abnormal impulses, the impulses are nearly always directed to the performance of some evil deed, and the acts which they think themselves forced to perform are extreme in nature; the patients describe them as most sacrilegious, most criminal, most dangerous, or most odious. As a matter of fact they rarely yield to the impulses which they say dominate them.
These imperative ideas and impulses are present in the most outspoken cases of psych asthenia. It is the less outspoken cases, with milder symptoms, which are more likely to be met with by the gynecologist, and which, at first, may puzzle him.
The feelings of insufficiency and incompleteness characteristic of the milder psychasthenic states are those most important to recognize; too little attention is paid to them, because they are feelings to which even the normal mind is occasionally subject. The incompleteness described by the patient may refer to her actions, to her intellectual processes, to her emotions, or to her personality. A woman presenting gynecological symptoms may in parenthesis tell us that she has noted an increasing difficulty in action, or that she feels that all effort is useless, or that she is no longer a capable woman, that
she is troubled about making up her mind about things, that she is doubtful or hesitates before doing things, that she is discontented with life, that she suffers from being over-humble, or that she is in a state of revolt or resentment regarding conditions in which she finds herself placed. Other women complain that they have noticed a growing indifference to things in which they were formerly interested, and in which they know they should still have a lively interest. A persistent sense of boredom is not an infrequent complaint in the gynecological consultation room. Other patients suffer from an indefinable anxiety or disquiet ; women frequently say that, in order to relieve their minds of their local troubles, they are compelled to resort to various diversions or exciting occupations.
Besides these subjective complaints which the women themselves report, their husbands or friends may also describe to the physician observations which they have made, and which are quite in accord with the subjective complaints of these patients. The daily observation of the husband, if he have his eyes open to these modifications of psychic function, may have put in evidence certain disturbances of the will, of the intellect, or the emotions of his wife ; he may have noticed a growing indolence, an increasing lack of resolution, a corresponding feebleness of effort, the quick development of fatigue on exertion, a dislike for new surroundings or occupation, a preternatural social timidity, an abnormal inertia, or even outspoken crises of exhaustion; or he may have noticed that his wife has gradually become more forgetful, or that the memory is slower than it formerly was, or that she pays less attention to what is said to her, often appearing distrait and wrapped in revery. On the emotional side, he may have observed a real indifference which is unnatural, an increasing depression of spirits sometimes reaching actual melancholy, an exaggerated emotional reaction to the ordinary occurrences of life, a desire of being controlled, or an abnormal desire to control others ; an inordinate craving for affection, or for the expression of her own affection.
One of the most characteristic disturbances to which these psychasthenic women are subject concerns the so-called sense of reality. In the first clinical conversation with such a patient she may volunteer the statement that things seem unnatural to her, that everything looks hazy, or as though a veil were drawn between her and the external objects. In other patients, while things outside themselves appear natural to them, a feeling of some change in their own bodies is complained of; they realize that they are different from what they formerly were ; they state that they are only half alive, or that they feel as though they were dead or dying, or as though the mind were separate from the body. Examples such as these will enable the physician to recog-nize other similar complaints which belong in the same category.
A word as to some of the forms of mental manias presented by the more severe types of psychasthenic patients may here be in place. Some of these patients are tormented by an eternal questioning concerning the nature of things, or concerning anything which they happen to think about; or they
have manias of liesitation or deliberation ; in others the need of precision is overwhelming; if any little thing is out of place in their houses, they suffer intensely, and make others suffer for it. Others have troubles in the use of certain numbers, especially the number seven or the number thirteen; still others cannot pass certain objects without touching them ; some are compelled always to pay attention to a whole series of precautions before undertaking anything, and some state that they are continually besieged with premonitions of impending occurrences.
Among the emotional agitations presented by the psychasthenic patients, various sorts are common: fear of disease, fear of going insane, fear of places, fear of animals, fear of people, fear of anything.
It is to be remembered, in psychasthenia especially, that the symptoms tend to be periodic in course. A psychasthenic woman has, in the majority of instances, inherited a pathological nervous system, so that anything which lowers the general vitality will tend to give rise to a psychasthenic state, and this state will persist until the general health is again improved enough to raise the level of j)sychasthenic tension sufficiently high to overcome the symptoms. It is not at all uncommon in such patients to find that they have suffered similarly for shorter or longer periods several times before, at intervals of months or years. Some see in this the possible relation of psychasthenic states to the more severe psychoses of well-known circular type. However this may be, the periodicity of psychasthenic manifestations is a fact which should always be kept in mind in connection with diagnosis and prognosis.
In addition to the various types of functional disorder which are more or less characteristic, and which have been briefly described above, the gynecologist will often meet with slight nervous manifestations which he may find difficult to classify. Some of his patients, for instance, may complain of a tendency to hurry, to worry, or to be abnormally irritable ; others will ask for relief from a morbid self-consciousness, or an abnormal personal sensitiveness, or an indefinable state of apprehension; the husband, in turn, may confidentially appeal to the physician to notice a habit of contradiction in his wife, or a resentful disposition.
In such cases, the physician will do well to be on his guard, and seek for other less manifest abnormal neural symptoms ; here a thorough psychic inquiry is important, and the more the gynecologist trains himself in the technic of psychic methods of inquiry, the greater will be his success in the management of such cases.
Mistakes are perhaps more frequently made in connection with the diagnosis of the functional neuroses than in any other part of medicine. In thousands of women the diagnosis is undoubtedly entirely overlooked, and these patients are transferred from specialist to specialist, who treat their reflexes
and sometimes do more liarm than good by concentrating tlie attention of tlie patient npon lier symptoms by making local applications. On the other hand, those who are impressed with the importance of the psychic and nervous symptoms, unless they are very careful in the exclusion of organic disease, may, through their efforts to treat the general condition, overlook an important local cause which has been responsible for the origin of the nervous symptoms, and which will cause them to persist until it is removed. It is, therefore, desirable that the gynecologist, the general internist, and the neurologist should cooperate in the study of cases which present a combination of gynecological complaints with general nervous manifestations. If, on the one hand, the internist would consult the gynecologist more frequently, in order that he may be sure of the presence or absence of a gynecological lesion; and if, on the other hand, the gynecologist would refer more of his patients to the neurologist and the general internist for a thorough systematic study and report, fewer mistakes would be made. The great difficulty of the internist is to find a gynecologist to whom he can refer patients for examination, who v/ill not be too much impressed with slight local gynecological lesions, and who will be broad-minded enough to understand that not every gynecological disturbance in a patient presenting general nervous symptoms deserves radical local treatment; and the difficulty of the gynecologist, in his turn, is to find a neurologist or an internist whom he can trust to pass judgment upon the relative importance of the general manifestations presented by patients who have applied to the gynecologist for aid. ISTevertheless, it is only through the hearty cooperation of the internist and the various specialists that the highest success can be obtained in the treatment of patients, and every physician who, by his broadness and soundness of judgment, contributes to the growth of mutual confidence among medical practitioners in this respect will be of great service in the community in which he lives.
It will be obvious from what has been said above in regard to the symptomatology, that it is the consideration of the woman as a whole which is all important in these cases. A narrow specialization is disastrous, and yet the general examination must avail itself of the most modern refinements of diagnosis in all the special branches. Every practitioner then should arrange some cooperative organization by means of which he will be able to provide himself with all the data necessary for the exclusion of organic disease, and the determination of the exact degree and significance of existing organic disease in all parts of the body.
A careful consideration of the individual symptoms presented, and the grouping of these symptoms, will permit a decision as to the particular form of nervous or mental malady with which one is dealing. The most important clues to the three main types of functional disorder are as follows: For hysteria, the suggestibility; for neurasthenia, the fatigability; and for psychasthenia, the sense of incompleteness and insufficiency, the indecision, the interrogations, the doubts, and the fears.
There are certain forms of organic disease that present symptoms which practitioners too often regard as entirely functional in origin. It will be desirable to refer to some of these in detail, bearing in mind, of course, the special needs of the gynecological practitioner.
A beginning tabes, though less common in women than in men, may give rise to local symptoms whose significance the physician may underestimate. A difficulty in passing urine, a complaint of rectal, vaginal, or vesical pain, especially if it occur in the form of paroxysmal attacks or crises, a marked change in the sexual desire or sense, should make one suspicious of the existence of degeneration of the posterior funiculi of the spinal cord, and should lead one to make at least an examination of the state of the general bodily sensation and the reflexes, especially the pupillary and patellar reactions. Should any anomaly be found, the patient should be subjected to a thorough routine neurological study, to determine the presence or absence of a latent locomotor ataxia.
More rarely, lesions of the cauda equina or conus medullaris may give rise to genito-urinary or rectal symptoms with which the gynecologist must be familiar. An incontinence of urine or feces, or an anesthesia in the region of the vulva or mons veneris, should put the jDhysician on his guard and make him test the Achilles reflex as well as search for other evidences of organic change in the lower part of the spinal cord or spinal canal.
An osteo-arthritis of the lower portion of the vertebral colTimn, or the sacrum, or of the sacro-iliac joints may give rise to symptoms which lead the patient to the gynecologist. Pain in the small of the back, or in the sacrum, or sacro-iliac organs, or down the backs of the thighs and legs may be associated with disturbances of locomotion and with anomalies of position of the spine or pelvis. Here a careful physical examination, associated with an X-ray iphotogTaph of the lower vertebral column and of the sacro-iliac joints should clear up the diagnosis.
Another disorder to which attention has recently been drawn, especially by the orthopedic surgeon, Goldthwait, of Boston, is the relaxation of the sacro-iliac joints which so frequently occurs in women, especially at middle life, and in those who are overnourished, or who, for one reason or another, have been compelled to remain in bed for a considerable period of time (repeated pregnancies, gynecological operations, rest cures, etc.). By means of the so-called sacro-iliac test, the attitude assumed, the history of the case, and the exclusion of other diseases, the g-j^Tiecologist should learn to recognize these cases and refer them to the orthopedist for mechanical treatment (see Chap. IX).
Mucous colitis is a manifestation too often maltreated by the gynecologist and by the gastro-enterological practitioner. Sometimes a mucous colitis is undoubtedly due to irritation from a misplaced uterus, or perhaps to reflex irritation, but in the majority of cases it should be looked upon as a nervous disease and treated by measures directed toward the improvement of
the general health rather than by local applications. It is not uncommon to see cases treated for months and years by intestinal lavage, oil enemata, astringents, or other local measures with progressive deterioration of the patient. In most of these cases the complete cessation of local treatment is advisable, and the patient, if put to bed, isolated from her friends, overfed, and suitably encouraged, will get well.
A word should perhaps be said with regard to the danger of confusing the symptoms of an early multiple sclerosis with hysteria or with other functional neurological manifestations. This is a mistake which the best neurologists dread, and where there is the least doubt, a complete routine neurological investigation should be resorted to before drawing the final inferences regarding the diagnosis. Of course, in the outspoken cases with scanning speech, nystagmus, intention tremor, and pallor of the optic papillae, there can be no doubt, but in cases in which the classical symptoms are not in evidence, there is great danger of overlooking this serious condition.
Hyperthyroidism is a condition often associated with nervous disturbances ; it is far more common than is realized by the average family practitioner. ISTot infrequently it accompanies diseases of the genito-urinary organs, and when it does so, it may in reality be responsible for the symptoms which the patient presents, rather than the local gynecological lesion which has been recognized, and for the treatment of which the patient has come to the physician. Periuterine inflammation has long been kno^^^l to be frequently associated with symptoms of hyperthyroidism, and Freund's report on the subject is an admirable statement of the facts. As Albert Kocher has pointed out, too, a diminution of the menstrual flow is very common in patients suffering even from the milder forms of Graves' disease. In a patient presenting obscure nervous symptoms, especially one complaining of apprehension and indefinable anxiety without apparent cause, the physician should make the tests necessary to determine whether or not a hyperthyreosis exists ; if a tachycardia (or better pycnocardia) exist continually; if there be a struma, especially if it be vascular in nature, pulsating visibly, and giving a thrill to the palpating finger, and especially if bruits are audible over the point of entrance of the thyroid arteries into the thyroid gland, the diagnosis may be regarded as certain, and the patient should be referred to a surgeon skilled in the technic of partial thyroid extirpation and arterial ligature. Rapid tremor of the fingers in this disease is exceedingly characteristic, and is a test which can be applied in a moment, often pointing the way to the diagnosis. A familiarity with some of the eye-signs in patients with hyperthyroidism is also a great help, and often keeps the physician from overlooking the affection. By asking the patient to follow the finger as it is gradually moved downward, it is possible to make out whether or not the eyeball runs ahead of the eyelid, so that the white sclera shows between the cornea and the upper lid (von Graefe's sign). Or, if the patient is asked to look at the ceiling, and then at the end of her nose, he can determine whether or not there is tendency to inability to
iiiaintain the condition of convergence (Mobins's sign). Or, be may notice whether or not the visnal aperture is much widened, and if involuntary winking be lessened or incomplete (von Stcllwag'g sigTi). Of course, when there is exophthalmos it is the most striking and characteristic sign and recognizable even by the laity, but it should not be forgotten that marked protrusion of the. eyeballs is absent in perhaps two-thirds of the cases of hyperthyroidism.
The jDatients and the patients' friends are always anxious to know whether or not the condition they come to be treated for is curable, and here long experience in dealing with the functional neuroses is necessary before that matured power of judgment can be gained which will permit the physician to speak to the patient with anything like accuracy as to the outcome which may Le expected. With the modern studies of the psychoneuroses, new hope can be held out to these patients. Many women who formerly would have been doomed to a lifetime of incapacity and non-productiveness can now be restored to very good health and be made useful members of the community.
In the treatment of the milder forms of hysteria and psychasthenia, and especially in the treatment of neurasthenia, in all forms except those in which there is a pronounced hereditary taint, the results are very gTatifying. In the gTaver forms of hysteria, in the severer forms of psychasthenia, and in outspoken cases of hypochondriasis, we have to deal with mental disorders which often tax all the resources of the physician, and which sometimes the best-directed efforts known to modern neurology and psychiatry fail to cure. In nearly all cases, however, even the most severe, it is possible to get great relief, provided the psychic factor is clearly recognized, and the proper methods of treatment, especially the resources of psychotherapy, are applied.
For a full discussion of the treatment of these disorders works upon ISTeurology. Psychiatry, and Internal ]\Iedicine must be consulted, but the general principles will be briefly referred to here.
In the first place it cannot be too strongly emphasized that any routine treatment of these cases is likely to be harmful. In no part of medicine is a definite individualization of the therapy more necessary. Great harm is done in the routine application of the so-called " rest cure," and rather than recommending a systematic routine it would be nearer the truth to state that no two nervous patients need the same treatment.
Preceding all treatment there should be established, as has already been said, a very exact anatomical, functional, and etiological diagnosis, and the diagnostic study should have been extended to all parts of the body of the patient. Only by strict adherence to this rule can serious
of quacks and irregular healers.
Having formed a judgment as to the actual condition which exists, the patient should be frankly told the results of the study and the opinions of the physician as to the nature of her disease, and the rationale of the treatment to be followed.
If a cause of the disorder has been made out and found to be still persisting, the first indication in treatment is, of course, its removal, and the physician who bears this fact in mind will be very much surprised to find how often by a change of environment, or by intervention in some social relation, the whole clinical picture can be speedily altered. Again, if some organic disease be found to exist, and the physician conscientiously feels convinced that it is responsible for the nervous symptoms, treatment should be directed toward this, either at once or after such preliminary preparation as seems necessary. An incipient tuberculosis, an osteo-arthritis, an eyemuscle anomaly, a displaced uterus, bleeding hemorrhoids, or a gonococcal trigonitis will receive its appropriate attention, and after its indications have been met, the health of the patient can be built up by general reconstructive measures, and then the nervous symptoms may be expected to disappear.
In cases in which the condition is predominantly a psych oneurosis, the gynecologist may undertake the treatment himself if he is interested in this work and has the facilities for caring for psychoneurotic patients; or he may refer the patient to an internist or neurologist who devotes his attention especially to such treatment.
The best means of combating the psychone ureses known to medical men at present, consist in rest, isolation, the improvement of nutrition, and psychotherapy. In addition to these main therapeutic instruments, certain adjuvant measures are more or less helpful, such as the use of electricity, drugs, etc., especially in combating some of the symptoms.
Rest may be prescribed in various ways, though usually physicians apply .the well-known " rest cure " of Weir Mitchell. When this treatment is adopted, it is common to keep the patient on her back in bed completely at rest, physically and mentally, for a period of from four to six weeks, after which she is gradually permitted to return to various physical and mental activities. A prolonged rest of this sort is especially helpful in cases of neurasthenia and in psychasthenic states, associated with emaciation. The most brilliant results are obtained in the patients who have suffered from nervous disturbances of digestion and who have reduced their diet gradually until they have gotten into a state in which they are eating far less than is required to nourish them. Many of these patients have had the erroneous idea that they should exercise more as their emaciation progressed; some one has told them to keep up strenuous physical exercise, and not a few of them who apply for treatment will be found to be following daily some rigidly prescribed system
of gymnastics, despite the miserable state of their nutrition. It is very important to remember, however, that not every nervous patient needs rest in bed. Some patients do badly in bed, and mnch experience and medical tact is necessary to decide when this treatment should be tried and when it should be avoided. Some of the severer jjsychasthenic cases especially do badly in bed, and though in the treatment of the obese nervous patient a short stay in bed may be desirable at the beginning of the treatment, any prolonged sojourn in the recumbent position is harmful for her.
In all the severer forms of the psychonenroses (but of course not in the milder forms of the disease) isolation of the patient is absolutely necessary if the best results are to be obtained. This is one of the most important features of the cure as it was carried out by Weir ]\Iitchell, and it is a feature which unfortunately has been honored more in the breach than in the observance by those who have attempted to imitate Mitchell in his management of nervous patients. It is not always easy to get the consent of patients to submit themselves to complete isolation from family and friends. Even when the patient and her friends consent to isolation, too frequently the physician and the nurse do not maintain her in the necessary degree of separation. For instance, many medical men have made the error of attempting to isolate neiwous women in bedrooms in their own houses. This is almost invariably unsuccessful, and it is, as a rule, better not to make any pretence of isolation at all, than to try to carry it out in this ineffectual way. The patient and her friends mean to observe isolation when they promise to do so in the patient's own house, but they almost always find it impossible to adhere to the rules. It is, therefore, very desirable when isolation is practised, to remove the patient to an institution (sanitarium, hospital, or private house specially arranged for the purpose) in which she will see no one except her j)hysician and nurses, and in which she will not come in contact even with servants who have attended to her before. ' In arranging for the isolation it is necessary to tell the patient that during her stay she will not be permitted to have any communication whatever, either verbal or written, with her family or friends, except by special permission. It should be said to her, however, that in case anything happens at home which she really should know about, she will be told ; hearing nothing is to mean to her that everything is going well, and that there is no reason for her to worry about home conditions. When the importance of isolation is fully recognized by the physician and all these details are explained and impressed upon the patient, she and her friends will usually consent to it, and a g-reat step forward has been taken toward getting the patient well. Here again individualization is necessary, and the physician will after a while acquire the experience which will permit him to decide which patient ought to be isolated and which should not be.
During the period of complete rest and isolation, it is important, in order, in the first place, that a strict regime may be closely followed, and in the second place that the patient may not be too lonesome, that she shall have
the care of a special nnrsc who devotes herself entirely to her. The expense of this is, of course, prohibitive in many cases, and then one has to make compromises corresponding to the particular conditions. Many cases do very well with the ordinary ward nurses in hospitals and sanitaria.
The diet of the patient should be, of course, carefully looked after; a very large proportion of nervous people complain of disturbances of digestion, and a great many prejudices have to be overcome at the beginning of the treatment. In the majority of instances this is best accomplished by taking a firm stand with regard to the administration of milk in small quantities every two hours during the first few days of the treatment. Many patients will assert that it is absolutely impossible for them to take milk, and the physician in these cases usually does well to make a firm statement to the patient that in the early stage of the treatment she will receive nothing but milk. She should be assured at the same time that given in the way in which it will be ordered for her, she will suffer little or no inconvenience from it and be able to digest it satisfactorily. It is well to tell her that in case she seems to suffer from the first feeding or two, she is to pay no attention to the symptoms, but to take the ration of milk when it comes with the same conscientiousness as she would a dose of medicine. Even when the patient vomits the first feeding or so, I have always found that in functional cases, by persisting with a small quantity every two hours, all difficulty is soon overcome. As to the exact times of giving the milk, I have found the routine administration recommended by Dubois in his book entitled " The Psychical Treatment of ISTervous Disorders," to yield very satisfactory results. In the wards of the Johns Hopkins Hospital the food-administration at the beginning of treatment is as follows :
" When eating chew very thoroughly everything that is taken into the mouth (except water, which has no taste) until it is not only liquefied and made neutral or alkaline by saliva, but until the reduced substance all settles back in the folds at the back of the mouth and excites the swallowing impulse into a strong inclination to swallow ; then swallow what has collected and has excited the impulse, and continue to chew at the remainder, liquid though it be, until the last morsel disappears in response to the swallowing impulse, l^ever forcibly swallow anything that the instincts connected with the mouth show any disposition to reject. It is safer to get rid of it beforehand than to risk putting it into the stomach."
j!*^o one measure has been more successful in my hands than the adoption of this dietetic regime, and nurses and house ofiicers who have followed the cases in the medical wards are one and all enthusiastic about it.
While one need not fear the administration of large quantities of protein to patients who are nervously below par, it is perhaps well to give this protein largely in the form of milk and eggs, rather than in the form of meat ; some meat should be given, but certainly not more than one or two portions per day. Whether or not it is the proteins of the meat themselves or the extractives associated with the proteins which are harmful to some people, we do not yet know. Most nervous patients appear to do better when the meat is not pushed too much.
Where constipation exists, the diet should contain liberal quantities of stewed fruits and vegetables (especially carrots and spinach), and the patient should be advised to eat half a pound of Graham bread per day. This dietary, together with a teaspoonful of lime juice in a glass of Avater at 6.30 a.m., will often overcome the difficulty of constipation. Whether she has the inclination thereto or not, each patient should try to have a movement exactly one hour after the beginning of her breakfast each morning; a regailar habit is in this way soon formed. Until the habit is established, the patient is permitted an enema each third day, in case no natural movement occurs. In a few instances one is obliged to give cascara or some other mild laxative for a time, but the physician who is conscientious in the treatment of constipation without drugs will succeed more often than he who resorts to drugs in every case.
When the patient is resting in bed, it is well to keep her flat on her back with only one pillow, for several weeks. It is customary to give a cold sponge at 55° to 60° r., followed by an alcohol rub each morning; some hydrotherapeutic measure in the evening is often of advantage. Where there is insomnia especially, the cold pack will frequently give the patient a good night's rest. It is rarely necessary to use hypnotics, and I am convinced that one of the
CONVALESCENCE. 581
commonest mistakes made in the treatment of nervous patients is the too frequent resort to trional, sulphonal, veronal, and other sleep-inducing drugs ; a single dose or two at the beginning of the treatment may perhaps be permitted, but it is interesting to find how often insomnia can be gotten rid of without the use of any drug whatever. In my experience, the majority of cases of insomnia yield without any use of pharmacotherapy. A cold pack at night, while useful in many cases of insomnia and especially in phlegmatic or apathetic patients, may be actually harmful in a very irritable or hyperesthetic woman. In its place a warm pack or a prolonged warm bath may yield better results.
During the period of complete rest, the patient does not sit up at all except on going to stool, or when propped up in bed with pillows, for her meals. Where it is possible to run the patient's bed out-of-doors in the daytime, it is very desirable to do so; even in the coldest winter weather these nervous patients do well out-of-doors. They must, of course, be kept warm ; if necessary with the use of Jaeger underwear, blankets underneath as well as above the patient, hot-water bottles, and a woolen cap for the head. Patients may sleep out-of-doors at night, or if they sleep in bedrooms, they should have all the windows of their room widely open.
At the end of the period of rest, usually at the end of about five weeks, the patient begins to sit up ; during the first day she is given a back rest for one hour, and this is increased to tw^o hours on the next day. On the third and fourth day she is permitted to sit in a wheel-chair for an hour, and the time is gradually increased during the next few days. On the eighth day a walk of ten minutes is allowed, and if all goes well, the walk is increased until at the end of a fortnight, or even less, the patient may walk five miles a day without special fatigue. If much weight has been put on, care must be taken that the arches of the feet do not yield to strain at this time, and if pain is complained of on walking, suitable orthopedic shoes, or even temporary supporting plates for the feet, may be required. When the patient begins to be up and about she is allowed a quick morning plunge in water at the tap temperature, and this replaces the cold sponge of the resting period. Setting-up exercises and calisthenics are often advantageous during the after-cure, and mild forms of occupation, sewing, knitting, crochet work, and the like, are helpful.
Early in the cure, even when the patient is at complete physical rest, the nurse is instructed to read aloud for periods of increasing length during the day, and later on, the patient may be permitted to read herself under supervision as to time and subject, being thus gradually led back to normal life and intercourse.
Special dietetic measures are necessary where there is a tendency to obesity, to diabetes, or to gout, the details of which cannot be considered here. In patients suffering from hyperthyroidism, the protein portion of the diet should consist almost wholly of milk, inasmuch as meat seems to stimulate the activity of the thyroid gland.
ciallj in that it makes tlie patient more comfortable in bed. There is a mistaken idea abroad that it takes the place of exercise by influencing metabolism in a similar way. Careful metabolic studies prove that there is no metabolic effect from massage comparable with that which is exerted by physical exercise. It seems probable, therefore, that massage in nervous patients exerts its good effect through stimulation of the sensory nerves of the skin and muscles, through facilitation of the lymph flow, and, in part at least, through its psychic effect.
More important, however, than the rest, the diet, and the massage in the treatment of the psychoneuroses is the use of the patient's mind in bringing about the cure. Psychotherapy and re-education are the sheet anchors of the therapeutist in the functional neuroses.
The exact mode of application of the psychic measures in the treatment of nervous disease will vary with each practitioner, and everyone does best to develop the methods most suitable to his own personality and his own needs. Certain general directions, however, may be helpful, and certainly during the last fifty years great progress has been made in the application of psychic methods in re-educating nervous patients back to health. At the outset of the treatment a full explanation of the condition of the patient to herself is a great help. It is unwise to deceive her. If an organic lesion exists, it should not be denied, although it may be necessary to refrain from laying emphasis upon it. Any direct question that the patient may ask should be frankly answered, and she should be told, as far as the physician is able to tell her, the meaning of any lesion which exists and the relation of the symptoms to it. If no organic lesion can be found on the application of careful tests, it is a great comfort to the patient to be told unhesitatingly by the physician the negative results of the study. Her mind is relieved, and when she is assured by the doctor that the sj-mptoms are in his opinion " nervous " in origin, and curable, her hope is excited and she makes a start toward getting well.
Much encouragement is necessary to the depressed patient, especially where a fear of insanity or of incurable disease exists, and the physician who undertakes properly to care for these patients must be willing to spend a good deal of time with them. A visit of half a minute or a minute is totally insufiicient ; they often require a long explanation and a full statement, especially at the outset. Too much time, however, should not be spent with the patient, for then the physician's assurances will lose in force. Brief, clear, and emphatic pronouncements are most helpful; argumentation with a nervous patient should never be indulged in, for, in my experience, it only does harm to argue with irritable nerves.
The method of avowal, that is the open declaration by the patient to the physician of any painful or secret experience which she may believe to be associated with the origin of her symptoms, should be encouraged. The delicacy of such conversations should, however, always be borne in mind, and the physician must win the confidence of liis patient before lie can expect full frankness i-tegarding these experiences. Any unnecessary inquisitiveness into the patient's
PSYCHOTHERAPY. 583
past experiences should always be avoided, and when an avowal is necessary and important, the physician should see to it that it is made without injury to the self-respect of the patient. The physician should not shrink from the trouble of listening to the unburdening of soul; a knowledge of the mental content of the patient will often give him clues for the exertion of salutary psychic influences, and the " confession " is nearly always followed by relief to the patient.
In this connection the so-called " psycho-analysis," described by Freud, of Vienna, is very interesting. By this method, an attempt is made to discover by particular association tests the existence of complexes of ideas to which strong feelings are attached. Jung, of Zurich, has of late been working out a method which he asserts is practical for clinical analysis, and Jung's method, it is said, yields results much more quickly than the slower process used by Freud. By the use of suitable stimulus-words and watching the reactions, it seems possible to tell when a definite, painful, psychic complex, unbearable in the patient's consciousness and accordingly suppressed, has been touched. By laying this complex bare and disintegrating it, it is said to be possible to help severe forms of psychoneuroscs which have been entirely irresponsive to other therapeutic means ; especially in the severer forms of hysteria, successes, it is said, have been scored by this method.
known as persuasion and suggestion.
In the use of persuasion the physician makes an appeal to the higher psychic functions; the mind is won over by the presentation of suitable reasons, and not by the exertion of authority, force, or fear. In suggestion, on the contrary, an idea is introduced into the brain of the individual without his control ; the higher functions are not utilized, or if affected, they are inhibited ; the influence is exerted through the subconscious mind.
Even when an effort is made to restrict psychotherapeutic efforts to persuasion, just now the measure more popular among medical men, it is difficult to say how much of the effect is really due to persuasion, and how much of it to suggestion; at any rate, the physician usually feels more comfortable himself if he endeavors to produce his psychotherapeutic effects through the use of the patient's reason, than by resorting to the more occult influence through the subrational.
The establishment of medical obedience from the very beginning of the treatment is essential. The cooperation of the patient must be gained, and she must give an imequivocal consent to do exactly what she is told to do, at least during the first period when she is under the physician's care. She sliould be told that she will not be asked to do anything unreasonable, or to follow any instructions prejudicial to her welfare, but that slie must obey, even wlien the reason of some of the orders may not be clear to her, or seem to her trivial and arbitrary. It is wise to leave nothing to the decision of the patient at first, and it is especially important that neither the
doctor nor the nurse yield to whimsical requests, or alter a routine inaugurated, because the patient offers objection to it. Exhortation and all forms of moral treatment are better avoided at the beginning, especially in the severer cases. Later on the patient will, in all probability, wake up to an understanding of her condition herself, or she may be gradually instructed regarding it. After the physical side of the treatment has been fully cared for, it will become necessary by steady training to improve the attention of the patient, and to educate her emotions and her will. Gradually, as a result of this training, she may learn completely to control herself, and the medical absolutism may be replaced by self-direction. As Dubois points out, it is well to hold before her the ideal of " mistress of herself," as something at which she must constantly aim.
The physician should not underestimate the importance of a proper kind of nurse to aid him in the treatment of his nervous patients. ISTot every woman graduated from a training school is suited to this kind of work. It is necessary that the special nurse have a strong character, and good control of her own emotions ; moreover, it is desirable that she have an education equal to or better than that of the patient whom she cares for. If she also possess the social qualities which will endear her to her patient, it is a distinct advantage. Above all she must know how to make herself respected and esteemed, and she should be given adequate authority, in order that her directions shall be followed, although it is an essential that in all her relations to the patient she must be good-natured and kind. The physician, on his visits to the patient, must show by his behavior to the nurse that he regards her as his representative in his absence, that he has confidence in her, and that he expects the patient to consent to everything that is done for her without objection. It is just as well, however, for the nurse to let the patient feel that everything that is done for her is the result of specific instructions given by the physician, for patients will resent discipline which they have reason to believe has originated in the nurse's rather than in the doctor's mind. During convalescence the physician must avail himself of various methods of psychic stimulation and reeducation, and here his knovdedge of the world and of the men and women in it, their hopes, their desires, and their failings, will be most helpful to him. He must consider how to keep the attention of his patient focussed upon her cure, and how to prevent her from giving herself unhealthy suggestions. In other words he must teach her so to train her attention that the action of the mind becomes healthy, and that it cease to dwell upon the abnormal. He must excite in his patient the desire to get well, and must convince her as the treatment progTesses that she is in reality getting well. He must teach her the importance of overcoming little difiiculties, assuring her that as she does one thing after another to which she may be disinclined, she will acquire an everincreasing power of self-control, and that sooner or later her self-mastery will be regained.
be taught to cultivate the useful and invigorating emotions; she should be taught the dangers of excessive emotion of any kind, and the great harm of indulging in such passions as anger, hate, and fear. The positive rather than the negative side should be followed. Faith, hope, and love should be encouraged, and then worry, fear, and despair will disappear of themselves. Finally, work, physical and mental, must be undertaken, for in a projDerly directed occupation-therapy lies the greatest hope for making the cure permanent. These nervous women have to be educated gradually how to take up their work, and the physician's ingenuity will be greatly taxed in order to decide as to the particular physical and mental occupations suited to the individual cases coming under his care ; one patient will be benefited by gardening, another by some active mental pursuit. In all cases the program of the day should be carefully arranged, and the patient should be encouraged to follow it closely. The work should be chosen in accordance with the ability and previous training and occupation of the patient. It should be interesting to her and should be such as to be capable of giving expression to her better self. This is scarcely the place to deal with the use of suggestion, and especially of hypnotic suggestion. That this method of therapy is advantageous in some cases there can be no doubt, but experience has taught that the application of hypnotism is much more limited than those who hailed it so enthusiastically at first were inclined to believe. It is possible, however, that fear of the appearance of quackery and charlatanism has prevented physicians from making use of this measure even to the extent to which it may very properly be applied.
Conditions under which appendicitis is associated with disease of the pelvic organs, p. 586. Appendicitis and coexisting pelvic disease: Inflammatory disease, p. 587; tuberculosis, p. 588 tumors, p. 588. Independent affections of the appendix and the pelvic organs, p. 589 Differential diagnosis between appendicitis and pelvic disease: Inflammatory disease, p. 589 ovarian cyst, p. 590; ruptured tubal pregnancy, p. 591. Appendicitis and dysmenorrhea, p. 592. Appendicitis in the child, p. 595.
DISEASES.
The earliest allusion to a relation between inflammation of the appendix and diseases of the reproductive organs was made, I believe, by H. C. Coe (Neio York Polyclinic, 1894, vol. 4, p. 73), and almost simultaneously by J. T. Binkley (Amer. Jour. Obst, 1894, vol. 29, p. 474). Both of these observers call attention to the fact that appendicitis may be associated with disease of the uterine adnexa, and that the primary infection may be seated either in the appendix or in the tubes and ovaries. Contributions to the subject have appeared repeatedly since then, and it is now a well-recognized fact that disease of the pelvic organs in women may be associated with disease of the appendix in any one of the three following ways :
First, the disease of the appendix is primary and that of the pelvic organs secondary. Second, the disease of the pelvic organs is primary and that of the appendix secondary. Third, the disease of the pelvic organs and the disease of the appendix coexist, independently of each other.
In my clinic at the Johns Hopkins Hospital I had occasion, during the ten years immediately preceding the year 1904, to remove the appendix in two hundred and forty cases, the majority of which were combined gynecological and appendical affections. Of these two hundred and forty cases, there were ninety of acute appendicitis uncomplicated with any gynecological affection ; in sixteen others the appendix was removed purely as a prophylactic measure ; while in the remaining one hundred and thirty -four cases a gynecological affection of some kind was associated with disease of the appendix. These statistics agree very fairly with those of Hermes {DeuUcli. Zeitsclir. f. CJiir., 1903, vol. 68, p. 191) and of Peterson (Trans. Amsr. Gyn. Soc, 1904, vol. 29, p. 350). Hermes performed seventy-fivo la]3arotomies for the relief of pelvic disease and found that in forty cases, or a little over fifty-three per cent, the
APPENDICITIS AND ASSOCIATED PELVIC DISEASE.
In some cases where it is definitely known that a gynecological affection exists, it is a matter of importance to decide whether or not there is a complicating appendicitis. The fact that the appendix is frequently involved in pelvic affections is now too well known for such accidents to occur as that reported some years ago by Tait and Wiggin, in which, during the course of an operation upon the pelvic organs, the appendix (being involved in dense adhesions) was removed without the knowledge of the operator, and the fact discovered only on the autopsy table. It must always be remembered that when independent affections, either acute or chronic, coexist, one may be masked by the predominating symptoms of the other. This fact is of special importance in the case of an acute pelvic inflammation. Appendicitis should be suspected when there is extreme severity of both abdominal and constitutional symptoms, with paroxysmal pain localized at or near McBurney's point.
Pelvic Inflammatory Disease. — Pelvic inflammation is by far the most frequent disease of the pelvic organs complicating appendicitis. Out of the hundred and thirty-four cases in my clinic in which appendicitis was found to be associated with pelvic disease of one kind or another, there were sixty-four in which the pelvic affection was inflammatory. In the majority of cases in which inflammation of the pelvic organs and disease of the appendix are associated, the primary infection is in the pelvis. The associated diseased conditions are not always on the right side, for in the case of an unusually long appendix and an abnormally movable cecum, it is quite possible for the appendix to become attached to the left tube or ovary. In forty-four cases, cited by Peterson, the disease was confined to the right adnexa in eight instances, to the left adnexa in six, while in thirty cases both sides were affected.
Even when the appendix does not occupy the pelvic position it is possible for it to become infected under certain conditions, as in puerperal infections or in gonorrheal salpingitis, if the enlarged tube happens to be situated a little higher up than usual. Generally the appendix is attached to the tubo-ovarian mass by more or less firm adhesions, the appendix itself showing practically no gross changes ; but careful examination of such appendices reveals that comparatively few are perfectly healthy, a mild catarrhal inflammation being the affection most often found. More severe lesions are not uncommon, an unsuspected diffuse inflammation being found in certain cases at operation; moreover, there may be various residual conditions, namely, strictures, obliteration, or cystic distention.
appendix is involved in the pelvic exudate from the beginning; the adhesions thus formed become organized, and blood and lymph vessels are established between the appendix and the tube, through which the infection is readilytransmitted. It seems probable, however, that the pelvic disease usually limits the movements of the appendix by fixing it in adhesions, and by producing stasis, acts as a predisposing factor in the development of appendicitis. The history of the onset and progress of the illness is the most important point in determining its original focus. It is frequently possible to obtain a clear history of puerperal or gonorrheal infection; but in these cases, clinical evidence of the appendical complications, as a rule, is conspicuously absent.
Tuberculosis of the Pelvic Organs. — This condition not infrequently involves the appendix in the peritoneal adhesions which usually accompany it, and in a numlier of cases the walls of the appendix are invaded by the tul^ercular process, even where there is no evidence of other extension of the disease. Out of seven cases which I examined, where the appendix was adherent to the tubercular tulje. it was slightly infiltrated with tubercles in four.
Tumors of the Tterus and Ovaries.- — Adhesions between the appendix and cysts of the right ovary are frequently observed, and occasionally the appendix is attached to a left ovarian cyst. Out of about three hundred operations for cystoma in the Jolms Hopkins Hospital, the appendix was found adherent to tumors of the right side in sixteen cases, and to those of the left in three. In some instances the appendix is merely secondarily involved in the general adhesions which so frequently surround pelvic tumors, and are the residue of an old widespread peritoneal reaction. Dermoids and cysts with torsion of the pedicle are particularly apt to give rise to general adhesions, and it is in such cases that the appendix is most often involved. In our series of cases, the cyst had become twisted upon its pedicle in one-fourth, and in these the appendical adhesions were unusually dense and extensive. In some instances the appendix is adherent to the otherwise smooth surface of the cyst, or to the broad ligament. In some cases the tip only is adherent ; in others the entire appendix, including its mesentery, is plastered to the surface of the tumor. The organ itself may be practically normal, but in the majority of instances its walls are thickened and rigid, while kinks, strictures, and other results of an inflammatory process are commonly present.
Parovarian cysts also are frequently complicated by appendical adhesions or by acute or chronic appendicitis. In malignant ovarian growths the appendix may become invaded secondarily by the new growth. Uterine myomata are less frequently complicated by disease of the appendix than ovarian cysts, and as in ovarian tumors the appendix usually presents evidence of chronic inflammatory changes. Extra-uterine pregnancy is complicated with a]ipendicitis in a considerable number of instances. Personally, I recall seven cases, forming al)Out ten per cent of the cases of extra-uterine pregnancy in my clinic, in which the appendix was adlierent to the sac, or was acutelv inflamed.
PELVIC ORGANS.
The possibility of the coexistence of pelvic and appendical disease must always be borne in mind, especially in cases which are being treated for pelvic disease. Quite often, after removal of ovarian or uterine tumors not complicated by adhesions, investigation of the cecal region will reveal the presence of independent appendical disease. Thus, in a case of myoma under my own care, the appendix was found completely filled and distended by two large concretions; in another case of myoma, the appendix was obliterated and enveloped in adhesions. In cases of extra-uterine pregnancy the existence of an independent appendicitis has been frequently observed. T. II. Chase {Halm. Month., 1903, vol. 38, p. 520) cites an interesting case of a young woman who was brought into the hospital with a history of trauma over the right lower quadrant of the abdomen, produced by falling face downwards in the street upon a pile of cobble-stones. On her entrance, three bruises were visible over the right iliac fossa. After keeping her under observation for a few days the abdomen was opened, and a chronic salpingitis was found on the right side, with an acutely inflamed appendix, but no sigTis of communication between the two.
The treatment of appendicitis and coexisting pelvic disease, whether independent of, or related to each other, belongs in almost all cases to the surgeon, and such cases should be referred to him as soon as they are recognized.
The differential diagnosis between appendicitis and disease of the pelvic organs is of much more importance to the general practitioner than the diagnosis of coexisting disease, whether independent or not, because in the early stages of certain affections, early salpingitis for example, palliative treatment may be all that is needed; whereas, in acute appendicitis, immediate operation is imperative.
Inflammatory Disease of the ITterine Adnexa. — The affection most often confounded with appendicitis in women is inflammation of the ovaries and tubes. Each condition presents characteristic differences, however, and careful attention to these and to the history of the case in its early stages ought to prevent mistakes. Abdominal pain, associated with nausea and vomiting, may appear as suddenly in one affection as in the other, and there may be pain on local pressure over the right lower abdomen in both, but in pelvic disease the local pain and tenderness are usually situated more deeply in the pelvis and the right inguinal region, intense suffering being elicited on deep palpation over Poupart's ligament. Vaginal examination may show tenderness in both cases, but if it is on both sides, or is confined to the left
side, the trouble is probably perimetritis and not appendicitis. There are, however, cases in which confusion may arise because the appendix occupies the pelvic position, and therefore the pain and tenderness are situated deep down in the pelvis ; moreover, if the organ is of unusual length, it may extend to the left even as far as the ojDposite side. In such cases reliance must be placed on the earlier symptoms as described in the history. In the onset of appendicitis the pain is apt to be paroxysmal in character, while in pelvic inflammation it is more steady and less intense. Pelvic inflammation is usuall}' accompanied in the early stages by a vaginal discharge, sometimes of a yellowish character, and often associated with burning on urination ; these symptoms may exist several days before the abdominal pain appears. With appendicitis there is often a history of previous attacks of pain or digestive disturbance. It is not usual to find a tumor in the early stages of either affection, but later on a more or less well-defined resistance, situated posterior or lateral to the uterus, is generally present in both, and it may signify either pelvic inflammation or pelvic appendicitis. In appendicitis, however, the resistance is usually situated higher up and extends from the posterior border of the right broad ligament to the iliac fossa; whereas in pelvic inflammatory disease the tumor is deep down in the pelvis, and it is often possible to determine the enlarged tube by bimanual, vaginal, and rectal palpation. R. T. Morris considers that abdominal rigidity is the principal diagTiostic sign between acute appendicitis and salpingitis. If it is absent, appendicitis may be excluded with tolerable certainty. When an acute pelvic inflammation is accompanied by a spreading or general peritonitis it cannot be distinguished from appendicitis, unless there is an unusually clear and reliable history.
The development of a pelvic infection in a young girl, or an unmarried woman of good character, should always excite a suspicion of primary appendicitis, even when bimanual examination shows definite disease of the adnexa on both sides, as in many cases it will be found on operation that the tubo-ovarian disease is due to a secondary infection of the tube. As MacLaren observes, " a young woman's reputation may be smirched by the discovery of pus tubes, where operation demonstrates that the tubal suppuration was due entirely to inflammation of the appendix."
Ovarian Cyst. — Confusion in the diagnosis between appendicitis and ovarian cyst with torsion of the pedicle is very common. N^iot (These de Paris, 1901) cites eleven instances of dermoid cysts with twisted pedicle, mistaken for appendicitis ; and in two out of five cases of torsion observed by Fowler, the patient had been sent to the hospital with a diagnosis of appendicitis. Acute torsion is most apt to occur in cysts of medium size, which have not previously produced any swelling, the subjective symptoms being absent or very insignificant, and this makes the diagnosis difficult. The sudden onset of severe pain, often accompanied by nausea and vomiting, may closely simulate acute appendicitis. In the early stages the character of the pain is diffuse and continuous, while in acute appendicitis, before localization in the right iliac fossa,
DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS BETWEEN APPENDICITIS AND PELVIC DISEASE. 591
it is colicky; at a later stage, after peritonitis lias supervened, the pain is very iiiucli the same in both conditions. Sometimes it is possible to distinguish at the outset a well-rounded, elastic ovarian tumor, while in appendicitis a tumor is rarely observed in the early stages, and, if it is, it has not the sharp outline of the cyst. Fluctuation is sometimes suggested as a guide in the diagnosis of some kinds of dermoids and multilocular cysts, but it is an indefinite sign, and not to be depended upon. Palpation, which may be serviceable in outlining the tumor, is unsatisfactory in many cases on account of the rigidity of the abdominal walls. In the case of a cyst, the tumor is sometimes readily palpable after the early acute reaction subsides; whereas, in appendicitis not complicated with diffuse peritonitis, the abdomen, with the exception of the region of the appendix, becomes soft and natural. When peritonitis complicates the situation, a differential diagnosis is impossible, but in general it may be noted that the peritonitis accompanying ovarian cysts is of a milder type, and is not associated with the severe constitutional symptoms observed in peritonitis originating from appendicitis ; moreover, the abdominal tenderness is usually pronounced. Examination by the vagina and the rectum may afford valuable information regarding the nature of the trouble, and it may be possible in this way not only to outline the cyst, but also to recognize the twisted pedicle, which is felt extending from the side of the uterus up to the abdominal mass.
Several instances have been reported of a mistake in diagnosis between appendicitis and ovarian disease in the child. In one of these, reported by Porter (1892), the little girl, who was eleven years old, had shown no signs of approaching puberty. She had had four attacks of pain in the right iliac fossa, one of which disappeared suddenly under the influence of a warm rectal enema, and the others spontaneously. When she came under observation during the fourth attack, there was a slight elevation of temperature with pain and exquisite tenderness in the right iliac fossa, and a sensitive tumor just above Poupart's ligament. The tenderness and the tumor both seemed to be rather too far down for the appendix, and a diagnosis of appendicitis was made with som.e hesitation, disease of the uterine adnexa having been considered and rejected. Operation showed a right ovarian cyst the size of a small egg, its pedicle twisted by three complete turns and showing signs of beginning gangrene.
Ruptured Tubal Pregnancy. — A diagnosis between appendicitis and ruptured tubal pregnancy is seldom difficult, if an accurate history of the events leading to the attack can be obtained, as well as a clear description of its onset. The history of irregular menstruation, especially the statement that a period has been delayed for a week or more with a subsequent slight irregular flow, is strongly suggestive of a tubal pregnancy. The onset of an attack with sudden agonizing pain followed almost immediately by fainting and marked pallor, is pathognomonic. Chills, vomiting, and involuntary evacuation of the bowels may occur at the outset of either a ruptured tubal pregnancy or an acute perforative appendicitis. Tenderness and muscle spasm over the right iliac fossa
ma J be observed in a right tubal preguancy ; usually, liowever, the local signs are situated deeper in the pelvis; in bimanual examination the enlarged tube can generally be palpated. Finally, it may be said that the most important point in arriving at a correct diagnosis is the recognition of the fact that confusion may arise.
It is now generally acknowledged that chronic inflammation of the appendix is often associated with painful menstruation. Ochsner, writing on appendicitis as a cause of inflammatory disease of the uterine adnexa {Jour. Amer. Med. Assoc, 1899, vol 33, p. 192), makes a passing allusion to dysmenorrheas arising from the association of appendicitis with disease of the ovaries or tubes on the right side, and remarks that whenever the pain in dysmenorrhea is entirely on the right side, especially if it is situated high up, it is well to suspect that the disturbance of the appendix is complicated with disturbance of the ovaries.
In the next year A. MacLaren published an interesting paper on the relationship between dysmenorrhea and chronic appendicitis, in which he emphasizes the fact that in chronic appendicitis, menstruation is often painful without any disease of the uterus or adnexa (Amer. Gyn. and Obst. Jour., 1900, vol. 17, p. 14). He calls attention, most appropriately, to a class of cases familiar to every physician of experience, in which a young girl, who has menstruated for several years without any disturbance or suffering whatever, suddenly takes cold or has some slight inflammatory symptoms, after which she begins to suffer with the menstrual period, the pain increasing each time until her nervous system is more or less shattered. These cases are usually considered to be neurasthenic, and there is no doubt that many of them, possibly the majority of them, are so ; but, in MacLaren's opinion, there is a certain proportion in which the menstrual pain is really due to a chronic inflanunation of the appendix, which undergoes a slight exacerbation at each jDeriod, on account of the congestion normally accompanying every menstruation. In some cases the chronic appendicitis exists before menstruation begins, and then dysmenorrhea is present all through menstrual life, until the appendicitis is discovered and relieved.
Other contributions to this subject have been made from time to time, but the total amount of information concerning it is small. There is an excellent discussion of the subject, however, by Soupault and Jouaust in a paper called " Appendicite larvee et des troubles menstruels " (Bull, et mem. de la Soc. med. des hop. de Paris, 1903, vol. 20, p. 1307). The writers begin by commenting on the fact that although medical literature is richly supplied on other points connected with the appendix, it contains scarcely anything on its relation to dysmenorrhea. Soupault had himself observed a number of cases of menstrual pain associated with appendicitis, and believed that they presented certain characteristics which should aid in the diagnosis.
APPENDICITIS AND DTSMENOERHEA. 593
In dysmenorrhea associated with appendicitis, according to him, the suffering begins several days before the flow is due and reaches its maximum just as it begins. Sometimes the pain disappears suddenly, as if by magic, as soon as the flow is established ; in other cases it lasts through menstruation, diminishing gradually. It is exceptional for the attacks of pain to occur at each menstrual period; they usually accompany menstruation at more or less distant intervals, without any definite explanation of their appearance on any particular occasion. The intensity of the suffering varies in different attacks in the same person, being sometimes so slight as to be barely perceptible, while at other times it is so severe as to be unmistakable. Occasionally, though rarely, there are symptoms of appendicitis during the intermenstrual periods, and when this is the case the diagnosis is greatly facilitated. Gastro-intestinal symptoms, especially entero-colitis, are often present as well and contribute greatly to an understanding of the case.
Certain other signs and symptoms observable during the attack are, in Soupault's opinion, strongly suggestive, if not absolutely diagnostic. The most constant of these is spontaneous pain situated low down in the right iliac fossa and limited strictly to the right side. It is rarely lancinating in character, but resembles colic, and is accompanied by a sensation of discomfort and of pressure in that locality. The pain is generally intermittent and transient; it yields readily to mild therapeutic measures and usually disappears on the appearance of menstruation. There is tenderness on pressure over the right iliac region, but not by any means always over McBurney's point; it is often near the umbilicus or it may be in the groin, in which case it is liable to be attributed to the right ovary. It is noticeable that the tenderness disappears as soon as the attack is over, and the right iliac fossa becomes soft and painless during the intermenstrual period. The abdominal pain is almost always accompanied by some digestive disturbance which lasts only a short time. There may be nausea and vomiting, at first of food, and afterwards of bile. The presence of diarrhea and vomiting, either separately or together, is of great diagnostic importance.
The constitutional symptoms are not well marked. There may be a little headache, pain in the limbs, and shivering, but these all disappear spontaneously. The point of great importance in these cases is the temperature. When taken in the axilla it is often quite normal, when, if taken in the rectum at the same time, there will be some elevation, 37.5° to 39° 0. (99.5° to 102° F.). The pulse shows a corresponding acceleration, being usually about 100. These modifications of pulse and temperature are constant, and it is upon them that the diagnosis chiefly rests.
According to Soupault the association between menstrual pain and appendicitis may be explained, in some cases, by the fact that there are adhesions between the appendix and the adnexa on the right side, in which blood vessels and lymphatics develop, and these become easily congested under the influence
of menstruation. In other cases, where no adhesions arc present and the appendix lies free in the abdominal cavity, it is easy, he thinks, to explain the congestion by means of vaso-motor disturbances affecting an organ in a state of lowered resistance.
Soupanlt cites seven cases of dysmenorrhea associated with appendicitis out of the number observed by him, and I give one of them which affords a good illustration of the chief diagnostic points.
Case VII. — Miss E., nineteen years old, seamstress, of a robust appearance. She had always had good health and had menstruated regularly and without suffering until a year before, when she had an attack of abdominal pain limited to the right side and accompanied by vomiting of a greenish character. The attack occurred two days before menstruation and lasted forty -eight hours, subsiding as soon as the menstrual flow appeared. She remained in bed during the menstrual period, and then got up, feeling perfectly well. During the ensuing year she had three siiuilar attacks and was also troubled with a certain amount of entero-colitis, with mucous stools. At the end of nearly a year she had a fourth attack, when she was seen by Soupault. Her temperature was then 39° C. (102° F.) ; there were nausea, bilious vomiting, diarrhea, and pain on pressure in a circumscribed location in the abdomen, low down and near the groin. These symptoms had been present for two days when she was seen. As soon as menstruation appeared, they all began to subside and disappeared gradually as menstruation proceeded. A diagnosis of chronic appendicitis was made and laparotomy performed two weeks later, when the appendix was found to be much enlarged and surrounded by adhesions. At its lower end there was a cavity containing a suiall quantity of malodorous pus. The patient had no further trouble with menstruation and the entero-colitis also disappeared.
In many cases of dysmenorrhea, where the pain is entirely on the right side, it is well to suspect appendicitis, especially if the patient has teen free from pain in the early years of menstrual life. If, on careful observation of the attacks, the diagTiostic points given by Soupault can be established, namely, the disappearance of pain on the establishment of menstruation, or at any rate at its close, the presence of diarrhea and other digestive symptoms, and, especially, the elevation of temperature when taken in the rectum, it is tolerably safe to conclude that the case is one of chronic appendicitis in which the dysmenorrhea is merely a manifestation.
Tlje only class of cases in which the diagnostic peculiarities do not hold good, in Soupault's oj^inion, is that in which it is necessary to differentiate between an inflamed appendix and a lesion of the right tube and ovary giving rise to pain in menstruation. The symptoms just discussed may be foimd in such cases as well as in those where the appendix alone is at fault, and the physician must depend upon the history of the individual case for his differential diagTiosis, making special inquiry as to the possible infection of the genitalia, the presence of menstrual irregularities, and
APPENDICITIS IN THE .CHILD. 595
of muoo-purulent vaginal discliarges. One point of importance is the fact that a lesion of the uterine adnexa rarely remains quiescent between the menstrual periods, while in the class of cases under discussion it is unusual to find any expression of the trouble except at menstruation. In either instance such cases belong to the surgeon.
Finally, I would call attention to the fact that dysmenorrhea is sometimes the direct result of acute appendicitis. An inflammation of the appendix, which subsides without operation, will occasionally be followed by dysmenorrhea, when the patient has previously been free from menstrual suffering altogether; and whenever this is the case, the presence of a chronic appendicitis should be suspected.
The treatment of dysmenorrhea associated with appendicitis does not differ from that of dysmenorrhea from other causes. The prominence of the digestive symptoms will probably call for remedial measures. For the vomiting I know nothing better than the prescriptions given already for use in chlorosis (see p. 158) ; while for the diarrhea the best remedy is the combination of bismuth and paregoric.
hours, until pain subsides.
The question of operative treatment belongs, of course, to the surgeon, to whom the case should be referred without loss of time. It would seem that this is a class of cases which, as Soupault suggests, is peculiarly suited to interval operation (operation a froid) during the intermenstrual periods.
peculiarities of appendicitis in the child.
There is an undoubted etiologic relation between intestinal worms and certain forms of appendicitis in children. Ascaris is the variety most frequently found, trichocephalus next, and then oxyuris. The frequency with which trauma figures in the causation of appendicitis is now an accepted fact, and it is plain, of course, that with children, whose activity exposes them especially to its influence, trauma must especially be often a causal factor.
The diagnosis of appendicitis in children is frequently obscure. There is sometimes a prodromic stage, in which there is more or less of gastrointestinal disorder without any signs distinctly suggestive of appendicitis. In children there are apt also to be misleading symptoms associated with the thoracic viscera, and often the first indication of appendicitis in a child is a pneumonia, a pleurisy, or even a bronchitis. The examina-
an examination of the chest.
Another notevorthv point in the early diagnosis of appendicitis in children is that the earlv stage of it is apt to be associated in them with disturbances of motion. A few cases have been reported in which the first symptom observed was a difficulty in walking. Dr. R. D. Freeman, of South Orange, IST. J., reported to me a case in which he was calling upon another member of the family, when he happened to notice a little girl, eleven years old, who was limping as she played tennis in the yard close by and standing in a position suggestive of hip disease. On inquiry it was found that she had complained for a few days of indefinite pain in the lower abdomen, and on calling her into the house and making an examination a tender fluctuating mass was found in the right iliac fossa. The right leg was flexed and abducted, there were muscular rigidity over the lower abdomen and considerable pain on pressure over and around the mass. The rectal temperature was 103° F., and the pulse 90. She had had no considerable pain at any time and no chill. At the operation, performed at midnight of the same day, a large abscess surrounding the appendix was evacuated and the remains of a sloughing appendix removed.
V. P. Gibney (Amer. Jour. Med. Sci., 1881, vol. 81, p. 119) has reported cases of appendicitis mistaken for hip disease, and several striking cases of this kind have come under the observation of Drs. W. S. Baer and J. M. T. Finney of Baltimore.
An examination by the rectum should never be neglected in appendicitis in the child, since the index finger reaches higher in the infantile pelvis than in that of the adult, and thus the suspected area is more easily touched. It has been shown that in almost every case where the disease has extended beyond the appendix the extension has taken place along the right pelvic wall, where the inflammatory mass can readily be felt. In making his abdominal examination, the surgeon should always bear in mind that the adhesions in a child are extremely delicate, and more than ordinary care must be exercised in order to avoid rupturing them. A case has been known in which the adhesions around a localized abscess were ruptured during sleep, and another in which rupture took place during an effort at stool.
Whenever an attack of appendicitis in the child is suspected, the patient should be kept in bed and an ice-bag placed over the abdomen. The diet should be liquid, and sufficient opium prescribed to keep the bowels at rest. It is of the utmost importance in these early stages to avoid active treatment, such as purgatives and enemata, which are calculated to do much harm. A specialist should always be called, if possible, as soon as any suspicion of appendicitis is entertained. Should an operation be performed, the child is often very restless after its performance, and to keep it quiet becomes a difficult matter. Under these circumstances a Bradford frame affords an excellent means of assuring relative immobility for the first few days, while the infected area is being walled off from the general cavity of the peritoneum.
SpLAJsrcHJsroPTOSis, from the Greek words signifying descent of the viscera, has been much studied during the past few years. The original term enteroptosis should be used according to its etymology to signify descent of the intestines, although it is used by most people as a synonym for splanchnoptosis, that is, to mean descent of all the abdominal viscera. In designating the special form of descensus we use special terms, thus: gastroptosis, of the stomach ; hepatoptosis, of the liver ; nephroptosis, of the kidneys ; splenoptosis, of the spleen, and coloptosis, of the colon. In Figure 158 I have given an illustration of the various visceral ptoses based in part on a series of splendid studies made by Clark and Pancoast of Philadelphia.
To the anatomists and pathologists we owe the first recognition of the disease, Morgagiii being the first to describe the condition anatomically, while Virchow, in 1853, called attention to displacement of the intestines, ascribing the condition to partial peritonitis, and regarding its mechanical effects as the starting point of a number of cases of dyspepsia and indigestion. Among the older clinicians, Aberle, Payer, Rollet, and Oppolzer referred to the relation between hysteria and floating kidney, and Kussmaul called attention to the symptoms due to change in form and position of the stomach.
It was Glenard, however, the distinguished physician of Lyons, whose work at the adjacent health resort of Vichy brought him in contact with many cases of digestive disturbance, who first aroused general interest in this condition. The disease is therefore often spoken of as Glenard's disease. Glenard believed that in enteroptosis he had found the anatomic basis for one type of, so-called, nervous dyspepsia.
Anatomy. — To go into the anatomy of the abdominal viscera is not within the scope of the present work. Suffice it to say that they are held in position by a number of different forces: by the negative pressure of the thoracic cavity acting through the diaphragm; by vascular, peritoneal
muscles.
Fig. 158. — Composite PicxrRE from over 100 Skiagraphs in Possession of Dr. H. K. Paxcoast, OF Philadelphia, showing Displacement Doavnward of all the Abdominal Organs as the Result of Constriction of the Lower Thorax. The liver shows Riedel's lobe ; the stomach has descended into the pelvis, carrj^ing the transverse colon with it. Note the hour-glass contraction of the fundus of the stomach. The right kidney has descended moderately. (From forthcoming " Surgery of the Kidney," by H. A. Kelly.)
Xormally, however, no organ is absolutely fixed, each being capable of slight movements due to various physical factors, such ns the position of the patient, the amount of food ingested, the passage of urine and feces, and the respiratory and circulatory movements.
ETIOLOGY AND SYMPTOMS. 599
In advanced cases of splanchnoptosis the position of the viscera very closely resembles that seen in embryonic life, and this is regarded by some persons as an argument in favor of the congenital origin of the condition.
Etiology. — As regards the pathogenesis of splanchnoptosis very divergent views are held, some authorities maintaining that the condition is congenital, others that it is acquired, while others again hold a middle ground. Glenard believes that the first step in the condition is a falling of the right colic flexure, due to a weakening of thethepato-colic ligament; it may follow pregnancies, strains, injuries, abdominal operations, wasting diseases, appendicitis, etc., but it is primarily due to a constitutional defect affecting the strength and supporting powers of the mesenteric tissues. Stiller believes that there is a characteristic sign of the condition in the floating tenth rib, while Mathes states well the congenital theory, when he says " splanchnoptosis is a constitutional hereditary anomaly of the entire organism, a lack of vital energy in all the vital tissues."
Many persons believe that the condition is acquired, not based on a congenital defect, and as special causes of the condition they mention the wearing of tight belts and corsets, pregnancy and parturition, wasting diseases, the removal of abdominal tumors or of ascitic fluid — in fact, any condition which tends to increase the pressure above the abdominal organs, decrease the pressure below them, or diminish the size or the expansile power of the lower thoracic zone. According to Keith, who has done much work on this subject, splanchnoptosis is the result of a vitiated method of respiration, and should be assigned to a place among the respiratory diseases ; he believes that the contraction of the diaphragm, especially the crura, is the most important agent in producing the displacement, although before this descensus takes place, either the thoracic supports of the diaphragm must have yielded, or the antagonistic abdominal muscles been hampered or weakened, as, for example, by tight corsets. A study of a large number of cases has convinced me that, although the condition may be acquired in a number of cases, in the majority, the underlying cause is a definite congenital defect, and that this latent predisposition is fanned into the actual disease by some malady of an exhausting nature, such as conditions associated with loss of weight, especially if rapid ; conditions which produce sudden changes in the intra-abdominal pressure ; lack of proper nourishment; and increased pressure in the lower thoracic zone, as by tight lacing.
Symptoms. — The symptoms of splanchnoptosis are extremely varied. On the one hand, there may be no symptoms whatsoever, while on the other, the symptom-complex may be more protean and complex than in almost any other condition. Certain symptoms are especially referable to the ptosis of the special viscera, while other symptoms are dependent upon the degree of involvement of the nervous system. As to the relation between neurasthenia and splanchnoptosis there is a wide divergence of opinion, some holding that the neurasthenia is essential, the splanchnoptosis
incidental, others the reverse view, while still a third group believes, and I think rightly, that in most cases each condition represents a congenital fragility of tissue, independent, primarily, of the other, hut reacting very deleteriously upon it, moreover the two are frequently associated. The picture usually presented is that of a thin, pale, young man or woman with a deficient amount of fat, a nervous and worried expression, a long thorax constricted in its lower half, and thin, soft abdominal walls, who complains of many dyspeptic and nervous symptoms and sometimes of pain in various portions of the abdomen as well. The patient often complains of a feeling of lack of abdominal support, and sometimes of a loose body in the abdominal cavity. Glenard himself divides the symptoms into three special groups — lack of tone of the abdominal walls, descent of the various abdominal viscera, and a stenotic condition of the large intestines. Others have paid especial attention to the respiratory and circulatory symptoms, dyspnoea, asthmatic attacks, etc.
As to symptoms referable to a special organ it must be remembered that in many cases they are due to the displacement of several viscera, not of one, but the author sometimes loses sight of other ptoses, and ascribes all the symptoms to the descensus of the organ he is especially studying. This is peculiarly the case in displaced kidney, for many of the symptoms ascribed to this condition are in reality due to descensus of the stomach or of the intestines ; while our gynecological brethren should remember that, in many cases, retroflexion or retroversion of the uterus is but a part of a general splanchnoptosis, the vast majority of the symptoms ascribed to the displaced uterus being in reality due to the displacement of other organs. Under these conditions, the expectation of relief from all symptoms by suspending the kidney or the uterus is absolutely without foundation, and is based on a complete misconception of the facts.
Symptoms especially associated with the stomach are the splashing sound, which is often heard, and others referable either to the associated atony of the stomach wall, or to the dilatation, which so frequently accompanies gastroptosis, and the associated anomalies of gastric secretion. In cases of displacement of the stomach, especially of the vertical and subvertical type, gastrectasy is very likely to occur with its characteristic symptom-complex, particularly if the patient indulges in frequent indiscretions of diet, while in gastroptosis subacidity is the rule, the degi-ee of diminution of the free hydrochloric acid depending upon the extent of the associated dilatation.
Of symptoms especially referable to movable kidney alone may be mentioned Dietl's crises, intermittent hydronephrosis, hepatic colic, due to pressure on the duct, pain either dull and constant, or intermittent, and the feeling of a floating body in the abdomen, due probably to congestion of the kidney, while recently many persons have called attention to the frequent association which seems to exist between right floating kidney and chronic appendicitis.
As regards the liver, hepatalgia, hepatic colic, gall-stone attacks, asthma, and the sensation of a floating body have been ascribed to this organ's displacement.
A movable spleen often gives rise to sensations of dragging and pain and the patient is almost always conscious that a body of some kind is moving about in the abdominal cavity. The symptoms, in fact, are exactly similar to those of a displaced kidney. In my own cases this movability of the spleen has not been associated with a general splanchnoptosis.
plex should at once attract our I attention. In diagnosing gas- r\ troptosis the best methods are ' \ 1 percussion, combined as a rule I I \ with inflation of the organ \ / \ by means of carbon dioxide gas | / "^"^-^-^ or through a stomach tube (see I ^^ , i Fig. 159), or, more accurately / t X ) ^.--— •"""^'"^ still, by the use of the X-rays / vll^" 'W after making the patient swallow I I <* a bismuth emulsion. In case of ^ ^ | '^ • nephroptosis we use palpa- , . / ;-x i f tion, examining the patient in -• V | j'j both the prone and the upright '^x. • \,, "^--X^-^Jt..---^ . position, and I have shown \^ ^ — ;— -^ / ^-AjJ ' j (Amer. Jour. Obst., 1899, voL I v ^ i 40, p. 328) that a characteristic ^— - -'
by injecting fluid into the renal
pelvis through a urethral catheter; in the case of the liver we make use of palpation, percussion and inspection, always being careful to do so with the patient in both the prone and the upright positions, also determining, as in the case of the kidney, whether the organ can be replaced in its normal position by manipulation; in the case of the spleen we palpate with the patient standing and the patient lying down, while in the case of the intestines inspection of the peristaltic movements, palpation of the stenosed portions of the intestine, inflation through a rectal tube, or X-ray photography after the injection of bismuth emulsion gives us the diagnosis.
the sjmjDtoms are much relieved if the physician stands behind the patient and lifts up the loAver abdomen with his hands, while in most cases the symptoms are markedly ameliorated by the assumption of the prone position. The characteristic body form has been studied mathematically by Harris and others, who have given a formula expressed in terms of various body diameters, which will tell whether splanchnoptosis is likely to be met with.
Frequency. — The condition is extremely common, as shown by the fact that Glenard finds it in one out of every five women who come to Vichy, and in one out of every forty men, while Einhorn finds the condition in six per cent of males, and thirty-five per cent of females ; of course, it must be remembered that most of the patients who consult these physicians are suffering with digestive disorders, and the percentage is consequently considerably higher than that which would be obtained in a general clinic, although Thorndike has recently found the condition a hundred and twelve times in two hundred and seventytwo general patients in Boston. As regards pregnancy a series of several hundred cases shows that about fifty per cent had borne children, about fifty per cent had not ; as regards involvement of the two kidneys, of seven hundred and twenty-seven cases of renal displacement, the right alone was involved five hundred and fifty-three times, the left alone eighty-one times, and both ninetythree times.
Treatment. — The most practical and the most important division of the subject is that devoted to the prevention and treatment of the condition. In discussing the prophylaxis of splanchnoptosis we should keep in mind that the majority of such patients have a congenital tendency, which brings about marked displacement of the various viscera, however, only after they have been exposed to various secondary influences. For this reason it is extremely important that persons with the characteristic body form, especially children, should be guarded with great care ; they should be made to rest at certain times, especially after meals ; everything should be done to increase their bod}^ weight ; carefully selected exercises should be employed to strengthen their abdominal muscles, and massage should be given. They should be taught breathing and standing exercises so that their lower thoracic zone may be strengthened as regards its muscles, and increased as regards its volume. Careful attention should be paid to everyone during and after acute and chronic diseases, especially if associated with much loss of weight, after the removal of abdominal tumors or ascitic fluid; and after childbirth. In these last three conditions it is absolutely essential that an abdominal bandage be worn until normal intra-abdominal pressure relations obtain again. We should especially insist upon the danger from wearing tight belts and tight corsets, especially those where the pressure is applied in the hypochondriac and upper abdominal regions.
As to the treatment proper of splanchnoptosis it may be divided into three groups: (1) Treatment by medicine, diet, and general hygienic measures, including rest, exercise and massage ; (2) treat-
ment by bandages, pads, plasters, belts and supports of various kinds; (3) operative treatment. In regard to treatment it seems to me that splanchnoptosis in the majority of cases should be treated by medical, hygienic and mechanical means, while operative treatment should only be used where the symptoms are definitely referable to the displacement of an especial organ, or where, although the symptoms cannot be definitely referred to any special organ, all other means of treatment have proven failures.
Treatment by medicine, diet and general hygienic measures is of extreme importance in splanchnoptosis. As to the diet this depends largely upon the condition of the stomach, and whether or not atony and dilatation are present. Usually a simple mixed dietary is advisable, with rather small meals and often extra food in the shape of raw eggs and milk between meals ; fluids had best be taken in very small amounts while eating ; in some cases a dry-meat and stale-bread diet is advisable, while in a number of instances where the nervous symptoms were well-marked, I have obtained excellent results by treating the patient as in neurasthenia with systematic over-feeding begun by rest and an absolute milk diet.
As regards medicines these are but little indicated; iron and arsenic for the anemia, strychnin as a general nerve tonic, alkalies to lessen the gastro-intestinal fermentation, hydrochloric acid if the stomach shows deficiency in this, are indicated in this condition ; while for the constipation aloes, cascara or the salines may be' used, if successful results are not obtained by the use of enemata, especially those of oil, or by massage, electricity, hydrotherapy, and exercise. Lavage is indicated in case of gastrectasy.
Rest is extremely important, especially in those eases deficient in weight; this is peculiarly advisable after meals. In some cases a systematic rest cure has produced wonderful results in my experience. Massage both general and abdominal, systematic exercises, especially those designed to develop the abdominal and thoracic muscles, hydrotherapy and electricity, are all of value.
Treatment by bandages, pads, plasters, belts and supports of various kinds should always be tried in splanchnoptosis; the object of these is, of course, twofold: to increase the intra-abdominal pressure, and to decrease the size of the lower half of the abdominal cavity. They should always be applied with the j)atient on the back with the hips elevated, so that the organs will have fallen back into approximately their normal positions, and the direction of the pressure should always be from below upwards and backwards. Among various abdominal bandages may be mentioned the elastic bandage of Glenard, Longstreth's belt, Gallant's special corset, and Rose's method of bandaging with adhesive plaster. Some authors advise the use of pads, especially for supporting the liver, the kidney, and the stomach, but in my experience these have not proven satisfactory.
604 SPLANCHNOPTOSIS ENTEROPTOSIS GLENAED S DISEASE.
Operative treatment, as we have said before, sliould only be used in those cases where the symptoms are definitely referable to the displacement of an especial organ, as, for example, Dietl's crises in nephroptosis, or in those cases where medical, hygienic and mechanical means have been tried without success. As to the objects of the operation, they are in the main to fix the organ in approximately the normal position, and at the same time to allow a slight degree of mobility.
In the case of the kidney the old forms of nephropexy have been abandoned, such as suture through the perirenal fat, through fat and capsule, through a capsule which has been previously split and partially dissected, through the kidney substance, and packing the kidney so that strong adhesions may form. I call attention especially to the value of the Brodel stitch in nephropexy, as its holding power is from two and a half to three times that of the ordinary stitch.
In the case of the stomach various operations have been devised, such as fixation of the stomach to the anterior abdominal wall, fixation to the diaphragm, lifting the colon by fixing both its flexures to the abdominal wall, various procedures to shorten the stomach ligaments, and Coffey's operation of slinging the stomach in a hammock made of omentum; of these Beyea's gastropexy has probably given the best results.
pain, swelling, and possible gangTene occurs, splenectomy should be done.
In the case of the intestines numerous operations have been done recently : sigmoidopexy or even resection of the sigmoid ; in some cases resection and anastomosis of the colon, and in some cases resection of the abdominal wall where there is a marked diastasis of the recti muscles.
MOVABLE KIDNEY.
Anatomy. — It will probably be wisest at the very outset to recall briefly those anatomical conditions abont the kidney which are indispensable to a thorongh understanding of the anatomy and the anatomical relations of the kidney in nephroptosis or movable kidney.
The kidneys are bean-shaped organs weighing about four ounces in the female and a little more in the male, and placed retroperitoneally in the loin on each side of the spinal column. Each kidney, measured roughly, is four inches long, two and a half inches broad, and one and a quarter inches thick, and possesses an anterior and a posterior surface, an outer and an inner border, and an upper and a lower convex extremity.
The direction of the kidneys is not exactly vertical, but rather downward and slightly outward, with their anterior surfaces looking forward and outward, while their posterior surfaces look backward and inward. The outer border is convex, while the inner border is concave and forms the hilum where the vessels and ureter join the kidney. The upper end of each kidney lies in the hypochondriac and epigastric regions, and the lower pole projects into the adjacent portions of the umbilical and lumbar regions. They extend from about the level of the eleventh dorsal to the second or third lumbar vertebra, and are thus within about two inches of the iliac crest. The right kidney is placed a little lower than the left, possibly on account of the position of the liver.
The kidney possesses several coverings or capsules of different structure and consistency, all of which probably play an important part in maintaining the organ in its proper position. Snugly encasing the kidney parenchyma is its own true capsule, a thin, smooth membrane composed mostly of fibrous and elastic tissue. ^Normally this capsule is not firmly united to the kidney proper, and unless there has been previous inflammation, it can be easily stripped ofl^. The kidney with its fibrous capsule is next surrounded by a layer of fat, the fatty capsule or "tunica adiposa." This fatty capsule is permeated by fine elastic fibres and cellular tissues, which unite it to the adjacent inner and outer coverings. The union between the fibrous and the fatty capsules is, however, very delicate and they can be easily separated unless there has been some previous pathological change. The amount of fat varies in different locations, being more abundant posteriorly upon the convex border, at the hilum, and just below the lower pole, while anteriorly there is comparatively little. The perinephritic adipose layer is not marked before the tenth or twelfth year of life. The tunica adiposa has a peculiar " canary-yellow " color, which is easily distinguished from contiguous subperitoneal fat and acts as a valuable landmark in renal surgery.
capsule, tlic tunica adiposa, and we now come to the last structure, which is of especial interest in its relation to movable kidney; that is, the perinephritic fascia, sometimes called Gerota's capsule. This is a firm, fibrous covering, composed of an anterior and a posterior layer, which meet above and to the outer side of the perirenal fat, but do not fuse below or anteriorly. Thus in a kidney of abnormal mobility the path of least resistance is downward and inward.
of their anterior surface coming in contact with the peritoneum.
Amount of Normal and Abnormal Mobility. — Some writers attempt to classify movable kidney according as it has or has not a mesentery, but any classification I make here will be based entirely upon clinical and not upon anatomical findings. Each kidney moves to some extent with respiration, descending during inspiration and ascending during expiration. This movement usually occurs within the fatty capsule, though in some cases the fatty capsule itself moves to a slight extent within the perinephritic fascia, or movement may occur in both at the same time. What, then, should we consider a normal and what an abnormal mobility? Upon this point there is a wide variance of opinion among writers, but all agree that any kidney whose range of mobility is less than one and a half inches should not be considered abnormally movable. It is also generally held, and probably correctly so, that the normal movement is slightly more in women than in men. An explanation for this is given in the different shapes of the renal fossae in the two sexes.
The terms used to designate the degrees of abnormal mobility are various and often confusing. I prefer to stick to the three simple terms, palpable, movable, and floating (see Fig. 160). By palpable we mean those cases where less than half of the kidney can be felt on deep inspiration. Movable includes those eases where half, two-thirds, or even all of the kidney can be felt, but where it cannot be displaced to any other portion of the abdomen. Floating includes those cases in which the kidney can be grasped and brought up to the abdominal wall or carried to some other portion of the abdomen.
Although this classification is entirely clinical, it furnishes a good working basis. For instance, if a patient comes with abdominal symptoms resembling those which we should naturally expect to find with a freely movable kidney, and upon examination the kidney is found to be simply palpable, the chances are that it is not the cause of the symptoms. Whereas, if the kidney is found movable or floating, the physician must seek diligently to find some connection between the abnormal renal mobility and the symptoms of which the patient complains.
Etiology. — Upon no other phase of movable kidney is there so much difference of opinion or lack of any absolute proof as upon its etiology. If half a dozen prominent physicians were asked to-day what they considered to be the
probably all give different answers.
Glenard maintained that movable kidney was not a clinical entity at all, but simply part of the general condition of enteroptosis, and he is credited with the statement that " enteroptosis can be present without nephroptosis, but
Fig. 160. — Showing Three Degrees of Displacement of the Kidney. In the first degree (palpable) the lower pole is only just perceptible to the touch. In the second degree (movable) the upper pole just emerges from under the costal margin. In the third degree (floating) the entire kidney can be palpated.
never nephroptosis without enteroptosis," a statement which clinical observations do not confirm, for unquestionably there are cases of movable or even floating kidney in which no displacement of other organs can be discovered.
Becker and Lennhoff were the first to definitely emphasize the great importance of body-shape as an etiological factor in nephroptosis. These writers maintained that the vast majority of persons having a movable kidney had also a peculiar form of chest and abdomen which was somewhat coneshaped in appearance, with the apex pointing downward; while those cases in which there was no nephroptosis presented rather a cylindrical appearance. To be more accurate, they measured the distance from the suprasternal notch
to the tojD of the sjTnphysis pubis with the patient flat on her back, and divided this distance by the smallest circumference of the abdomen, and to avoid fractions, multiplied the result by one hundred. The index thus obtained usually varied betveen sixty-five and ninety-five, and in practically every case in which there was marked nephroptosis, the index was high, that is, above seventy-five.
Becker and Lennhoff also examined many South Sea Islanders, with whom the customs of civilization, as clothing, tight lacing, etc., could be eliminated, and found that movable kidney was just about as frequent as in civilized races.
Deletzine and Volkoff ascribe the more frequent occurrence of movable kidney in women than in men to the difference in the renal fossae of the two sexes. They showed that in men the fossee in which the kidneys lie are fairly deep and wider above than below, that is, funnel-shaped ; while in women they are more cylindrical and wider below, especially on the right side.
Pregnancy has been given the most conspicuous place as an etiological factor by some persons, and its advocates maintain that it acts by the contraction of the diaphragm during labor; the lessening of the intra-abdominal pressure after the expulsion of the uterine contents ; and finally, the loss of tone of the abdominal muscles with a resultant flaccid and pendulous condition which also tends to lessen the intra-abdominal pressure and thus favor a prolapse of the kidney.
Gynecological conditions, such as malpositions of the uterus and pelvic timiors, may possibly by their traction upon the ureters have a slight tendency to displace the kidneys. Trauma, either single or repeated; certain occupations requiring heavy lifting; and also prolonged constipation necessitating severe straining, may in some instances assist in displacing the kidneys.
Harris {Jour. Amer. Med. Assoc, June 1, 1901) probably came nearer the truth than any other writer when he said : " The fallacy of supposing that pregnancy, lacerations of the perineum, displacements of the uterus, etc., are instrumental in causing movable kidneys, is unanswerably shown by the fact that over forty per cent of the cases of movable kidneys were found in unmarried women, in women who have thus never been pregnant, who have intact perineal floors, and whose uteri are in normal position. That these factors may, and perhaps at times do, aggTavate the condition caused by other influences is admitted."
influences working together.
Frequency. — It is a well known fact that movable kidney is much more frequent in women than in men. Statistics vary gi-eatly as to the relative frequency in the two sexes, but it is probably ten times more common in women. The disposition of the pelvic organs in women, together with the effects of labor, are probably of some etiological importance, but it will most likely be
Observers vary greatly in their opinions as to the relative frequency of movable kidney in women, due in part to the fact that each has a separate standard by which he decides whether a kidney is abnormally movable. From statistics taken upon white women in the Gynecological Dispensary of the Johns Hopkins Hospital, I feel safe in saying that at least twenty per cent have a movable kidney. In most of the cases it is the right kidney which is in descensus, while in a small per cent the nephroptosis is bilateral, and in a still smaller per cent the left kidney alone is movable.
on record, but it is rare compared to its frequency in adults.
Palpation of Kidney. — There are numerous methods and positions for palpating a movable kidney, each of which has its advantages and disadvantages, but the necessary prerequisite for a thorough palpation of any kidney is a complete relaxation of the abdominal muscles.
Some surgeons in palpating prefer to use only one hand ; for example, in examining the right kidney they use the left hand, placing the fingers in the loin below the twelfth rib and external to the erector spinse muscles, with the thumb on the abdomen, and attempting to palpate the kidney by bringing fingers and thumb together. I prefer the bimanual palpation, however, which is performed as follows: In palpating for the right kidney the left hand is placed in the loin below the twelfth rib and just outside the erector spinse muscles, and the right hand is placed over the abdomen just below the costal margin external to the rectus muscle. The patient is then instructed to take a fairly deep breath, and during expiration the hands are brought together. As mentioned above, the whole secret lies in securing a thorough relaxation of the abdominal muscles, and to obtain this the position of the patient is most important. This usually gives a good relaxation, there is some tendency for the kidneys to descend by gravity, and either side may be examined without changing the position of the patient. Another excellent position is to have the patient stand, and in order to examine, for instance, the right kidney, have her lean forward and a little to the right, with the right foot placed on some object about six inches high. This will secure good relaxation and give gravity full play. Another method is to place the patient in the left lateral or Sims' position to examine the right kidney, and in the right lateral position to examine the left kidney.
It sometimes happens that a movable kidney can be distinctly felt at one examination, but cannot be made out subsequently, owing to the fact that it has slipped up under the ribs and is temporarily held in that position. Frequently, however, if the patient will walk briskly about or make some exertion, the kidney will fall down into its abnormal position and be easily felt.
In some cases it is helpful to try the bimanual vibratory palpation as described in the Journal of the American Medical Association, June 1, 1907. ■This method is performed as follows : With one hand placed below the lower pole of the kidney, or tumor, as the case may be, the other hand makes light taps over the mass at the rate of about three to five a second, and with an amplitude not exceeding one centimetre. As long as the palpation is made over the mass the vibratory waves are transmitted to the under hand, but just as soon as the outer limits are passed, these impulses can no longer be felt, and thus any object can be more accurately outlined than by the ordinary methods of palpation.
Symptoms. — Probably no other pathological condition in the abdomen presents such varied and often vague symptoms as movable kidney. The symptoms in a great many cases are so far distinct from, and have apparently so little connection with the kidney, that they are frequently attributed to some other organ. A large proportion of the movable and also of the floating kidneys do not cause symptoms, l^early every practitioner of much experience can recall cases in which the kidney had " run wild " and could be displaced to the iliac fossa or even to the opposite side of the abdomen, but which had caused absolutely no discomfort. While on the other hand, a comparatively slight abnormal mobility has caused violent manifestations of pain, nausea, vomiting, etc., which have been completely relieved by proper treatment of the kidney. Whenever, therefore, in the routine examination of our patient we accidentally discover a prolapsed kidney of which the patient is ignorant, and which has given her no trouble, it is best to let well enough alone and avoid interference; it is of great importance that the patient should be kept in blissful ignorance of her condition, for it frequently happens that the very knowledge of the fact that the kidney is out of place will induce a long train of the mental and nervous disorders known as neurasthenia.
Pain. — The cardinal symptom of movable kidney is pain, which, however, varies greatly both in character and intensity in different cases, and even in the same person at different times. The pain commonly associated with movable kidney, however, is a dragging or aching sensation, which may be so mild that the patient is barely conscious of its existence, or, in many cases, is so severe that she cannot keep about at all, and is only partially relieved by lying down. The attacks of intense pain, called " Dietl's crises," are present only in exceptional cases.
Dietl (Wien. med. Wochensch., 1864) considered these "crises" to be the result of a temporary kink or twist of the renal vessels and a consequent strangulation; comparable in character to the strangulation of a hernia. The explanation now generally accepted and advocated especially by Osier is that the paroxysms are due to a kink in the upper part of the ureter, causing a damming back of urine into the pelvis and calicos, and thus a transient hydronephrosis. The artificial reproduction of the exact symptoms of a
described later, certainly seems to substantiate this view.
An attack of sharp pain may excite the first suspicion, either to patient or physician, of an abnormally movable kidney, for although there may have been previously slight aches and pains, they are usually ascribed, without an examination, to a " touch of indigestion," lumbago, or neuralgia, until acute sjnnptoms necessitating a thorough investigation clear up the diagnosis. These paroxysms usually come on rather suddenly, often following severe exercise, jolting, or even an indiscretion in diet. The patient is seized with a sharp agonizing pain in the region of one of the kidneys, accompanied by a feeling of nausea and faintness. The pain is most frequently confined to the region of the kidney, but it sometimes radiates downward along the course of the ureter, or across to the other side of the abdomen, or upward even to the shoulder-blade. If seen within the first hour or so after the onset, a correct diagnosis can usually be made, for on examination the physician discovers slight enlargement of the kidney, which upon palpation causes an accentuation of the symptoms of nausea, faintness, or even partial collapse, from which the patient is already suffering. In the most severe cases, after several hours there may be marked abdominal distention and tenderness, and the patient becomes bathed in a cold sweat, so that the condition could be easily mistaken for one of intestinal perforation or even of peritonitis. Sometimes the symptoms continue severe for several days, but, as a rule, within twenty-four hours the pain and tenderness subside and the patient makes a rapid recovery.
There may be a noticeable decrease in the amount of urine, with albumen, casts, or even blood voided during an acute attack, followed by a compensatory increase of pale urine with low specific gravity during the subsidence of the symptoms.
A marked temporary hydronephrosis, occuring in a Dietl's crisis, affords a typical example of the so-called " phantom-tumor," for on examination a large mass can be outlined in the flank, which a day or so later has completely disappeared.
Between the Dietl's crises the health of the patient is most commonly excellent, except for occasional slight dragging pains and some discomfort, but she is kept in a constant state of anxiety, knowing that the slightest error in exercise or diet may precipitate another attack.
The great danger to be feared in these cases of temporary or intermittent hydronephrosis is that they will become changed into a permanent hydronephrosis or even pyonephrosis.
Gastro-intestinal. — Although gastric symptoms are not common manifestations of movable kidney, yet symptoms referable to the stomach, intestine, appendix, or gall bladder are occasionally seen.
As a rule, the symptoms are mild in character and amount only to slight flatulence, dyspepsia, or constipation, but they may be so severe as to simulate acute gastritis, gastric ulcer, appendicitis, or gall
stones. Moullin (Lancet, Decemlier 10, 190-i) rcijorted an interesting ease in which the symptoms resembled those of gastric ulcer: '' The patient was a married woman, forty-four years of age, who had had nine children, six of whom were living. For the last twenty years she had suffered from pain in the epigastrium, shooting around to the back and shoulders. The pain invariably came on from a quarter to half an hour after meals. Solid food made it worse, vomiting was frequent, and was rather encouraged as it relieved the pain. Scarcely a day passed without at least one attack, and for the past nine months there had been no respite. Twenty-one months ago there had been three attacks of hematemesis, the amount said to have been as much as three quarts, and there was melena at the same time. The abdomen was large and flabby. According to the patient's account she had been getting thinner. The stomach was not dilated nor displaced, the lower border being situated about two inches above the umbilicus. There was a little tenderness on deep pressure to the right of the epigastrium, but no tumor could be felt. Both kidneys were movable, the right one in particular descending so far when the patient strained or coughed that it came quite below the thorax and the hands could be made to meet above it. While in the ward lying in bed waiting for operation, the vomiting, which had been more and more troublesome and which was the immediate cause of her seeking admission, ceased entirely, and the pain after food diminished so materially that it scarcely interfered with her comfort. This led to the conclusion that the mobility of the right kidney was the chief, if not the sole, cause of her symptoms, whether it acted mechanically by dragging upon the duodenum and pylorus, or whether it irritated the splanchnics in some way, leading to persistent congestion of the mucous membrane of the stomach with its attendant consequences, chronic gastritis and hematemesis." In this case the kidney was suspended with complete relief of the severe pain and vomiting.
The ease with which nephroptosis may simulate appendicitis is well shown by a case which was operated upon at the Johns Hopkins Hospital about four years ago (Gyn. 'No. 1097Y). The patient, a colored. woman, age twenty-four, had had neither children nor miscarriages. She had always suffered from dysmenorrhea and irregular menstruation. Until December 18, 1903 (about three weeks before her operation), she had not menstruated for six months, but she had suffered practically no pain. On the above date the menstrual flow began and lasted two to three days, accompanied by pain in the right side of abdomen, which persisted off and on, growing more and more severe and cramplike in character. The attacks of pain were accompanied by nausea, vomiting, and obstinate constipation, and the patient was confined to bed for two to three days during each attack. She said that during the acute symptoms she had no desire to urinate, and frequently did not void her urine for two or three days, and when she did there would be only a small amount which caused some smarting and burning. Owing to the rigid condition of the abdomen, the physical examination was very unsatisfactory, and although the right kidney was found movable, it was not suspected as the seat of the trouble. A diagnosis of ap-
DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS. gl3
pendicitis having been made, a laparotomy was done and a normal appendix removed. As the symptoms continued and the operation did not reveal any cause, the kidney was suspected. Sterile water colored with methylene blue was injected into the right kidney, which reproduced the exact symptoms of which the patient complained, proving conclusively the renal origin.
Biliary. — Attacks of colic in the right side accompanied by nausea and vomiting as well as intense jaundice seem characteristic of gall-stones, but all of these symptoms may be caused by a movable kidney. I recently had such a case in which I made a diagnosis of gall-stones and then did an exploratory laparotomy which disclosed a normal gall-bladder and gall-ducts, but showed the right kidney pressed against the common bileduct. I closed the abdominal incision, put the patient upon a kidney-bag, and suspended the kidney. She recovered promptly from the operation and has now been perfectly well for about two years.
ISTervous. — Although the nervous manifestations of a movable kidney are vague and indefinite, they are none the less real. Headaches and vertigo are common. A bright and cheerful person may become fretful and irritable, and in extreme cases even approach hypochondriasis.
Circulatory. — Venous congestion and edema of the leg have been reported as occurring in association with movable kidney, but it must have been an exceptional case. 1 have never seen one of the kind myself. It is worth noting, however, that Rayer attributed a swelling of the leg which he found at an autopsy to a movable kidney present upon the same side.
Urinary. — Except for the changes in the amount of urine occurring in a Dietl's crisis, the urinary manifestations are not very characteristic. There might be a little albumen or a few casts, but these occur in so many conditions that it is difficult to say whether it is the result of or merely coincident with the nephroptosis. Occasionally, a little blood is seen in the urine by the aid of the microscope, an4 a few years ago Cabot, of Boston, reported a case of severe hematuria with anemia and weakness, resulting from a movable kidney, all of which were relieved by nephropexy. The occurrence of hematuria, however, would indicate that some other change in the kidney was associated with the movability, and we know that bleeding kidneys which are not movable have been cured by nephropexy.
Differential Diagnosis. — The great majority of the cases of movable kidney with or without symptoms can and should be correctly diagnosed by any practicing physician; but on the other hand, there are a certain number of cases which puzzle even the best of clinicians. As I have said before, we should always hesitate a long time before ascribing any symptoms to a movable kidney unless the kidney can be felt, and even then we should try to eliminate pathological conditions of any other abdominal organ. After a positive diagnosis has been made, the physician will be perplexed over and over again to know just how much of the symptoms of which the patient complains should
most likely to be confused, and give a few points of differential diagnosis.
Distended Gall Bladder. — A very movable right kidney may descend to the left so far as to protrude as a rounded organ beneath the margin of the liver and be confused with the gall bladder. By manipulating the kidney or by turning the patient on her right side, it may be forced back into its normal position. In these cases there is usually a sufficient absence of previous history to suggest involvement of the gall ducts, and the jaundice which may occur is. said to be not so intense as that caused by a tumor of the gall bladder.
Although both the kidney and gall bladder move with respiration, the former can be grasped and held down during expiration, while the latter cannot. The gall bladder can be moved to the right or to the left but not downward, while a freely movable or floating kidney can be displaced in almost any direction. Also the edge of the liver can usually be felt separate and distinct from the movable kidney, whereas, between the gall bladder and liver there is no sharp and definite demarcation. The position of the colon, especially when distended, may in some cases be helpful in differentiating the two conditions.
A movable kidney when displaced has a tendency to slip back into its position in the loin, whereas a gall bladder, although it may be pushed back into the loin, will tend to spring forward to the anterior portion of the abdomen.
bladder frequently occur in the same person, and each may cause symptoms.
Tumors Arising from the Pelvis. — That a floating kidney may be confused with timiors arising from the pelvis is well shown by a case operated upon at the Johns Hopkins Hospital. A white woman, age forty-six (Gyn. Xo. 10286), mother of six children, entered the hospital in February, 1903, with the following history: In September, 1901, she noticed considerable soreness in both groins, and while palpating her abdomen observed a lump in her right side which she could move about almost anywhere in the abdomen. In February, 1902, she consulted a physician, who examined her and told her she had an ovarian tumor. Since then she had had considerable discomfort on the right side, mostly a dull, throbbing, aching pain, which was usually confined in the right groin, but which at times ran upward under the " small ribs." The pain was worse at night and patient rested best on her left side. She had had backache ever since she had borne children. Her appetite was good, her bowels regTilar, and micturition normal. After a thorough examination, including a distention of the kidney with sterile water and reproduction of the exact pain, a diagnosis of movable kidney was made, and nephrorrhaphy done, with a complete relief of symptoms.
tumor with the pelvis, which instantly clinches the diagnosis.
The order of frequency of the various tumors arising from the pelvis which are confused with the kidney is, probably, ovarian cysts (usually dermoid) ; pedunculate, subserous, uterine myomata ; and occasionally parovarian cysts. ISTaturally, these tumors would have to be fairly small and with a long pedicle.
His case was a colored woman, aged fifty-six years, who entered the hospital complaining of pain in the abdomen and vomiting. She had been married twelve years and had had six children and four miscarriages. She was always healthy until the onset of her present symptoms, which were entirely of a gastro-intestinal nature, about four months before her admission.
The physical examination was as follows : " The walls are very loose, flabby, and thrown into many folds. In the right hypochondriac and right epigastric regions there is a marked rounded prominence, which extends below to within two centimetres of navel and reaches nearly to middle line. It descends slightly with inspiration. On palpation this proves to be a solid mass, which can be grasped and is freely movable. It is irregular, rounded, not reniform, but is smooth at its upper and right borders, more irregular below and to the left, but a definite hilum is not to be felt. To the touch there is conveyed a sense of firm yet elastic resistance, such as is given by a solid organ. On prolonged palpation no gas is felt passing through it. It is extraordinarily mobile and can be pushed into the epigastric region far over into the right hypochondriac region, and below into the right lumbar and iliac regions to a level with the line of the anterior superior spines. On firm pressure the liver margin can even be forced into the iliac region. It can also be pushed into the right hypochondriac region, so as to be covered almost completely by the ribs, and in subsequent examinations this was not infrequently the situation in which it was found, and from which it could be dislocated only by the deepest inspiration or by deep pressure in the renal region. The mass is not tender even on firm pressure. There is dulness over it, but not complete flatness. The patient notices that
the mass changes in position as she moves about, and when she sits up it moves far down into the abdomen, while when on her back it is frequently beneath ihe right ribs. When this mass is out from beneath the right costal margin the right kidney cannot be felt, nor on the left side on the deepest inspiration, could the kidney be palpated. Beyond these are depressions in the renal regions. The edge of the liver cannot be felt; the area of splenic dulness is not increased ; the edge cannot be reached even on deep inspiration."
In discussing the case, Dr. Osier mentioned the possibility of a pyloric tumor, but concluded by saying: " Here the mass is of unusual mobility and can be passed into the renal region on the right side. It has not a reniform shape, but it has the consistence and resistance of the kidney. A point very much in favor of its renal character is the mobility dovTiward, and a tumor of this sort, which can be pushed up beneath the ribs and also far down to the iliac regions, is certainly highly suggestive of floating kidney. Another important fact is that, in a woman with such a lax abdominal wall, no right kidney can be felt. The gastric disturbance and dilatation of the stomach present are both explicable on the view that this tumor mass has compressed the duodenum and caused a secondary dilatation. Xor is this, considering the history of so many cases, inconsistent with the view that the tumor mass may be really a kidney. On the other hand, the tumor has not the shape of a kidney and a distinct hilum cannot be felt. Xo left kidney can be palpated, and it may be that this is an instance of conglomerate kidney, such as was found in Polk's celebrated case."
It is very rare that a case as confusing as this one is encountered, for if a careful history is taken-with especial reference to the duration of symptoms and loss of weight and strength, and a thorough j^hysical examination is made, combined with a microscopical and chemical examination of the gastric contents, a diagnosis is usually not difficult.
Nephrolithiasis. — Stone in the kidney or nephrolithiasis may give symptoms which closely resemble those occurring with a movable kidney, and vice versa. For a differentiation, a careful microscopical examination- of the urine, together with its reaction, is important, and it is especially helpful to contrast the urines obtained by catheterization of each ureter. The urine obtained from catheterization of the ureter on the suspected side should be examined for small fragments of calculus which may be brought do^vn.
not shown on the radiograph.
A more valuable means of diagnosis is the wax-tip catheter, which is made by immersing the end of an ordinary ureteral catheter in a mixture of dentist's wax and olive oil. This is then passed up into the kidney, withdrawn, and
examined with a hand-lens, when, if a stone is present, little gouges or excavations can be seen in the wax, whereas a normal pelvis or ureter will leave the tip unaltered (see Fig. 27, p. 29).
Eecal Accumulations. — The beginner, in palpating for a movable kidney, may sometimes be confused by the accumulations in the colon, but after a little practice the soft boggy feel of the feces becomes almost pathognomonic.
Probably the best single means at our disposal of differentiating pathological conditions of the kidney, especially movable kidney, from affections not of renal origin is the artificial reproduction of renal colic. For those who may be interested, this method is published by Kelly (loc. cit.) and H. T. Hutchins (Amer. Jour. Ohst., 1906, vol. 54, p. 331), and will be described here only briefly.
After a thorough history relative to any previous kidney or bladder trouble is obtained, the patient is told that the bladder will be examined, and nothing is said of the kidney. With the patient in the knee-breast position, a catheter just large enough to fill the ureter is passed up into the renal pelvis ; the patient is then allowed to lie on her side, and the rate of flow of urine from that kidney is carefully noted. A syringe filled with sterile water colored with methylene blue is now attached to the catheter and the fluid is slowly forced into the kidney, the exact amount being measured, provision having been previously made to collect reflux, should any occur. As soon as the pelvis is moderately distended, there will naturally be some pain, and almost invariably the patient will, without any questioning, volunteer the information as to the character of the pain, whether it is the same pain of which she has previously suffered or not. If her former pains are not reproduced, the chances are that
Treatment. — As in other pathological conditions, so in movable kidney, there are numerous treatments which, although harmless per se, are yet dangerous in that they give false hope and consume the time which should be given to more effective measures. I refer to such as electricity, massage, and cold
showers, which theoretically tone up the weak and flaccid abdominal wall, increase the intra-abdominal pressure, and give a better support to the viscera, but which practically are of very little value.
Palliative.-^ Among the palliative, or to speak more correctly, nonoperative forms of treatment for displaced kidney the bandage is, perhaps, the most important. In many cases a properly fitting bandage, combined with the use of suitable gymnastic exercises, not only affords temporary relief, but effects a permanent cure. The cases suited for treatment by means of a bandage are numerous; indeed, the only class in which it is contra-indicated are those in which hydronephrosis has begun, and these can be readily excluded by catheterization and injection of the kidney. A properly fitting bandage should give relief as soon as it is put on. There is no fixed period of time during which it should be worn. It is of great importance that gymnastic exercises should be employed in connection with the bandage, in order to streng-then the abdominal muscles.* These can be taken in the morning before the bandage is put on or in the evening after it is removed. They consist of some form of bending movements which bring the abdominal muscles into action, and the physician should prescribe those which he thinks most likely to be beneficial in each case. Many patients with a displaced kidney are much emaciated, and in such cases everything should be done to increase the body weight. Specific directions must be given for diet and the kinds of food carefully selected. The methods of eating also must be regiilated, and the directions on this point given for the treatment of neurasthenia will be found valuable in the class of patients now under discussion (see Chap. XXIII). With improvement in nutrition and an increase in the strength of the abdominal muscles a displaced kidney may become &s.ed in its normal position, and even when there is no fixation, anatomically speaking, all the symptoms may be relieved and the relief persist even after the bandage is disused. It must always be remembered, however, that there are some cases in which it is impossible to give relief by means of a bandage, and this may be due to some anatomical peculiarity in the individual.
The bandage itseK should be snugly fitting and made of an elastic material. Its upper border ought to be just below the margin of the ribs and its lower at the iliac crest. The entire lower part of the abdomen should be covered. Such a bandage should always have some kind of attachment by which it is pulled down. Any intelligent instrument maker can make such a bandage, but in no case should the physician allow his patient to definitely adopt it until he has assured himself that it fits. I have found it of service in cases where the bandage is made from measurements to send a pattern, cut from the patient. The principle of the bandage is to afford support to the lower abdomen ; very occasionally additional benefit may be secured by placing an extra pad inside of it so that pressure is applied just where the kidney would descend. The bandage should always be applied while the patient is lying down. It may seem superfluous to say that before applying it the kid-
ney should be replaced in its proper position in the loin, but, as a matter of fact, patients will often complain that they have not been relieved by a bandage or have even been made worse by it, and upon examination it will be found that the kidney is in the iliac fossa or in the opposite side of the abdomen with the tight bandage above it ! In no case should a bandage be applied without first excluding all kidney disease other than the movable kidney.
In case tlie symptoms are not relieved and the physician has assured himself that there is no fault in its mode of application, he should begin to think of some other renal condition as the cause of the trouble and consult a specialist. It must always be remembered that certain patients are so much annoyed by a bandage that they do not improve as they should.
During an attack of renal colic the patient should be put to bed and kept flat on her back until all acute symptoms have subsided. Some sedative, as trional, codein, or even morphin, is indicated, and hot fomentations to the abdomen prove both soothing and helpful. If the gastro-intestinal symptoms are prominent, a limited diet, preferably liquid, is advisable for a few days after the attack.
Radical. — (1) ISTephrorrhaphy. — ''Stitching up" the kidney gives the best results of any method of treating nephroptosis of which we are acquainted. It is difficult to lay down any general rule to determine which cases are and which are not suitable for nephrorrhaphy, for each case must be decided to a great extent upon its own merits. We may, however, divide all cases of nephroptosis into three great groups with reference to nephrorrhaphy.
(a) Those cases in which nephrorrhaphy is contra-indicated. — Under this heading we include all cases which have given no symptoms, and especially those cases of which the patient herself is ignorant; also those cases of unilateral or bilateral nephroptosis associated with marked general visceroptosis, and in which the symptoms are relieved by a suitable binder. Even if the bandage does not give relief, nephropexy is still contra-indicated unless the symptoms are very severe and can be shown to be caused by the kidney and not by the descensus of the other viscera.
(6) Those in which nephrorrhaphy may or may not be done, according to influencing factors. — This group comprises the largest number of cases of nephroptosis with symptoms. What would in some cases be ample indication for an operation would not in other cases be sufficient to justify it. Naturally, we would not hastily advise an operation in a woman of the better class who leads a life of ease and who, with the aid of a binder, gets along fairly comfortably ; whereas, the same pathological conditions found in a washerwoman who is upon her feet all day at hard work and to whom health is absolutely essential, would be sufficient indication for radical treatment. We must also be duly influenced by the mental and nervous condition of the patient, for naturally we can hope for and expect better results in persons who are intelligent and frank about their symptoms, than in those who are neurotic and prone to emphasize every little ailment. Probably the one
most important symptom which should guide us in our course of treatment is pain, and we should hesitate a long time before advising operation solely for nervous or gastro-intestinal disorders; for these latter symptoms are so frequently associated with a neurotic temperament that unless we are extremely careful we are apt to bring a valuable ojDeration into disrepute b}^ applying it to unsuitable cases.
(c) Cases in which nephrorrhaphy is absolutely indicated. — When in spite of a quiet life, rest in the recumbent posture, and a carefully applied binder, the pain, faintness, and other acute symptoms continue, more radical treatment is absolutely indicated, both for the relief of symptoms and the prevention of complications.
In the first thirteen thousand three hundred and thirty-eight gynecological patients admitted, the right kidney was suspended one hundred and twentyseven times. It was suspended alone in seventy-two cases, with the left kidney in ten cases, and with other operations in forty-five cases.
Of the thirteen thousand three hundred and thirty-eight cases admitted, approximately eight thousand were white patients, showing that of all white cases admitted to the gynecological service, less than two per cent were operated upon for movable kidney.
As mentioned previously, statistics carefully taken in reference to movable kidney among gynecological patients, indicate that it occurs in twenty per cent or more of all cases. Thus we see that less than ten per cent of all cases of movable kidney in white women are operated upon, showing how foolish it would be to advise radical treatment, simply because the kidney was in an abnormal position.
The result of nephropexy, when done in suitable cases, is excellent, being successful in nearly one hundred per cent of cases. The failures which occur can usually be attributed either to too hasty operation in cases which have not been properly differentiated, or to the fact that there is some other pathological condition in the kidney which has been overlooked and to which appropriate treatment should also have been given. Sometimes after nephrorrhaphy there is a slight dragging pain which was not present before operation, but which is so trifiing compared with the symptoms relieved by operation, that the patient considers herself cured.
together, would probably be less than three per cent.
The advantages of nephropexy over nephrectomy are numerous and selfevident. It would be poor judgment, to say the least, to remove an organ when a conservative operation will give the same or even better results, with a far smaller mortality.
(2) JN^ephrectomy. — As m.entioned above, nephrectomy should never be done in a simple uncomplicated movable kidney. There are, however, times when nephrectomy is necessary and the operation of choice, but then the indication is not the mobility of the kidney but some other pathological condition which is coincident with or resultant from it, such as tuberculosis, stone, or a high grade of hydronephrosis. Also it is sometimes justifiable in cases of floating kidney which have become more or less fixed in some other portion of the abdomen and cannot be replaced in the loin.
General health, p. 622. Constipation, p. 625. Food, p. 625. Exercise, p. 625. Local pain, p. 626. Headache, p. 627. Menstruation, p. 627. Artificial menopause, p. 628. Suppuration of abdominal wound, p. 631. Enlargement of scar, p. 632. Tenderness of scar, p. 632. Alteration in position of intestines, p. 632. Hernia, p. 633. Ileus, p. 633. Fever, p. 634.
The constantly increasing nnmber of gynecological operations during the last twenty years has taught the medical profession many things in connection with them which were not at first understood. One of these facts is that an uninterrupted immediate convalescence, after a major, or even a minor operation, does not necessarily imply the immediate and complete recovery of perfect health on the part of the patient. A period of months, and in many cases of a year or more, must often elapse before the woman who has been relieved of a serious pelvic affection really reaches normal health once more. This retardation of complete recovery arises partly from the shock of the operation, but it is far more frequently the result of a general depreciation of health wrought by years of suffering, of disturbed sleep, of impaired digestion, of deprivation of fresh air and exercise, and, in many cases, of constant anxiety as to the outcome of the ailment. To rejuvenate vital forces which have, for a long time, been more or less profoundly exhausted, is a task which often requires much constant care and attention in the fateful post-operative period, but it is one well worth the pains, for upon the management or the mismanagement of the case at this time the patient's future well-being, in a large measure, depends. It is, as a rule, upon the broad shoulders of the general practitioner that this burden falls, and happy is he who, in these days of multi-surgery, carries this burden well. Only a small proportion of our patients are able to continue to command the services of the specialist who has done the operation for any considerable period afterwards ; indeed, many of those who come from a distance are in the utmost haste to return to their homes as soon as their immediate recovery is assured and the healing of the wound will permit. These patients must, of necessity, depend entirely upon their family physician for attention during the (often prolonged) surgical convalescences of which I speak.
GENEBAL HYGIENIC MEASUKES. 623
operation, however necessary it may be, she may expect at once to be a well woman when she rises from the bed. On the contrary, inform her explicitly that she may be obliged to travel the road towards health for weeks, or months, or sometimes even longer. The operation must never be recommended as a piece of legerdemain, or in any sense a sort of a miracle, but simply as an absolutely necessary first step on the road towards health. Until this first step is taken, none of the other steps towards the goal can follow. Too often a feeling of magic associated with the operation is impressed by innuendo, or perhaps by the eager attitude of the doctor, anxious to persuade his patient to take a necessary step and to see her started on the way. Greater care in stating the case correctly, giving the operation its true share and no more, will cause fewer heartburns and reproaches, as the weary patient travels the tiresome road towards complete convalescence.
The daily life of the patient should be carefully regulated for at least a year after an operation done to remove a cause of protracted ill health. This necessity for subsequent care depends not so much upon the extent of the operation, or the size of a tumor removed, as upon the length of previous suffering, and the wearisome vigils, with consequent depreciation of the strength. A patient of this kind ought for several months to take her breakfast in bed, and then not to dress for from half an hour to an hour later. She will also do well to rest for half an hour before and after each meal, and, if possible, lie down for an hour every afternoon. In order to get the benefit of her afternoon rest, she should take off all heavy clothing, corsets, and shoes, put on a loose wrapper, and lie flat on the bed or on a comfortable lounge. Most restful of all is it to doff the day clothes down to the skin and to put on a nightgown. It is not advisable to read anything in these brief rest periods, for if she can sleep, so much the better. She ought to go early to bed, not later than ten o'clock, and this rule should be inflexible. Rest then is the sheet anchor of a convalescence. Many persons sleep better if they take some light refreshment just before retiring, a glass of milk, a raw egg, a cup of hot malted milk, a sandwich, or some crackers ; occasionally, on the other hand, food taken just before sleep disturbs the rest. Bad sleepers and overnervous women sometimes wake up in the wee hours and keep lonely vigils until they are utterly exhausted; for such cases some light nourishment taken when they wake is often enough to induce sleep again.
The periods of rest by day, as well as that by night, should be taken in a well-ventilated, cool room. If there is a porch available, there is no tonic half so good as the bracing fresh air, both by day and by night, with the body well covered in a cozy bed. I believe that in the near future we are destined to hear much more about the out-of-door, open-air treatment of our surgical cases, both immediately after the operation and in the later convalescence.
The appetite and the digestion call for careful attention and supervision, and, as a rule, it is a good plan to prescribe some form of bitter tonic. The following I have often found useful :
In cases where nervous exhaustion is well marked, nux vomica in increasing doses, as recommended by Osier, is often beneficial. Begin with ten drops in water, three times a day, and increase the amount by one drop with each dose, until the patient takes twenty or even as much as twenty-five drops, three times a day. If there is any twitching, or stiffness of the jaws, the remedy must be discontinued for a time and resumed later, in a smaller dose.
It may be objected that such a careful course of living reduces the patient to a condition of semi-invalidism, and that, hampered by such restrictions, she has but little larger opportunity to enjoy life than before the operation, which was accepted as an open sesame to health. The wise physician will make answer that the operation was only done because it was necessary to health, and that if health can be secured, the purchase price of a longer or a shorter convalescence is not a matter of such great moment, provided the wage question does not have to enter into the calculation.
The wise patient will learn that rest and quietude have their lessons to teach, and that time thus employed may be even more profitably spent than days of bustling activity. It often happens that she who thus rests much alone, for the first time faces the real issues of life, and is for the first time startled to hear the still small voice of the long-stifled inward monitor, more potent in the formation of character than all the obtrusive noisy activities of the world of society. He, too, is a wise physician who seeks to inculcate this lesson.
The plan I have thus briefly outlined will be modified and adapted to meet the necessities of individual cases. Write over the door of every convalescent woman festiyia lente, and let it be the parting greeting after each visit. The physician Avill do well to have such an understanding, not only with the patient, but with her relatives as well, in order that, realizing the benefits to accrue, they may lend their hearty cooperation and refrain from vain imaginings that because the patient is not immediately restored, the operation has not
CONSTIPATION. FOOD. EXERCISE. 625
been a success. There is no greater charity for a poor, self-supporting woman •than to ^ive her a good long holiday, in the country if possible. Some shortsighted philanthropic souls unfortunately take it for granted that into the hospital and out again is all that the occasion calls for, and that anything short of immediate recovery is a species of ingTatitude on the patient's part.
Constipation. — For some time after most abdominal operations the patient is apt to be troubled with a constipation, which may be obdurate ; the physician must see to it that the bowels are kept regular. The means of doing this are discussed at length in Chapter VIII, and I Avill not repeat them here further than to remark that I have found cascara sagrada the best drug, both in the period of immediate recovery as well as in the more remote. The dose of the fluid extract is ten to thirty drops, and of the tincture half a teaspoonful to two dessertspoonfuls. It not infrequently happens that cases where a large dose is needed in the beginning are able to decrease it after a little while, and by continuing to diminish it by degrees, a normal condition of the bowels is at last established, which requires no interference. I would repeat Sanger's urgent injunction — away with drugs, use general massage, give electricity over the abdomen, and insist on a natural evacuation, even if it takes days to get nature to do it unaided. This course takes courage, but it has the backing of our best men. If it is tried, it must be with conviction.
If the physician is willing to fight the battle without drugs, but finds that the general tonic remedy has not been sufficient to regulate the habit, I find the simplest and best of all means of aiding the patient is the use from time to time of a flaxseed enema. This is made in the following manner: Two tablespoonfuls of the whole seeds are put in a pint of cold water, brought to the boiling point, and boiled for ten minutes. The mucilaginous solution thus made is strained through a fine sieve and allowed to stand until tepid, when it is injected slowly into the bowel. The best time to do this is about half an hour after breakfast. An enema of this kind, being similar in consistency with the bowel movement, is calculated to have a soothing effect upon the mucosa of the bowel.
Food is an important factor in the treatment, and daily evacuations must not be expected where only small amounts are taken. The diet ought to be looked after, up to complete recovery ; it should be simple and nutritious, and not too concentrated. A little food between meals serves to prevent exhaustion ; it acts also as a mild diversion, helping to divide up the day pleasantly, and to relieve the tedium of waiting for the health which sometimes seems to come on leaden wings.
Exercise. — The question of exercise during a protracted convalescence is important. At first, a little at home, then out onto the porch, and then perhaps a drive, or a walk for a short distance. When the means are limited, the trolley cars often offer diversion and variety with plenty of fresh air. With the growing improvement, regular out-door exercise or employment of a character suited to strength and taste should be encouraged. It is a mistake, however, to
advise anytliing strongly against natural inclinations and tastes. Light gardening, when available, is a most beneficial occupation. Tennis is too strenuous an exercise, but croquet and golf are excellent. When the patient is free to do as she pleases, it is often a wise plan to send her for a few months to some mountain or sea-side resort, v\'here she can have plenty of opportunity for exercise in the fresh air, coupled with pleasant companionship. Lifting and straining must be forbidden for about a year after a laparotomy, in order not to strain an abdominal scar.
Alternate rest and exercise, duly proportioned and supplementing one another, are by far the most valuable means we possess of restoring complete health. And although these simple natural processes are by no means so dramatic and so impressive as some of the other resources of our medical armamentarium, they are, nevertheless, by far the most valuable; and, albeit they seem so simple, by far the most difficult to use correctly and successfully.
Local Pain. — Of all the distressing sequelae, pain is the most likely to plunge the patient who has been through an operation into despondency, and to delay the convalescence. It is a fact that an habitual pain does not by any means always disappear immediately after the operation, even when the cause has been removed. As a rule, it is relieved at once, but where it has existed for years, and especially where much morphin has been given, the " pain-habit " may be established, and it takes time and close attention to break it off. The experienced physician will always assure his patient in advance that the continuance of a certain amount of suffering is not inconsistent with its complete disappearance in the near future. He must exercise extreme caution in using remedies for pain at this time, as the risk of a drug habit is as great as before the operation. If she is hypersensitive, nervous, and lacking in force of character, it may be necessary to give some relief, but it must not be any form of opium, and it ought not to be a drug; it should come from the moral force of the physician himself, as he upholds and carries the weakling along, day by day, until she can at last stand alone. If any drug is given, it ought to be in the physician's hands and not in the patient's, who is always safer if she does not know what she is taking.
The worst sufferers and the most difiicult to control for some time after an operation are those women who have been in the habit of taking morphin to relieve their pain. I have cured a great many morphin maniacs by doing an operation and then, after the patient is confined to her bed and I have entire control of her, I do not allow any sedative whatever to be given. There may be a great deal of suffering for a few days or a week, but she comes out of her trial impressed by the fact that she is able, after all, to bear some real severe pain without the drug. In this way a certain amount of moral force is developed in a character which seemed before to be lacking. In other cases the habit is best broken off gradually. The patient may be too weak and prostrated by her disease to stand the immediate withdrawal of a drug which, in some
HEADACHE. MENSTRUATION. 627
cases, she has been taking in large amounts, as much as fifty grains per day. In such cases the large part of the battle consists in the personal interest shown by the physician, and in the moral support he gives the patient in keeping up her courage as she joins with him in the fight for emancipation from the enslaving habit. The battle with the drug can always be won if the physician adopts the right attitude, and secures first the confidence of the patient and then her cooperation. It is most important during the stress of the battle to keep careful watch upon any visiting relatives, friends, or old nurses, who may undo all the good that has been accomplished by bringing in the drug in an underhand way.
There are a certain class of hysterical patients who are inclined to exaggerate suffering and who refuse to acknowledge the relief they have received ; these call for extreme patience and a calm judicial treatment of their complaints, coupled with persistence in a right course when it is once carefully mapped out.
Headache. — Besides the pelvic suffering associated with the particular lesion from which the patient has suffered, there is sometimes a tendency to headache, which only time can overcome. In some cases, nux vomica in substantial doses (twenty to twenty-five drops) Avill do much to give relief, but the best dependence is time, with fresh air, and the slower process of building up the general health. Local pains and headaches are often good gauges of the patient's staying powers. If the pain comes on after walking, driving, or any other exertion, it may, as a rule, be taken as an indication that the patient has rather exceeded the wise limit of her strength ; and if, in time, the headaches show no tendency to decrease in severity or frequency, it is evident that the nervous system is still over-taxed and the cause must be sought out.
If there is no steady improvement in the patient's general or local condition from month to month, it is always best to communicate with the specialist who had her under his care ; but if the improvement is steady, however slow it may be, there is no reason for anxiety.
Menstruation. — Most of the affections in women for which pelvic operations are performed are accompanied by disturbances of menstruation, and it may be some time before the function is again normal in its performance, even though the abnormal conditions which led to its disturbance are removed. All such patients must be extremely careful during menstruation for a considerable time. It is, as a rule, best at first to remain in bed as long as the flow lasts, and the ordinary habits of life at that time must be resumed with caution. For some patients it is sufiicient to spend the first twenty-four hours of the period in bed. Curettage of the uterus is almost always followed by some disturbance of menstruation, especially as regards amount, which is often excessive for one or two
periods, althougli sometimes the flow is temporarily absent or scanty. When the curetting has been done for the relief of menorrhagia, it often happens that the first menstrual period, and it may be the second and the third, will be as jDrofnse as before the oi^eration, or even more so, a fact which is apt to excite apprehension in the patient's mind, lest the operation has been a failure. It is important, therefore, for the physician to assure her that the difficulty is one of common occurrence and will subside spontaneously in the course of a few months. It is best for the physician to tell the patient before any pelvic operation that she must not expect her menstrual period to be normal immediately afterwards. In this way he will relieve a gTeat deal of apprehension when the period is delayed, or when it is excessive.
Artificial Menopause. — When an artificial menopause has been induced, the patient will experience more or less of the discomforts incidental to the normal change of life. The severity is in proportion to the age of the. patient; that is to say, the nearer she is to the normal menopause the less will be the discomfort, but if the artificial cessation of menstruation occurs early in life, the disturbances accompanying it are most distressing. They are generally first experienced about the time when the next period after the operation should appear, and they usually continue for eighteen months to two years. In exceptional cases, they last for as much as five years. Waves of heat and flushes passing over the body at intervals like a draught of hot air are the commonest of these manifestations; sometimes the face is reddened and there may be a feeling of giddiness. Some patients complain of a sensation of a gulf suddenly yawning before them, accompanied by a dread of falling into it. These sensations last for a few seconds to several minutes, and after they subside, there is a feeling of great exhaustion, while the skin is covered with perspiration. Some persons suffer from great depression, almost amounting to melancholia,
SHOWN IN Fig. 162.
whicli in the judgment of the surgeon had necessitated the removal of both ovaries, who yet continued to menstruate regularly. After some experience with this class of cases, 1 was able to aver that on opening the abdomen I would find traces of ovarian tissue
ing classes:
(1) Symptoms referred to the lumbar section of the spinal cord, such as throbbing and pain in the back, pain in the iliac region, pain extending from the back to the abdomen and radiating down the thighs, pressure in the pelvis, downward tugging, anesthesia or hyperesthesia of the vagina and vulva, and pain on urination and defecation.
(2) Neurotic symptoms localized in different parts of the body, such as cardialgia, pressure in the epigastrium, sensation of fulness, belching, vomiting, and globus hystericus.
(3) A distinct neuropathic condition, with general pain, vasomotor disturbance, vicarious menstruation, respiratory, gastric, and intestinal attacks of various sorts, cramps, and epileptiform convulsions.
Of all the sequelEe following. the production of an artificial menopause, insanity is the most important. It may, however, occur after any pelvic operation, and even after one done for some condition belonging to general surgery. The class of women most apt to become insane under such conditions are those who have well-marked neurotic temperaments, and in women of this kind, especiallv if there is any family history of mental disease, the induction of an artificial menopause for any reason less important than the preservation of life would seem to be contraindicated.
The treatment of the symjDtoms accompanying the artificial menopause does not differ in any way from that of the same conditions occurring with a normal change of life, and will be found described in Chapter III (see p. 90).
I have been able to give a great deal of relief in these cases by the administration of lutein in twenty grain doses, three times a day; in some cases given continuously, in others given periodically when the discomforts are greatest, and continued for about ten days at a time. The lutein is made by squeezing out the corjDora lutea from the ovaries of the pig obtained at the slaughterhouse. The corpora are then rapidly dried, powdered, and compressed into tablets. In many instances I have obtained remarkable results from the use of this remedy. I have not found the ordinary ovarian extract made from the dried tissues of the ovary itself of any particular value.
Phlebitis. — Phlebitis is an inflammatory affection of the veins, resulting in the formation of a thrombus, by which the lumen of the vein becomes occluded. In the milder forms of phlebitis the occlusion is only temporary, lasting little over a couple of weeks, but in the severer gTades the venous lumen is permanently occluded, and the return blood is compelled to find new channels.
There are two forms of phlebitis, the septic and the non-septic. Septic phlebitis is especially noted in puerperal cases and after septic operations, and is, therefore, but rarely encountered as a sequel to gynecological procedures. I speak here only of those forms of phlebitis which are seen in the lower abdomen and the legs, more particularly in the femoral veins.
Phlebitis may begin in the deep veins of the pelvis, as evidenced by the fever and location of the pain before the onset of the femoral phlebitis. The commonest site of the pain and tenderness at first, however, is over the femoral vein right under Poupart's ligament, from which point they extend in a characteristic line down the thigh, follow^ing the great vessels. Kronig believes that the phlebitis usually begins in the femoral vessels and that it is mechanical in its genesis. The usual time of onset is about two weeks after the operation of which it is the sequel.
PHLEBITIS. SUPPUKATION OF THE WOUND. Q3J
The danger of embolism is over before the patient leaves the hospital, and therefore does not concern the general practitioner in his management of the case after she has returned to her home.
Opening and draining of a pelvic abscess 1 time
The treatment of phlebitis is never one of active local therapy. A patient suffering from it must not be hurried home from the hospital, but should stay at least five weeks in bed on her back after the onset of this troublesome complication. When the patient reaches home she is liable to suffer from pain and from the swelling. The course of treatment should then be, first of all, expectant. She must understand that no great improvement is observable, as a rule, in a period of time less than eight to twelve months. Patience must therefore be inculcated from the first. An elastic bandage applied each day before rising gives much relief by supporting the limb and preventing edema. The patient should spend much of her time in rest, and keep the limb elevated. Massage is helpful in restoring the circulation. If there is much swelling of the superficial veins during convalescence it should not be interfered with. I know of a case in which the enterprising doctors dissected out the swollen veins of the thigh and abdomen which formed the relief circulation; the result was a gangrene of the thigh calling for a hip- joint amputation. I do not recall any case of phlebitis which has not recovered, though the improvement in some cases has been not less than two years in coming.
Suppuration of the Wound. — A suppuration developing in the wound some time after the operation is always a sign of a lingering infection which, as a rule, has developed in the post-operative period. This suppuration may occur in the abdominal wall covering the wound, or arise from the deeper parts. The superficial suppurations, as a rule, arise from the use of non-absorbable suture material, chromicized catgut, silk, silver wire, or silkworm-gut. In the days Avhen it was customary to tie off the pedicles with silk (especially braided silk), it was common to note the fistula? discharging pus, due to infection of the deep ligatures. Every case of suppuration should be treated seriously. In the acute stage, poultices should be applied, and as soon as the wound is sufficiently opened, it should be carefully examined with a crochet hook to see if there is
a ligature within, wbicli can be eauglit and ^yitlldra^vn. It is always best for the general practitioner to be present at operations upon bis patient, and to be fully informed at tbe time, both as to the exact operation done and the character of the sutures and ligatures used. In this way he will be able to form a better idea as to the cause of the suppuration should it occur. Some of the late suppurations arise from the slow healing of a drainage tract, in cases in which it has been necessary to drain the pelvis, because of an extensive infection. If the suppuration is more than a slight abscess, it would be best to give the patient an anesthetic, to open the wound freely, determine its cause and remove it, and then to let the wound close up with free drainage. Small areas may be cleaned out and douched with carbolic acid, in the hope of a rapid recovery.
Enlargement of the Scar. — It frequently happens that a patient who has been very thin, even emaciated, for a long time before a radical operation, in consequence of continued ill health, begins to gain flesh as soon as her ailments are relieved. If she gains in weight rapidly, the scar will yield from side to side, as the girth of the abdomen increases, until it becomes as much as two centimetres (three-fourths of an inch) or more in width; moreover, it often becomes pitted, pigmented, and unsightly. I know of nothing to improve this condition, and I do not believe that any kind of bandage does any good. There is a tendency, especially among negTesses, to the formation of keloids in the scar tissue.
Tenderness of the Scar. — "While the wound is young and pink, it is somewhat common for the patient to complain of soreness, itching, or shooting pains in the scar. In nervous women this tenderness may persist for years. Eelief is best obtained by gentle massage and by arranging the clothing so as to avoid direct pressure on the sensitive area.
Alteration in the Position of the Intestines. — One of the sequela? brought about shortly after the operation is alteration in the position of the intestines, and it may continue to give trouble for a considerable time. Additional loops of intestine drop down into the pelvis in order to fill the vacated space, and adhesions of the omentum and intestine over the inner surface of the peritoneum are apt to be formed. These adhesions do not, as a rule, give rise to serious trouble, though in a certain number of cases they occasion pain in the lower abdomen, with tormina, nausea, and vomiting from constant dragging upon the transverse colon and pulling the stomach downward. In some cases they occasion obstinate constipation. As a rule, disturbances of this kind do not require any interference and pass away of themselves before long, but they are occasionally so severe as to make it best to send the patient back to the surgeon who operated, in order that he may decide whether it is necessary to reopen the abdomen for relief. The release of the adhesions with an aseptic closing of the abdomen has been followed by immediate disappearance of all bad symptoms in those cases where they have been severe enough to require operative procedures.
HERNIA. ILEUS. 633
Hernia. — The most serious of all post-operative local conditions is, of course, a ventral hernia in the abdominal scar. The number of such hernias becomes less every year, with the progressive improvement of surgical technic and the careful training of operators ; nevertheless, they do occasionally occur, especially when the patient has overexerted herself before recovery was complete, and when increase in weight has been unusually rapid. There is only one form of treatment which can be relied upon for permanent relief, namely, radical operation, and such cases should be placed in a surgeon's hands as soon as possible. Palliative treatment by means of supports gives temporary relief, but as the tendency of all such hernias is to grow larger, it can be of no permanent benefit.
Ileus. — Among the more serious late sequelae is an ileus, or a post-operative obstruction of the bowels. This untoward sequel may develop from little beginnings, such as a rumbling and twisting with pain, which grows gradually worse from week to week ; or it may come on as an acute obstruction. Hand in hand with the difficulty in moving the bowels go the pains or tormina. The pain is developed by the contractions in the bowel, proximal to the obstruction ; in thin patients the pattern of the contracting loops can be traced on the surface of the abdomen. With the contraction, more or less gurgling is heard.
Such a difficulty arises, as a rule, from the post-operative adhesions, either to the abdominal wall about the incision, or to the seat of the operation, as an ovarian or a uterine stump. Sometimes it is due to a broad film of adhesions (forming immediately after the operation) which by the movements of the bowel has been rolled together to form a powerful lymph as strong as a rope. As a rule, such difficulties show themselves while the patient is still in the hands of the surgeon, who must continue to supervise his patient until he is sure no late accident is liable to arise.
If mild remedies do not succeed in keeping the patient's bowels open, and if the tendency toward ileus is clearly progressive for a few days, the practitioner ought not to wait long, but should put his patient again in the care of the surgeon, in order that he may carefully consider the question whether or not the abdomen ought to be opened to liberate all adhesions. It is better to err on the side of early action in these cases, than to wait until long and exhausting efforts have robbed the patient of much of her strength before making the incision and undertaking what may prove to be a long and difficult operation.
The cancer cases which are sent back by the surgeon to die in the hands of the general practitioner must not be neglected by him. They ought, on account of their condition, to receive even more constant tender care than the more promising, hopeful cases. I have already dwelt on these cases in the chapter on inoperable cancer of the womb (see Chap. XXI). In all of these cancer cases, it is important to keep the parts clean with repeated douches and applications where the disease can be reached, to keep the bowels open, to keep up nutrition, and as long as the patient is able to bear it, to keep her in the fresh air. Mild sedatives may be used to relieve the pains at first, and later
morpliin will have to be used, but it is be~t tri priitp'one tlii? period as long as possible, in order to husband ciur resijurce- in 'it-Lding v.-ith the pains during the last few months. The morphin should \>e used at first as sparingly as possible, in doses of an eighth of a grain, gradually increased according" to necessity, in Tvhatever lLj-c- niay }>e required to relieve the suffering.
Fever is a late sequel -which the general ^jractitioner riught not to see. Any fever observed at a late date can l)e but the contintiance of some post-operative infection. If fever arises after a normal convalescence, the physician must look fca- n.alaria. and carefully consider typhoid, or some other new affection. One 'of ri;v i ;,Tif>nts v.-h'j had a suspension of the uterus, as she was getting well deveLj]--; n. liiysterious fever which I cotild ncit explain in any way. She left my care and carne back six months later with a tertiary syphilis I
In numerous cases I have seen malaria break otit. and typhoid fever, too, in the course of the convalescence, ptizzling f'jr a time all who were caring for the invalid. Latent tul:>erculosis mav also manifest itself in this wav.
DISEASES OF ADVANCED AGE.
Marriage, p. 636. Pruritus, p. 636. Cancer of the clitoris and vulva, p. 636. Tumor of the urethra, p. 636. Hypersensitive vaginal orifice and atrophy of the vagina, p. 637. Vaginitis of atrophic character, p. 637. Cancer of the womb, p. 638. Pyokolpos, pyometra and physometra, p. 639. Fibroid tumors, p. 640. Ovarian tumors, p. 640.
It is universally and naturally conceded that an advanced age ought at least to afford immunity from all those diseases which affect the sexual organs, which have done their work and passed into a condition of presumably innocuous desuetude.
For this reason, any signs of activity in the pelvic organs of the old or any apparent " rejuvenescence " in the form of a bloody discharge is naturally viewed with suspicion and alarm.
There is reason, therefore, whether on the ground of timely warning or of reassurance, for a brief consideration of the affections of age, even though we define this period somewhat loosely and with apologies for the lower limit assumed, as one beginning some years after the menopause, say in the fifties, and extending to the close of life.
I shall consider the question of the relation of age to these special diseases from a double point of view : First, to what diseases are the old liable ? Secondly, when surgical procedures are called for, do the old bear them as well or worse than younger women; in other words, is age any contraindication to an operation ?
The changes occurring in age are characteristic. They begin imperceptibly with the menopause, but do not become strikingly evident for many years, so slowly do they advance. The chief characteristic is an atrophy or a hypoplastic condition of the organs and tissues. The uterus becomes as small as that of a girl before puberty, the ovaries are sclerotic and contracted, linear or beanlike fibrous structures containing no maturating follicles, the uterine tubes are also greatly lessened in size and no longer trumpet-shaped. The external genitals present a withered appearance, the hair becomes gray, the labia withered and flaccid, and the vaginal outlet is smooth and inelastic, while the vagina also has lost its rugse and is converted into a smooth inelastic tube.
(1) Marriage. — A first marriage in a woman who is well beyond the menopause is usually a serious mistake if her husband is physically vigorous. Only a complacent, convenient marriage of two old people for companionship may entail no hardship upon the wife, who is unfitted at this time of life to begin her sexual activities. Let the woman of advanced age remain single if she will not suffer pain and humiliation.
(2) Pruritus in the old differs in no way from that in younger women, except that it is oftener seen in an aggTavated form, having begun at an earlier period and existed longer. These cases usually call for surgery to extirpate the disease, sometimes completely removing both labia and the clitoris. Such operations are safe and well borne, the age of the patient does not in any degree increase the risk.
(3) Cancer of the clitoris and vulva are sometimes found in the old, and demand a most radical operation, including the extirpation of inguinal glands of the affected side. Here, too, age is no contraindication to the most extensive eradication of the disease.
closely examined like a prolajose of the urethral mucosa.
I think that in the case of any marked eversion of the lips of the urethra causing discomfort and bleeding readily, the physician would do well to consult a specialist before treating the cases to make sure they are not malignant. In the moderate eversions presenting red pouting lips, the best treatment is a twoper-cent solution of silver nitrate, applied every other day on a cotton pledget pressed against the parts and held there for t^\'enty to thirty seconds. Occasionally a patient can be taught to treat herself, and this is better, as the treat-
est evidence of a return of the difBculty.
(5) Hypersensitive Vaginal Orifice and Atrophy of the Vagina. — With the extreme involution of the vagina it becomes narrov^er and shorter and its walls lose all traces of the folds and corrugations found at an earlier period. The mucosa becomes pale with spots here and there, and the outlet has the same smooth appearance with perhaps a remnant of two or a caruncle. A smooth outlet with spots like ecchymosis is often sensitive, and a source of much discomfort in the marital relation.
I know of no other way of treating these cases than the application of that sovereign remedy for inflamed mucous membrane, silver nitrate in a three- to five-per-cent solution on alternate days, coupled, with the advice to make free use of a lubricant to lessen the friction in the sexual approach.
(6) Vaginitis, or more correctly kolpitis, of an atrophic character is, perhaps, the commonest and the most characteristic of the genital diseases of the aged. It is rarely met with before the menopause, but becomes frequent from about the age of fifty upwards.
times tinged with blood.
The blood in the discharge lends great importance to this distressing, but not dangerous malady, as it is for this reason apt to be mistaken for a cancer by the general practitioner. Let me here earnestly remark that it is far better to err in this safe direction than to commit the opposite error ; it is better to think that every suspicious case is cancer until the contrary is clearly proved. Do not wait until the diagnosis is made certain by the supervention of other symptoms.
vault is the seat of the most marked alterations.
The vault is narrower, and often ends in a. little pocket not much larger than the end of the finger or thumb. In this pocket the diminutive cervix may be felt with difficulty. Again, a striking characteristic of a case may be one or two sharp-edged falciform folds at the vaginal vault, shutting off a pocket above.
The best way to examine these cases is in the knee^breast position, when the vagina distends and all parts can be well seen through a small tubular speculum with a stout handle. The sharp folds stand out with pockets above them, and the little reddened cervix is easily distinguished.
The etiology of the condition appears to be this : the parts having lost their vitality and resisting powers are easily invaded by the common pyogenic organisms, an inflammation is set up with ulceration, and destruction of the superficial epithelium, then, either healing takes place with the formation of scar tissue, which on shortening forms the falciform bands felt, or agglutination of
opposed inflamed surfaces occurs with a corresjjondiug narrowing of the vaginal vault This process is then but a simple senile vaginitis carried some steps farther. In almost every instance the marked anatomical changes take place at the vaginal vault, where the secretions natui'ally stagnate.
Treatment. — Douches serve well to keep the parts clean, but have no permanent curative value. A warm boric-acid (5j to a pint) douche may be given twice a day to remove the secretions. The curative treatment must be applied in the doctor's ofiice.
It is sometimes a strong temptation to break up all septa and separate adherent surfaces under anestheti-c, hoping by subsequent packings to keep up the parts separated until they have healed again in their normal relationships.
I cannot commend this plan for two reasons — first of all, the trouble invariably gravitates back to its old status, and in the second place, the patient is really not suffering from these completed changes, but from the underlying inflammatory process which has produced them.
mation disappears.
This is done by putting the patient in the knee-breast posture and introducing a cylindrical speculum as large as she can comfortably bear. (See Figs. Y6A and B.) With a head mirror the whole vagina is inspected and all secretions removed with pledgets of cotton; then take a cotton applicator and saturate it with a five-per-cent solution of silver nitrate, and swab the whole vagina thoroughly with this, reaching the bottom of every crevice and every pit, and seeing that the application reaches all parts, as the speculum is withdrawn, all the way down to and including the external oriflce. There may be some disagreeable aching after this, so it is well to keep her abed for a few hours or a day. Xo douches are to be taken for three or four days. As soon as the silver-cauterized surface epithelium begins to come off, which it may do in one piece, douches are used twice a day until another application is to be made in from ten days to two weeks. From one to three such treatments may suffice to cure the disease, or at least check it so decidedly that it is no longer annoying.
(7) Cancer of the Womb. — Cancer of the womb occurs frequently in women of advanced age. In Wertheim's list of 500 cases of cancer of the cervix (" Die Erweiterte Abdominale Operation bei Carcinoma Colli Uteri," 1911) there were 154 over fifty = 30.8 jDcr cent, showing the frequency and importance of considering both the liability and the dangers of an operation at this period.
It is not my purpose to dwell upon this subject further than to point out that the disease occurs with this relative frequency, and to note as well that age constitutes no obstacle whatever to a radical operation for its relief. Indeed the disease often advances more slowly and is less malignant in the aged than in the young.
PYOKOLPOS, PYOMETEA AND PIIYSOMETRA.
(8) Pyokolpos, Pyometra and Physometra. — These conditions are marked bj an accumulation of pus in the vagina, and in the uterus, or by air in the uterus. They are closely allied conditions due to an occlusion in the genital tract with an accumulation of secretions above it.
Pyokolpos is rare, I have seen but one case, that figured in the text. The patient, fifty-seven years old, had had some operation for atresia about puberty. She then menstruated normally all her life, remained unmarried, and passed through a natural menopause at forty-five. Twelve years later she came to me complaining intensely of her bladder. I found an atresia of the vagina (see Fig. 164) about an inch inside, and above this a large fluctuating tumor, on top of which the body of the uterus sat like a cap, well below the umbilicus. Some hard nodules felt by rectum justified the diagnosis of atresia of the vagina, with a large pyokolpos due to cancer of the womb and vagina. I opened the narrow bridge of the atresia by a careful dissection between rectum and vagina, and let out about 500 c.c. of pus from the vagina, and then by pressure emptied about 50 c.c. from the uterus itself; the cervix and vagina were found to be the seat of an extensive cancerous growth.
Pyometra is a commoner affection and is one of the truly characteristic diseases of the old (the other being occlusive vaginitis). It arises from an occlusion of the cervix, due to a disease associated with a discharge of an infectious nature; that is to say, either an endocervicitis or a cancer of the cervix.
Let me speak first of the latter. Oftentimes a patient, especially an elderly woman, has a slow growing cancer which chokes the cervix and dams up any uterine secretions, and these of the tumor above until the uterus becomes a thinned-out distended sac full of pus, or, if gases, too, are formed, of pu.s and air (pyo-physometra).
These patients suffer from much lower abdominal tenderness, which the physician is too apt to attribute to the obvious cancer, they are relieved as soon as the cancer is scraped away, affording a free exit to the pus pent up in the womb. It behooves the doctor, therefore, always to be alert in his cancer cases, looking for such accumulations in cancer patients who complain of much pain.
miicli on liis guard, the attending physician will mistake for a simple cervicitis and vaginitis. He mnst look with more than suspicion on every elderlv woman who Tias a fetid leucon*hea, w^hich varies considerably in amount and is associated with tormenting pains at intervals. The first step is to dilate
the cervical canal and to make
sure by curettage that there is no cancer developing inside the cervical canal or in the uterine body. After this evacuation a
secretion from the uterus looks like simple mucus.
(9) Fibroid Tumors. — Two things should be known about fibroid tumors, rirst, that they do occur with considerable frequency in the old. Out of 1,307 cases reported upon by T. S. Cullen and myself, there were 196 between forty-six and fifty years of age :^ to fifteen per cent ; there were 101 cases between fifty-one and sixty years = 7.7 per cent, and there were 13 over sixty-one years. The second fact of importance is to be able to assure any patient in advanced years, approaching such an operation, that age alone has no appreciable effect upon the outcome of an operation. Fibroid tumors do not call for operation unless they are doing some harm. A tumor choking the pelvis or a larger tumor making serious or distressing pressure on the abdominal viscera, or a tumor complicated by lateral inflammatory disease calls for operation.
(10) Ovarian Tumors. — The ovaries begin to atrophy with the menopause, and so confer a relative immunity to tumors of these organs. Still, ovarian tumors have been observed, and the dread in an elderly woman of such an operation is apt to be so great that it becomes a matter of importance to in-
OVAEIAKT TUMORS.
quire how frequently these cases are seen, and what are the statistics of operations for their relief. Bland-Sutton (" Surgical Diseases of the Ovaries and Fallopian Tubes ") inquired into this subject in the late eighties, and in the early nineties I investigated it with Dr. Mary Sherwood, collecting in all " 100 cases of ovariotomy performed in women over seventy years of age." We found that although a number of the cases dated back to the early ovariotomy days, and many operators w^ere concerned, yet the surprisingly low mortality of twelve per cent prevailed. Thirty of the cases were over seventy-four years, and only two of these died. There were only two dermoid cysts. About 40 cases in this creditable list are to be set to the account of our countrymen.
For the encouragement of any thus afflicted I append a list of all the cases of eighty years and over I have been able to find. (See " Surgical Diseases of the Ovaries," 1896. Bland-Sutton.)
The first two cases are added from a nearly similar list given by Leonard Eemfrey in the Trans, of the Obstet. Soc. of London, 1895, p. 158. The last one was operated upon by Morgan Cartledge and is recorded in the South. Sur. and Gyn. Trans., 1896, p. 153.
Spencer Wells (" Ovarian and Uterine Tumors," 1882, p. 256) remarks: " Dr. Ogle writes to me that in deaths due to ovarian dropsy or ovariotomy during the past ten years, seven were of women over eighty-five years of age." This is evidently from the public health records of Great Britain.
206, 542.
Air, pure, essential to public health, 44. Albarran, on tubercular infection of bladder, followed by other infections, 558.
with obesity, 244.
Anesthesia, chloroform, in examination of fjelvic organs in child, 26. in protection of perineum, 484. general, in examination of bladder, 563. in examination of pelvic organs, 26. in mechanical evacuation of the uterus, 468.
in fissure of rectmn, 38.
in gynecological examination, 27. Anesthesin in treatment of pruritus, 300. Angina pectoris due to syphilis, 425. An sell, on interval between marriage and
Asepsis, in dilatation of cervix, 122, 373. in gynecological examination, 6. in mechanical evacuation of uterus,
Bainbridge, on etiology of cancer, 514. Balano-preputial furrow, chancre on, 400. Baldy, W. H., on amenorrhea caused by
tion, 380.
Basedow's disease, amenorrhea in, 148. Bashford, on malignant tumors, 516. Baths, cold, in menstruation, 72. in treatment of headache, 231.
Bernutz and Goupil, on gonorrhea in causation of. pelvic peritonitis, 375. Bertillon, table by, on annual birth rate,
ease, 586.
Bismuth subnitrate, emulsion of, for Xray examination of stomach, 601. powder for gonorrheal infection in child, 391. Black wash, in treatment of chancre, 404. Bladder, examination of. See Cystitis, gonorrheal infection of, 376, 378, 386. inflammation of. See Cystitis, palpation of, by vagina, 13.
packs in vaginitis, 285.
suppositories in gonorrhea, 389. Bougies in treatment of vaginismus, 308. of iodoform, in chancre of meatus urinarius, 404.
tions, 222.
before abdominal operations, 221. during prolonged convalescence, 628. evacuation of, hindered by tight corset, 213.
Camphor in treatment of vaginitis, 285. Camp-life in treatment of insomnia, 241. Cancer of cervix, age when most frequent, 169, 517.
361, 373.
associated with dysmenorrhea, 107. susceptibility of, to infection, 380, 517. ulceration of, mistaken for cancer, 518. " weeping," 287.
on suppression of menstrual flow. 149. Clothing, unsuitability of, in women, 70. Coal-tar preparations, dangers of, 235. in dysmenorrhea, 114.
INDEX.
Cobbe, Y. P., on domestic infelicity as a cause of headache in women, 227. Cocain, in nasal dysmenorrhea, 109.
in vomiting, 158.
injection of, under spinal cord, 258. Cocain anesthesia. See Anesthesia. Cocain ointment. See Ointment. Coccygodynia, 260.
Cucca and Ungaro, on methylene blue in treatment of uterine cancer, 537. Cullen, T. S., on danger of tents in dilatation of cervix, 122.
in splanchnoptosis, 603.
regular, during menstruation, 73. in prevention of headache, 233. in prevention of insomnia, 241. in prevention of migraine, 237. Diet lists for constipation, 217.
iron in chlorosis, 156.
Douches, vaginal. See Vaginal douches. Douleurs interrtienstruelles, 132. Dover's powder in treatment of acute lumbago, 250.
Dudley, E. C, on packing uterus for hemorrhage from fibroid tumors, 509. Dmnitriu, on use of curette for incomplete abortion, 468.
Ecthyma vulgaris, diagnosis between, and
ecthyma form of syphilide, 418. Eczema, impetiginous, diagnosis between, and impetiginous form of syphilide, 417.
of syphilis, 449.
Egypt, age of first menstruation in, 83. Eieholz, on physical deterioration, 41. Einhorn, on frequency of splanchnoptosis,
tion in America, 83.
on frequency of menstrual pain, 66. on menstruation in college women, 77. Enemata, rectal, arsenic administered by, 272.
relation of, to migraine, 228.
Epithelioma, diagnosis between, and syphilis of oro-pharyngeal cavity, 423. Epithelium, columnar, gonococcus infection of, 378.
in hemorrhage after abortion, 469. in uterine hemorrhage, 185, 508. Ergotin in headache with low arterial tension, 233.
in uterine hemorrhage, 185.
Erosions of cervix. See Cervix. Eruption, syphilitic, 394, 411. Eruptive fevers. See Exanthemata. Erysipelas, abortion caused by, 455.
uterus and ovaries, 34.
Flaischler, on treatment of pruritus, 301. Flat-foot, neurasthenia from, 568. Flaxseed enemata. See Enemata. Fleck, on relation between fibroid tumors
in treatment of cervical cancer, 536. in treatment of gonorrhea, 388. Formulae for use in abortion, 461, 472. in amenorrhea, 156, 157, 158.
vulvitis caused by, 275, 276.
Gonococcus infection, vidvo-vaginitis caused by, in little girls, 381, 389. Gonorrhea. See Gonococcus infection. Gonotoxine, 376, 379.
on length of menstrual periods, 84. prescription by, for constipation, 157. Haultain, on functional amenorrhea,
Hegar, on relation between absence of sexual feeling and sterility, 367. on trauma in causation of abortion, 455.
from placental polyp, 166.
from retrodisplacements, 172, 322. general means of relief in, 192. in cancer, 169, 170, 518, 519, 542. in chlorosis, 147, 180, 367.
on duration of menstrual period, 84. on mechanism of menstruation, ■ 80, 81. on method of excising nerves in pruritus, 303.
Home Economic Conference, discussion
in, upon education of girls, 42. Home, employment at, for girls, 69. Home-making, importance of training for, 42.
tation of cervix, 469.
Imperforate hymen. See Hymen. Impetigo vulgaris, diagnosis between, and impetigo form of syphilide, 417. Impetigo-form syphilide, 417.
cause of pelvic disease, 50, 265. protection of children from, 50. uterine hemorrhage during, 271. Inflammation of pelvic organs. See Pelvic inflammation.
in infants, 443.
Injections, rectal. See Enemata. Insalivation of food, 245, 580. Insolation a cause of headache, 226. Insomnia, 238.
theories as to causation of, 132, 138. treatment of, and its results, 136. value of further reported cases of, 139. Internal secretion, glands concerned in, disturbances of, associated with amenorrhea and obesity, 148, 153.
on etiology of syphilis, 392.
Jung, on gonorrheal inflammation of endometrium in little girls, 269. on treatment of functional neuroses, 583.
palpation of, 609.
pelvic tumor mistaken for, 614. pyloric tumor mistaken for, 615. renal calculus mistaken for, 616. shape of body associated with, 607. suspension of, 619.
urinary symptoms of, 613.
vibratory bimanual palpation of, 610. Kidney colic. See Renal colic. Kisch, on absence of sexual feeling and sterility, 367.
Labor, pathological sequelte of, 478. pelvimetry essential in difficult, 482. pliysiological sequelas of, 477. precautious agaiust cystitis in, 486, 555, against infection in, 482, 488. protection of perineum in, 483. repair of lacerated cervix after, 486.
of perineum after, 484.
sterilized suit for physician in, 486. Laceration of cervix, 21, 32, 478, cause of one-child sterility, 362, repair of, after labor, 486.
amenorrhea from, 149.
Lebendinsky, on changes in ovaries during scarlet fever, 268, 269, 270. Leeches, application of, to cervix, 159. Lefour, on iibroid tumors in causation of
tubercular syphilide, 419.
Lustgarten, on etiology of syphilis, 392. Lutein for functional amenorrhea, 159. for obesity accompanied by amenorrhea,
cause of dysmenorrhea, 108, 120. cause of sterility, 256, 360, 363, 365. Malformations in infantile syphilis, 436. Malignant disease of intestine, a cause of constipation, 215, 222.
treatment of, 630.
carcinoma of uterus at, 96, 517. hemorrhage from uterus at, 98, 520. local changes in genitalia at, 90. obesity at, 244, 245.
Mercury, bichloride of, in chancre, 404. in diphtheritic vaginitis, 281. in disinfection of pessaries, 325. in preparation of sterile gauze, 466. in preparation of sterile towels, 465. in prevention of abortion, 461. in treatment of infantile syphilis, 443. methods of administering, in syphilis, dermic, 442.
ilis, 432.
Meyer, W., on methylene blue in the treatment of inoperable cancer, 537. Michaelis, on isolation of gonococcus in
on age of menopause, 87.
on duration of menstrual period, 84. Moore, T. M., on duty of the state to provide sufficient food for school child, 56.
Morphin habit. See Opium.
Morris, R. T., on importance of abdominal rigidity in diagnosis between acute appendicitis and salpingitis, 590.
infant, causes of, 41.
decrease of, in New York from improvement in public hygiene, 44. Mosetig-Moorhof, on methylene blue in treatment of uterine cancer, 537. Mossmann, on atresia of genital tract
genito-urinary symptoms of, 568, 569. headache in, 225, 226, 228, 567. insomnia in, 238, 239, 567, 581. retrodisplacement of uterus a cause of,
spinal pain in, 226.
splanchnoptosis associated with, 599. syphilo-toxines a cause of, 397. Neurologist, reasons for cooperation of,
psycho-therapy in treatment of, 582. re-education in treatment of, 582. suggestion in treatment of, 583. traumatic, 568.
Norway, increased fertility in, 347. Nose, condition of, in school-girls, 57. mucous membrane of, gonococcixs in, 360.
on explanation of Dietl's crises, 610. on nux vomica in increasing doses, 624. on tumor of pylorus simulating mova-ble kidney, 615.
vaginitis following, 282.
pain in, associated with malaria, 272. physiological changes in, possibly associated with intermenstrual pain, 132, 138.
the cause of, 50, 265.
appendicitis associated vpith, 586. coccygodynia associated with, 262. influence of malaria upon, 271. masturbation caused by, 310.
disease, 268, 270.
on age of first menstruation, 82. on duration of menstrual period, 84. Pericarditis due to syphilis, 383. Perineum, abscess of, 276.
protection of, in labor, 483.
Periosteum, syphilis of, 427, 442. Periostitis, syphilitic, 427, 428. Peritoneum, gonocoecus in, 378.
valescence, 622, 624, 628.
in prophylaxis of cancer, 109, 520, 530. in sterility due to husband, 353, 369. to syphilitic patient after marriage,
Physiognomy in hereditary syphilis, 435. Physiological amenorrhea, 145, 151. Piano, excessive practice upon, injurious
Piezometer, 9.
Pinard, on male sterility, 372. Pincus, on atresia of genital tract due to infectious disease, 143, 265, 266, 267.
Pneumonia, abortion during, 455. atresia of genital tract due to, 267. inflammation of uterus due to, 269. Pollack, Flora, on statistics of venereal
decline in, 347.
right proportion of increase in, 347. Porter, on torsion of ovarian cyst in child mistaken for acute appendicitis, 591.
in introduction of pack, 323, 509. in treatment of vaginitis, 285. Sims' exaggerated, in gynecological examination, 25.
Precocious menstruation, 82.
Pregnancy, avoidance of, in syphilis, 448. coccygodynia associated with, 261, 262. diagnosis in early stages of, 151, 458.
in principles of, 50.
importance of protection from syphilitic infection as branch of, 444. Priestley, Sir W., on intermenstrual pain,
sin in inoperable cancer, 539.
Pyelitis, albmninuria in, 548, 549. artificial abortion indicated in, 474. diagTiosis between, and cystitis, 549. pyuria in, 548.
fissure of, 34, 38.
gonococcus infection of, 3Y6, 378, 386. inflammation of. See Proctitis, inspection of, through head-mirror, 36. pelvic disease extending to, 33. separation of, from attachments of levator ani muscles after labor, 479.
in physiology of, 72.
Repulsion a cause of sterility, 367. Respiratory system, syphilis of, 424. Rest, therapeutic uses of, during menstrual period, 73, 627.
Scarlatina, abortion in, 455.
atresia of genital tract from, 267. atresia of vagina from, 143, 266. inflammation of ovaries in, 268. pelvic peritonitis after, 268.
tual cautery, 145.
on coccygodynia, 260, 261, 262, 263. on membranous dysmenorrhea, 128. on the mechanical theory of dysmenorrhea, 107.
Sims' speculum. See Speculum. Skene, on age of first menstruation, 87. on local changes in genitalia accompanying the menopause, 88.
hereditary syphilis of, 435.
syphilis of appendages of, 420. Skrobansky, on inflammation of the ovaries in acute infectious diseases, 268, 269, 270.
in treatment of vaginismus, 308. vesical, in examination of bladder, 532. in examination of vagina in child, 25. Sphincter area, dilatation of, 38. Sphincter vaginae, division of, in vaginismus, 308.
nastic exercises, 64.
Spirocheta pallida, demonstration of, in lesions and in fetus, 392, 393. disappearance of, on administration of
136, 509.
Stengel, on chlorosis, 146, 157, 158. Stephenson, W., on chlorosis, 146, 155. Sterdele, case of atresia of genital tract
of neck of uterus, 361.
by atresia of vagina, 142, 360. by cervical affections, 361, 362. by constitutional conditions, 366. by displacements of uterus, 363. by dyspareunia, 367. by endometrial affections, 362. by fibroid tumors, 363, 393, 504. by gonococcus infection, 358, 361,
by removal of parovarian cysts, 373. by removal of uterine polyps, 373. by treatment for gonorrhea, 374. Sterility in male, forms of, 351. frequency of, 353.
of urethra, in women, 360.
Stumpif, on statistics of abortion, 453. Sturgis, r. E,., on parallel between constitutional effects in syphilis and gonococcus infection, 377.
public health, 45.
Tents, in treatment of chancre, 404. sponge, in artificial abortion, 475. in mechanical evacuation of uterus,
with immorality, 212.
Tongue, epithelioma of, associated with excessive use of tobacco, 422, 441. diagnosis between syphilis of, and epithelioma, 422.
Urethral glands. See Skene's glands. Urethritis, gonorrheal, 260, 387. Urination, frequency of, in cystitis, 547, 549, 553.
manual reposition of, 326, 462. massage of, in incomplete abortion, 467. mechanical evacuation of contents of, in abortion, indications for, 464. instruments needed for, 469.
insomnia caused by, 239.
recognition of, on examination, 10. retroflexion associated with, 320. sterility associated with, 360. Vaginismus, definition of, 304. etiology of, 304.
in insomnia, 239.
von Wild, on galvano-faradism in the treatment of constipation, 219. on gymnastics in the treatment of constipation, 218.
Yeast, fungus, in pruritus, 298.
Zinc, chloride of, atresia of vagina following the therapeutic use of, 146. in cauterization of vagina for gonorrheal infection, 374.
ritus, 300.
as ointment in treatment of gonorrheal infection in a child, 391. as powder, in treatment of chancre,
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og5m9nh_8F3z2IQ7 | Financial engineering; a text for consulting, managing and designing engineers and for students, by O. B. Goldman ... | PREFACE
AN engineer must know the properties of all material with which he comes in contact and he must understand thoroughly the action and limitations of all machines and instruments which he is called upon to use or test, as well as the proper application of the same. More than this, he should know how to translate engineering factors into dollars and cents. In addition he must know how to install a service not necessarily at the highest mechanical or electrical efficiency, which may prove and often does prove far too expensive, but always with regard to the highest financial efficiency so the resulting service will be rendered with the least effort, in the preparation for the service and its actual rendition. This is Financial Engineering.
Technical Engineering must be supplemented by Financial Engineering to make a complete and harmonious system. What is demanded of the Financial Engineer is a solution in terms of money, the standard measure of commerce. Every engineer in a responsible position has felt this and likewise the need of a definite, scientific method of determining the comparative value of all things which he must use and the value of systems and of investments in general. He has felt the need of a correct method of determining the financial efficiency of undertakings, not merely as a whole, but element by element, so that all losses might be discovered, and so that the size and design for best economy might be determined. It was because of this demand that the author devoted so much of his time, over a period of fourteen years, to the development of Financial Engineering.
Financial Engineering does not invade the field of Economics. As a science it is founded on facts as all true science must be and each fact is thoroughly checked. Financial Engineering
is just as applicable to a farm as to a railroad, just as applicable to a store as to a power system. It extends engineering over business and administrative problems.
This book is written primarily for the practicing engineer. All mathematical deductions are worked out in detail, leaving no gaps for the reader to bridge. Many examples are also fully worked out, to illustrate the practical applications of the technique. The author has found by experience, that with the aid of an instructor, students can master the subject well. Like the practicing engineer, they are greatly interested in it, and seek it with greater avidity than any other course within the author's experience.
The work in its various stages of development has been repeatedly submitted to engineers, in articles, lectures and addresses, so that it has had the benefit of their criticisms and suggestions. The Author's obligation extends to so many that he is unable to do justice to all. Especial obligation is acknowledged to Messrs. Kremers, Johnson and Byrne, and to Professor Teeter; also to the General Electric Co., the Westinghouse Co., and Gordon and Finkheimer, of Portland, Oregon, for authentic data on the performance and costs of engineering equipment beyond that which had been accumulated by the author.
14. Competition, Law of Supply and Demand. ... 10 15-18. Replacement Costs, Market Value of Outstanding Liabilities, Capitalization of Earnings . . n
INTRODUCTION
1. In designing a system for the generation and distribution of power, or in laying out a -factory for the manufacture of a certain article, or in the rendition of any other service, the duties of the engineer are twofold: In the first place, he must so design the system that it will operate with reasonable continuity. In the second place, he must so design the system that it will operate, not only with reasonable economy, but with the best possible economy. In any system already built and in operation, the engineer should be able to determine the exact unit cost of production of the service as well as determine what parts of the system are operating with good, and which with low economy, so that all leaks may be closed. In the following pages we shall treat the definite and exact solution of such problems, both in theory and in practical application.
Cost segregation deals with the proper allocation of the various items of expense, and their division and arrangement as best suited for cost analysis. This is essentially the bookkeeping phase of the problem, and will therefore be treated in the following pages only where absolutely necessary and no more.
Cost analysis deals with the utilization of the data, obtained from cost segregation, together with all available engineering data, for the purpose of reaching conclusions as to the economy
or already exists.
3. In cost analysis, we start from the basis that cost 1 governs price; competition and utility commissions, only the profit therein contained. It is evident that if a servant corporation sells for less than cost, it must eventually go into bankruptcy. If it sells just at cost, the service will be rendered without reward. The servant company must therefore sell at cost plus a certain margin called profit. We can therefore say that cost plus profit equals price or rate.
in operation, for certainly it cannot do so when idle.
4. Profit. — This word is used in two senses, namely that of gross profit and that of net profit. Thus if an article cost us $100 and we sell it for $130, then the gross profit is $30. If the cost of making the sale is $20, then the net profit is $10. It is evident that gross profit is not profit at all for it includes essential cost. When we use the term profit in the following pages we shall mean only net or real profit.
It should be borne in mind that a finished article almost invariably carries not merely just one profit but usually a whole series of profits. Thus, for example, a certain amount of iron is mined at a cost of $i to which is added, let us say, a profit of 10%, making the price $1.10. It is converted into steel at a cost of, say, $0.50, making the cost to the steel producer $1.60. To this a profit of 10% is added, making the price of the steel $1.76. The manufacturer converts this steel into a machine part at a cost of $1.24, making a cost to him of $3. To this he adds 10% profit, making the price $3.30. Finally the sales organization disposes of this part at a cost of $0.70, making their cost $4. To this they likewise add 10% profit, making the final selling price $4.40.
5. Value. — While we can and shall determine comparative values, we have come to realize that " value " has no meaning at all in any exact sense, for the reason that we possess no absolute standard of measurement by which to measure it. Furthermore value is intensely variable with circumstances. What, for example, is the value of a meal to one that has just been fed as compared with the value of the same meal to a man who is starving? It was for some time attempted to use the value of service as the basis of rates, but it was found to be synonymous with " what the traffic will bear," a method of • coining money from the wants or distress of others.
6. Basis of Rates. — Each servant corporation must recover from its employers, i.e., customers, all its costs, to which is added a certain per cent of profit. According to present arrangements, it is not reasonable to expect a service as a whole, to be rendered without profit. And what applies to the service as a whole, applies equally well to each and every single item of the service. It is as unreasonable to expect any item of the service to be rendered without profit as to expect the service as a whole to be so performed. But while it is comparatively easy to determine if the service as a whole is profitable, by little more than consulting bank balances, it is entirely another matter to do this for any single item of service.
While it is unreasonable to expect a servant company to render a service or any item thereof without profit, it is equally unreasonable to expect one customer or any one group of customers, to pay, besides the cost burden that they place on the undertaking, more than their pro-rata of the profit. Nor would it be equitable to make one group of customers pay, besides their cost burden and pro-rata of profit, the cost burden of any other group of customers. In other words, it is not just to take the cost or profit burden, or any part thereof, off of one group of customers and place it on another group. Although in this way, the profit of the undertaking as a whole could be maintained unaltered, it would, nevertheless, be nothing short
of the U. S. Supreme Court.
It is not to be inferred from the above that each servant company should receive the same per cent of profit. For under such conditions, there would be no reward for efficiency, no incentive to engage the best engineering and administrative talent, and no punishment in the way of reduced incomes for poor economy.
7. Since cost governs price, the entire problem of rate or price determination is primarily that of engineering; that of design for maximum economy is entirely so. Knowing the exact unit cost, the price made therefrom is a matter of judgment, for it is founded on fact. But a price or rate made without knowledge of the unit cost, is an unadulterated matter of guesswork, if not worse.
Very often one company will set its prices in accordance with those of its competitors. That is one company will copy the prices of its competitors and use these prices as its own. This looks right on the ground that " competition regulates the price/' But it is not right because competition does not regulate the price but only at best what we may demand in profit. If the competitor's prices are less than our costs, then we must obtain a higher price, turn our attention to some other line of endeavor or else go broke.
8. In the problem of rate determination for public utilities, altogether too much stress has been laid on the various decisions of our state courts, in spite of the fact that these decisions have been exceedingly contradictory. Nor could these decisions help being so, for the problems to be solved are those of engineering and not law. The latter is therefore helpless in reaching a solution until engineering shows the way. In other words engineering must lead in these matters and determine the correct solutions to which the law must conform.
Courts base their decisions on the expert opinion of engineers in so far as these opinions are based on exact scientific knowledge. Beyond that the courts have as much right to guess as
equally bad.
It must be borne in mind that bad decisions of our courts, going as they do, counter current to the trend of natural development of human society, are a great hindrance to progress, while good ones are a great aid. While bad decisions cannot prevent, they most assuredly do delay advancement. After all it must be borne in mind that knowledge is all one and indivisible. We have hypothetical divisions, not real ones. One so-called branch of knowledge can no more live alone and separate from all other knowledge than the hand or the heart can exist separate from the whole living being. A discovery or advancement in engineering or a good decision in law both aid one another in that both aid in the progress of human society
9. As we have pointed out above, there are primarily two divisions to our entire problem, namely that of cost segregation and cost analysis, as applied to (a) cost determination and (b) design for best economy. Each charge growing out of the rendition of a service must be recorded, charged against the proper account, while mixed charges, applying to more than one item, must be properly apportioned. The apportioning of mixed items of expense is a task requiring a broad knowledge of engineering and perfect common sense. Cost segregation must be made in accordance with the demands of cost analysis. For the cost segregation is of no value in and of itself, and is useful only as an absolutely necessary basis for cost analysis. Cost segregation alone, where no further use is made of it, as is so often done, represents just so much useless and undigested data.
Drawing conclusions from data is the part of cost analysis. It is the business of determining exact unit cost for actual load conditions under which the 'system operates, as well as the aggregate effect of the load characteristics of each unit of the system. In the problem of design, the field is still broader. The system is not yet fixed, but is to be determined so that,
A railway service, for example, consists in the collection of freight, its transportation and distribution, production being zero as nothing is produced as such. A power service consists in the collection (storage) of water for power, the production of power, its transmission and distribution. Again an engine factory service consists in the collection of materials of manufacture, the production of the engines, their transportation and distribution.
The actual rendition of one of these divisions of a complete service may be delegated to an agent. Thus, for example, in the case of an engine factory, the actual transportation of the engines is almost invariably left to a railway company, who, by specializing for this particular division of service, can render it at an incomparably lower cost. So also the actual distribution of the engines may be left to a sales agency. Such is in fact very commonly done.
FIXED AND OPERATING COSTS 7
Fixed charges are all those costs which continue when the operation of a system is discontinued. Thus, interest, taxes, and the like continue whether the plant is idle or in use, i.e., productive or nonproductive. Thus the total annual costs of reserve units, while standing idle, is merely the total annual fixed charges of these units, the operating costs being zero. Such stand-by costs must be considered an insurance against discontinuity of service and needs be as carefully determined for best economy as any other factor of the system.
The operating cost consists of all costs over and above those of fixed charges. The costs of fuel, oil, water (materials consumed) , attendance, and the like are clearly all operating costs. But the salary of the engineer may be partly an operating and partly a capital cost. When the time and skill of the engineer is spent on the running of the system, or its maintenance, or repair, it is an operating cost. But when it is spent on the design of extensions or their construction, the salary must be charged to capital and bear fixed charges as any other item of investment. The same holds for supervision and the like of what may be called the overhead services.
12. Ordinarily, undertakings are divided into private and public utilities. But the production of steel, clothes, food or the like is as much a public necessity as transportation or power service. The above classification, though legal, is therefore
takings, as well as mixed.
An integral system is one that is designed to serve one and only one — one community or one given district and all of that community or district. Such a system is designed for the general needs of the community that it serves and not the particular needs of certain individuals of that district, except in so far as service connections are needed. These needs can be closely determined from previous experience with similar communities.
An individual system is one that is designed to meet part or all of the needs of certain, definite individuals. The distinction may be made clear by an illustration. Thus a telephone or power system is distinctly an integral system. You, individually, do not pay any charge unless you are actually receiving service from the undertaking, although the necessary costs and profits for operating the undertaking are collected from the community, in particular from that part of the community which does receive service. The undertaking is 'ready' to serve you, but that costs you nothing. All public utilities and most private companies are integral undertakings.
On the other hand if, let us say, six men join to put in a common pumping system, we have an individual system, for the size and type of the system are chosen to suit the needs of just these particular six men and no more or less. In such a system the readiness to serve must be paid for whether service is actually taken or not.
Example i : Four men, each owning 40 acres of land, put in a common pumping system costing $4000. One man uses an average of 5 acre feet of water per acre per year, the second 4, the third 3, and the fourth no water at all. If the fixed charges on the system are 12%, and the operating costs are 50 cents per acre foot, determine the annual charges that must be assessed against each man.
INDIVIDUAL AND INTEGRAL SYSTEMS 9
Since the system is designed to serve each man equally and as each man owns the same amount of land, the fixed charges will be divided equally, each man paying one-fourth, or $120, per year.
Although the fourth man receives no service, he must pay his pro-rata of fixed charges, his " readiness to serve " charge. For were he not in the system, the size and thus the total cost and fixed charges of the system could be proportionately reduced. This, however, holds true only for individual systems.
13. The government has always exercised more or less control over what are now classed as public utilities. But not until special commissions were formed did this control begin to be
effective. Even so, the commissions have been weak and unreasonable in many respects. But this must be expected to a certain extent in the incipient exercise of this authority. And it will continue until the commissions are composed of experts and experts only.
It is now clearly established that actual, real costs must be used as the basis of rates in such undertakings, and not the hypothetical " value of service," or the piratical " what the service will bear " basis. "For," says Justice Hughes in the decision of the United States Supreme Court in the North Dakota coal case, " where it is established that a commodity . . . has a rate imposed, which would compel the carrier to transport it ... virtually at cost, and thus the carrier would be denied a reasonable reward for its (that particular) service ... it must be concluded that the state (commission) has exceeded its authority." This decision, at a single sweep, landed most of the work of our inexpert state commissions in the waste basket.
14. Competition is industrial disorganization. Under such conditions no service can be rendered economically, for it involves the wasteful expenditure of capital and labor. The formation of the so-called trusts is a natural attempt to evade such conditions. Under competitive conditions, the public gets poor and expensive service while the returns on the undertaking are often subnormal. It is true that in some cases better and cheaper service has been rendered under competitive conditions. But this was due either to lack of ability of those in control of the first undertaking, or abnormally large profits collected, due either to lack of authority, or ability, of the commission or both. Commissions should have the ability to know what is right, the courage to do what is right, and the authority to execute it. We emphasize this because it seems probable that the authority of the commissions will be extended eventually to all integral systems. Competition is always the short cut to higher costs.
Economists have stated that there was such a thing as the law of demand and supply, which automatically regulates prices. Even the most elementary study shows that
COMPARATIVE VALUES n
there is no such law. In the first place the demand for any necessity is practically a constant but the amount used will depend, not so much upon the price, as upon the wealth (purchasing ability) of the consumer. In the second place, while it is true that the prices vary with the supply, this is due to the unregulated, unscientific methods of production, giving us alternate waves of oversupply and undersupply, alternate waves of waste and want. If there is such a law, it is the law of the wilds, where they stuff in summer and starve in winter. Certainly it is not the law of intelligent production.
Cooperation and not competition, work and not war and waste is the keystone of our modern social structure. This accounts for the condensation of small industrial units into fewer large one, for the formation of the labor unions, fraternities and the like. Much as capitalism has been condemned, one thing certainly may be said for it; that it compelled cooperation and coordination amongst workers long before there would have been voluntary cooperation and in so doing has served to advance civilization. But with the coming of voluntary association and cooperation, compulsory association and compulsory cooperation will be little tolerated.
15. The comparative value of an undertaking is in direct proportion to its size and economy of rendering the service. There are even yet, however, a number of different " methods " for determining the so-called " value" of an undertaking. These are based on (i) Original Cost, (2) Replacement Cost, (3) Market Value of Outstanding Liabilities, and finally that based on (4) the Capitalization of Earnings.
The Original Cost includes not only the money spent on the undertaking at its inception, to bring it into being, but also all money spent for extensions and improvements, except in so far as such may be chargeable to depreciation. Original cost will however, not give the comparative value of an undertaking for, according to this basis, the more a given undertaking cost, the greater would be its worth. It is evident then that original cost will lead to the comparative value only if we take into consideration most fully the economy of the undertaking. In
purpose for which it was constructed.
The Replacement Cost is the amount of money that would have to be expended now, or at some other time subsequent to the original formation of the undertaking, to bring it into being. Replacement cost includes, besides the original cost, the depreciation of this sum of money in purchasing power during the interim and therefore tends to give the undertaking a speculative value.
The " market value" of the outstanding liabilities of a company should give some information as to the comparative value of an undertaking, but, with rare exception, they most certainly do not. The real value is usually quite dilute. There are many reasons for this, but fundamentally, whenever a corporation has the power to create an artificial market, then these " market values" represent nothing but the ability of the companies along these lines of manipulation.
Attempting to find the " value" of an undertaking from its earnings, so as to determine the earnings from the " value" so found, is like trying to find the end of a circle. A company might, for example, be guilty of exploiting the community that it serves. If the " value" of the undertaking under such conditions is determined from its earnings, it would give such a concern a "vested right" in such exploitation.
It must be clearly kept in mind in discussing the above that the word " value " has no definite meaning. In view of this, the purposelessness of the above "methods" becomes more evident.
In order to illustrate the enormous discrepancy in determining so-called "value" by the various methods above, we give below some of these "values" for one certain company.
PROFITS 13
16. It took the great war to bring to full realization the fact that gold is not a necessity, that necessities are not measured by gold, but gold by necessities. Under the present era (1918) of "high prices," it takes no more sacks of potatoes or suits of clothes to build a house than under normal times although it takes twice as much gold. It is not the price of all commodities that has increased, but the price of gold that has decreased. It is far more sensible to acknowledge this view than to take the opposite one that everything has changed but gold. When, for example, the price of wheat was set at $2 per bushel, it was in reality not the price of wheat that was set at all, but the price of gold that was set. This allowed a 50% depreciation in the price of gold and had this not been done, its depreciation would have been far greater, far, probably, below its cost of production.
That is why the payment of wages in gold has proved unsatisfactory, because the " doubling" of wages under such conditions meant no raise at all. But were they based on necessary commodities, wages would at once be stabilized.
17. Profits have been a fruitful source of political and economic discussion. The view generally taken is that profit is the reward that the servant gets fpr rendering a service, notwithstanding that the wages, that is the total costs, do pay for this service. The peculiar anomaly, therefore, exists that, if this servant is a human being, he gets only wages for rendering the service, but, if the servant is an undertaking, it gets not only full wages, but profit besides. Looking at it from the standpoint of the purchaser, i.e., the employer of the service, what does he, the purchaser (employer) , get for the profit that he may pay to the servant? It is evident that, if the costs (or wages) are the full reward for the service rendered, the employer (customer) obtains absolutely nothing for this profit that he pays above the cost (total wages) of a commodity.
18. It is evident from the above that all business organizations, whether we choose to speak of them as companies, undertakings, utilities, corporations, or the like, have but one purpose and that is the rendition of a service for others. They are evidently just servant organizations and we shall in these pages
speak of them on occasion as servants. The relation of a customer, patron, or purchaser to an organization or individual from whom he obtains a service (or commodity) is that of employer to employee in that he employs the organization to render the service. The service of such an organization is rendered by the organized efforts of individual servants. The relation of the organization to the individual servants is that of employer to employee. But the relation of the public to a public utility is (or should be) that of Master to Servant.
In the case of an individual servant, there is no question but that the price equals the total wages, or cost of the service. But in the case of an organization of Servants, as a corporation, the price is greater, often much greater, than the wages (costs) , and this excess or profit does not go to the individual servants of that organization but to others, who render no service whatever.
It must be borne in mind clearly that all costs of a given service are exactly equal to all wages associated with that service. Usually such costs are spoken of as wages proper and cost of materials. But the cost of the materials themselves is only wages, so that, in fact, cost equals total wages. So-called overhead expenses may be divided into salaries paid for essential service rendered and thus come under wages, rents which in the main come under profits and so forth. Wages as used herein is understood to mean all moneys paid for essential service rendered. Iron ore, for example, has no cost, being a natural resource. But a finished machine has for its cost — as distinguished from its price — all moneys paid for essential service of whatever kind, in the mining of the ore, its smelting, transportation, etc., and its manufacture finally into a finished machine. The cost of such a machine, or any other material we may buy, is the sum total of all wages associated with its production and manufacture.
The best member of this, or any other country, is the one that renders the community the best and most service. It certainly is not the " successful man" who, instead of serving the community, has merely proven his ability to take and gather the most unto himself, instead of giving the most.
COST SEGREGATION
Interest. Depreciation and Appreciation. Taxes. Insurance. Materials Consumed. Attendance. Maintenance Repair. Life of Structures and Equipment. Stock. Storage. Sale and Distribution.
19. As pointed out in the first chapter, all production costs may be divided into fixed charges and operating costs. The fixed charges are divided into the following divisions:
20. Interest. — The price of any service, or commodity, is made up of just two items, namely: the cost, or total wages and salaries, and the profit. To which of these does interest belong? It is a nonproductive charge, not being paid to the individual servants of the organization but to some one else who renders no service. It is evidently a profit charge and is so treated by both federal and state commissions. So-called public utilities are allowed all their profits in the form of interest on the " capital" invested, and no profit is allowed in any other form. This is from the actual standpoint of the customer (employer) of the service. An organization using
it in the following pages.
Interest is charged on all money invested. This consists of the price paid for all machinery, materials, and wages, as well as unavoidable losses, such as loss of time during construction due to inclement weather, loss of tools, cost of temporary structures and the like.
The rate of interest varies greatly, usually from two to eight per cent. Governments normally pay two to two and a half per cent, large industrial undertakings four to six per cent, while small firms and individuals of very moderate wealth pay seven to eight per cent. It is not clear what determines the rate of interest unless it is "all that the traffic will bear." It is often said that the "risk" determines the rate of interest, so that the greater the "risk" the greater the rate of interest. In other words, the smaller and weaker the firm (or individual) the greater the profit burden it must bear. But as # matter of fact, the greater the rate of interest, the greater the "risk" naturally becomes. So this is evidently not the basis of interest but rather the want or distress of the user. As a matter of fact, money cannot produce money any more than a reservoir can produce water.
In general, what applies to interest, which is merely the .rent paid for capital, applies equally well to rent paid for the loan of any other commodity, in so far as the rent charged for any such commodity exceeds the actual costs associated with the making and collecting of the loan, the maintenance of the commodity in its original condition and the depreciation associated with this article.
Net profit, net interest and net rent are all alike in that they are all net profits, i.e., charges for which no services are rendered. The fact that the profits are paid to others, besides the owners of the organization, does not reduce the burden that the customer must bear.
21. Depreciation and Appreciation. — As things become older, their comparative value changes. If the comparative value decreases, we have depreciation, while if it increases,
What we speak of as land has really two meanings, namely, the land itself and location. For agricultural purposes we buy the land itself, and, unless we fertilize it, it depreciates rapidly. For marketing (selling) purposes we buy location and this invariably appreciates with increase in population. The price or rent of locations varies with the serviceability of the locations to the public (the employer). By thus varying the price, the location is made to serve the owner (servant) instead of the public (the employer). Locations thus become the tollgates of industry, though not the only tollgates.
22. Obsolescence. Progress in engineering results in improvements that yield either increased efficiency or reduced first cost. For this reason, a unit that we have in service loses its comparative value or becomes obsolete. When the efficiency of new apparatus has been so far improved that it would pay to discard the unit in use entirely, then the unit in use has become completely obsolete and its comparative value zero or even much less, even though it is otherwise in perfect running condition. Thus, for example, a uniflow engine will give as good efficiency as a triple expansion engine while costing only 40% as much. Had one just purchased a triple expansion engine, when the uniflow appeared, 60% of the purchase price of the former would have gone into depreciation at once, for the reason that the same service could be performed equally well with this reduction in capital outlay.
23. Inadequacy. — It often happens in a new and fast growing business that certain items of the system may be replaced to advantage though not obsolete. Thus in a power plant, it often is an advantage to replace a number of smaller units, however modern, that have accumulated during growth, with one large unit. Again in the case of a railway system,
the traffic may increase so that a single track bridge is incapable of handling the traffic, although it is still in good condition. In such cases the item affected has become inadequate. It may be argued that a larger unit should have been installed in the first place and in some cases that would have been right, but more often this would have resulted in reduced economy due to too early an outlay of capital.
Only when the plan of installing smaller units first and replacing them with larger units later results is better economy than having installed the larger units at the start, have we a case of inadequacy of equipment. When conditions are reversed we have a case of inadequacy of the management.
24. Uselessness. — A system or part thereof becomes useless (without use) when the service for which it was intended is no longer demanded. Thus a temporary structure, used during construction, becomes useless and in fact often a nuisance, when the construction is finished. Again a logging railroad may be built into a certain district. When the logging is finished, the railroad becomes useless, though some parts of it may be salvaged.
25. Fundamentally, the object of cost calculation is to maintain the capital intact, neither permitting it to increase nor decrease. For this reason, it is necessary to set aside each year a certain sum of money, equal to the amount that the system has depreciated in that time. This money, so set aside, forms the Depreciation Reserve or Sinking Fund, the former term being preferable. This depreciation is an essential part of the cost of the production of the service being rendered. The amount of the depreciation reserve laid by should be such that, at any time that the equipment has depreciated to zero, it, together with the accumulated interest thereon, should amount to the original cost of the equipment, less whatever scrap value it may have. So also if the equipment appreciates in value, this amount must be deducted from the production cost for the very same reasons that depreciation must be added. The Depreciation Reserve is not a donation to the Servant from the employer, but a trust fund that
returned.
Primarily, the amount of the depreciation reserve that must be annually laid by depends upon the life of the structure or equipment. This life must be determined from experience and is now fairly well known. It is given as well as possible in
ECONOMIZERS 15 WIRING, electric 30
The above list is necessarily very limited. Besides it must be borne in mind that the life given is necessarily rather approximate. It depends greatly on the quality of the apparatus when purchased, together with a multitude of other conditions. The above table is for good substantial equipment, not the cheap stuff that is also found on the market.
Other conditions that affect life are the surrounding elements. Thus, the life of wood pipe is very great, if it is kept thoroughly impregnated with water, but deteriorates rapidly with disuse. So again soil conditions often are a deciding factor, iron pipe decomposing rapidly in alkaline soil or sea
water. On the other hand the life of stacks is greatly influenced by the amount of sulphur in the fuel. This is due to the formation of sulphurous acid from the sulphur dioxide and its oxidation to sulphuric acid in the presence of water and free oxygen, when the temperature is not too high. This acid attacks the iron, causing very active corrosion. It seems to be most active during light or no load periods. So also, the life of boilers being fed with untreated water, depends more upon the chemical composition of the raw water than upon any one other item.
The life of all apparatus depends upon the skill of the operating engineers as well as the proper correlation of all parts of the system by the designing engineer. All such items must be taken into account in determining the probable life of a system. But the difference between normal and actual conditions should be charged to management. With unusually good operators a plant will tend to appreciate in value for quite a few years. This should be credited not only to the operators but to the management which had the courage and foresight to pay the price for first class men. On the other hand if the first cost of a system or the operating cost is abnormally high due to poor designing, the difference should be charged to bad management where it ultimately belongs.
The reader is cautioned not to confuse depreciation with wear, as is often done in practice. Depreciation is a fixed charge, continuing unaltered whether the unit is in use or idle. Wear is an operating cost, the amount of wear being in direct proportion to the amount of use. When a machine is worn out, it has not depreciated to zero worth. It has merely worn out and we have merely a major repair item.
Thus when a bearing is worn out, we replace the bearing and thus repair the engine. This is admittedly a repair item. So when an engine is worn out, we replace the engine and thus repair the power plant. The replacement of an entire wornout engine is just as much a repair item as the replacement of any of its parts, the only distinction being the degree of the replacement. Whenever the cost of maintenance of an old
MATERIALS CONSUMED 21
unit is greater than the total costs (fixed charges and maintenance) of a new unit, it is evident that it will pay us to discard the old unit. In such a case it is worn out.
We may therefore distinguish two lives for all things, namely the natural life and the operating life. The natural life depends on the factors of obsolescence, inadequacy and uselessness. The operating life depends upon the amount of use that may be obtained from anything before it is worn out. The shorter of the two determines the true life of the unit.
It would be senseless and very bad engineering to make the operating life of a unit longer than its natural life. Yet this very thing has been done in the past. The large, extremely low speed engines of forty and fifty years ago, some of which are still in use, refuse to wear out, though they are hopelessly obsolete. It is for this reason that practically none of this type of machinery is now built.
26. Taxes may be definitely determined in any community, usually running between one and two per cent of the assessed value. The assessed value is usually somewhat below the original cost of the undertaking and this must of course be taken into account.
Insurance usually runs between 0.5 and 1.5% but this again depends upon the construction of the system. A concrete building that is absolutely fireproof need carry no insurance, thus tending to reduce the total cost of such a structure. If, for example, a building cost $100,000 and insurance is i%, then the annual insurance outlay is $1000 which, at 5%, interest, capitalizes at $20,000. A fireproof building would be worth this much more. But to all this we must add the cost of insurance on the equipment that is to be housed within the building, further increasing the value of the firepoof structure.
27. Materials Consumed. — Any undertaking rendering a given service, whether a factory producing a given commodity or a power plant, uses up a certain amount of materials, which is either entirely consumed or else rendered into a more or less
produced.
Thus a steam power .plant consumes fuel, lubricating oils and greases, waste, packing, paints, and the like. A hydro-electric power plant consumes all of these except fuel. A factory producing machinery consumes a great variety of supplies as well as iron, steel, brass, and the like in considerable quantities, which are rendered into the more or less useless form of turnings and punchings.
The cost of all such materials consumed should be charged under this head to operation, together with their cost of purchase and delivery, and the cost of waste removal, less the salvage if any.
28. Attendance. — The salary or wages paid to all who are actually engaged in the production of a given service should be charged to operation under the head of attendance. In an iron works, for example, this includes the wages paid to machinists, molders, boiler makers, helpers, clerks, bookkeepers, collectors, and the like, together with such parts of the salary of the superintendent, engineer, and manager as are devoted to the actual production of the service. And so for other undertakings.
29. Maintenance. -- The cost of all materials and labor, engineering, and inspection service necessary to keep an undertaking in good running condition, so that its productive capacity does not decline, should be charged to operation under the head of maintenance. The largest item that comes under this head is repair and replacement of worn-out parts of equipment and the maintenance of grounds and buildings. But as previously pointed out, the cost of equipment replaced because of obsolescence, inadequacy, or uselessness should be assessd to fixed charges under the head of depreciation. Attendance, maintenance, and materials consumed decrease with the increase in quality of the system, while its first cost increases therewith. Therefore as the fixed charges are allowed to increase, the operating costs decrease. This gives us one of
STORAGE, SALE AND DISTRIBUTION 23
our most important problems, to find, under given load conditions, where the sum of the fixed charges and operating costs, i.e., the total costs of production of the service, are a minimum.
30. Stock Account. — It is invariably necessary in any undertaking, whether large or small, to carry a special, temporary account of materials on hand for use or sale. This account should be divided into two parts, namely raw .stock and finished product. Thus in a steam-electric power plant, we have on hand usually considerable materials, such as fuel, supplies, and the like, which should be charged to capital until used and then transferred to operation. In this case we have no finished product, for electricity is and must be used as produced, excepting what little is carried over in storage batteries. In the case of an engine factory, we have the raw materials account, covering materials consumed as well as those going into the finished product. This stands as a debit against the production of the engines, while the finished product stands as a credit account.
31. Storage, Sale and Distribution. — As previously shown, the costs of rendering a given service may be divided into collection, production, transportation, and distribution, the latter including sales. The item of storage, sales, and distribution, while in some business the most important function, is no exception to the treatment given any of the other items in the complete rendition of a service. The more uniformly we operate throughout the year the more must be stored, i.e., we can decrease the production cost at the expense of the storage cost. To determine the conditions of best economy, in such a case, gives a typical problem in cost analysis.
Selling is one of the most important services that is rendered, because it comprises not only the actual selling but the giving of advice and assistance to the purchaser in the successful use of the product being sold, as well as trouble shooting, that is the correction of troubles that appear in the use of the product whether due to more or less defect in the product or to difficulties that the purchaser gets himself into.
32. In any actual plant all the above items of expense are found to be more or less mixed together since operation, maintenance, replacement, and the like are taking place simultaneously. They can, of course, be readily segregated by an engineer, not with absolute accuracy, but sufficiently so for the most exacting practical needs.
FUNDAMENTAL FINANCIAL CALCULATIONS
Compound Interest. Principal. Equity. Term Factor. Operating Vestance. Depreciation Rate. Present Worth of a Depreciating Equipment. Depreciation Vestance. Total Vestance. Annual Operating Costs.
33. Interest. — The loan of money is paid for by the annual payment of interest usually expressed as a certain per cent of the principal. The loan of money is always for a certain term of years only, at the end of which time the principal must be returned, the interest in the meantime being paid annually. This is so-called Simple Interest. On the other hand, instead of paying the interest when due, it may be added to the principal and become a part thereof, the sum of the two thereafter bearing interest. This is called Compound Interest. Thus we meet the problems of how much would a principal amount to in a certain number of years, bearing compound interest at a given rate, and conversely, knowing that a certain amount is due in a given number of years at a known rate, to find its present value.
Example 3 . In how many years will a sum of money treble itself at 10% compound interest? Solution: In this case we have
35. Principal. — Knowing the sum of money that will be due in a certain number of years at a given rate of compound interest, we can find its present worth, by solving the above formula for (P), thus
36. Equity. — If the operation of a certain equipment is guaranteed, and its actual performance falls below this, the cost of operation of this unit will be increased by a certain amount annually. In such a case a certain sum (the equity) must be deducted from the price of the unit to compensate the purchaser for this loss in guaranteed economy. On the other hand, if the guarantee is exceeded, a certain sum should be added to the price to compensate the manufacturer for the increased economy attained.
In determining the equity, it is evident that if we capitalize this annual amount by which the guaranteed economy falls short (or is exceeded) at the usual rate of interest, and pay this sum to the purchaser, he will receive this annuity, as interest therefrom forever, whereas the equipment has a limited life only. We would thus be paying too much. Calling (a) the annuity, or the annual cost of operation in excess of the guarantee, and (R) the interest rate, then this capitalized amount (A) will equal merely
Instead of deducting (A) dollars from the selling price (C) which, as pointed out above, would be too large a sum, we should loan this sum (A) to the purchaser during the life of the unit, without charge, the principal to be returned by him at the end of this time, the interest thereon, would compensate the
purchaser for the reduced efficiency. This would be an equitable adjustment. But this adjustment can be simplified. If instead of waiting for (n) years, the life of the equipment before the amount (^4) is returned, we deduct from this amount (A), due in (n) years, its present worth (P), then we can reach a complete adjustment at once. This difference (A - P) is the equity (£), so that
37. Alternate Solution. — We can obtain the above formula in a more direct but also more laborious way as follows: To begin with we lay aside E dollars. At the end of the first year, this has increased to
which will increase to [E(i + #)3 - a(i + R)2 - a(i + P)] at end of the third year. So then at the end of the third year, we have left after paying the third installment of (a) dollars
and S = (i + RY-1 + (i + RY~2 ' ' ' + (i + R) + i. Multiplying through by (i + R), we get (i + R)S = (i + #)" + (i + tf)"-1 • . .
as before.
38. Example 5. A 100 h.p. engine is guaranteed to consume not over 2O# of steam per h.p.h. A test shows its actual consumption to be 22#. If the engine is run at full load for 3000
hours per year, and the steam costs 20 cents per iooo#, what will be the amount which should be deducted from the purchase price of the engine to compensate for this loss in economy? The life of the engine is 20 years; interest rate 5 %.
Solution: Under the above conditions, the engine evidently uses 2oo# of steam per hour in excess of the guarantee. In a year of 3000 hours it would use in excess
39. Example 6. A 300 h.p. motor is sold for $1800 with a guaranteed efficiency of 92 %. It is used at full load for 3000 hours per year. The life of the motor is 20 years and the power costs one cent per h.p.h. If the motor only develops 90% efficiency, how much should be deducted from the price to compensate the purchaser therefor, assuming an interest rate of
That is, assuming we can get a motor of 92 % efficiency from another firm, we could not afford to accept this motor as a present, unless we received therewith a cash bonus of $650.
What is the difference in worth per h.p. of two Diesel engines, one of which uses o.4o# of oil per h.p. and the other uses 0.46$ oil per h.p. if the engines are used at full load for 4000 hours per year, the oil costing 0.5 cent per pound, interest 7 % and the life of the engines being 25 years?
That is the engine using only 0.40$ oil per h.p.h. is worth about fourteen dollars more per h.p. than the engine using 0.46$. Evidently it would not pay to spend more than -this amount to gain this added economy.
Example 8. What is the difference in worth between a steam plant using 2# of coal per h.p.h. and a producer plant using i# coal per h.p.h., the coal costing $5 per ton and interest being 6%, if the lives of the plants are 20 years, and they are run at full load for 3000 hours per year, other things being equal?
Solution: At $5 per ton, the coal costs J cent per pound. The steam plant therefor cost J cent per h.p.h. more than the producer plant, or J X 3000 = $7.50 more per year per h.p. So then we have
Worth 86 dollars more per h.p. than the steam plant.
Example 8. Determine how much more we could pay for a hydro-electric power plant and transmission line, than for a steam plant, to be run at full load for 3000 hours per year, if the operating costs for the latter are 0.6 cent per h.p.h., while for the hydro-electric system, they are only 0.2 cent. Assume the life in either case to be 30 years and interest to be 5 % while all other things are equal.
Solution: In this case it costs 0.4 cent more per h.p.h. for the steam plant than for the hydro-electric plant, or 0.004 X 3000 = $12. more per h.p. year. So we have
Example 9. A Diesel engine plant uses 0.4$ of fuel oil per h.p.h. costing $1.60 per barrel (320#), while the attendance cost is o.i cent per h.p.h. A steam plant uses 3$ coal per h.p.h. costing $5 per ton with an attendance cost of 0.2 cent per h.p.h. These plants are assumed to have a life of 15 years. If interest is 5 % and the plants are to be run for 4000 hours per year at full load, what is the difference in worth between the two?
41. We have thus, as illustrated in the above problems, a method not only for determining the equity in any given case, but the same method permits us to get the difference in value of various units or systems only, however, under full load conditions. The case of relative values, and equities under partial load conditions, will be taken up later. We can extend this treatment somewhat further by determining the capitalized value of the operating cost. Thus if the operating cost is (a) dollars per year, and since this outlay will continue for all times, and not merely for the life of the equipment, its total capitalized amount, or operating vestance ( V) as we shall call it, will be
operating cost.
Example 10. If it costs $12 per year for operation to produce a continuous horse power and money costs us 6 %, what is the operating vestance (V) per h.p.?
42. The Depreciation Rate is a certain per cent of the first cost which is annually laid aside to form the depreciation reserve. This rate must be such that at the end of the life of the equipment, the depreciation reserve, together with its accumulated interest, will equal the first cost less the scrap value of the equipment. The item of accumulated interest on the depreciation reserve has often been overlooked in the past, introducing a very great error. Thus if the life of a certain item of equipment is 50 years, it has usually been assumed that the depreciation rate was 2 %. We shall show later that this is about six times too large — an error of 600%.
43. To solve this problem correctly, we must determine an amount or annuity (^4) which, when laid aside each year for (n) years, the life of the equipment, and drawing interest at (R) per cent, compounded annually, will amount to (W) dollars, the first cost of the unit less its scrap value, i.e., its wearing value. The depreciation rate (D) which should be applied only to the wearing value (Traction Valuation Commission of Chicago, 1906) is then merely,
It is difficult to determine for long periods in advance the scrap value of any item of a system, and, furthermore, this item is small in comparison with the first cost. In practice it is customary to neglect this difference and apply the depreciation rate to the first cost (C), getting the approximate equation
DEPRECIATION 37
This will be correct if it is understood that at the time of a purchase of a new unit the scrap value of the replaced unit is applied to this purchase and not treated as an asset of the undertaking. This will give, then, exact results, when an attempt to determine the scrap value of a unit, 15, 20, or 30 years hence would be only a wild guess. The determination of the depreciation rate follows, as per these latter conditions.
At the end of the second year, due to the interest rate, this will increase to A(i + R) dollars, to which we add, by deposit, another (A) dollars. The depreciation reserve is then
That is, the depreciation rate is approximately one- third of one per cent instead of the 2% usually assumed, giving an error of some 600% as mentioned before.
45. We have spoken thus far only of depreciation. Machinery depreciates with age. But lands, live-stock, and the like almost invariably appreciate in price. Evidently appreciation is merely negative depreciation, so that if we charge depreciation as a cost, then we must charge appreciation as a profit.
Lands invariably increase in value with the increase in population in their vicinity or in the development of their resources previously lying undeveloped and perhaps undiscovered. The increase in price of land with population is very pronounced. Live-stock appreciates by natural processes. But besides all this, all classes of things may apparently increase in price due in reality to a depreciation of the currency. Under such conditions, they really do not increase in worth at all. A pound of wheat has no more nutritive value now than a hundred years ago" though it now costs many times as much. Its nutritive value is a constant. Its increased cost is only apparent due to the decreased price of the money.
So a piece of machinery may increase in price, but not worth, due likewise to the decreased price of gold. Where the price of the metals and labor has doubled, it is evident that the price of the machine must be doubled, which merely means, according to our present system of exchange, that it will take
PO PO PO CM CM OO 10 PO O O O OO O O O w O M r^O w w rl- •rt- oo r^^O t^Tft^M co »o " M M Tj- CO \O Tf •'T \O r^.
The increased production of gold results in a decrease in its price. The price is determined by the demand for the gold for such useless uses as ornamentation and exchange and for useful use in industry. The price that can be paid for gold for industrial use is strictly limited by its intrinsic worth. The price it may have for useless uses is a problem of mob psychology rather than one of science. As the production increases, the price falls, and with the fall in price, more gold is used in industry. When the price has fallen sufficiently, all that is produced will be usefully used and the substance, gold or whatever it may be, will have fallen to its true comparative value, or industrial worth.
It must be borne in mind that the prices of iron, copper and nickel, as well as silver and gold, went through the same stages, from high artificial price to real industrial worth.
46. In the case of public utilities, depreciation is not a sum of money paid outright to the companies, but is in reality a trust fund to insure maintaining the service at par. It is the duty of the commissions to see that it is all properly used. But in taking depreciation into account, we must also take into account appreciation. To charge the public for that which depreciates without allowing for that which appreciates in value is eminently unjust. In private companies the matter should be treated likewise if the true status of the business is desired.
47. While each item of a plant has usually a different depreciation rate, yet a mean rate for the entire plant may be obtained so that the plant may be treated as a whole. This is illustrated in the following illustrative problem.
Example 14. A power plant of 1000 h.p. consists of the following items, with costs and depreciation rates as set forth. Determine the mean depreciation rate.
Solution: Summing up the costs gives us a total of $91,400 for the plant. So also summing up the depreciation amounts gives us $1682.10 — $1280 = $402.10 net depreciation. The
equipment depreciates, the sum of its present worth plus the depreciation fund together with accrued interest thereon, equals the first cost of the equipment. It is often desirable to know the worth of a depreciating unit at some given time. This we can determine as follows:
Example 15. The original cost of a unit is $10,000 and its life is 30 years. The interest rate is 5%. What is the worth of the unit at the end of the 2oth year?
whence
9. Vestance. — The first cost of the same type of equipments varies greatly. The life of the various types and their cost of operation offer two more intensely variable conditions. Besides all these we must consider the different classes of equipment that are all designed to serve the same purpose. Thus, for example, we have to consider the various classes of pumps, such as reciprocating, centrifugal, and jet pumps. And, for any one class, i.e., reciprocating pumps, we must consider the various types, such as simplex, duplex, or triplex pumps, single or double acting, vertical or horizontal and so forth.
With such a kaleidoscopic mass of variable factors, it would seem at first hardly possible to get a basis from which comparative values of such different classes and types may be determined. Yet such a basis may be rather readily obtained in what we call vestance, the equivalent cost of a permanent service.
We shall lead up to this with the following example.
Example 17. If we make a certain crossing with a wooden bridge, it will cost $10,000 and its life will be ten years. If we make this crossing with a steel bridge, its cost will be $18,000 and have a life of thirty years. If the interest rate is 6 %, which of the two bridges will be the most economical investment?
Solution: The first cost of the wooden bridge is $10,000. At the end of ten years we mus t again build the wooden bridge at the cost of another $10,000. Finally at the end of twenty
VESTANCE 45
years, we must again rebuild the wooden bridge at the cost of still another $10,000, when, neglecting other considerations, we will have attained the life of the steel bridge, 30 years, and rendered with the wooden bridge, or rather with three wooden bridges, the same service as with the steel bridge.
The same service may be rendered with a steel bridge for $18,000, showing that the latter is the best by $704. Of course to these costs must be added that of maintenance, loss to traffic during reconstruction, and such other considerations as the physical nature of the specific problem may demand. Taking these into consideration, in the above case, would throw the decision very decidedly in favor of the steel bridge.
50. Depreciation Vestance. — The depreciation vestance is the total of the present worths of the investment and reinvestments. We can determine this as follows:
Example 19. A wooden building to take the place of the concrete building of problem (18), would cost $70,000 and have a life of 20 years. With interest at 5 %, which would be the best investment?
the same as the first cost.
61. Operating Vestance. — With depreciation vestance, we get a method of comparing equipments having different first costs and different lives. We thus have a method of determining comparative values as to fixed charges and those only.
OPERATING VESTANCE 49
The operating costs are continuous, and are not limited to a term of years. By capitalizing the annual cost of operation, we get, therefore, the operating vestance. Letting
This is on the assumption that the operating cost is constant. However, improvement in design is what renders equipments obsolete, and this refers particularly to reductions in the cost of operating. This more than compensates for obsolescence and both it and reduction in cost of operation must be taken into consideration.
we can determine the life of the unit, knowing the first cost, vestance and operating cost. In a similar manner we can solve for any of the other quantities in equation (13).
Example 21. A 1000 h.p. Diesel Engine plant costs $75,000. The life of the engine is 20 years. The interest rate is 5%. The cost of operation is 0.4 cent per horse power hour (h.p.h.).
Example 22. If, in Example 20, we put in a steam plant, the first cost will be $50,000, and the life is likewise 20 years, while the cost of operation will be 0.7 cent per h.p.h. With the same interest rate, i.e., 5%, which will be the best investment?
in favor of the Diesel plant.
Example 23. If the power were purchased at one cent per h.p.h. and the motor cost $6000 and had 90% efficiency with a life of 30 years, how would the total vestance compare with that of the steam and Diesel plants?
Example 24. At what price would the electric power in Example 23 have to be purchased in order that the electric motor plant may equal (a) the steam plant of Example 22 and (b) the Diesel plant of Example 21?
54. In any actual problem in practice, the load assumed is that which is actually carried, according to the records, or that which, in the light of previous experience, may be anticipated.
factory guarantee.
In the examples given, it appears that the operating vestance far exceeds the depreciation vestance. Particularly is this true of equipments with low first cost. We can materially reduce the total vestance in many systems and therefore the production cost by putting in equipment with higher efficiency and allowing a greater first cost than we are accustomed to. However, as we shall see, conditions are sometimes just the opposite, i.e., in cases we sometimes allow far too much for first cost.
So far in vestance we have taken into consideration only interest and depreciation. There are, however, the two other factors of fixed charges, namely taxes and insurance. These factors run continuously, i.e., they are not limited to the life of the equipment. Their vestance may, therefore, be found by simply capitalizing the amount of tax and insurance.
Taxes affect all items of equal value alike, but the insurance varies with the hazard. An isolated concrete structure, having within it only incombustible material, need carry no insurance. But a wooden building in a district with much fire hazard must bear a heavy insurance rate, due both to itself and its surroundings, reducing greatly its comparative value.
In a power plant, we almost invariably have fireproof equipment, such as engines, boilers, feed- water heaters, pumps, etc., housed in a building which may not itself be fireproof. If the structure burns down, this equipment would be destroyed. It is, therefore, necessary to carry insurance on this machinery. The question arises as to whether the cost of insurance of this equipment should be charged against the equipment or against the building. Again we may have patterns stored in a building which is itself quite fireproof. The patterns are highly combustible. If they burn they usually destroy the building.
In any such case it is evident that the combustible items should be charged with the insurance on all that might be destroyed with the burning of these items. In the case of the power plant, the insurance on the machinery housed should be charged against the building, while in the second instance
cited above, the insurance on the building should be charged against the patterns stored. But that part of the insurance which is collected because of conflagration hazard should be charged against the location, i.e., the lot itself, because this cost is entirely due to its location.
This much is definite. But how should the insurance cost be apportioned where both the building and the things stored are combustible? This does not lead to a definite solution. The charge should be apportioned to the hazard cause by each, i.e., the structure and the items housed and this, for want of sufficient data, remains a matter of judgment based on such experience as we now have.
4. A building is sold on the following terms: The selling price of the building is $4000 and is to bear interest at the rate of 7% on all unpaid amounts. The purchaser is to pay at the rate of $50 per month. From this amount interest is paid and all above interest is to apply towards a reduction of capital due.
(a) In how many years will the purchaser complete payment? (b) How much money will the purchaser have paid the seller when payment is completed? (c) If the building depreciates at the rate of 7% per year, how much is the building worth when payment is completed?
5. A ten h.p. induction motor of 87% efficiency cost $157. How much could we afford to pay for a motor of 88.5% efficiency if the power costs 2 cents per h.p.h. and the motor is to be run at full load for 3000 hours per year? Assume the life of the motor as 25 years and interest at 7%.
6. A 1000 h.p. Diesel engine is guaranteed to operate on 0.40$ of fuel oil per h.p.h. The engine operates at full load 4000 hours per year. The cost of the engine is $52,000. Interest is 5%. Fuel costs $1.60 per barrel of 320$ and the life of the engine is 20 years, while it actually uses 0.43$ of fuel oil per h.p.h. How much should be deducted from the purchase price to compensate the purchaser for this loss in economy?
7. A 150 h.p. 220 volt motor costs $1170 and is guaranteed at 91% efficiency. The motor has a life of 25 years and is to be used for 2500 hours per year. Interest rate is 6% and power costs i cent per h.p.h. If instead we purchased at the same price and other conditions a 440 volt motor with only 90% efficiency, how much would we lose thereby?
PROBLEMS 57
8. A storage battery costs $75 per kw.h. of capacity. Its life is assumed at 3 years, its efficiency at 65%, other operating costs zero. Interest rate 6%. What is the total vestance of the storage battery per kw.h., if it is used at full load for 2000 hours per year, and electric power costs i cent per kw.h.?
rate. Plot the curve.
14. Which would be the best investment, a wooden building whose life is ten years or a steel-brick building, costing twice as much, and having a life of 40 years? Assume interest 5%, and operating costs zero.
16. A steam plant has a first cost of $70,000 and a guaranteed life of 25 years. The cost of attendance is 0.4 cent per h.p.h., maintenance o.i cent, and repair o.i cent per h.p.h. With interest rate 6%, what will be the vestances of this plant if it is used for 4000 hours per year at full load?
17. To operate a certain pump at full load for 1500 hours per year we can use a 10 h.p. gas engine costing $500 and having a life of 20 years. The operating costs for this engine are one cent per h.p.h. An electric motor to take the place of this engine would cost only $150 and have a guaranteed life of 30 years, and an efficiency of 88%. The power company offers power at 2 cents per h.p.h. Would the gas engine or motor be the best investment under these conditions, assuming other operating costs as zero? What would be the difference in worth?
25. A structure costs $60,000 and has 15 years life. Interest rate is 4%, insurance i%, taxes 0.7%, cost of maintenance and repair 1.2%. Determine the total vestaiice of this structure.
BASIC COSTS
First and Operating Costs at Full and Fractional Loads of Steam Engines, Boilers, Buildings, Centrifugal Pumps, Induction Motors, Direct Current Motors, Generators, Transformers, Oil Engines, Producer Gas Engines, Diesel Engines, Producers, Standard Pipe, Casing, Wood and Riveted Steel Pipe. Cost of Tunnels, Canals, Excavations, Hydro-electric Installations, Compressors, Condensers, Economizers, Fans, Feed Water Heaters, Stokers, Water Treating Plants, Superheaters and Turbines.
55. Basic Costs. — Every science, in its practical application, is based upon experimental data. These data are not absolutely exact but usually are exact enough to give good working results. In electricity, for example, we use in our calculations the experimental values of such constants as the coefficients of resistance, inductance, and the like. The theory is absolutely correct. But these constants are only closely approximate. In heat we have such constants as the specific heat of the various substances, latent heats, fuel values, and the like, determined by experiment. So in financial engineering we have for our " experimental " data, the basic costs of our equipment, structures, and the like, of materials consumed, such as fuel, oil, iron, and the like and finally of our costs of attendance and maintenance. We must know how these costs vary with differences in size, class, and type of the equipments, and the like. These data will only be closely approximate. But as their importance in engineering is better understood, more effort will be expended in getting still better data. Cost data are, however, more uniform and accurate than other scientific data.
consideration to costs, in spite of the fact that the primary duty of the engineer is to consider costs in order to attain real economy — to get the most power, for example, not from the least number of pounds of steam, but from the least possible number of dollars and cents: to get the best financial efficiency. Two very notable exceptions to the above are Fernold and Orrok's " Engineering of Power Plants " in which a very great deal of valuable engineering data is given, and Harding and Willard's " Mechanical Equipment of Buildings."1
56. Records. — The object of keeping records is to furnish data for the engineering staff from which they may devise means of improving the economy of the system, and of predicting the costs of future operations. But, in many organizations, the recording or so-called accounting department is made independent of, instead of subsidiary, to the engineering division. Records are of absolutely no value unless they are studied and conclusions drawn therefrom that will aid in getting still further improved economy. This is well stated by Gebhardt l in " Steam Power Plant Engineering" when he says: "Few engineers realize the importance of a detailed system of accounting, or the saving which may be effected in cost of operation by careful study of the daily records of performance. Many regard graphical load curves, meter readings, and similar records as interesting, but of little economic value. During the past few years, the author has made a close study of the cost of power in a large number of central and isolated stations in Chicago, and found, without exception, that the highest economy was effected by the engineers who kept the most systematic records; the poorest results were obtained where records were kept indifferently or not at all. In some small plants the numerous duties of the engineer prevented him from devoting the necessary time, but in the majority of cases the absence of records was due entirely to a lack of interest. Power plant records to be of value must be closely studied with a view to improvement. The mere accumulation of data to be filed away and never again referred to is a waste of time and money." 1 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
RECORDS 61,
Where, however, the bookkeeping is independently done, instead of under the supervision of the engineers, it is usually unavailable both as to form and location.
57. In basic costs, we have to consider the variation of first costs of different equipment with size, the variation of attendance and economy in materials consumed with load, as well as the interrelation of one part of a system with another as to costs. Thus, if we do not put in condensers in a steam plant, we will reduce our first costs by this amount. But at the same time, due to the increased steam consumption of the engines, it will be necessary to increase the size of the boilers, steam pipe, and the like, often by some 30 or 40%; the increased cost of these items may far more than offset the cost of the condensers. So also in a pumping system, a reduction in the size of the pipe will make it necessary to install a larger motor or engine to drive the pump, due to increased friction head, increasing not only the first cost of this part of the system, but the operating cost as well. And so for almost any other item of equipment. In thus attempting to "save " money, care must be used that the cost of the saving does not exceed the amount saved.
It is well known that there is an enormous difference in the cost of apparatus for rendering a given service. A jet pump will deliver water just as a centrifugal or plunger pump will. And it usually costs only 2 or 3 % ?s much. Yet the difference in economy more than warrants purchasing the more expensive types. The cost of steam engines varies from $7 per h.p. for a simple, high-speed engine to $40 per h.p. for a horizontal four- valve engine. The question naturally arises just how much can be paid for a given unit. It is by no means true that the most expensive is the best. The test is of course a comparison of the total vestance of both equipments for anticipated load conditions.
Off-hand the giving of prices seems a rather hopeless undertaking. There is first the variation in price of the same article of practically equal quality as between various manufacturers, due to their lack of knowledge of exact unit costs; the varia-
tion of price as between different localities, and the variation of price with speed, type, and class of equipment. Yet, if in choosing cost for our curves, we confine ourselves in speed, type, and so forth, to standard practice, as we have done in the following curves, the matter simplifies itself greatly.
Again there is a continual variation in price with time. Besides short fluctuations which may be either up or down, there is a continual tendency for the price to increase with time as measured by the weight of gold necessary to effect a purchase. This is due to the continual increase in the gold reserve, due to the fact that more gold is annually produced than is used in the industries. There must therefore be a decrease in the worth of the gold and thus an increase in price of commodities. Besides this, there are price variations due to extraordinary conditions as of war. However, the worth of the units, or their comparative values do not change except where further improvements are made or new properties and uses are found and developed. With the exception of the last, a change of price does not change the size of a one h.p. motor, nor is the food value of a pound of wheat altered though the price doubles.
In any event, the following data are intended primarily as a first approximation and as illustrative of the method of application of the technique of financial engineering to concrete examples. In any specific case, exact data may be readily obtained. The prices given below may be converted to prices as of today, by dividing them by the comparative value of the dollar.
turbines with size and type.
59. Operating Costs. — The number of pounds of dry saturated steam used per indicated horse power hour (i.h.p. h.) for compound condensing engines with 26-inch vacuum and ioo# gage initial pressure is as given in table 8:
With fractional loads the steam consumption is as given in the following tables. In these tables, only the strokes of the engines are given. Since the allowable piston speed is well known, the stroke determines the r.p.m. The i.h.p. for any of these engines may therefore be readily determined, for any given bore, which may be anything from one-half to one times the stroke. A stroke equal to ij times the bore is most commonly used, but good practice allows considerable deviation. Throughout, all data are given for well-designed and wellconstructed machinery and not the cheap equipment that is made to sell, not to use.
condensing engines.
The foregoing steam consumption of compound condensing engines corresponds to the following thermal efficiencies, based on an initial normal water temperature of 52° F.
61. With superheated steam, the steam consumption is decreased. For 50° F. superheat, the steam consumption is reduced by 4%, for 100° superheat 12%, for 150° superheat 17%, and for 200° superheat 20 %. This corresponds to increases in efficiency of 4% for 50° superheat, 8.4% for 100°, 12.6% for 150°, and an increase in efficiency of 16.6% for 200° F. superheat, based on the efficiencies obtained for dry saturated steam. This shows that the efficiency increases in direct proportion to the increase in superheat, according to the equation:
These formulae are obtained from the data above given. While, like all the above data, these efficiencies are based on factory guarantees, we do not consider them entirely satisfactory. They are, however, sufficiently accurate for ordinary practical use.
62. Equipment is very rarely operated at full load. Normally it is always run at some fraction of the full load. Far more important than full load efficiency are the efficiencies at fractional loads, for upon these, rather than those at full load, will the economy of operation depend. We therefore give the variation in steam consumption at fractional loads. These are as follows:
63. The attendance cost of steam engines alone is of comparatively little value, as they must always be run as part of a system. Based , however, on the mean of the most authoritative data, this is about as follows:
64. Boilers. — With present engineering development, there is no apparatus more used than the steam boiler. Under such conditions, it would be only natural to assume that the worth of the investment for such equipment would have been thoroughly investigated. However, quite the opposite is the case. It is true that an enormous number of boiler tests have been made. But the results of these tests are so erratic that practically no confidence can be placed in them as far as the deduction of any general law of variation of efficiency with size is concerned. Measurements in heat are extremely difficult, in fact so much so that the difficulty can hardly be exaggerated. The same discrepancy appears in tests at fractional loads.
Amongst the great mass of tests made, a few stand out as worthy of our entire confidence, though they are unfortunately too few to yield conclusive evidence. The most noteworthy of these is the test of the boilers of the Detroit Edison Company, made by a corps of experts under D. S. Jacobus, the results of which are published in Vol. 33 of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers. The boilers had 23,650 sq. ft. of heating surface each. They showed 79.3% efficiency at rated load
and 80.5% at 70% of rated load. With increase of load, there was a steady fall in efficiency as far as the tests were conducted. Tests were also made of the same type of boiler (Stirling) of 6400 sq. ft. of heating surface, by J. A. Hunter. They showed 78% efficiency at rated load, 79.8% efficiency at 70% of rated load and 66% efficiency at 200% of rated load. These tests are well in consonance with the Jacobus tests. They are reported in full in Vol. 31 of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers. Further data of unusual value on boilers are given
national Engineering Congress at San Francisco, California, in
Taken as a whole, most manufacturers of boiler sell heating surface rather than boiler service. The results obtained from boilers depends in a very large measure on how the boiler is installed, the nature of the fuel used, and the methods of handling them. Good results can only be obtained where the entire boiler installation is made in accordance with the direction of boiler experts.
65. In the table below we give the factory prices of one make of boilers. These are at times somewhat erratic, although they are as a whole fairly well in proportion. To bring this out clearly we have added the last column of adjusted prices. Some of the difference between the factory and the adjusted prices is no doubt due to error in the cost calculations at the factory, but the greater part is due to commercial exigencies, such as the
BOILERS
adaptation of the boiler dimensions to the use of stock sizes of sheets and tubes. The result of this is that the actual and rated sizes of boilers are not always the same. Allowing for this, the agreement between the factory and adjusted prices is
architecture 3.00 to 4. 50 15.01030.0
Exact data cannot possibly be given, because the cost of buildings varies enormously with local conditions. These must always be determined by the engineer before reaching any final decision.
32OO.OO
The factory costs are somewhat erratic due to the lack of knowledge of exact costs on the part of the manufacturer. The prices on the larger sizes are no doubt based on " estimates." The equation based on the adjusted values, i.e., those that have been brought into consonance with themselves, is
between 1908 and 1910.
1. A 25,000 g.p.m. horizontal pump for a total head of 16 ft., directconnected to a 150 h.p. 257 r.p.m. a.c. motor together with primer, etc., and 100 ft. of piping. Price quoted $6000.
3. A 25,000 g.p.m. horizontal pump for a total head of 16 ft., direct connected to a 150 h.p. horizontal tandem compound condensing steam engine, complete with water tube boiler, jet condenser, and necessary piping. Price quoted $12,000.
6. One 50,000 g.p.m. horizontal, double suction pump, direct-connected to one 300 h.p. 200 r.p.m. a.c. motor for 16 ft. total head, together with loo ft. of piping and electric primer. Price quoted $9000.
6. Vertical axial flow turbine with a capacity of 125 cu. sec. ft. against a head of 6 ft., with 69 in. runner, speed 65 r.p.m. direct geared to a 150 h.p. 485 r.p.m. vertical motor and having a guaranteed efficiency of 60%. Price quoted $6100.
8. One 40 in. horizontal centrifugal pump having a capacity of 125 cu. sec. ft. against a total head of u ft., belted to a 250 h.p. motor. Pump efficiency guaranteed 50%. Price quoted $6100.
70. Operating Costs of Centrifugal Pumps. — The material consumed in the case of pumps is power together with a very little oil and waste. The amount of power used depends upon the pump efficiency and the cost of the power or its price. The efficiency of pumps varies both with the size of the pump and the head pumped against, larger pumps and greater heads giving higher efficiency, according to the following table.
FRACTIONAL LOAD EFFICIENCY 91
71. It is often assumed that the cost of attendance of centrifugal pumps is zero. This is hardly correct, although this cost for centrifugal pumps is very small. It depends upon the general design of the installation normally being about
It must be borne in mind that all costs are as of 1906-10. To get the attendance cost as of today divide by the relative value of gold now as compared with the date above, as indicated by the relative purchasing power. Thus if the purchasing power of gold now is only half of what it was then, all costs now would be double that given above.
Based on the study of the efficiency of pumps at fractional loads covering the tests of several hundred pumps varying in size from i inch to 12 inches and consisting of four different makes and some twelve different types, we have obtained the following average values of the per cent of full load efficiency at fractional loads viz. :
76. Operating Costs of Electric Machinery. — The efficiency at full lead of three phase, squirrel cage motors, no to 550 volts, is independent of the speed but varies with the size as given below.
It should be borne in mind that such data as we present are based on the study of the results of tests of our very best and largest manufacturers. The data themselves, together with the curve of values adopted, is shown in Fig. 13. The discrepancies in the data are due to redesign of some units before the like service could be given to others; and to some error in test, which, though small, is nevertheless quite significant and finally to commercial exigencies such as the use of a frame designed for one given size and speed, for a different size and speed. Such adaptations of one frame to several sizes generally give greater economy of production but at a reduction in worth of the unit due to reduced efficiency and power factor.
78. Internal Combustion Motors. — The prices of gas engines depends on whether they are two or four cycle, Otto cycle, Diesel, or semi-Diesel, as well as on the design and workmanship. Some engines are needlessly elaborate, others so unsubstantially built that they are made to sell rather than to use. The two stroke engine, except for the Diesel or semiDiesel cycle, is not of practical value, and no data thereon is therefore given.
In Guldner's "Internal Combustion Motors" (D. Van Nostrand Co.) are given very extensive data on gas engines from which the data given in Table 45 on illuminating and suction gas producer installations are quoted.
The maintenance of gas and oil engines is usually expressed as between 2 % and 3 % of the first cost of the engine. This is not good practice because the first cost of a certain engine in use is a constant, while the cost of maintenance varies with the price of wages, or, if you please, with the value of the dollar. This method could be used provided that the first cost is first multiplied by the relative value of the dollar (indexed) before the 2 % or 3 % is taken. Otherwise, it would usually be too low, the error greatly increasing with time.
All the above data is based on the guarantees of manufacturers together with a careful study of the most reliable tests reported. The accuracy should be better than can be obtained from any single test.
Wood pipe has made good in practice and has come into very general use. The friction of unplaned wood pipe is about equal to riveted steel pipe, but that of planed wood pipe is given at only 60% to 80% of that of riveted steel pipe.
The same authorities give the approximate section of dams not used as weirs, and their approximate cost as follows, where (h) is the height of the dam in yards.
Tunnels. — On the average, the cost of tunnels including timbering and lining is $15 per cubic yard. The costs and capacities of tunnels is given below.
In rock the allowable velocity is 8 feet per second if the canal is lined. Under such conditions the following data is given. The costs may vary greatly with local conditions.
Small capacity, 200 to 1000 kw. Medium capacity, 1000 to 5000 kw. Large capacity. 5000 kw. and over.
85. More complete data on the cost of buildings, excavations, fills, foundations, bridges, tunnels and the like are given in Gillette's "Handbook of Cost Data" (Myron C. Clark
REFERENCES 117
Publishing Co.). For .similar data on power plants, the reader is referred to Fernold and Orrok's "Engineering of Power Plants" (McGraw Hill Book Co.), Harding and Willard's " Power Plants and Refrigeration" (John Wiley & Sons, Inc.), and Guldner's "Internal Combustion Motors" (D. Van Nostrand Co.).
CS • M ON • O • t^ NO T MCO^OcOO CO OO OO NC ^ COMCOVO^ VO MOO co H
1. A 150 h.p. engine has a guaranteed steam consumption of 20$ steam per h.p.h. The test shows that the actual consumption is 21.6$. The engine operates for 3000 hours per year at full load and costs $4500 installed. The steam costs 25 cents per 1000$ to produce. The life of the engine is 20 years. The interest rate is 6%. How much should be deducted from the purchase price to compensate the purchaser for the increased cost of operation above that guaranteed?
2. A 300 h.p. engine has a guaranteed steam consumption of 20$ per h.p.h. The test shows that the actual consumption is only 18.4$. The engine operates for 4000 hours per year at full load, and costs $8500 installed. The steam costs 30 cents per iooo# to produce. The life of the engine is 25 years. Interest rate is 7%. How much should the manufacturer receive to compensate for the added economy of service that he has produced?
3. A power plant consists of two 5000 h.p. engines that consume 20$ of steam per h.p.h. Boiler feed temperature 72°, steam pressure 160$ and quality 98%. The boilers evaporate 8.5$ of water per pound of coal. The engines operate for 3600 hours per year at full load. Interest rate is 6%. If these engines are removed and sold for $6 per h.p., and new ones are installed, having a life of 25 years and using only 12 f of steam per h.p.h., how much can be paid for the new engines? Heat costs 18 cents per million B.t.u.
4. A 200 h.p. automatic engine uses 31$ steam per h.p.h. and costs $2800. A 200 h.p. Corliss engine uses 25$ steam per h.p.h. and costs $4200. Steam costs 25 cents per iooo# to produce. The plant runs for 3000 hours per year at full load. Interest rate is 5 %. The life of the high speed engine is 15 years and for the low speed engine it is 25 years. Which engine is the most economical? How much saving will this represent per year?
7. A steam plant is to be installed to deliver 1000 kw. at the switchboard. A steam engine-generator set can be installed, with a guaranteed economy of 15$ of steam per i. h.p.h. with a steam pressure of 150$, feed temperature 1 80°, quality 97.5%. The mechanical efficiency of the engine is guaranteed at 92%, and the generator efficiency at 94%. Or a steam turbo-generator can be installed with a guaranteed steam consumption of 2o# per kw.hr. with a steam pressure of 150$, feed temperature 150° and 150° of superheat. The cost of generating steam in either case is 20 cents per 1,000,000 B.t.u.
The steam engine-generating set costs $23,500. The turbo-generator set costs $19,700. Superheaters cost $1800, and boilers cost $8.52 per boiler h.p. The attendance cost is o.i cent per h.p.h. for the engine-generator and 0.06 cent per h.p.h. for the turbo-generator. Interest rate is 5%. If the plant is to be run at full load for 6000 hours per year, which outfit is the best, and by how much? What is the cost per kw.h. delivered?
10. A boiler plant develops 500 bo.h.p. and uses 3$ coal per bo.h.p. The steam pressure is 150$ and feed temperature 80°. A feed water heater is added which costs $600 and raises the feed temperature to 180°. The plant operates for 4000 hours per year. Coal contains 12,725 B.t.u. per pound and costs $4 per ton. Interest rate is 5%. How much saving per bo. h.p.h. will be effected?
11. If in problem (10), instead of a feed- water heater, an economizer is added, raising the feed temperature to 300°, allowing 7 % for depreciation, repair and attendance, how much could we afford to pay for the economizer?
15. A boiler plant operates at full load for 7000 hours per year. It burns 50 tons of coal per day costing $4 per ton with operator (A) in charge. An analysis of the flue gases shows CO2, 5 per cent; O, 15 per cent; and N, 75 per cent. The coal contains C, 80 per cent, H, 6 per cent, and O, 4 per cent. Stack temperature 600°; boiler room temperature 70°.
17. If in problem (15), the analysis showed CO2, 10%, COi, 0.2 per cent and O, 10%, with a stack temperature of 550°, while all other things remain as before, what then could we afford to pay operator (B)?
Total Vestance. The Time Element. Change Point. Vestances of Steam Engines of Various Types at Full and Fractional Loads. Vestances at Full and Fractional Loads of Oil Engines. Diesel Engines. Induction Motors and Generators. Comparison of Power Units of Various Size and Types at Full and Fractional Loads. Vestances at Full and Fractional Loads of Centrifugal Pumps and of Standard and Wood Pipe at Varying Capacities.
86. As previously shown, the total vestance gives us a basis of comparing two or more units, or two or more systems that are designed to render similar service but each differing from the other in one or more of their cost elements, such as first cost, life, efficiency, attendance and the like. The question that both the manufacturer (producer) and user must face continually is one of economy. The user desires to purchase that unit which will give him the desired service at the least ultimate cost. The manufacturer's problem leads to the same end, namely to produce a unit which will represent the best possible investment for the purchaser. But the purchaser's needs are variable. What may be best for one, may be a very poor investment for another purchaser, whose conditions may be entirely different. It is therefore necessary to produce various classes and types of apparatus, to meet these variable conditions so that a best investment for each condition may be offered. That is the problem in general.
Specifically the producer may face such a problem as this: a more efficient engine can be built, but at a greater first cost. If produced, will this engine represent a better investment than the unit now being produced and will it sell? Whether thex new engine will represent a better investment for any given service, can be readily determined by comparing the total Vestances. If that of the new engine is the smaller, greater
THE TIME ELEMENT 127
financial efficiency has been attained. Whether the engine will sell, depends on whether it is really a better investment or not, and by how much, and second whether we can prove to the user that it is a better investment. Of course if we can prove it for ourselves, we can prove it to the user, but when it comes to a matter of guess, one man's guess is quite as good as another's. At all times we must bear in mind that we do not purchase the machine, but the service that it will render us. Manufacturers therefore produce service in just the same sense that the so-called public utilities do.
The annual cost of operation (^4) varies with the number of hours of use per year and the cost of operation per hour. If a = the mean operating cost per hour of the entire
128 VESTANCES
maximum value that (N) can attain is 8760, the total number of hours in a year. For this value of N, the vestance per hour of service is a minimum. When, on the other hand, ( N) decreases, the vestance per hour increases, becoming infinite when N = o.
less consequence. We can interpret this for practical use by saying that where the unit is but little used per year, the first cost is of primary consideration, and the operating cost per hour (efficiency and energy cost) of secondary importance only, while for many hours of operation per year conditions are reversed. That is, when the apparatus is much used, we can afford to buy expensive equipment in order to get low cost of operation, but where little used, cheap apparatus of 'comparatively low efficiency is the best.
We shall call (U) the valuance. It is a measure of the worth of the unit. When (N), the number of hours of use, is zero, the valuance is zero, i.e., the unit is worthless (useless). The valuance increases as (N) increases, becoming a maximum when N = 8760, i.e., the apparatus is worth most (most useful) when it is used continually.
89. We shall now determine the vestances of various types of equipment for a normal year of 3000 hours, assuming a constant load during the entire period. In this way we can get a first approximation of the comparative values of such equipment. Further on, we shall consider more variable and exact conditions.
THE STEAM ENGINE 129
engine is $3300. The efficiency with dry saturated steam at ioo# initial steam pressure is 12 %. The cost of oil, attendance, etc., is about $0.05 per hour for this size of engine, and the maintenance about $0.02 per hour. The life of low speed compound engines is 25 years.
To this we must add the other costs of producing steam, amounting to, let us say, $0.000236, giving a total cost of the heat delivered to the engine of
Note that the operating vestance is over six times as great as the depreciation vestance. In other words the first cost is of relatively small importance as compared with the costs of operation, a matter not always fully appreciated.
91. As compared with the above, let us determine the total vestance of the above engine when the initial pressure of the steam is 2oo#, other things remaining the same. Since for compound engines, the efficiency is
Note the enormous saving especially with the use of higher pressures. Modern practice tends towards continually higher pressures. That this is good practice is too clearly shown above to need further emphasis.
92. Let us compare with the above the total vestance of a 1000 h.p. compound engine, the life, rate of interest and cost of coal being assumed the same as that for the 100 h.p. engine.
This is of course not a clear saving due to the greater distribution area, and corresponding greater distribution cost for the larger plant. In fact the vestance of this increased cost of distribution may, if the system is too large, more than offset the decreased vestance of the engine itself.
93. We shall now determine the total vestance of a 100 h.p. low speed simple noncondensing engine operating on dry saturated steam at ioo# initial gage pressure, the life, cost of coal, and interest rate remaining the same as above.
This engine will use 42% more steam than a compound condensing engine. The efficiency of the simple noncondensing engine of 100 i.h.p. will therefore be 12 -T- 1.42 = 8.45%.
94. For a 100 i.h.p. simple noncondensing high speed engine operating on dry saturated steam at ioo# initial gage pressure, the first cost is $12.75 per h.p. but the life now is only 15 years instead of 25 years for the low speed engines. The depreciation vestance is then
Since the simple high speed noncondensing engine will use 64% more steam than a compound condensing engine and the efficiency of a 100 i.h.p. engine of the latter type is 12%, the efficiency of the high speed engine will be
Note now that between engines A and B we save $16.31 in depreciation vestance at a cost of $103.80 in operating vestances, and between A and C we save $22.24 in depreciation vestance. Neither of these represent very good bargains. Yet how often are such bargains entered into!
96. We tabulate below the vestances of steam engines, based on 5% interest, $2.50 cost per ton of coal of fuel value as above, i.e., 5.4 h.p.h. per pound and 25 years' life for low speed engines, and 15 years for high speed engines, all as taken above. The effect of increased cost of operation is to increase the operating vestance by a similar amount. Thus if coal were $5 per ton and other operating costs increased in like proportion, the operating vestance would be doubled, amounting to some $400 increase. If on the other hand the first cost is doubled, the depreciation vestance will be doubled, but this will amount only to some $30. Evidently then the effect of increased prices is to make efficiency relatively more important and first cost, though itself increased, of relatively less importance.
A comparison of these tables shows that the total vestance decreases with increased size of unit. The decrease is rapid for units less than 100 h.p., rather small between 100 and 500 h.p., and almost insignificant beyond that. Again the approximate mean vestance ratio is 10 for compound condensing engines, 15 for simple low speed noncondensing engines and about 25 for simple high speed noncondensing engines. That is as the first cost is reduced, the relative amount of money that must be spent for operation is enormously increased. In as much as the vestance is proportional to the total amount of labor that it takes to produce a given service, including not only the labor of operation but of the construction of the units and the system, it appears that in cheap layouts, too little effort has been spent in the design and construction of the units and system and too much must therefore be spent in operation. Less total labor would be required if it were used in the right place, in properly preparing for the rendition of the service first, before rendering it. On the other hand, too much may be spent on preparation.
97. The above tables were figured on the basis of a normal year of 3000 hours of use. If the number of hours of use are changed, then the cost of operation is changed, since the latter
Example 27. — Determine the total vestance per hour of a 500 h.p. compound condensing steam engine for a variable number of hours of use per year.
Example 28. — Determine likewise the total vestance per h.p. for (a) a 100 h.p. compound condensing engine, (b) for a 100 h.p. simple low speed noncondensing engine and (c) for a 100 h.p. simple high speed noncondensing engine.
98. Change Points. — The meaning of these three points is clearly shown in Fig. 23 where the total vestance per horse power year has been plotted against the hours of use. The equations for vestance in terms of hours of use give straight lines as shown.
From this it is evident that when the hours of use are less than 461.1, then the simple low speed engine, in spite of its lower efficiency, is more economical in use, i.e., has better financial efficiency than the compound engine. When used for more than 461.1 hours, however, the compound engine is best.
So also when the hours of use are less than 532.1, the simple high speed engine has better financial efficiency than the compound engine. But this number of hours is greater than that of the simple low speed engine. So then for more than 532.1 hours per year use the compound engine; for less than this number of hours use the simple high speed engine and do not use the simple low speed engine at all. This is for the reason that for no hours of use during the year is it best, being always exceeded, either by the compound or simple high speed engine.
Again the value of the change point is greater for the high speed than for the low speed engine with the compound engine. So again we find that the simple low speed engine possesses no period of superiority and should therefore under • the conditions assumed not be used for this size. For this size and these conditions, the compound engine should be used, if the period of use is over 452 hours, and when the period of use is less than this number of hours, then the simple high speed engine gives the highest financial efficiency.
100. So far we have discussed only the condition of an engine operating at full load. If instead the engine is used at a constant fractional load, the efficiency will be decreased and thereby the cost of heat will be increased. The other operating costs such as attendance and the like will be changed to correspond to the actual load carried. The depreciation vestance will change in inverse proportion to the per cent of full load carried. Thus at half load it will be doubled; at one and one-quarter load it will be four-fifths as great, etc. This is evident since, for example, at half load we have purchased two horse power to get one.
of full load efficiency at fractional loads being assumed the same for simple low speed engines for want of authentic data on the former. The vestances are per actual horse power developed and not per rated horse power. A normal year of 3000 hours is again assumed.
engines at fractional loads.
101. It will be noticed that especially in the simple low speed noncondensing engines the total vestance per h.p. at three-quarters load is but little greater than at full load. The total vestance at half and one and one-quarter loads is not very great as compared with that at full load, while that at one-fourth load is comparatively very great. The latter is evidently then a very uneconomical load at which to operate.
Since the above tables are based on 3000 hours of operation, we can again get the variation of total vestance with the number of hours of operation per year, and thus determine the change point between two different types of engines at fractional loads.
Example 29. — Determine the change point between a 100 h.p. compound engine running at full load and a 200 h.p. compound engine running at half load.
Solution: The depreciation vestance of a 100 h.p. engine at full load is $46.80, and the operating vestance is $292 per year or 292 -s- 3000 = $0.09733 per hr.
Since there are only 8760 hours in a year, the change point does not come within the year. At all times then the 100 h.p. engine is the most economical to use at 100% load, the decreased operating vestance of the 200 h.p. engine being insufficient to offset the increased depreciation vestance over that of the smaller engine.
Example 30. — Determine the change point of a 250 h.p. simple high speed engine running at full load and a 200 h.p. engine of the same type running at 25% overload'.
This shows that if an overload of 25% is to be carried less than 170 hours per year, it can be done more economically with the use of the 200 h.p. engine at 25% overload than by using a 250 h.p. engine at full load.
102. Oil Engines. — We give in Table 71 the vestances per h.p. of oil engines per normal year of 3000 hours, at 5% interest rate. These are also based on a fuel cost of 0.511 cent per pound of oil having a heat value of 18,600 B.t.u. per pound. This is equivalent to a heat value of 7.3 h.p.h. per pound and a cost of heat energy of 0.07 cent per h.p.h. The life of the engines is taken as 15 years, although this is usually exceeded.
An inspection of the curve of total vestance at full load shows that the prices of the 36 h.p. engines are considerably too high, while that of the 2 cylinder 25 h.p. engine is also high. With these exceptions, the prices are remarkably consistent, with the prices of the vertical engines running continually below those of the horizontal engines. Down to 30 h.p. the increase in total vestance is not great, showing good adaptability for small isolated plants.
103. Diesel Engines. — For comparison with other prime movers we give below the vestances of Diesel engines based on a normal year of 3000 hours, interest at 5 %, fuel oil at 0.05 cent per h.p.h., and life of the engines 15 years. Attendance costs are included.
104. Induction Motors. — Since the efficiency of induction motors is independent of the speed, the only difference in the vestance of induction motors of the same size and type will be in the depreciation vestance. Since the depreciation vestance is but a small part of the total vestance, there will be but little difference in the cost of service even though the first cost of low speed motors may appear to be very large in comparison with the first cost of high speed motors. We illustrate this below.
Example 31. — Compare the total vestance of a 10 h.p. 1800 r.p.m. 3 phase 60 cycle 220 volt induction motor with another motor of the same size and type but of only 600 r.p.m. speed. Assume the normal year at 3000 hours, interest 5%, power cost one cent per h.p.h. and neglect other operating costs besides those of power.
Solution: The first cost of the 1800 r.p.m. motor is $160 or $16 per h.p. With 25 years of life and interest at 5%, the term factor is 0.70469, so that the depreciation vestance per h.p. is
The only object in using low speed motors is for the purpose of combining them with other low speed apparatus and where this cost of combination may be reduced by an amount equal to or greater than the additional cost of the lower speed motor. We have chosen above an extreme difference in speed. Where the difference in speed is not so great, the difference in total vestance will be even less than this small amount of 2.66%.
105. We give below the vestances of three phase, 60 cycle, 1800 r.p.m. induction motors based on a normal year of 3000 hours, power cost one cent per h.p.h. and interest at 5 %.
discuss further.
Two phase motors usually run one to two per cent lower in efficiency, increasing the total vestance between $7 and $14 per h.p., a very appreciable amount. The operating vestance is very large though the power rate assumed is far lower than that which can ordinarily be obtained. The tenhorse power rate is usually 2 cents per h.p.h. On this basis the operating vestance would be doubled, increasing the ratio to 60.
106. At fractional loads, the splendid full load efficiency of induction motors is well maintained, so that there is no great variation of vestances at fractional loads. This is shown in the table below.
There is comparatively little change of total vestance at fractional loads because the efficiency is so well maintained. This is a very valuable feature for maintaining good economy under actual load conditions, such as are invariably met in practice.
Like motors, there is comparatively little variation in total vestance with the size of the unit or the load. This is one of the immensely valuable characteristics of electrical machinery that it is so well adapted to meet the load variations of practice with remarkably good economy.
108. Comparison of Power Units. — By power units we mean, primarily, such units as steam engines, turbines, internal combustion motors, and electric motors. In the foregoing, we have determined the vestances of these units based on a normal year of 3000 hours, constant load, and 5 % interest. The fuel costs assumed were coal at $2 per ton with a fuel value of 13,743 B.t.u. or 5.4 h.p.h. per Ib. Allowing for boiler service, we assumed a cost of $0.005 Per h.p.h. of energy delivered to the engine. In comparison with this we assumed for oil engines, oil at 0.511 cent per pound, and allowing 320 Ibs. per barrel, this would amount to $1.635 Per barrel, or 0.0^7 cent per h.p.h. For Diesel engines we assumed the cost of the heat energy at 0.05 cent per h.p.h. corresponding to a cost of $1.168 per barrel. And finally for motors we assumed a cost of one cent per h.p.h. At 15 cents per gallon
follows:
At full load, the Diesel engine has the best economy, with the oil engine second, the compound condensing steam engine third, the simple low speed noncondensing steam engine fourth, the simple high speed noncondensing steam engine fifth, the electric motor sixth and the gasolene engine seventh.
Below 30 h.p. the electric motor is far superior in economy to the simple high speed steam engine, and no doubt the other types of steam engines as well, but it is itself far inferior to the oil engine, somewhat inferior to the distillate engine at 7^ cents per gallon for the distillate, and far superior to the gasoline engine. The sharp bending of the curve (Figure 30) of the Diesel to the horizontal for small sizes would lead one to expect the oil engine to be superior to the Diesel below 40 h.p.
109. We give below in tabular form the total vestances of these units for both full and fractional loads, together with the relative valuance based on unity for the machine which has the best economy, so as to show clearly their comparative values. Where the values are not given in the tables they have been interpolated from the curves.
COMPARISON OF POWER UNITS 161
It is evident from the above table that at full load the Diesel engine leads in economy by a wide margin, with the oil engine second and the compound steam engine third. For sizes over 50 h.p., the oil engine is worth only 85% as much as a Diesel and the compound steam engine about 75%. In other words, taking the cost of service of the Diesel as unity, then that of the oil engine is 1.15, i.e., 15%, greater and the cost of service with compound condensing engines is 1.33 or 33% greater.
At 75% load the Diesel still leads but at 50 h.p. the oil engine has practically become equal to it. Diesel engines are seldom built below this size, though a few have been made as small as 8 h.p. It is certainly remarkable how well the designers of engines have chosen the inferior limit of the sizes of their various types.
At 50% load, the Diesel and compound engines have reached equality in sizes of 100 h.p. and over, with the oil engine third. But below 50 h.p. the oil engine is best.
At 25% load, the compound steam engine leads by a wide margin above 100 h.p. At 50 h.p. the simple high speed steam engine is best, with the electric motor second, while below 25 h.p. the electric motor leads with the oil engine second, based, however, on costs of energy as given.
In all this the steam engines have the peculiar advantage that they can carry with comparative good economy 25% overload. The range of loads of these engines is therefore 25% greater than internal combustion motors. The advantages of this greater range of load will be shown later.
The gasoline engine is inferior to the electric motor at all loads on the basis chosen. But if, for example, 2 cents per h.p. is paid for electric power as compared to 15 cents per gallon for gasoline, then conditions would be reversed.
In the face of the great superiority of the Diesel engines, it seems remarkable that they are not more generally used. There are two reasons for this. First the general resistance of engineers to anything new to them, and second the fact that there are many cases where the undertakings are under-
financed, so that they are unable to put in the most economical installations. Above all this looms the element of uncertainty, so that there is a lack of incentive to build for permanency.
110. Centrifugal Pumps. — In the case of centrifugal pumps, the costs of attendance, oil, and the like, are very small, as compared with the cost of power. In the following tables of vestances of centrifugal pumps, we have, therefore, left these items out of consideration. The vestances are given not only at full and fractional loads, but at variable heads as well. We have assumed a cost of power at one cent delivered at the pump shaft, interest rate 5% as before, and a normal year of operation at 1500 hours, with 25 years as the life of the pumps.
OoO OOO OOO O ^* '^^ OOO Ototo O'^J'Tj- Ococo O lr> ^O Ococo Oto^o OOOOO O^OO toO^"^ toQto
111. Nothing could show better how vestance indicates directly the relative values of various equipment Than table 80. Where there are so many different sizes, speeds, capacities, etc., each with a different efficiency and price, it would seem at first that there are so many variables that a basis of comparison could not be found. When, however, all these variables are reduced to the basis of a permanent rendition of the service, the problem simplifies at once and we have the total vestance. That unit which, under given conditions, has the lowest total vestance is the most economical, i.e., has the highest financial efficiency.
Thus at 25 ft. head, the 20 h.p. 2300 g.p.m. pump has the lowest total vestance of $2919 per 1000 g.p.m. of capacity, the next lowest being the 30 h.p. 3200 g.p.m. pump, having a total vestance of $3042. Each of these pumps has a first cost of $500, apparently, a rather high price. Yet the first cost represents in this case only about one-sixth of the total cost of rendering the service.
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS 169
vestance is $309. The difference of $91 is due to limited life. If then this pump could be so constructed that its life would be permanent, our total vestance would be reduced only by this amount of $91, not a very significant per cent of the total vestance. It is evident then that increasing the life of pumps is not nearly as important as increasing the pump efficiency.
On the other hand, since the operating vestance is $2610, a saving of 10 per cent of the power would reduce our total vestance $261, a very significant amount. The question naturally arises as to how much the first cost could be increased under the above conditions for a saving of ten per cent of the power used. This is obtained by multiplying the saving in total vestance by the term factor which is 0.70469 in this case. This gives
If, then, a pump of 2300 g.p.m. requiring 20 h.p. is worth $500, then a pump of the same capacity requiring 10 per cent less power or 18.0 h.p. will be worth
If, for example, the cost of the latter were $600, it would still save the customer $83.92 and this is for each 10 per cent of the power saved. Such improvement by refinement in design and workmanship and by the use of better materials is attainable to the extent of some 5 % on the average pump built.
It should be noted that according to the above list at 25 ft. head, it would be more economical to use five 20 h.p. 2300 g.p.m. pumps than two 50 h.p. 4800 g.p.m. pumps on a 100 h.p. installation. In the former case the pump cost will amount to
with the 100 h.p. 1800 g.p.m. pump as a close second.
112. It will be noted that the largest sized pump does not always represent the best investment considering the way pumps are now being manufactured. However, if it is possible at 50 ft. head to make a 40 h.p. pump with a total vestance of only $5135 it certainly is possible for the manufacturer to make a 150 h.p. pump with an even lower total vestance instead of $830 higher per 1000 g.p.m. of capacity. It is apparent that the design of the latter needs revision. In the future when a new design has been made and tested, it will have to be valuated, the results of which will determine whether it will be adopted or junked.
In the list of pumps at 25 foot head are two 10 h.p. pumps, one of which costs $240 and delivers 820 g.p.m., while the other costs $385 and delivers 1000 g.p.m. The difference in costs is $145 and the difference in capacity 180 g.p.m. Usually the latter pump is considered to be so expensive that its use is prohibitive except in " fancy" installations. Yet the difference in vestance of $520 or nearly 15% shows that in reality the use of the cheap pump is prohibitive.
At high heads, good efficiency is still more important than at low heads. At 150 ft. head there are listed two 100 h.p. pumps, one having a capacity of 1500 g.p.m. and the other a capacity of 1800 g.p.m. The latter has a first cost of $925, and the former a cost of $550, a difference of $375. That is the latter costs 68% more than the former. It is often said that such nne pumps as the latter are installed merely for
It should be borne in mind that the cost of power assumed is very low, much lower than can usually be obtained. The effect of increased power cost is to make an increase of efficiency more valuable, and to increase the difference in vestances of units whose efficiencies differ.
113. It is ordinarily assumed that pumps are either used at full capacity, or not at all. This is true only to the extent that pumps are not throttled. But almost invariably the total head pumped against varies with the season, i.e., with the change in level between the supply water and the point of discharge. The point of discharge is usually constant, but the level of the supply water almost invariably changes. In the case where the water is pumped from a river, the water level may change as much as 15 or 20 ft. The effect of this is that if the head is decreased below normal, the capacity of the pump is increased above normal, i.e., the pump is overloaded, while if the head is increased above normal, the pump will be underloaded.
It is evident, then, that the effect of fractional loading cannot be neglected since the efficiency of pumps falls off quite rapidly with either increase or decrease of capacity, especially the former. Unless we take into consideration the amount of water to be pumped at each stage of water level, the cost of service will be inexplicably increased. And it must be borne in mind that a very few feet variation in head will change the pump capacity very greatly, this being especially true of increased heads above normal. An idea of the effect of all this may be obtained from the following example.
Example 32. — A centrifugal pump delivers 1000 g.p.m. against 66 ft. head at 60% efficiency, this being its point of best efficiency. Assuming a normal irrigation year of 1500 hours, cost of power at i cent per h.p.h. and interest at 5%, and neglecting other operating costs, determine the operating vestance at full, three-quarters, half, and one-fourth loads. Solution: The power used at full load is 66 X 1000 _ ,
114. It is evident that at less than three-fourths or over one and one-fourth load, the operating vestance becomes prohibitive, unless the pump is used but a few hours per year. The effect of the number of hours of use per year and the location of the change point is similar to that of steam engines, except that in this case we have assumed the normal year at 1 500, instead of 3000, hours.
Thus if Fo is the operating vestance of pumps per normal year as listed in the preceding tables, then the operating vestance per hour is — — and the total vestance per year of ( N)
mine the change point.
Example 33. — At 150 ft. head, two 75 h.p. direct connected pumps are listed, one having a capacity of 1200 g.p.m. and costing $500 and the other having a capacity of 1400 g.p.m. and costing $900. Determine the change point on the basis previously assumed.
If the pumps are to be used less than 182.8 hours per year the cheaper pump is best; for more than this number of hours of use the more efficient pump is best.
It is evident then that for very few hours of use per year a cheap pump should be used. But as the number of hours of use per year increases not only should we use the more
expensive pump, but the comparative value of the more efficient unit continually increases. What we pay for first cost is usually only a very insignificant part of the cost of service. The user, under normal conditions, can afford to pay much more in first cost to the manufacturer than is now commonly done for more efficient units.
115. A considerable decrease in the life of units does not greatly increase the cost of service. Consequently increased efficiency should be obtained even if it is necessary to greatly decrease the life of the unit. Yet too often the reputation of a certain make of apparatus is based on the length of service, rather than on the quality and cost. On the other hand, there is a tendency to continue to use units when they have become inefficient due to wear or other causes, so that the service is no longer rendered economically. Under such conditions, the pumps should either be brought back to full efficiency, or else discarded for new apparatus. Because under such conditions, the excess operating vestance has become so great that the continued use of the worn equipment would be far more expensive than the cost of replacement.
below.
Example 34. — A belt for a 10 h.p. unit costs $20 or $2 per h.p. The belt efficiency is 85%. Assuming power at one cent per h.p.h., interest at 5%, and the life of the belt at 5 years, and neglecting other operating costs, determine the vestance per h.p. of the belt per normal year of 3000 hours. How does it compare with the vestance of a flexible, steel link coupling costing $45?
as compared with $99.25 for the belt. On this basis, it appears therefore that we could spend as much as $94.75 per h.p. for direct connection and still render the service as cheap as the belt-driven unit in cost.
If the power costs 2 cents per h.p.h., the operating vestance of the belt would be doubled ($180) and its total vestance per h.p. would increase to $189.25. We could then afford to spend this greater amount per h.p. for direct connection.
As a matter of fact the difference between the belt and coupling is much greater than is indicated above. For, while the cost of attendance and repair, that we neglected to take into consideration above, is very small for the coupling, it is very large for the belt. Furthermore the belt places heavy lateral strains on the bearings of both the driver and driven unit. The loss of power and increased repair on the units that this occasions must be charged against the belt. In a well-made coupling, these losses are eliminated, the power being transmitted without such strains.
tion of pipe is the cost of the power lost in transmitting the fluid, usually water, in friction. This loss varies with the velocity at which the fluid is transmitted, increasing rapidly with increased velocity.
The life of pipe has been the subject of much argument. If improperly used, the life may be very short, due to corrosion. If, however, the pipe is covered with some nonconductor, such as asphaltum, or if it is taped and asphalted, this corrosion is eliminated. On the whole, it seems safe to assume a life of 50 years.
We give below the vestances of pipe based on 5% interest, cost of power one cent per h.p.h. and also based on a normal year of 3000 hours. It must be borne in mind, however, that where the pipe is used for irrigation, the normal year should
of delivery, laying, etc., is not included.
118. Galvanized pipe, running much higher in first cost than the black pipe, can be justified only by a proportionate increase in the life of the pipe, unless other advantages are forthcoming. This can hardly be done. Conducting cover-
coverings.
The above table shows that at very low velocity the operating vestance is practically negligible in comparison with the depreciation vestance. For a 12 in. pipe, at 0.5 ft. per second of velocity, for example, the depreciation vestance is $168 while the operating vestance is only $0.30, or about 0.18% of the total vestance. But at high velocities conditions are reversed. For example, at 20 ft. per second velocity, in the case of the 12 in. pipe, the operating vestance is $10,800 while the depreciation vestance is still $168. The latter, under these conditions, is only 1.53% of the total vestance and is thus almost negligible.
119. Somewhere between extremely IOWT and extremely high velocity is the point of best economy. The above table does not show this. But this can be shown^if the table is reduced to vestances per cubic feet per second (cu. sec. ft.) of capacity. This we have done in the table below.
PIPE 181
a minimum, and thereafter increases. This minimum point is the point of best economy under the conditions assumed. If the cost of power is in excess of one cent per h.p.h., lower velocities must be used, otherwise higher velocities for best economy. There are instances in the piping of water where some power is available but not sufficient for economical development. Under such conditions small pipe may be used, wasting this power in friction but reducing thereby the cost of the pipe. But there are other instances where the power is wasted merely because of a lack of knowledge of its worth. We have in mind one such instance where the power wasted was afterward put to use and found sufficient for a town of 3000 people.
120. To give a better idea of the variation of total vestance per cu. sec. ft., with velocity, we give below more detailed data for the 6 inch pipe by way of illustration.
This shows that with the. conditions assumed a velocity of three feet per second is the point of best economy while a velocity of four feet per second is nearly as good. At a velocity of 20 ft. per second, the total vestance for the transmission of water is over ten hundred per cent greater.
The friction of riveted pipe is considerably greater than smooth pipe, such as standard wrought iron or wood pipe. According to Mark's Mechanical Engineer's Handbook, that of 6 inch riveted pipe is 1.8 ft. per 100 ft. of pipe at 3 ft. per second velocity, while that of smooth pipe of the same size and at the same velocity is only 0.7 ft. under the same conditions; the operating vestance of the riveted pipe will be $122 as compared with only $47 for the smooth pipe. Since the total vestance of the latter is only $152, it would be necessary, for equal economy, to have only 152 - 122 = $30
of depreciation vestance. Assuming then that the riveted pipe has as long a life as the wrought iron pipe, i.e., 50 years, so that its term factor will be 0.91279, it would be necessary to purchase the riveted pipe at
The use of extra strong, or double extra strong, pipe is warranted where, and only where, the pressure to be borne is too great for standard pipe. For still lower pressures, casing may be used to considerable advantage due to its lower first cost.
121. We give below the vestances of wood pipe on the same basis as the standard pipe above. This pipe has come into very considerable use. It is particularly well adapted for low heads. It cannot, however, be allowed to stand empty without ruining it. The friction is assumed equal to that of standard pipe.
Since the operating vestance of wood and standard pipe has been assumed equal, while the first cost, and therefore the depreciation vestance, of the former is much lower, the total
vestance of wood pipe is far the lower. However, it must be remembered that there are some duties for which wood pipe is not adapted. But in such service as the distribution of water for irrigation, wood pipe has proved an inestimable aid, allowing much development that would have been prohibitive with more expensive pipe.
It would be a simple matter in any concrete case to compare the total vestances of pipe with that of open ditches or flumes. However, both the first cost and the cost of maintenance of such conveyances is highly variable, varying greatly with the character of the ground, the conformation of the soil, and local weather conditions. In any concrete case, where these items are definitely known, exact comparisons can be readily made, so that we can determine which is the best.
122. It must be borne in mind that, primarily the prices of all commodities are based upon the cost of production of these commodities. If a system is so installed that it does not render the service at best economy, then labor is being wasted. If the installation is too cheap in design and construction, then labor is wasted in operation. If, on the other hand, the installation is too expensive, then labor has been wasted in producing a system more refined and efficient than the amount and nature of the service warrants. Waste of brains, skill or labor is a dead loss; a waste that no community, whether state or nation, can afford. In the face of international competition, such a waste leads with certainty to national impoverishment. It is a mark of incompetence.
In the calculations of this chapter on motors, we have assumed a cost of i cent per h.p.h. This is, as we have pointed out, far lower than can be obtained in practice. In order to indicate what may actually be expected we publish the actual rates in Oregon for 1919, as announced by the public service commission.
Assuming a load factor of 40%, i.e., assuming that the motors run at full load 40% of the time on the basis of a 24hour day and are idle 60% of the time, and also allowing for the unavoidable motor losses, these rates are, for various sized motors, as follows:
To determine the total vestance of a motor under such a rate, multiply the operating vestance by the rate for the sized motor under consideration and add thereto the depreciation vestance.
engines of any type.
We give in the table below the vestances of induction motors at full load with the rates as per the table above, other things as in the previous table on induction motors.
UNIT COST DETERMINATION
Unit Cost. Time Element. Change Points. Unit Cost at Constant Load. Nearly Constant Load. Two Part Load. Three Part Load. N-part Load. Instantaneous Unit Cost of Actual Load Curve. Service Modulus and Replot.
123. We have seen in the foregoing chapters that cost governs price, so that our real problem is primarily that of cost determination. But in what way shall we apportion the costs, when all elements that enter into the problem are variable? The answer to this is: That an equipment must earn its costs, and profit, while in operation — for certainly it cannot do so while idle. This is the fundamental basis of cost analysis.
124. Let us then, to begin with, take the simplest conditions of operation possible, that in which the undertaking runs at full load for a variable number of hours per year.
C = the cost per h.p. of the system, p = the per cent of fixed charges, a = the operating cost per h.p.h., L = the load carried and
The greatest value that (N) can have is 8760, the number of hours in a year. Again since the operating cost is assumed to be constant at (a) dollars per h.p.h. (or other unit of service), then La = the total cost of operation per hour,
As (N) becomes less, the unit cost (K2) becomes greater, until when N = o, the unit cost is infinite, the operating cost per h.p.h. being assumed constant. On the other hand as ( N) increases, the unit cost becomes less, tending to decrease to the value of the operating cost, when (N) = » . But the largest value that ( N) can have is 8760, the number of hours in the year, and therefore the minimum value that the unit cost can reach is
125. If we have two plants, one of which has a first cost of Ci dollars, a depreciation of pi per cent, and an operating cost of #i dollars, while the second has corresponding values, C2, pz, and #2 and each carry the same load L, then the total annual cost of the first plant is
and of the second is
If we plot the total annual production cost vertically as in Fig. 37 and the hours horizontally, then these equations will give straight lines AB and A'B'. It may be and often is true that two such lines as AB and A'B' intersect between N = o
For values of (N) less than N0, Ki is less than Ki" For values of (N) greater than N0, Ki" is less than Ki. Evidently then when the hours of operation are less than A^0, the first plant is the most economical, for a greater number of hours of operation, the second plant is best. The application of this will be illustrated in the problems below.
Example 35. — A pumping plant, having a capacity of ten thousand gallons per minute costs $8000 and has 14% fixed charges. The cost of operation of the plant is 20 cents per hour. What is the cost per hour per 1000 gallons of capacity?
or $ii2 per 1000 gallons of capacity. The total cost of operation is 20 cents per hour or 2 cents per 1000 gallons of capacity. For (AO hours this cost would be o.o2Ar dollars.
0.03278
Plotting the values of KI vertically against the time ( A^) horizontally as in Fig. 38 gives a hyperbola. Note the enormous variation of the unit cost (Kz) with time. The number of hours of operation per year is the most important factor in the cost of a service.
Example 36. — A power plant costs $100 per h.p. and is of 2000 h.p. capacity, running at full load. If the fixed charges are 15% and the cost of operation 0.5 cent per h.p.h. (a) what is the total annual cost; and (b) what is the cost per h.p.h.?
according to example 35.
The values of KI and K% for various values of (N) are given below, in order again to illustrate the enormous variation in cost with the time of operation.
tion during the year.
Example 37. — A pumping plant of 1000 g.p.m. capacity costs $2400. The fixed charges are 12 % and the cost of operation is 0.3 cent per thousand gallons delivered. Each acre irrigated requires 43,200 gallons of water per month, so that with 12 hours of operation per day, we can irrigate 50 acres. We wish, however, to irrigate 100 acres, and in as much as night irrigation is not feasible, the question is, shall we put in another pumping unit, or shall we build a reservoir, pumping into it during the night? If we put in the reservoir, the pumping plant will operate 24 hours per day and therefore the power company will reduce our rates so that the cost of the water will be reduced to 0.2 cent per 1000 gallons of capacity. The reservoir costs 25 cents per yard to excavate and the land costs $200 per acre. The reservoir permits of only 10 ft. depth so as to keep the bottom above the land level. The fixed charges on the reservoir are 8% and the length of the irrigation season is 5 months. Shall we install another pumping plant, or put in the reservoir?
Solution: The question can only be answered by determining the costs in each case and comparing them, the one rendering the service cheapest being the one we shall decide upon.
five months of operation amounting to 3600 hours now, based on 24 hours per day of operation. The total annual costs are then
126. Example 38. — A centrifugal pumping unit of 1000 g.p.m. capacity costs $1100 and is guaranteed to operate at 60% efficiency. A triplex plunger pumping unit of the same size costs $2400 and is guaranteed at 75% efficiency. If in either case the fixed charges are 15% and the power charges are i cent per h.p.h., other operating costs being i cent per hour, which equipment should we use, the head in either case being 80 ft.?
Ki = 165 + 343 = $508 for the centrifugal pump, and KI = 360 + 277 = $637 for the triplex pump, showing the centrifugal pump to advantage.
then Ki = 165 + 1715 = $1880 for the centrifugal pump, and Ki = 360 + 1385 = $1745 for the triplex pump, showing the advantage to rest with this pump.
That is, if we operate less than 2955 hours per year, then under the conditions assumed above, the centrifugal pump is best; if we operate more than 2955 hours per year, then the triplex pump is best.
Example 39. — We wish to generate power under full load conditions and find that a hydro-electric plant will cost $100 per h.p. and the cost of operation will be o.i cent per h.p.h. A Diesel engine plant will cost $60 per h.p. and cost 0.2 cent per h.p.h. for operation, while a steam plant will cost $45 per h.p. and 0.3 cent per h.p.h. to operate. If the fixed charges in all cases above are 14% for what hours of operation would each of the above plants be best?
the steam plant, it is $0.003 N, where in each case N is the number of hours of operation per year. The total annual cost per h.p. for the hydro-electric plant is then
127. If the plant does not operate at full load but at a constant fractional load, then calling M the capacity of the plant, and L the load, as before, we get that the annual fixed charges are MCp, the annual operating cost is LaN, the total annual
Example 40. — A steam generating plant running at 80 % capacity costs $50 per h.p. If the fixed charges are 12% and the operating costs are 0.3 cent per h.p.h., what will be the annual cost per h.p. and the cost per h.p.h.?
While in the above we have shown the application of the cost analysis, under special conditions, only to pumping and power generation, it is equally applicable to railroad or wagon road analysis as to dry goods or grocery business.
1. A pumping plant of 2000 g.p.m. capacity costs $2100. The fixed charges are 13%, and the cost of operation is 35 cents per hour. The plant operates for 2000 hours per year at full load.
3. An electric pumping unit of 10 h.p. size costs $240, while a gas engine driven unit costs $600 complete. The fixed charges in either case are 12%. The cost of operation of the electric pumping unit is 2 cents per h.p.h., while that of the gas engine driven unit is 1.2 cents per h.p.h. Determine for what number of hours of operation at full load each is best. Plot the curves.
4. A 10 h.p. gas engine electric lighting unit costs $90 per h.p. and runs at full load for 3000 hours per year. The load increases during the period of operation to 15 h.p. We can take care of this additional load, either by installing another 5 h.p. unit as above, or by putting in a storage battery
and running the 10 h.p. unit 4500 hours per year. The battery costs $75 per kw. of capacity and has an efficiency of 65%. The fixed charges on the above units are 15%. The operating cost of the engine unit is 1.3 cents per h.p.h. and of the battery 0.2 cent per kw.h. Should we install the extra engine unit or the storage battery for best economy?
7. Given the following data: A horizontal 4-valve engine generating unit costs $22,700. The engine runs with steam at 150$ pressure, 100° superheat and with a 26 in. vacuum, and uses 16.5$ steam per kw.h. A steam turbine generating" unit of the same size costs $12,250 and operates under the same conditions as the steam engine unit except with a 28 in. vacuum. It consumes 17.7$ steam per kw.h. The plants are run at full load. If the fixed charges on either plant are 14% and the steam costs 18 cents per looojf, and other operating costs are 0.06 cent per kw.h., for what length of service per year is each best adapted?
9. We find that: a hydro-electric plant will cost $100 per kw. to install and 0.2 cent per kw.h. to operate; a Diesel plant will cost $70 per h.p. to install and 0.3 cent to operate; while a steam plant will cost $50 per h.p. to install and 0.4 cent to operate. The fixed charges on the hydroelectric plant are 14%, on the Diesel plant 15% and 16% on the steam plant. The plants are to operate at full load. For what number of hours of operation is each of the above plants best?
10. A pumping plant of 1000 g.p.m. capacity delivers water against 120 ft. head with a guaranteed efficiency of 70% at full load and 40% efficiency at half load. The plant costs $850 to install. The power costs one cent per h.p.h., while fixed charges are 12%. The plant operates at full load for 2000 hours per year and at half load for 1000 hours per year. Determine the total annual cost of operation.
13. We are irrigating 100 acres of land for 5 months in the year with a 25 h.p. direct connected electric centrifugal pumping unit costing $2200. The pump efficiency is 60%, motor efficiency 85%, while the head pumped
against is 40 ft. total. The electric power costs 1.5 cents per kw.h. The plant runs at full load for 8 hours each day. We wish to irrigate 300 acres of land and can do so with the unit already installed by running 24 hours per day, in which case the power will cost us only one cent per kw.h. But in that case, we must install a reservoir to avoid night irrigation, costing 35 cents per cubic yard to excavate and having a maximum depth of 12 ft. The land costs $100 per acre. Fixed charges on the pumping unit are 12%, and other operating costs are 3 cents per hour. The fixed charges on the reservoir are 10%, with an annual cost of $78 for maintenance and repair. With the reservoir in use the head on the pump will be increased by 4 ft., with a corresponding increase in power consumed.
Instead of using the above layout, we can install two more 25 h.p. pumping units, the three units operating for 8 hours per day, or we can install one more such 25 h.p. pumping unit together with sufficient reservoir to avoid more than 8 hours of operation. In the case of the three 25 h.p. units, our power cost will be 1.3 cents per kw.h. and 1.2 cents for the two 25 h.p. units. In the latter case the head will be increased by 2 ft., with a corresponding increase in power consumed.
by what per cent.
14. A 10 h.p. direct connected centrifugal pump operates at 60% efficiency at full load, for 2000 hours per year. We wish to operate for another 1000 hours per year with a load of 5 h.p. If we use the above pump, its efficiency will drop to 45%, while if we install a 5 h.p. unit it will give 52% efficiency. The power costs 2 cents per h.p.h. while fixed charges are 12%. Should we install the additional unit or use the 10 h.p. unit at half load? By what per cent would the one exceed the other? The current is a.c. 60 cy. 3 phase 220 volts.
15. We wish to install a 10 h.p. electrically driven centrifugal pumping plant. Which would be best, (a) a belt driven unit or (b) a direct connected unit? Take into consideration cost of units, building and foundations. How much would we lose by installing the poorer one?
power cost of 1.5 cents per kw.h., other things being equal.
19. A 250 h.p. pumping plant is to operate against a head of 100 ft. Into how many units should we divide this plant for best economy, taking into account cost of building and foundations? Power cost one cent per kw.h., hours of operation 2000 per year and fixed charges 10%.
then to determine the
cost of production for a given plant, already in operation, or else the more difficult and important problem to so design the plant that the production will be at a minimum cost. In this case the
difference between L% and LI is assumed to be so great that it would be uneconomical to operate the entire plant for the lesser load, the entire plant operating for the load (L\ + Lz)
The difficulty in the solution of this problem comes in the equitable distribution of fixed charges, primarily. But this difficulty is removed if you bear in mind that an equipment or unit thereof must earn its costs and profits while in operation, for certainly it cannot do so when idle. Suppose then that this plant consists of two units, one of (Li) size and the other of (L2) size. Evidently then the unit (Li) will operate for (Ni) hours per year, while the unit (Lz) operates for only (Nz) hours per year. During the balance of the year, above (Ni) hours, i.e., for A^0 hours (where Ni + N0 = 8760 hours) the load is assumed to be zero. For the unit (Li) we have
and for operating the unit (Li) for N2 hours the total cost is obtained by multiplying the cost per hour (Eq. 68) by the load (Li) and the hours N2) i.e., by LiA^, getting
according to the assumptions made in the problem.
129. Example 40. — A steam power plant costs $50 per h.p. and is of 2000 h.p. size. It carries a load of 2000 h.p. for 3000 hours of the year and 500 h.p. for an additional 2000 hours. If the cost of operation is 0.3 cent per h.p.h. and fixed charges are 12%, determine the cost per h.p.h. for each period, the load being considered integral.
Summary. — Cost per h.p.h. during ist period $0.0048. " " " " 2nd " 0.0042 By substitution in the equations, we get
second period, as before.
Example 41. — A factory for the manufacture of a gas engine costs $4,000,000 on which the fixed charges are 15%. The capacity of this plant is 600 engines per month. It supplies this number of engines per month during the first five months, and then 300 engines per month for the balance of the year, due to reduced demand. Exclusive of fixed charges, the cost of manufacture of each engine is $150. Determine the total cost per engine (a) during the first period, and (b) during the second period.
Solution. — If we had a factory capacity of only 300 engines per month, its cost would be $2,000,000 on which the fixed charges would be 2,000,000 X 0.15 = $300,000 per year, or 300,000 -T- 12 = $25,000 per month; and since 300 engines are turned out per month, this gives
It is no doubt surprising that the net profits should be less during the rush period than during the normal demand period, but this is due to the large investment to accommodate this peak period. In this case it would be far better to reduce the size of the plant so that it could meet the total annual demand by producing engines at a uniform rate throughout the year. This would necessitate the tying up of capital on product finished ahead of the demand. The interest thereon must be charged against these off-season engines plus the cost of storage, but this would hardly amount to more than $5 extra per engine as compared with $100 per engine extra on the first 3000 engines per year.
each and locomotives, one for each 20 cars, cost $30,000 each. Freight cars empty weigh 5 tons each and carry 30 tons net weight. Locomotives weigh 30 tons. Cost per ton-mile for freight haul is 0.4 cent. The freight load amounts to 120 cars per day during July, August, and September, and to 20 cars per day during the balance of the year. Besides this, passenger service is rendered. Passenger cars weigh 7 tons, costing $5000 each, and carry, on the average, 40 passengers. Cost per ton-mile of passenger service is 0.6 cent. The passenger load amounts to 4 cars per day during June, July, and August, and 2 cars per day during the balance of the year. Determine the total cost per ton-mile during rush and normal demand periods for passenger service, also the cost per passenger-mile if the fixed charges on ways and structures are 10%, cars 14%, and locomotives 14%.
Solution: The first problem is one of cost segregation as between passenger and freight service. The proper basis is evidently the ratio of the maximum demand. Thus the maximum demand of passenger service consists of
Of structures it should be understood that certain items must be charged to the particular service at once instead of being apportioned. Freight sheds and yards should be charged to freight service and passenger depots to passenger service directly, and so forth.
In a similar way the freight costs per ton-mile during each period may be determined. Certain simplifications, hardly warranted in practice, have been made in the above problem in order to illustrate the application of the principles without too much detail.
131. In former equations, it was assumed that the size of the unit and the load were equal, — i.e., the unit operated at full load. This is hardly ever the case. Suppose then
Nz = time in hours (days or months) in the rush period, LI = size of load during the normal period, MI = " " unit for the normal period, (Ni — Nz) = time in hours (days or months) in the normal
for the normal period.
132. Limitations on the value of (Ni) must of course be observed. If the time is in hours, then (Ni) cannot be greater than 8760; if in days, then it cannot be greater than 365; and if in months, then (A'l) cannot be greater than i 2 for evident reasons. In a great many cases it is hardly sufficient to divide the load into two parts. Electric service naturally divides itself into three distinct periods, the day, peak, and night periods. So the load on a great many undertakings naturally divides itself into three periods, the rush, normal, and slack periods. Under these conditions, we qan determine the costs during each period as follows:
Li = the mean load during the slack period, Mi — the capacity of unit during the slack period, NI — Nz = duration of the slack period, (Li + LZ) = mean load during the normal period, (Mi + Mz) = capacity of units during the normal period,
Nz — A^s = duration of the normal period, (Li + LZ -f £3) = mean load during the rush period, (Mi + Mz + M^) = capacity of units during the rush period, (Nz) = duration of the rush period, C = unit cost of the undertaking, p = per cent of fixed charges,
The excess load during the normal over the slack period is (L2) with a corresponding difference in size of unit of (M2), the total annual cost of which is
134. If we plot the time (AO vertically and (5"), the service modulus, horizontally as in Fig. 42, then the area is the size of the unit (M) required for the period. Thus
2000 hours, mean load
800 kw., maximum 1000 kw.; third period, maximum 2000 kw., mean load 2000 kw., time 2000 hrs. First cost per kw. $70, fixed charges 10%, and operating cost 35 cents per kw.h. Determine the cost per kw.h. during each period.
The determination of the constant of integration may offer some difficulty. Since the limits of integration are from 8760 hours to o hours, we must use one of these limits in determining this constant. This must be the former. For we do not know the value of (S) when N = o, but when N = 8760, then
136. If we plot the hours of operation horizontally as in Fig. 44A and the load (M) vertically, then we get a load-hour curve as OO'. On the~other hand, if we plot (N) vertically
as before and the service modulus (S) horizontally as in Fig. 43, then the area under the curve thus obtained equals (M). This we can prove as follows. The area (^4) under the curve is
once the load, hours of service, and service modulus.
Ordinarily the load curve is given as in Fig. 44A. This is the load curve as it is obtained from a graphical recording wattmeter, the horizontal distance being the calendar time. But
to obtain even a roughly approximate equation between the load (M) and the time (N) would be impracticable for such a curve even if it were not impossible.
For use in cost analysis, a replot is necessary in order to simplify the curve. The replot is made in descending values of (M). In order to do this, first plot on the ordinate (OM), Fig. 446, the point (Mo) being the maximum instantaneous value of the load (M) for the year. Then draw a horizontal line as AB, in Fig. 44 A, at a height (Mi). Then the number of hours that the system operates at a load MI or over is given by the sum of the intercepts as shown, having a total value of (Ni). With coordinates (Mi) and (N^) we can now plot the point (P) in Fig. 446. By shifting the horizontal line AB, Fig. 44A, we can thus get as many points
as we desire on the replot of Fig. 446 and thus determine this curve. The equation for this is comparatively very simple, a common algebraic equation of the third degree usually giving a sufficiently close approximation. In Fig. 45,
You will note that the cost of production of power is least during the periods of least load and greatest during the periods of greatest loads. If now the price or rate is made throughout proportionate to the cost, as it should and must be, the rate will be lowest during the periods of lightest load, thus encouraging the filling of the valleys in the power plant's load curve, reducing throughout thereby the cost and rate of the power service.
1. A 10 h.p. pumping plant runs at full load for a variable number of hours per year. It costs $500 with 10% of fixed charges. The cost of operation is 20 cents per hour. Determine the total annual and unit cost of production of the service. Plot the curves.
2. A 25 kw. electric lighting plant carries a load of 25 kw. for 1000 hours per year and a load of 15 kw. for an additional 3000 hours per year. Determine the total annual and unit cost of production of the power, if the plant costs $80 per kw. of capacity, with 12% fixed charges and operating costs of 1.2 cents per kw.h. delivered.
3. A power plant cost $60 per h.p. installed, with fixed charges of 12%. The operating costs are 0.3 cent per h.p.h. The plant carries a load of 1800 h.p. for 400 hours per year. During this 400 hour period the maximum demand is 2200 h.p. During the balance of the year, the plant carries a mean load of 600 h.p. with a maximum demand of 700 h.p. Determine the total annual, and the unit cost of production of the service during each period.
4. A loo mile branch railroad is built having a capacity of 200 cars of freight per day, and costing $2,000,0x30. The fixed charges are 13%. The cost of operation is 15 cents per car-mile loaded and 10 cents per car-mile empty. During two months in the year, the system carries an average of 1 80 loaded cars out, with a maximum of 200, and an average return of 50 loaded cars with a maximum of 60. During the balance of the year, an average of 80 cars per day is carried out to the main line loaded, with a maximum of 100 and there is an average return of 20 cars with a maximum of 30. Cars cost $3000, locomotives $20,000, with a capacity of 20 cars. The weight of each locomotive is the same as a loaded freight car. Determine the total annual and unit cost of service per car-mile during each period.
6. A steam engine generating plant costs $75 per kw. of capacity, with 10% fixed charges. It carries a mean load of 5000 kw. for 60 hours per year, with a maximum of 8000 kw., a mean load of 3000 kw. for 1500 hours per year with a maximum of 4000 kw. and a mean load of 1000 kw. for the balance of the year, with a maximum of 1500 kw. The cost of operation is o.i cent per kw.h. with a mean load of 5000 kw., 0.12 cent per kw.h. when the mean load is 3000 kw.h. and 0.14 cent when the mean load is 1000 kw. Determine the total annual, and unit cost of production of the service during each period.
6. What could we afford to pay per kw. of capacity for a turbo-generating plant to take the place of the steam engine generating plant of problem (5), if its costs of operation are, for the mean load of 5000 kw., 0.12 cent, for the mean load of 3000 kw., 0.14 cent and for the mean load of 1000 kw., 0.17 cent, other things being equal?
and the cost of operation per h.p.h. is 0.2 cent. The first cost of the plant is $50 per h.p. of capacity installed, with 12.5% fixed charges. Determine the total annual, average unit, and true unit cost of production. Plot the curve of the variation of true unit cost with the variation of the load.
FINANCIAL EFFICIENCY
Variable Operating Cost. Total Production Cost. Determination of Equation of Actual Load Curve. Analysis of Heat Transmission. Point of Best Financial Efficiency. Determination of Size of System for Best Financial Efficiency.
138. In the past we have assumed that the operating cost per h.p.h. was a constant. This is far from true, especially in smaller sized plants and this consideration must modify our conclusions considerably where best economy is aimed at. So also within any large plant, the unit operating cost at full load will be considerably less than at fractional loads.
If then we call ai, #2, #3, etc., the operating costs, during given periods and corresponding loads, we can determine our costs as before, but modified by this variation in operating cost.
Knowing then M = f(N) , and a = F(Af ) either by exact or approximate equation, a complete solution of the costs can be made, either of an existing system, or in advance of its construction.
224 SIZE OF SYSTEM FOR BEST FINANCIAL EFFICIENCY
is that the conditions for minimum costs can be determined by the usual method of equating the first differential to zero, and the system designed to meet these conditions.
If in the cost determination, the entire system is treated as a unit, so that the costs include the transmission and distribution as well as plant costs, then the above determination for minimum costs will determine both the size of plants and the corresponding areas of distribution for any given set of conditions, such that maximum financial efficiency will be attained, i.e., so that the service will be rendered at least cost.
In determining the best size of a system for minimum cost, we must consider the unit first cost (c) of the system as variable, since this varies with its size. Once this size is determined, (c) becomes fixed and has a definite constant value.
The operating cost varies not only with the size of the units but also with the per cent- of full load that they are carrying, because their efficiencies vary with fractional loads often very greatly. The handling of the entire subject is quite complex but this should give peculiar satisfaction to engineers for it insures that in future the matter must be taken out of the hands of amateurs.
constant in the equation we can make the approximate curve run through one point on the true curve. Thus in the above equation a there are five constants, and we can therefore make the approximate curve run through five points on the true curve given. If we had another term (EN5) then we could make it run through a sixth point and therefore approximate to the true curve just so much more closely.
We shall follow this through in considerable detail.
Substitute in equation 2 the value N = 2 and M = 4, and we get 4 = 5 + 2^+ 4^+ 8C + i6D, or o = i + 2 A + 4B + 8C + i6Z) .... (3)
And finally, we can get a third equation with (A) eliminated, by multiplying equation 4 by 2 and subtracting from equation 6, thus 0 = 6 + SA + 32^ + I28C + 512!) o = 4.1 + 8.4 + 64^ + 5i2C + 4096!) subtract o = -- 1.9 + 32$ + 384C + 3584!) (9)
We now proceed to eliminate (B) from these equations. Multiply equation 7 by 3 and subtract from equation 8. This gives 0 = 3 + 24$ + i44C + 672!)
or 5 = 0.346 logeAr-i.23i2Ar-f-o.i6ioAr2-o.oo729/V'3-f-C.1 (13) Where C' is a constant of integration. By equation 12, when N = 8.760, M = 0.71, so that when N = 8.760
'+ 0.02682 X 5888.6595 — 0.001094 X 51584.66 = 43.80 - 13,276 - 137.94 + 157-934 ~ 56.434 = 20.636 millions of kilowatt-hours, costing = 20.636 X 8000 = $165,088
TOTAL PRODUCTION 231
in accordance with the above equation. It is evident that the value of (S) , the service modulus, will not be affected by variations in the operating cost. Equation 15 above will not be changed except in the last term, which must be changed to the new value. We therefore get, for the cost per kw.h. ( K) K_ 6(0.346 \ogeN — 1.2312^ + o.i6i7V2— 0.00729^ -j- 2.6612) 1000(5 + 0.346^- o.6i56N2 + 0.1073^ ~ 0.00547^)
While, as may be seen from the above, the work of solving such cost problems requires skill and considerable painstaking effort, it certainly permits of real and conclusive deductions.
140. In the following problem of determining the size of a heating system for best financial efficiency, we have assumed the heat to be transmitted in water instead of steam. It may be of interest to note the comparative cost of transmitting heat energy by steam and by water.
We can allow approximately a velocity of 100 ft. per second for steam and 5 feet per second for water, the velocity of steam being twenty times as great as that of water. The heat capacity of water is one B.t.u. per pound, or 62.5 B.t.u. per cu. ft. The heat capacity of steam varies with the pressure (density) in accordance with the following table.
The third column is obtained by dividing the total heat per pound of the steam above 150° F. by the number of cubic feet per pound of steam, thus getting the B.t.u. per cu. ft. The fourth column is then obtained by dividing the heat per cu. ft. by the temperature of the steam above 150°. But inasmuch as steam may be allowed to travel 20 times as fast as water, we have multiplied this column by 20, giving the last column. This shows 12.4 to 58 B.t.u. for steam as compared with water at 62.5 B.t.u. per cu. ft. per degree. A number of important factors must be borne in mind. If the pressure
TYPE OF HEATING SYSTEM 233
is over ioo#, then extra strong pipe and fittings must be used. Since these are far more expensive than standard, the cost of transmission is greatly increased, which does not permit of a fair comparison with that of hot water at nominal pressures. Therefore the real capacity of steam is really only 12.4 to 27 B.t.u. as compared with water at 62.5.
On the other hand, while water transmission requires as large a return pipe as outgoing pipe, that for steam may be very small, and if the condensate is wasted, the return pipe may be done away with altogether. But in the latter case, the cost of purchasing or pumping the water thus wasted must be added to the total service cost.
But even without a return pipe for the steam, and allowing nothing for the cost of water thus necessarily wasted, we have 12.4 to 27 B.t.u. for steam as compared with half of 62.5, or 31.25 B.t.u., for water transmission. So that even under these conditions the cost of steam transmission is at least 16% greater than for water. The cost of water wasted usually runs from one to ten cents per 1000 Ibs., a fairly significant item itself.
The conclusion cannot be avoided, then, that in spite of the fact that most central heating stations are designed for steam transmission, heat transmission by water is far more economical. If, in the hot water system, instead of heating water .in the boilers, we generate steam, using the steam for the generation of power, and using the exhaust steam (atmospheric pressure, 212°) for the heating of the water, we have an incomparably more economical system.
Example 47. — Assume that the cost per bo.h.p. of a central heating plant varies as curve A, Fig. 47, and that the cost of transmission pipe per foot complete in place varies as curve A, Fig. 48, and that the operating cost is one cent per bo.h.p. hour, neglecting radiation loss in transmission, determine the area of transmission for maximum economy; in blocks of 200 ft., if the maximum demand is 268,000 B.t.u. per block per hour and the mean annual load 67,000 B.t.u. per block per hour, fixed charges 10%.
Assuming the shape of the area served to be square, the number of blocks on each side being (B) blocks from the plant, then the total number of blocks served will be 2B(B + i), in which B is always odd. Since each block requires 268,000 B.t.u. maximum, or 8 bo.h.p., the total maximum load will be
L = J X i6B (B + i) = 4B (B + i) bo.h.p. whence the annual operating cost will be LaN = 4B (B + i) X o.oi X 8760 = 350.4^ (B + i) dollars.
We must now determine (C), the cost of the system per bo.h.p. Curve A, Fig. 47, gives (Ci) the cost per bo.h.p. of the heating plant. So we must only determine (Cz)j the cost per bo.h.p. of the transmission according to the cost data given in Fig. 48.
Allowing 200° F. as the maximum temperature of the outgoing water and 150° as the temperature of the return water we can carry 50 B.t.u. per Ib or
ii g.p.m. cap,
4 (/) X (B - i) ft. of 22 g.p.m. cap, 4 (/) X (B - 3) ft. of 44 g.p.m. cap, 4 (/) X (B — 5) ft. of 66 g.p.m. cap, 4 (/) X (B - 7) ft. of 88 g.p.m. cap,
The cost of the i|" pipe according to Fig. 48 is 34 cents per foot, and since the cost in place is assumed in direct proportion to the area of the pipe, the cost per foot of the 22 g.p.m.
+ 0.00001133 X 16 X i652(5 + i)2 or Ci = 61.66 - 0.56^(5 + i) + o.oo2952(5 + i)2. Where the total first cost (C) of the system per bo.h.p. is
Fig. 50. Note that after the point of best economy is passed the increase in cost is very rapid. The cost of service of a heating system that was considerably too large would be far in excess of the individual plant costs. However, the results obtained above must not be generalized, as they apply only under the conditions assumed in the problem. But under these conditions, a steam heating system is still more expensive and capable of serving only a smaller area economically. Another factor that must be borne in mind is load density. We have in the above problem assumed uniform load density. The load density may be very much greater or less than that assumed, while on the other hand the load density, instead of being uniform, may vary over the area in a great many essentially different ways. The effect of these variations on the system's size and economy afford study of the most valuable kind in practice.
1. Assume the annual load curve to be as in Fig. 51, the first cost of the power plant to be $60 per h.p. installed., fixed charges 12%, and operating costs to be 0.6 cent per h.p.h.
Financial Efficiency. Economy of Units at Fractional Loads.
141. In considering the matter of the proper selection of the size of units in any given plant, too much emphasis has been placed on the necessity of a reserve unit. Like most things, a reserve unit is desirable in inverse proportion to its cost. When this cost rises above the probable gain, it is no longer good judgment to provide it.
The first question is, how long will a given piece of machinery run, without a shutdown, under conditions of average care? While this is a very difficult matter to decide on, yet as a rule the number of hours of run without shutdown will be in direct proportion to the life of the equipment. But with this, we must consider the nature of the equipment as well. For example", the life of a motor is twice that of an engine, therefore we may expect twice as long a run. But as a matter of fact, we will get more than that, because the shock of reciprocating parts is absent in the motor. So as a whole, the period of continuous run is far greater for all rotative classes of machinery, such as generators, turbines, centrifugal pumps and the like, than for the reciprocating classes, as engines, compressors and such. <
That shutdown will occur is certain, for no machine is built to run continuously during its entire life, without certain parts being either adjusted or repaired, or entirely replaced. Among such parts are bearings, crosshead guides, stuffing boxes and the like. However, the period of necessary shutdown may be anticipated, and for that matter usually must be anticipated to avoid severe damage to the machine, due to break-
load being carried.
But this is not the primary consideration in the matter of dividing our load among a number .of units. The menace of shutdown is not nearly so great as one would be lead to believe by the emphasis placed on it by so many authors. First-class machinery, run with average care, under normal loads, may be depended on to run at least a certain period without any danger of shutdown. They will then require certain repair, after which they may again be relied upon with reasonable certainty.
142. The reason for the design and installation of any system is the rendering of a given service. The primary object for the subdivision of the plant into several units must be to render this service at as low a cost as possible. We must therefore take into consideration a number of primary factors that control this. These are as follows:
2. Against larger units:
(a) Decrease in efficiency at fractional loads. The larger the unit, the smaller per cent of full load the unit will run at, under average conditions.
For example, if the maximum load on a certain power plant is 10,000 kw. and the mean load is 3000 kw., then if we have only one unit, it will run on the average at only 30% load, with corresponding low efficiency. If on the other hand we put in two or more units, we can shut down one unit after another as the load decreases, maintaining much nearer full load conditions on those units that are kept in operation, and getting correspondingly much higher efficiency under actual running conditions.
143. The above are the conditions for a single unit or where all the units are operated, each carrying a uniform proportion of the entire load. But it certainly is not good practice, where there are a number of units, to operate them all at small loads, when it would be possible to shut one or more of them down and operate the balance at more nearly full load.
Assuming then that we have a number of units, MI, Mz, MS) ... in our plant all of the same size, and that we operate them so that all which are in operation will be at full load
SERVICE COST
except one, then for any load (M) we will have, let us say, ( £7) units of (Mi) size operating at full load and one at fractional load. Under these conditions the total attendance cost per hour is (AM) and the total fuel per hour is
and (X) is the per cent of full load on the unit that is running light and (P) is a function of (X), which is obtained as an approximate equation from the actual test (or factory guarantee) curves. Whence the total operating cost per hour for the load (M) is
calculation.
144. In the above, the fixed charges must be based on the total installation, while the operating cost depends on the units in operation. In practice we should have to determine the total annual operating costs (a) by a series of integration instead of only one. If, for example, we have ( U + i) units in the plant, we would integrate from ( U + i) to (£/)> then from U to ( U — i), and so forth, i.e., always from X = 100% to X = o, or if the units will carry say 25% overload safely, and run with better economy than below 25% load, then our integration steps would have to be between X = 125% and X = 25%. The reason for this is that at the point of shutdown of a unit a point of discontinuity is introduced in our curve.
It is evident then that units like generators, steam engines, and the like, that are technically capable of carrying overloads, should be built mechanically well to carry this overload for a reasonable per cent of their running time without giving trouble, in order to allow the operator to get the lowest production costs. Invariably better economy is obtained at reasonable per cent overload than near zero load. For example, a steam engine will use about ij% more steam between full load and 25% overload, at J load it will use 60%
DETERMINATION OF NUMBER OF UNITS 247
more steam, and below that still more. A steam turbine will use i% more steam at 25% overload than at full load, while at J load it will use 15 to 40% more steam, and so on.
In the determination of the number of units (of equal size) required in a plant for best economy, we assume that there are (n) units and then find what the total cost of production is in terms of (n). By plotting this equation, or by differentiating it and equating it to zero, we can determine the value of (n), the number of units required for minimum production cost, and thus the size of each unit. This is comparatively simple.
But we can obtain better efficiency usually by using different sizes of units rather than a number of units all of the same size. In such cases, fractional determination will give the desired results. That is, when the load curve consists of two or more distinct parts, one, let us say, of short duration but a heavy load, and the other of long duration and comparatively light load, we can divide the curve into two parts, considering each separately. After we have determined thus the units best for each part of the load, we can then make such adjustments as will bring the two or more parts into harmony.
248 TYPE AND SIZE OF UNITS
Assuming fixed charges at 10%, how many units of the same size will be required to give minimum production cost? Solution: (i) Total fixed charges per year are M0cp = 1000 X o.io X (50 — 0.005 U)
In this case we have two units each of 500 kw. The first unit runs at fractional load from C to B, then at full load from B to E. The second unit cuts in at B, carrying the load area BDE. Or the units may carry the load area ABDO, both being equally loaded.
which it continues to run at full load, while the excess is taken care of by cutting in a second unit. When the load exceeds 666.67, the third unit is cut in. In this case the fixed charges
which capitalized at 5 % equals the very neat sum of $46,566. Under the conditions assumed, then, a three-unit plant would be worth $46,566 more than the same plant with only one unit. And there would be very nearly this same difference in value between a four- and three-unit plant. But under the conditions assumed in this example, the entire plant under the worst conditions ( U = o) would have a first cost of only $50,000. Therefore, a proper choosing of the number of units has resulted in practically doubling the value of the plant!
paratively simple example.
146. Example 49. — It is desired to install a pumping plant of 1000 g.p.m, capacity to pump against a static head of 50 feet. Length of pipe line required is 200 feet. Determine the sizes and types of each part of the system for the following operating conditions: Length of service, 5 months at 10 hours per day, cost of electric power if used 2 cents per kw.h., cost of #2 distillate 6 cents per gallon, interest 5%.
The power consumed at the motor is guaranteed at 20 h.p.
Comparison. — A comparison shows, at once, that the cost of this part of the installation is practically the same in either case, the reduced size of building fully offsetting in the latter case the increased cost of the direct connected pump. But the life of the direct connected pump and motor is considerably greater than the belted pump and motor, due to the absence of belt strains, while the life of the belt is always comparatively short. Besides this we have a saving in the latter case of approximately 5 h.p. costing io^f per hour or
There is therefore no question of our deciding in favor of the direct-connected over that of the belted outfit. In fact the latter would be rather a liability.
Cost of Operation — Engine Plant. -- The full 25 h.p. will be required. At o.6# of fuel oil guaranteed per h.p.h., the engine will consume 15$ or 2 gallons of oil per hour costing 12^.
Cost of Operation, D.C. Electric Plant. — The output of the motor was 20 h.p. With a guaranteed efficiency of 89.5%, this gives an imput requirement of 22.34 h.p., costing 44.68 cents per hour or
A comparison shows that the first cost of the engine plant is considerably over twice the first cost of the direct connected electric plant, but the cost of operation of the former is considerably less than half that of the latter. To determine the comparative value, and thus reach a decision, we proceed as follows :
as compared with a total vestance of $15,890 for the direct connected electric plant. The value of the engine plant as compared with the electric plant is as 15,890 to 9642 or 1.55. That is the engine plant is worth a little over 1.5 times as much as the electric plant.
Should we use #i distillate in the engine costing 8 cents per gallon, instead of the #2 distillate, our fuel cost per year would increase $60, corresponding to an increase in operating vestance of $1200.
engine pumping equipment.
Discharge Piping. — The first problem here would be to decide on the class of pipe to be used, i.e., standard wrought iron, cast iron, riveted steel or wood pipe. We have been
DESIGN OF PLANT FOR BEST ECONOMY
present many times when the representatives of the manufacturers of each class have argued the merits of their own and sometimes the demerits of other classes. Such special pleading, however, gets us nowhere. The tendency of city councils is usually to buy as expensive pipe as they can or think they can afford. But the question is merely, which will render the service cheapest.
In this case we have a very low head to pump against. Pipe strong enough to stand very high heads is therefore entirely unnecessary. The cost of operation of pipe is the cost of the friction-horse-power consumed by the pipe. This is lowest for wood pipe. Under such conditions, we should decide on planed machine-banded wood pipe.
An inspection shows that the total vestance is a minimum for 14" pipe, this size giving best financial efficiency. For 1000 g.p.m. and prices, etc., as listed, this size is best, irrespective of
It has been customary in an installation of this type to use eight inch pipe as best. But it is evident that with this size of pipe, the conveyance of the water would cost us nearly four times as much as with fourteen inch pipe.
The effect of increased power cost is to force us to use larger pipe, while decreased power cost permits us to use smaller pipe for best financial efficiency. It is just as great an error to use too expensive equipment as too cheap.
We have now completed all of the plant except intake canal, screen and trash racks, suction pipe, check valve and hand primer, together with necessary increasers, bolts, gaskets, flanges, etc.
The check valve offers a special problem. If a six inch swing check is used, it will introduce a friction head of 5.1 feet costing $12 per month for power. This amount is enormous, being over 10% of the total power required. The use of a larger check valve will help some as shown in the table below.
128.90
This analysis shows that the twelve inch check valve is best. But if this is so, then the discharge nozzle of a 1000 g.p.m. pump should be twelve inch instead of six inch, with a corresponding increase in the size of the diffuser and suction. The better thing to do would be to use a gate valve in which the friction is practically
zero, when the gate valve is wide open as it will always be when the pump is in operation. The gate valve will serve perfectly well for priming as well as the check valve. In case of stoppage of the engine, there will be nothing to prevent a reversal of the flow in the pipe line. If the end of the discharge is above the water line in the reservoir or canal, this reversed flow can be limited to the water in the pipe line, and thus amount to very little. We should, in this installation, choose a six inch gate valve placed directly on the nozzle of the pump, costing $24.50, and having a total vestance of $34.40 instead of $109.30 for the best check valve.
There is still one item open to discussion in the above and that is the belt, this little item of $22 costing $957 in vestance. The only substitute we could here use would be a silent chain drive or reduction gear running in oil, together with a common sub-base for engine and pump. The efficiency of such transmission is guaranteed at 98% and will cost $160 for the base and $120 for the transmission. Under these conditions we would have the following:
But with such an outfit we could reduce the size of the building from 16' X 28' to 14' X 18' costing $285, with a depreciation vestance of $440. This represents a saving of vestance on the smaller building required of
more than offsetting the vestance of the direct geared transmission and sub-base. We would therefore decide in favor of this drive. There is also a saving of two yards in foundation to be taken into account on this design. Under these conditions our plant items, costs, and vestances would be as follows :
We have by the substitution of the direct geared drive above reduced the total vestance by over $1000 and by so doing reduced the cost of the service more than 10%. The above plant, the product of scientific cost analysis as applied to this
simple design, has a total vestance less than one-third as great as the average best plants installed, i.e., the total service cost of the plant is less than one-third of that found in the best plants of this size, and possibly one-fifth of the average plant installed.
147. Example 50. — Design a noo kw. power plant assuming interest 5%, land 50 cents per square foot, fuel oil $1.75 per barrel (320$), coal $4 per ton; on the basis of 18,500 B.t.u. per pound for the oil and 12,000 B.t.u. per pound of coal. The conditions of use are full load for 3000 hours per year.
Solution: Eleven hundred kilowatts equals approximately 1500 h.p. At 90% mechanical efficiency and direct drive, this would demand a 1700 i.h.p. engine. The question at once arises as to what type of an engine we should use. We have for consideration (i) internal combustion motor and (2) steam engine (a) condensing or (b) non-condensing and (3) steam turbine (a) condensing, (b) non-condensing.
Assuming the life of the Diesel engine, switchboard, and auxiliaries at 15 years, that of the generator, building, and piping at 25 years, we may tabulate as follows:
The producer plant is guaranteed to produce a br.h.p.h. at the engines on o.75# of coal or a total of ii2S# per hour, or 5.625 tons per day of 10 hours. Allowing a standby loss of 4%, this would mean a total consumption of 5.85 tons per day or 1755 tons per year, costing $7022 per year.
Assuming a life of 20 years on the engine and producer, 25 years on the generator and building and 15 years on the starter, switchboard, etc., we may summarize as follows:
A comparison shows that under the conditions assumed, the comparative value (valuance) of the Diesel Plant is 5% greater. We should therefore decide in favor of the latter by a very small margin.
If the plant is guaranteed to produce a h.p.h. on 1.5$ of this coal, then the consumption per hour will be 225o#, to which must be added 10% for standby losses and auxiliary machinery, making a total of 2475$ or 1.2375 ton Per hour. This means a consumption of 3700 tons per year at $4 per ton.
1. Design a steam plant of 1000 h.p. size, to operate at full load for 3000 hours per year, so that each part will operate at maximum financial efficiency, assuming interest rate 5%, coal $4 per ton, with a heat value of 5.4 h.p.h. per pound.
2. A pipe is to carry io,ooo# steam per hour to a condensing steam engine. The heat costs 0.15 cent per h.p.h. Taking into consideration the loss in radiation and the loss of available heat due to drop in pressure, determine the proper size of pipe for maximum financial efficiency.
3. Taking the costs of pipe as given, and taking into consideration radiation and pressure losses, determine the pressure of steam to be used for conveying heat to a condensing engine for best financial efficiency irrespective of other than transmission considerations.
4. A small electric generating plant is to carry a 50 kw. load for 2000 hours per year and a 25 kw. load for another 1000 hours per year. Design the plant for best financial efficiency, assuming interest rate 5%, coal (5.4 h.p.h. per Ib.) at $5 per ton, fuel oil (7.3 h.p.h. per Ib.) at $1.85 per barrel, distillate (7.7 h.p.h. per Ib.) at 25 cents per gallon.
Taking into consideration the variation in efficiency of turbo-generators with size and load, and all other costs, determine the number of units required for maximum financial efficiency.
8. It is desired to install a pumping unit to deliver 5000 g.p.m. during May, June, and July and 2000 g.p.m. during August and September, against a fixed discharge head of 50 feet. Centrifugal pumps electrically driven are to be used. The pumps are set to stand 10 feet above the water at the beginning of the pumping season. From then to August ist the suction heat increases uniformly to 20 feet and then remains constant until the end of the season. The power costs 1.5 cents per kw.h. Choose the type, size and number of units for best financial efficiency.
Installations, complete steam, cost of, 80 Installations, hydro-electric, 115-116 Instantaneous unit cost, 215-216 Insurance, 7, 15, 21, 54-56
| 44,370 | common-pile/pre_1929_books_filtered | financialenginee00goldrich | public_library | public_library_1929_dolma-0025.json.gz:1239 | https://archive.org/download/financialenginee00goldrich/financialenginee00goldrich_djvu.txt |
gDB9_t8eUVffw8IJ | 7.3: Environmental Factors in Supporting Social and Emotional Development | 7.3: Environmental Factors in Supporting Social and Emotional Development
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- Jennifer Paris, Kristin Beeve, & Clint Springer
- College of the Canyons
The physical environment provides young children with expectations for behavior. When educators are mindful of the aesthetics, organization, and function of each area in the space, challenging behavior is likely to decrease while constructive, cooperative behavior increases.
A program’s vision for learning and philosophy of care dictate how an environment is designed. For example, if the curriculum is based on the view that children are competent directors of their own learning, educators develop a physical setting and activities that reflect children’s emerging interests and provide easy access to meaningful play materials. Shelves for manipulatives and other materials are near the floor where children can easily reach them. Special areas in the room are designed for individual, small-group, and larger-group interactions. Play materials and other materials are carefully selected to reflect children’s emerging interests, as observed in the context of play and conversation. In this environment, adult-child interactions can expand children’s questions and comments.
High-quality learning environments set the stage for social-emotional exploration and growth. When children are presented with a warm, inviting, and culturally familiar environment, they feel comfortable and secure. The attractive spaces adults prepare for children communicate expectations of responsibility and cooperative care (we all play in and care for this beautiful place together).
Preparing a variety of learning areas with open-ended materials encourages each child to participate in meaningful play experiences that match their individual temperaments and abilities. Incorporating elements from the home creates an atmosphere of community while simultaneously acknowledging the presence of individuals.
A physical environment that supports social-emotional learning has the following characteristics:
- Challenging and developmentally appropriate materials
- Ample supply of materials
- Appropriately sized small-group activities
- A variety of small-group activities within a range of adult supervision
- Aesthetically appealing
- Spaces to be with others and spaces to be alone
- Furnishings and materials accessible to children
- Displays of children’s work
- Space for children’s belongings
- Reflective of diversity
- Space for arrivals and departures
- Supportive of children’s active engagement
- Outdoor areas supportive of social-emotional development
Just as the physical environment helps young children successfully meet the social-emotional demands of the curriculum so, too, does the design of the daily schedule. Young children are better able to manage themselves and their relationships when daily routines and activities are predictable, transitions are signaled and supported, and there is a balance between relatively active and relatively quiet play and between group and individual activities. In the sections that follow, strategies to support social-emotional development are described in detail. [2]
Helping Children Cope with Stress
Teachers in an early childhood education program are often the first persons outside the family to become aware that a young child may be experiencing overwhelming stress. They may notice a child who reacts with uncharacteristic aggression to a peer’s comment that would not bother another child, or they may notice that a child has become unusually quiet and withdrawn lately. Young children convey their stress in individualized ways: some are emotionally over-reactive, while others are emotionally over-controlled; some become clingy, others withdrawn; some become provocative and defiant. A common characteristic is that young children under stress exhibit a marked change from their ordinary behavior. They often lose their capacity for competence and self-control that they previously had. When teachers observe these changes in a child, it can be helpful to consult with parents to discover whether recent events have created challenges that children are having difficulty managing. Often these challenges arise from within the family.
How can teachers assist young children under stress? One of the most important things they can do is provide the child with a predictable, safe haven where children can feel secure. Teachers can create a comfortable and comforting everyday routine that is child-centered, individualized, responsive, and helpfully structured to give young children a sense of control and predictability that may be lacking in other aspects of the child’s life. Central to these efforts is providing children with supportive adult relationships that are reliable and helpful. This may be more difficult than one would expect because young children under stress often test these relationships to see whether teachers and other adults will remain responsive to them even when children act defiantly or negatively.
In some circumstances, it can be helpful for teachers to obtain the advice of an early childhood mental health consultant who can observe the child in the classroom, talk with the teacher about the child’s behavior, and suggest strategies for providing supportive assistance. Early childhood mental health consultants can be valuable resources to an early childhood education program. They can help teachers provide much-needed support to young children who may not have other such sources of support elsewhere in their lives. [4]
Pause to Reflect
What environments make you feel most socially and emotionally competent? How do you deal with your stress? Why should you be thinking about those things as a teacher?
References
[1] Image by Community Playthings is used with permission
[2] The California Preschool Curriculum Framework, Volume 1 by the California Department of Education is used with permission
[3] Image by Staff Sgt. Sarah Hanson is in the public domain
[4] The California Preschool Curriculum Framework, Volume 1 by the California Department of Education is used with permission | 1,177 | common-pile/libretexts_filtered | https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Introduction_to_Curriculum_for_Early_Childhood_Education_(Paris_Beeve_and_Springer)/04%3A_Section_IV-_Planning_for_Childrens_Learning/07%3A_Social_and_Emotional_Development/7.03%3A_Environmental_Factors_in_Supporting_Social_and_Emotional_Development | libretexts | libretexts-0000.json.gz:22620 | https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Introduction_to_Curriculum_for_Early_Childhood_Education_(Paris_Beeve_and_Springer)/04%3A_Section_IV-_Planning_for_Childrens_Learning/07%3A_Social_and_Emotional_Development/7.03%3A_Environmental_Factors_in_Supporting_Social_and_Emotional_Development |
ny05T6FaW3OmeiX4 | The European Dimension of Forced Adoptions | 33
The Slovakian Embassy hosted a Round Table discussion with the UK Family Court Judiciary on 14 May 2015:
Radio journalist Florence Bellone wrote:
It looks as if Local Authorities will have the obligation of respecting the Vienna Convention and alert consulates, as soon as they take away a foreign child. Transfer of the child to his or her own country jurisdiction should be accepted, provided the consulate and parents ask this as soon as care proceedings start. It is understood that government guidelines would be (or have been) adjusted about the treatment of foreign cases.Sir James Munby explained that the UK was quite unique having non-consensual adoption as a ‘protection measure’ for children and asked that UK authorities would have to understand that legally transforming a foreign child into a English child for such purposes was not perceived as normal elsewhere in the world. Munby made a point (a point made for long by detractors of forced adoption) that adoption is not affecting children’s welfare up to 18, but for their whole life. This is maybe the more subtle comment coming from a judge as we all know that child protection services are mostly destroying the children’s whole lives, through adoption or various forms of care.Anthony Douglas’ speech: a piece of propaganda to reassure the world that foreign families are a small percentage only and that when it comes to British families, Social Services’ main task is to try keeping families together. Pityful.Different Eastern European countries presented through their diplomats and MEPs examples of the ludicrous practice by Social Services. Related by them to UK judges is of course having another impact than related by families to the same judges… A MEP from the PETI Committee could even express the shocking aspect of forced adoption to European people and authorities.While Munby is clearly sharing anti forced adoption people views, he reminded that he can’t change the law. I am not convinced that most other judges are not following his steps just to keep in touch with the trend (and their careers) especially Black and Thorpe that I have seen at the other end of the trend so many times in court. But at least it seems that foreign families, at least those consulting information before moving to the UK, will be able to protect their children from forced adoption and maybe from a long stay in care in the UK. But there is no apparent willing, besides Munby own concerns and efforts, for reconsidering the fate of British families under the light of so many other countries criticism. Munby will also not always be the president and unless there is a change in law, another president can influence judges in any other direction. So in my view British families should keep the fight on and very up. As long as I hear about Social Services “mistakes”, adopters “human rights”, practice “to improve” and other tricky rhetoric of that kind, it is likely that the government will continue to promote the wrong welfare and see no reason for change and apologies. Of course the meeting was not about reconsidering the system but mostly to discard causes of conflicts with neighbouring countries. | 690 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://pressbooks.pub/sabinemcneill/chapter/round-table-slovak-embassy/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:56835 | https://pressbooks.pub/sabinemcneill/chapter/round-table-slovak-embassy/ |
CckpYnXubmEegd6E | 21.1: Anatomy and Normal Microbiota of the Skin and Eyes | 21.1: Anatomy and Normal Microbiota of the Skin and Eyes
- Describe the major anatomical features of the skin and eyes
- Compare and contrast the microbiomes of various body sites, such as the hands, back, feet, and eyes
- Explain how microorganisms overcome defenses of skin and eyes in order to cause infection
- Describe general signs and symptoms of disease associated with infections of the skin and eyes
Sam, a college freshman with a bad habit of oversleeping, nicked himself shaving in a rush to get to class on time. At the time, he didn’t think twice about it. But two days later, he noticed the cut was surrounded by a reddish area of skin that was warm to the touch. When the wound started oozing pus, he decided he had better stop by the university’s clinic. The doctor took a sample from the lesion and then cleaned the area.
What type of microbe could be responsible for Sam’s infection?
Human skin is an important part of the innate immune system. In addition to serving a wide range of other functions, the skin serves as an important barrier to microbial invasion. Not only is it a physical barrier to penetration of deeper tissues by potential pathogens, but it also provides an inhospitable environment for the growth of many pathogens. In this section, we will provide a brief overview of the anatomy and normal microbiota of the skin and eyes, along with general symptoms associated with skin and eye infections.
Layers of the Skin
Human skin is made up of several layers and sublayers. The two main layers are the epidermis and the dermis. These layers cover a third layer of tissue called the hypodermis, which consists of fibrous and adipose connective tissue (Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\)).
The epidermis is the outermost layer of the skin, and it is relatively thin. The exterior surface of the epidermis, called the stratum corneum, primarily consists of dead skin cells. This layer of dead cells limits direct contact between the outside world and live cells. The stratum corneum is rich in keratin, a tough, fibrous protein that is also found in hair and nails. Keratin helps make the outer surface of the skin relatively tough and waterproof. It also helps to keep the surface of the skin dry, which reduces microbial growth. However, some microbes are still able to live on the surface of the skin, and some of these can be shed with dead skin cells in the process of desquamation, which is the shedding and peeling of skin that occurs as a normal process but that may be accelerated when infection is present.
Beneath the epidermis lies a thicker skin layer called the dermis. The dermis contains connective tissue and embedded structures such as blood vessels, nerves, and muscles. Structures called hair follicles (from which hair grows) are located within the dermis, even though much of their structure consists of epidermal tissue. The dermis also contains the two major types of glands found in human skin: sweat glands (tubular glands that produce sweat) and sebaceous glands (which are associated with hair follicles and produce sebum, a lipid-rich substance containing proteins and minerals).
Perspiration (sweat) provides some moisture to the epidermis, which can increase the potential for microbial growth. For this reason, more microbes are found on the regions of the skin that produce the most sweat, such as the skin of the underarms and groin. However, in addition to water, sweat also contains substances that inhibit microbial growth, such as salts, lysozyme, and antimicrobial peptides. Sebum also serves to protect the skin and reduce water loss. Although some of the lipids and fatty acids in sebum inhibit microbial growth, sebum contains compounds that provide nutrition for certain microbes.
How does desquamation help with preventing infections?
Normal Microbiota of the Skin
The skin is home to a wide variety of normal microbiota, consisting of commensal organisms that derive nutrition from skin cells and secretions such as sweat and sebum. The normal microbiota of skin tends to inhibit transient-microbe colonization by producing antimicrobial substances and outcompeting other microbes that land on the surface of the skin. This helps to protect the skin from pathogenic infection.
The skin’s properties differ from one region of the body to another, as does the composition of the skin’s microbiota. The availability of nutrients and moisture partly dictates which microorganisms will thrive in a particular region of the skin. Relatively moist skin, such as that of the nares (nostrils) and underarms, has a much different microbiota than the dryer skin on the arms, legs, hands, and top of the feet. Some areas of the skin have higher densities of sebaceous glands. These sebum-rich areas, which include the back, the folds at the side of the nose, and the back of the neck, harbor distinct microbial communities that are less diverse than those found on other parts of the body.
Different types of bacteria dominate the dry, moist, and sebum-rich regions of the skin. The most abundant microbes typically found in the dry and sebaceous regions are Betaproteobacteria and Propionibacteria, respectively. In the moist regions, Corynebacterium and Staphylococcus are most commonly found (Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\)). Viruses and fungi are also found on the skin, with Malassezia being the most common type of fungus found as part of the normal microbiota. The role and populations of viruses in the microbiota, known as viromes, are still not well understood, and there are limitations to the techniques used to identify them. However, Circoviridae, Papillomaviridae, and Polyomaviridaeappear to be the most common residents in the healthy skin virome. 1 2 3
What are the four most common bacteria that are part of the normal skin microbiota?
Infections of the Skin
While the microbiota of the skin can play a protective role, it can also cause harm in certain cases. Often, an opportunistic pathogen residing in the skin microbiota of one individual may be transmitted to another individual more susceptible to an infection. For example, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) can often take up residence in the nares of health care workers and hospital patients; though harmless on intact, healthy skin, MRSA can cause infections if introduced into other parts of the body, as might occur during surgery or via a post-surgical incision or wound. This is one reason why clean surgical sites are so important.
Injury or damage to the skin can allow microbes to enter deeper tissues, where nutrients are more abundant and the environment is more conducive to bacterial growth. Wound infections are common after a puncture or laceration that damages the physical barrier of the skin. Microbes may infect structures in the dermis, such as hair follicles and glands, causing a localized infection, or they may reach the bloodstream, which can lead to a systemic infection.
In some cases, infectious microbes can cause a variety of rashes or lesions that differ in their physical characteristics. These rashes can be the result of inflammation reactions or direct responses to toxins produced by the microbes. Table \(\PageIndex{1}\) lists some of the medical terminology used to describe skin lesions and rashes based on their characteristics; Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\) and Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\) illustrate some of the various types of skin lesions. It is important to note that many different diseases can lead to skin conditions of very similar appearance; thus the terms used in the table are generally not exclusive to a particular type of infection or disease.
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| abscess | localized collection of pus |
| bulla (pl., bullae) | fluid-filled blister no more than 5 mm in diameter |
| carbuncle | deep, pus-filled abscess generally formed from multiple furuncles |
| crust | dried fluids from a lesion on the surface of the skin |
| cyst | encapsulated sac filled with fluid, semi-solid matter, or gas, typically located just below the upper layers of skin |
| folliculitis | a localized rash due to inflammation of hair follicles |
| furuncle (boil) | pus-filled abscess due to infection of a hair follicle |
| macules | smooth spots of discoloration on the skin |
| papules | small raised bumps on the skin |
| pseudocyst | lesion that resembles a cyst but with a less defined boundary |
| purulent | pus-producing; suppurative |
| pustules | fluid- or pus-filled bumps on the skin |
| pyoderma | any suppurative (pus-producing) infection of the skin |
| suppurative | producing pus; purulent |
| ulcer | break in the skin; open sore |
| vesicle | small, fluid-filled lesion |
| wheal | swollen, inflamed skin that itches or burns, such as from an insect bite |
How can asymptomatic health care workers transmit bacteria such as MRSA to patients?
Anatomy and Microbiota of the Eye
Although the eye and skin have distinct anatomy, they are both in direct contact with the external environment. An important component of the eye is the nasolacrimal drainage system, which serves as a conduit for the fluid of the eye, called tears. Tears flow from the external eye to the nasal cavity by the lacrimal apparatus, which is composed of the structures involved in tear production (Figure \(\PageIndex{5}\)). The lacrimal gland, above the eye, secretes tears to keep the eye moist. There are two small openings, one on the inside edge of the upper eyelid and one on the inside edge of the lower eyelid, near the nose. Each of these openings is called a lacrimal punctum. Together, these lacrimal puncta collect tears from the eye that are then conveyed through lacrimal ducts to a reservoir for tears called the lacrimal sac , also known as the dacrocyst or tear sac.
From the sac, tear fluid flows via a nasolacrimal duct to the inner nose. Each nasolacrimal duct is located underneath the skin and passes through the bones of the face into the nose. Chemicals in tears, such as defensins, lactoferrin, and lysozyme, help to prevent colonization by pathogens. In addition, mucins facilitate removal of microbes from the surface of the eye.
The surfaces of the eyeball and inner eyelid are mucous membranes called conjunctiva. The normal conjunctival microbiota has not been well characterized, but does exist. One small study (part of the Ocular Microbiome project) found twelve genera that were consistently present in the conjunctiva. 4 These microbes are thought to help defend the membranes against pathogens. However, it is still unclear which microbes may be transient and which may form a stable microbiota. 5
Use of contact lenses can cause changes in the normal microbiota of the conjunctiva by introducing another surface into the natural anatomy of the eye. Research is currently underway to better understand how contact lenses may impact the normal microbiota and contribute to eye disease.
The watery material inside of the eyeball is called the vitreous humor. Unlike the conjunctiva, it is protected from contact with the environment and is almost always sterile, with no normal microbiota (Figure \(\PageIndex{6}\)).
Infections of the Eye
The conjunctiva is a frequent site of infection of the eye; like other mucous membranes, it is also a common portal of entry for pathogens. Inflammation of the conjunctiva is called conjunctivitis, although it is commonly known as pinkeyebecause of the pink appearance in the eye. Infections of deeper structures, beneath the cornea, are less common (Figure \(\PageIndex{7}\)). Conjunctivitis occurs in multiple forms. It may be acute or chronic. Acute purulent conjunctivitis is associated with pus formation, while acute hemorrhagic conjunctivitis is associated with bleeding in the conjunctiva. The term blepharitis refers to an inflammation of the eyelids, while keratitis refers to an inflammation of the cornea (Figure \(\PageIndex{7}\)); keratoconjunctivitis is an inflammation of both the cornea and the conjunctiva, and dacryocystitis is an inflammation of the lacrimal sac that can often occur when a nasolacrimal duct is blocked.
Infections leading to conjunctivitis, blepharitis, keratoconjunctivitis, or dacryocystitis may be caused by bacteria or viruses, but allergens, pollutants, or chemicals can also irritate the eye and cause inflammation of various structures. Viral infection is a more likely cause of conjunctivitis in cases with symptoms such as fever and watery discharge that occurs with upper respiratory infection and itchy eyes. Table \(\PageIndex{2}\) summarizes some common forms of conjunctivitis and blepharitis.
| Condition | Description | Causative Agent(s) |
|---|---|---|
| Acute purulent conjunctivitis | Conjunctivitis with purulent discharge | Bacterial ( Haemophilus , Staphylococcus ) |
| Acute hemorrhagic conjunctivitis | Involves subconjuncti | val hemorrhagesViral (Picornaviradae) |
| Acute ulcerative blepharitis | Infection involving eyelids; pustules and ulcers may develop | Bacterial ( Staphylococcal ) or viral (herpes simplex, varicella-zoster, etc.) |
| Follicular conjunctivitis | Inflammation of the conjunctiva with nodules (dome-shaped structures that are red at the base and pale on top) | Viral (adenovirus and others); environmental irritants |
| Dacryocystitis | Inflammation of the lacrimal sac often associated with a plugged nasolacrimal duct | Bacterial ( Haemophilus, Staphylococcus , Streptococcus ) |
| Keratitis | Inflammation of cornea | Bacterial, viral, or protozoal; environmental irritants |
| Keratoconjunctivitis | Inflammation of cornea and conjunctiva | Bacterial, viral (adenoviruses), or other causes (including dryness of the eye) |
| Nonulcerative blepharitis | Inflammation, irritation, redness of the eyelids without ulceration | Environmental irritants; allergens |
| Papillary conjunctivitis | Inflammation of the conjunctiva; nodules and papillae with red tops develop | Environmental irritants; allergens |
How does the lacrimal apparatus help to prevent eye infections?
Key Concepts and Summary
- Human skin consists of two main layers, the epidermis and dermis , which are situated on top of the hypodermis , a layer of connective tissue.
- The skin is an effective physical barrier against microbial invasion.
- The skin’s relatively dry environment and normal microbiota discourage colonization by transient microbes.
- The skin’s normal microbiota varies from one region of the body to another.
- The conjunctiva of the eye is a frequent site for microbial infection, but deeper eye infections are less common; multiple types of conjunctivitis exist.
Footnotes
- 1 Belkaid, Y., and J.A. Segre. “Dialogue Between Skin Microbiota and Immunity,” Science 346 (2014) 6212:954–959.
- 2 Foulongne, Vincent, et al. “Human Skin Microbiota: High Diversity of DNA Viruses Identified on the Human Skin by High Throughput Sequencing.” PLoS ONE (2012) 7(6): e38499. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0038499.
- 3 Robinson, C.M., and J.K. Pfeiffer. “Viruses and the Microbiota.” Annual Review of Virology (2014) 1:55–59. doi: 10.1146/annurev-virology-031413-085550.
- 4 Abelson, M.B., Lane, K., and Slocum, C.. “The Secrets of Ocular Microbiomes.” Review of Ophthalmology June 8, 2015. www.reviewofophthalmology.com...isease/c/55178. Accessed Sept 14, 2016.
- 5 Shaikh-Lesko, R. “Visualizing the Ocular Microbiome.” The Scientist May 12, 2014. http://www.the-scientist.com/?articl...lar-Microbiome . Accessed Sept 14, 2016. | 3,186 | common-pile/libretexts_filtered | https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(OpenStax)/21%3A_Skin_and_Eye_Infections/21.01%3A_Anatomy_and_Normal_Microbiota_of_the_Skin_and_Eyes | libretexts | libretexts-0000.json.gz:14036 | https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(OpenStax)/21%3A_Skin_and_Eye_Infections/21.01%3A_Anatomy_and_Normal_Microbiota_of_the_Skin_and_Eyes |
cDXaGxYIZSuva4oV | The Underground Railroad | The Underground Railroad
Arrival from Maryland
ROBERT CARR.
$300 REWARD.—Ran away from the subscriber, on the 26th December, 1857, Negro Man ROBERT CARR. He had on when last seen on West River, a close-bodied blue cloth coat with brass buttons, drab pantaloons, and a low crown and very narrow brim beaver hat; he wore a small goatee, is pleasant when spoken to, and very polite; about five feet ten inches high; copper-colored. I will give $125 if taken in Anne Arundel, Prince George’s, Calvert or Montgomery county, $150 if taken in the city of Baltimore; or $300 if taken out of the State and secured so that I get him again.
THOS. J. RICHARDSON,
West River, Anne Arundel county, Maryland.
j13-w&s3w
Robert was too shrewd to be entrapped by the above reward. He sat down and counted the cost before starting; then with his knowledge of slaveholders when traveling he was cautious enough not to expose himself by day or night where he was liable to danger.
He had reached the age of thirty, and despite the opposition he had had to encounter, unaided he had learned to read, which with his good share of native intelligence, he found of service.
Whilst Robert did not publish his mistress, he gave a plain statement of where he was from, and why he was found in the city of Brotherly Love in the dead of Winter in a state of destitution. He charged the blame upon a woman, whose name was Richardson, who, he said, was quite a “fighter, and was never satisfied, except when quarreling and fighting with some of the slaves.” He also spoke of a certain T.J. Richardson, a farmer and a “very driving man” who was in the habit of oppressing poor men and women by compelling them to work in his tobacco, corn, and wheat fields without requiting them for their labor. Robert felt if he could get justice out of said Richardson he would be the gainer to the amount of more than a thousand dollars in money besides heavy damages for having cheated him out of his education.
In this connection, he recalled the fact of Richardson’s being a member of the church, and in a sarcastic manner added that his “religious pretensions might pass among slave-holders, but that it would do him no good when meeting the Judge above.” Being satisfied that he would there meet his deserts Robert took a degree of comfort therefrom. | 534 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca/theundergroundrailroad/chapter/arrival-from-maryland-2/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:91597 | https://pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca/theundergroundrailroad/chapter/arrival-from-maryland-2/ |
Dr2YKu9Pbvq4Hl04 | Electric interlocking handbook... Henry M.Sperry, ed...Paul E. Carter, assistant ed. | INTRODUCTION
INTERLOCKING is of English origin, numerous patents having been granted in England for manually operated interlocking devices from 1856 to 1867, at which later date was first disclosed by Saxby a satisfactory means for obtaining what is now known as "preliminary latch locking." The rapidity with which this valuable system was adopted in England is indicated by the fact that six years later, in 1873, 13,000 mechanical interlocking levers were employed on the London & Northwestern Railway alone, at which time not a single lever was in use in the United States, the first experimental installation having been made in this country by Messrs. Toucey and Buchanan at Spuyten Duyvil Junction, New York City, in 1874, and the first important installations on a commercial basis having been made by the Manhattan Elevated Lines of New York City with machines of the Saxby-Farmer type, built by the Jackson Manufacturing Co. of Harrisburg, Pa., in 1877-78.
Very soon after American railways had gained a little experience with mechanical interlocking plants, it was felt that there were many situations where great .economies could be effected and more satisfactory operation obtained if switches and signals could be successfully worked by power instead of manually. For precisely the same reason — viz : saving of labor — that English railways were first led to concentrate in a single frame the theretofore widely separated levers for the operation of switches and signals — thus leading up to the idea of interlocking — so the much higher cost of labor in the United States than in England caused the American railways to demand an interlocking that would afford means for operating switches and signals over greater distances and with fewer operators than were required under the English method. The first concrete response of the American inventor to this demand was the Hydro-Pneumatic Interlocking installed in 1884 near Bound Brook, N. J., at the crossing of the P. & R. and L. V. R. R. From 1884 to 1891, eighteen HydroPneumatic plants, having 482 levers, were installed on six
GENERAL RAILWAY SIGNAL COMPANY
railways,' but th4s^ system Ibaving developed many serious defec_vs,^ its^ipveiitOFS devised and in 1891 installed the first elecfro-piteumatk *p1ft& . if ^fre. ^Chicago & Northern Pacific Drawbridge, Chicago. In the following ten years, there were ordered — up to June 1, 1900 — fifty-four electropneumatic plants, having 1,864 levers, for use on thirteen railways. It was felt at this time that while power interlocking had been proven to be usable with advantage in a few important situations, it fell far short of accomplishing all that was desired and required of it by the railways, and it was even then believed by some engineers that owing to certain defects and limitations inherent in the electro-pneumatic principle itself, some safer, more reliable and economical system would have to be developed before power interlocking could, with wisdom, be more generally employed.
Just at this time (May, 1900) a company was formed to develop and exploit the electric interlocking patents now owned by the General Railway Signal Company and embodying the now well-known "dynamic indication" principle. In 1901 this Company put in service its first electric interlocking plant employing the dynamic indication, at Eau Claire, Wis., on the C. St. P. M. & O. R'y. As might have been expected, in view of the newness of the idea, and of the Company exploiting it in opposition to an old-established and rich competitor, its progress was slow; but, the idea being right, its progress has been steady and sure, with the result that in the eleven years since its first plant went into service, it has furnished for use on eighty-three railways in thirty-five States and Provinces of the United States and Canada, 440 of these plants, having 21,370 levers. In the sixteen years from the installation of the first commercial pneumatic machine, during which time no competitive power interlocking machine was on the market, the average annual sales were four and five-tenths machines and 147 levers. In the eleven years following the installation of the first commercial dynamic indicating electric interlocking machine, and in competition with all other types of power interlocking, our average annual sales have been forty machines and 1,943 levers. With but few exceptions, American railways requiring power interlocking now exclusively specify the "all electric," and while the success achieved with our "dynamic indication" system has led a number of
ELECTRIC INTERLOCKING HANDBOOK
companies to devise and offer electric systems, it is believed conservative to state that much more than 90 per cent, of all the electric interlocking in use in the United States is of our manufacture. A more exact statement of percentage cannot be given for the reason that, so far as we have been able to ascertain, other makers of power interlocking plants have not in recent years seen fit to give publicity to the number of power plants and power levers installed by them, though prior to our advent in this field such statements were frequently published. It can, however, be positively stated that more of our electric plants and more electric levers have been installed on American railways in this past ten years than of all other types of power interlocking in the past twentyeight years.
An evolution so rapid, extensive and radical as this cannot fail to suggest an inquiry into its causes and what bearing they may or should have upon the interlocking practice of the future.
During the annual meeting of the Railway Signal Association at Buffalo in October, 1901, one of the principal questions discussed was, "At what leverage is it economical to install power interlocking rather than mechanical." The consensus of opinion then seemed to be that power plants might be economically used where and only where, on account of the size of the machine or density of traffic or for any other reason, more levermen would be required to operate a mechanical than a power machine. At that time the writer hazarded the opinion that in the course of time mere size of plant and density of traffic would cease to be generally regarded as the sole or even as very vital factors in arriving at a choice between power and mechanical interlockings ; that signalmen who were at that time obliged to compare the advantages of mechanical interlocking with those of the only power interlocking with which they then had experience, the electro-pneumatic, might reasonably be expected to change their views very materially when they came to be familiar with the advantages of "all electric" interlocking. How far this forecast, which was then regarded by many able, experienced signalmen as visionary, was warranted may be judged by an examination of tables in this handbook showing hundreds of small and medium sized electric interlocking plants installed by us in the decade that
has elapsed since then, thus affording evidence that not only is electric interlocking rapidly displacing all other types of power interlocking but that it is being largely and increasingly used where formerly nothing but mechanical interlocking would have been considered. The writer believes now as he believed ten years ago that certain of the important reasons for this change are found in the following facts:
Entirely aside from considerations of economical operation that obviously demand the usage of power interlocking at all points where more than one leverman would be required for the operation of a mechanical plant, or where train movements are so numerous as to make the operation of such a plant too great a physical strain upon the operator, there are other and equally important features to be considered with respect to every proposed new interlocking, chief of which is the fact that no purely mechanical interlocking ever devised is anywhere near so safe as is the dynamic indicating electric interlocking. In spite of the now general recognition of this fact, it must be remembered that it was only as the electric interlocking came to be commonly used and its safety features to be compared with those of straight mechanical interlocking that the defects and dangers of the latter became emphasized by the contrast. Thus, beginning about ten years ago, the realization of this fact by skilled signalmen led them, at first slowly but as time has gone on more and more rapidly, to one 'of two practices, viz: the use, on the one hand, of electric interlocking, pure and simple, or, on the other, adding to mechanical interlocking all sorts of electrical apparatus and circuits. Where the latter expedient is adopted, the resultant composite plant requires a maintainer combining the experience of a mechanic and of an electrician, and such men are not numerous. Fifteen years ago the number of young men who had even a rudimentary knowledge of electrics was small; but — owing to the enormously increased employment of electricity in telegraphy, telephony, lighting, manufacturing and transportation; to the institution of simple courses in electricity in trade, industrial and correspondence schools; and to the fact that it is easier and takes much less time to acquire a usable working knowledge of electrics than to become a fairly skilled mechanic — most railways now find it possible to procure, at the prevailing wage rate, men capable of
maintaining electrical rather than mechanical installations — particularly since the automobile and kindred industries have created such an unprecedented demand, at high wages, for mechanics.
Another fact having an important bearing on this phase of our subject is this : American block signal practice, like its interlocking practice, was originally copied from the English, who employed the manual system. In block signaling, as was the case in interlocking, the American demand for labor saving devices early led to the invention of power operated automatic block signals, the first of which to be employed on a considerable scale were of the pneumatic type. Now, in automatic block signaling, as in interlocking, the electric is almost entirely supplanting the electro-pneumatic, and few, if any, American railways are now considering anything but electric signals for new block work. Such signals are now used on upwards of 35,000 miles of American railway, and large additions are being made thereto annually. It will hardly be denied by any engineer skilled in signaling that every interlocking plant located in automatic, electric, block signaled territory should be electric, since, if for no other reasons, it can be more simply installed, more economically maintained and more reliably operated than a mechanical or any other type of interlocking which would require the mixing in with the necessary electric block devices of other types of apparatus requiring maintainers and repairmen having needed training in two or more trades rather than in one. This is a consideration, which, quite apart from that of maximum safety, has led many railways to the installation of a great deal of electric interlocking in automatic block signaled districts and which is influencing them and others to take like action where automatic block signaling, though not in immediate prospect, may be put in within a few years.
Thus it has come to pass that of the railway men who still feel that the mechanical interlocking when provided with various electrical adjuncts may be made to be almost if not quite as safe as the "all electric plant," more and more are coming to realize that simplicity, economy and reliability demand the usage of the electric interlocking in preference to any others, particularly as a mechanical plant, even when equipped with the most elaborate system of electrical adjuncts,
from such a plant.
Another situation that has largely influenced the adoption of electric interlocking is the following: Up to the time of the introduction of electric interlocking, it was the rule, rather than the exception, for American railways to operate from interlocking machines at ordinary crossings and junctions such switches as were within 700 to 800 feet of it, but not to operate or adequately signal more distant switches. Where any connection existed between such distant switches and the interlocking it was usually no more than that established by having an electric circuit controller on such a switch by means of which an electro-magnetically slotted distant signal alone was prevented from giving its proceed indication when the switch was open between it and the home signal. It was claimed by the railways, not without reason, that it was too difficult and costly, and in some instances impossible, to satisfactorily operate such switches from a single machine and that it would be the height of folly for them to install one or more additional machines merely for the sake of operating these switches, the interlocking of which would not have been at all considered at the moment except for their proximity to junctions or crossings they were obliged to interlock. Gradually, however, for one or another reason, American practice is coming more and more approximate to that of England, where every main line switch on a passenger carrying road has to be properly signaled and interlocked, and coincident with and probably largely responsible for this changed attitude of the American railways is the now almost universal recognition of the fact that electric interlocking alone affords the means for successfully accomplishing this in the United States without excessive cost for both installation and operation. Many of our electric plants have for years satisfactorily operated switches, together with their allied signals, located from one to six thousand feet from the interlocking machine, sometimes with tunnels or other obstructions to view, intervening between the interlocking station and the switches. In fact, as temperature changes, no matter how great or how sudden, do not in any degree affect the operation of our electric plants, they being absolutely free from such disorders as, in a
mechanical plant, occur because of contraction or expansion of parts connecting the interlocking levers with the switches and signals, and as the "dynamic indication" features and the "illuminated track diagrams" make it wholly unnecessary for the operator to see tracks, trains, switches, or signals — there is absolutely no limit to the distance at which such switches and signals can be safely, reliably and expeditiously worked by means of our electric interlocking. As an illustration, it may be of interest to note here that by far the largest interlocking plant in the world, one of our dynamic indicating type, at the Grand Central Terminal of the N. Y. C. & H. R. R. R.,New York City, is operated most successfully under conditions where it is impossible to have any view from the interlocking station of trains, tracks, switches, or signals.
It would be possible, as is recognized by all who have closely observed and carefully studied the trend of American signal practice for a score or more of years, to cite almost numberless additional conditions each of which has had some part, big or little, in determining why it is that electric interlocking has been and is being increasingly installed in units varying all the way from four to four hundred levers; why it is used with equally satisfactory results at small junctions, yards and crossings where traffic is light ; at hundreds of points of medium traffic where machines of from sixteen to forty-eight levers are required and at the busiest and largest terminals ; but such a citation would be long, and after all, the whole matter can be briefly summed up by saying that the reasons why more of our dynamic indicating electric interlocking machines have been installed in the last ten years than of all other types of power interlocking in the past twentyeight years, and why they are being so largely employed where formerly only mechanical machines would have been considered are — that experience has fully demonstrated that wherever and under whatever conditions of traffic or climate our dynamic indicating electric system has been 'tried it has been found superior to every other type of interlocking, in safety, reliability, economy and rapidity. of operation and in its adaptability to every present and prospective need of the user. For these reasons, the writer hazards the prediction that within the next ten years many important American railways will closely approximate to a condition where every
block signal and every interlocking machine, large and small, over long stretches of their main line will be controlled, operated and lighted by power supplied from central energy stations, and where, in consequence, mechanical or any other than electric interlocking will be almost as much a thing of the past as is the "horse car" on the street railways of to-day. To such readers as may be inclined to regard this forecast as wild or visionary, the writer suggests the perusal of the preface prepared by him for the 1902 Electric Interlocking Catalogue, and that this may be readily done, that preface is reprinted herein (see page 405). After noting the forecasts made in 1902 and finding that every claim therein advanced for the then newly introduced electric interlocking system has been fully met and that its general adoption has more than realized the most sanguine expectations then entertained for it — the reader may be less inclined to be over skeptical as to the prediction made for the coming decade.
To meet the requirements of the many present and prospective users of our dynamic indication electric interlocking, we have prepared this Handbook, wherein it is sought to furnish data that will be useful to all those seeking a true understanding of the dynamic indication principle, and to those who are required to prepare bills of material for, or to install, operate or maintain our electric interlocking.
SYSTEM
INTERLOCKED switch and signal appliances were first devised and used at junctions and terminal points for the purpose of reducing the number of men employed to go from switch to switch, throw them by hand and then give a hand signal for the train to proceed over the route thus lined up. It was soon found that operating the switches and signals from a central point under the control of the levers in an interlocking machine greatly expedited the handling of traffic. By far the greatest accomplishment of interlocking, however, was the addition of an enormous factor of safety at such points to train operation.
Inherent in the system of mechanical interlocking which first was employed to control the switch and signal functions were certain recognized shortcomings as regards safety and facility of operation.
Systems of power interlocking in the field prior to the introduction of the electric dynamic indication system, now owned and manufactured by the General Railway Signal Company, although giving increased facility of operation, did not and do not provide the greatest safety obtainable with this increased facility.
The features of vital importance in considering the merits of any system of power interlocking are those which are designed to give the greatest)* measure of safety together with facility of operation. The two features most important to safety are :
ment of switches, signals, or other controlled functions.
The reliability of the means by which the above protection is secured determines more than anything else the safety of a given system of interlocking. In fact, this is so vital that an interlocking plant without a thoroughly dependable system for insuring correspondence between its levers and the operated functions, and for preventing the unauthorized movements of such functions, is absolutely unsafe.
The G. R. S. electric interlocking system fully meets the first important requirement of checking the correspondence of movement between lever and operated function by means of the dynamic indication, energy for which is furnished by a momentary dynamic current generated by the motor of the operated function itself when and only when the actual operation of such function shall have been properly completed. Contrast this with systems employing A. C. or battery
indication, in which the indication is secured from energy existent at the function prior to and during the movement of that function and dependent only on the closing of a single break in the indication circuit.
The use of the dynamic current, generated by the momentum of the motor of the operated unit at one end of the circuit and so giving the desired indication at the lever at the other end of the circuit, prevents the receipt of a false indication due to a
in principle.
The unauthorized movement of switches or derails, or the improper clearing of the signals is prevented by a simple and effective method of cross protection, the basis for which is inherent in an electric interlocking system using dynamic indication. It is a notable feature that the second requirement is met by a means in which all the contacts required for this protection form a part of the operating circuit, thus checking their integrity at each operation.
ment of any function.
In connection with such a system may be installed such accessories in the way of track circuits, detector locking, route locking, indicators, annunciators, etc., as may be desired at each individual installation.
SOURCE OF POWER
The source of power, from which the G. R. S. system of electric interlocking is operated, consists of a storage battery having an approximate working potential of 110 volts, this battery being charged by a power generating unit, which frequently is a generator driven by a small gasoline engine.
INTERLOCKING MACHINE
The operation of each switch and signal function is controlled by levers, which with their respective locking tappets, indication magnets and circuit controllers, are mounted in a common frame, the whole being known as an interlocking machine.
Starting with the lever in either of its extreme positions, the stroke of the lever is divided into two movements. The first movement locks all levers conflicting with its new position and operates the function. The second and final movement
of the stroke releases such levers, hitherto locked, as do not conflict with its new position. Except in the reverse position of a signal lever, this final movement can be made after, and only after, the dynamic indication has been received certifying that the operated function has assumed a position corresponding with that of its lever.
motor. Two wires are used for its control, one for the normal and the other for the reverse operation. These same wires are used for indicating purposes, the normal control wire being used for the reverse indication and the reverse control for the normal indication. The circuit is connected to main common at the switch location.
The circuits for a switch are shown in simplified form in Fig. 5, the operating and indicating currents in the different diagrams being shown by the red lines.
When the switch (normal position) is to be operated, the first movement of the stroke of the controlling lever carries it as far as the reverse indication position and permits current to flow as shown in Fig. 5B, which causes the mechanism to move the switch points to the reverse position and lock them in that position. When this movement has been completed the
circuit through the switch motor is automatically changed, disconnecting the motor from battery and connecting it in a closed circuit including the indication magnet (Fig. 5C) ; at the same time the armature terminals are reversed for indication purposes, this leaving the motor connections in proper position for the next operation. The motor (now a generator) with the momentum acquired during the operation of the switch movement, generates a momentary current which energizes
the normal position is accomplished in the same, manner.
A useful feature, not usually obtainable in other power systems, is that the movement of the switch points may be reversed at any portion of their travel at will by the operator, and the lever movement completed upon the switch points assuming a position corresponding with that of the lever, irrespective of the direction of the first movement made by the lever.
lever may be accomplished in from two to two and one-half seconds, the indication being practically instantaneous with the completion of the switch operation.
TING AND INDICATING CIRCUITS
The description of signal mechanisms will be confined to the nonautomatic, two position signal, as this will show the principles involved in all types of motor driven signals now used in the system.
This signal is operated by a
mechanism in which the motor is directly connected to the semaphore shaft through low reduction gearing. The signal is held at proceed during such time as its controlling lever is in the reverse position solely by a dense magnetic flux thrown across the air gap between the motor armature and the field pole pieces (holding field pole surfaces are serrated) by cutting the windings on the holding field poles in series with the operating field windings.
Each signal requires for its operation and indication one wire and a connection to the common return wire. A simplified circuit for this type of signal is shown in Fig. 8, the path taken by the operating, holding, and indicating current in the different diagrams being shown by the red lines. Upon reversal of the controlling lever, the signal mechanism will receive current as shown in Fig. 8B, this causing it to move the blade to the proceed position. When the signal blade has assumed this position the circuit breaker cuts in series with the operating field and armature, the high-resistance holding field, thereby retaining the signal arm at proceed (Fig. 8C). The holding field windings have a high resistance, which reduces the current to that employed for holding the signal at proceed.
When the signal lever is placed in the normal indicating position, energy is cut off from the motor and the blade returns to the stop position by gravity, causing the signal mechanism and motor armature to revolve backward to their original
position. Just as the blade reaches the stop position the action of the circuit breaker connects the motor armature and operating field into their original closed circuit (Fig. 8D), in which is included the indication magnet. Due to its acquired momentum the motor (now a generator) produces an indication current in this circuit which permits the controlling lever to be moved to the full normal position (Fig. 8E).
It is universal practice to indicate the signal lever in the normal position only, this insuring that the signal blade is in the stop position before releasing any of the switch levers in the route governed. No safety features are sacrificed if the signal fails to assume the proceed position upon reversal of its controlling lever.
described above has the following advantages :
First — The indication is not secured from energy existent at the function prior to the movement of that function and dependent only on the closing of a single break in the indication circuit, as is the case in A. C. and battery indication systems; but being a dynamic current generated by the momentum of the motor, it can be secured only after actual operation of the function.
Second — The energy for the indication is developed at one end of the circuit and the indication magnet is located at the other ; hence a cross between wires prevents indication, whereas in systems which use the battery in the interlocking station for indication a cross tends to cause indication.
Fourth — The indication current ceases automatically with the stopping of the motor and, therefore, no auxiliary devices or operations are necessary to cause it to cease.
Sixth — The generated indication current automatically "snubs" the motor and causes it to stop without shock and without the use of buffers, springs, or auxiliary snubbing circuits.
Seventh — The indicating circuit is automatically checked as to its integrity every time an indication is received, and being a closed circuit of low resistance around the motor, it shields the motor while at rest from all foreign currents. This inherently provides the foundation for the simple and effective cross protection system employed with the G. R. S. electrie interlocking.
FUNCTION MOVEMENTS
The cross protection system prevents the unauthorized movement of any switch, signal, or other function due to energy improperly applied to its circuit through a cross between
such an occurrence.
As explained under "Dynamic Indication," all functions are normally on a closed circuit of low resistance. Connected in each of these circuits is a small polarized relay through which all operating and indicating currents must pass in a direction to maintain the relay's contact closed, while all currents from an unauthorized source must pass in the opposite direction thus instantly opening the contact. Through all these con-
tacts in series is controlled the retaining magnet of an electromechanical circuit breaker, which is introduced into the power mains between the storage battery and the interlocking machine. Hence, a cross onto the circuit of a function at rest, by opening the contact of its polarized relay, opens the electromechanical circuit breaker, cuts power off from the Interlocking machine and thereby prevents any improper movement of the function.
In a simple plant a single electro-mechanical circuit breaker is ordinarily installed, this preventing the movement of all functions at any time the circuit breaker may be open. Where traffic conditions warrant the increased expenditure, additional circuit breakers may be provided to permit of dividing the plant into as many sections as may be desired.
The design of the circuit breaker is such as to make it impossible for a leverman (thoughtlessly or through ignorance) to prevent it from performing its function.
G. R. S. electric interlocking system has the following advantages :
First — All contacts and connections depended upon for cross protection are either on closed circuit or are used for operation and indication, so that any failure of these contacts and connections, which would impair their usefulness as a crossprotective medium, also prevent operation and indication. Hence they are under a constant, automatic check without the use of any extra contrivances for this purpose.
Second — Wire insulation is not depended upon for cross protection. This system at certain installations has given years of safe operation with wire, the insulation of which does not measure up to the usual standard.
Third — The cross protective apparatus consists of the polarized relays and apparatus on the operating board; no wire or additional appliances are required outside of the station to secure this protection other than the simple apparatus already installed for the operation of the various functions.
Fourth — The switch and signal motors, being of low resistance, require a current of several amperes for their operation ; therefore, a cross to produce the operation of any function must be of very low resistance. Thus it will be seen that the system is not sensitive to the effect of crossed wires. Notwithstanding this fact, an efficient system of cross protection is provided in the G. R. S. system.
CONCLUSION
The comparative value of different systems of interlocking may be accurately determined by a consideration of but four essential factors. These four factors must be present in any interlocking system to warrant its use. They are: Safety, Facility, Reliability, and Economy.
Safety.
The factor first demanding consideration is that of safety. This essential of an interlocking system overshadows all other considerations, and in the ideal system the safety must be absolute. The G. R. S. electric interlocking with dynamic indication provides a factor of safety that is the closest approximation to the ideal known to those skilled in the signaling art. This is verified by the statement made by a disinterested committee in an able report based on a study of various types of power interlocking systems, presented to the International Congress of Application of Electricity held at Marseilles, France, in 1908, this statement being worded as follows:
upon the existence of a positive, reliable indication of correspondence between the position of a lever and its controlled function. * * * the Taylor (G. R. S.) system meets even this requirement. In fact it insures absolute reliability of indication by employing the motor as a means for generating the required current as explained above — so that it is certain that the indication given cannot ever be due to defects in wiring. Then, this indication having been received in the interlocking station, it establishes a control which is permanently maintained by a source of energy located in the station. Moreover this permanent control utilizes identically the same circuit that is employed in the normal operation of the function; in consequence, the circuit used is one that must be maintained in good, operative condition for each movement of the function.
It will therefore be seen that by virtue of this arrangement, the Taylor (G. R. S.) system insures permanency of indication ; that it is economical since it utilizes the operating source of energy located in the station, and that it is absolutely trustworthy since it is in no sense subject to any danger from crossed or grounded wires."
Facility.
The facility offered by any given interlocking system depends largely upon : first, the rapidity of operation of the individual functions, and second, its capabilities for permitting simultaneous operation of a number of functions. In such a system the amount of time required to move traffic is reduced to a minimum.
By incorporating the above two features in the design of the system, the G. R. S. electric interlocking fully meets all demands for facility of operation. This has been repeatedly proven by the performance of the system at points where the traffic conditions have imposed the most exacting operating requirements.
Reliability.
The reliability of an interlocking system is primarily dependent upon the fundamental principle underlying its operation, and in general it may be said, without fear of contradiction, that unless the principle is simple, it is not correct. The correct principle having been adopted, the reliability of the system then depends upon a proper design of each and every part of the devices used to put the principle into practice.
It is recognized that the principles of operation of the G. R. S. interlocking are correct, and the circuits simple to an extreme degree, no radical changes having been made in either since the introduction of the system. The parts of all apparatus are strong and rugged, and capable of performing their functions without undue wear and tear; furthermore, the design of all parts of the apparatus has been so very carefully perfected
represents the very best engineering practice.
As an example of the system's reliability of operation, records published by an important railroad covering a period of one year show a total of 2,615,406 switch operations, in which the number of imperfect operations were so few that they did not exceed one to every 186,814, and the total traffic detention for the year was only seventy and one-half minutes.
Economy.
Due to the correct design of the apparatus and resultant long life of same, the cost of renewals is practically negligible. This, together with the marked simplicity of the circuits, insures a cost of maintenance much less than in any other system of interlocking. The cost of operating also shows a corresponding economy, not only by the fewer number of men required for the operation of the power system as compared with the mechanical system, but also in the cost of power when compared with other power systems. Carefully kept railroad records show that the power cost is but one cent for 300 to 400 switch and signal movements.
A most minute analysis and extended description of the merits and advantages of any given system of interlocking fails to be convincing unless the truth of all the statements are thoroughly substantiated. That the above statements concerning the G. R. S. electric interlocking system must be true, is shown by the well nigh universal adoption of the system, both for large and for small installations.
Four hundred and forty installations have been made or are under contract on some eighty different railroads in all parts of the United States and Canada, a considerable number of plants also having been installed in Europe. On the basis that one interlocking lever in use for one year equals one lever year, the G. R. S. system now shows a record of 110,000 lever years.
The satisfactory operation of these installations, large and small, under widely varying conditions of both climate and traffic, is a most convincing demonstration that every demand for an interlocking system has been met in a most satisfactory manner by the G. R. S. electric interlocking.
THE interlocking station, from which the various switch and signal functions of the plant are operated, is usually a two-story building similar in appearance to those used at mechanical plants. The station does not require the same heavy construction used in mechanical work on account of the fact that the movement of the levers of the electric interlocking machine puts absolutely no strain on the building. It should be noted
STATION. ERIE R. R.
in this connection, however, that the frame building generally used in the earlier installations is of late years being largely supplanted by the more substantial brick or concrete structure.
SIZE OF THE BUILDING
The station can be much smaller than that required for mechanical plants of the same number of functions due to the smaller size of the interlocking machine. The length of the building is usually determined by the size of the interlocking machine; the width, however, is generally in excess of that required for the machine, being increased to accommodate the table, lockers, etc., needed by the operator, and on the
telegraph operator.
When it is desired to have shops and storerooms located in the interlocking station, the machine ceases to be the determining factor in the size of the building, unless the additional space for these rooms is secured by using a threestory building as in the case of the Lake Street Station shown in Fig. 13. It is also true that on small plants the location of the storage battery and power apparatus in the lower story of the station is apt to make it necessary for
ARRANGEMENT OF APPARATUS
The different methods of arranging the apparatus in the station is shown by Figs. 11, 13 and 15, which may be taken as typical of small, intermediate and large sized stations respectively. By reference to these illustrations it will be seen that the general practice is to locate the interlocking machine, the operating switchboard and such accessory apparatus as track diagrams, indicators, etc., on the top floor, the storage battery in a room by itself on the lower floor, and the charging apparatus on the same floor with the battery or in a building separate from the interlocking station.
will be sufficiently rigid to properly support the machine.
Wherever possible the general practice is to have the operating room liberally supplied with windows to permit the operator to have a clear view of the tracks throughout the plant.
all wiring is in place.
No special foundations are required for the apparatus used in an electric plant, except when the charging generator is driven by an engine, in which case a substantial foundation should be provided for the engine so that the building will not be subjected to any vibration during its operation.
COMPOSITION
THE power equipment for the G. R. S. Electric Interlocking plants is usually composed of a storage battery, suitable means for charging the battery, a power switchboard and an operating switchboard.
LOCATION
The location of the units which compose the power plant varies considerably on different installations. The operating switchboard is always located in the operating room, being placed whenever possible in such a position that its meters and indicating lamp are in full view of the leverman when manipulating the levers of the machine. The storage batteryis ordinarily located on the first floor of the interlocking station. The power switchboard and charging apparatus at many installations are placed in a room adjacent to that occupied by the battery, although building restrictions or the need of space for workrooms or offices often make it necessary to house this apparatus in a building separate from the interlocking station.
BATTERIES
The interlocking battery usually consists of one set of storage cells having a potential of 110 volts. A second or duplicate battery is furnished on a few of the larger installations to insure sufficient power for any possible emergency.
INSTALLED IN BATTERY CUPBOARD
The capacity of the battery used should be based on the number of function movements between battery charges and the current used for all auxiliary apparatus.
The battery as usually installed comprises fifty-five lead type storage cells. When long runs of conductors between the battery and interlocking machine are necessary, one or more cells are sometimes added to the battery to compensate for the voltage drop which occurs in the conductors whenever several switch functions are operated at the same time.
ing capacity than would otherwise be necessary.
Low voltage batteries are frequently installed to operate annunciators, indicators, relays and electric locks, and occasionally to serve the track circuits of the interlocking plant. Operating the relays, indicators, etc., from a low voltage battery usually proves more economical than to take current for that purpose from the main battery.
CHARGING APPARATUS
The charging of the battery is generally accomplished by means of a shunt wound generator driven by an electric motor or gasoline engine. The generator should be capable of de-
FIG. 18. G.R.S. D.C. GENERATOR
livering the desired current at any voltage from 110 to 160, the current output being determined by the charging rate recommended for the batteries installed. In 'the event of the generator being used to supply current for lighting, either regularly or in case of emergency, the additional capacity required for the purpose should not be overlooked.
When the generator is located at some distance from the battery it is necessary to take care of the voltage drop due to the resistance of the charging circuit, either by increasing the size of the conductors or by using a generator having a higher voltage rating.
Whenever current of suitable voltage and from a reliable source can be secured at reasonable rates, its use is recommended. The motor-driven generator, referred to above, is usable with either alternating or direct current, the generator being shaft or belt connected to the motor as proves most
rectifier employed.
Charging rheostats, having no moving parts, are the simplest and most reliable of the different types of apparatus which can be used in this work. They are, however, very much less efficient than other battery charging devices, and therefore should not be used when the cost of power is an item to be considered.
be designed for operation on voltages as high as 550, the lower voltages, however, being recommended as most satisfactory from the maintenance standpoint.
POWER SWITCHBOARD
The power switchboard most frequently furnished (Fig. 20) is arranged to control the charging of one set of storage batteries from an engine driven generator, and in conjunction with the operating board to control the power delivered to the interlocking machine.
It may be placed in any accessible position in the power house, convenience in making the runs of electrical conductors between the power board, the charging apparatus and the battery being considered.
batteries, the number of sets and voltage of each battery, and whether or not the board is to control any electric lighting which may be installed at the plant. If a motor generator set is to be controlled an additional panel for its starting device can be mounted on the switchboard frame.
switches on the power board.
On the switchboard shown in Fig. 20 are mounted a no-voltage, reverse-current circuit breaker, a field rheostat, a voltmeter, an ammeter, suitable switches, and the necessary fuses.
The no-voltage, reverse-current circuit breaker, which is placed in the charging circuit between the generator and battery, is designed to open in case the voltage of the generator falls below that of the battery. By means of this arrangement the charging
of the battery can be accomplished without the constant attention of the maintainer, this permitting inspections to be made at such intervals as may be most convenient.
The operating switchboard shown in Figs. 24 and 25 is typical of those furnished where all functions in the plant are to be controlled through a single circuit breaker. When the plant is sectionalized the board must be equipped with additional circuit breakers, one being required for each section.
The apparatus mounted on the ooard illustrated consists of the cross protection circuit breaker with its indicating red lamp, a polarized relay, a ground lamp and switch, a voltmeter and an ammeter. A panel for lighting switches can be bolted to the switchboard frame when it is desired to control the lighting from this point.
with the lettering used in Figs. 64 and 66.
The dross protection circuit breaker, introduced into the power mains leading to the interlocking machine, is so controlled that in the event of current being improperly applied to the circuit of any function at rest, the circuit breaker will open and cut all power off from the system. The red lamp is arranged to be lighted at this time to call the leverman's attention to the fact that the circuit breaker has opened.
The design of the circuit breaker and its cover is such that it cannot be prevented from opening should a 'cross occur, nor can it be restored to its operating position except by means of the restoring handle.
The simplified circuit (Fig. 26), in which is included only the apparatus essential to the circuit breaker control, shows the retaining magnet of the circuit breaker controlled through the polarized relay on the switchboard and those on the interlocking machine in such a manner, that, should any of them reverse their position, the circuit breaker will immediately open.
The polarized relay on the switchboard is to guard against the effects of an accidental cross between the positive and indication buss bars on the interlocking machine, the relay operating in the same manner as the polarized relays which protect the various switch and signal functions.
The ammeter shows the current taken by the various functions when they are being operated. By observing this current reading the operating conditions of each function can be determined. This is particularly true of the switch functions, the need of oiling or adjustment being readily detected from the abnormal amount of current or length of time required for their operation.
THE interlocking machine used with the G. R. S. system controls the movement of switch and signal functions through the medium of suitably interlocked levers, which with their guides, indication magnets and circuit controllers, are mounted in the common frame as shown in Fig. 27. General practice is to furnish an individual lever for each signal
arm and for each switch function, except where two switches are to be operated together, in which case their levers are rigidly connected and operated as a unit.
position that its controlled function will conflict with the function to be moved. Furthermore, due to the mechanical locking being of the preliminary type, before the given lever can be moved from its position, all these conflicting levers will be locked against movement until such time as it is proper for them to be released.
Second — The full movement of any switch lever cannot be completed until the controlled function has moved to, and been locked in, the position corresponding with that of the lever. In the case of a signal lever this correspondence of position is required only on the normal movement of the lever, which can be completed only after the signal arm has assumed the stop position.
Third — Each function when in a position of rest is protected against any unauthorized operation which might otherwise be accomplished through current being wrongfully applied to its controlling circuits.
In explaining the operation of the lever, its movement is considered as being divided into three parts, the preliminary, intermediate and final. In order that the reader may not be confused on account of the lever operation having previously been described as being performed in two movements (page 18), it is desired to point out that the pre-
liminary and intermediate part usually constitute one continuous movement, it being necessary to separate them, however, when considering the detail operation of the lever.
The following description is based on the operation of the switch lever. Each of these levers is provided with a cam slot, by means of which intermittent motion is transmitted to its respective tappet bar and thence to the cross locking. In Fig. 30 the dotted circles 1 to 5 in the cam slot indicate the positions of the locking tappet roller which correspond with the like numbered position of contact block Z. In the preliminary movement of the lever from position 1 to 2, the locking tappet is moved through one-half of its stroke, this movement locking all levers which conflict with the new
position of the lever in question ; in this movement no change whatsoever is made in the operating circuits. During the intermediate part of the travel from positions 2 to 4, the tappet bar remains stationary and the contact block Z is moved out of engagement with springs YY and into contact with springs XX as shown in Fig. 31, this setting up the circuits for the operation of the function. The lever is held at this point, (position 4), through the mechanical design of the lever proper, until such time as the function having moved to a corresponding position, generates the dynamic indication current which effects the release of the lever and permits its movement to position 5. During this final movement from position 4 to 5, the stroke of the locking tappet is completed, thereby unlocking all levers which do not conflict with the new position of the operated lever.
The method by which the lever is prevented from completing its stroke, until the controlled function has moved to a corresponding position and has sent in its indication, is illustrated by the following : in moving from positions 1 to 2 projection M on the lever coming against projection K on latch L, causes the latch to assume the position shown in Fig. 31. This brings projection J on latch L into the path of tooth Q on the lever. In moving from position 2 to 4, tooth Q engages with cam N, rotating it to the position shown in Fig. 31. As it passes the central position (shown dotted in Fig. 31) it comes in contact with dog P which is forced under latch L, thereby locking the latch L in the position assumed. The lever is stopped at position 4 by tooth Q coming against projection J on latch L as previously explained. The indication current, by flowing through magnet I, lifts armature T which causes plunger R to strike dog P and trip it out from under latch L. The latch L then drops to the position shown in Fig. 30, thereby releasing the lever and permitting its final movement to be accomplished.
The movement of the lever from reverse to normal is performed in a similar manner to that described above. Attention is called to the fact that once the lever has been moved to, or beyond, position 3, it can neither be moved forward beyond position 4 nor back beyond position 2 without the receipt of an indication.
The movement of the signal lever is identical with that of the switch lever except that no electrical indication is required during the reverse movement, the lever not being checked at position 4 due to a change in the design of dog P, which is mechanically tripped at this point from under latch L by cam N. The mechanical locking insures that before a signal can be given for any route, that all switch and derail functions in the route are thrown to the proper positions and locked in that position, and that all opposing signals are in the stop position. No changes can be made in the position of any of these functions until the lever, controlling
The various functions are protected against unauthorized movement by means of the cross protection system, as described on page 89, the individual polarized relays which furnish this protection being mounted on the terminal board of the interlocking machine. All lever contacts which form a part of this cross protection scheme are used in the operation of the function, and hence are checked as to their integrity with every complete operation.
MODEL 2 UNIT LEVER TYPE INTERLOCKING MACHINE
The description of the interlocking machine following is based on the Model 2 Unit Lever Type (Fig. 27) which is considered the standard machine. This machine is a development of the Model 2, still widely used, a cross section of this being illustrated by Fig. 137. Modifications of the Unit Lever Type machine are shown by Figs. 32 and 138, the latter being furnished when more contacts are required for supplementary circuits than can be secured on the regular lever circuit controller.
The standard machine essentially comprises the frame, the levers with their guides, indication magnets and circuit controllers, the locking plates and locking, the terminal board, and the machine cabinet.
Frame.
The frame work, which consists of a bed, supporting legs and brackets, is substantially constructed, thereby insuring that all inter-related mechanical parts are maintained in their proper relative positions. For machines having a capacity up to forty-eight lever spaces, the bed is cast in one unit. Machines of over forty-eight levers are made up of various combinations of beds bolted together to give the required lever spaces.
Locking Plates and Locking.
The locking plates are securely attached to the front of the machine frame, being furnished in tiers to a maximum of three, the number depending upon the amount of locking required at each individual plant. A fourth tier can be furnished when necessary by using a special form of leg, which has sufficient height to accommodate the extra tier of plates.
The locking plates are designed with vertical and horizontal slots, the locking tappets, one of which is attached to each lever, being fitted in the vertical slot directly beneath its respective lever. Movement is transmitted from ^the lever through the medium of the tappets to the cross locking, which slides back and forth in the horizontal slots of the locking plates. The dogs used in the cross locking can be furnished screwed or riveted to the locking strips, as desired.
Each tier of locking has eight of these horizontal slots, and each of these slots is capable of accommodating four locking strips, thus giving this type of locking bed a large capacity as is indicated by the fact that the locking required for extremely large and complicated layouts has been readily accommodated in three tiers. In fact, it is a very rare occurrence that the fourth tier is ever required.
no matter how many tiers are provided. This type of locking also permits ready access for inspection or cleaning, or making any changes which may be required.
Levers.
Each lever with its guide, indication magnet, controllers, etc., comprises a complete unit in the interlocking machine, the design being such that the unit may be removed or replaced in the machine without moving the lever tappet from the normal position or disturbing adjacent levers in any way. The lever guide is jointly supported by the top edge of the locking plates and a longitudinal bar fastened to the brackets, the
supported by this same bracket.
The circuit controller with which each lever is equipped can be provided with a maximum of five tiers of contacts, controlling five normal and five reverse independent circuits, which affords more contacts than are ordinarily desired for supplementary circuits.
The space required for each unit is but two inches, this permitting the complete machine to occupy less space lengthwise than other existing types of interlocking machines, either power or mechanical, having the same lever capacity.
Lamp Case and Number Plate.
The combined lamp case and number plate is mounted above each lever, its base being attached to a plate screwed to the top of the lever guide, and its top to the cabinet frame. The number plate is designed to lie at an angle which renders it readily visible to the operator when manipulating the levers. Bulbs and sockets are furnished only for such levers as may be specified, generally being used in conjunction with some type of electric locking to give an indication as to whether the lever may be moved or not. If desired, a double lamp case can be furnished to give two separate indications.
Terminal Board.
The slate terminal board is securely attached to the brackets on the rear of the machine On this board are mounted the switch and signal buss bars, the individual polarized relays, fuses for the operating circuits, and the terminal posts for all wires which form a part of any of the interlocking machine circuits. The wires running from the binding posts to the various contacts, etc., in the machine are made up as formed leads, thus presenting a neat and uniform appearance ; it also simplifies any "connecting up " incidental to the field installation of additional levers to the machine.
All fuses and terminal posts on the board are located directly beneath their respective levers, the terminal posts being lettered in correspondence with the circuit plan to indicate the wires which are to be attached to each post.
Polarized Relay.
The polarized relay which is illustrated by Fig. 36 is mounted on the terminal board directly beneath its lever. It is provided with a soft iron core which lies lengthwise between the poles of a permanent magnet, the design being such that current passing in one direction through a winding on the soft iron core, tends to hold the relay armature normal and contact closed, while current in the opposite direction immediately reverses the armature and thereby causes the contact to open. An extension of the armature is provided for con-
Indication Selectors.
The indication selectors, one of which is used in connection with each switch function, are mounted on a shelf supported by a bracket on the rear of the interlocking machine. The selector is simple in design, consisting of two electro magnets and a contacting armature which throws in one direction when the lever is reversed and in the other when the lever is put normal.
The electric lever lock, illustrated by Fig. 35, may be applied to any lever in the machine, its winding being designed for operation on direct or alternating current. The lock is designed to be mounted on the top of the lever guide, locking the lever in any required position by means of a solenoid plunger, which, when the lock is de-energized, drops into a notch cut on the top of the lever. These notches may be arranged so that the lever will be locked in any position as required by the electric locking circuits used at the plant. The circuit for the lock coil is broken through a contact spring actuated by the lever latch, the lock therefore not consuming energy except when lever is to be moved.
Mechanical Time Release.
The mechanical time release furnished with the G. R. S. interlocking is illustrated by Fig. 37, and the method of its application to the machine by Fig. 38. It is used in connection with electric locking circuits to effect the release of a route in case of emergency, this being accomplished by manipulating the release to its full reverse position, at which point a contact is closed to pick up a stick relay, energize a lever lock, etc. The first movement of the device towards the reverse
position, however, mechanically locks, in their given positions the levers controlling all functions in the route, this necessitating that the release be returned to its normal position before the route can be changed. The operation of the please to the reverse position and back to the normal position affords a time interval of about two minutes.
wound direct current motors.
These switch mechanisms, each of which is under the control of a lever in the interlocking machine, require for their operation two wires only, one being used for the normal and the other for the reverse operation. These same wires are used for indicating purposes, the normal control wire being used for the reverse indication and the reverse control for the normal indication. The circuit is connected to main common at the switch location.
When the lever is moved to a position to cause the operation of the switch mechanism (see dotted position of lever contacts in Fig. 39), current is taken from the positive buss bar through the safety magnet, indication selector, lever contacts and the control wire, through the switch motor and to common. This causes the desired movement of the switch machine, which performs the following functions in the order given :
Fourth and Lastly — Current is cut off from the motor, and the terminals of the motor armature reversed for indication purposes, this leaving the motor properly connected for the next movement.
The motor is now on a closed circuit which includes the indication magnet. Due to the momentum acquired during the switch operation, the motor armature continues on several revolutions for the generation of the momentary current which energizes the indication magnet and thereby permits the final movement of the lever to be completed.
tion is accomplished in the same manner as described above.
The changing of the motor connections at the end of the switch operation is effected by the mechanical shifting of the contact block in the pole changer (Figs. 42 and 46). In addition to being mechanically operated, this contact block is under the control of two sets of solenoid magnets, so that should the switch fail to complete its movement the controlling lever may be shifted, and, through the energizing of one set of the magnets, cause the pole changer to set up the circuit for the operation of the switch in the opposite direction. This places the mechanism so under the control of the leverman that should the switch points be blocked with snow, ice, etc., the points may be worked back and forth, frequently dislodging the obstruction, thereby permitting the desired movement of the switch to be completed.
indication magnet with the indication magnet armature resting on its poles, some distance from the poles of the indication magnet. The safety magnet coils are so connected in the operating circuit that the whole operating current flows through them, hence any current flowing through the indication magnet, due to a cross between the control wires of the function, cannot exceed the current through the safety magnet. The winding of the safety magnet is proportioned so that in conjunction with the above two features, the indication magnet armature cannot be lifted by current resulting from a cross as stated above.
From the time when the lever is moved to the new operating position until the movement of the switch machine is completed, the indication selector further insures against the possible receipt of any improper indication, being so connected that the operating current will attract its armature and close the contact for the reverse indication only when the lever is moved reverse, and the contact for the normal indication when the lever is moved normal. It should be noted that both the indication selector and safety magnet coils are connected in series with the control circuit, therefore if the circuit through them is not intact, operation of the function will be prevented.
tion, current ceases to flow through the safety magnet. Therefore the armature of the indication magnet is no longer held down, this permitting the indication to be effected upon receipt of the dynamic current generated by the motor.
when detector bar is not installed.
control of the pole changer prevents the switch from being moved by hand from the position occupied, except through breaking the operating circuits by some such means as removing the motor brushes. If this is done and the machine moved to a position not corresponding with that of its controlling lever, upon the replacement of the brushes, the switch will immediately assume its proper position. Manipulation of the pole changer by hand will not cause movement of the switch out of correspondence with its lever.
MODEL 2 SWITCH MACHINE
The Model 2 switch machine, illustrated by Fig. 43, consists of the motor, gearing, lock movement and the pole changer with its actuating movement. The gear frame and locking movement are securely bolted to a tie plate as shown, to which plate the stock rails are also securely attached, thus rigidly maintaining all parts of the switch machine in their proper relation to each other and to the rail.
FIG. 42. POLE CHANGER FOR MODEL 2 SWITCH MACHINE
The locking plunger I and detector bar are actuated through the lock crank H and the driving rod G, this latter being directly connected to the stud F on the main gear D1. It will be seen that a train occupying the track, in preventing the initial movement of the detector bar, would make impossible the withdrawal of the lock plunger from the throw and lock rods, and therefore prevent any movement of the switch points.
cam crank.
The operation of the pole changer B is effected through the medium of the pole changer movement L by the last oneeighth inch movement of the lock plunger I after it has passed through the lock rod K (Fig. 146).
The design of the mechanism is such as to allow the switch motor A, due to its acquired momentum, to continue its rotation for the generation of the indication, which checks the speed of the motor and brings it to rest without shock.
A friction clutch C is introduced into the connection between the switch motor and the main gear to relieve the switch mechanism from any injurious strain should it suddenly be brought to stop by an obstruction in the switch points.
The Model 4 switch machine shown in Fig. 44, is designed with all operating parts within one case, and is especially adapted for installation where clearances are limited. The
case, which affords complete protection against the weather, provides a base plate for the mechanism, being bolted through the tie plate to the head block and the next tie back (Fig. 149). The operating parts consist of the motor A, a train of spur gears, the main or cam gear D, the pole changer M, the throw rod J and locking bar F.
machine are operated.
The intermittent movement of the locking bar and detector bar is accomplished by the engagement of rollers on the locking bar with the cam slot on the upper side of the main gear. Staggered locking is provided by the arrangement of the dogs on the locking bar, these dogs being placed so that after one dog has been withdrawn to release the lock rod, the switch points must be moved to the opposite position before the other dog can enter its slot in the lock rod. The throw rod is locked
throw rod.
The principles of the pole changer movement are essentially the same as in the Model 2 switch machine, although the mechanical method of effecting this action is accomplished through the main gear movement and locking bar, instead of
Tripper arm N shown at the top of its vertical movement.
through the pole changer movement and locking plunger as in the Model 2. Contact blocks Si and S2 are operated from tripper arm N which engages at the proper time with a cam either on the or lower surface of the main gear D, depending
The tripper arm is
placed in a position to engage with the proper cam only after the switch has been locked in position at the end of its movement. This is accomplished through the medium of cranks Tj and T2, a roller U on the latter working in a cam slot on the locking rod P4. The contact arm V (which corresponds with the commutator T on the Model 2 pole changer, Fig. 42) is operated by this same crank movement.
The cam gear is designed to permit a free run of the motor at the end of the operation of the mechanism for the purpose of generating a strong and positive indication current.
its movements be obstructed.
A switch circuit controller can be furnished if desired, located within the mechanism case at the point indicated by letter O. The operating part consists of a frame carrying contact fingers and a cylindrical commutator W upon which are mounted contact segments. As the switch is unlocked, a disengaging arm X with roller Y working in a cam slot on the locking bar Flf lowers the commutator out of engagement with the contact springs. During the movement of the switch points, the commutator is rotated on its axis through motion
transmitted from the switch points by means of a crank connection, a sector (not shown) and pinions Zt and Z2. After the points are locked in position the commutator is raised into engagement with the contact fingers by the engaging arm and cam slot movement. It will be seen that this control insures the switch points are in position and locked in position before the switch circuit controller can be closed. The maximum capacity of the controller is ten independent circuits, the contacts being adjustable in pairs to close as desired at the normal or reverse positions of the switch.
The switch mechanism can be used right or left handed without change, as the lock and throw rods may be connected from either side. A double locking cage is furnished when the machine is to operate a double slip switch or movable point frog, thus avoiding the necessity of using a plunger lock with its special connections otherwise required for the second lock rod.
All parts are assembled in the factory and tested before shipment under conditions approximating as nearly as possible the service to be given the machine after installation.
MOTOR DRIVEN SIGNAL MECHANISMS
MOTOR driven signals in the G. R. S. system of electric interlocking are operated by mechanisms in which a series wound motor is directly connected to the semaphore shaft through the medium of low reduction gearing. No dash-pot or electro-mechanical slot is required for this type of signal. The mechanism is applicable for use as a high or dwarf signal.
The mechanisms furnished are of two types :
First, the non-automatic, which is entirely under the control of a lever in the interlocking machine. Generally speaking, this type is furnished for dwarf signals, and for such high signals as will at no time require track circuit control.
Second, the semi-automatic, which is operated under the joint control of a lever in the interlocking machine and the track circuits in such sections of track as are governed by the signal arm. The semi-automatic mechanism is also furnished for non-automatic high signals when there is a possibility of the signal arm being controlled by track circuits at some future time, or in case it is desired to have uniformity in the type of mechanism throughout the installation.
Either of the above types can be adapted for operation in two or three positions, upper or lower quadrant, and to give right or left hand indications as desired.
In the two position non-automatic signals, but one wire besides the main common is required for its control, this wire being used both for operating and indicating purposes. When the signal is to operate in three positions an additional control wire is required. In the case of semi-automatic control, an additional wire may or may not be required, depending entirely upon the arrangement of the track circuits in the route governed by the signal arm.
The following description of the signal operation is based on the circuit shown in Fig. 48 which is for the control of the two position non-automatic signal mechanism.
Upon reversal of the controlling lever current is taken from the positive buss bar through the lever contacts, the control wire, the operating field and armature of the signal motor, and thence to common through the various switch circuit controllers as required. This causes the movement of the blade from stop to the proceed position, upon the completion of which movement circuit breaker contact B opens and A closes, this connecting the holding field of the motor in series with the operating field and armature. The design of the pole pieces on which the holding field windings are mounted, is such that the magnetic flux, thrown across the air gap between the motor armature and the pole pieces, magnetically locks the armature against rotation and thereby retains the
parts.
In the case of the three position signal, operation from the zero degree position to the forty-five degree position is the same as described above. Operation from this point on to the ninety degree position is ordinarily dependent upon the signal in advance, it being necessary however that the controlling lever be reversed before movement of the mechanism can take place. The mechanism is held in its ninety degree position through the medium of the holding fields in the same manner as in the forty-five degree position. When the signal arm is returning from the ninety degree position and is to be held at the forty-five degree position, its movement is arrested at that point by short circuiting a " snubbing " winding on the motor (winding and contact not shown in Fig. 48), which causes a momentary current to flow in this winding, thereby bringing the mechanism parts to rest. The semaphore arm is retained in this position by current flowing through the retaining fields of the motor, as previously explained.
When it is desired to have the signal controlled semi-automatically, the operation differs from that described above in that the first forty degree movement of the mechanism from the normal position does not affect the position of the signal arm, but puts under tension a set of coil springs which are strong enough to rotate the motor on the return movement with sufficient speed to generate the current for energizing the indication magnet on the lever. This preliminary movement of the mechanism is always under the control of the operating lever irrespective of whether the track circuit is occupied or not, the receipt of the indication therefore ^ot requiring the restoration of the lever to the normal position simultaneous with the entrance of a train into the controlling track section. Any movement of the mechanism beyond this point, however, is dependent upon the track circuit being unoccupied.
Referring to the circuit for the two position semi-automatic signal as shown in Fig. 49, it will be seen that upon reversal of the controlling lever current is taken from the positive buss bar through the lever contacts, the control wire, the signal motor operating field and armature and thence to common. This causes the operation of the mechanism through its preliminary forty degree movement to the zero degree position, at which point the mechanism will be held against the tension of the coil springs, in the event of the track circuit being occupied; this is accomplished by circuit breaker contact Bx opening and A! closing which connects the holding fields in series with the operating fields and armature of the signal motor. Should the track circuit be unoccupied, the mechanism will not stop at this point but
time as its lever may be reversed ; the control is so arranged that a second clearing of the signal arm can be secured only after the mechanism has been returned to its minus forty (—40) degree position. When the lever is restored normal, energy is cut off from the motor and the mechanism, due to the tension of the coil springs, is driven to its minus forty ( — 40) degree position; just before reaching this position circuit breaker
contact B! closes, thus connecting the motor armature and operating field in their original closed circuit in which is included the indication magnet. Due to the momentum of the motor armature acquired during this movement, the motor (now a generator) builds up the momentary dynamic current necessary to energize the indication magnet and release the lever, thereby permitting it to be restored to its full normal position.
rotation to the
minus forty (—40) degree position due to the action of the indication springs; when within a few degrees of the end oHts travel, the dynamic indication for the release of the controlling lever is generated as described above.
CHICAGO TERMINAL,
It will be seen that the operation of the signal mechanism proper, from the time the signal blade begins its movement toward the proceed position until its return to the stop position, is the same as that of the non-automatic signal, the indication springs being in no way depended upon to bring the signal arm to the stop position. This same statement applies also to three position operation of the semi-automatic mechanism.
The non-automatic signal mechanism (Fig. 52) consists essentially of three main parts, the motor, a train of gears and the circuit breaker. These are all housed in a weather proof case, which is provided with doors to give convenient access to all parts.
When the mechanism is used for the operation of high signals, it is fastened to a clamp bearing (Fig. 54) which carries the semaphore shaft S, the design of this bearing permitting the mechanism to be supported at any desired height on the signal mast and at any angle to the track. The bearing is equipped with a spring stop P, which besides acting as a buffer permits the close adjustment of the signal blade in its stop position. A universal coupling L1; L,, L3 introduced between the driving shaft J and semaphore shaft S, lends itself to a simple means of locking the signal arm in the stop position in such a way as to prevent improper operation of the signal by any outside agency.
When the signal mechanism is to be used for the operation of a dwarf signal, it is bolted to a stand (Fig. 55) carrying the spectacle shaft T and provided with springs Ut and U2 which are for the purpose of giving sufficient returning torque to the dwarf signal arm to cause it to assume the stop position when the current holding it at proceed is cut off. This is necessary since the dwarf signal arm cannot be readily designed to have sufficient weight so that gravity can be depended upon for returning it to the stop position. The complete dwarf mechanism takes up but little room which permits it to be installed where clearances are limited, as is illustrated by Fig. 202.
The motor A used in the signal mechanism is of the four pole type, two of these poles being modified in such a manner as to permit the motor armature to constitute the means for holding the signal arm in the proceed positions. This modified design consists of serrating the surfaces of these two poles, so that when the holding field windings are energized, a dense magnetic flux will flow across the air gap between the pole pieces and the motor armature in such a manner as to prevent rotation of the armature, and, consequently, movement of the signal blade. Owing to the high resistance of these windings the amount of current used for the purpose is reduced to a minimum. The ''snubbing" winding previously referred to is entirely independent from the operating windings of the motor, its function being to check the speed of the motor when it is desired to hold the signal arm in the fortyfive degree position.
A friction clutch is introduced between the motor A and its driving pinion C to insure that no undue strain whatsoever will be transmitted to the mechanism gearing.
mechanisms will run freely in either direction and that no ordinary obstructions such as dirt, cinders, waste, etc., will interfere with its movement; only five foot pounds at the semaphore shaft are required to run the mechanism back to its normal position.
Scale, full size.
The circuit breaker B is a complete unit operated from the main driving shaft J by means of the segmental gears Kt and K2. It consists of a frame carrying contact fingers and a revolving commutator on which are mounted contact segments as required. The circuit breaker has a maximum
capacity of fourteen circuits, such contacts as are used to control operating and indicating circuits being arranged to be quick acting, "snapping" over from one position to the other at the proper predetermined time. Each contact finger is provided with convenient means of adjustment, and by means of a locking finger is positively protected again accidental displacement.
The semi-automatic signal mechanism (Fig. 56) consists essentially, as does the non-automatic mechanism, of a motor, a train of gears and circuit breaker, with the addition, however, of the spring attachment which is used to produce rotation of the motor armature for indication purposes after the signal arm has reached the stop position. These parts are enclosed in a weather proof case similar in construction to that used for
the non-automatic signal, the design permitting the mechanism to be fastened to a clamp bearing for mounting on high signal masts or used in connection with a stand for operation as a dwarf.
The motor, train of gears and circuit breaker are essentially the same as those described above, it being therefore only necessary to touch upon the design of the indication spring attachment and the universal coupling, these being the only points in which this signal is radically different from the nonautomatic previously described.
The initial free movement of the mechanism is accomplished by having one shoulder of the coupling L2 so cut away that a forty degree rotation of the driving shaft J is necessary before it will engage with the semaphore shaft S, this movement
Fig. 58 shows diagramatically this spring attachment and the manner in which the springs N\ and N2 are put under tension ; it will be noted that the two coil springs are connected to the driving shaft J by means of an equalizer O and a curved link
M, one end of which is fastened to the main sector H on the driving shaft J. As is clearly illustrated by the various positions of the device the design is such that the springs do not exert any torque on the mechanism after the blade has moved a few degrees from the stop position; therefore it is plain that the springs are in no way depended upon for the restoration of the blade to the normal position.
SOLENOID dwarf signals used in the G. R. S. system are designed to operate in two positions, upper or lower quadrant, with a forty-five, sixty or ninety degree travel of the arm. Two sets of magnet windings are provided, which consist of operating coils of low resistance and holding coils of high resistance. The movement of the solenoid magnet plungers is transmitted by means of suitable connection to the dwarf spectacle.
DWARF SIGNAL CONTROL
Each of these mechanisms requires for its operation a control wire, and since it is impracticable to secure a dynamic indication from a signal of the solenoid type, an additional wire is required for indication purposes. The circuit is connected to main common either at the dwarf location or through contacts on switch circuit controllers when required.
Upon reversal of the controlling lever (Fig. 60), current is taken from the positive buss bar through the lever contacts, the control wire, and the solenoid operating coils A! and Aa to common. This causes movement of the signal arm from the stop to the proceed position. As the arm reaches the proceed position, the circuit breaker contact C opens, which connects the high resistance holding coils Bx and B2 in series
which, in addition to supporting the mechanism, is designed to carry the dwarf spectacle shaft. A hinged cover on the top of the case gives convenient access to the mechanism.
The movement of the yoke F connecting the solenoid plungers Ex and E2, is transmitted through the medium of the rack G and pinion H to the crank J, and thence by means of the connecting rod (not shown) to the dwarf spectacle shaft.
The circuits for the control of the mechanism are broken through pairs of springs which make contact at the proper time with metal pieces, fastened to a commutator mounted upon the same shaft as the pinion H. The operating contact C is designed to hold its circuit closed throughout the movement until the blade has assumed the proceed position. The indicating contact D is closed only when the blade is in the stop position.
The Model 3 dwarf signal mechanism (Fig. 63) consists, of the solenoid magnets and an operating rod which is directly connected to the dwarf spectacle shaft. This mechanism is mounted in a case which is designed to carry the dwarf spectacle shaft and is provided with a sliding cover to permit ready access to the operating parts.
FIG. 62. MODEL 3 SOLENOID DWARF SIGNAL
magnet plungers Et and E2 is transmitted directly to the spectacle shaft through the operating rod G, a roller H on the operating rod working in an escapement crank (not shown) on the semaphore shaft. The design is such that when the signal is in its normal position, the arm is locked against movement from the outside.
The overall dimensions of the signal are such as to allow its location where the available clearances will not permit the use of the Model 2 dwarf signal.
The circuit breaker contacts consist of pairs of springs which are bridged by contact rollers, actuated by the operating rod G. In the case of the indicating contact D and spare contact J, the contact rollers are fastened to and move with the operating rod, the design causing the contacts
Solenoid Plungers
to open with the first movement of the arm towards the proceed position. The roller for the operating contact C is carried by an arm, which is raised by engagement with a collar on the operating rod, when the dwarf spectacle has assumed the proceed position.
PRINCIPLES OF G. R. S. CROSS PROTECTION
THE G. R. S. cross protection system prevents the unauthorized movement of any switch, signal, or other function, in the event of current being improperly applied to its circuit, by the cutting off all energy from the function.
As briefly outlined in the pages on the "G. R. S. Electric Interlocking System," it has been seen that all functions while at rest are normally on a closed circuit of low resistance ; that inserted in each of these circuits and located on the terminal board of the interlocking machine, is a polarized relay of very low resistance connected in such a manner that all currents, caused to flow through the circuit by the manipu-
All functions when at rest are on closed circuit as shown by function C. All normal currents will flow through the polarized relay B in the direction indicated by the heavy arrows, but all currents due to a cross in the opposite direction as indicated by the dotted arrows. Hence current supplied through a cross X will open polarized relay B, which will cause circuit breaker A to open and thus cut current off the system.
lation of the lever, must pass through the relay in a direction to maintain its contact closed, while all currents which may be applied through any other channel must pass through this relay in a direction to cause it to open its contact; and that this operation breaks the control circuit of the cross protection circuit breaker, causing it to open and cut power off that section of the system affected, thereby preventing the unauthorized movement of the function. The principles involved will be made evident by reference to Fig. 65, from which circuit has been eliminated all detail connections, contacts, etc., only such parts being shown as are essential to the explanation.
and the system of cross protection. By tracing out these circuits it will be found that the circuit conditions as shown in Fig. 65 exist and afford the protection claimed.
OPERATION OP THE CROSS PROTECTION CIRCUIT BREAKER
The circuit breaker construction and its manipulation are clearly illustrated by Fig. 66, the position in Fig. 66C corresponding with that of the circuit breaker in Fig. 64. The various parts of the circuit breaker which make contact with each other are indicated by similar letters.
It has been shown that current applied from an unauthorized source to the circuit of a function at rest, causes the polarized relay in that function's circuit to open its contact and interrupt the circuit through the retaining magnet of the cross protection circuit breaker. When this occurs the circuit breaker armature is released and the Z contacts are opened, the armature falling to such a position (Fig. 66A) that it cannot be drawn up against the pole pieces by the magnetic pull which will be exerted when the retaining magnet is again energized through the restoration of the polarized relay armature. To inform the leverman that the circuit breaker is open, a red lamp is lighted by the closing of the Y contacts.
With the circuit breaker open as in Fig. 66A, the positive and negative feeder wires between the battery and the interlocking system are opened at the Z contacts, therefore the cross can have no effect. The polarized relay which had its armature reversed will identify the function affected and, upon the cause of the trouble being removed, the armature of this polarized relay will remain in its normal position, when replaced by the operator. This will cause the retaining magnet of the cross protection circuit breaker to be energized, and, by raising the restoring handle to the position shown in Fig. 66B the circuit breaker armature is restored to its operating position where it will be retained by the circuit breaker magnet. This action closes the Z contacts, but at the same time opens the X contacts, through which contacts are also broken the positive and negative feeder wires, this preventing the application of current to all functions controlled by the circuit breaker until the restoring handle is returned to its normal position. The red light is extinguished when the circuit breaker armature is restored.
Figs. 24 and 25 illustrate a typical operating switchboard, one view showing the cross protection circuit breaker exposed and the other with its coyer in place. It will be noted that the only portion of the circuit breaker which is accessible to the leverman is the restoring handle projecting from the slot at the bottom of the cover. A shield attached to this handle closes this slot when the handle is in the normal position, thereby protecting the internal parts against manipulation in any way except by means of the restoring handle. As
explained above, so long as the handle is held in a position to interfere with the release of the contacts normally retained by the magnet (Fig. 66B), energy is withheld from all functions under the control of the circuit breaker. These features make the cross protection system fully effective at all times, even though force of circumstances may require its being temporarily under the charge of unskilled employees.
When it is desired to retain such signals in the proceed position as may be occupying that position when the circuit breaker opens, resistance units R and R! (shown dotted in Fig. 64) are connected so as to bridge the X and Z contacts, these units permitting the flow of an amount of current sufficient to hold a limited number of signals at proceed. Their resistance is so high, however, that the mechanism requiring the least
current for its operation cannot be put in motion if energy should be applied to its circuit when the circuit breaker is open. The resistance units are shown in position on the operating switchboard in Fig. 24.
The polarized relay inserted in the indication circuit of each of the operated functions, and mounted on the terminal board of the interlocking machine, is shown in Fig. 67. The windings are so designed that the armature of the relay for a switch, signal, etc., will reverse on about one-half the current required to just move that function of the same type which requires the least current for its operation. From this it will be seen that the windings of the polarized relays used with different types of functions have different resistances.
On the switchboard there is shown in Fig. 24 a polarized relay similar to those mounted on the interlocking machine, the position of this relay in the circuit (Fig. 64) being indicated by the letter "A." This relay guards against crosses
between the buss bars on the interlocking machine, such as might be accidently caused by the maintainer's tools when he is working about the machine. From the position of the relay in the circuit, it will be seen that any current reaching the indication buss bar through such a cross will flow in the direction opposite to that of the indication currents, this causing the relay to reverse its contact in the same manner as the polarized relays previously described. Since the relay on the switchboard is common to all circuits, its winding is designed to render it much less sensitive than those on the interlocking machine.
parts of the cross protection system.
Second — All contacts or connections depended upon for protection against crosses are also used in operation and, hence, are checked as to their integrity every time a complete operation of a function is made.
Third — The polarized relay contact, in addition to opening on a reversed direction of current, will also open upon loss of magnetism in the permanent magnet of the relay.
SECTIONALIZING OF PLANTS
In connection with a comparatively simple track layout, it is common practice to install only one cross protection circuit breaker, which prevents the movement of all functions during such time as it may be open. At busy plants having a large number of routes which can be used simultaneously, it may be considered undesirable to have the whole plant affected by derangement at a single point, in which case the plant may be divided into sections, the functions in each section being controlled through separate circuit breakers. This ^ permits uninterrupted operation of traffic through the sections not directly affected.
In addition to the cross protection circuit breakers required, it is necessary to install switchboard polarized relays and also common return wires for each section in the interlocking plant. The positive buss bar and indication buss bar must be divided to correspond with the sectional division of the functions. It is essential that there be no connections between the various buss bars or the common return wires, except where they join the energy mains from the battery, under the protection of their respective cross protection circuit breakers.
There may be certain situations where conditions will warrant the additional expense of employing individual cross protection circuit breakers for each switch and each group of
signals. This would mean that a cross applied to a given switch, for example, would merely make that particular function inoperative without interfering with any of the other functions. The use of individual cross protection circuit breakers requires the running of a separate return wire for each of the functions or groups of functions concerned, and dispenses with the main common previously mentioned.
The device (Fig. 68) employed for this purpose consists of a modified form of the regular polarized relay, provided with suitable contacts and a restoring handle. The contact pressure is increased over that of the regular polarized relay, at the same time retaining the relay's sensitiveness to reverse currents, the contacts are heavier in design, and the iron in the magnet is so distributed that a powerful magnetic blowout is obtained which effectually extinguishes any arc resulting from currents flowing through the contacts at the time of their opening. The principles involved in the making and breaking of the circuits, and in the restoration of the relay armature to the operating position after having been reversed, are similar to those of the cross protection circuit breaker previously described. The device, as installed, is enclosed in a sealed case (Fig. 69) to prevent any improper manipulation of the circuit breaker parts.
This protective apparatus is mounted on the terminal board of the interlocking machine, occupying the same space as the regular polarized relay. The device, which is exceedingly simple in construction, is in no way subjected to weather conditions and is much more accessible than if located in the field at the various switches and signals, as is the ordinary practice with some systems employing individual cross protection.
TESTS FOR CROSS PROTECTION
It has previously been stated that all contacts and connections depended upon for cross protection are under a constant automatic check during the regular operation of the different functions; therefore tests on the cross protection system are in no way requisite in the same sense that tests are necessary on switch points, to determine with what maximum opening the switch points can be locked. It is considered, however, that the satisfaction of having a working demonstration of the existence of the cross protection more than repays the slight trouble involved in making it one of the points to be checked up, on the regular inspection trip.
The time chosen for conducting such a test should be when the voltage on the system is at the highest point attained in service. This will be when the interlocking battery is being charged, at which time the current will run up above 140 volts.
In testing signals, the necessary energy may be obtained at the nearest switch mechanism, since one of the switch control wires is always connected to battery positive (Fig. 64). The test should be made by connecting energy onto the signal control wire as near as possible to the signal motor, and if the signal circuit is connected to the common return wire through one or more switch circuit controllers, the energy should be applied to this wire, care being taken to first open the connection to the main common wire. Failure to open this connection to common in all probability will result in blowing a fuse in the switch circuit from which the energy is being taken for the test, since under these conditions a short circuit to the common return wire is created.
Where the plant has been sectionalized, one or two functions in a given section should be crossed up with wires taking energy from each of the other sections. In case the functions in the various sections are widely separated, these crosses may be made between the binding posts in the terminal board of the interlocking machine, to avoid running a conductor long distances over ground. This test will insure that the proper division of the functions was made at the time of installation, and that no undesirable connections have since been made.
For the first test after an interlocking system has been installed it may be well to connect an adjustable resistance in the wires used in making the crosses, starting with the resistance all in and gradually cutting it down until the circuit breaker opens. For the periodical tests which some railway companies carry out this resistance is generally considered unnecessary.
MODEL 5 FORM A SWITCH CIRCUIT CONTROLLER
The Model 5 Form A switch circuit controller arranged for selecting signal circuits is shown by Figs. 73, 74 and 75. The operation of the contacts, which are forced open and forced closed, is effected through a cam movement, which causes all wear to come on heavy iron parts and not on the contacts.
The contacts may be adjusted in pairs to make normal or reverse contact as required. One pair is adjusted by means of the screw jaw on the connecting rod and the other pair by means of the cam (Fig. 187), the parts after adjustment being positively locked against working loose. The contacts and binding posts are mounted on a vertical panel which gives convenient access to the binding posts when "connecting up " and permits ready inspection of the contacts.
circuits reverse.
The case is provided with main and supplementary covers as shown by Fig. 74, the latter protecting the contacts from frost and condensation at all times, and when the main cover is open, from rain. The trunking cap and operating crank may be applied to either side of the circuit controller as proves most convenient in installation.
THREE POSITION D. C. MOTOR RELAY
The Three Position D. C. Motor relay is especially designed for wireless control automatic block signaling, but is readily adapted for use with three position polarized line circuits.
The operating mechanism consists of a small direct current motor having powerful permanent magnet fields with ample air gap between the armature and pole pieces. The contacts are moved from the de-energized position to either of the
energized positions by the rotary motion of the motor armature, the movement of which is transmitted to the contacts by suitable link connections. The closing of one or the other sets of contacts is accomplished by a partial rotation of the armature, the direction being dependent on the polarity of the operating current.
The contacts have the same opening and pressure, and are similar in design t'o those used in the regular Model 9 D. C. relay. The maximum equipment of contacts in the four way relay, shown in Fig. 76, is four normal and four reverse, with four contacting fingers. It is to be noted that when used in connection with wireless signaling on polarized track work, the signal control is broken through one set of con-
Four way.
tacts only, while in the polar-neutral relay the control must be broken through both polar and neutral contacts. This same holds true for the track control, which, owing to the decreased resistance of the contacts introduced into the circuit, means that cut-sections can be employed to as great an extent in polarized track circuit work, through the use of this relay, as in the case of neutral track circuits employing the ordinary two position relay.
The relay has several other important features which should be noted. The design is such that the chance of having the polarity reversed by a large flush of current or by lightning is so remote as to be negligible. The relay is not subject to residual magnetism troubles in any way, as its operation depends on current only, and not on electro-magnetic traction. This being the case, the drop away (50 per cent, of the normal pick up) cannot change with time, and once fixed, always
remains the same. The overall dimensions are* such *&&' "to permit its installation in the space required by a D. C. tractive type relay having the same contacting capacity.
TRACK DIAGRAMS AND MANIPULATION CHARTS
To facilitate the manipulation of the levers of the interlocking machine, it is customary to mount within full view of the leverman a diagram of the track layout showing the relative location of all interlocked switch and signal functions, also a chart listing the various routes through the plant and the order in which the levers are to be moved in setting up each of these routes. By referring to the chart, the leverman is guided in manipulating the levers in the sequence imposed by the mechanical locking between levers, thus aiding him greatly in the handling of the traffic passing through the plant.
The track diagram and manipulation chart are usually combined in one plan and mounted in a single frame, unless their combined size is prohibitively large, in which case they are framed separately.
INDICATORS
For a long time it has been customary to give to the leverman an indication of the trains approaching the interlocking plant; with the advent of route locking and the semi-automatic control of signals, and the consequent general use of track circuits within the interlocking limits, this practice has been extended to indicating at the interlocking station, the
Cover removed.
condition of all the track sections within the plant. This supplements the information given by the track diagram and manipulation chart, and adds considerably to the facility with which the traffic is handled.
The approach sections are usually repeated by disc indicators and the different track sections between the home signal limits by semaphore indicators. These are generally located on the wall of the operating room near the track diagram,
being mounted either separately with individual covers or on a common frame with a single cover. The indicators, as shown by Figs. 81 and 82, may be equipped with contacts and thus perform the functions of a relay in addition to those of a repeater.
ILLUMINATED TRACK DIAGRAMS
A method of indicating the occupancy or non-occupancy of the various track sections, rather more elaborate than by the use of repeating indicators, is through the employment of the illuminated track diagram. This type of indicator is of great assistance on extremely busy plants where it is necessary to know when a train has cleared each route or
ALTERNATING CURRENT RELAYS
THE following pages have been written with the object of acquainting those interested in this type of apparatus with the principal characteristics and proper application of the various alternating current relays manufactured by the General Railway Signal Company.
If it is to be employed as a track relay, in all probability it will be exposed to the influence of traction or foreign currents, and must, therefore, be of such design that it will not respond to currents other than that intended for its operation. Furthermore, if the track circuits are very long or the ballast very bad, or if the relay is to be located a long distance from its point of connection to the rails, the relay should necessarily require very little energy from the rails in order to avoid cut sections or undue energy consumption. On the other hand, when the opposite conditions exist, these relays need not be so highly efficient and consequently may be smaller and less expensive.
If required for use as a line relay the device will rarely be installed where it will be exposed to the influences of foreign or traction currents, and when such is the case, can be of simpler, smaller, and less expensive design.
In this connection it should be noted that the amount of line wire can frequently be reduced by the employment of relays which have normal, reverse, and de-energized positions. To secure the equivalent of this using two position relays it may be necessary to install twice as many relays and additional line wire. A concrete example of this is the application of three position relays to polarized track circuit work in which the caution and clear positions of a signal are given over the track rails by reversing the polarity, and without the use of line wires at all.
It frequently happens that as many as ten or twelve contacts are required and that these contacts must carry at comparatively high voltage a large amount of current; in other cases but few contacts and these carrying very light currents are necessary. Furthermore, contacts equipped with "magnetic blowouts" may be needed to extinguish arcs which otherwise would be established in the handling of heavy direct currents. These are features which often determine the selection of the relay.
Fourth — Generally speaking, the question of whether a relay is to be of high or low efficiency, and whether it would pay to spend more or less for it, should be decided on the same basis that is used in selecting any piece of apparatus, viz: having determined the total cost of the device in place, including any necessary auxiliary devices, it is then proper to estimate the cost of the energy required for its operation, and that relay which will answer the purpose and cost the least, considering first cost, energy consumption, maintenance charges, interest, and depreciation, should, of course, be the one to use.
an evidence of this efficiency, it may be pointed out that with minimum energy consumption it has given perfect operation on track circuits of from three to four miles in length, and with ballast conditions far from favoring good track circuit operation. The relay is operated by a polyphase motor, which consists of a non-magnetic rotating shell or "rotor," and fixed inner and outer cores, the outer core being the "stator" on which the windings are placed. These windings are designed and connected so as to produce (with alternating current applied) a rotating magnetic field, which in turn will induce currents in the non-magnetic rotor causing it to operate. (Direct currents cannot produce this rotary field and, therefore, cannot cause operation.) The rotor is ordinarily connected to the contacts through the medium of a pinion and sector arrangement, thereby multiplying the effect of the rotor and permitting the operation of a large number of contacts with a very small
amount of energy applied. Furthermore, as it is possible to supply most of the energy to the stator from a local source, only a small amount of energy is required from the rails to cause the relay to operate. These two points permit the operation of very long track circuits without the use of cut sections or undue energy consumption.
The relay is universal in its application, in that it may be wound for operation on steam roads, electric roads using either A. C. or D. C. propulsion, or for operation as a line device. Furthermore, it can be adapted for use on any frequency current, for two or three position operation, and may be made fast or slow acting.
The contacts are unusually heavy in construction and are so designed that any combination of front, back, or front and back contacts can be secured, changes being easily made on the ground if desired. Special contacts equipped with the "magnetic blowout" referred to on page 109 can also be furnished. The contact housing for the four and six way relays accommodate eight and twelve contact fingers, respectively, these controlling eight or twelve independent circuits.
MODEL 2 FORM B RELAY
The Model 2 Form B relay operates on the same general principles as the Model 2 Form A, employing the non-magnetic rotor which permits it to operate with the same degree of safety and reliability. It is designed primarily to operate as a line device but may be used in connection with track circuits to a limited extent; for instance, as a track relay for short track circuits on steam roads, or for short double rail track circuits on roads using direct current for propulsion. While the relay's efficiency is approximately but half that of the Model 2 Form A it compares well, nevertheless, with other A. C. relays on the market. It operates on 25 or 60 cycle current, in two or three positions, and can be furnished either slow or quick acting.
The Model 2 Form B relays have about the same overall dimensions as a D. C. relay of the same contact capacity, this feature permitting their installation in housings previously occupied by D. C. relays. The relay is assembled as a shelf or wall type device, as a tower indicator or as an interlocking relay. The contacts are limited to a maximum of four front and two back, or six front and two back," in the four and six way relays, respectively.
In the Model 3 Form B relay, the same construction is used for the housing, contact arrangement, etc., as in the Model 2 Form B. The actuating movement is essentially the same as that of the Model 2 Form B, with the exception that it operates in two positions only and is a single phase device.
Due to this feature the relay does not require the presence of local energy which is sometimes difficult to provide for. The relay is equipped with a non-magnetic rotor and is designed primarily for use in connection with single rail track circuits on direct current electric traction roads.
The Model Z Form B relay uses the same housing and is provided with contacts of the same design and arrangement as the Model 2 Form B and Model 3 Form B relays previously described.
Six way.
shaped that when current (either direct or alternating) is applied to the windings, a uniform torque is produced, which causes the rotor to operate through about ninety degrees. This movement is transmitted by means of a suitable connection to the contacts.
Being operable on direct current, the relay is adapted for line service only. Its exceptionally high efficiency makes it preferable for this type of work where direct current does not exist on the line and where single phase operation is desired. The relay operates in two positions only.
preceded :
First — That but two general forms of construction are employed, viz: the larger, more efficient form (Fig. 86), especially adapted for track circuit work, and the small, moderately efficient form (Fig. 87), especially designed for line circuits and short track circuits.
Second — That but two principles of operation are used, namely : the inductive as employed in the Model 2 and Model 3 relays, and the electro-magnetic as employed in the Model Z relays.
more or less contacts as required.
With these two forms, two principles of operation and two sizes of relays, wound and equipped with contacts as may be necessary, all the requirements of A. C. signaling can be met without resorting to a greater number of types. It will, therefore, be seen that the G. R. S. relay construction has placed A. C. relays, as regards the diversity of types required, on practically the same basis with the relays used in connection with D. C. signaling.
TRACK CIRCUITS
SINGLE rail A. C. track circuits are largely used at interlocking plants in electrified territory. With this type of track circuit, insulated joints are placed in one rail only, the other rail being used in common by the return propulsion current and the signaling current (see Figs. 88 and 89). It will be seen that single rail track circuits are used to best advantage where there are two or more parallel tracks, in that the power or common rail of all these tracks can be bonded together, thus preventing interruption of the propulsion current return in the event of a break in the power bonding in any one of the continuous rails.
ADVANTAGES
The chief advantage of single rail track circuits as compared to the double rail type is in its lesser cost and complication, the double rail circuits requiring the installation of impedance bonds to provide a continuous return for the propulsion current. As there are usually a number of comparatively short track circuits at an interlocking plant, it is seen that the use of double rail track circuits with impedance bonds would be very expensive. It is furthermore true that at many plants, the track arrangement is such that it would be extremely difficult to secure space at the bond locations for their installation.
LIMITATIONS
Traction Return. When single rail track circuits are installed, both rails cannot be retained for traction purposes, as noted above. If the giving up of one rail leaves insufficient return for the propulsion current, the use of single rail track circuits is barred and double rail track circuits would probably have to be employed.
Broken Rail Protection. Single rail track circuits do not give broken rail protection due to the cross bonding required for traction purposes, which provides a number of return paths through the rails of other tracks for the signaling current. On this account the use of single rail track circuits should be restricted to slow speed tracks, such for example as in terminals, or to siding tracks.
Length. The permissible length of single rail track circuits is limited either by ballast conditions, by the traction drop in the return rail between the points of connection of the transformer and the track relay to the common rail, or by the combination of ballast and drop. The Model 2 Form A relay as ordinarily constructed is capable of carrying 10 amperes direct current through its track winding without overheating or being caused to open.
the signaling rail, the track winding of relay and back to the common rail, this effect being maximum when a train is on the transformer end of the track circuit, thereby cutting out the transformer resistance and allowing the full drop to be effective through the signaling rail and relay in series.
In view of the fact that the common return rail has a negligible resistance, there are times when it can be assumed that all of this drop is effective across the relay, and to prevent a prohibitive amount of direct current from flowing through the relay, under ordinary conditions a limiting resistance is added in series with the relay.
If however the track circuit is long or the ballast bad, the traction drop will in all probability be excessive, thereby requiring that the limiting resistance be high, which in turn necessitates that a correspondingly high A. C. voltage be impressed across the rails at the relay location in order to secure operation; this A. C. voltage is limited since as the voltage is increased the current leakage between the rails throughout the length of the track circuit increases very rapidly. To take care of such a condition an impedance having low ohmic resistance to direct current, but high resistance to alternating current, may be shunted across the relay terminals, this permitting a large amount of direct current to flow through the relay and impedance combined without causing more than 10 amperes direct current to flow through the relay; a unit of low resistance is still required, being connected in series with the relay and impedance, this resistance necessarily being in the nature of a grid since it has to carry a comparatively large amount of direct current. With this arrangement the transformer should be designed to stand a large amount of direct current through its secondary winding without having its A. C. voltage seriously affected.
Under the conditions ordinarily found in terminals or where it is permissible to use single rail track circuits, it will be found that the use of a resistance in series with the relay is adequate to secure proper operation, it being necessary only in rare cases to employ the impedance shunted around the terminals of the relay as above described.
ENERGY REQUIRED
The energy required for the operation of single rail track circuits depends upon the amount of traction drop in the common rail and upon the ballast conditions. In an interlocking plant where the track circuits may average 500 feet in length, the energy per track circuit, employing the Model 2 Form A track relay, should not exceed the figures given below:
TYPES OF SINGLE RAIL TRACK CIRCUITS
In the past the common practice when installing single rail A. C. track circuits has been to locate the track transformer at one end of the track circuit and the relay with its housing and auxiliary apparatus at the other end; this requires that the relay must be repeated into the interlocking station to operate other relays or indicators. A simplified diagram of such a circuit is illustrated by Fig. 88.
In sharp contrast with this is shown in Fig. 89, the method which can be used when a high efficiency polyphase relay such as the Model 2 Form A is employed. By feeding the track circuit from a central source and extending the relay leads
Track relay and transformer located at track circuit.
from the track circuit into the station, the amount of apparatus can be cut down, maintenance costs reduced to a minimum, and certain safety features, not obtainable in the other arrangement, secured.
It will be noted that in the central energy scheme, the vital parts of the track circuit are located in the station directly under the eye of the maintainer which permits adjustments to be made under the most favorable conditions. Due to the simplicity and accessibility of this type of track circuit, maintenance is reduced to a minimum.
A considerable amount of apparatus is saved by this kind of an installation, since secondary relays with their track boxes, additional wiring and fusing, are not required : furthermore, the numerous track transformers which otherwise would have
to be distributed from one end of the interlocking plant to the other are eliminated due to the circuits being fed from one central point. The resistance of the leads from the track circuit to the relay and transformer, constitute a part of the limiting resistance required in series with these pieces of apparatus.
A safety feature obtainable in the central energy scheme which cannot be overlooked is in the protection against crosses. It will be noted by reference to Fig. 88 that a cross at X will cause false operation of the repeating relay in the station, whereas a similar cross in Fig. 89 prevents, as it should, operation of the relay. Every step toward simplicity is a
last word in simplicity as regards track circuits.
The high efficiency of the Model 2 Form A relay especially adapts it for this kind of work, the relay requiring but a small amount of current from the rails, while a comparatively large amount is supplied at the station for the local phase of the relay. The relay may be equipped with an indicator blade and located in plain sight of the leverman, thus dispensing with the necessity of repeating indicators which might otherwise be required for this purpose.
TYPICAL INSTALLATION OF THE CENTRAL ENERGY SCHEME
Fig. 90, which is typical of a large G. R. S. installation, illustrates the extension of the principle of Fig. 89 into the complete wiring required in connection with this type of track
circuit work. It also indicates the control between the interlocking machine and the switch and signal functions in the given section of track, and shows the method of controlling the switch lever locks and track indicators through the track relay.
The track relays and transformers are shown located in the station, the latter being installed in duplicate to prevent any interruption of service should anything happen to one of the transformers. It will be noted that the transformers, besides feeding the track circuits, are used to furnish energy for the signal lighting and the operation of all A. C. apparatus. The track winding of these transformers is brought to a buss bar on the distributing switchboard, the individual leads of the various track circuits being connected to this buss. It is general practice where the track circuits vary sufficiently, or where any of them are located far enough from the station to require much more voltage than the others, to provide the track winding of the transformer with a number of taps which are carried to different buss bars, the individual leads of the different track circuits being taken from one buss or the other as required.
CIRCUITS
WHEN it is desired to install A. C. track circuits and both rails must be retained for propulsion purposes, double rail track circuits, such as are shown by the typical circuit, Fig. 238, must be employed. It will be noted that the track is divided into sections of varying length by
FIG. 91. METHOD OF INSTALLING SIZE 1 FORM C IMPEDANCE BONDS
means of insulated rail joints. Impedance bonds are installed at such locations for the purpose of providing around the joints a low resistance path for the return D. C. propulsion current, while not permitting the passage of the A. C. signaling current. The bonds consist of a few turns of heavy copper wound about, but insulated from, a laminated iron core, the connections to the rails being so made that the traction current has no magnetic effect on the bond, provided an equal amount is flowing in each of the rails. If, however, more current is flowing in one rail than in the other, there will be a tendency to saturate the iron core and thereby reduce the impedance of the bond. This effect, which is called "unbalancing," is limited by introducing an air gap into the magnetic circuit,
impedance.
The size of the bond to be installed is dependent upon the amount of current the bond will have to carry, the impedance to which it must be wound (this being more or less dependent upon the length of the track circuit), and upon the amount of unbalancing to be taken care of. Where good traction bonding can be maintained a less amount of unbalancing can be figured upon, and hence a smaller size of bond employed.
The Size 1 Form C bond, which is the largest, is installed only where the heaviest traffic requirements are to be met, the size of the bond requiring that it be located outside of the rails. The Size 2 Form B and Size 3 Form A bonds are of such dimensions as to permit their being installed between the rails. These smaller bonds are furnished with sloping covers to prevent their being caught by dragging train parts, and are especially designed to have their leads brought out of the case in a manner to facilitate connection to the rails.
HIGH TENSION LINE TRANSFORMERS
THE Type L transformer is a single phase, oil immersed, self cooled, pole type transformer, designed to step down the transmission line voltage (6,600 volts maximum) at signal and track feed locations, to the voltage required for the operation of the signal system.
3. High tension primary winding and low tension secondary windings, one for feeding relay locals, signal mechanisms and lights, and one or two for feeding track circuits.
The primary or high tension winding may be equipped with 5 and 10 per cent, taps brought to a suitable porcelain terminal block, which ordinarily is located below the oil level to minimize the liability of lightning arcing from post to post. The secondary leads and taps are brought to a separate porcelain terminal board located above the oil level.
irons necessary for mounting.
These transformers are built with the same relative polarity and are so constructed that reversing the polarity of the track feed may be accomplished on the terminal block inside the transformer without changing the permanent exterior circuit connections.
FIG. 95. TYPE K SECONDARY TRACK TRANSFORMER
Core losses and copper losses are lower and the efficiency higher than usually is obtainable on this special class of transformers. Good regulation on low power factor, low exciting current and high insulation (insulation tests being 50 per cent, above A. I E. E. standards) are features which combine to form an exceptional transformer in point of long life and safety. The transformer design is strictly in accordance with R. S. A. specifications.
The Type K secondary track transformer as illustrated by Fig. 95 is of the air cooled type and is especially designed for feeding individual track circuits, being used, however, to some extent, in connection with low voltage tungsten lighting.
The transformers are ordinarily made up with one high tension primary winding and one low tension secondary winding, this latter being provided with taps for the adjustment of the track circuit feeds. The primaries are wound for any voltage up to 440 as specified and as ordinarily installed are connected to the low tension secondary of the line transformer. These connections can be made and the
at signal locations.
The cover of the transformer is provided with binding posts for both high and low tension windings. The case is of cast iron, light in weight, and is provided both with lugs for hanging, and with feet to permit of the device being mounted as desired.
The same exceptional efficiency, regulation, and low exciting current are obtained in this class of transformer as in the Type L transformers, previously described.
PLANTS
THE question as to whether oil or electricity is to be used for lighting the signals at electric interlocking plants, depends on what is most economical and satisfactory under the particular conditions existing at each separate plant.
In many cases a decision as to the type of lighting best adapted to a given plant can be easily reached. For example : If commercial power of proper voltage is available at low cost, or if alternating current is employed in connection with the signaling, it will undoubtedly be found desirable to light the lamps electrically; this is especially so if the plant is a very large one, as at such a point the oil lamps would require a special force of lampmen for their maintenance. On the other hand, if commercial power is not available or can be secured only at a high rate, or if the plant is so small that oil lamps could be cared for by the force regularly employed, it will probably be found most economical to use oil lighting.
In cases where the course to be followed is not so evident, a careful estimate of the initial expense involved and of the cost of operation and maintenance, should be prepared before a decision is reached. In the case of oil lighting it is merely necessary to consider the cost of the lamps, oil, maintenance, etc. In the case of electric lighting, however, a number of other considerations enter into the problem as outlined on the following pages.
TYPE AND ARRANGEMENT OF BULBS IN SIGNAL LAMPS
The bulbs used in this type of work are ordinarily of low candle power, it having been found that ample light is secured from bulbs of two or four candle power. When the lighting is operated at 110 volts, the carbon filament type is installed, it being considered that metallic filament bulbs of such low candle power are too frail to be reliable when designed for operation on this voltage. Where it is possible, however, to furnish current at a potential of from 6 to 12 volts, the high efficiency of the metallic filament type can readily be made use of.
In determining the arrangement of the bulbs in each signal lamp, the first consideration is to insure the signals against ever being without light. On this account, general practice has been to have each signal lamp contain two bulbs, connected in multiple, it being highly improbable that both will burn out at the same time. The reduced brilliancy of the signal light, resulting from the burning out of one of the bulbs, causes the failure to be quickly detected and permits the necessary renewal to be made at once.
Where two bulbs, burning in multiple, give more than the amount of light required, an economy can be effected without sacrificing reliability by employing "cut in" relays which permit the burning of but one of the bulbs at a time. The coil of this "cut in" relay is connected in series with the bulb that is to burn normally, a back contact on the relay being arranged to connect the reserve bulb across the lighting mains in the event of failure of the one in service.
Another way to reduce the energy consumption and still retain the necessary reserve, is to use the high efficiency metallic filament bulbs connected in multiple. As stated above, a low candle power bulb of this type to be reliable must be operated on low voltage.
NORMAL SOURCE OP POWER AND THE NECESSARY RESERVE
Having touched upon -the type and arrangement of the bulbs to be used in signal lamps, the next consideration should be with regard to the normal power supply and what reserve should be provided to keep the lights burning in case of emergency.
It is recommended as good practice that the signal lights should be operated from a commercial source, the control being arranged so that the lighting systems will be quickly transferred on to the 110 volt interlocking battery in the event of failure of the commercial power. It will be seen that this use of the interlocking battery as a reserve restricts the lighting to operation on 110 volts. The commercial power may be either alternating or direct current and will in all probability be delivered at 110 or 220 volts. If this potential is 220 volts, it is, of course, necessary to install a motor generator set, transformer, etc., to reduce the voltage to that required by the lighting system.
Where a reliable source of alternating current is available, such, for instance, as can be obtained when the interlocking plant is located in A. C. automatic signal territory, the reserve battery is not considered necessary, and this permits the lighting system to be operated at any voltage desired. In such a case low voltage metallic filament lamps can be operated, transmission about the plant being made at a higher voltage, thus avoiding the necessity of installing large lighting mains. In this connection it is to be noted that low voltage lighting should be restricted to points where the current supply is abso-
lutely reliable, except in the case of a plant with comparatively few signals, at which plant a low voltage battery of suitable capacity is available for use as a reserve.
In case commercial power, of the proper voltage, or signaling power cannot be secured, the lights should then be operated from the charging generator, provision being made to transfer the lights onto the interlocking battery in case of failure of the generating unit. Attention is called to the undesirability of lighting from this source unless either the charging unit or interlocking battery is installed in duplicate, since if only one generator and one battery were employed, the capacity of the battery would have to be excessively large to provide sufficient reserve against the failure of the charging generator, such a failure in all probability being of longer duration than would be the case with commercial power.
PRECAUTIONS
In operating the lighting system from a charging generator great care should be used to see that the normal voltage of the lamj)s is never exceeded, since the bulbs will be quickly burnt out if subjected to an excess voltage. This increased voltage always exists when the charging generator is supplying current for the lighting system at the same time it is charging the interlocking battery; therefore, a regulating device must be provided to maintain the voltage on the lamps at the normal point. This device ordinarily is a hand operated rheostat which has sufficient regulation to permit the voltage to be kept at normal. It will be seen that the device will require the maintainer's attention at frequent intervals; this, however, cannot be considered serious, as under such conditions the interlocking battery would never be charged at night except in case of emergency. Where duplicate batteries are employed, a regulating device is not required, as the combination of switches on the power board can be so arranged that it is impossible to serve the lighting circuits from the battery that is being charged.
Precaution respecting cross protection should be observed whenever the interlocking battery may be called upon to furnish current for the lighting system. At plants where the operating switchboard is equipped with the cross protection circuit breaker shown in Fig. 24 (both positive and negative battery connections being broken through the circuit breaker contacts), the signals can be electrically lighted from the interlocking battery without endangering the proper operation of the switches, signals, or other functions of the plant. If, however, it is proposed to electrically light the signals of an existing G. R. S. plant at which plant the old type of circuit breaker (Sec. 1, Elec. Int. Cat., page 280) is installed, it is strongly recommended that the operating switchboard be equipped with the double pole circuit breaker (Fig. 24) and the circuits rearranged to embody the principles of the wiring
Regarding the source of power, it is recommended as good practice that commercial power be employed, providing arrangements are made to cut the lighting system onto the interlocking battery in case of failure of the commercial source.
Where the interlocking plant is located in A. C. automatic signal territory the lighting may be operated on any voltage desired. At such a point high efficiency metallic filament lamps can readily be operated. No reserve is necessary, in view of the fact that the signal transmission line is always thoroughly protected against power failure.
Where neither commercial power nor A. C. signaling current is available, the signal lighting may be electrically operated from the charging generator, providing the interlocking battery is (or batteries are) of sufficient capacity to insure the continuous operation of the interlocking and lighting systems through any period of time necessary to repair a failure on the part of the charging unit.
In all cases where storage batteries may be called upon to furnish current for the lighting circuits, regulating apparatus must be installed to permit the current from such battery to be delivered to the lighting mains at normal voltage during a charging period.
Whenever the interlocking battery serves as a reserve, the circuits and apparatus on the operating switchboard must be such that operation of the lighting system will in no way endanger cross protection.
ELECTRIC LOCKING AND CHECK LOCKING
GIVING A DESCRIPTION OF THE VARIOUS TYPES OF CIRCUITS AND THEIR APPLICATION TO ELECTRIC INTERLOCKING WORK
ELECTRIC LOCKING
LECTRIC locking as defined by the Railway Signal Association consists of "the combination of one or more electric locks and controlling circuits by means of which levers in an interlocking machine, or switches or other devices operated in connection with signaling and interlocking, are secured against operation under certain conditions."
Electric locking is a development of the tendency in railway signaling practice to constantly decrease the manual control of all functions and to increase the automatic control. The first important step along this line was the operation of switches and signals through the medium of interlocked levers concentrated in a central machine. The real beginning of electric locking, however, was in the installation at mechanical plants of locking circuits which were to prevent the leverman from changing the route in the face of an approaching train. This was followed by a step which had its inception in the all-electric interlocking system : namely, section or detector locking which was designed to afford safety to a train from the time it passed the home signal location until it cleared the limits of the interlocking plant. As first installed in connection with electric interlocking, the switches and derails in a given track section were prevented from being thrown while a train was on that track section, by interrupting the current supply to those functions by means of a relay controlled by the track relay of the section in question. At the present time this method of control is not generally used with the all-electric system, having given way to the practice of equipping each switch and derail lever with electric locks, properly controlled by the various track sections.
Ever since the time of those first successful installations, the signal men of the country have become more and more alive to the fact that safety of railway operation could be much further assured by the development of this principle of automatically preventing the operation of functions which might endanger the safety of trains approaching or passing through interlocking plants. In fact, at the present time electric locking has come to be considered by many a necessary adjunct to an interlocking plant.
Due to the rapidity of the development of the art, a wide range of methods has been used to accomplish the same result; the principles involved, nevertheless, have been so nearly uniform that it has become possible to determine the elements that enter into good practice. For instance, it will be found that it should always be possible to restore the home signal to the normal position, even though it may not be desirable to release the route beyond. Also in case of emergency, release of the route is generally permitted through the use of a time release or hand switch; the circuits are such that when the device has been operated to secure the desired
FIG. 96. ELECTRIC TIME RELEASE
release, some circuit essential to the operation of either switch or signal functions will be broken, thus necessitating that the time release or hand switch be returned to its normal position before operation of the switches or signals affected can be resumed.
Based on the above, the Railway Signal Association has classified Electric Locking in the following manner: "SECTION LOCKING. Electric locking effective while a train occupies a given section of a route and adapted to prevent manipulation of levers that would endanger the train while it is within that section."
An illustration of section locking is given in Fig. 97, showing the manner of controlling the locks with which the switch levers are equipped. As the levers are locked in either the full normal or full reverse position, it will be seen that the
operator is prevented from changing the position of the switches or derails in a given section during such time as that section is occupied or fouled by a train.
" ROUTE LOCKING. Electric locking taking effect when a train passes a signal and adapted to prevent manipulation of levers that would endanger the train while it is within the limits of the route entered."
termined by the layout of track indicated by dotted lines.
from the time a train enters that route until such time as the route is cleared. An illustration of route locking applied to a simple layout is shown in Fig. 98. It is evident that the circuits become somewhat complicated when used in connection with an interlocking where the routing of each signal may extend over a number of combinations of track sections. "SECTIONAL ROUTE LOCKING. Route locking so arranged that a train, in clearing each section of the route, releases the locking affecting that section."
soon as the train has passed the home signal, the functions in each section, however, being released behind the train as soon as the train has passed out of the section.
The installation of sectional route locking has been largely restricted to points such as congested terminals where the maximum number of traffic movements is demanded with a maximum of protection. Due to its being little used, and on account of the rather complicated circuits involved, no attempt has been made to show any typical illustration of the circuits required in such work.
FIQ. 99. APPROACH LOCKING CIRCUIT
"APPROACH LOCKING. Electric locking effective while a train is approaching a signal that has been set for it to proceed and adapted to prevent manipulation of levers or devices that would endanger that train."
Fig. 99 shows an approach locking circuit in which a half reverse lock on the home signal lever, through the medium of the locking between the signal and switch levers, prevents the release of the route during such time as the lock is de-energized. The locking becomes effective after the signal for the route has been cleared and the train has passed a predetermined point, which in Fig. 99 is the annunciator section; the locking is released as soon as the train passes the home signal.
It will be noted that in Fig. 99 no protection is given after the train has passed the home signal, i. e. — no route locking protection is afforded. Protection can be given through the plant by releasing the signal lever in the first section beyond the limits of the plant instead of on the forty-five degree control relay.
"STICK LOCKING. Electric locking taking effect upon the setting of a signal for a train to proceed, released by a passing train, and adapted to prevent manipulation of levers that would endanger an approaching train."
Stick locking in reality is only another form of approach locking, being different in that it becomes effectve on the reversal of the home signal lever and does not further depend on the approach of a train.
Fig. 100 shows a stick locking circuit in which the half reverse lock, with which the signal lever is equipped, prevents its return to the full normal position, and, therefore, the release of the route governed, until such time as a train has passed on to the release section ; this section is shown located beyond the interlocking limits as mentioned under "Approach Locking."
STICK LOCKING CIRCUIT
It will be seen that it is necessary to restore the signal lever to the normal position while the train is on the releasing section, otherwise the signal lever can only be returned to the full normal position through the operation of the time release. If desired, the releasing section may be extended to include the several track sections in the route so that the lever may be restored to the normal position any time the train is within the limits of the route.
"INDICATION LOCKING. Electric locking adapted to prevent any manipulation of levers that would bring about an unsafe condition in case a signal, switch, or other operated device fails to make a movement corresponding with that of the operating lever ; or adapted directly to prevent the operation of one device in case another device, to be operated first, fails to make the required movement."
As an illustration of this type of locking may be taken any electrical device, which is designed to indicate the correspondence of position between a unit and its controlling
lever. The simplest example is the indication of the position of a semaphore blade by means of a lock or other device on the governing lever, the control of this lock being carried through the circuit breaker on the signal. The well-known dynamic indication of the all-electric system is a striking example of indication locking.
It will be found that with the exception of certain forms of indication locking, such as the dynamic indication, the different basic forms of electric locking as outlined above are seldom used alone, but in combinations.
AND SECTION LOCKING
Fig. 101 illustrates the use of an approach locking circuit in conjunction with section locking, and with indication locking for distant signal No. 1. In this circuit the control is secured by equipping the switch levers with electric locks governed by a stick relay. The locking becomes effective when signal No. 6 is cleared but is capable of being released by the return of lever No. 6 to the normal position, providing a train has passed into the releasing section, or providing no train is on any of the track sections repeated by the annunciator and the forty-five degree control relay for signal No. 6. This circuit does not require that the lever be returned to the normal position while the train is on the releasing section.
breaker of the signal.
The indication locking feature consists of carrying the control of the stick relay through the circuit breaker of distant signal No. 1 to prevent release of the route under any condition if signal No. 1 is not in the caution or stop position.
Fig. 102 illustrates a similar arrangement of tracks and signals, with circuits providing stick locking, section locking, and indication locking. It is to be noted that in every particular
this circuit is the same as that in Fig. 101, except that the stick relay does not have a pick up through the forty-five degree control relay and the annunciator in series; the omission of this wire classes the circuit under "Stick Locking." The locking becomes effective upon the clearing of signal No. 6 and is released by a train on the clearing section or by operation of the time release.
CHECK LOCKING
WHEN interlocking plants are located a comparatively short distance apart, it is advisable and frequently necessary to install what is known as "Check Locking," which enforces cooperation between the levermen at the two plants in such a manner as to prevent opposing signals, governing over the same track, from being at proceed at the same time. Furthermore, after a signal has been cleared and accepted by a train, check locking prevents an opposing signal at the adjacent interlocking plant from being cleared until the train has passed through to that plant.
Fig. 103 shows a check locking circuit which involves the use of check lock levers at each plant, the arrangement and method of operation of these levers making the circuit especially
For use where there is no preference as to direction cf traffic.
adaptable where there is no preference as to the direction of traffic. The signal levers at each station, governing movements over the intervening track, are so interlocked with the check lock levers in their respective machines, that they may not be moved from their full normal position until their respective check lock levers have been moved to the full reverse position. By reference to Fig. 103 it will be seen that the check lock levers are so controlled that but one of them can be in the full reverse position at the same time. Therefore, it is impossible for signals No. 1 and No. 20 at stations A and Z, respectively, to be displayed at proceed at the same time.
The control circuit for the check lock levers is shown broken through relay X, which represents the track relays for the sections between signals No. 1 and No. 20. This prevents a check lock lever being thrown to the full reverse position and, consequently, any traffic movement from being made during such time as these sections are occupied. The release
by current taken from the battery at the far end of the circuit.
The check locking circuit shown in Fig. 104 is designed for operation when there is a preference in the direction of traffic, since traffic movements can normally be made from A to Z without any interference from the check locking, it being necessary, however, when making a movement from Z to A (against traffic) to operate both check lock levers.
Each station is equipped with a check lock lever so interlocked with signal levers No. 1 and No. 20, that lever No. 1 is free to be moved only when the check lock lever at A is full normal, and lever No. 20 only when the check lock lever at Z is full reverse. The control, however, of the check lock levers is such that the lever at Z can be reversed only
after the check lock lever at A has been thrown to the full reverse position, and, after having been moved from its normal position, the lever at A can be returned to the full normal position only after the return of the check lock lever at Z to full normal. Thus it will be seen that it is impossible to have a condition existing which would permit signal levers No. 1 and No. 20 to be reversed at the same time.
The final movement of the check lock lever at Z in being moved to the full reverse position, and of the check lock lever at A in being placed normal, is permitted by energy secured from the battery located at the far end of the circuit.
LEAD TYPE STORAGE BATTERIES
STORAGE or secondary; batteries consist of cells, the plates and electrolyte of which can be restored to their original condition after discharge, by forcing an electric current through the cell in the direction opposite to that taken by the current produced by the cell. When a primary battery is exhausted the electrolyte and elements are renewed before further use. It is in this reversability or regeneration that lies the fundamental difference between storage and primary cells.
The lead type storage cell consists essentially of two plates or sets of plates suspended in a dilute solution of sulphuric acid. There are many forms of plate construction, but the chemical composition is generally the same, the positive and negative plates being made of peroxide of lead and pure
FIG. 105 LEAD TYPE STORAGE BATTERY AND BATTERY RACK
or "sponge" lead, respectively. When the elements are composed of more than two plates the negative plates in each cell are one more in number than the positives. Wooden or hard rubber separators are introduced between the plates to prevent any of the positives from coming into contact with the negative plates, thus causing short circuit.
When the circuit is closed and the battery discharging, the sulphuric acid combines with the lead in the elements forming a deposit of sulphate of lead on the surface of both positive and negative plates, the density (specific gravity) of the electrolyte diminishing as the sulphuric acid leaves it to combine with the materials of the plates. By forcing current through the cell in the direction opposite to that of the discharged current, the sulphate of lead on the negative plates will be converted into sponge lead and sulphuric acid, and the sulphate of lead in the positive plates into peroxide of lead and sulphuric acid ; the sponge lead and the peroxide of lead remain in the plates and the sulphuric acid diffuses in the electrolyte, the specific gravity of which rises in consequence.
1. INTENT
The intent of these specifications is to provide for the furnishing of complete storage battery cells and parts, designed to be located in interlocking stations or batteryhouses and used for operating interlocking and signal apparatus.
2. DESIGNATIONS
(a) In ordering cells or parts the nominal capacity required will be designated as "40 A. H., "80 A. H.," "120 A. H.," "200 A. H.," "320 A. H.," or "400 A. H.," and these terms shall be understood to signify, on an eight (8) hour basis, the capacities and dimensions thus designated in these specifications and Railway Signal Association drawing 1224. (See page 146.)
understood to include the following parts :
1. One (1) positive group, consisting of the necessary number of positive plates assembled with connecting strap and one (1) connecting bolt.
2. One (1) negative group, consisting of the necessary number of negative plates assembled with connecting strap and one (1) connecting bolt.
7. Required electrolyte.
(c) Positive or negative groups, if ordered separately, will be ready for service after an initial charge continued for fifty (50) to sixty (60) hours at the eight (8) hour rate.
5. DIMENSIONS
Jars, sand trays and covers must conform to Railway Signal Association drawing 1224, which is an essential part of these specifications. (See page 146.)
9. ACCEPTANCE
No unit or part will be accepted which does not, in the judgment of the Purchaser, conform to the best practice with respect to material and workmanship.
10. SERVICE REQUIREMENTS
(a) It is essential that all parts shall be rugged in the highest degree both mechanically and electrically. The apparatus furnished must give satisfactory and economical service.
(6) Should any injurious buckling of plates occur in normal service within one (1) year after delivery, or should the capacity of any cell or element fall to less than eighty-five (85) per cent, of the specified capacity at the eight (8) A. H. rate, in normal service, within one (1) year after delivery, the Contractor must replace the defective parts and restore the affected cells to their full specified capacity and to a condition satisfactory to the Purchaser, without additional cost to him.
(c) As far as practicable, it is understood that the cells are to be operated in the manner recommended by the Contractor, but the necessities of operation must be the first consideration.
1. GENERAL
(a) The battery should be housed in a space by itself as the acid fumes given off during the charge are of a corrosive nature. This space should be well ventilated, well lighted, and as dry as possible. If the space is specially constructed it should contain no metal work other than lead. If this is not possible, then such metal parts
should be protected by at least two (2) coats of acid-proof paint. The floors of a large battery room should be preferably of vitrified brick, jointed with pitch.
(6) Batteries should be placed in a room having a uniform temperature, preferably seventy (70) degrees Fahr. Low temperature does not injure a battery, but lowers its capacity approximately one-half (%) of one per cent, per degree. Excessively high temperatures shorten the life of the plates.
3. Batteries having a large number of cells, such as at interlocking plants, shall be provided with substantial wood racks to support them. These racks shall preferably be made of long-leaf yellow pine with noncorrosive fastenings, and thoroughly protected by at least two (2) coats of acid-proof paint. Cells shall be arranged transversely, and the layouts be such that each cell is accessible for inspection and provide sufficient head room over each cell to remove the element without moving the jar.
suitable insulators.
5. When placing the positive and negative groups into the jars see that the direction of the lug is relatively the same in each case, so that a positive lug of one (1) cell adjoins and is connected to a negative lug of the next cell throughput the battery, thereby giving proper polarity, providing a positive lug at one free end and a negative at the other.
6. Before bolting the battery lugs together, they should be well scraped at the point of contact, to insure good conductivity and low resistance in the circuit. The connector studs should be covered with vaseline before screwing up, and all connections covered with vaseline or suitable paint.
7. Before putting electrolyte in the battery the circuits connecting same with the charging source must be completed, care being taken to have the positive pole of the charging source connected with the positive end of the battery and the negative poles. The electrolyte should cover the top of plates by one-half (%) inch.
INITIAL CHARGE
(a) The initial charge must follow the Manufacturer's instructions. The charge should be started promptly as soon as all the cells are filled with electrolyte, and all connections made, usually at the normal rate, and continued at the same rate until both the specific gravity and voltage show no rise over a period of ten (10) hours, and gas is being freely given off from all the plates. The positive plates will sometimes gas before the negatives. Generally, to meet these conditions, from forty-five (45) to fifty-five (55) hours continuous charging at the normal rate will be required; and if the rate is less, the time required will be proportionately increased. In case the charge is interrupted, particularly during its earlier stages, or if it is not started as soon as the electrolyte is in the cells, the total charge required (in ampere hours) will be greater than if the charge is continued and is started at once.
(6) As a guide in following the progress of the charge, readings should be regularly taken and recorded. The gassing should also be watched, and if any cells are not gassing as much as the adjoining cells, they should be carefully examined and the cause of the trouble removed. The temperature of the electrolyte should be closely watched, and if it approaches one hundred (100) degrees Fahr. the charging rate must be reduced or the charge temporarily stopped until the temperature lowers.
(c) The specific gravity will fall after the electrolyte is added to the cells, and will then gradually rise as the charge progresses, until it is up to 1.210 or thereabout.
(d) The voltage of each cell at the end of the charge will have risen to its maximum and usually will be between two and five-tenths (2.5) and two and seven-tenths (2.7) volts.
(e) If the specific gravity of any of the cells at the completion of the charge is below 1.205, or above 1.215, allowance being made for the temperature correction, it should be adjusted to within these limits, by removing and adding electrolyte if the specific gravity is low, and adding chemically pure water if the specific gravity is high, to again bring the surface at the proper height above the top of the plates. It is of the utmost importance that the initial charge be complete in every respect.
(/) In case of batteries charging from primary cells, if possible, the initial charge should be given at a place where direct current is available of sufficient voltage to complete the charge at the normal rate, the cells being then transferred to their permanent position.
one positive and one negative plate, the positive of one cell being solidly connected by a lead strap to the negative plate of the adjoining cell, and consequently no connectors are required. At the ends of each row there is one (1) free positive plate and one (1) free negative plate respectively, which constitute the positive and negative terminals of that row. Connections to these terminals are made with bolt connectors.
5. LARGE CAPACITY CELLS
(a) Batteries of a greater capacity than four hundred (400) ampere hours shall be placed in wood tanks and shall be covered by special specifications.
them on a double tier of glass insulators.
(c) Plates are shipped separately and assembled one at a time in the tank and burned solidly to a heavy lead bus bar by means of a hydrogen flame. It is recommended that when installations of this kind are required that battery Manufacturers install the battery in accordance with tneir standard practice.
2. PILOT CELL
In each battery, select a readily accessible cell, to be used in following the daily operation of the battery, by taking specific gravity readings of the electrolyte, as given below. Keep the level of the electrolyte of this cell at a fixed height, one-half (x/2) inch above the top of the plates, by adding a small quantity of chemically pure water each day; THIS is EXTREMELY IMPORTANT.
1. As a general rule, do not charge until the specific gravity of the pilot cell has fallen at least ten (10) points below the preceding overcharge maximum, the battery being then about one-third (Vs) discharged.
2. In any case, charge as soon as possible after reaching either of the limits given below under "Discharging," or if for any reason a heavy discharge is expected.
1. Charge at normal rate of ........ amperes, or as
near as possible, and continue until the specific gravity of the pilot cell has risen to three (3) points below the maximum reached on the preceding overcharge, WHEN THE CHARGE SHOULD BE STOPPED : for example, if the maximum specific gravity on the overcharge is 1.207, the specific gravity reached on regular charge should be 1.204.
prolong the regular charge until fifteen (15) minute readings of the specific gravity of the pilot cell and of the battery voltage, taken from the time the cells commence to gas show no rise on five (5) successive readings, thus having been at a maximum for one hour.
2. When the above method of overcharge is not practicable, the overcharge may be given every sixth charge, provided the battery receives an overcharge at least once every month. If in following this method, i. e., where the overcharge is given at intervals longer than two (2) weeks and not less frequently than once a month, the regular charge should be prolonged until one-half (¥2) hour readings of the specific gravity of the pilot cell and of the battery voltage, taken from the time trie cells begin to gas, show no rise on seven (7) successive readings, thus having been at the maximum for three (3) hours.
If two (2) or more batteries are charged together, in series, care should be taken that each battery is cut out when fully charged ; in other words, if one of the batteries discharges less than the other it should not receive the same charge.
4. DISCHARGING
(a) Never allow the specific gravity of the pilot cell to fall more than about thirty (30) points below the preceding overcharge maximum. As a rule, do not allow specific gravity to fall more than twenty (20) points.
5. READINGS
(a) Read and record the specific gravity of the pilot cell and battery voltage just before starting and ending every charge, together with the temperature of the electrolyte.
(6) To properly compare the specific gravity readings, they should be corrected to standard temperature (seventy (70) degrees Fahr.) by adding one (1) point for every three (3) degrees above, and subtracting one (1) point for every three (3) degrees below standard temperature.
(c) Once every two (2) weeks, after the end of the charge preceding the overcharge, read and record the gravity of each cell in the battery.
6. INSPECTION
(a) Carefully inspect each cell on the day before the overcharge, using a lamp on an extension cord for the purpose. Examine between the plates and hanging lugs to make sure that they are not touching, and also make a careful note of any peculiarity in color, etc., of the plates.
8. BROKEN JARS
If a jar should break, and there is no other to take its place, so that the plates will have to remain out of service for some time, keep the negatives covered with water and allow the positives to dry. Connect into circuit again lust before a charge, so that the plates will receive the benefit of the charge.
when charging.
(0) NEVER ALLOW METALS OR IMPURITIES of any kind to get into the cells; if this happens, remove and wash the plates and renew the electrolyte.
A storage battery of fifty-five to fifty-seven cells, having an approximate potential of 110 volts, is used in connection with G. R. S. electric interlocking installations. The required ampere hour capacity is dependent on a number of variables, viz : the number of days between charges, frequency of lever movements, amount of current required for lighting, for cutouts, indicators, annunciators, etc., and the number of days of reserve power desired.
A separate low voltage battery is generally installed when there are a number of locks, indicators, relays, etc., required at the plant, as this type of device is more efficient and can have a more rugged magnet winding when designed for operation on a potential of 10 or 20 volts; furthermore, there are certain safety features which can be secured in connection with this low voltage control. The capacity of such a low voltage battery is determined in the same manner as the high voltage battery, as given hereafter.
The following instructions will enable the determination, with reasonable accuracy, of the ampere hour capacity of the battery required for use with a G. R. S. electric interlocking plant.
The ampere hour capacity required for the operation of functions is obtained by multiplying the number of lever movements per day by the number of days between charges and by a "Function Constant." This constant, to be obtained by reference to table on page 155, is influenced mainly by two things: the average length of time that signals are held in
the proceed position and the ratio of the number of signal movements to switch movements. In the absence of definite information on these points it is suggested that the constant .006 be used as representing a fair average condition. This constant is shown underlined in the table.
By reference to the table of Function Constants it can be easily seen that it is advisable to keep down the length of time signals are held in the proceed position, a glance indicating that the battery capacity will run up very rapidly as the time of holding signals at proceed increases. In this connection it may be stated that there have been cases where a much smaller size battery has been permitted due to the saving in
hold clear current, this being effected by the installation of annunciators, which by suitably indicating the approach of a train reduces the length of time of holding the signals at proceed. Furthermore, it is interesting to note that the saving effected by the installation of this smaller battery may more than balance the cost of such annunciator installation.
In every G. R. S. electric interlocking plant one or more circuit breaker cut-outs are required for cross protection purposes. The capacity required for cut-outs is obtained by multiplying the number of cut-outs by nine-tenths and by the number of days between charges. A discussion as to the number of cut-outs to be employed to suitably sectionalize a plant is given on page 93.
When the signals at an interlocking plant are to be lighted by electricity, the interlocking battery is generally held as a reserve against the failure of the normal source of power. The number of days which the battery may be called upon to
furnish current in such an event depends upon the probable length of time required to repair any derangement of the apparatus normally furnishing power to the lighting system. The ampere hour capacity which must be provided for the lighting is, therefore, determined by multiplying the ampere hours per signal per day by the number of signals to be lighted and the number of days' operation which may be required between charging periods.
PURPOSES
When auxiliary devices, such as indicators, locks, etc., are operated from the interlocking battery, the current taken for this purpose must be included in figuring the capacity of the battery. The current required by these devices can be secured by reference to tables on pages 265 to 269. The capacity of battery required for this purpose is obtained by multiplying the current taken by said auxiliary devices by the average number of hours such apparatus is energized per day, and by the number of days between charges.
RESERVE AMPERE HOURS
Under normal operating conditions the battery should not be fully discharged on account of the fact that charging current may not be always instantly available when wanted, in which case the time would surely come when the plant would be without means of operation. It is, therefore, necessary to have the battery of such size that at the usual time of charging there will be a certain number of ampere hours capacity left in the battery as a reserve.
The R. S. A. recommends that under normal conditions the battery never be discharged beyond two-thirds of its total capacity; stated in other words, this means that 50 per cent, must be added to the capacity computed when installing the battery in accordance with R. S. A. specifications. If the
battery is to be charged at intervals of a week this will give a reserve of three and one-half days, and if at intervals of two weeks the reserve will be for seven days. When a commercial source of power is available, this in all probability will give more reserve than would be necessary. On the other hand, if the charging source is not so reliable, the capacity of the battery may have to be increased. For instance, the charging of the batteries at an isolated plant may be dependent upon a gasoline engine, the failure of which might take several days for repairs due to time spent in securing repair parts, etc. In such a case when the charging is done at intervals of a week, it would, perhaps, be necessary to have a reserve sufficient for a full week's operation, this requiring that the computed capacity of the battery be increased by 100 per cent.
Based on the above, it is recommended as good practice that the battery provide for a minimum reserve of 50 per cent, and that, if local conditions require it, an additional amount of reserve be added as outlined above.
is NOT KNOWN
When it is not possible to ascertain the number of lever movements to be made in a given plant, the ampere hour capacity of battery required for the operation of functions and for cut-outs can be secured from the following table; these figures include sufficient reserve to care for ordinary conditions.
200 ampere hour battery
The table is based on past experience and is considered reasonably correct for moderate size machines, the battery sizes, if anything, being somewhat high. The table is not extended for machines larger than 168 levers, as with such plants it is believed that special study of lever movements should be made in the determination of the battery size.
If the signals are to be lighted and auxiliary apparatus operated from the interlocking battery, an additional number of ampere hours must be added to the figures in the table, the calculation being made in accordance with the preceding paragraphs dealing with the capacity required for electric lighting and for miscellaneous purposes.
G. R. S. BATTERY CHARGING SWITCH
The battery charging switch illustrated by Fig. 108 provides a simple and efficient means for connecting storage batteries in series with charging and discharge lines, permitting the batteries to be switched off or on to the line without opening the charging circuit.
During the manipulation of the switch, short circuiting of the battery is avoided by automatically inserting a resistance during the interval that the battery would otherwise be on
The charging switch is compact and substantial in design and so arranged to permit of easy inspection. The commutator possesses a high degree of insulation. The contact plates and fingers are large, being designed to take care of the neavy currents necessary in this kind of work without heating.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF CHARGING APPARATUS
DIRECT current generators of the shunt wound type are ordinarily used for storage battery charging. The capacities of the generators used in connection with the G. R. S. electric interlocking system run from 1 to 8 K. W., as shown in the table on page 159, the current being delivered at a potential ranging from 110 to 160 volts.
Where commercial power is available, it is preferable to use a direct connected motor for operating the charging generator. Where such power is not available, a gasoline engine is generally employed to drfVe the generator, either by means of belting or by being directly connected to the generator.
The charging is generally controlled through the medium of a power switchboard equipped with a no-load, reverse-current circuit breaker, which opens the charging circuit if the generator voltage drops below that of the batteries, thus preventing the generator from running as a motor on current delivered by the batteries.
A simplified charging circuit is shown by Fig. 110. In this circuit the generator is assumed connected for right-hand rotation; to secure left-hand rotation the field connection should be reversed.
SETTING UP THE MACHINE
The generator should be located in a room which is as dry and clean as possible: a room which is hot and dusty should be avoided, particularly if the dirt is of a gritty character, as it is apt to injure the commutator and bearings of the machine.
The machine should be in plain sight and have sufficient room on all sides for easy access, care being taken that there is sufficient room to permit taking out the armature.
If the flooring of the power house is firm, the generator or motor generator set may be mounted on a wood block three or four inches thick, screwed to the flooring; if the floor construction will not permit this, a concrete foundation should be installed.
WHEN STARTING GENERATOR FOR THE FIRST TIME
Before starting the machine for the first time, make sure that the main switch and circuit breaker are open (Fig. 110). Raise the brushes from contact with the commutator and examine them to see if they are in proper condition. Fill the bearings with oil. Make sure that the armature and field coils of the generator have not become wet during shipment or while being stored ; if any sign of dampness is noted they should be dried out, following the instructions on page 165.
note whether the machine is so lined up that the belt runs central on the pulleys and the armature plays freely back and forth between its bearings. At no-load the speed of the genertor should be slightly high, so that at full-load it will come down to approximately that indicated on the name plate.
After making sure that the commutator brushes are still raised, cut the rheostat fully "in" and then close the main switch and the circuit breaker (Fig. 110). Cut the rheostat "out" gradually and then "in" again, after which the main switch should be again opened. This procedure causes current to flow through the generator fields and insures the field coils having a proper residual magnetism. Replace the brushes on the commutator and shift the brush holder, if necessary, to bring the brushes to the "neutral" position.
FIG. 110. SIMPLIFIED CHARGING CIRCUIT
After the machine is running and has built up, the brushes should be rocked backward and forward until the point of minimum sparking is found. When the machine is running under load this should be again checked and the position of the brushes shifted again if necessary; lock and leave brushes in this position.
pulley with load on.
Cut the rheostat resistance "out" until the voltage is a little higher than that of the battery, being sure that the voltmeter needle deflects in the same direction for both generator and battery (see switch No. 2, Fig. 118). This
be connected to the positive pole of the battery.
Close the main switch and circuit breaker and adjust the rheostat until the proper amount of current is flowing into the battery, also adjust the brushes if necessary for minimum sparking. It will be necessary to change the adjustment of the rheostat occasionally as the battery charging increases, in order to maintain the current at the proper amount.
If no circuit breaker is provided, wait until the current is practically at zero before opening the main switch on the battery. After the machine has stopped, relieve the tension on the belt so as to prevent it from stretching during such time as the machine is standing idle.
GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS
It is hardly possible to give detailed and complete instructions in these pages for locating all the troubles which may arise in the use of such apparatus. The type of machine used for charging storage batteries is so simple, however, that by adhering to the following general instructions, it is believed that satisfactory operation of the machine will be obtained.
The generator should be kept perfectly clean and dry and should not be unnecessarily exposed to dust. This can best be accomplished by throwing a waterproof covering over the machine when not in use.
Do not overload the machine. To load the machine beyond the capacity indicated on its name-plate is never conducive to best operation, this being the frequent cause of overheating in the machine, sparking at the commutator, or other troubles.
Overheating the generator may be readily detected by applying the hand to the various parts of the machine; in general a temperature that cannot be borne by the hand is to be considered excessive. An odor of burning varnish is indicative of serious overheating, and a machine which shows this symptom should have the load removed at once; rotation of the armature may be continued with the fields de-energized for the purpose of cooling the machine.
The < bearings should be kept thoroughly lubricated with the bqst grade of lubricating oil. While the machine is running, care should be taken from time to time to see that the oiling rings are working correctly.
Particular attention should be given to the commutator and brushes to see that the former keeps perfectly smooth and that the latter are in perfect adjustment. The commutator should assume a dark brown, glossy appearance, if proper brushes are used and are kept from sparking, and if -the
capacity of the machine as indicated on the name plate is not exceeded. The condition of the commutator and brushes may be regarded as the best barometer of the condition of the generator.
The free use of lubricants on the commutator is not recommended. In cleaning the commutator a tightly woven cloth (free from lint) or chamois skin, should be used and the commutator then wiped with a rag which has a little vaseline on it.
To fit the brushes to the commutator draw No. 00 sandpaper under them, smooth side to the commutator, as shown in Fig. Ill, the brushes to bear on the sandpaper only when
Fia. 111. METHOD OF FITTING BRUSHES TO COMMUTATOR
it is being drawn in the direction in which the surface of the commutator will run when the machine is in operation. After the brush is shaped to the commutator finish up with No. 0 sandpaper and then carefully clean the commutator and brushes of all particles of dust or grit.
The brushes shipped with the machine are ordinarily best adapted to the work and other brushes are liable to cause trouble. A little oil may be applied to the brushes should they become dry and noisy.
If the armature or field coils of the generator should become wet, they should be thoroughly dried out before running the machine under load as the moisture is liable to damage the windings. The coils of the machine may be dried out by baking in an oven at a temperature of 240 degrees Fahr. for several hours, or if an oven is not available they may be dried out by placing near the fire. Another method is to run the generator for several hours without exciting its field.
GENERATOR FAILS TO BUILD UP
One of the common troubles which occurs in the operating of generators is the failure of the machine to build up. This failure may be generally attributed to one of the following causes:
direction of rotation.
3. Excessive resistance due to poor brush contact. Brush contacts often have an excessively high resistance when generator is first started, and a momentary pressure of the fingers on the brush or brushes may enable the machine to build up.
4. Weak, destroyed or reversed residual magnetism. To restore residual magnetism send current from battery through the fields in the proper direction.
1. MATERIAL
(a) The generator shall be shunt wound, self-excited, shall have self-oiling bearings, carbon brushes, rheostat, and when belt connected, a belt tightener, sub-base, and pulley.
without a rise in temperature in any part exceeding seventy-two (72) degrees Fahr. (40° C.) above the temperature of the surrounding atmosphere.
(d) It shall be so wound that its voltage at the continuous current rating given above, may be varied by means of a field rheostat between the minimum and the maximum charging voltage of the battery.
(e) The generator shall be capable of supplying for four (4) hours a current output twenty-five (25) per cent, in excess of the continuous current capacity referred to in above without a rise in temperature in any part exceeding ninety (90) degrees Fahr. (50° C.) above the temperature of the surrounding atmosphere.
degrees Fahr. (26° C.), but should the temperature vary from this, corrections shall be made in accordance with the recommendations of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers.
tions, as outlined above.
(i) These generator specifications describe a machine which, in normal power interlocking service, will have an ample overload capacity to meet general requirements.
GASOLINE engines, used in the charging of moderate sized storage batteries, are generally of the single cylinder four cycle type, water cooled and equipped with the "Make and Break" electric ignition. The vertical type engine is lubricated by the crank dipping into an oil bath in the base of the crank case; oil and grease cups are further provided for lubricating parts not so cared for.
The operation of the engine is maintained at a constant speed by either regulating the mixture of gasoline vapor or by varying the number of power impulses as soon as a certain
ively.
In a common type of engine used for this work, a pump supplies gasoline to a reservoir, an overflow pipe being connected with the reservoir to maintain the gasoline at a uniform height. At the proper time in the cycle of operation, the engine piston sucks air through the air inlet passage and at such a velocity that gasoline is picked up from the reservoir and drawn through an adjustable nozzle into the cylinder head, the gasoline mixing with the air to form the required explosive vapor.
LOCATION OF ENGINE
In locating the engine, at least two feet should be left on all sides of engine for convenience in starting and for having sufficient room to make necessary adjustments and repairs.
The gravity system of circulation is generally used for the cooling water. With this system, the tank for the cooling water is generally placed on the floor, as shown in Fig. 114 ; best results are secured, however, by having the tank elevated enough to bring the bottom above the lower water opening on the engine cylinder. Connections should be as shown, large enough piping being used to permit free circulation of the water. Valves F-F must be inserted in the pipe line to permit drawing off the water from engine in freezing weather without emptying the tank.
FIG. 116. GASOLINE TANK LOCATION
and with engines equipped with a gasoline pump, the tank should be placed at a lower level than the engine, so that when the engine is idle the gasoline will drain back into the tank. In making the connections between the gasoline tank and engine, care must be taken to wash out all piping and joints with gasoline to remove any loose matter or scale from the interior of such connections.
To START ENGINE
See that engine is properly oiled and that water and gasoline valves are turned on. Pump gasoline into reservoir. Fill priming cock on head of cylinder; this may not be necessary in warm weather. Make sure that spark lever is in "retard" or "late" position, then close switch to ignition circuit.
1. ENGINE
(a) The recommended brake horse power of the gasoline engine shall be not less than one and three-fourths (1%) times the kilowatt capacity of the generator at the maximum voltage and the eight (8) hour charging rate.
(6) The engine shall run without injurious vibration and shall operate continuously at Manufacturer's specified capacity for a period of sixteen (16) hours without injurious heating in any part.
(c) Regulation in speed shall be within three (3) per cent, from no load to full load and the regulation as recorded on the voltmeter for a given current shall not vary more than two (2) per cent, between impulses.
provided.
(/) Engine and accessories shall be acceptable by and installed under the rules of the National Board of Fire Underwriters and the attached requirements of local authorities.
line per horse power hour for gasoline engines.
(d) For cooling, the minimum of free running water should be not less than ten (10) gallons per horse power hour, and for the circulation tank system not less than fifty (50) gallons per horse power.
brass seats.
(g) Unless otherwise specified, an iron or a steel cooling tank of sufficient capacity for a continuous run of ten (10) hours on one (1) filling, with connections and removable cover, shall be furnished. Connections between engine and tank shall be arranged for convenient and complete drainage of the cooling system, for independent drainage of the engine and tank, and to conduct all waste water and steam to the outside of the building.
Polar Relay Contacts
To test for ground, throw switch No. 1 to the right or left. If the lamp lights when pressed to the right it shows that the negative wire is grounded. If lamp lights when pressed to the left it shows that the positive wire is grounded.
SHIPMENT
BEFORE shipment the interlocking machine is assembled complete in every detail and subjected to a rigid electric and mechanical test. It is then partly disassembled, the levers, lever tappets and locking, the legs and lower tiers of locking plates (if furnished) being boxed separately from the body or the machine. This latter is then divided into sections of approximately forty lever spaces and boxed on skids for shipment. Before boxing, all machined parts are wiped dry and coated with vaseline to guard against the effects of rust during . transit.
STORING
Upon the receipt of the machine it should be stored in a dry place. If some time passes before the machine is set up and there is any chance of its different parts rusting, these parts should be wiped dry and recoated with vaseline.
INSTALLATION
The first step in the assembly of the machine is to bolt the sections to their supporting legs and the various sections to each other. The legs are numbered and the machine beds marked to correspond. Extreme care should be taken in shimming up under the legs to insure accurate alignment of the bed and an even distribution of the weight on the supporting legs. Failure to do this, especially in a large machine, is very likely to result in binding between the various parts of the mechanical locking.
The second and third tiers of locking plates, if used, should be assembled on the machine, care being taken to place the templet furnished for the purpose in the horizontal and vertical locking slots before doweling the locking plates to their support. Never file the screw holes when mounting these plates since this is not necessary if the bed has its correct alignment. To permit of the plates being placed in the same location as when the machine was assembled in the factory, the second tier of plates are numbered 1, 2, 3, etc., from left to right, and the third tier 1A, 2A, 3A, etc., also from left to right.
The locking should then be assembled in the locking plates and the lever tappets placed in their proper positions. Each locking dog is stamped with the number of the tappet with which the dog is to engage and the locking bars with numbers to correspond with the slot in which they are to be placed, these slots being numbered in sequence from the top of the
it is to be attached.
The levers should then be placed in their respective guides, and worked back and forth to insure that they operate freely, that they are checked at the normal and reverse indication points, and that they can be moved to the full normal and full reverse when indicated. (Signal levers are not indicated on the reverse movement.) The circuit controllers and tappets should be carefully fastened to their respective levers, and the levers tried for freedom of movement with all working parts connected.
The buss bars, buss wires and the connections between the individual polarized relays, which have been separated during shipment, should be securely connected by joining the short leads provided on the machine for the purpose.
A careful test should be given to the mechanical locking by setting up the various routes in accordance with the track plan or manipulation chart, testing the various levers in the route to see that they are locked and likewise testing all levers which conflict with the given route. This will insure that none of the locking parts have been omitted in assembling.
When wiring up the interlocking machine it is well to check up the controller contacts to see that all special contacts called for by the wiring plans have been provided.
The lever and its connections will be checked up as the individual functions are tested out; i. e., the completed operation of the function normal and reverse, shows that the lever wiring is correct, its controller springs making good contact, that the indication magnet operates properly, and if the function is a switch, that the indication selector also is giving proper operation. If desired, a check can be secured on the polarized relays by making the cross protection tests described on page 94.
MAINTENANCE
The maintenance of the interlocking machine principally consists in keeping the machine cleaned, all connections tight, and of wiping with an oiled rag at stated intervals such parts as are liable to rust.
When cleaning or oiling the locking, it should not be removed from the interlocking machine. Use only high-grade oils, such as "3 in One," "Hydrol" or "Polar Ice."
Commercial fuse wire should not be used to replace the fuses furnished with the machine, since commercial wire is not carefully graded and may carry a much larger current without melting than the fuses secured from the manufacturer.
interlocking machine, since the completed operation of the various functions gives assurance as to the integrity of all parts of their operating circuits. It is well, nevertheless, to anticipate the possibility of loose connections, etc., and at stated intervals to make inspections of the different connections,
Note location of polarized relays, buss bars and fuses.
contacts and various mechanical parts on the interlocking machine to insure that all parts are kept in the best condition. As mentioned above, the operator may assure himself as to the constant integrity of the cross protection by means of the simple tests described on page 94.
! This clearance should be at least equal to that indicated below when the lever in question is locked by other levers through the medium of the tappet locking, and also when said lever is pulled or pushed hard in either direction to take up all lost motion, the lever latch being lifted at the time.
In making the test for clearance, proceed as follows:
With the lever full normal (Fig. 139), set up some one combination that locks it; lift lever lock (A) by applying current, also the lever latch (B), and pull the lever strongly toward the reverse position, as indicated by the arrow, thus taking up all lost motion, and then with a scriber mark this position of the lever. Then drop the lever lock by cutting off the current, release mechanical locking that is holding the lever, and again pull the lever toward the reverse position until it takes up against the lever lock, and again mark the position of the lever with a scriber. The distance between these scriber marks will then tell the clearance "D " existing. Repeat this process for every combination that locks the lever in its normal position, and if the clearance "D" thus found is less than oneeighth inch, the notch in the lever is to be cut out further to give the proper clearance.
Then with the lever full reverse (Fig. 140), set up some one combination that locks it ; lift lever lock (A) by applying current to it, also the lever latch (B), and push the lever strongly toward the normal position as indicated by the arrow, thus taking up all lost motion, and then with a scriber mark this position of the lever. Then drop the lever lock by cutting off the current, release the mechanical locking that is holding the lever, and again push the lever toward the normal position until it takes up against the lever lock, and again mart the position of the lever with a scriber. The distance between the two scriber marks will then tell the clearance "D " existing for the reverse position of the lever. Repeat this process for every combination that locks the lever in its reverse position, and if the minimum clearance "D" thus found is less than threesixteenths inch, the notch in the lever is to be cut out further to give the proper clearance.
Tests must also be made to determine that the clearance (C) is sufficient to permit the lock to drop into its notch when the lever is pushed as far normal as it is possible to get it, or is pulled as far reverse as it is possible to pull it. This clearance "C" can be checked by causing the lock plunger to be raised
FIG. 140. NOTCHING OF LEVER FOR LEVER LOCK. REVERSE POSITION
and lowered, by making and breaking the circuit thus applying energy to the lock, and if the plunger drops into the notch it is known that the clearance is there.
In cutting the notches see that the corners are left square and the surface that comes against the lock plunger is vertical, so that there may be no tendency to force the lock plunger out by pulling hard on the lever.
will be quick and sharp.
Interlocking levers should be tested periodically when in service, in accordance with above instructions, to see that sufficient clearance exists between the lock plunger and the notch in the lever.
It will be sufficient if above inspection is made once a year.
When lever locks are applied to interlocking machines after they have been installed it is sometimes necessary to get additional clearance between the lock plunger and the lever guides. This is to prevent the plunger from sticking to the lever guides when the lock is energized.
The lever guide should be marked and chipped where necessary, so that no part of the lever guide will be closer to the plunger than one-eighth inch.
The chipping should be done with a light hammer and a small cape chisel, and every precaution should be taken to prevent the chips of iron from getting into the indication magnet coils.
NOTE. — Values given in above table are the minimum on which the lock will operate. Add 10 per cent, for practical operation. Drop away current equals 23 per cent, of the minimum operating current.
60 cycles
NOTE. — Values given in above table are the minimum on which the lock will operate. Add 10 per cent, for practical operation. Drop away voltage equals 50 per cent, of the minimum operating voltage.
LL mechanisms and motors should be placed right side up on timbers to raise them above the ground. The pole changers should be housed in a dry place.
In making the installation, the first operation is the framing of the ties. This should be in ^accordance with the plan shown by Fig. 142. All slots cut into the ties should be carefully cleaned of dirt, chips, etc., before the tie plate is put down and the gearing assembled. ^
Unless special features are required, all holes in the tie plate are drilled before leaving the factory, with the exception of those for the toe and slide plates. These should be so located
place, the proper track gauge will be rigidly maintained.
The various parts of the switch machine, with the exception of the locking plunger, should then be assembled. In placing the motor, care should be taken to secure proper alignment of the connection between the motor and main gear.
The throw and lock rods may be connected at this time and the lock plunger holes in the throw rod drilled. The lock rod, however, should not be drilled until it is certain that the track has its final alignment and the rail braces have been fitted, thus insuring that there will be no change in the relative position of the switch points and switch mechanism. Special care should be taken when marking the lock rod to see that the switch points are brought tightly up against the stock rail. Fields in Multiple.
WIRING FOR MOTORS, MODEL 2 SWITCH MACHINE
tubing having an outside diameter of one inch, this tube being pointed so as to make a clear cut mark on the surface of the rod. After putting the machine in service, the top of the lock rod should be notched slightly, as shown by Pt, P2, P3 and P4 in Fig. 146, to permit of a quick inspection being made as to its accurate adjustment.
In wiring the machine, suitable conduit should be installed to protect the wires running between the trunking and motor, and the motor and pole changer.
the driving rod G should be adjusted to such a length that the end of lock plunger I will be flush with the outside face of the lock frame (see Fig. 146). This adjustment never varies, and it should not be changed after once being made correctly. If incorrectly made it is liable to cause indication failure.
2. Pole Changer Movement.
When locating pins in the lock rod K for the operation of the pole changer movement, move the switch machine to the extreme position as shown in Fig. 143. Locate pin Qt so that link R will just clear cap St by five-sixteenth inch (Fig. 146).
sponding with that of link R.
Then throw the switch to the other extreme position and locate pin Q2 in a similar manner. When assembling the pins on the lock rod, drill, tap, and countersink the lock rod as shown in Fig. 148.
Any lost motion between the pole changer movement L and the pole changer B must be equal at the full normal and full reverse position of the switch machine. To secure this, adjust the connecting rod M with the switch machine in either of its extreme positions. Test with the machine first in the full normal position and then in the full reverse position, pushing
and pulling the rod M strongly to determine the total distance it is possible to be moved. Repeat the adjustment until the desired result is obtained. This adjustment never varies in service and it should not be changed after once being made correctly. If it is not made correctly it is very liable to prevent the indication being given on the movement of the switch to the position where the greatest lost motion exists.
The commutator T (Fig. 147) must revolve freely in its bearings, care being taken that the contact springs Ulf U2 and U3 do not have so much tension as to prevent spring V from snapping the commutator over. Adjust so that with machine full normal or reverse, roller W and pin X are in the
relative positions shown. The adjustment of the commutator must be such that the snapping action will take place at such a time that the amount of movement in the contact blocks Z, and Z2, which precedes the snapping action, will be equal for the normal or reverse movement. To be certain that this result is obtained it will be necessary to move the mechanism a number of times by hand very slowly. Failure to have the adjustment right will be almost certain to result in damage to the insulating cylinder, due to arcing between the contact spring and the contact cylinder, and may prevent indication.
The contact springs Ux and U3 are provided with slots which will permit the springs, when resting on the insulated portion of the commutator, to be centrally located.
one of the set screws from the collar Y, drill into the shaft and replace the screw, running it down until it locks the commutator to its shaft; repeat this operation with the other screw located in the collar.
In connecting up the operating coils to the contact springs Ui and U3, be sure to see that when the commutator is in its full normal or full reverse position, the contact spring which rests on the metal cylinder does not carry current. This can be done by lifting it slightly; if a spark results it shows that the contact springs should be interchanged.
The nuts on the throw rod must be placed so that the switch points will be brought up against the stock rail snugly, but not screwed up far enough to put any unnecessary strain on the rod. Under normal conditions, with the throw rod adjusted as above, a single switch or derail should permit of hand operation (without the aid of a wrench or tommy bar) by turning the intermediate gear Da. If it is not possible to do this, steps should be taken to get the switch into this condition.
6. Lock Rod.
The drilling of the lock rod should be such that the lock plunger will enter either hole with the switch full normal or full reverse, but will be prevented from entering if a piece of metal one-eighth of an inch thick is placed between the switch point and the stock rail.
7. Detector Bar.
To adjust the detector bar, place it in the desired position relative to the top of the rail and adjust the connection N to such a length that with the switch machine in either extreme position, pin O may be inserted without changing the position of either the detector bar or switch machine.
8. Clutch.
The nut on friction clutch C, by which the compression of the spring is increased or diminished, should be locked in a position which will enable the motor to operate the switch under normal conditions, but will permit the clutch to slip if there is an obstruction in the switch points. This is determined by starting with the nut unscrewed and gradually tightening it up until the motor operates the switch without any slipping of the clutches.
The preferred method of testing the operation of the switch mechanism is to operate it by hand, making sure that the motor brushes are raised before attempting to move the machine. This method should be employed as a regular practice.
If it should become necessary to operate the switch by power, the tests on the switch machine should be carried on under the protection of the operating lever, whenever the
act on signals given him by the man on the ground.
On the rare occasions when it is not practical to conduct the test under the control of its lever, power may be applied locally by taking both control wires off from their respective binding posts (for contact springs U4 and U«, Fig. 147) in the pole changer, and having first connected spring U2 with a short piece of wire to the open control contact spring (spring U4, Fig. 147), current may be sent through the motor by placing the energized control wire in connection with the other control contact spring (spring Us, Fig. 147) ; with these connections the mechanism will be brought to rest upon the completion of its movement without shock. Reverse these connections to secure operation in the opposite direction.
After the machine is completely adjusted, safety requires that it should be operated from the interlocking station several times, making sure that with the lever in its normal posi-
1. Mechanism.
When inspecting the switch machine always note the position of the lock plunger relative to the face of lock frame. If it is not flush with the outside face of the lock frame, make sure that stud F is in the corner of cam crank E. With the switch adjusted correctly and the stud F at the end of its travel, there are two conditions which would be responsible for the plunger not reaching its proper position.
First — The rails may have shifted and altered the throw of the switch points, which will put an unusual strain on the switch machine and prevent the full movement of the lock plunger. This will be determined by operating the switch by hand.
Second — The detector bar may have been thrown out of adjustment by the shifting of the rails, this preventing the generation of the indication current. Necessity for readjustment is determined by disconnecting the bar, placing it in proper position and the switch machine in either extreme position; if it is not possible to replace the pin O without
2. Motor.
The motor commutator or brushes should not be disturbed unless found necessary. If the commutator becomes dirty, it should be cleaned with chamois skin moistened with oil, any surplus oil being wiped off the commutator by a dry piece of chamois.
If it becomes necessary to put a new brush into a motor, the brush after being put in position should be seated to the commutator by drawing thin, fine sandpaper under the brush, at the same time pressing the brush against the commutator; the smooth side of the sandpaper should be against the commutator. Use for this purpose "00 Single Finishing Flint Sandpaper."
5. Oil
Moving parts not exposed to the weather should be well oiled once a month. All parts, the bearing surfaces of which can be reached by rain, should be oiled immediately after each storm. The friction clutches should be oiled on each inspection trip.
are drilled before leaving the factory, with the exception of those for the toe and slide plates. These should be so located that when the slide plates, toe plates, and rail braces are in place, the proper track gauge will be rigidly maintained.
ADJUSTMENTS
As the switch machine is completely assembled in the factory and all parts adjusted to meet the conditions under which the mechanism is to operate, there is very little in the way of adjustments necessary to be made.
The nuts on the throw rod must be placed so that the switch points will be brought up against the stock rail snugly, but not screwed up far enough to put any unnecessary strain on
the rod. Under normal conditions, with the throw rod adjusted as above, a single switch or derail should permit of hand operation, by using the crank provided for the purpose. If it is not possible to do this, steps should be taken to get the switch into this condition.
The adjustment of the lock rod should be such that the locking dog Hj or H3 will enter its proper notch in the lock rod I with the switch full normal or full reverse", as the case may be, but will be prevented from entering if a piece of metal one-eighth of an inch thick is placed between the switch point and the stock rail.
To adjust the detector bar, place it in the desired position relative to the top of the rail and adjust the connections to such a length that with the switch machine in its extreme position, pin P may be inserted without changing the position of either the detector bar or switch machine. Check this adjustment with the bar and switch machine in the opposite position and readjust if necessary.
The nut on friction clutch C, by means of which the compression of the spring is increased or diminished should be locked in a position which will enable the motor to operate the switch under normal conditions, but will permit the clutch to slip if there is an obstruction in the switch points. This is determined by starting with the nut unscrewed and gradually tightening it up, until the motor operates the switch without any slipping of the clutches.
The preferred method of testing the operation of the switch mechanism is to operate it by hand by means of the crank provided for this purpose, first making sure that the motor brushes are raised before attempting to move the machine. This method should be employed as a regular practice.
If it should become necessary to operate the switch by power, the tests on the switch machine should be carried on under the protection of the operating lever, whenever the conditions are such that the leverman can receive and act on signals given him by the man on the ground.
On the rare occasions when it is not practical to conduct the test under the control of its lever, power may be applied locally by taking both control wires off from their respective binding posts (for contact springs Qt and Q2, Fig. 153) in the pole changer, and having first connected common post R with a short piece of wire to the open control contact spring
(spring Qi, Fig. 153), current may be sent through the motor by placing the energized control wire in connection with the other control contact spring (spring Qa, Fig. 153) ; with these connections the mechanism will be brought to rest without shock upon the completion of its movement. Reverse these connections to secure operation in the opposite direction.
After the machine is completely adjusted, safety requires that it should be operated from the interlocking station several times, making sure that with the lever in its normal position, the switch points will correspond with their position as shown on the track plan.
switch machine in the following manner :
First — By altering the throw of the switch points, an unusual strain will be put on the switch machine which will prevent the mechanism from locking up. This will be determined by operating the switch by hand.
Second — The detector bar may have been thrown out of adjustment, this preventing the generation of the indication current. Necessity of readjustment is determined by disconnecting the bar, placing it in proper position and the switch machine in its corresponding extreme position; if it is not possible to replace the pin P without moving either the machine or detector bar, the connections should j? readjusted.
The motor commutator or brushes should not be disturbed unless found necessary. If the commutator becomes dirty, it should be cleaned with chamois skin moistened with oil, any surplus oil being wiped off the commutator by a dry piece of chamois.
If it becomes necessary to put a new brush into a motor, the brush after being put in position should be seated to the commutator by drawing thin, fine sandpaper under the brush, at the same time pressing the brush against the commutator; the smooth side or the sandpaper should be against the commutator. Use for this purpose "00 Single Finishing Flint Sandpaper."
Moving parts not exposed to the weather should be well oiled once a month. All parts, the bearing surfaces of which can be reached by rain, should be oiled immediately after each storm.
OPERATION OF BRIDGE CIRCUIT CLOSER
The G. R. S. bridge circuit closer with centering device is shown in Fig. 195. In the operation of closing, the bridge end is first caused to approach the shore end with its centering arms thrust forward. When these come into contact with the shore end, the latter is brought into proper alignment, the bridge end continuing its forward movement until they abut ; the blades are then forced to enter the jaws, thus making the desired contact.
The centering device will take care of any horizontal misalignment up to one and one-half inches. When this is apt to be exceeded, the circuit closer should be attached to the rails in such a manner that when the rails are lined up
the circuit closer will be affected in a similar manner. Thedesign of the jaws permits of three-fourths inch movement above or below the normal position.
The maximum stroke of the driving member is approximately thirteen inches. Using this stroke, the maximum extension of the blades (three and one-half inches) can be secured with a permissible opening of five and three-eighths inches between the bridge and shore ends of the circuit closer ; this forces the blades between the jaws two and three-eighths inches. If required, this distance between the bridge and shore ends may be increased to seven and three-sixteenths inches, which will give a contact extension of one and thirteen-sixteenths inches and force the blades between the jaws for a distance of three-fourths inch.
If it is desired to reduce the operating stroke and still retain the maximum contact extension, the maximum opening between the bridge and shore ends must be decreased a proportional amount.
A*L mechanisms should be stored in an upright position and, if possible, in a dry place, and should not be removed from their boxes until they are installed. Avoid disconnecting or removing the motors from the mechanism cases.
In assemblying mechanisms which are shipped separately from the pole bearings or in reassemblying mechanisms which have been disassembled for any purpose, the surface of all exposed mechanical joints must be cleaned and smoothly coated with white lead before assembly, to insure that they are water-tight.
Whenever it becomes necessary to bolt a mechanism to its pole bearing, see that the semaphore shaft and mechanism are approximately in their "stop" positions. Then rotate the semaphore shaft backwards and forwards slightly by hand while tightening the bolts, to be sure that no binding takes place during the process.
After a mechanism has been wired, the wire entrance should be sealed to prevent the circulation of air between the inside and outside of the case. Neglect to thoroughly seal may result in trouble due to the probable accumulation of frost or dirt on the circuit breaker parts. If conduit is used between the mechanism case and the pole, the wire entrance or conduit should be likewise sealed.
All signals are properly adjusted before shipment, the only adjustments ordinarily required in the field being those due to differences in the semaphore spectacles as follows: if the blade is not horizontal when in its stop position, it can be brought to such position by means of adjusting screw A (see Fig. 197). Spring C, adjusted by screw D, should hold block B firmly against screw A, due allowance being made in the spring adjustment for any increase in weight of the signal arm, due to an accumulation of ice or sleet. Fig. 197 shows relation of adjusting screws, spring, block, etc., when used with upper quadrant signals; this will be reversed when applied to lower quadrant signals.
Individual adjustment of the circuit breaker contact springs should not be necessary under ordinary conditions. If required, great care should be exercised to see that all contacts are adjusted to open and close as shown on the circuit plan which accompanies each signal mechanism.
In replacing a circuit breaker which may have been removed from the mechanism for any cause, great care should be taken to see that the circuit breaker operating segments mesh properly. Otherwise, it will be impossible for the blade to assume
See that all moving parts are thoroughly lubricated with oil that will not thicken in cold weather or dry up in hot weather. "Hydrol," "Polar Ice," or "3 in One" oils have been found satisfactory. Use an oil can with a nine inch curved spout.
After lubrication, the signals should be operated several times, in order to work the oil thoroughly into the bearings. The word " oil " on the diagram, Fig. 196, will indicate what parts require lubrication. If the mechanism has become rusty, especial care should be taken to see that all parts are operating freely before attempting to put the signal in service.
If the signal has been properly adjusted and lubricated it will operate freely. If in doubt as to whether a signal is sufficiently free in operation, a drop-away test should be made as follows. Connect an adjustable resistance in series with the motor. Gradually reduce it until the motor will just move the blade upwards. Just before reaching the forty-five degree position, quickly insert sufficient resistance to just
FIG. 198. OILING DIAGRAM FOR MODEL, 2A DWARF BEARING
permit the motor to start backwards, moved by the weight of the blade grip. The current which will permit it to start backwards from a given position should be approximately 50 per cent, of the current required to move it up to that position. The same process should be repeated in the ninety degree position or sixty degree, as the case may be.
The signal having been oiled and operated a few times, see that the blade snubs properly in descending and also that the ratcheted main gear (F, Figs. 52 and 56) clicks approximately three or four times in so doing. The number of clicks can be regulated by the adjusting screw on the ratcheted main gear.
Ordinarily in maintaining a signal, the only requirements are that the connections be kept tight, contacts clean, and the mechanism suitably oiled and cleaned.
Avoid disturbing the commutator or brushes in any way unless found necessary. A commutator in good condition will have a dark glossy appearance. If, however, it should become dirty, it should be cleaned by chamois skin moistened with oil, any surplus oil to be wiped off of the commutator by a dry piece of chamois.
Use a chamois skin in cleaning the circuit breaker contacts.
If it should become necessary to put a new brush into a motor, the brush should, after having been put in position, be seated to the commutator by drawing thin fine sandpaper under the brush while the brush is being pressed against the commutator. The smooth side of the sandpaper should be against the commutator. Use "00 Single Finishing Flint Sandpaper."
Mote; Distance betneen center of pole and vertical center of shaft to be not less than 3|"nor more than 4|" FIG. 201. GROUND SIGNAL MASTS R. S. A. drawing 1035, dated 1910.
- ! b , - - * i, I I . 2-6 ASH BLADE -WT.J^LO - ! N _ _ - , _ x BtAK PLATE , BOLTS AND * - s ' ^ ' )0'= SPECTACLE COMPLETE fcNO
NOTE. — Values given in above table are the mimimum on which the relay will operate. Add 10 per cent, for practical operation. Drop away current equals 23 per cent, of minimum operating current.
NOTE. — Values given in above table are the minimum on which the indicator will operate. Add 10 per cent, for practical operation. Drop away current equals 33 per cent, of minimum operating current.
NOTE. — Values given in above table are the minimum on which the indicator will operate. Add 10 per cent, for practical operation. Drop away current equals 33 per cent, of minimum operating current.
OPERATION OF THE MODEL 2 FORM A REGULAR POLYPHASE RELAY, IN CONNECTION WITH DOUBLE RAIL A. C. TRACK CIRCUITS ON ELECTRIFIED DIRECT CURRENT ROADS
OPERATION ON 60 CYCLE CURRENT
NOTE. — Volt amperes shown in Figs. 239 and 240 are the total of the volt amperes fed to the track circuit and to the relay local. Relay is equipped with four front and two back contacts. Curves are based on 85 pound rail being used.
such as a well drained gravel ballast, covering the base of the rails.
Dirt, cinder or badly drained gravel ballast, covering the base of the rails, is considered poor and necessitates the use of much more energy for the operation of track circuits than is shown in the curves.
TABLE SHOWING RELATIVE AMOUNT OF ENERGY REQUIRED FOR MODEL 2 FORM A TRACK RELAYS, REGULAR AND QUICK ACTING, WITH DIFFERENT CONTACT COMBINATIONS
NOTE. — Regular Model 2 Form A relay with four front and two back contacts taken as unity. For energy required by this relay on 25 or 60 cycle operation, see curves on page 273.
taken.
The resistance used in Figs. 244 and 245 consists of a resistance with a variable center connection. It should, preferably, have uniformly graduated steps. The resistance used in Fig. 246 may merely be a unit of such resistance as to protect the instrument. It is recommended, however, that a variable resistance be used if available. If voltages used in above tests are higher than those indicated, the resistances used will have to be increased accordingly.
NOTE. — Terminal board is arranged to take three windings, each to have five terminal posts, which provides for a maximum of three taps per winding. If less than three windings are used, it will be seen that additional posts will be available for taps if same are desired.
NOTE 1. — Terminal board is arranged to take three windings, each to have five terminal posts, which provides for a maximum of three taps per winding. If less than three windings are used, it will be seen that additional posts will be available for taps if same are desired.
THE caustic soda primary battery is largely used on open circuit work, such as for signal operation, where a higner current is required than can be secured from other types of primary batteries without the installation of a great number of cells. A somewhat different design of caustic soda cell is extensively used for track circuit work; although a more expensive cell than the gravity cell, it is one in which the maintenance is very slight, it being ordinarily necessary to make renewals only four or five times a year, this, of course, depending on the type of traffic passing over the section on which the battery is installed.
DESCRIPTION
The elements of the cell are of zinc and black oxide of copper and the electrolyte a strong solution of caustic soda and water. These are generally contained in a porcelain or heavy heat resisting glass jar, the latter being preferable due to its freedom from breakage and the ease with which inspection is made. The cut on page 286 gives the appearance of the jar adopted by the R. S. A. as their standard, the ampere hour capacity of this standard cell being 400.
The elements of the signal cell are generally cast in the form of plates which are suspended from the cover. This cell has an extremely low internal resistance (about .045 ohm) and is hence capable of producing on short circuit the heavy current of 20 amperes. The E. M. F. of the cell is low; when new, it is approximately 0.7 volt and this falls off after the cell has been in service for some time.
The elements used in the track cell are not necessarily of the same type as those used in the signal cell. One well-known cell used for track circuit work has a zinc element similar in form to the zinc in the gravity cell, the other element being poured loose over a tin disc resting on the bottpm of the jar. The track cell is designed to have an internal resistance of about 0.25 ohm and a current output on short circuit of about 2 to 3 amperes. The voltage of the cell is the same as that of the signal cell.
ACTION OF THE CELL
When in service, chemical action of the cell gradually dissolves the zinc element and converts the copper oxide into pure copper. In the case of the signal cell using a copper oxide plate, this change in the element will consist of the reduction of the copper oxide to copper, this reduction taking place from the surface and extending inward; the relative
THE ASSEMBLED ELEMENT shall be
BO arranged that when attached to the cover and the nut on the upper side tightened to place, the element will be at the proper height in the solution.
Terminal wire shall be No. 12 B & S gauge solid soft drawn copper wire covered with an insulation suitable to withstand the action ol the oil and electrolyte. Insulation on end of wire shall be trimmed either tapered or square and in this operation the wire must not be scored.
and out and covers on top and edge.
A solution line consisting of a slight ridge or depression extending around the inside of porcelain jars and the outside of glass jars shall be placed as shown.
degree of exhaustion of the cell can be ascertained byscraping off the material from the outside of the plate until the dark copper oxide is exposed. In the cell used for track circuit work, the copper oxide is converted into copper flakes which continue to lie as before on the tin disc in the bottom of the jar.
In setting up the cell, the jar should be first thoroughly cleaned and then filled with pure water (preferably clear rain water) to such a height that when the elements are added the level of the electrolyte will have been raised to within about one and one-half inches of the top of the jar. The soda should be added slowly and the solution stirred continuously with a stick until the soda is entirely dissolved. Chemical changes raise the temperature of the solution to the boiling point, making it necessary to place ordinary glass, or porcelain jars, on a dry wood surface when mixing the solution, to prevent breakage of the jars. The elements should not be placed in the cells until the temperature of the solution has dropped to about 90 degrees Fahr. A thin film of oil should then be poured over the top of the electrolyte to prevent evaporation and "creeping of the salts."
When mixing the solution, care should be taken not to get the caustic soda dust or solution on one's person, as it is very corrosive ; the best means for counteracting the action of caustic soda is water or oil.
When in service practically no other attention is required by the cell other than an occasional inspection of the elements to determine the degree of exhaustion of the cell.
The caustic soda solution does not freeze, but when subjected to severe cold the current discharge of the battery is materially reduced, which makes it advisable to furnish protection against extreme temperature conditions where current for operating signal motors is required, or if an equivalent current is wanted for any other purpose.
(a) Railway Signal Association drawing 1053, issue 1911, shows tne general design and dimensions of the battery jar, coyer, connections, wire, and that part of the bolt, together with nuts and washers, shown above the cover for supporting the elements. The active part of the cell
consists of the zinc, copper oxide, and caustic soda in the granular form, which, mixed with water, forms the solution in which the elements are placed, and a suitable mineral oil, which is used on top of the caustic soda solution to prevent evaporation and the salts from creeping over the top of the jar.
(6) The assembled element shall consist of the zinc and copper oxide, suitably combined, together with the suspension bolt and terminal wire of sufficient length to extend twelve (12) inches above top of cover.
4. TEST
(a) In order to determine the ampere hour capacity of the cell or renewal, one will be selected at random from each lot of one hundred (100), or fraction thereof, and placed on a continuous discharge of one (1) ampere. If the discharge continues four hundred (400) hours without the potential at the terminals of the cell dropping below five-tenths (0.5) of one (1) volt per cell, the cell or renewal will be considered acceptable as far as capacity is concerned.
(6) One will be selected at random from each lot of one hundred (100), or fraction thereof, and subjected to a discharge of three (3) amperes continuously. If, during the first forty (40) hours, the voltage does not drop below fifty-three hundredths (0.53) of one (1) volt and during the next forty (40) hours the voltage does not drop below five-tenths (0.5) of one (1) volt, the cell or renewal will be considered acceptable so far as drop in voltage test is concerned.
The primary cell in most general use on low voltage closed circuit work is the gravity cell ; it is extensively used in connection with track circuits, being adapted to this type of work by its constant voltage characteristics and its freedom from polarization when on closed circuit. Although frequently used on open circuit work, it is not recommended that the cell be used that way, due to the very low efficiency obtained when operating under those conditions.
The elements of this cell are of zinc and copper, and the electrolyte a solution formed by dissolving copper sulphate or "Blue-stone" in pure water. The electrolyte and elements are contained in a glass jar about eight inches in height and six inches in diameter.
In the type of cell generally employed for signal purposes, the zinc element consists of about four pounds of metallic zinc, cast in the shape of a ring, which is suspended from the upper edge of the glass jar by means of soft wire hangers cast into the element. The copper element, made of thin sheet copper, rests on the bottom of the jar and is covered with copper sulphate crystals.
The gravity cell has an approximately constant E. M. F. of 1 volt on open circuit and does not polarize through being continually short circuited. The internal resistance varies considerably with the condition of the cell, running from about an ohm when the cell is in good condition to as high as 2 or 3 ohms. When in the best condition the cell has a current capacity on short circuit of about 1 ampere.
When first set up, if there are no old cells from which to get zinc sulphate to use in new cells, the battery must be short circuited from twenty-four to forty-eight hours in order to start the action of the cell and to reduce the internal resistance. A saturated solution of copper sulphate soon forms around the copper element, and after the cell has been on short circuit for a number of hours, a zinc sulphate is formed around the zinc. Due to the difference of the specific gravities of these two sulphates, the zinc sulphate floats on the copper sulphate, this giving to the cell the name of " gravity cell."
The action of the cell causes the copper sulphate crystals to dissolve, and when the cell is producing current a deposit of pure copper is made on the copper element. The zinc of the other element is consumed, its surface soon becoming covered with a deposit of grey and brown sludge. This residue consists of part of the impurities of the zinc, which does not dissolve, and if not scraped off at about intervals of two weeks it will coat the zinc to such an extent as to interfere with the action of the cell. As the cell wears out the zinc sulphate increases and the copper sulphate decreases; the copper sulphate crystals in the bottom of the cell are reduced to a paste, and, as mentioned before, the zinc element becomes eaten away by the chemical action. The degree of exhaustion of the cell can be determined by the condition of the zinc element and the amount of copper sulphate crystals remaining in the bottom of the jar.
SPECIFICATION
1. Zincs shall be made from virgin spelter cast at a low temperature and shall be thoroughly 'amalgamated with mercury. They shall be uniform in size and weight, free from flaws and mechanical defects and shall have a smooth outer surface. A fracture of the zinc must show the grain firm and close.
closely to this drawing.
The brass binding post roust be firmly connected both mechanically and electrically to the zinc. The thumb screw must be perfectly threaded and must fit closely
The manufacturer's name must be cast on the upper flat surface of the zinc in as large letters as the surface will permit and must be raised not less than three-thirty-seconds (&> inch above the surface In addition, the manufacturer's name or trade-mark must be stamped on some other part in such a position as not to be effaced by the action of the electrolyte or by the process of cleaning.
5. When a shipment of zincs is received, an examination will be made to see that the physical requirements are fulfilled, and >f found satisfactory, one zinc from each fifty (50) or fraction thereof will be taken for chemical analysis. The results of this analysis shall determine whether the shipment will be accepted.
In the event of controversy with the manufacturer over the chemical composition, one zmc from each 50 or fraction thereof shall be submitted to a disinterested chemist, acceptable to both manufacturer and purchaser, for analysis. If in this analysis the chemical composition of the zincs analyzed is found to be in accordance with this specification, the zincs furnished will be accepted and the cost of the analysis shall be paid by the purchaser. If the chemical composition is not found to be in accordance with this specification, all expenses in connection with the analysis including the loss on the zincs analyzed shall be borne by the manufacturer.
The manufacturer shall be advised of all material rejected as a result of chemical analysis or physical tests, and if at the expiration of two weeks no instructions are received for the return of same, the rejected material shall be returned at the risk of the manufacturer, he paying the freight in both directions in either case.
the net weight received.
6. Zincs must be carefully and securely packed in shavings or sawdust in a stout barrel or box, in lots not to exceed fifty (50) each. The name of the manufacturer and the name of the consignee, together with the destination; number of zincs contained in the package and the purchase order number must be~pfeinly marked on the outside of each package.
All zincs broken in transit on account of not being properly packed will be returned to the manufacturer, who must promptly replace same free of cost to the purchaser.
furnished only when specified
When furnished, each box or barrel must contain at least as many thumb screws as there are lines, the thumb screws being wrapped aeparately and tied to one at the zincs just under the cover-
1. MATERIAL, (a) Coppers shall be two-leaf or three-leaf as specified and shall conform to the above drawing. Leaves shall be No. 30 B & S gauge, hard rolled bright copper not less than ninety-eight (98) per cent, pure.
(6) Lead wire shall be No. 14 B & S gauge, solid soft drawn copper, insulated throughout the entire length, except one (1) inch at each end. The insulation shall consist of a three-sixty-fourths (%4> inch wall of rubber, shall adhere tightly to the wire and shall be of a character suitable to withstand the action of the battery solution. Insulation on ends of wire to be trimmed either tapered or square, and in this operation the wire must not be scored.
(c) End of wire attached to copper must be thoroughly cleaned and tightly riveted as shown with a rivet having a three-eighths (%) inch head and a washer three-eighths (%) inch in outer diameter. Both rivets and washer shall be copper not less than ninety-eight (98) per cent. pure.
2. PACKINO AND MARKING. Copper shall be carefully and securely packed in lots of one-hundred (100) each, or fifty (50) if so specified, and the purchase order number, contents of package, name of manufacturer and name and address of consignee shall be plainly marked on the outside of each package.
3. INSPECTION AND ACCEPTANCE. One copper taken at random from each fifty (50) or fraction thereof shall be examined and tested. The results of this examination shall determine whether the lots so represented will be accepted. If the samples are found to meet this specification, the material will be accepted. If any of the samples fail to meet this specification, the
In making renewals, the jars should be well washed, being scoured until they are transparent. The elements should be cleaned and replaced in the jar with clean copper sulphate crystals; the cell should then be filled to a point just below the bottom of the zinc element with water and then within onehalf inch of the top of the jar with clear zinc sulphate taken from the top of the old cell — this in order to start a strong chemical action and have the cell available for immediate service.
The cell should be inspected every two weeks and the residue which has formed on the zinc element be scraped off. At the same time the maintainer should check the specific gravity of the electrolyte. The best operation of the cell will be secured by keeping the density of the solution at about twenty degrees Baume (see page 384), and under no condition should it exceed thirty degrees; the density can be lowered by dipping out some of the solution and refilling the cell with water.
The bottom of the zinc element should be maintained about two and one-half inches above the level of the copper sulphate crystals.
The ampere output of the cell falls off considerably with a decrease in temperature. Under no conditions should the cell be exposed to a temperature below thirty-two degrees Fahr., as the solution congeals at slightly below that point and freezes with a further reduction in temperature, this interrupting the action of the cell and in a
FIG. 250. SEC- great many cases breaking the jar. When installed TION OP SIN- outside of the interlocking station the cells are GLE BATTERY housed in battery chutes or wells set in the CHUTE WITH grOund to place them beyond the reach of frost,
The dry cell is most commonly used in connection with circuits which are only closed momentarily, or for a few seconds at infrequent intervals. It is employed for such purposes as operating annunciators, buzzers, etc., and sometimes in the ignition circuit of gasoline engines.
The cell is contained in a zinc shell which forms one element; the other element consists of a stick of carbon set in the center of the cell. The zinc shell is usually lined with several thicknesses of blotting paper and the remaining space around the carbon element filled with a mixture of carbon, manganese dioxide, sawdust, or other absorbent substance. This mixture is then saturated with a solution of sal ammoniac (muriate of ammonia) and water, and the top of the cell sealed with wax or pitch. To insulate the zinc shell from adjacent cells, metal pipes, etc., a cylindrical pasteboard cover is furnished covering the sides and bottom of the cell.
The cell has an approximate E. M. F. of 1.5 volts which falls off after the cell has been in service for some time. The internal resistance is about .075 ohm. The cell polarizes very quickly when on short circuit, giving less and less current as it becomes more polarized, until it finally refuses to deliver current at all ; the cell takes some time to recover when fully polarized.
Exhaustion of the cell, except when polarized, is usually due to the sal ammoniac having been entirely consumed. The zinc container is gradually consumed by the action of the cell, this resulting in "puncturing," or the eating through in spots, of the zinc.
The cell practically requires no care other than keeping it in a dry place which has an even temperature of about seventy degrees Fahr. Temperatures below this will limit the amount of current which can be drawn from the cell, while a greater temperature materially reduces the cell's life through drying up the sal ammoniac.
The cell is in reality a wet cell, sealed to prevent the paste from drying out. If the cell does actually become dry it will not produce any current, but if the elements have not been worn out this can be overcome by boring a hole in the top of the cell and soaking it in water for two or three days.
Care should be taken to avoid handling the cells roughly, as the contents of the cell are apt to become broken away from the carbon electrode, this resulting in an increase of the internal resistance of the cell and a consequent reduction in the current output.
WIRE, TRUNKING AND CONDUIT
COVERING INSTALLATION PRACTICE, TABLES OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WIRE, REQUIRED SIZES OF CONTROL AND COMMON WIRES, TRUNKING CONSTRUCTION, AND THE CARRYING CAPACITIES OF TRUNKING AND CONDUIT
(e) In submarine cable work spare wires up to twentyfive (25) per cent, of the number in use shall be provided as specified. When spare wires are required in other than cable work the number and size shall be specified.
(c) Unless otherwise specified, common return wires shall be continuous without joints or breaks from interlocking machine to the limits of the interlocking plant.
527. JOINTS IN WIRE
(a) Wires shall, as far as practicable, be continuous without joints or breaks between interlocking machine and the unit operated ; joints when made shall be in junction boxes, and only made on permission from the Engineer.
(6) In making joints, braid shall be pulled back one (1) inch from end of rubber on each side of splice, and rubber cut with knife held at an angle of approximately thirty (30) degrees with axis of wire, as one would sharpen a pencil.
cuts or nicks.
(d) Wire, after being cleaned, shall be twisted together in the form of a regular line wire splice, turns being spaced approximately one-sixty-fourth (Ve4) inch.
(e) Joints shall then be soldered by pouring on them, or dipping them into, melted solder, a non-corrosive rosin flux being used. After soldering, joints shall be painted
insulating tape between ends of braid, which
tape shall be heated sufficiently to form a tight covering, but not enough to injure the quality of the material. Coating of insulating paint or compound shall be put on over insulating tape and two (2)
weatherproof boxes.
(d) In the lighting circuits, a fuse shall be provided in the circuit to each signal lamp; in the circuit to each set of lamps on a mast; in each branch circuit leaving the mains, and in each set of mains leaving the switchboard.
(a) Tags shall be made of vulcanized sheet fibre, not less than one-sixteenth (He) inch thick, firmly attached to the wire by the best quality yacht marline one-sixteenth (Vie) inch in diameter.
Field work.
(c) Wires shall be tagged at all junction boxes, switches, signals, relay boxes, arrester boxes, and at all line wire connections, unless otherwise specified.
When stripping the insulation, the knife blade should be held at such an angle as one would use in sharpening a pencil ; do not hold the blade at right angles to the wire, as the wire is apt to be nicked if this is done.
SPLICING STRANDED WIRE TO STRANDED WIRE
Remove the insulation carefully from the end of each wire for three to four inches, according to the size of the wire. Remove the braid about one inch further back from the bare portion of the wire, being careful not to cut the rubber. If the strands become untwisted, twist together and clean thoroughly of rubber, leaving the wire bright.
Starting as shown in Fig. 251, twist the wires together in the regular manner of making a line wire joint; cut off surplus wire, as shown in Fig. 252, and solder and tape as described under "Soldering" and "Taping." See Figs. 253 and 254 for appearance of soldered and finished joints.
Remove the insulation from the solid wire for about one and one-half inches and from the stranded wire for three to four inches, according to the size of the wire. Remove the braid for about one inch back from the bare portion of the wire. being careful not to cut the rubber.
Clean both stranded and solid wires, leaving them bright. If the strands of the stranded wire become untwisted, twist them together and starting as shown in Fig. 255, twist the stranded wire around the solid wire, leaving about the thickness of the stranded wire between the turns for about two turns, and then wind close; cut off the solid wire, leaving enough to turn an eye around the stranded wire as shown in Fig. 256. Solder and tape as described under " Soldering " and " Taping."
The insulation should be removed from four to six inches from the end of each wire. Remove the braid for about one inch from the ends of the insulation. The bare wire should be thoroughly cleaned of all rubber. Lay the two wires together so that the distance between the insulations will be about one and one-half or one and three-fourths inches, as shown in Fig. 259. Hold the middle of the joint with the pliers and twist the end of one wire around the other, leaving about one sixty-fourth inch between turns for solder to run in, as shown in Fig. 260. This winding should stop when the insulation is reached and the surplus wire then be cut off. The other end should be wound in this same manner and the middle part twisted for three or four turns. Solder and tape the joint as described under "Soldering" and "Taping."
MAKING T JOINTS IN STRANDED OR SOLID WIRES
Remove the insulation from the continuous wire where the joint is to be made for about one and one-fourth inches and the braid for about one inch beyond the ends of the insulation. Remove the insulation from the end of the tap wire in the same manner as described for joints in solid wire. Lay the end of the tap wire across the bare part of the continuous wire as shown in Fig. 263 and wrap around the continuous wire as shown in Fig. 264, stopping when the insulation is reached. Cut off the surplus wire and solder and tape as described under "Soldering" and "Taping."
PARALLEL JOINTS
When two or more joints come side by side, as sometimes happens in parallel wires, one joint should be lapped beyond the other so as to leave at least three-fourths inch of the original insulation between the joints, as shown in Fig. 267.
In soldering it is recommended that an approved soldering compound in stick form, such as Allen's Soldering Compound, be used. Joints should be soldered by pouring melted solder over the joint or, if impractical to do this, the work should be done with a well-tinned soldering copper having sufficient heat to thoroughly heat the entire joint. Never use an open flame for soldering joints.
TAPING
All joints whether for inside or outside work must be taped with Okonite tape (or its equivalent) in the following manner: The tape should first be stretched to insure its laying tight to the wire. Start the tape close up to the rubber insulation (see Fig. 268) and wind with a half lap over the joint and rubber
insulation to, but not over, the braid at the end ; thence back over joint and rubber insulation to, but not over, the braid on the other end, and then back to where taping was started (see Fig. 269). Warm the joint sufficiently to soften the tape slightly, squeezing the tape down with the hand to make it adhere closely to the rubber insulation and to itself.
Black friction tape of good quality should be applied over the rubber tape, using three-eighths inch tape for No. 16 wire or smaller, five-eighths inch tape for No. 14 to No. 10 wire inclusive, and three-fourths inch tape for wires larger than No. 10. Start the tape near the middle of the joint and using a half lap, wind about one-half inch beyond the braid at one end; then back to one-half inch beyond the braid at the other end, thence back and finish near the middle of the joint. In order to make a neat, strong joint, it is necessary to draw the tape tight during the whole operation.
See Figs. 254, 258, 262, and 266 for appearance of finished joints. Care should be taken to keep the nands free from oils or grease, as these will injure both the rubber tape and the adhesive qualities of the friction tape.
(/) Trunking, when on stakes above ground and running parallel with the track, shall not be placed nearer than six (6) feet from the gauge side of the nearest rail except by special permission.
(gr) Local conditions shall determine the height of trunking when above ground; in general, when trunking is run parallel with the tracks, bottom of trunking shall be placed approximately six (6) inches above ground.
703. JOINTS IN TRUNKING
(a) Unless otherwise specified, joints in grooved trunking shall be lapped, the ends of trunking being beveled at an angle of forty-five (45) degrees.
inches by four (4) inches, or of equivalent circular section and of sufficient length to allow them to be placed at least two (2) feet in the ground. When, due to local requirements, stakes of a greater length than three (3) feet six (6) inches, or a greater cross section than three (3; inches by four (4) inches will be necessary, information as to the number, length, and cross section will be furnished by the Purchaser to the Contractor.
(d) Stakes supporting trunking shall be placed vertically and extend at least two (2) feet below the surface of the ground, unless otherwise specified.
tion box shall be fitted with a cover, hasp, and staple.
(6) Where ten (10) or less wires are used, junction boxes shall be sixteen (16) inches square by twenty (20) inches deep, inside dimensions, and shall be increased six (6) inches in length for each ten (10) additional connections or fraction thereof made in the box. Field work.
Fia. 270. TBUNKING SECTIONS
Dimensions as shown are for rough sawed trunking and capping before surfacing. To determine finished dimensions deduct one-eighth inch from each side to be surfaced. Amounts of board feet are for 1,000 hneal feet.
PORTLAND CEMENT CONCRETE
COVERING DESCRIPTION OF CLASSES OF CONCRETE, METHODS OF MIXING, AND TABLES OF VOLUMES OF MATERIALS REQUIRED
IN storing cement, wooden blocks should be placed on the floor and covered with boards ; the bags of cement should be piled on this to a depth of six or eight layers, keeping the piles six or eight inches away from the walls of the building so as to obtain a free circulation of air on all sides. The cement should be covered with canvas or roofing paper.
The place chosen for storing the cement should be as dry as possible, as cement absorbs moisture from the atmosphere with great readiness, soon becoming lumpy or even a solid mass if the storehouse is at all damp. In this condition it is useless and should be thrown away. Lumps caused by pressure while being stored must not be mistaken for cement that has been wet and has then hardened; lumps caused by pressure are easily broken, the cement being perfectly good.
PROPORTIONS OP MATERIALS FOR CONCRETE
A Rich Mixture, with proportions of 1 : 1% : 3, is used for columns or other structural parts subjected to high stresses or requiring exceptional water-tightness.
A Standard Mixture, with proportions of 1 : 2 : 4, is used for reinforced floors, beams, and columns, for arches, for reinforced engine or machine foundations subject to vibrations, for tanks, sewers, conduits and other water-tight work.
A Medium Mixture, with proportions of 1 : 2% : 5, is used for ordinary machine foundations, retaining walls, abutments, piers, thin foundation walls, building walls, ordinary floors, sidewalks and sewers with heavy walls.
A Lean Mixture, with proportions of 1 : 3 : 6 and 1 : 4 : 8, is used for unimportant work in masses, for heavy walls, for large foundations supporting a stationary load and for stone masonry backing.
CONSISTENCY OF CONCRETE
A Medium or Quaking Mixture, of a tenacious, jelly-like consistency which quakes on ramming, shall be used for ordinary mass concrete, such as foundations, heavy walls, large arches, piers and abutments.
A Wet or Mushy Concrete, so soft that it will not require ramming, shall be used for rubble concrete, and for reinforced concrete, such as thin building walls, columns, doors, conduits and tanks.
A Dry Concrete, of the consistency of damp earth, may be employed in damp locations for mass foundations, which must stand severe compressive strain within one month after placing, providing it is spread in six inch layers and rammed
MIXING CONCRETE BY HAND
For mixing concrete by hand, a water-tight platform is recommended on which is first spread the sand and then the required amount of cement. Two or more laborers, an even number working on each side of the board, should systematically turn the cement into the sand with a slight "flip" on leaving the shovel, being sure to cut to the bottom of the pile at each stroke. This operation will have moved the location of the pile about two feet. Reversing the direction of the operation brings the pile to its original position, but in a mixed condition. By cutting into the pile with a shovel, an idea of the uniformity of mixing can easily be obtained; the appearance of streaks indicates the need for another turning. If the mixture is of uniform color, the required amount of stone may be distributed over the pile, which should be turned in the same manner until thoroughly mixed. Water is then added and the mass again turned until the desired consistency is secured.
Recent experiments conducted on the strength of machine concrete mixed for varying periods indicate that the materials must remain in agitation with the water for at least a full minute. The tendency to rush work is not productive of good concrete, and should, consequently, be curbed. In general, machine mixing where carefully controlled is superior to hand work, since fatigue of the workman has no influence upon the thoroughness of mixing.
On adding water to the dry cement it becomes a soft, sticky paste, and will remain so for about one-half hour, after which it begins to harden or "set." To disturb the concrete after this initial set has started means a decided loss in strength, while to disturb it after the set is well under way means to destroy the concrete. It should, therefore, be remembered that Portland cement concrete must be placed in position within twenty or thirty minutes from the time after it is first wet.
A green cement mixture, which can be easily frozen at a temperature below 32 degrees Fahr., should be protected from exposure by placing canvas or roofing paper over the form and covering this with four or five inches of earth or straw. Freezing does not materially affect the binding qualities of good Portland cement, provided the concrete is not subjected to alternate freezing and thawing, does not freeze until after placing, and is not subjected to any load until it has been thawed out and allowed to "set" in the usual
way. It is safest to avoid mixing on days when the temperature is below the freezing point, that is 32 degrees Fahr. If it is necessary, however, to make concrete under these conditions, the sand, water and stone should be heated, and if the cold is severe, salt should be added in proportions of two pounds to each cubic yard of concrete.
3. SAND
Sand shall be clean, sharp, coarse, and of grains varying in size. It shall be free from sticks and other foreign matter, but it may contain clay or loam not to exceed five (5) per cent. Crusher dust, screened to reject all particles over one-fourth (^4) inch in diameter, may be used instead of sand, if approved by the Engineer.
4. STONE
Stone shall be sound, hard, and durable, crushed to sizes not exceeding two (2) inches in any direction. For reinforced concrete, sizes usually are not to exceed threefourths (%) inch in any direction, but may be varied to suit character of reinforcing material.
5. GRAVEL
Gravel shall be composed of clean pebbles of hard and durable stone of sizes not exceeding two (2) inches in diameter and shall be free from clay and other impurities except sand. When containing sand in any considerable quantity, the amount of sand per unit of volume of gravel shall be determined accurately, to admit of the proper proportion of sand being maintained in- the concrete mixture.
7. MEASURE
The unit of measure shall be the barrel, which shall be taken as containing three and eight-tenths (3.8) cu. ft. Four (4) bags containing ninety-four (94) pounds of cement each shall be considered the equivalent of one (1) barrel. Fine and coarse aggregates shall be measured separately as loosely thrown into the measuring receptacle.
8. DENSITY OF INGREDIENTS
(a) For pipe carrier foundations and reinforced concrete, a density proportion based on 1:6 is recommended, i. e., one (1) part of cement to a total of six (6) parts of fine and coarse aggregates measured separately.
(6) For signal and other foundations made in place a density proportion based on 1:9 is recommended, i. e., one (1) part of cement to a total of nine (9) parts of fine and coarse aggregates measured separately.
9. MIXING
(a) Tight platforms shall be provided of sufficient size to accommodate men and materials for progressive and rapid mixing. Batches shall not exceed one (1) cu. yd. and smaller batches are preferable.
(6) Spread the sand evenly upon the platform, then the cement upon the sand, and mix thoroughly until of an even color. Add all the water necessary to make a thin mortar and spread again; add the gravel if used, and finally the broken stone, both of which, if dry, should first be thoroughly wet down. Turn the mass with shovels or hoes until thoroughly incorporated, and all the gravel and stone is covered with mortar; this will probably require the mass to be turned four (4) times.
(c) Another approved method, which may be permitted at the option of the Engineer in charge, is to spread the sand, then the cement and mix dry, then the gravel or broken stone. Add water and mix thoroughly as above.
(d) A machine mixer may be used whenever the volume of work will justify the expense of installing the plant. The necessary requirements for the machine will be that a precise and regular proportioning of materials can be controlled and that the product delivered shall be of the required consistency and thoroughy mixed.
10. CONSISTENCY
The concrete will be of such consistency that when dumped in place it will not require much tamping. It shall be spaded down and tamped sufficiently to level off, and the water should rise freely to the surface.
11. FORMS
(a) Where necessary, forms shall be well built, substantial and unyielding, properly braced, or tied together by means of wire or rods, and shall conform to lines given.
(b) For all important work, the lumber used for face work shall be dressed on one (1) side and both edges to a uniform thickness and width, and shall be sound and free from loose knots, secured to the studding or uprights in horizontal lines.
ber may be used.
(d) Where corners of the masonry and other projections, liable to injury, occur, suitable moldings shall be placed in the angles of the forms to round or bevel them off.
being used again.
(/) The forms must not be removed within thirty-six (36) hours after all the concrete in that section has been placed. In freezing weather they must remain until the concrete has had a sufficient time to become thoroughly hardened.
12. DISPOSITION
(a) Each layer shall be left somewhat rough to insure bonding with the next layer above; and if it be already set, shall be thoroughly cleaned and scrubbed with coarse brushes and water before the next layer is placed upon it.
13. FACING
(a) The facing will be made by carefully working the coarse material back from the form by means of a shovel bar or similar tool, so as to bring the excess mortar of the concrete to the face.
(6) About one (1) inch of mortar (not grout) of the same proportions as used in the concrete may be placed next to the forms immediately in advance of the concrete.
14. FINISHING
(a) After the forms are removed, which should generally be as soon as possible after the concrete is sufficiently hardened, any small cavities or openings in the face shall then be neatly filled with mortar. The entire face shall then be washed with a thin grout of the consistency of whitewash, mixed in the same proportion as the mortar of the concrete. The wash shall be applied with a brush. The earlier the above operations are performed the better will be the result.
(6) The top surface of all crank, compensator, well hole, lock, dwarf, and high signal foundations shall be rubbed smooth by hand and shall be true to grade and line.
15. WATERPROOFING
Where waterproofing is required, a thin coat of mortar or grout shall be applied for a finishing coat upon which shall be placed a covering of suitable waterproofing material.
16. FREEZING WEATHER
Concrete to be left above the surface of the ground shall not be constructed in freezing weather, except by special instructions. In this case the sand, water and broken stone shall be heated, and in severe cold, salt shall be added in proportion of about two (2) pounds per cu. yd.
17. REINFORCED CONCRETE
Where concrete is deposited in connection with metal reinforcing, the greatest care must be taken to insure the coating of the metal with mortar, and the thorough compacting of the concrete around the metal. Whenever it is practicable the metal shall be placed in position first. This can usually be done in the case where the metal occurs in the bottoms of the forms, by supporting the metal on transverse wires, or otherwise, and then flushing the bottoms of the forms with cement mortar, so as to get the mortar under the metal, and depositing the concrete immediately afterward. The mortar for flushing the bars shall be composed of one (1) part cement and two (2) parts sand. The metal used in the concrete shall be free from dirt, oil, or grease. All mill scale shall be removed, by hammering the metal, or preferably by pickling the same in a weak solution of muriatic acid. No salt shall be used in reinforced concrete when laid in freezing weather.
WRITTEN CIRCUITS
WRITTEN Circuits, as hereafter described, have been designed to overcome the faults in the old method of circuit drawing which developed upon attempting its application to large interlocking installations.
A circuit plan for an interlocking, drawn up by the old method, consisted of a track plan, more or less to scale, on which plan symbols of the various pieces of apparatus were shown, placed as far as possible in their proper relative positions; such points as should be electrically connected were joined by lines representing wires.
While this method has been of great value in the past and still remains so for typical circuits, automatic signal work and small interlocking plants, the plans run into such size when used for large interlocking installations as to practically prohibit its use in connection with that class of work.
It is true, furthermore, that a great deal of unnecessary labor is involved in both drawing and deciphering the circuits. For example: The engineer in drawing up such a plan begins with some simple sketches, perhaps using symbols of his own invention. After carefully checking these circuits and assuring himself of their correctness, he converts them into the rather elaborate form described above, in which the attempt to keep down the size of the plan is very apt to result in a cramped arrangement of apparatus and a tangle of wires. When the man on maintenance or installation wishes to make use of these circuits, he has to reverse the process and reduce the composite drawing to its simple elements.
Written circuits have been designed to eliminate this unnecessary work and especially to secure plans in which the complete circuit for any given switch, signal, or other function, can be written on a page of ordinary size without crowding, these pages being bound together in a book which will easily and instantly permit reference to be made to any portion of the wiring of the plant.
involves the following :
1. Location Plan. This shows the relative location of track, interlocking station, switch and signal functions, track relays, switch circuit controllers, etc. Notes, such as for the routing of signal arms, should be included on this plan.
2. Typical Plan of Special Circuits. This shows what is proposed to be accomplished in route locking, etc., these circuits to be drawn up either by the old method, or in "written" form, as desired.
3. Typical Plans of Signal Circuits, Switch Circuits, etc.
4. Special Circuits, made up in "written" form. These special circuits are separated so that circuits not connected together are kept entirely apart from each other, being drawn
being readily grasped.
5. Detail Wiring Plans. It may be helpful under certain conditions to add to the circuits listed above, detail plans showing the wiring for the indicator group and interlocking machine.
In drawing up such circuits it is necessary to use a nomenclature for naming the apparatus and to adopt symbols to be used in writing the circuits. A nomenclature of operated units and of circuits, which has been used for some time by the General Railway Signal Company and found thoroughly practicable is given on the following pages.
On page 337 is given a nomenclature of wires. It is to be understood that this is equally applicable to written circuits or to circuits drawn up by the older methods.
NOMENCLATURE OF OPERATED UNITS
A — Approach Relay or Indicator. With number as prefix, indicating number of principal signal up to which the approach section controlling same leads, as 10A.
B — Positive Battery Wire. Used alone where only one battery voltage is in use. When used with H as a suffix (BH) indicates 110 volt battery. When used with L as a suffix (BL) indicates low voltage battery. When more than one low voltage battery is used with different voltage, use number indicating voltage as further suffix, as BL-10, indicating 10 volt battery.
C — Common Wire. Used alone when only one common is in use. When used with H as a suffix (CH) indicates 110 volt common. When used with L as a suffix (CL) indicates low voltage common. When more than one high voltage or low voltage common is used, use numbers as further suffixes. (CH-1, CH-2, CL-1, etc.)
D — Relay or Indicator Controlling the Ninety Degree Position or Distant Function of a Signal. With prefix indicating the number of principal signal which it controls, as 10D, indicating relay or indicator controlling the ninety degree position of signal No. 10, or signal No. 10 if it is a distant signal in two position signaling.
E — Special Relay or Indicator (other than T, D, H, K, or F relays and indicators). With number as prefix indicating number of principal unit entering into its control, or indicating principal unit which it controls.
F — Relay or Indicator Repeating a Track Relay or Signal. With number as a prefix indicating number of relay or signal which it repeats, as 10F. FP — Floor Push.
G — Switch Indicator. With number of signal governing through block in which switch is located as prefix, as 10G. H — Relay or Indicator Controlling Forty-five Degree Position or Home Function of a Signal. With prefix indicating the number of principal signal which it controls, as 10H, indicating relay or indicator controlling the forty-five degree position of signal No. 10, or signal No. 10 if it is a home signal in two position signaling.
ber as prefix, as 10J.
K — Lock Relay. Used in connection with route or detector locking for interrupting the current supply to switch and derail machines, etc., with number as a prefix, indicating track section affected by it, as 10K. KS — Knife Switch.
controlled by it.
S — Stick Relay. Used in connection with route locking. With number as prefix, as 10S, meaning stick relay locking route of signal No. 10, or locking operated units in track section 10T, if separate stick relays are used for each track section.
SL — Outlying Switch Lock. With number as prefix indicating number of controlling lever. Use arbitrary number if there is no controlling lever.
T — Track Circuit. With number as prefix indicating number of track circuit, as 10T, which is also the name of the track relay for track circuit 10T.
principal unit which it releases, as 10TR. V — Electric Slot. With number of signal as prefix, as 10V. XB — Crossing Bell With arbitrary number as prefix, such
The matter of primary importance in naming wires is to have a different name for each wire and have it so shown on both the plan and suitable tags attached to the wires: this in order that a wire on the ground may be quickly identified on the plan.
At the same time it is highly desirable to have a wire nomenclature system that is suggestive, so as to reduce, as far as possible, the necessity for reference to plans.
On account of the multitude of circuit combinations possible, a system must be rather elastic. With all of the above taken into consideration, the following is submitted as a practical system of wire nomenclature.
R — Reverse Control Wire. With number of operated unit which it controls as prefix, as 10R. If 10 is a three-position signal, 10R is the name of the forty-five degree control wire.
V — Slot Wire. With number of signal as prefix, as 10V. X — Wire going to positive battery through a circuit controller on a signal closed in the zero degree position only, with the number of the signal as a prefix, as 10X. Y — Wire going to positive battery through a circuit controller on a signal closed from zero to forty-five degrees only, with the number of the signal as a prefix, as 10Y. Z — Wire going to positive battery through a circuit controller on a signal closed in the clear position if the signal is a two-position signal, or closed from forty-five to ninety degrees if the signal is a three-position signal, with the number of the signal as a prefix, as 10Z. Wires not covered by the above are named as follows : A wire leading from the operating coil of a unit toward battery positive takes the name of this unit, as 10H, meaning the wire from the coil of home control relay for signal No. 10 leading to positive. After passing through a circuit controller, it takes the number "1" as a suffix, as 10H1. This suffix number increases by one as the wire successively breaks through additional controllers.
no branches, thus:
In cases of branch wiring this method is applied directly to the principal circuit — circuit for superior route. The first branch from this circuit takes the suffixes 21, 22, etc., instead of 1, 2, etc. The second branch 41, 42, etc., thus continuing allowing twenty numbers for each branch.
ILLUSTRATIONS
Illustrative of "Written Circuits" and "Wire Nomenclature," is shown in Fig. 274, a section of an interlocking plant with the special circuits used in connection with such an arrangement. In accordance with the instructions given under " Location Plan" on page 331, the track plan with the relative location of signal and switch functions, track relays and the interlocking station with its indicators, relays, etc., is shown.
Below the track plan are shown the special circuits drawn up in written form. Referring to the sheets of nomenclature shown on the preceding pages, it will be seen that the circuit
FIG. 275. SIGNAL SELECTING CIRCUIT
shown at the top is for the control of the annunciator for signal No. 1, this taking low voltage battery through front contacts of the track relays for sections 03T and 02T. Similarly the control of lock 1L takes battery through normally closed contact No. 2 of screw release 1TR, the front point of home relay 3F, the front point of contact No. 2 of stick relay IS and the latch contact of the lock itself; the current after passing through the lock goes to the low voltage common wire. Information regarding the operation of this type of special circuit may be had by reference to the Section on ''Electric Locking Circuits" (page 133).
f Fig. 275 illustrates the method of writing a signal selecting circuit. This is included principally to show the application of the wire nomenclature to the different branches of the same circuit. The wires of each branch are designated in the same manner as in the principal circuit but with the suffixes 21, 22, 23, or 41, 42, 43, etc., these depending upon the order in which the different branches are taken from the principal circuit.
(a) On all high signals conferring or restricting rights a red light shall be the night indication for STOP. A yellow light shall be the night indication for CAUTION, and a green light the night indication for PROCEED.
(c) The semaphore arm in the horizontal position shall indicate STOP, inclined upward forty-five (45) degrees, CAUTION, and inclined upward, ninety (90) degrees,
portation of the American Railway Association, May, 1911.
"The reports of various Committees of the Railway Signal Association and of the American Railway Engineering Association on the subject of signaling have been su omitted to this Committee, with the request that the essentials of signaling be outlined or defined for the future guidance of their Committees.
5. Proceed at medium speed.
Stop signals operated under automatic block system rules should be designated by some distinctive mark to be determined by each road in accordance with local requirements."
RECOMMENDATIONS OP COMMITTEE I
Your Committee submits for approval the following two schemes of signaling in conformity with the recommendations of the Committee on Transportation.
t 3. The use of a pointed blade, the blades of other signals giving the stop indication having square ends ; or 4. A combination of these distinguishing features.
4. A combination of these distinguishing features.
The above three schemes are submitted, after an earnest effort to carry out the Committee's instructions to submit a uniform scheme of signaling, with the idea that each scheme is complete in itself.
trolled by track circuit.
An "automatic" signal is one, the primary control of which is the track circuit, or in other words, it is a signal which automatically gives indication in regard to the integrity of the track through its block.
A "semi-automatic" signal is a manually controlled automatic signal and may, or may not, be interlocked. As to whether it is, or is not, interlocked, will be apparent from its position on the plan and its relation to other signals. It is to be understood that this manual control is direct, and that a signal is not to be considered semi-automatic because some feature of its control is dependent upon another signal which is manually controlled. Tne term "slotted" refers only to a mechanical signal equipped with an electric slot,
A "stick semi-automatic" signal is a semi-automatic signal which will not clear automatically after it has been put to stop by interruption of the track circuit. It cannot be cleared again until the manually operated device controlling it has been restored normal and reversed once more.
A "non-stick-automatic" signal operates automatically as long as all contacts (lever, signal, controller, etc.), other than track relay contacts affecting its control, are closed.
1 I ii
OVERHEAD SIGNAL HIGHWAY RAILWAY PROPOSED RAILWAY BRIDGE. B«IOGE. CROSSING. CROSSING. CROSSING. MOTE: SPtcirr wMtTMM Sn*u w EUCTHIC Rv Cuossiw.
6-MovABu POINT Cnossme Fooe. (M.P.F.) 7 -SINGLE SLIP SWITCH WTM M.P.F. 8 -DOUBLE SLIP SWITCH WITH M.P.F.
L-Fuu. REVERSE POSITION TO THE LEFT. B -INDICATION POSITION TO THE LEFT. 0 -INDICATION POSITION TO THE RIGHT. R-Fuu REVERSE POSITION TO THE RIGHT.
Single Switch, Model 2 switch machine (Fig. 163), . . 1000 Single Switch, Model 4 switch machine (Fig. 162), . . 1500 Split Point Derail, Model 2 switch machine (Fig. 165), . 1000
Switch
connections insulated. Weights for Model 4 switch machine layouts include switch circuit controller and connections. Weights do not include detector bars.
7-ft. Single Battery Chute, complete with elevator, 8-ft. Single Battery Chute, complete with elevator, . 9-ft. Single Battery Chute, complete with elevator, . 7-ft. Double Battery Chute, complete with elevator, 9-ft. Double Battery Chute, complete with elevator,
Size 1, Form C Bond (Fig. 91), per single bond, ... 610 Size 2, Form B Bond (Fig. 92), per single bond, ... 420 Size 3, Form A Bond (Fig. 92), per single bond, . . . 250
Built-Up Trunking, cedar, per 1,000 feet, B. M., . Oak Stakes, 3" x V x 3' 0" (square end), .... Oak Stakes, 3" x 4" x 4' 0" (square end); .... Cedar Stakes, 4" diameter x 3' 0" (pointed), . . .
crossing alarm circuits, etc.
The arrester has a high efficiency, i. e., a high reactance and negligible ohmic resistance. This high reactance is maintained under all conditions of frequency and current owing to the fact that no iron is used in the core of the reactance coil.
protected apparatus.
The arresters should be grounded through two No. 8 B. & S. gauge copper wires, insulated above the ground. The wires should be wrapped around and soldered to a galvanized ground rod, not less than one inch in diameter, driven eight feet into the ground.
current.
The limiting resistance used in making the test may merely be a unit of such resistance as to protect the instruments, it being recommended, however, that- a variable resistance be used if available. If a voltage higher than that indicated is used, the range of the voltmeter and the resistance unit employed will have to be increased accordingly.
PULLEYS AND GEARS
When it is desired to secure single reduction or increase of speed by means of belting, the speed at which each shaft should run and the diameter of one pulley being known, multiply the diameter of the known pulley by the speed in revolutions per minute of its shaft and divide this product by the speed in revolutions per minute of the second shaft; the result is the desired diameter of the second pulley.
When the diameter of both pulleys and the speed of one shaft is known, multiply the speed of that shaft by the diameter of its pulley and divide this product by the diameter of the pulley on the other shaft; the result is the speed at which the second shaft will be run.
Where a counter-shaft is used, to obtain either size or speed of the main driving or driven pulley, calculate as above, between the known end of the transmission and the countershaft and then repeat this calculation between the countershaft and tne unknown end.
Gears in mesh transmit speeds in proportion to the number of teeth they contain. Count the number of teeth in the gearing and substitute this quantity for the diameter of the pulleys mentioned above, in order to obtain the number of teeth to be cut in unknown gear or speed of the second shaft.
WIDTHS OF BELTING PER HORSE POWER
A rule commonly used for determining the width of belting is that "single" belt will transmit 1 H. P. for each inch in width at a speed of 1,000 feet per minute. If the speed is greater or less the power transmitted is correspondingly increased or decreased.
This is based on a working tension of 30 pounds per inch of width of belt. Many writers give as a safe practice for single belts in good condition a working tension of 45 pounds per inch of width, which formula gives a permissible increase in transmitted horse power of 50 per cent, over the formula TT T> _wxdxrpm
ing discussed above.
These formulas are based on the supposition that the arc of contact between belt and pulley is 180 degrees. For other arcs the transmitting power is approximately proportional to the ratio of the degrees of arc of contact to 180 degrees.
cumference of the pulley, and the power increased in the proportion referred to in the preceding paragraph. Best results are secured by running belt just tight enough to prevent slipping at normal load.
810. IRON WORK
(a) Iron work (except machine, tie plates, and iron foundation piers) not galvanized shall be painted one (1) coat of red lead and raw linseed oil and two (2) finishing coats.
2 xlO
NOTE. — The covering capacity of paint depends largely on the condition of the surface being finished, the handling of the goods by the painter, and the temperature of the surface painted. The above figures are based on average working conditions.
BOND WIRES AND CHANNEL PINS
Diagram below gives the actual number of bond fires and channel pins required for bonding ingle track road (2 rails) for distances up to ,000 feet. To this should be added 25 bond fires and 50 channel pins for each switch, and to tie total 5 per cent, added to cover loss.
20 cwt. or 2,000 Ib., . . =1 ton (T.) 1 T. =20 cwt. = 2,000 Ib. =32,000 oz. = 14,000,000 gr. The avoirdupois pound contains 7,000 grains.
The U. S. struck bushel contains 2,150.42 cubic inches = 1.2444 cubic feet. By law, its dimensions are those of a cylinder 18V2 inches in diameter and 8 inches deep. The
The U. S. gallon contains 231 cubic inches = .134 cubic feet approximate ; or 1 cubic foot contains 7.481 gallons. The following cylinders contain the given measures very closely :
The British Imperial gallon, both liquid and dry, contains 277.274 cubic inches =.16046 cubic feet, and is equivalent to the volume of 10 pounds of pure water at 62 degrees Fahr. To reduce British to U. S. liquid gallons, multiply by 1.2. Conversely, to convert U. S. into British liquid gallons, divide by 1.2; or, increase the number of gallons 3/5.
The following prefixes are used for subdivisions and multiples: Milli = 1/1000, Centi = 1/100, Deci = l/10, Deca = 10, Hecto = 100, Kilo = 1000, Myria = 10,000.
way Signal Company in 1904.
IN the last few years there has been a phenomenal increase in tonnage hauled on American railways, necessitating the purchase of more and better engines and cars of larger capacity, equipped with the best safety devices. Enormous sums have been expended in taking out curves, cutting down grades, laying additional main tracks, putting in new sidings, and providing improved terminal facilities. But, notwithstanding all these improvements, many lines find it impossible to handle their business with sufficient dispatch to avoid congestion. This fact has led many progressive American railway managers to realize that if they are to secure the best and most economical returns from the great expenditures made for motive power, car equipment, and tracks, suitable means must be provided to enable their trains to move with a minimum of delays and a maximum of safety; and this can only be realized when train orders are supplanted by an up-todate block system and hand operated switches by a modern system of interlocking.
The very highest development of the art of signaling has been reached in this country, but no American railway is nearly so thoroughly equipped with signaling as is the average English line.
after considering some simple statistics.
The first interlocking plant installed on the London and Northwestern Railway was put in service in 1859; fourteen years later, in 1873, there were in use on that line alone 13,000 levers. At the same date there was not a single interlocking plant in use in the United States, the first plant in this country having been installed in the year 1874 by Messrs. Toucy and Buchanan at Spuyten Duyvil Junction, in New York City.
At the present time (1902) there are in use on the 1,800 miles of line of the London and Northwestern Railway approximately 36,000 interlocked levers, or an average of about twenty levers per mile of line, whereas there are only about 40,000 in use on all lines of the United States, or, approximately, one lever to five miles of line, or about 1 'per cent, of the number of levers per mile used on the London and Northwestern Railway.
When it is remembered that probably more than one-half of the interlocked levers in use in this country are at grade crossings, leaving fewer than 20,000 levers used for station, yard and terminal work, whereas practically the entire 36,000
on the L. & N. W. are used for such work alone, it will be recognized that American railways are in general very poorly provided with modern signal appliances. In fact, there is probably to-day not a single American railway that is nearly so thoroughly equipped as the London and Northwestern was twentyseven years ago, though, as might be expected, the devices in use on American lines haying properly organized signal departments, capable of making suitable specifications, compare favorably with the best in use on European lines and, in numerous instances, large power plants are in use which are superior to anything ever devised abroad.
There can be no question as to the inability of most of our railways to move their trains with proper safety and dispatch during times when traffic is heavy; no competent railway operating officer doubts that proper systems of signaling would greatly aid in the safer and more rapid movement of trains and, while there are probably few American railway men who recognize fully how very far behind the best European lines our lines are in respect to the completeness of their signal equipment, this is becoming better understood every year and there is reason to believe that our most progressive lines will not much longer continue to limit the applications of interlocking to the protection of grade crossings with here and there a junction or yard plant.
Such being the case, it is probable that more signaling will be done in the near future than has ever before been done in this country and American railway managers will, therefore, find it greatly to their advantage to give serious consideration to the determination of what system of interlocking they can best use.
The earliest system employed and that in most general use at this time is the so-called "mechanical interlocking" in which the switches or signals are manually worked by means of interlocked levers connected with them by pipe or wire lines.
When properly installed, this system has given satisfactory results; but, unfortunately, in the effort of railway men to secure cheap appliances and in the stress of competition between the various manufacturers of signaling devices, a great many of the installations made in this country are very imperfect and unsafe.
requirements be met :
All derails, movable point frogs, locks, switches and home signals should be worked by pipe ; no signal should be worked by a single wire ; all pipe and wire lines should be automatically compensated ; all derails, movable point frogs and facing point switches should be provided with duplex facing point locks; all cranks and pipe compensators should be fixed on strong foundations set in best quality concrete; no facing point switch more than 600 feet from the tower should be
taken into the system ; no lever should "be overloaded by putting on it such a number of switches and bars as to prevent a man of average strength from throwing it with one hand.
Where these and other proper specifications have been followed, fair results have been obtained, though it has long been recognized by American railway operating officials that this system has inherent defects that render it, under certain conditions, unsafe. For example, in the event of the breakage of a pipe or wire operating a signal, there can be no absolute assurance that such breakage will be known by the leverman or that such signal will occupy a position corresponding with that of its lever or that it will not indicate "line clear" when, its lever being normal, another and opposing signal is set at "line clear."
The fatigue incident to working mechanical levers is very great, so that it is frequently necessary to employ three eighthour levermen for a comparatively small plant where the number of lever movements is considerable; if the plant is very large, it is sometimes necessary to employ as many as eight men on each of three shifts.
Moreover, under certain conditions it is very costly to operate such a system. For example, in cases where the distance between the extreme switches to be operated is over 1,600 feet, it is generally necessary to provide two mechanical interlocking towers, each with its own set of levermen, as it is neither safe nor practicable to work such switches from one tower. It is interesting to note in this connection that under the English Board of Trade requirements, which are wisely drawn and rigidly enforced, no facing point switch may be operated at a distance exceeding 540 feet from the tower. Even at this distance it is considered that ordinary pipe lines are not sufficiently strong or safe and many English lines now employ a steel channel section, cut to eighteen foot lengths and jointed by means of fish plates secured by six one-half inch bolts, this construction admitting of ready detection of rods weakened by corrosion and of their easy removal.-
In order to overcome these and other disadvantages inherent in systems of mechanical interlocking, the "pneumatic system " was devised by Mr. George Westinghouse, Jr., the first working installation having been made at the crossing of the P. and R. and L. V. Railways, near Bound Brook, N. J., in 1884.
At the present time two varieties of this system are in use, one, popularly known as the "electro-pneumatic," in which air compressed to a working pressure of about sixty pounds is employed for moving switches and signals and in which the release locking is effected by electro-magnetic means ; and the other, popularly known as the "low pressure pneumatic," in which air at a pressure of about twenty pounds is used for operation and in which compressed air effects the release locking.
follows :
The ability to operate switches and signals at any desired distance from the cabin ; that switches are actually required to be moved and securely locked in the proper position before a signal governing traffic over them can be cleared ; that each signal, when cleared, automatically locks the lever operating it in such manner as to prevent the release of levers controlling conflicting signals and switches, until such signal has been again placed completely at danger, thus effectually providing against the simultaneous display of two conflicting clear signals; that, there being no moving parts between cabin and switches and signals, wear of mechanism, lost motion and the troublesome and dangerous effects of expansion and contraction of mechanically operated pipes and wires are all eliminated; that much less room is required for leadout connections than in a mechanical plant and much valuable space is thereby saved; that cabins of much smaller and lighter design are used ; that the operation of the machine requires so little physical exertion that one man can do the work that would in a mechanical plant require three or four.
There can be no doubt that both varieties of the pneumatic system are far better adapted for the working of large plants than the mechanical as both largely fulfill the claims above referred to.
It is, however, found that in the electro-pneumatic system a cross between the release locking (commonly known as "indication") wire and the common return wire (or ground), will have the same effect as would the closing of the indication circuit in the proper manner, thus giving a false indication, which in view of the fact that the safety of any power interlocking depends upon the reliability of its indications, is highly objectionable. It is also found that where the indication is given by means of compressed air the release locking is often effected very slowly in cases where switches or signals are located at a considerable distance from the tower and this, at a busy plant, is also very objectionable.
Another disadvantage of the low pressure pneumatic system is that if a switch, meeting any obstruction, fails to complete its movement and to give indication, it is necessary either for a repairman to go immediately to the switch and operate it by hand or for the leverman to force the indication, which is often done and is evidently dangerous. Thus, in one style of the pneumatic system there is the defect due to possibility of false indication and in the other the defect due to slow indication and to inability to reverse a switch which has not fully completed its movement. Some other disadvantages of the pneumatic systems are as follows :
Liability to freezing of pipes and valves in extreme cold weather; high cost of furnishing power; danger of throwing near switches under trains when, owing to extreme cold
weather, it is necessary to maintain higher than normal pressures in order to be able to work switches farthest from tower ; high cost of maintenance owing to rapid deterioration of iron pipe lines placed underground and subjected to action of various salts and alkalies found in soil and to electrolytic action from electric railway and lighting circuits; difficulty and cost of locating leaks and breaks in pipe lines under ground ; extremely high cost of installing and operating medium sized and small plants or a small number of switches or signals located at a considerable distance from the tower in a large plant.
This system, the invention of Mr. John D. Taylor of Chillicothe, Ohio, was first installed by him on the B. & O. S. W. R'y at East Norwood, near Cincinnati, Ohio, in 1891 ; in 1893 certain improvements were introduced by him in the methods of giving indications, the installation remaining otherwise as originally made. For some years afte~ 1893, only a few small installations were made by Mr. Taylo" owing to lack of sufficient capital to develop his inventions on a large scale, but in May, 1900, the Taylor Signal Company was organized in Buffalo, N. Y., and since that time a great number of installations, varying in size from the equivalent of 6 to 225 mechanical levers, have been made on important lines of railway in the United States and Europe.
In the Taylor (G. R. S.) electric system, switches and signals are operated by means of electric motors, the current for these motors being furnished generally by a storage battery, charged from a dynamo driven by an electric motor or gas engine. The release locking is effected by an electro-magnetic device placed under each interlocking lever and actuated by a dynamic current furnished by the switch or signal motor controlled by such lever, when and only when a switch has moved to a position corresponding with that of the lever and is bolt locked in that position or when a signal arm has moved to its full danger position. Crosses between an indication wire and common return wire (or ground) or any other wire of the system, can at worst only prevent the giving of indication and cannot by any possibility result in the giving of a false clear indication as can occur in other systems employing electromagnetic indications. Moreover, in this system, indications are given instantaneously upon completion of locking of switch or of movement of signal to its stop position, irrespective of the distance of such switch or signal from the tower, thus effecting a great saving in the time required by any system using pneumatic indications, to set up a route.
If, when a switch is thrown, it fails to complete its movement owing to some obstruction between point and stock rail, or for any cause whatever, the switch can be restored by the leverman to its original position and another effort can
be made to perform the desired movement, ofttimes thus avoiding the necessity, so frequently met with in the low pressure pneumatic system, of sending a man out to throw the switch by hand or of forcing the indication.
The electric is the only power system that can be satisfactorily employed for the operation of plants having a small number of switches and signals. It is in service where as few as six working levers are employed and is perfectly adapted for use at all junctions, crossings, drawbridges, tunnels, stations, yards, passing sidings, etc., where the distance between extreme switches or signals is greater than can be safely covered with a mechanical plant, even though there be only a very few signals and switches to be operated. For example, consider the two following diagrams, the first one showing arrangement of passing sidings on a single track and the other on a double track line :
On a few of the best signaled American railways the switches and signals immediately adjacent to the station A or B, would be worked by a mechanical interlocking plant, but owing to the great cost of operating an additional mechanical interlocking plant at each of the extreme switches and the prohibitive cost of putting in a pneumatic power system by which all the switches and signals could be worked from the station, the inlet switches are left to be worked by the trainmen, necessitating the stopping of their trains; and if, as sometimes happens, such stoppage occurs on a bad grade, heavy trains may break in two in starting up. Every practical railway man will at once recognize the tremendous advantage that would be gained if these extreme switches, together with their proper signals, could be safely and economically worked from
the station, thereby enabling trains to pass onto and out of passing sidings at speed and in absolute safety. With the Taylor (G. R. S.) electric system this can be effected at a relatively small cost, and, in conjunction with a system of automatic, electric, track circuit block signals in use on the open road, where there are no switches, this forms the ideal lock and block system and one, which we believe is destined to replace all others both in this country and in Europe.
In the electric system, the cost of producing power for the operation of switches and signals rarely or never exceeds 1 per cent, of the cost in any other power system doing an equal amount of work. For example, if in a system using compressed air, the cost of coal and services of men employed in running power plant is 400 dollars per month, the total cost of producing power for an electric plant doing precisely the same work will rarely or never exceed four dollars monthly.
In this connection it will be interesting to note that at the South Englewood Taylor (G. R. S.) interlocking plant on the C. R. I. & P. R. R., where the average daily number of switches moved and signals cleared is 2,250, the consumption of gasoline for running engine for charging storage batteries, was sixty-eight gallons in eighty-six days, or one gallon for 2,845 switch and signal operations. At Sixteenth and Clark streets, Chicago, Taylor (G. R. S.) interlocking plant at the crossing of the St. Charles Air Line with the C. R. I. & P. and L. S. & M. S. R'ys, where the movement exceeds 600 trains daily, the consumption of gasoline during 153 days was 222 gallons for 642,600 switch and signal movements or 2,894 per gallon or about 326 movements for one cent for power.
The cost of maintenance and renewals in an electric plant is only a small percentage of the cost in any other power plant. This can be readily understood from the fact that more feet of electrical conductors are employed in the electro-pneumatic system than are used in the Taylor (G. R. S.) system and there are all the pneumatic pipes; and, in the low pressure pneumatic system, more feet of iron pipe are used than feet of electric conductors in the Taylor (G. R. S.) system, and any one having experience with the rapid deterioration of iron pipes placed in the soils found about railways and subject to electrolysis, will have no difficulty in understanding how much shorter lived these underground pipes will be than well insulated copper wires placed in a suitable conduit above ground. Nor is it hard to understand how much more difficult and costly it will be to make repairs to such pipe placed several feet under^ ground than it will be to repair a break or leak in a wire placed in a suitable conduit above ground.
In this connection, it is interesting to note that the B. & O. S. W. R. R., which was the first to install the Taylor (G. R. S.) system, has found it far cheaper to maintain than an ordinary
required in the interlocking plant, such changes being many times more costly in any other system than in the Taylor (G. R. S.) electric. Moreover, with the improved devices and methods of installation now used in this system, a far better showing will be made.
The operation of the electric system is absolutely unaffected by change in temperature, whereas pneumatic systems sometimes experience serious difficulties owing to condensation and freezing of moisture contained in the compressed air, by which the mechanism becomes clogged and its working prevented.
Even where the working is not absolutely prevented under these conditions, it frequently becomes necessary to raise the pressure so high in order to compensate for losses in pressure at distant switches, that there is danger of throwing near switches under train, in case leverman makes an improper movement at such a time, as it is certain that as generally installed, detector bar connections are not sufficiently strong to resist any considerable increase above the normal working pressure in a pneumatic plant. It is therefore doubtful whether, during extreme cold weather, it is ever safe to attempt to work from one pneumatic machine, switches and signal, located so far from the tower as to require any increase over normal working pressure. Unquestionably, the safer practice, at such times, is to temporarily abandon the working of such switches and signals, as is often done, though this, of course, causes much troublesome delay and expense.
In the electric system no such condition exists, as the "electric pressure" is exactly the same on the switch or signal motor located at a distance of 5,000 feet as on one located 500 feet from the tower; moreover, the system is so arranged that the throwing of a switch lever while train is over the switch would cause the blowing of a fuse on the machine, thereby opening the circuit.
In the foregoing statement no effort has been made to describe in detail the appliances and circuits employed in the Taylor (G. R. S.) electric system of interlocking; pur object has been solely to point out the need of signal equipment on American railways and to state, without prejudice, the principal merits and defects of the several interlocking systems at present employed, in order to aid such railway officials as have not had opportunity to acquaint themselves with the facts above set forth to make an intelligent comparison between such systems.
The Taylor (G. R. S.) electric system is in the fullest accord with modern engineering practice which has shown, after years of experiment, that transmission of power to a distance can be more satisfactorily accomplithed by means of electricity than by any other agency and, while there is no reason to doubt that this system will be improved in the future as in the past, we feel warranted in claiming at the present time
that it represents the very highest development of the art of signaling, embodying features of safety, economy and general applicability not possessed by any other system in use in this country or abroad.
ESTIMATE ON ELECTRIC INTERLOCKING
In order to prepare promptly an accurate estimate on a proposed installation of electric interlocking, it is necessary that definite information on certain items be furnished by the Railway Company with the request for a proposal. This information can best be covered by a specification together with certain plans.
It is not necessary for each individual railroad to prepare a specification form as the Railway Signal Association adopted, in 1910, a very complete specification covering this practice. The specification has been prepared by a committee of men, actively engaged in railway signal work, and its use is heartily recommended. It can be secured by reference to the Manual of the Railway Signal Association issued in 1912. It has, of course, been necessary in drawing up this specification to leave optional a number of items, definite information on which should be given with each request for an estimate. Attention is especially directed to certain points essential to the preparation of estimates, covered by sections of the specification as follows :
A track plan should be furnished giving very completely the information under sub-paragraph 1. The symbols which have been adopted by the Railway Signal Association as shown on pages 348 to 359 of this Handbook should be used. The information called for in sub-paragraphs 2, 3 and 4 should be given if possible, although this is not absolutely necessary.
It should be clearly stated whether the contractor is to erect the buildings and their foundations, the dimensions and specifications being given if such is the case.
Definite information must be given as to the power supply. The ampere hour capacity and number of cells of the battery should be specified as well as the capacity of any charging apparatus desired. Data on pages 154 to 159 of this Handbook will be of assistance in determining the proper capacities for the battery and charging apparatus.
While a properly prepared track plan will determine the size and arrangement of levers in the interlocking machine, it will be necessary to specify any spare spaces or spare levers required in the event of this information not being shown on the plan.
Typical plans of special circuits may be furnished under this section or the circuit requirements stated, in which event the contractor will submit typical proposed circuits with the estimate. Pages 133 to 139 of this Handbook are devoted to Electric Locking circuits, the data being based on the R. S. A. classification of the different types of circuits.
Number plates for, 57
Operation of signal lever, 50, 53. Operation of switch lever, 49, 50. Polarized relay for, 57, 58, 92, 93. Resistance of indication magnets
Bridge signal masts, 243.
Caustic soda primary cell, 286. Coppers for gravity battery, 291. Foundation for bracket post, 251. Foundation for ground signal
Weights of, 366.
Model 3, operating data for, 241. Model 7, operating data for, 241. Motor driven (see Model 2A signals).
93, 309.
Control for signals, 22, 70, 83, 308. Control for switches, 19, 60, 308. Copper (see also rubber-covered) :
| 68,201 | common-pile/pre_1929_books_filtered | electricinterloc00generich | public_library | public_library_1929_dolma-0018.json.gz:1662 | https://archive.org/download/electricinterloc00generich/electricinterloc00generich_djvu.txt |
48pJkOBvl-fxm5bX | Problem Solving in Teams and Groups | 12 Gantt Charts
Content for this chapter was adapted from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Introduction
A Gantt chart is a type of bar chart that illustrates a project schedule. This chart lists the tasks to be performed on the vertical axis, and time intervals on the horizontal axis.The width of the horizontal bars in the graph shows the duration of each activity. Gantt charts illustrate the start and finish dates of the terminal elements and summary elements of a project. Terminal elements and summary elements constitute the work breakdown structure of the project. Modern Gantt charts also show the dependency relationships between activities. Gantt charts can be used to show current schedule status using percent-complete shadings and a vertical “TODAY” line as shown in the graphic above. There is not one correct way to create a Gantt chart, but the chart should include clear dates and separate major milestones in the project. Gantt charts represent a commitment to a timeline for the project by a team. This also means that creating a Gantt chart involves some estimation about how long each project will take and create a structure for the team to follow in order to reach their goals. Gantt charts are usually created initially using an early start time approach, where each task is scheduled to start immediately when its prerequisites are complete. This method maximizes the float time available for all tasks. Gantt charts are “one of the most widely used management tools for project scheduling and control” In the following table there are seven tasks, labeled a through g. Some tasks can be done concurrently (a and b) while others cannot be done until their predecessor task is complete (c and d cannot begin until a is complete; a dependency relationship). Additionally, each task has three time estimates: the optimistic time estimate (O), the most likely or normal time estimate (M), and the pessimistic time estimate (P). The expected time (TE) is estimated.
| Activity | Predecessor | Time estimates | Expected time (TE) | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Opt. (O) | Normal (M) | Pess. (P) | |||
| a | — | 2 | 4 | 6 | 4.00 |
| b | — | 3 | 5 | 9 | 5.33 |
| c | a | 4 | 5 | 7 | 5.17 |
| d | a | 4 | 6 | 10 | 6.33 |
| e | b, c | 4 | 5 | 7 | 5.17 |
| f | d | 3 | 4 | 8 | 4.50 |
| g | e | 3 | 5 | 8 | 5.17 |
Once estimates and dependencies are understood, a team can draw a Gantt chart or a network diagram. Below are several examples of Gantt Charts.
A Gantt chart created using Microsoft Project (MSP). Note (1) the dependency relationships are in red, (2) the float time is represented by black lines connected to non-critical activities, (3) since Saturday and Sunday are not work days and are thus excluded from the schedule, some bars on the Gantt chart are longer if they cut through a weekend.
See this tutorial from Microsoft Office for a step-by-step guide to creating a Gantt chart in excel. If you’re reading the text version of this book, visit https://support.microsoft.com and search for Gantt Chart. Below are some other examples of Gantt charts. Use your favorite search engine to find more Gantt Chart examples and online tools to build Gantt charts.
Using Gantt Charts – Exelon Development (a Tech Company):
According to Matt Heusser (2020), Gantt charts help a team to sort out just how multiple units can be shuffled without missing deadlines. Gantt charts could be useful for the company to forecast. A good Gantt chart will provide a coherent strategy, giving you a roadmap of the project from beginning to end in one visual snapshot.
A Gantt chart is essentially a tool for project management. According to an article on Asanda.com (a company specializing in project management software), the Gantt Chart typically includes the following pieces of information:
- When the project is due
- When to start and finish each task
- How long each task takes
- Who is responsible for each task
- Which tasks depend on others
- How each task is categorized or grouped
References
- Asanda.com (n.d.) New to gantt charts? Start here. Retrieved from https://asana.com/resources/gantt-chart-basics
- Clark, W.(1922). The Gantt chart: A working tool of management. Ronald Press.
- Flouris, T. G., & Lock, D., (2012). Managing aviation projects from concept to completion. Ashgate publishing limited.
- Gantt, H. L. (1910). Work, wages and profit. Engineering magazine. Hive publishing company.
- Heusser, M. (2020, March, 17) What’s the purpose of a Gantt chart for large scale projects? https://searchsoftwarequality.techtarget.com/tip/whats-the-purpose-of-a-gantt-chart-for-large-scale-projects
- Klein, E. (1999). Scheduling of resource-constrained projects. Operations research/computer science interfaces series. Springer.
- Marsh, E. R. (1974). The harmonogram of Karol Adamiecki. Academy of management proceedings, 32. https://doi.org/10.5465/ambpp.1974.17530521
- Morris, P.W. G. (1997). The management of projects. Thomas Telford.
- Richman, l. (2002). Project management step-by-step. Amacom.
- Selig, G. J. (2008). Implementing IT governance: a practical guide to global best practices in it management. Van haren publishing.
- Weaver, P. (2017). A brief history of scheduling: Back to the future. PM World Journal. 3(8).
- Wilson, J. M. (2003). Gantt charts: A centenary appreciation. European Journal of Operational Research, 149(2), 430–437 https://doi.org/10.1016/s0377-2217(02)00769-5
a type of bar chart that illustrates a project schedule
Links among major components of a project (e.g., to build a house laying a foundation is a dependency for putting up walls).
an action or event marking a significant change or stage in development.
The amount of time that a task in a project network can be delayed without causing a delay to: subsequent tasks ("free float") or project completion date ("total float"). | 1,272 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://opentext.ku.edu/teams/chapter/gantt-chart/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:85718 | https://opentext.ku.edu/teams/chapter/gantt-chart/ |
wIZClcExLkC5ul2a | The time factor in making oil gas ... by Clive Morris Alexander ... | ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author desires to express his sincere gratitude to Professor Milton C. Whitaker, at whose suggestion and under whose direct supervision this investigation was carried out.
THE TIME FACTOR IN MAKING OIL GAS
The production of oil gas is dependent upon certain chemical laws which relate to gas reactions in general and which embody the principles of both thermodynamics and chemical kinetics.
In an investigation on the effect of the variables, temperature, pressure, and concentration on the thermal decomposition of petroleum and petroleum distillates, Whitaker and Rittman1 have carefully considered the theoretical principles of thermodynamics as applied to gas reactions. Their experimental results verified their theoretical conclusions and showed that the principles of thermodynamics apply to the decomposition of petroleum hydrocarbons as well as to more simple reactions.
In the above work, however, conclusions were drawn on the assumption that chemical equilibrium was attained under the experimental conditions adopted. It then became a question whether or not equilibrium was reached. Undoubtedly this question could be answered by the application of the principles of chemical kinetics, which introduced the time factor. In the present study of oil gas production, therefore, four variables — time, temperature, pressure and concentration— are recognized.
Difficulties were foreseen, however, in the accurate adjustment of the above variables in commercial plants and a basis for control was sought which would fall within the range of engineering requirements. Under constant temperature and pressure conditions, the time factor, which can be controlled by variation of the rate of oil feed, offers the most available means for the study of the thermal decomposition of petroleum and petroleum distillates on the basis of the principles of chemical kinetics.
Design of apparatus is fixed for any one construction and hence remains a constant factor while the variables are controllable within certain operating limits.
The concentration factor above is considered in the sense of changes involved in the admixing of other substr.nces whh the initial material, such as the decomposition of oil in an atmosphere of hydrogen, carbon monoxide, etc.
The difference between these two velocities at any moment of time under constant conditions will give a certain change per unit of time in one direction or the other toward equilibrium. This change per
in which k and kr are the velocity constants of the two reverse reactions, (Ai), (A2), etc., are the concentrations of the reacting substances, and »i, w2, etc., their respective molecular exponents as obtained from a properly balanced equation.
The above velocity constants vary with temperature1 and as a result temperature has a very marked effect upon the reaction velocities of the two reverse reactions. The effect of temperature on a number of gas reactions has been very carefully studied by Bodenstein2 and the fundamental equations applied mathematically to the experimental results.
and time is not a factor.
Where time is not considered the relations between the state of equilibrium and the thermal values of a reaction can be worked out by the application of thermodynamics. Such relations have been developed by Nernst,1 Mayer and Altmayer.2 and others3 and expressed in terms of mathematical formulas from which equilibrium compositions can be calculated: e. g., the Nernst approximate formula:
By the use of such formulas the ultimate composition representative of equilibrium conditions is obtained. This final composition, according to the principles of chemical kinetics, represents the end point of a reaction which can be attained only through a sufficient lapse of time. As applied to the production of oil gas, a progressive decomposition, in which time is an important factor, should proceed to an ultimate state of equilibrium.
The reactions taking place in the decomposition of petroleum hydrocarbons by heat are numerous and not definitely known. In the industries based on these decomposition reactions, as in the making of oil gas, carbureting water gas, and cracking petroleum for light distillates, the chemical nature of only the initial materials and the final products are determined, and this does not give any definite knowledge concerning the intermediate reactions. The breaking down of hydrocarbons of high molecular weights to simpler hydrocarbons apparently consists in numerous consecutive and concurrent reactions,4 but their actual course from the initial material to the final products has not been established. Even in the absence of
4 Berthelot, Ann. chim. phys. (1866 to 1877); Thorpe and Young, Liebig's Ann., 165 (1872), 1; Proc. Roy. Soc., 21 (1873), 184; Norton and Andrews, Am. Chem. J , 8 (1886). 1; Armstrong and Miller, J. Chem. Soc., 49 (1886), 74; Lewes, J. Soc. Chem. Ind., 11 (1892), 584; Haber, Bcr., 29 (1896), 2691; J. Gasbel.. 34, 377, 435. 452; Worstall and Burwell, Am. Chem J., 19 (1897), 815; Bone and Coward, J. Chem. Soc., 93 (1908), 1197;Hempel, J. Gasbel., 1910, p. 53; Kramer and Spilker, Ber., 33 (1910), 2265; Lewes, Trans. Chem. Soc., 69 (1892), 322; Proc. Roy. Soc., 55 (1894), 90; 57 (1905). 394, 450; Bone, J. Gasbel., 51 (1908), 803; Engler, Ber., 30 (1897), 2908.
such knowledge, the theoretical principles of chemical kinetics which apply to single reactions should also hold in the case of the numerous reactions involved in the thermal decompositions of petroleum hydrocarbons.
The importance of the variable time in a few related decompositions has been shown by a number of investigators. Lewes1 finds that the decomposition of ethylene is dependent not only upon temperature and pressure but also on rate of flow. Clement2 has shown the importance of the time factor in the manufacture of producer gas. Hempel's3 experiments with gas oils at temperatures between 700 and 900° C. have demonstrated further the influence of the rate of oil feed upon the composition of the products. J. F. Tocher4 has also shown some results of a change in the rate of oil feed. A technical application of the time factor can be found in the experiments of Jones.5
In varying the rate of oil fed into a retort or furnace for the production of oil gas, one varies the time during which any portion is heated and hence the time allowed for the reaction. With a very slow rate of oil feed, the reaction would attain an equilibrium composition representative of the heating zone conditions. With increasing rates of oil feed the time allowed for reaction is shortened and the products obtained correspond to an earlier stage of the decomposition. The composition of oil gas is therefore dependent upon the time allowed for chemical change. Hence the study of the time factor in the making of oil gas should yield interesting and practical results.
EXPERIMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS
A study of the reactions of gases moving through heated vessels, the method which was used in this investigation and is representative of practice in oil gas production, involves certain features of design which are dependent upon the theoretical considerations of reaction velocity. During the passage of any heating-zone-composition through the cooling zone, there will be a certain change in composition due to a reversal of reactions.6 The extent of this reversal will depend on the time required in the cooling zone
to arrest the reactions. Hence the more quickly these gases are cooled after leaving the heating zone, the more nearly will the product obtained be representative of the heating zone conditions. The efficiency of the cooling zone in arresting the reversal of reactions is materially increased in some of the decomposition reactions by the separation of carbon in the solid phase, making it possible to obtain as the product a gas mixture which very closely approximates the composition of the mixture in the heating zone. It is thus evident that reaction velocity is important not only in the heating zone, but also in the cooling zone.
Further essential considerations in the attainment of a product representative of heating zone conditions are those of convection and diffusion. As shown by Langmuir,1 diffusion and convection act in a way that is equivalent to decreasing the reaction velocity. Convection currents may be set up by differences in temperatures or irregularities in design, the results of which will tend to shorten the time of contact for some of the molecules in the heating zone. The effect of diffusion increases with temperature as the coefficient of diffusion varies approximately with the square of the absolute temperature. Considering the heating zone or cooling zone separately, raising the temperature increases the diffusion effect and is in a sense equivalent to shortening the time of contact. This effect may be a material consideration in the heating zone but would be almost negligible in the cooling zone. On the other hand, when one considers the mutual effect of the two zones, diffusion offers an advantage, due to the differences in the partial pressures of the reacting substances. Differences in partial pressures cause those substances whose proportions increase with rise in temperature to diffuse from the heating zone to the cooling zone and vice versa those substances whose proportions 4 decrease with rise in temperature diffuse in the opposite direction. .Hence, this effect aids also in obtaining products more nearly corresponding to the heating-zone-composition.
OIL GAS APPARATUS
The design and construction of an apparatus suitable for carrying out the study of the behavior of hydrocarbon vapors under the conditions outlined in the foregoing theoretical discussion involved many im-
portant considerations. In such an apparatus it was desired to provide for working with constant temperatures up to 2300° C.; for pressures ranging from — 15 Ibs. to 100 Ibs. gauge per sq. in.; for constant rates of oil feed over a large range; for suitable means of collecting the resultant products; and for numerous other requirements.
THE FURNACE
An electrically heated carbon tube resistance furnace, illustrated in Fig. I, was constructed. This furnace embodies the use of a carbon tube resistor
held by water-jacketed electrode holders and surrounded by heat-insulating material enclosed by an iron furnace body which is provided with suitable accessory mechanisms for electrical and water-cooling
servation of temperatures and pressures.
The carbon tube1 resistor (A) is 46 in. long, i in. inside diameter, with 0.25 in. wall. Deducting the electrode holder contact length, about 4 in. at each end, this gives a heating zone of 38.5 linear inches with 120 sq. in. heating surface and a volume equal to 30.5 cu. in. or about 500 cc. This tube is copper plated externally at each end to give a suitable contact surface of 1 8 sq. in. with each electrode holder.
The electrode holders (BB) are integral bronze castings with cored water jackets and with flanges for bolting to the furnace heads.' The construction is shown in some detail in Fig. II. Into the main body of the holder outside of the flanges, are drilled and tapped the water-jacket connections 'and binding posts for the electric leads. The outside ends are further provided with carefully insulated stuffing boxes and caps in order to separate the heating element, electrically, from the feed and discharge mechanisms of the assembled apparatus. The flanges, bolts, and nuts are insulated with sheet mica to isolate the heating element from the furnace casing.
The resistor tube is surrounded by a large concentric carbon tube (C), 3 in. inside diameter and 0.50 in. wall, which is insulated from the electrode holders by asbestos disks. This construction leaves an annular dead gas space of 0.75 in. around the resistor. Between this large carbon tube and the furnace casing powdered petroleum coke is packed for heat insulation.
The furnace body (D) is made from extra heavy wrought iron pipe with screwed and peened flanges at each end. To these are bolted blank companion flanges centrally bored to receive the bodies of the electrode holders and faced to seat the flanges. The electrode holders are each held in position by six 0.5 in. stud bolts drilled and tapped into the furnace heads. As above stated the mountings of the electrode holders are mica-insulated from any contact points with the furnace casing. Three solid bosses, 3 in. diameter by 0.5 in. thick, are autogenously welded on the outside walls of the furnace casing and are drilled and tapped for i in. brass extensions which serve as sight tubes (EE'E").
These extension tubes register with and support carbon side tubes (FF'F"), 0.75 in. inside diameter and 0.125 in. wall, which connect the sight tubes with
the annular space around the resistor. The outer ends of the sight tubes are provided with glass windows 0.25 in. thick. This combination gives a straight way view into the resistor chamber at three points along its length.
The water-cooling system for the furnace casing consists of a perforated yoke of water pipe (G) at the top for spray cooling and an annular catch basin (H) at the bottom.
OPERATION AND TEST OF FURNACE
The power required to heat the furnace is derived from a single phase, 60 cycle, 50 kw. alternating current generator, having a range of 5 to 100 volts which can be regulated within narrow limits by a switchboard and rheostat combination. Thus the temperature of the furnace can be readily controlled. Power was measured by the use of a portable Weston ammeter,
voltmeter, and wattmeter placed in close proximity to the furnace. The readings from these three instruments made it possible for the operator to determine the power consumption of the furnace and to check the proper working of the apparatus.
Ordinarily it required about an hour to heat the furnace to a constant temperature after the power had been turned on. The high temperatures are measured by sighting through the observation tube windows with a Wanner optical pyrometer; no temperature corrections are necessary. The low temperatures are measured by replacing the
The carbon resistor is
the only part of the furnace which requires renewal. Yet a single tube has been used for fifty runs at various temperatures. Whenever it is necessary to renew the resistor, the electrode holders are removed and a new tube fitted.
pipe 1 8 in. long, containing a bundle of iron wire for spreading the oil. It is electrically heated from the outside by 8 turns to the inch of No. 18 B. & S. nichrome resistance wire properly insulated from the tube by four wrappings of asbestos paper. For heat conservation the whole is surrounded by standard 85 per cent
magnesia pipe covering. The power required for heating the prevaporizer is furnished from a separate direct current line and regulated by the use of a lamp bank.
zone temperature of the furnace was 1400° C. and the rate of oil feed 50 drops per minute, the oil dropped directly through the heated carbon tube and came out at an equal rate with very little vaporization; this result was apparently due to spheroidal effect and lack of contact with the heated surface. With a solid or vapor passing through the tube under the same conditions, the solid would become heated by radiation and the vapor mainly by conduction. Prevaporization was found to be incomplete at very high rates of oil feed, i. e., the prevaporizer has a maximum capacity." As an additional precaution, at high feed rates, the wire filling of the prevaporizer was extended into the heating zone of the furnace.
STATIC HEAD AND FEED REGULATOR
The object of the static head and feed regulator is to provide for an accurate and steady rate of oil feed which in turn controls the time factor.
The static head regulator, shown in Fig. V. is made up of a specially designed cast brass casing. A, with a gauge glass, B, and a screw cap, C, which may be removed for internal adjustment. The inside mechanism consists of a cork float, D, which operates a needle valve, E. This constant level regulator is also connected with the oil supply tank, the feed mechanism, the pressure equalizer pipe, and the pressure gauge. Valve F is a stop-valve to be closed when the apparatus is not in use.
The sight feed regulator H is constructed from a brass casting provided with two glass windows, II', and an angle needle valve, J, to regulate the rate of oil feed. Connections are made from this with the static head regulator, prevaporizer, and pressure equalizer and admixture pipes as shown in Fig. V.
A constant head of oil is necessary in order that a fixed opening of the feed valve J may give a definite and uniform rate of oil feed. This is accomplished by the cork float D operating the needle valve E, which admits oil from the storage tank at a rate equal to the rate of feed. In order to insure the proper working of this mechanism, a gauge glass, B, is provided, which .registers the oil level. This level has been found to vary not more than 1/8 in. regardless of the level in the oil supply tank. The oil feed is regulated to the desired rate by adjusting the needle valve J, according to observations made through the windows I.
Table I contains data taken from some of the experimental runs and serves to show the range of accuracy of oil feed obtained by this mechanism:
5 69.0cc. 8 min. None
The pressure of the whole system is equalized by a pressure equalizing pipe, G, which communicates the furnace pressure through the sight feed to the static head regulator and the oil supply tank.
OIL SUPPLY TANK
The oil supply tank (see Fig. VI), with a capacity of 600 cc., is made from standard 1.5 in. brass pipe and fittings. To this a gauge glass is connected and provided with a parallel meter stick carrying a sliding pointer. This arrangement is calibrated for volume and enables the operator to verify the uniformity of the rate of oil flow and hence the accuracy of the constant head apparatus.
GAS HOLDERS
The gas holders are balanced bell holders with water seal. These are calibrated and provided with a meter stick and pointer in order to facilitate the recording of the rate of gas generation during a run.
FEED AND DISCHARGE MECHANISM
Both the oil feed mechanism and the condensing system are carried on the supporting framework by swinging arms. The connections to the furnace at their respective ends are made through ground joint unions. When cleaning, renewals or repairs to the furnace are necessary, the unions may be disconnected and the mechanism swung aside without disturbing the furnace.
ASSEMBLY AND OPERATION
The arrangement of the complete apparatus ready for operation is shown in Fig. VI. At the beginning of an experiment the oil tank is first filled with oil; after the feed valve has been adjusted to the desired rate of oil feed, oil-tank readings are taken at definite intervals of time. '
Trace 245 cc.
head regulator and out through the feed adjusting valve to the prevaporizer. From here the vaporized oil is carried directly into the heating zone of the furnace.
Temperature observations, during a run, showed that the feed end of the resistor was 50° to 100° C. cooler than the center and discharge points which remained practically the same. This lower temperature of the feed end of the reaction chamber is obviously due both to the heating up of the oil vapors and to the large amount of heat required for the endothermic reactions taking place in this part of the tube. Further-
resistance and hence lower the temperature.
The measurement of the high temperatures by the optical pyrometer offered no difficulties as there were no fumes present in the furnace.
The hot gases are discharged from the reaction chamber directly into the primary condenser where the reactions are arrested by the cooling. From here the gases go through the tar drip which is followed by a secondary condenser and thence out to the gas holders, where the rate of gas generation is noted at definite intervals of time. The condensates from both the primary and secondary condensers run into the same tar drip from which they may be readily removed at the end of each experiment.
GAS SAMPLING AND ANALYSIS
The gas from the runs was collected in the balanced bell gas holders already described. Care was always taken to saturate the seal water with a similar gas previous to the collection of the run from each experiment. Before taking a sample of gas from the holders for analysis, the product was allowed to stand a sufficient length of time for complete mixing by diffusion and for the settling out of any tar or carbon that might have been carried over.
The gas samples were analyzed by the standard methods1 with a few modifications to meet special requirements. The Hempel equipment was used in all analyses and the order of procedure was as follows :
cuprous chloride solutions.
5 — Partial combustion of the hydrogen by passing 20 to 30 cc. of the remaining gas mixed with the proper proportion of pure oxygen over palladium black heated to 70° to 80° C.
The partial combustion of hydrogen in gas mixtures containing percentages above 90 per cent was difficult on account of the danger of explosion. In such cases the mixture was exploded directly and calculated as hydrogen and methane from the formulas,
with KOH after explosion.
In the partial combustion of hydrogen followed by the explosion of the residual gas mixture, it was often difficult to obtain an explosion by using air as the source of oxygen. This difficulty was avoided, however, by the use of pure oxygen in such an amount that, after the removal of the hydrogen by the palladium black treatment, an explosive mixture remained.
From the total contraction and the carbon dioxide found by explosion, the volume of saturated hydrocarbons was calculated by the following formula:1
This gave the total volume of all the saturated hydrocarbons: methane, ethane, propane, etc. From the V and the CO2 a mean value of n for the type formula CMH2n+2 was obtained, which gave an indication of the nature of the hydrocarbons present,
There is no proof that the saturated hydrocarbons do not contain hydrocarbons of higher molecular weight than ethane. The true percentages of each of the CnH2w+2 hydrocarbons can be determined only by the fractional distillation methods of Burrell2 and his associates, of the U. S. Bureau of Mines.
In common analytical practice, when the hydrogen is separated by partial combustion, the remaining gas is assumed to contain only methane and ethane and is calculated as such. This obviously would give an error dependent upon the amount of heavier hydrocarbons present.
For the calculation of the respective volumes of ethane and methane present on the above assumption, the following formulas were used:
1 DeVolderc and DeSmet. Z. anal. Chem., 49 (1910), 661. * Burrell and Seibert, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 36 {1914), 1537; Burrell and Robertson, J. I. E. C., 1 (1915), 17, 210.
THE TIME FACTOR
The experimental values found in this investigation are considered on the assumption that the true time factor is a function of the rate of oil feed. As stated above, the true time factor, which represents the interval of time in which the reactions progress, is dependent upon the theoretical considerations of reaction velocity. It is substantially a function indirectly proportional to the rates of oil feed; i. e., an increase in the rate of oil feed decreases the time of reaction.
On the other hand, the rate of gas production might be considered as a means of obtaining a better approximation of the true time factor. This would necessitate the calculation of the volumes of the gases to the reaction zone conditions. Furthermore, tars would have to be considered, in case of their formation. Such a method, even if both tars and gases were considered, would not give a value approximating the true time factor, as the original oil vapors occupy a much smaller volume than their decomposition products; in fact decomposition in the reaction zone proceeds with a continuous increase in volume. It is apparent then that this basis of a time factor would be impractical either for experimental study or for technical purposes. For these reasons the time factor as based on the rate of oil feed was selected for this investigation as it offers a comparative value for theoretical considerations and is an easily measured quantity, as well as a readily controllable variable for practical work.
variation of which was indicated by the pressure gauge.
The complete gas analyses always showed varying percentages of carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and air (e. g., see Analyses in Table II), so that the figures for illuminants, hydrogen, and saturated hydrocarbons did not present these constituents in their proper relationships. This difficulty was overcome by recalculating the analyses to the illuminanthydrogen-saturated hydrocarbon basis (see Analyses in Table II) and all subsequent data are presented from this view point.
that in the production of oil gas, chemical equilibria are not obtained, for if such were not the case, a study of the time factor would be valueless. This point was proved by runs at slow rates of oil feed, so as to allow a considerable time for reaction, and subsequent recirculations of the products. Slow rates of oil feed were selected because, if equilibria were not established at such rates, it is self-evident that they would not be established at higher rates with correspondingly less time for reaction.
In experimental data given in Table III three different rates of oil feed at the same temperature, 1200° C., were selected and the recirculations (a and b) made at rates equal to their respective rates of gas
36 ... 5.3 0.0 90.5 9.5
generation. Rates that gave practically no tar were selected; this was necessary because tars, if present, undoubtedly take part in the reactions in the heating zone.
A consideration of the general velocity equation in conjunction with the above data will show some interesting relations between reaction velocity and gas recirculation.
Here the rate of change is dependent upon the respective velocity constants of the reverse reactions and the concentrations of the reacting substances. For any one temperature the velocity constants have a fixed value. Should the decomposition reactions have completed themselves or come to equilibrium, dx/dt would have been equal to zero, but the above data shows that this was not the case, and hence equilibrium was not attained. As the reactions approach equilibrium, the respective velocities of the two reverse reactions become more nearly equal, i. e.y the rate of change, dx/dt, is a decreasing function as equilibrium is approached. The results in Table III show this
conclusions hold.
In the above gas mixtures, with no illuminants present, the saturated hydrocarbon percentages were found to consist entirely of methane. The reaction involved at such a stage of the decomposition consists only in the decomposition of methane into carbon and hydrogen. The equilibrium composition "of this reaction at 1200° C. (calculated according to the formulas of Nernst or Mayer and Altmayer) should show not more than 0.3 per cent methane, as has been experimentally proved by many investigators.1 The reason that this value was not obtained in the above experiments is that sufficient time was not allowed for the reactions to reach equilibrium. The intervals of reaction time in the runs in Table III calculated from the gas rates, temperature, pressure and volume of heating zone, amounted to only a few seconds— 5, 2l/2 and i second, respectively — for Nos. i, 2 and 3. Equilibrium compositions could be attained only by the lapse of many minutes in the heating zone. This emphasizes the fact that equilibrium compositions are not obtained in oil gas practice and further that it would be impractical to run an oil gas generator at such rates of oil feed as would even approximate equilibrium compositions.
CONSTANT TEMPERATURE
The changes of composition with the rate of oil feed at constant temperature are plotted from the experimentally determined data in Fig. VII. In general, these curves show that a decrease in the oil rate, *. e,, an increase in the time of reaction, at any one constant temperature, results in a greater degree of decomposition.
For any two temperatures that can be compared with reference to percentage of any one selected constituent, the higher temperature will result in an equivalent degree of the decomposition at a much higher rate of oil feed. However, the total compositions of the gases produced at the different temperatures are
i Bone and Jerdan, J. Chem. Soc., 71 (1897). 41; 79 (1901), 1042; Mayer and Altmayer, Ber., 40 (1907), 2134; H. von Wartenberg, Z. physik. Chem., 61 (1907), 366; Bone and Coward, J. Chem. Soc., 93 (1908), 1197. 93 (1908), 1975; Pring, J. Chem. Soc.. 97 (1910). 498; Pring and Fairlie, Ibid., 99 (1911). 1796; 101 (1912), 91; also J. I. E. C., 4 (1912), 812
not strictly comparable, i. e., the percentages of illuminants or saturated hydrocarbons for equal percentages of hydrogen are not the same. This is apparently due to different reactions taking place at the different temperatures and to the unequal effect of the different temperatures on the velocities of the various reactions.
It will be noted that at low temperatures and at high rates of oil feed a decrease or increase in the oil rate has comparatively little effect on the percentages of hydrogen or illuminants in the gaseous products. This suggests that there must be a minimum percentage of each constituent at these temperatures. Yet one must not conclude from these facts that the decompositions at the low temperatures proceed in abrupt stages, as this phenomenon finds explanation in a more close consideration of the true time factor. From Fig. IX it will be seen that the rates of gas generation do not undergo material change over a considerable range of oil feed. On the assumption that the volumes of the tars in the heating zone are approximately equal, then the reaction periods for the high rates of oil feed are almost the same and should give gaseous products of similar compositions.
In accordance with the theoretical considerations, the maximum decomposition at any one temperature can be attained only at equilibrium, which is characteristic of an extremely long time for reaction. The curves in Fig. VII point toward such equilibrium compositions at the slow rates of oil feed. Such compositions can in all probability be attained in the heating zone at extremely slow rates of oil feed but experimental results would not verify this on account of the reversal of reactions which would take place in the cooling zone.
STANT RATES OF OIL FEED
In general, the constant feed curves1 in Fig. VIII show that increase in temperature results in a greater degree of decomposition and that there are definite temperatures at which maximum and minimum percentages of the various constituents of the gas mixtures exist. The maxima for hydrogen and the minima for saturated hydrocarbons indicate to a complete decomposition of the oil into carbon and hydrogen. The
minima for illuminants exist at a lower temperature than the minima for saturated hydrocarbons at the same rates of oil feed, i. e., in the complete thermal decomposition of hydrocarbon oils into carbon and hydrogen, the illuminants disappear before the saturated hydrocarbons. The curves for hydrogen and for illuminants seem to indicate minima and maxima, respectively, as shown by the extrapolations. On the other hand, the percentages of saturated hydrocarbons show true maxima dependent upon the rate of oil feed and the temperature.
PRODUCTION OF HYDROGEN
Table IV shows that at 1600° C., with increasing rates of oil feed, the percentages of hydrocarbons in the resulting gases decrease until a maximum of de-
As stated above, under the recirculation of gas, even at 1200° C. the hydrocarbons should be completely decomposed into carbon and hydrogen, but to attain such a result at this temperature would require many minutes in the heating zone. On the other hand, this complete decomposition is realized at 1600° C. in a comparatively short reaction period, due to the great increase in the rate of decomposition at the high temperature over that at the lower temperature so that the shorter time in the heating zone is sufficient for the complete decomposition.
With any design of generator for the production of hydrogen by the direct decomposition of hydrocarbon oils, the time in the heating zone must be such as to favor complete decomposition at the desired temperature. This temperature has both a minimum and a maximum value dependent upon the principles of thermodynamics and upon practical reasons, respectively. The minimum is that lowest temperature at which equilibrium composition represents complete decomposition; i. e., about 1200° C., at which temperature a long time would be necessary to complete the
design and practical temperatures.
In Runs 6 and 7, made at very slow rates of oil feed, there are small percentages of hydrocarbons present. This is apparently due to a reversal of reactions as in the theoretical consideration it was concluded that if the rate of cooling was slow the reactions would reverse toward that equilibrium composition corresponding to a lower temperature.
In view of these results the range of complete decomposition is limited not only by temperature but also by definite rates of oil feed which have a maximum and a minimum limit. The maximum is that' rate at which the time allowed for reaction is just sufficient for complete decomposition. The minimum • is that rate at which the time required to arrest the reactions in the cooling zone is sufficiently long to cause a measurable reversal of reactions. For any temperature at which complete decomposition is possible, these limiting rates will have different values.
From these considerations it seems that the direct decomposition of hydrocarbon oils might become a future source of large quantities of hydrogen, but difficulties would be encountered in the commercial application of such a process. These obstacles would consist mainly in the economical heating of the reacting substances to the necessary high temperature and in the purification of the resulting gas. Economical heating could probably be attained by the use of a counter-current system. Purification would be necessary in order to remove the oxygen and sulfur compounds derived from the original oil.
Crossley1 has reviewed the commercial hydrogen situation to date, but has omitted reference to the direct decomposition of oil as a possible source of hydrogen. A few patents2 relating to such processes have been issued.
ILLUMINANTS
Table V consists of data taken from the curves of Fig. VII. These data show that it is possible to obtain gases containing equal percentages of illuminants at different temperatures by varying the rate of oil feed. At a given temperature and rate of 'oil feed a certain percentage of illuminants is obtained. Should it be desired to obtain a gas containing an equal percentage
of illuminants at a higher temperature, it would be necessary to increase the rate of oil feed; this is strictly in accord with the theoretical principle of reaction
velocity that increase in temperature increases rate of decomposition and hence it should be necessary to increase the rate of oil feed (equivalent to decreasing the time for reaction) in order to obtain the same percentage of illuminants in the resulting gas. However, gases containing equal percentages of Illuminants do not necessarily contain equal percentages of the other constituents. This is apparently due to unequal effects of change of temperature on the various reactions involved in the decomposition. With a desired percentage of illuminants in view, then, it would be possible to increase materially the capacity of any oil gas generator by increasing the temperature a hundred or more degrees.
Experimentally it was found that a gas containing about 52.0 per cent illuminants could be obtained at 800° C. at a high rate of oil feed but at the same time a large amount of tar was produced.
GAS GENERATED
Fig. IX consists of two sets of curves, one showing the gas rates and the other the gas yields for the various rates of oil feed at constant temperature. The rates of gas generation and yields at 1600° C. are not shown, as runs at this temperature could not be maintained for a sufficiently long time to obtain accurate data, on account of the choking of the furnace by the large amounts of carbon formed.
The gas rate curves show that at constant temperature an increase in the rate of oil feed does not result in a proportionate increase in the rate of gas generation but rather in a* decreasing ratio of gas rate to oil rate. As a result, at low temperatures and high rates of oil feed the rates of gas generation do not show a material change over a considerable range.
At 800° C. and at very high rates of oil feed the rate of gas generation actually becomes a decreasing function. This is apparently due to trie checking of the course of the reactions by the insufficient time interval
The gas yield curves indicate that increase in temperature results in an increase of the yield of gas at any constant rate of oil feed. This is due to the more complete decomposition of the hydrocarbons, as shown by the compositions of the gases made at slow rate (Fig. VII). At constant temperature, decrease in the rate of oil feed will result in an increase in the yield of gas to whatever maximum is representative of the most complete decomposition to be attained at the given temperature. As stated previously a decrease in the rate of oil feed provides the longer reaction period necessary for final equilibrium. Since the most complete decomposition at any one temperature is characteristic of equilibrium composition, a maximum yield of gas can be obtained only at this final stage, although such yields of gas can not be realized experimentally on account of the abovementioned reversal of reactions in the cooling zone.
Tar yields could not be determined with accuracy in these runs as the high rates of gas generation in many of the experiments made it impossible completely to separate the tars from the gases with the apparatus at hand. In general, the tar yield increased with increase in the rate of oil feed at a given temperature and with a decrease in temperature at constant rates of oil feed. Above 1200° C., at slow rates of oil feed, no tars were obtained. The nature of the tars obtained at the various temperatures has not been investigated.
I — The control of the composition of the products obtained in the manufacture of oil gas involves not only thermodynamics but also chemical kinetics.
II — In practice, equilibrium is not reached in the thermal decomposition of petroleum hydrocarbons. This is proved by the fact that a recirculation of the products, under the same conditions at which they were generated; results in a further change in composition.
Ill — The time factor, which is controlled by the rate of oil feed, is just as important as are the other variables (temperature, pressure and concentration), as it has been found that the compositions of the products obtained in making oil gas vary with the rate of oil feed. Hence, from the standpoint of practical
an easily accessible means of control.
IV — Maximum and minimum percentages of the various constituents in the products formed by the decomposition of petroleum and petroleum distillates by heat can be obtained by a proper adjustment of the variables.
V — Petroleum hydrocarbons can be completely decomposed into carbon and hydrogen only within well defined limits of the four variables. In this investigation the range of complete decomposition at a definite temperature and pressure was limited by definite rates of oil feed.
VI — Oil gases containing equal percentages of illuminants can be produced at different temperatures by varying the rate of oil feed. Such gas mixtures, although they have equal percentages of illuminants, do not in general have equal percentages of saturated hydrocarbons and hydrogen, i. e., gases of equal illuminating values are not necessarily of equal thermal values.
VII — In an isothermal decomposition of petroleum hydrocarbons, maximum yields of gas and minimum yields of tar are characteristic of equilibrium compositions.
Clive Morris Alexander was born in Leon, Iowa, on April 28, 1889, and there received his public school education, graduating from the Leon High School in May, 1907. He entered -the State University of Iowa in September, 1907, and graduated from that institution in June, 1911, receiving the degree of Bachelor of Science in Chemistry. At the State University of Iowa, during the Summer Session of 1909, he had charge of the stock room in the department of chemistry, and during the Summer Session of 1911 was Assistant in Chemistry. He studied at Harvard University during the Summer Session of 1912. The two years 1911-2 and 1912—3 were spent in graduate work and as Assistant Instructor in Chemistry at the State University of Iowa. Ifi June, 1913, he received the degree of Master of Science from the same institution. The following two years, 1913-4 and 1914-5, were spent in graduate study at Columbia University; during the latter year he was Goldschmidt Fellow in Chemistry.
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RORGPauXKTFplERM | Thermal reactions in carbureting water gas ... by Walter Frank Rittman ... | ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author wishes to express his sincere appreciation to Professor Milton C. Whitaker, at whose suggestion and under whose direct supervision this work was carried out; his practical advice and active cooperation have -been essential factors in the progress and development of this research.
Thanks are due to Professor J. L. R. Morgan for assistance in the development of the theoretical discussion; to Professor F. J. Metzger for suggestions as to methods of gas analysis and experimental procedure; and to the other members of the chemical faculty for time given to informal discussions of the principles involved in the problem.
Much careful scientific work has been done on the equilibria involved in the manufacture of uncarbureted blue water gas. In the combined processes of manufacturing and carbureting blue water gas according to present practice, few experiments have been made on the equilibria of the constituents to find out the effect of varying pressure, temperature and concentration conditions. In the technical literature of gas manufacture, one rarely finds a reference to the relationship which may exist between the spheres of reaction in the process. The natural conclusion has been that the water gas and oil gas reactions are separate and influence each other but little.
It is proposed to consider some of the factors in which the H2, CO, CO2 and H2O of the blue water gas may affect the proportions of CH4, C2He, C2H4, H2, etc., resulting from the cracking of the gas oil which is added. Likewise the influence of the gases coming from the oil on the percentage composition of the final gas mixture will be considered.
When the blue water gas or oil gas are manufactured in separate operations, hydrogen is the only gas which is found in the free state, in any quantity. But if the two gases, separately made, should be brought together at high temperature in a container such as a gas plant superheater, would there not be new equilibria to be satisfied? For example, might not the CO and Ho of one become CH4 and H2O of the other, or vice versa? In case of these new equilibria, of course, there would be vital reactions between the gases of the two processes. In actual manufacturing practice, all the gases produced are in intimate contact at high temperature for the greater part of the manufacturing period, i. e., while passing through the carbureter and superheater. Is it then correct to regard carbureted water gas as the result of two distinct reactions?
Equilibrium conditions tend to establish themselves both during the periods of initial cracking of the oil and the subsequent passage of the mixture through the carbureter and superheater. Gas oil itself can be "cracked" in a short distance, as has
been shown in practically all laboratory experiments; in the laboratory the length of the cracking tube is usually a question of inches. It would seem on a priori grounds that the only important reason for the existence of the superheater is to enable the various gases present to interact ("fix") and reach a favorable equilibrium.
This laboratory has begun a comprehensive study of the reactions and equilibria involved in water gas manufacture. While unable to cover the field in two years, it has come to a full realization of the importance of the investigation. The present paper will be confined to a theoretical consideration of the problem. Further papers will take up experimental data.
The problem has been attacked entirely from the point of view of physical chemistry, and from the standpoint of mass action and thermodynamics. In so doing, the mechanism of the reactions involved has not been seriously considered. The materials at the start, the final products desired, the energy transformations essential to bring the latter from the former, the temperature, the pressure and the concentration conditions favorable to the changes haVe had primary consideration.
Basing an experimental investigation upon the theoretical considerations evolved, it has been possible, among other things, to establish the following results:
gases are illuminants.
These figures result from the application of conditions which the theory shows would favor such results more than do those at present used in water gas manufacture. Conversely by applying conditions, which, according to theory would give less favorable results to the theory involved, and by comparing the maximum yield under these conditions with a maximum yield obtained under ordinary conditions, it has been found possible to:
lene and anthracene.
In the examination of the problem, no single reaction can be considered exclusively by itself. All the reactions are vitally interrelated, though any single reaction, or set of reactions, may be extremely important as indicating a tendency. The experiments are designed to obtain the largest yield of hydrocarbons, and to eliminate, as much as possible, CO2, water vapor, deposited carbon, and tar vapors. The goal is to increase the yield of illuminants.
sented by the equations:
C + H20 = CO 4- H2 — 29,300 cal. (i) C -f 2H2O = C02 4- 2H2 — 19,000 cal. (2) The two equations are combined by subtracting (2) from (i) in order to eliminate the carbon: CO2 + H2 = CO 4- H2O — 10,300 cal. Equilibrium is established between these gases when
where K represents the usual equilibrium constant; i. e., the value of the product of the partial pressures of CO and H20 divided by the product of the partial pressures of CO2 and H2. K has a definite value for each definite absolute temperature.
For a practical illustration of the significance of equilibrium conditions in the manufacture of blue water gas, assume a theoretically ideal mixture consisting of 50 per cent H2 and 50 per cent CO. Pass the two gases through a chamber heated to 715 ° C. (1319° F.) until they reach the equilibrium of this temperature; what are the resulting gases? K at this temperature is in the neighborhood of 0.30.
Applying the above calculations to a mixture of 1,000 cu. ft. each of carbon monoxide and hydrogen, and assuming that no hydrocarbons are formed, there would be a net loss of 13.8 per cent (276 cu. ft.) due to the reaction, leaving 1,724 cu. ft. of mixed gases, as follows:
The water in condensing leaves a net volume of permanent gases equal to 1724 — 138 = 1586 cu. ft. This permanent gas is composed of 8.7 per cent CO2, 37 per cent CO and 54.3 per cent H2. ThEre would be also a deposit of 9.25 pounds of carbon. In other words, there are only 1586 — 138 = 1448 cu. ft. of the original H2 and CO remaining.
Different temperature conditions would obviously give different results. A numerical problem of this nature shows how vitally equilibria conditions influence gas manufacture, and indicates the commercial importance of an understanding of such equilibria conditions. Just as the equilibria conditions here are of importance, it can be shown that they are no less important when the reactions are between CO, H2, CO2, and H2O coming from the blue water gas on one hand, and H2, CH4, C2H6, C2H4, and tar vapors, etc., coming from the gas oil on the other hand.
investigated1 and are well understood, so that we know
i Bureau of Mines, Bulletin 7, 1911; Juptner, Chem. Ztg., 1904, p. 902; K. Neuman, Stahl und Eisen, 1913, p. 394; O. Hahn, Z. physik. Chem., 44, 513-547; C. LeChatelier and K. Neuman, Stahl und Eisen. 1913, p. 1485; E- A. Allcut. Engineering, 1911, p. 601.
MANUFACTURE OF STRAIGHT OIL GAS
The manufacture of an oil gas as carried out by the Pintsch or Blau Gas companies is an old process, but is not as well understood as the blue water gas equilibrium. Few experimental equilibria of the various components of oil gas have been worked out, as have been the CO2, CO, H20 and H2 relations of blue water gas. Here, one at once faces the fact that in the oil cracking process, instead of the four gases of the blue water gas reaction, there are all the members of the methane, ethylene and acetylene series, as well as those hydrocarbons which constitute the tars produced in pyrogenetic decomposition.
between H2 and all of the other hydrocarbons.
By combining the ethane and ethylene equations through the elimination of carbon, one gets C2H6 = C2H4 -f- H2, where equilibrium conditions prevail when
For a practical illustration of the meaning of this expression, take the effect of heat on a known volume of C2H6. Eliminating other reactions than the one between ethane and ethylene, consider the resultant relative quantities of H2, C2H6 and C2H4 at a temperature of 900° C., taking the value of K equal to i. 28.
1 Pring and Fairlie, Report of Eighth International Congress; Ipatiew, Jour, prakl. Chem., 1913, pp. 479-487; Pring and Fairlie, Jour. Ghent. Soc., 1906 p. 1591; Ibid., 1911, p. 1796; Ibid., 1912, pp. 91-103; Bone and Coward, J. Chem. Soc., 1908, p. 1975. Proc. Chem. Soc., 1910, p. 146.
In dealing with any of these equilibria expressions, one must be careful to remember that no single equilibrium can be considered by itself. In the ethanehydrogen-ethylene equilibrium at 900° C., for instance, there is a pronounced tendency for the ethane to go to ethylene; and in practice one should expect, therefore, a high ethylene yield, but by referring to the ethylene— benzene system one finds that at 900° C. there is an even greater tendency for the ethylene to be removed by polymerization to benzene. Assuming a volume of C2H4 and bringing it to equilibrium at 900° C., observe the resultant relative quantities of C2H4 and C6H«:
Thus an experimental test, with the yield calculated according to the first equilibrium without a consideration of the second, would result in disappointment. Further, not only must the ethane-hydrogen-ethylenebenzene equilibrium be satisfied, but each of these constituents, in turn, must be in equilibrium with methane, acetylene, propane, naphthalene, etc. In short, there will be a grand symphony of equilibria between all components of the system.
Equilibria expressions, such as the ones just given, are therefore of value when properly understood and used as a basis for experimental proof. First of all, the time element is very important to insure final equilibrium; and secondly, their mathematical derivations involve integration factors based on physical properties such as specific heat, vapor pressure, heat of reaction, etc., under conditions which have not been experimentally determined. Experimental demonstration based upon a few selected and isolated equilibria is almost certain to result in failure, due to overlooking other equally important equilibria which might modify or even reverse the direction of final reactions.
Sufficient experimental and commercial work has been done on the making of all oil gas under atmospheric conditions1 to give empirical data indicating that as the temperature goes above 800° C. the yield of hydrocarbons rapidly decreases; on the other hand, the hydrogen and carbon rapidly increase.
CARBURETED WATER GAS PROCESS
In the carbureted water gas practice, as carried out to-day, there is a combination of the blue water gas and the oil gas process. Much is known about the blue gas; it is also known that this blue gas is carbureted by spraying in and cracking oil which furnishes the hydrocarbons and illuminants. There is little scientific information, however, regarding the interactions and equilibria which are reached when the two processes are combined. The formation of hydrocarbons and water from CO and H2 or from CO2 and H2 is not theoretical speculation;2 likewise the destruction of hydrocarbons with water to form CO and H2 or CO2 and H2, as carried out in the all oil water gas process, is not theoretical speculation. Whichever course prevails depends entirely upon conditions. Consequently, one is justified in concluding that the present composi-
Hempel, Dissertation. Jour. Gasb., 1910, pp. 53, 77, 101, 137, 155.
2 Mayer, Henseling and Altmayer. J. f. Gasb., 1909, pp. 166, 194, 238, 326; P. Sabatier, Chem. Ztg., 1913, p. 148; P. Sabatier, Fr. Patent 355,325, 1905; Ibid., 355,900, 1905; Ibid.. 361,616; Ibid., 400,656; Eng. Patent 14,971, 1908; Ibid., 27,045; L. Vignon, Fr. Patent 416,699, 1909; Compt. rend., 1913, pp. 131-134; Gautier, /&»</., 1910, p. 1565; Elsworthy and Williamson, Eng. Patent 12,461, 1902; Bedford and Williams, Eng. Patents 17,017, 22,219, 1909; H. J. Coleman, Jour. Gas Lighting, 1908, p. 683; E. Erdman, Jour.f. Gasb., 1911, pp. 737-743; E. Orlow, Jour. Russ. Phys. Chem., 1908, p. 1588; P. Jockum, Jour.f. Gasb., 1914, pp. 73, 103, 124, 149; T. Hoigate, Gas World, 1914, p. 90; German Patents 183.412. 190,201, 191,026, 237,499, 226,942, 177,703, 174,343 and 250,909.
tion of carbureted water gas is not the result of additive processes. Instead there is a mixture of blue water gas and cracked oil gas passing through the carbureter and superheater which constitute a single unbalanced system of gases; naturally, there is a tendency to establish equilibrium between the constituents just as surely as there is a tendency to establish an equilibrium between the constituents of either the blue gas or the all oil gas when made individually. This equilibrium at the usual temperature of the superheater has fortunately favored the formation, or at least the preservation, of hydrocarbons. This fact, however, does not prove that the process is working under conditions of, or approaching maximum efficiency. Nor does it prove that the present method of carbureting water gas is the most economical from the side of the quantity of gas oil consumed.
Many questions arise at this point. It might be possible to alter conditions in such a way as to solve, or assist in solving, the naphthalene and carbon problems of the gas manufacturer. It might still further be worth while to question the soundness of the natural tendency of the American manufacturer to combine processes; it may appear that the attempt to do everything in a single vat rather than carry it out in stages is not the most economical method in the end.
EQUATIONS AND THEORETICAL EQUILIBRIA INVOLVED
The formation of methane from carbon monoxide and hydrogen, or from carbon dioxide and hydrogen is an exothermic reaction and consequently is favored 'by low temperatures, although at these low temperatures a greater amount of time is required for complete reaction. The rate of the reaction may be greatly stimulated by catalytic agents such as nickel and cobalt. In view of the fact that there is a decrease in volume, one should expect pressure to be favorable to hydrocarbon formation. Equilibrium exists between CO and H2 or C02 and H2 on the one side and CH4 and H2O on the other.
other, are considered below:
C2H4 + 2H20 = 2CO + 4H2— 44,000 cal. C2H4 + 4H20 = 2CO2 + 6H2— 23,400 cal. C2H2 + 2H20 = 2CO + 3H2— 500 cal. C2H2 + 4H2O = 2C02 + 5H2— 20,100 cal. C2H4 + 2CO2 = 4CO + 2H2— 64,600 cal. C2H2 + 2CO2 = 4CO + H2— 21, 100 cal. With these there is sufficient data to determine in a qualitative way the concentration conditions favorable to the methane, ethylene and acetylene desired in the resultant gas.
The original complex state of affairs is thus partially simplified. One sees that conditions favorable to the formation of hydrocarbons, or at least unfavorable to the decomposition of hydrocarbons, exist when in
C, there is a minimum of CO2.
An excess of hydrogen is favorable under any conditions; a minimum of water vapor is favorable under any conditions; an excess of CO appears to be favorable under any conditions; in the case of CO2, however, one condition indicates an excess as favorable whereas another indicates an excess as unfavorable.
While these qualitative relations are extremely valuable in the consideration of favorable conditions, they do not give a sufficiently concrete idea of the conditions which prevail at different temperatures. Each equilibrium constant has a definite value for a definite temperature. If this value of K is considered for 500° C. the reaction may proceed in one direction; whereas on considering the value of K' for the same reacting agents at 900° C., the reaction may proceed in the opposite direction. Qualitative expressions point merely in general directions and give no ideas as to maxima or minima in the curve of favorable conditions. As an example, consider the equilibrium
Pent Pmo
where K equals approximately o.ooi for 500° C.; at 900° C. the equilibrium constant for the same relationship has the approximate value K' 346, or 346,000 times as great. This illustrates the importance of getting numerical values for the constants expressing equilibrium conditions for the various gases, even though they be approximate.
From a consideration of the CO, H2, CH4, and H2O equilibrium, it appears that excesses of H2 and CO would be favorable to the formation or preservation of hydrocarbons both at 500° C. and 900° C. It will further appear, however, that at 900° C. the excess of H2 and CO to stimulate the reaction towards hydrocarbons will have to be enormous, while at 500° C.
it need be only moderate. This can be seen from a mathematical study of the equilibrium, purely aside from the chemistry involved. At 500° C. the denominator is obviously the predominant factor. At 900° C. the numerator has become the predominant factor. In fact the situation is so different that it would take many times as much H2 and CO at 900° C. as it would at 500° C. Taking the two equilibrium constants and calculating theoretical mixtures one obtains the following contrasting results:
The water vapor of these equilibria is usually not considered in practice because it never appears in either the gas of the tank holder or in the gas sampling tube and resulting analysis. This does not prove its absence in the machine. Also equal pressures of hydrogen and CO in a given system are not necessarily of the same influence. This is shown in equilibrium conditions for the CH4, H20, CO and H2 system, where for instance the concentration of H2 is raised to the third power, while that of CO is of the first power. In manufacturing practice the total pressure is approximately one atmosphere, the partial pressures are expressed by such decimals as 0.5. The third power of 0.5, or 0.125, is much less than the first power, 0.5. Examples to show the effect of temperature crn the state of equilibrium can be found in straight hydrocarbon reactions. The equilibrium between acetylene and benzene shows the following results:
It appears that the value of K' at 2000° C. is 1.5 X io27 times as great as the value of K at 600° C. This leads to the expectation that while at 600° C. all the acetylene tends to polymerize to benzene,
the value of K' at 900° is approximately 1.28, whereasthe value of K at 150° is approximately 0.00000000000007. Ethane at 900° C. has a pronounced tendency to go to ethylene; the tendency for the ethylene to combine with hydrogen at 150° C. to form ethane is even more pronounced. The relatively small amount of ethane in oil gas made at 900° C. would seem to verify the first equilibrium constant; the large yield of ethane through the reduction of ethylene with hydrogen in the presence of palladium at 150° C. indicates the second constant.
EFFECT OF PRESSURE ON GASEOUS REACTIONS
In passing from ethane to acetylene, C2H6 = C2H2 + 2H2, there is an increase in volume; on the other hand, when acetylene polymerizes to benzene, 3C2H2 — > C6H6, there is a decrease in volume. According to the principle of LeChatelier one would not expect the same pressure conditions to be favorable to both. Again, the information is qualitative and gives no concrete idea of the relative influence of one-third atmosphere when added to one atmosphere pressure absolute as compared to adding the same one-third atmosphere to ten atmospheres pressure absolute. As a type reaction consider
For numerical illustration, assume the value of K to be equal to i (any other value serving equally well). From this, one finds for partial pressures, when A = 100, B = 10 or when A = o.oi, B = o.i. In the first case the partial pressure of A is ten times as great as that of B; in the second case the partial pressure of A is only one-tenth as large as the partial pressure of B. In other words, by simply changing the total pressure on the system and keeping all other conditions constant, the ratio of A to B for the pressures shown has been divided by 100. By taking the first differential of the relationship, and equating it to o,
one finds the sign to be positive, indicating that the partial pressure of A as compared with the partial pressure of B approaches a minimum as the pressure approaches the absolute zero; or conversely there would be a maximum relative yield of B the closer one approached zero pressure absolute. The rate of change can best be seen by determining points for the parabola, B2 = KA, and plotting the resulting curve.1
The general relationship of B to A changes only in degree the greater the change in the number of volumes, as can be seen by considering the curve for
From the curves shown, one can readily see that the effect of reducing pressure from one atmosphere to two-thirds of an atmosphere gives an advantage which is of little practical consequence when compared with the advantage gained by the same reductions when nearer the absolute zero of pressure. One-thirtieth of an atmosphere added to one-thirtieth atmosphere pressure doubles the total pressure on a system just as effectually as an increase from 100 to 200 atmospheres.
checks the decomposition or dissociation. In other words, less PC15 will dissociate in an atmosphere of chlorine than in an atmosphere of nitrogen or air. Ammonium chloride when heated in an atmosphere of ammonia will not dissociate to the same extent as in a vacuum or in an atmosphere containing neither arhmonia nor hydrochloric acid gas. Likewise it would be expected that ethylene would not decompose to the same degree when subjected to a high temperature in the presence of hydrogen as when subjected to the same temperature in an atmosphere of nitrogen. Further, if the ethylene were subjected to the same high temperature in the presence of both hydrogen and methane, these two constituents in the ethylenemethane-hydrogen equilibrium could be in excess; as a result, less of the ethylene should be decomposed in the formation of methane and hydrogen. In the same way if petroleum is cracked in an atmosphere containing all the hydrocarbon gases with the exception of ethylene, one would expect all the fixed gas coming from the petroleum to be ethylene, at least until the ethylene content of the system is sufficient to conform to the equilibrium conditions. The consideration of these principles seems to question the necessity of using valuable gas oil in continually generating new end products, such as tar and hydrogen; if they could be artificially supplied the equilibrium conditions would be satisfied without producing new decomposition and polymerization end products.
on gaseous reactions indicates that an increased yield of gaseous hydrocarbons will be obtained as the total pressure on the system approaches zero; also an increased yield of illuminants will be obtained by cracking the oil in an atmosphere of end products such as hydrogen and methane. On combination the logical conclusion is that one should obtain the maximum yield of illuminants by cracking the petroleum at low pressures and in an atmosphere of end products. Upon first consideration one might reasonably question the idea of adding hydrogen or methane to a vacuum, but this investigation deals with relative partial pressures, regardless of whether the total pressure equals fifty atmospheres or one-fiftieth of one atmosphere absolute.
Catalytic agents such as platinum, palladium, cobalt and nickel do not, in any way, influence final conditions of equilibrium; they merely hasten the rate at which the system reaches its final equilibrium. Whereas ethylene and hydrogen do not combine to an appreciable degree when heated to 100° C. in the absence of a catalyzer, the same mixture passed over colloidal palladium heated to 100° C. unites to form a considerable percentage of ethane. Likewise CO and H2 or CO2 and H2 can be in intimate contact at 200° to 300° without appreciable reaction in the formation of methane, but when the same proportions are brought together in the presence of a catalytic agent such as nickel or cobalt there is a very large yield of methane and water.1 Vignon2 finds that lime has much the same effect on the combination of CO and H2.
To all students of physical chemistry the proposition of Berthelot and Thomson that "every chemical change gives rise to the production of those substances which occasion the greatest development of heat" is familiar. Were this true, it would be easy to predict which of two given reactions would take place at a given temperature. Chemists today recognize
the fallacy of the statement because in all chemical reactions one deals with the additional so-called " latent energy." Berthelot's principle disregards this molecular energy, and assumes the free energy, termed maximum work, to be equal to the total energy change. Nernst maintains that this is true only at the absolute zero, i. e., the entropy of liquids and solids at absolute zero temperature equals zero.
Were it a simple matter to determine the value of this constant of integration, as well as the value of q at the different temperatures (in other words integrate the expression to absolute units) this would constitute a mathematical expression for what many consider a third law of thermodynamics. As yet there is no such accepted integration, and the best solution is to use approximate expressions, remembering at all times that the expressions are approximate, and making intelligent use of them as such. It is possible to avoid the constant of integration, however, by integrating between limits p' and p to
This integrated expression is extremely important in determining the value of K' for any desired temperature after the value of K for any other temperature has been experimentally determined. It is also valuable in showing relationships between K and K' for two different temperatures, where neither has been determined, but in this case it expresses relationships and not direct values. For instance, assume that one wished to find the relationship between K and K' for the reaction
THE NERNST APPROXIMATION FORMULA FOR K
Even though correct, K is a value based on the assumption that sufficient time elapses to allow the system to reach complete equilibrium. When dealing with hydrocarbons at different temperatures, this must not be overlooked. In fact the time element is of such primary moment that numerically correct values for K would be of little more practical use in gas manufacture than approximate values. In the case of reacting gases one does not have the speed conditions that ordinarily exist in solutions. On the other hand, gases brought together at sufficiently high temperatures do reach equilibrium practically instantly. It is important to bring out these limitations despite the value of approximate quantitative expressions such as the Nernst formula; the latter is of immense value in predicting the tendency of a reaction. In this paper Nernst 's formula is merely used; its derivation with comments can be found in the seventh German edition of Nernst 's " Theoretical Chemistry," Jellinek's " Physikalische Chemie der Gasreaktionen," or Sackur's " Thermochemie und Thermodynamik."
where q is the heat developed at ordinary temperatures and under constant pressure, as taken from thermochemical tables; 2z> represents the volume changes, and 2^C represents a summation of constants. These constants are given as follows:
CH4 2.5 C2H4 2.8 C6H6 3.0 COj 3.2 O2 2.8
To use Nernst's words, the equation gives a "fairly accurate" idea of the state of equilibrium in a system. The approximation is applied in this fashion: C + 2H2 = CH4 -f 18900 cal.
In similar manner, the values of K, K' ', and K" for Equations i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 13, 16, 17, 18, and 22 in Table II have been calculated. In those reactions involving CO and CO2, as 19, 23, and 26, use has been made of the approximation formulas for the same as worked out by Mayer and co-workers,1 but substituting the values of q shown in the table.
EQUILIBRIA
The heat absorbed or emitted in a given reaction was determined by means of the ordinary thermochemical methods of addition and subtraction, as in the following typical examples:
It is likewise possible to combine the values of K for one reaction with K' for a second reaction in order to determine K" for the resultant reaction.
In this work the values of K and K' have been combined in the manner just shown in order to determine values for equations 8, 9, 10, n, 12, 14 and 15. The Nernst approximation formula could be applied directly to each of these equations with the same results. All reactions indicated in Table II may go in either direction. Attention is called again to the fact that the reactions given must be used with a consideration of all factors involved; no equation by itself repre-
sents a complete system. All the gases mentioned, together with many others, are tending to reach equilibrium with one another. Tar compounds were not listed. Benzene, C6H6, has been used as typical of all tar formations. In technical practice one gets benzene and other tar compounds from methane hydrocarbons; from experimental evidence, it is known that from ethylene1 or acetylene2 the same results are reached. Throughout the literature one finds questions as to whether methane goes to acetylene, or acetylene to methane, ethane to ethylene, ethylene to ethane, etc. Considered in the light of this study it appears that regardless of which hydrocarbon is used initially there is a pronounced tendency for the system to reach a common equilibrium dependent upon the existing temperature. With hydrocarbons the result seems to depend more upon conditions of temperature, pressure and concentration than upon the initial hydrocarbons. In other words, with proper conditions of temperature, pressure and concentration, and with sufficient time for complete reaction, the final equilibrium will be that of the mentioned hydrocarbons and their reaction products, regardless of whether decane, hexane, ethane, methane, ethylene or acetylene, a singly or in mixtures, are used in the beginning.
Table II furnishes the basis for the experimental work of this research. Its interpretation serves as a guide in determining the direction of experiments.. Taking Equation 9 as typical, where K600 = o.ooooooi and Kgoo = 0.0004, it seems advisable to exceed 900° C. in temperature. However, referring to KWO = 0.077 and K9QQ = 0.003 f°r Equation 3, it is evident that the rate at which methane would decompose to carbon and hydrogen, in accordance with Equation 3, easily might be sufficient to offset all C2H4 formation, in accordance with Equation 9.
Jour., 1886, p. 153; V. Lewes, Proc. Roy. Soc., 1894, p. 90; Worstall and Burwell, Am. Chem. Jour., 1897, p. 815; Bone and Coward, Jour. Chem. Soc., 1908, p. 1197; Sabatier and Senderens, Compt. rend., 130, 1559; C. Paal, Chem. Ztg.. 1912, p. 60; Ipatiew, Ber., 44, 2987.
and that a temperature of 900° C. is favorable to the CO1 and H2 formation of 16, but unfavorable to the methane preseryation in Equation 19. On the other hand, a temperature of 600° C. is unfavorable to preservation of CO and H2in Equation 16 but is more favorable than 900° to hydrocarbon formation or preservation. Also it is more favorable to formation of CO2 as shown by Equation 17. These temperature effects can be more clearly understood by reference to the first numerical problem cited, and to the theoretical mixtures given for Equation 19 at temperatures of 600 a and 900° C. It appears impossible to find a temperature favorable to both when the two reactions are simultaneously carried out. In order to preserve the hydrocarbons it becomes necessary to form H2O, C02 and deposit carbon; or in order to avoid forming water vapor, C02 and deposit carbon, it becomes necessary to destroy hydrocarbons. The two cannot be reconciled.
On theoretical grounds, therefore, it appears:
I — Possible to create such conditions that the oil cracking process can be carried out at a higher temperature than is now used in oil gas processes, and thereby greatly increase the yield of valuable hydrocarbons.
IV — Impossible to preserve hydrocarbons and at the same time avoid CO2, water vapor, and deposited carbon, when oil is "cracked" as in the present carbureted water gas process.
In the design of an experimental apparatus for cracking oil in accordance with the theory set forth in Part I, it is necessary to provide accurate control over the three variables: temperature, pressure, and concentration. The plan of research has been: (i) To keep pressure and concentration constant until the effect of changing temperature is understood; (2) to keep the temperature constant and change the total pressure on the system; (3) to hold both temperature and pressure constant and crack the oil in the presence of other gases in order to vary the concentrations.
Considerable time was spent in designing and building an apparatus which would be stable, durable, easy of access and replaceable in all its parts, as well as under complete control with respect to temperature, pressure and concentration. The machine was further designed to be of such dimensions and capacity as would indicate results which might be expected in the commercial application of the principles involved. In its completed form the apparatus covers a floor space sixteen feet by four feet and the oil feed cup at the top of the machine is nine feet from the floor. With this equipment it is possible to maintain any temperature up to 1000° C. within five degrees, and any pressure ranging from one-thirtieth of one atmosphere absolute to three atmospheres absolute.
FURNACE BODY
The furnace body is made from il/z in. "Reading" brand wrought iron pipe, 32 in. long. For a length of 1 8 in. the pipe is wrapped with No. 15 Nichrome resistance wire, seven turns to the inch. Between the wrought iron pipe and resistance wire five layers of asbestos paper serve as insulation. In series with the nichrome wire of the furnace is a large rheostat, with graduated steps between 2l/2 and 9 amperes. An incandescent tell-tale lamp is connected across the binding posts of the furnace, to indicate when the current is on as well as to give a rough idea of the
The nichrome wire windings are enclosed in a fiveinch insulation of magnesia-asbestos pipe covering to minimize radiation. A 3/4 in. wrought iron pipe is welded at right angles into the i1/^ in. wrought iron furnace body to serve as a container for the pyrometer point. This side tube is likewise insulated with asbestos and is fitted with a stuffing box surrounding the pyrometer rod. With this side tube it is possible to keep the pyrometer point directly in the furnace body at all times. The pyrometer couple is of the iron-nickel type connected with a millivoltmeter calibrated in degrees Centigrade.
After continued use at the higher temperatures the furnace body warps or the nichrome wire burns out. Duplicates for all parts are kept on hand, and the apparatus is so designed that any part may be replaced within a few minutes.
In order to vaporize the oil before it reaches the cracking zone, the upper part of the furnace tube is filled with 5/8 in. steel balls. These are held in place by a thin post which runs vertically through the furnace supporting a perforated plate. The vertical rod is bent to permit the centering required for the pyrometer. The object of the steel balls is to spread the oil in thin films and facilitate vaporization, but not to serve as cracking surface; in order to accomplish this they are kept at a safe height above the cracking zone. . Lowering them into the cracking zone has a marked influence on the products obtained from the cracking process. The furnace, together with condenser, oil feed, pressure gauge and admixture gasinlet pipe are vertically supported by iron clamps attached to an upright 3 in. X 6 in. yellow pine timber. The assembled apparatus was tested at 100 Ibs. hydraulic pressure.
OIL FEED
A Powell sight feed oil cup of one quart capacity is joined by a 3/4 in. elbow and nipple to a iVa X iVa X 3A X 3A in. cross which forms the upper end of the furnace body. The pressure in the oil cup is equalized through a small internal pipe which communicates with the furnace body below the point of oil discharge. As a result of this equalizing tube, regardless of whether the apparatus is under increased or reduced pressure, the oil supply is always under a
supply pressure equal to its own head. As this head decreases the rate of flow may be regulated by the needle valve controlling the feed inlet. The rate of supply may be determined by counting the drops for a given time.
PRESSURE GAUGES
For all vacuum work the apparatus is connected with a mercury manometer calibrated in inches. A mechanical vacuum gauge is also placed at the top of the apparatus to indicate a free path in the cracking tube. In the course of the experiments under certain conditions, sufficient carbon was deposited to clog up the apparatus and show a considerable difference in the pressure between the two gauges. Such a condition, however, is limited to experiments involving high temperatures and pressures (atmospheric or greater), where the deposition of carbon is at its maximum. There is never any clogging under reduced pressures. For pressure work, the mercury column is disconnected and a mechanical pressure gauge is substituted.
CONDENSER
At the lower end, the generating tube or furnace body discharges through a Liebig type condenser into a tar drip for the collection of liquid condensates. The cooling water enters at the bottom of the condenser and on leaving continues through the jacket of the vacuum pump. The condenser pipe is offset from the furnace body rather than placed directly under it so that the furnace may be cleaned by simply removing the lower plug and withdrawing the contents. It is thus possible to remove and weigh the deposited carbon from the furnace body after each run.
TAR DRIPS
For vacuum work the tar drips are of glass, as this facilitates observation of the gas, as well as the nature and the rate of tar formation. In vacuum work it was soon found that the lighter condensates would continue through the vacuum pump because of the low pressure in the first tar drip. To collect the liquids drawn through, a second tar drip was placed beyond the vacuum pump. Upon reaching the second drip these lighter hydrocarbons condense, as the pressure is then approximately atmospheric. When working under one-thirtieth of an atmosphere it was found that only a small percentage of the hydrocarbons would
VACUUM PUMP
Vacuum in the system is maintained by a MayNelson two-ring vacuum pump. By means of a bypass connection joining the outlet and inlet of the pump, it is possible so to regulate the valve as to maintain any desired vacuum down to one-thirtieth of an atmosphere.
CONNECTION FOR PRESSURE WORK
The vacuum pump is mounted on a movable concrete foundation and by disconnecting a few couplings the vacuum attachments may be removed. For pressure work there is substituted an all metal tar collector, connecting pipe, and release pressure valve, as shown in Fig. IV. The apparatus may be changed from vacuum to pressure, or vice versa, in twenty minutes. When working under pressure, the gas
FIG. IV
generated in the furnace body creates its own pressure. This pressure is controlled by an ordinary release valve placed at the inlet to the gas collector. By regulating the release of this valve, the apparatus may be set to work under any pressure from atmospheric to 30 Ibs. per square inch above atmospheric, which seemed to be the upper safe working limit of the furnace under the conditions of operation. A pressure gauge is placed in the discharge line and used as a check on the pressure gauge near the oil feed.
GAS COLLECTOR AND ADMIXTURE GAS TANKS
The gas generated is collected in a 12 cu. ft. capacity gas holder, made by the American Meter Company. The tank is graduated in tenths of a cubic foot. By multiplying the number of cubic feet by 28.32 the
volume is reported in liters. To avoid relying upon natural diffusion for mixing the gases, the bell of the holder is fitted with an internal mechanical stirrer directly connected through a stuffing box to an electric motor located on top of the bell. Perfect mixing of the gases may be attained in two minutes with this equipment whereas natural diffusion would require from one to two hours.
The equipment also contains two 6 cu. ft. capacity admixture tanks of the same design as the large holder. These serve as gas supply tanks when cracking oil in the presence of other gases such as H2, CO, or mixtures of the two. A l/4 in. steel pipe, fitted with needle control valves, connects these two tanks with the inlet end of the furnace body. The piping is so arranged as to connect any two of the three tanks.
METHOD OF MAKING A RUN
When the apparatus is operated under vacuum the furnace body is first heated by the resistance coils to the desired temperature for cracking the oil into fixed gases. The oil is permitted to enter the upper part of the generating tube where it spreads over the steel balls and is vaporized. In the meantime, the vacuum pump has been set in operation and draws the oil vapors downward into the cracking zone of the furnace body, whereupon these vapors are immediately cracked into fixed gases and other products. These products, before opportunity is offered for polymerization or decomposition of the hydrocarbon gases, are withdrawn by the vacuum pump from the cracking zone and their place is taken by a quantity of oil vapor from the vaporizing zone above. In this manner the hydrocarbon gases are withdrawn continuously and as quickly as they form. After they pass through the condenser and receiver for the removal of the condensable vapors, they are forwarded by way of the pump to the gas holder.
GAS SAMPLING AND ANALYSIS
After the gas in the holder is thoroughly mixed by the mechanical stirrer, three or four sampling tubes are filled for analysis. As a guide for all methods of gas analysis, Dennis' 1913 edition of "Gas Analysis," using the Hempel equipment, is followed. To determine the hydrogen in a mixture of hydrogen, methane and ethane, Hempel's fractional combusts)
DATA OBTAINED FROM A RUN
In this work all conditions outside of temperature, pressure, and concentration were maintained as uniform as possible. Four hundred cc. of oil were used per run, fed at the rate of about 3 cc. per minute. The oil used is technically known as "150° (F) water white oil;" its specific gravity at 15° C. is 0.7984; boiling point between 150° and 290° C. Oil from the same tank was used throughout the experiments. All runs were made in duplicate.
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE CHANGES
The experimental data, on changes in temperature in the cracking of the oil, with pressure and concentration maintained constant, agree with the data recorded in the literature from the experiments by Haber,2
Hempel,1 Ross and Leather,2 Lewes,3 Fulweiler,4 and others. It is difficult to make accurate comparisons of two experiments conducted in different apparatus on account of the great variety of conditions involved. Subjecting a gas to a temperature of 900° C. for five seconds is quite different from subjecting it to the same temperature for five minutes.5 Leading the gases through a l/s in. pipe heated to 900° C. would give different results from those obtained by leading the same gases through a 2 in. pipe heated to 900° C. While the difference due to experimental apparatus would not be so great- as the examples cited, there is sufficient difference to affect the value of direct comparison.
However, the general results obtained at different temperatures by different experimenters are comparable. As the temperature increases, the quantity of valuable gas from a given amount of oil increases to a maximum, after which the gaseous hydrocarbons rapidly decrease and the deposited carbon increases. The quantity of tar decreases, but this is due to a dissociation of the hydrocarbons and cannot be construed favorably. Upon subjecting the oil to temperatures of 650°, 750° and 900° C., under atmospheric pressure, the results are as follows:
It seems reasonable to expect that a high pressure will assist materially in condensing three volumes of acetylene into one volume of benzene: 3C2H2 < > CeH6.
On the other hand, it seems reasonable to expect that, under a high pressure, it will be considerably more difficult for one volume of oil vapor to break up or expand to many volumes of gas than under reduced pressure.
one would expect that the application of high pressures would increase the difficulty of generating gas, and after the gas is generated it would make easier the condensation reactions which proceed to the tar stage. Since the unsaturated hydrocarbons, ethylene and acetylene, polymerize most readily, increased pressure should preferably condense them with the formation of tar compounds. In addition to the direct influence of pressure, it may be assumed that when working under increased pressure the gaseous hydrocarbons are subjected to the influence of heat for a longer time, which further tends towards the formation of heavy condensation products at the expense of the illuminants. The following series of experimental results appears to justify these conclusions:
The yields of gaseous hydrocarbons are lower than those shown in Table II, which were obtained at the same temperatures, and likewise the maximum yield is lower than the maximum obtained under atmospheric pressure.
By referring to the OIL-GAS-TAR system cited above, it becomes evident that a high vacuum would favor the increase in volume due to cracking the oil into gas and at the same time withdraw the gas from
the heat zone before it could form tar. The effects of this reduced pressure can best be observed from the results of the following experiments: »
This striking difference in end products due to diminished pressure seems to have been overlooked, perhaps because for the first few pounds per square inch vacuum the increase is not marked.
REACTIONS
The present investigation has merely opened this field. It has been established that oil cracked in an atmosphere of a gas, such as hydrogen, which reacts chemicalry with the end products of the cracking process, will yield products which are not analogous to those resulting from a physical mixture of the two gases. Not only does the mere presence of the admixed gas influence the end products, but as is to be expected from the theoretical consideration, the quantity of the admixed gas is influential.
To study the various gases and their quantitative relation will require much further experimental work. The results of preliminary study indicate that there is a vital relationship between the resulting gases in a cracking process and the atmosphere in which the oil is cracked. This relationship is likely to be of commercial significance in practical water gas carburization. The quantity of CO and H2 admixed per gallon of oil cracked is an important factor, just as the temperature and the pressure have been shown to be important factors. Jones,1 in his improved all oil water gas process, recognizes the importance of adding an 11 active gas" to the cracking zone, but considers
the effect of the presence of the admixed gas to be catalytic. Hempel1 found that by cracking oil in the presence of hydrogen not only did none of the hydrogen split off from the hydrocarbons, but part of the admixed hydrogen actually combined for the formation and preservation of hydrocarbons. On the other hand, on the basis of a single experiment reported, he maintains that the presence of CO in the cracking zone is similar to the presence of a neutral gas and is without material influence on the end products obtained from the oil. As to the hydrogen, the results of this research agree with the observations of both Hempel and Jones. The quantity and quality of gas per cc. of oil increase, and qualitative results show that the tar and deposited carbon decrease.
960 0.75 382 95.0 113.0 348 34
From these results it appears that a greater percentage of the admixed hydrogen enters into combination to form saturated hydrocarbons when the cracking process is carried out under atmospheric pressure, than is the case under greatly reduced pressure. The percentage increase in yield of the illuminants when the cracking process is carried out under reduced pressure in the presence of hydrogen is about as great, however, as is the percentage increase in illuminants when the reaction is carried out under atmospheric pressure.
SULTANT TARS
If changing temperature and pressure have a marked influence on the quantity and quality of gaseous hydrocarbons obtained from cracking petroleum oil, one should expect simultaneous changes in the condensable hydrocarbons, which differ from the permanent gaseous hydrocarbons only in that they are liquid or solid at ordinary temperatures. There should be equilibrium between all hydrocarbons of a series at the
high temperatures prevailing in the furnace where practically all the hydrocarbons are gaseous. That the end products should contain ethylene and then suddenly jump to hexene is not to be expected, any more than that the hydrocarbons in coal tar would jump from benzene to naphthalene or anthracene. In industrial practice the "illuminants" are usually said to consist of 75 per cent ethylene and 25 per cent benzene vapor.
When the gas made by cracking oil in the apparatus under one-thirtieth of an atmosphere pressure absolute is passed over palladium in the presence of an excess of hydrogen, over 90 per cent of the illuminants are converted into saturated hydrocarbons, principally ethane, indicating that the illuminants contain but little, if any, benzene vapor. If the gas contains no benzene, it is only logical to believe that the condensable hydrocarbons contain no aromatic hydrocarbons. It is .further found that the vacuum tar will combine with 1.82 sp. gr. sulfuric acid. It has a low specific gravity, and on permitting the higher boiling point fractions to stand, no naphthalene or anthracene separate out. Tars resulting from cracking oil in carbureting blue water gas under atmospheric pressure contain quantities of benzene, toluene and other aromatic hydrocarbons in sufficient amounts to be of commercial importance. In view of these facts, there is justification for the statement that tars which result from cracking petroleum under low pressures are different from those which result from cracking under atmospheric or higher pressure. Instead of benzene, toluene and other aromatic hydrocarbons, the vacuum tar contains members of the more unsaturated hydrocarbon series. The composition of these tars is now the subject of a further investigation.
SUMMARY
In the theoretical discussion on the influence of diminished pressure on oil gas manufacture, it was pointed out that one should expect an increase in the yield of gaseous hydrocarbons from a given amount of oil by reducing the pressure below atmospheric. This increase should reach a maximum as the absolute zero of pressure is approached. The correctness of this is shown by resultsrecordedin Tables IV and VI. Not only are the gaseous hydrocarbons yields greatly increased, but the deposited carbon is practically eliminated,
tures under higher pressure.
It was pointed out that increasing the total pressure under which the oil is cracked to several atmospheres will decrease the gaseous hydrocarbon yields from a given amount of oil. Experimental results, shown in Table III, have proven this correct.
It was pointed out that varying the pressure on the system would enable one to better control the quantity .and quality of "tar" obtained than at present where all tar is made under atmospheric pressure. Experimental results indicate considerable flexibility.
It has further been established that the end products resulting from cracking oil in an atmosphere of a gas, such as H2, which reacts chemically with the end products of the cracking, are a function of both the composition and the quantity of the gas admixed, per Table V.
Experiments, Table IV, have proven that it is possible to "crack" oil at a temperature of 900° C. without depositing more carbon than i% by weight of the oil used.
Through a proper consideration of equilibrium and mass action conditions under various degrees of temperature and pressure, much can be expected in gaseous reactions. It soon becomes evident that the single stage method wherein endothermic and exothermic, expansion and contraction reactions are combined in a single apparatus, is open to question.
Walter Frank Rittman was born in Sandusky, Ohio, on December 2, 1883. Before entering college he spent four years in the shops and drawing rooms of steel and machine manufacturers in Cleveland, Ohio. He received the degrees of A.B. from Swarthmore College in 1908, M.A. in 1909, and M.E. in 1911. During 1909 he served as chemist in the laboratory of the United Gas Improvement Company, of Philadelphia. From 1909 to 1912 he was engaged in professional chemical engineering work in and about Philadelphia, and at the same time held the position of lecturer and laboratory instructor in Industrial Chemistry at Swarthmore College. From 1912 to 1914 he was engaged in graduate study in Columbia University. He was special lecturer on Industrial Chemistry at Columbia University in the Summer School of 1913.
| 11,857 | common-pile/pre_1929_books_filtered | thermalreactions00rittrich | public_library | public_library_1929_dolma-0023.json.gz:1111 | https://archive.org/download/thermalreactions00rittrich/thermalreactions00rittrich_djvu.txt |
7wykjhJzzXvBsziB | 4.15: The Endomembrane System and Proteins - Peroxisomes | 4.15: The Endomembrane System and Proteins - Peroxisomes
- Name the various functions that peroxisomes perform inside the cell
Peroxisomes
A type of organelle found in both animal cells and plant cells, a peroxisome is a membrane-bound cellular organelle that contains mostly enzymes. Peroxisomes perform important functions, including lipid metabolism and chemical detoxification. They also carry out oxidation reactions that break down fatty acids and amino acids.
In contrast to the digestive enzymes found in lysosomes, the enzymes within peroxisomes serve to transfer hydrogen atoms from various molecules to oxygen, producing hydrogen peroxide (H 2 O 2 ). In this way, peroxisomes neutralize poisons, such as alcohol, that enter the body. In order to appreciate the importance of peroxisomes, it is necessary to understand the concept of reactive oxygen species.
Reactive oxygen species (ROS), such as peroxides and free radicals, are the highly-reactive products of many normal cellular processes, including the mitochondrial reactions that produce ATP and oxygen metabolism. Examples of ROS include the hydroxyl radical OH, H 2 O 2 , and superoxide (O −2 ). Some ROS are important for certain cellular functions, such as cell signaling processes and immune responses against foreign substances. Many ROS, however, are harmful to the body. Free radicals are reactive because they contain free unpaired electrons; they can easily oxidize other molecules throughout the cell, causing cellular damage and even cell death. Free radicals are thought to play a role in many destructive processes in the body, from cancer to coronary artery disease.
Peroxisomes oversee reactions that neutralize free radicals. They produce large amounts of the toxic H 2 O 2 in the process, but contain enzymes that convert H 2 O 2 into water and oxygen. These by-products are then safely released into the cytoplasm. Like miniature sewage treatment plants, peroxisomes neutralize harmful toxins so that they do not cause damage in the cells. The liver is the organ primarily responsible for detoxifying the blood before it travels throughout the body; liver cells contain an exceptionally high number of peroxisomes.
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Key Points
- Lipid metabolism and chemical detoxification are important functions of peroxisomes.
- Peroxisomes are responsible for oxidation reactions that break down fatty acids and amino acids.
- Peroxisomes oversee reactions that neutralize free radicals, which cause cellular damage and cell death.
- Peroxisomes chemically neutralize poisons through a process that produces large amounts of toxic H 2 O 2 , which is then converted into water and oxygen.
- The liver is the organ primarily responsible for detoxifying the blood before it travels throughout the body; as a result, liver cells contain large amounts of peroxisomes.
Key Terms
- enzyme : a globular protein that catalyses a biological chemical reaction
- free radical : Any molecule, ion or atom that has one or more unpaired electrons; they are generally highly reactive and often only occur as transient species. | 1,632 | common-pile/libretexts_filtered | https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology/General_Biology_(Boundless)/04%3A_Cell_Structure/4.15%3A_The_Endomembrane_System_and_Proteins_-_Peroxisomes | libretexts | libretexts-0000.json.gz:49832 | https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology/General_Biology_(Boundless)/04%3A_Cell_Structure/4.15%3A_The_Endomembrane_System_and_Proteins_-_Peroxisomes |
FDpB4YOrKezBYZGO | On renal and urinary affections : miscellaneous affections of the kidneys and urine / by W. Howship Dickinson. | PREFACE.
In presenting this work to the public I have to apologize for its tardycompletion. The delay has been partly caused by the demands of active professional work, and partly by my desire to incorporate the results of the experience thus acquired.
It was my design to follow the publication of Albuminuria^ with an account of the other renal and urinary diseases sufficient for the practitioner, and not too lengthy for the student. If I have, as I fear, erred in the direction of amplification, it has been from the desire to be clinical ; not merely to give conclusions, but the grounds of them. I notice with regret as a substantia] evil the bulk to which the book has swollen. Paper of some thickness was needed for the proper display of the woodcuts, and I have not thought it well to save space by contracting tlie type. I am assured that much of any interest which may be found will be in the clinical and pathological cases, but nevertheless it is possible that the value of some of them may not be thought commensurate with their weight. It was my intention to have presented the work in one volume ; but I have thought that the convenience of the reader would be best served by so far departing from the original plan as to issue each part in a separate cover, each with a separate table of contents.
I have not hesitated to fill up the deficiencies of my own observation with that of others ; and where my opportunities have been small, as with regard to parasites, I have been content to present the existing state of knowledge little else than as a compilation.
I have considered in one place the structural alterations of the kidney, together with the results tliey produce ; and in another the leading alterations of the urine, with the changes to which they are due. Many subjects have thus been shown from two points of view, and a certain amount of repetition entailed ; but not otherwise could the mutual relations as well as the individual characteristics of tlie several disorders be presented.
With the existing abundance of works devoted to the purpose, I have not thought it necessary to give space to methods of urinary examination ; nor have I attempted to deal at large with changes which
tlic urine presents in connection with diseases external to tlie kidneys, and not manifested especially by their means ; but I have regarded with a somewhat wide ocoi)e its more promineni morbid states, and tlie conditions wliich attend its absence and its superabundance. I have dealt fully witli the circumstances of phospliatic excess, and of the additions 'of sugar, albumin, chyle, and blood. I have not given a separate chai)ter to ])uruk'nt urine ; since, so far as tliis can be considered apart from surgery, 1 judged that it had found suthcient mention under tlie headings of Pyelitis and Abscess. I have entered Avith some detail into the conditions of urine and of system which occur with the formation of calcuH.
In preparing for the press the portion of the work which is now presented to the public, pains have been taken to make each subject level with tlie time ; but even in the interval between printing and pubHcation some cases have progressed in a manner I sliould liave been glad to have recorded, and some researches have been made and opinions expressed which were excluded, not by choice, but by date. Cases in renal surgery have presented tliemselves which it was not possible to introduce, but tlie principles enunciated would not have been thereby altered. Tlie chapter on disseminated suppuration has received some additional experience in the shape of a postscript, together with reference to some recent views on ''catheter fever." The chapter in Part I. referring to the pathology of diabetes, which was published in the year is 77, has been re- written, which was rendered necessary by the discussions which it has provoked, and the further researches which it has instigated.
The publication of this work in portions has necessitated a mode of arrangement in which logical sequence has sometimes given way to convenience : but it is hoped that the disjointed parts will fall together without violence, and, with the help of the index, present a fairly accessible as well as a sutticiently inclusive account of the diseases of the kidneys, and the disorders mainly declared by their secretion.
The numerous cases cited in detail in the English edition of this volume have been omitted in this edition in order somewhat to reduce its size. It will be perceived that the text of the work has been so prepared that this omission in no degree interferes with its continuity, nor does it limit its authority.
CHAPTER II.
Pathological changes — Causes — Urinary alterations — Characters of healthy epithelium from different parts of urinary tract — Sj'^mptoms, course, results, and treatment of pyelitis, . . . . , .16
SUPPURATIVE PERINEPHRITIS.
Position and exits of matter outside kidney; its sources and causes — Plymouth Dockyard disease — Puerperal abscess. From perforation of gallbladder, pyajmia, fevers, etc. — Symptoms, duration, urinary characters, and treatment of perinephritis, . . . . . .23
THROMBOSIS AND EMBOLISM.
Thrombosis — Morbid anatomy; causes, organic antecedents, and symptoms — Mortality when complete and when partial — Embolism — Morbid anatomy — Symptoms — Urine — Aneurism of renal artery consequent upon embolic obstruction, . . . . . . . . .30
GENERAL RELATIONS OF RENAL TUMORS.
Their anatomical relations — Position with regard to bowels subject to some variation — Abdominal presentation ; its varieties — Urine — Renal tumors how distinguished from those of liver, spleen, ovary, peritoneum, suprarenal bodies, and absorbent glands — Cases illustrating the similarity of the last with renal tumors, . . . . . . .37
PATHOLOGY AND VARIETIES OF RENAL TUMORS.
Their kinds enumerated — Malignant growths generally considered — Distribution of growths secondary to those in kidney — Extension of growths from kidney — Minute anatomy and relations of carcinoma, sarcoma.
fibrous and fibro-fatty tumors, melanosis, villus, lymphadenoma, leukhaemic tumors, angioma, syphiloma, fatty, bony, calcareous, and cartilaginous growths, . . . . • . . .47
EASE OF THE KIDNEY.
Its exciting causes— Symptoms— Tumefaction, pain, paraplegia, cachexia, hfematuria — Urine— Results of dissemination and encroachment — Duration in children and adults— Treatment by excision and palliation, . 70
TUBERCLE OF KIDNEY.
Patholog}'. broadly and with microscopic detail— How associated with tubercle elsewhere— Frequency in children and adults, and at different ages — Exciting causes — Symptoms, local and general — Abdominal tumor — Consequent lardaceous disease, extra-renal and psoas abscess — Urine — Duration and prospects — Medical and surgical treatment . . .79
Greneral description — Subjects and causes of hydro- and pyo-nephrosis — Pathological changes with hydronephrosis — Dilatations and cysts simulating it — Double hydronephrosis — Single hydronephrosis, diagnostic errors, causes of death — Pyonephrosis — Treatment, medical and surgical, of both conditions . . . . . . . .94
CYSTIC DISEASE OF KIDNEY.
Varieties — The large cystic kidney minutely descrilied — Its origin and nature — Subjects — Its frequent latency and distinctive symptoms — Urine — Tumefaction— Congenital cvstic disease — Solitary cysts — Paranephric cysts, . . '. . . . . . . . 109
RENAL CALCTLI IN GENERAL AND PARTICULAR, WITH THEIR CAUSES.
Classification of calculi; their relative frequency as indicated by the museums of London — General structure of calculi — Ord's views — Their geographical distribution and relation to water, food, climate, and race — Uric acid stones; and diathesis — Urates — Xanthine — Oxalate of limestones, and the oxalic diathesis — Phosphatic calculi and the phosphatic diathesis — Calcic carbonate — Cystine and the cystine diathesis — Indigo stones — Fibrinous and blood calculi — Urostealith — Differential diagnosis of renal calculi, . 120
RENAL CALCULI IN GENERAL.
Position and local effects of renal stones — Their clinical relations and sj'mptoms — Ages at death icith and o/ renal calculi — Their various symptoms, pain, tenderness, grating appreciable to touch — Posture — Affections of testicle and bla<ider— Hieinaturia in relation to movement— Its characters and differential diagnosis— Passage of stone — Case illustrating its symptoms — Modes of death, . ..... 155
ON THK TREATMENT OF STONE IN THE KIDNEY.
Regulation of movement and of diet — Treatment of pain, hemorrhage, pyelitis, renal colic, and suppression — Renal lithotomy and excision of kidney — Tabulation of cases — History and discussion of the solvent treatment of calculi by various nostrums, reagents and waters, . . . 177
MISPLACEMENT, DISPLACEMENT, AND MOBILITY OF THE KIDNEY.
Congenital misplacement — Movable or displaced kidney as an acquired condition— Sex and age of subjects — Etiology — Signs — Abdominal relation of tumors shown in diagrams — Symptoms and results — Diagnosis and terminations— Medical treatment by pressure, etc. — Surgical by excision and fixation, ..... .... 204
URINARY PARAPLEGIA.
Theory of reflex paralysis — Criticism of Stanley's cases and of those of Graves and d'Etiolles — Views of Gull — Conclusion adverse to the reflex theory, . . . . . . . . . .315
Congenital imperfections of ureters; iiijuries by violence — Inflammation — Tubercle and cancer — Stricture and dilatation of ureters — Their involvement in diseases external to tliemselves; their perforation by abscesses — Renal artery — Congenital defects; obstruction by coagulum, by atlieroma, by external pressure — Renal aneurism, ..... 221
RENAL PARASITES.
Hydatids — General description — Their renal localization, signs, and symptoms— their association witli calculi, with paraplegia — Their course, duration, and treatment — Bilharzia — Endemic hajmaturia — History and geographical distribution of the Bilharzia — Symptoms — Preventive and otiier treatment — The strongulus gigas — Description, geographical distribution, site, and symptoms — Pentastoma denticulatum — Teti'astoma renale — Worms accidentally present in urinary passages — Spurious parasites passed with urine or found in bladder, .... 227
CHYLURIA.
Early and recent views — Geographical distribution — Subjects and general symptoms — Urine — Duration of disease — Intermission and variationsSuperficial discharges of chyle with chyluria — The filaria — Description, varieties, and natural history — Its effects upon the human body — Elephantiasis, etc. — Morbid anatomy and pathology of chyluria— Treatment, .......... 251
INTERMITTENT HEMATURIA OR HEMOGLOBINURIA.
Designations — Early and more recent descriptions — Subjects and antecedents — Malaria, etc. — Excitants of attack; cold and periodicity — Characters of seizure — Abortive attacks — Temperature of body — Intercurrent and con-
sequent disorders— Urine— Blood and serum under attacks— Morbid anatomy—General view of phenomena of disease— Haemoglobinuria of other kinas— Analogy with Reynaud's disease; conclusions and treatment, . 274
LIME, IN THE URINE.
Causes of the precipitation of phosphates— The phosphatic diathesis— Clinical significance of excess of earthy salts illustrated by cases— Quantitative observations uix)n urine — Conclusions, ..... 294
ORDERS.
Tests for albumin compared— Reactions of peculiar forms of albumin, peptone, and {,'lobul in— General significance of albuminuria; its frequency and its causes— Albuminuria as a result of renal diseases and disturbances; with pneumonia, cholera, and pyrexia— Albuminurrti of nervous origin; with exophthalmic goitre; of adolescents — Albuminuria from alterations in blood, hydraemia, scurvy, and purpura, . . . 300
HEMATURIA.
Means of detection of blood in urine; its sources — Renal haematuria; from various organic changes and congestive and febrile states; from stone and growths — Vesical haematuria; from cancer, villus, and nsevus — Vicarious hfematuria. Haematuria from mental emotion; with scurvy and purpura, especially in connection with the improper feeding of infants— Simple heematuria — Malarial haematuria — The treatment of hsematuria, .......... 317
SUPPRESION OF URINE.
Suppression from renal disease; with various forms of albuminuria; with disseminated and other forms of abscess; after surgical operations; obstructive from stone, hydronephrosis, and growths — General description of obstructive suppression— Suppression from arterial stoppage — Suppression from systemic causes, concussion, collapse, poisqps, cholera, ague, and intestinal obstruction, ...... 328
59. Urinary deposit of E. Harvey under attack of intermittent heematuria,
showing granular matter, crystalloid specks, casts, and leucocytes, . 282 CO. Urinarj' deposit from J. Dare under attack of intermittent hfematuria, showing amorphous yellowish matter imbedding j^ellow crj'stalloid masses, apparently blood-crystals, 283
KIDNEY.
It is scarcely necessary in these days to insist upon the obvious distinction between abscess originating within the renal substance, which is now in question, and suppuration of the renal cavity, or suppurative pyelitis, which will find mention elsewhere; although among the older writers the term " abscess of the kidney " was applied indiscriminately to both, and much of their recorded experience thus rendered indefinite.
Abscess of Kidney from External Violence.
Such immediate effects of external injures as Avounds, rents, and bruises of the kidney do not come within the experience of the physician, and ai'e not included in the present work.
Though it is not uncommon for the kidney to be broken or torn, life under such circumstances being endangered by haematuria and other immediate consequences of the accident, it would seem that there is but little risk of any induced inflammation of the renal substance. The rent is soldered up with coagulum, and if the patient outlive other results of
lated at p. 3.
Suppurative inflammation in the substance or on the surface of the kidney/as the result of a blow or fall, is accordingly rare. Frequently as suppuration occurs in the kidney under other circumstances, traumatic abscess is a pathological curiosity.' One case and one only has been described at St. George's Hospital, as the result of an injury, and even that presented on posl-niortefn examination an equivocal resemblance to pyelitis. The pus escaped with the urine, and it is not clear that it had not originated in the pelvis ratlier than in the substance.
The association of abscess with laceration or contusion of the renal substance is, however, distinctly seen in the following case which occurred in the practice of the late Dr. Bright. The prejiaration Avliich is preserved at Guy's Hospital shows the result of a severe blow upon the loins, inflicted nine months before death. The capsule of the kidney, thickened in some places to half an inch, is separated from the surface of the gland by an irregular mass of mingled coagulum and pus.
This is the only preparation I know of in the pathological museums of London which supplies an example of a renal abscess resulting from an external injury, though several cases could be brought together from other sources. Tiie most frequent form appears to be the infiltration of part of the renal substances by pus and blood, possibly so as to convert it into a sanious pulp. Such an instance is related by Siebert." A man jumped from a moving train, was turned over several times, thrown to a considerable distance, and found upon his back. The urine was afterwards scanty, bloody, and albuminous. After his death, which occurred in six weeks, the substance of both kidneys was found to be reduced to a pulpy, bloody mass, from which could be squeezed the detritus into which the greater part of both kidneys had been transformed.
Citizen A., aged thirty, was serving, in the month Prairial, on board a ship apparently in tlie Revolutionary service. He fell upon a yard so as to bruise the loins, especially over the region of the left kidney. This was followed by sharp and severe lumbar pain, which persisted in spite of frequent blood-letting. The urine became bloody. Febrile disturbance then set in. with which the urine, which had now ceased to contain blood, became scanty. The febrile sj^mptoms gradually assumed a typhoid type, with drj-ness of the tongue and much prostration and shivering. On the twelfth day after the accident, the urine was temporarily suppressed, the secretion re-appearing on the day following with a large discharge of pus. The pain was now relieved, but the prostration continued, and he sank a fortnight after he fell.
Acute suppuration connected with the kidney appears to be generally attended with febrile symptoms, sometimes of a typhoid type; it is probable, however, that in this case the prostration was intensitied by the blood-letting which was so remorselessly practised.
great comparative iufrequency, abscess of the kidney may result from a
' This statement is not meant to include the caseous or tuberculous change which may follow a blow or fall and end in abscess or excavation. A description of this is to be found in Chap. X. of this part.
blow upon the loins or hypochondrinm. Hasmaturia appears to be generally ]n-esent at the outset, suggesting that the primary injury has been a hiceration or contusion of the renal substance. According to the amount of contusion, the symptoms may take an acute form and rapidly destroy life with febrile prostration, or the abscess may, if I may accept the evidence of one somewhat equivocal case, become clironic, enter the pelvis, and continue for a long time to discharge, producing the constitutional effects of protracted sui)puration. It is probable that in its less severe form the process may end in recovery.
The kidney may be more or less bruised or contused by a blow, and quickly recover from the disturbance of function which has been so produced. In the following case there was evidence that an injury of the kidney produced a temporary conditio]i of albuminuria.
A boy, ten years of age, came under my care at the Hospital for Sick Children, He had while at play fallen with liis belly upon the upturned leg of a stool, and had made a bruise just in front of the left anterior superior spine of the ilium. Immediatelj' after the fall he becaiue sick and prostrate, and complained of abdominal pain. The next day, when brought to the hospital, he had signs of peritonitis, the belly Avas tympanitic and excessively tender, he lay, intolerant of movement, on the left side with tlie legs drawn up, the breathing was entirely thoracic, and was accompanied with catching pain. He had had diarrhoea, with much flatus, and liquid motions, which he said felt like boiling water, and there was much febrile disturbance. The urine was scanty, free from blood, but highly albuminous, the clot reaching to about a fourth. He had small repeated doses of opium, and warm applications externally, and in three days the acuteness of the symptoms had so far abated as to give promise of recovery. On the fifth day his progress was interrupted by an attack of acute pain accompanied by pleural friction in the lower region of the right chest, but this soon passed off, and he gradually i-ecovered his health, the urine slowly a^pproaching its natural abundance, the albumin steadily diminisliing ; though, when he left the hospital for the convalescent establishment, eighteen days after admission, a trace could still be detected by careful examination. He had lost all other results of the accident.
The injury had evidenth' set up peritonitis, and had so bruised the left kidney as to occasion a temporary condition of nephritis. The attack of pleurisy on the right side, remote from the blow, was more doubtful in its source, and it remains uncertain whether it is to be accounted for by the direct effect of the blow, or whether it was produced indirectly as a consequence of the renal disturbance.
ject of traumatic abscess.
Laceration of a kidney previoiisly diseased, hcematuria and collapse, apparent recovery. Death, after the lapse of eighteen months, from granular degeneration. Obstruction by coagulum of injured kidney.
A groom, thirty-five years of age, was brought into St. George's Hospital, having received a kick from a horse which broke his arm, and severely bruised the right hypochondrium. The accident was followed by extreme collapse, with the effusion of fluid, at first thought to be blood, but probably serum, the result of peritonitis, into the abdominal cavity. He had haematuria, at first copious, but which lasted for only two days. He lay for some time in extreme peril' but at the end of seven weeks he had so far recovered as to be able to leave the hospital.
where the case canae under my notice as medical registrar.
It appeared that he had had his ordinary health from the time he went out until six weeks before his re-admission, when he became oedematous. It was learned, however, that for about two years (commencing apparently before the accident) he had been liable to pain in the loins, and that the ui-ine had been increased in quantity and frequency.
have a specific gravity of 1.016, and to contain many coarse granular and some transparent casts. It was concluded from tliese circumstances, as well as from his worn, sallow asi)ect, that tlie kidneys were the subject of gi-anular degeneration. He liad much dithculty of breathing, coarse moist sounds being heard at the lower part of both lungs, and he sank a week after admission.
Both kidneys were small, granular, and full of cysts, giving evidence of a state of chronic disease which had evidently existed before the accident. The cellular tissue around the right kidney was much consolidated, and on making a section of the gland a large clot of blood was seen to occupy its pelvis and interior, communicating also with the exterior, where a considerable quantity lay in the sub-peritoneal cellular tissue. The line of rupture could be faintly traced through the substance of the gland. The ureter was completely impervious, being blocked up by coagulum. Numerous old adhesions united the right lobe of the liver to the diaphragm, probabl}^ marking the situation of the inflammation which caused the effusion of peritoneal fluid.
water. The heart was much hypertrophied, the valves natural.
In the extent of the laceration, whicli passed from the pelvis to the capsule, and its complete closure, the case is of interest as showing the great power of liealing possessed by the kidney. The recovery from the rapid and total obstruction of the excreting channels of the one kidnej' is the more striking when we consider that the sole remaining kidney was probably at that time the subject of gramilar degeneration, on which account, as we may presume, it was incapable of the hypertrophy which occurs when increased duty is thrown upon a healthy kidney. The patient appears to have pursued his calling for a year, thinking himself well, though practically reduced to one kidney and that one diseased. When death occurred it was the result of the progressive disease in the uninjured kidney; had that been sound it is probable that the man would have been little the worse for the misadventure by which he was suddenly deprived of one-half of his renal structures.
The treatment of traumatic abscess of the kidney is negative; we have no encouragement to use any measures but rest and time, having regard to tiie constitutional state of the patient and liis temporary symptoms. The kidneys, as I htive often seen, may be punctured with the aspirator without fear, but sucli abscess as results from injury is seldom definite enough to admit of relief by such means.
Irritant Drugs as Causes of Renal Abscess.
Abiscess of the kidney has been known to result from cantharides. The state of kidney usually produced by this irritant is one of acute tubal inflammation, and as such has been considered already; but it must be mentioned, in connection with abscess of the kidney, that it may possibly have this origin.
In the Museum of the College of Surgeons is a kidney which is almost completely destroyed by diffuse su])puration. Pus is extensively diffused through the cortex, and between it and the capsule; the surface of the kidney is covered with siireds of its own broken tissue, and the substance is excavated by a ragged abscess-cavity.
" This was obtained from the body of a man sixty years of age, to whom tincture of cantharides had been given for incontinence of urine consequent on retention. The medicine produced extreme pain, both of the bladder and kidneys, and retention, which lasted two days. When the urine was drawn off, it was mixed with blood and pus, and foetid. All power over the bladder was lost, and the patient, scarcely relieved of his sufferings, died in tiiree weeks. The prostate was much enlarged. The
Other examples are known of suppurative inflammation of the kidney from the same cause. Cantharides was formerly extensively given in cases of paralysis of the bladder connected with paraplegia, and opportunities of noting the characters of the consequent inflammation Avere of occasional occurrence. The pelvis and urinary membrane were affected very extensively, and in some cases covered with a membranous exudation.
Pyemic Abscess.
Pyaemia more often calls for attention as a general condition than as affecting any organ in particular. The renal localization, much as it may aggravate the condition of the patient, escapes notice during life amid the other disturbances of pyaemia so often that it is only in exceptional instances that it acquires clinical interest.
The morbid appearances characteristic of pyaemia as it affects the kidney are as follows: At the earliest stage at wiiich the results can be detected by the naked eye, the kidneys, both of which are generally affected at the same time and in a similar manner, show on their surfaces and in their substance minute scattered patches of injected vessels. Later, each patch displays in its centre a white speck, which is at first hard, but as it increases in size gradually liquefies, the softening beginning at the centre, until it is converted into a minute abscess surrounded by injected tissue. These abscesses are often plentifully scattered through the kidney, the cones usually containing more of them than the cortex. They are mostly of small size, seldom as large as a nut, generally comparable, when seen in circular outline, with peas, mustard-seeds, or small shot. They are usually, however, elongated, so as to present a circular outline only towai'ds the surface of the organ. In the cones they stretch in the direction of the tubes and vessels of which the cones consists. Sometimes several can be seen in company, either distinct or more or less confluent^ radiating through both medullary and cortical tissue, and impinging upon the surface, where the circular base of the abscess appears as a pustule underneath the capsule.
On the surface of the organ the abscesses may be thickly or sparsely sown. They project from the surface like the eruption of small-pox, of which the surface of the kidney is under these circumstances often suggestive. Sometimes larger abscesses form bosses on the surface of considerable size and prominence. The surface of the gland around and between the points of suppuration is unnaturally injected, each pustule being sometimes surrounded by a bright zone of distended vessels.
The tissue of the organ is throughout more or less overloaded with blood, and often has the coarse texture and indistinctness of structure which results from epithelial accumulation.
have found them to consist of the following elementary changes.
The columnar and wedge-like disposition of the abscesses, as evident to the naked eye, is suggestive of their connection with blood-vessels, a connection which is at once evident on microscopic examination.
with a dirty white material, which appears to be morbid coagulum. This is sometimes seen in tlie larger arteries, but is found in the greatest abundance in the straight vessels of the cones, wliich are often swollen to varicosity. Loss frequently the peculiar discoloration is found in the Malpighian bodies and in the intertubular capillaries. Thus it would seem that the arteries have been injected with a material different from their natural contents, most of whicii is arrested in the small arterial branches, comparatively little reaching tlie vessels of the capillary size. It will be remembered that, according to the observations of Virchow, many of the straiglit arteries of the cones, whicli especially are tlie seat of the peculiar obstruction, come directly from the renal artery, some only being derived from the Malpighian bodies. The contents of the arteries, therefore, early roach the cones.
The next stop in tlie morbid process is the appearance among the obEtructed vessels of rounded collections of pus-corpuscles. These sometimes interrupt the course of a plugged vessel, as if formed at its expense; sometimes they appear among and between distended vessels, forcibly thrusting aside the vessels, tubes, and all tiie renal structures. These abscesses begin as small masses of coherent corpuscles, which often show in their centre small masses of the same matter as obstructs the vessels, suggesting their origin in the bursting of a vessel and the escape of part of its contents into the tissue to act as an irritant, and becomes a focus of suppuration.
The corpuscles rapidly multiiily, and the abscess increases, pushing aside the tissue as it swells, until at last it assumes the character of a collection of liquid pus lying in a cavity bounded by condensed kidneystructure. Whatever the size of the pyaemic formations may be, whether invisible to the naked eye or as large as a marble, their anatomy is essentially the same. They are not made at the expense of the secreting structures, but are intrusions between them. Where the vessels extend from the cones to the cortex, the formations are apt to follow. Their situation is determined by the position of the distended vessels, and the only doubt whicli attends their origin is whether the vessel actually bursts, or without rupture permits the migration of its morbid contents through tlie wall. The microscopic appearances, as I have described them, are suggestive of rapture, the escaped morbid contents acting as the excitant of the cell growth around, which eventually breaks down into liquid pus. These details are perhaps useful as bearing ]io less upon the general pathology of pysemia than upon the particular affection of the kidney. They support the conclusions formed on differijut grounds by Mr. Henry Lee, and corroborated by other observers. Pyaemia is simply embolism in which thecoagula distributed are morbidly irritating to the tissue, and tend by their contact to excite the production of pus. AVhether their irritating quality is due to the presence of bacteria or to the admixture of any other morbid product, the pi-ocess is clear in this as in other organs. Poisoned einb(jli, whether derived from a vein communicating with a wound or elsewhere, are let loose into the circulation, and finally distributed by the arteries, jiroducing scattered abscesses such as have been described, in positions determined by the source of the infection and the course of the blood.
death, it is comparatively seldom that this complication attracts notice during life. It may result from any of the causes to which pyaemia arising in connection with the systemic as distinguished from the portal vessels is due. In the cases I have referred to as the basis of this description, the disorder was traced to the following causes: Diseases of bones and joints; osteomyelitis; jieriostitis; suppurating bursa?; senile gangrene; ulceration of cheek; diffuse suppuration after a bruise; amputation of limbs, and other surgical operations; and accidental wounds. In short, whatever be the source of a general pyaemic infection, the kidney runs its chance of attack, though affected far less frequently than the lungs, which from their anatomical relations are necessarily the first recipients of the poisoned current.
It does not consist with my present purpose to discuss the general symptoms of pyaemia — these, the rigors, the febrile prostration, the altered color of the skin, and the multiple abscesses, belong to the domain of surgery. The only signs of disease which point es])ecially to the Icidneys are shown by the urine, which is apt to become albuminous, scanty, dark in color, possibly lithatic, and to abound with tube-casts of various kinds — epithelial, granular, and hyaline — while in some cases they characteristically imbed pus-corpuscles, while others, unattached, may be also discoverable with the microscope, though there is no bulky deposit of this nature. Casts are more regularly found with renal pyaemia, in which the urine is usually acid, than with the form of disseminated suppuration to be next described, in which the urine is almost constantly alkaline, and thus a solvent for these products.
Though the pyaemic deposits are necessarily intertubal, the neighboring tubes suffer by contact, as is easily seen by the abundance of plugged tubes around a pyaemic focus.
Pyaemie suppuration, beginning Avith the kidney, may transgress its limits and become perinephritic, or even present itself as a suj^erficial tumor. A woman had an abscess of the leg opened in St. George's Hospital; it closed, and she went away, but shortly returned with signs of irritation about the place of the abscess, which was accordingly reopened. Then ensued rigors, sweating, and pneumonia, in addition to which a rounded swelling of the extent of the palm of the hand showed itself under the last rib on the right side. The urine was now highly albuminous, lithatic, and scanty. She fell into a condition of febrile pi'ostration, with sordes on the lips and much dyspnoea, and thus died, seven weeks after the reopening of the abscess, three after the detection of the pneumonia. The external swelling was caused by a large collection of jDUs which lay between the liver and the right kidney, in the substance of which it had apparently taken its origin, lifting the capsule from the posterior surface of the organ. The abscess extended widely behind the peritoneum, in contact with the sacrum and ilium, both of which were healthy, and had penetrated for some distance down the psoas muscle in the course of the nerves. Both kidneys were occupied, particularly in their cones, with recent and caseating pyaemic abscesses.
Tliere were extensive pyemic formations in the lungs and heart. The source of the disease jjroved to be a sinus between the tibia and fibula, in which was found a strip of discolored oiled silk four inches long, which had been lost in the abscess.
The peculiar suppurative condition which is often spoken of as the surgical kidney is marked by abscesses scattered like those of pyaemia through the renal structure, but seldom involving other j^arts of the body. It has its origin in the presence of unhealthy urine in the bladder and absorption by the renal vessels. I ventured to propose the term uriseptic as descriptive of the invariable cause of this variety of renal suppuration, but possibly the term ' surgical kidney,^ though it may throw blame with too little discrimination upon surgeons and their proceedings, may have become too well known to permit of any change in its designation.
Of all renal disorders, next to the varieties of albuminuria, this is the most destructive to life. It may almost be said to form the natural termination of stricture of the urethra, and is the especial danger which attends the use of the catheter and litiiotrite. Tiie attention which has been directed to this affection, however, is scarcely commensurate with its importance.
The change usually affects both kidneys, though in rare cases it is limited to one. Tlie pelves arc generally more or less dilated, and give evidence of inflammatory action in tlie state of their mucous membrane. This is commonly injected, often tliickened, creamy, and supliurating, frequently encrusted with pliosphatic salts, and not seldom jjartially or superficially sloughing. The kidney, if the primary obstruction be, as it generally is, of considerable standing, shows the results of wasting pressure and chronic vascular disturbance. The cortex is thinned, the ca})sule is thickened, and holds witli unnatural tenacity both to the glandular surface and more closely still to the surrounding fat, which itself is often markedly increased, probably in consequence of undue vascular injection around the kidneys. Disseminate renal suppuration may, liowever, take place without any preceding chronic change, though inflammation or congestion of some part of the urinary mucous membrane, possibly of recent date, appears to be an invariable antecedent.
The glandular condition nearly resembles to the naked eye, and also, as Avill presently appear, in more minute respects, the renal manifestation of general pygemia. The kidney becomes swollen and full of blood, much of which remains fluid after death, though some vessels contain clot evidently of ante-mortem origin. The tissue is variegateil with blotches and streaks of intense injection ; it is soft, friable, discolored, and prone to decomposition. •
The cones usually display to the scrutinizing eye sharply defined white lines, which start from the tips of the mammillary processes in the pelvic cavity and pass into or through the cones in the direction of their striation. These streaks look like, what indeed they are, distended tubes, and are important witnesses of perverted action. Close to them swollen blood-vessels are often conspicuous.
' The publication of a considerable portion of the section on the surgical kidney was anticipated by its appearance as a paper in the Medico-Chirurgical Transactions for 1873, drawn forth by the interest which was directed upon the disease by the death from it of the Emperor Napoleon after lithotrity. The description now takes the place for which it was originally designed.
Next, or possibly without such evidences of chronic change as the swollen tubes give, appear small, softly defined, fawn-colored patches which streak the cortex from cones to capsule, or take the shape of wedges with the base against the capsule, the point entering tlie medullary tissue. These are at first scarcely less hard though more friable than the natural substance of the organ. They are surrounded and intermingled with vascularity. As the disease progresses they become large, irregular, and confluent, soften in their centres into ordinary liquid pus, and finally take the shape of scattered abscesses, varying from mere points up to the size of peas, or even larger. These are often thickly sprinkled through the gland, occupying the cones, where they keep more or less of a linear arrangement, and are less regularly but more numerously distributed through the cortex. They appear on
cutaneous pustular eruption.
With this condition the microscope shows more or less dilatation of the straight tubes, distention or morbid occupation of the associated blood-vessels, and disseminated intertubular suppuration, the distribution of which is regulated by the course of the veins.
Passing to detail, and taking the straight tubes first as the parts of the organ first affected, these as they converge upon their outlets are often strikingly dilated apparently from the backward pressure of the retained urine. The dilatation is irregular, widening the cylindrical shape of the tubes or converting tlicm into ovoid, globular, or shapeless
cavities. They are variously occupied by saline matter, purulent secretion, fibrin, or epithelial growth. The straight tubes, thus stretched and filled, form tlie wliite lines which are evident to the naked eye. The change does not extend to the convoluted tubes, which remain for the most part natural.
The veins, wliich appear to be next involved in the disease, are generally distended with blood. The straight veins of tlie cones often display in section a partial distention which is probably the result of coagulation which has occurred during life.
The larger veins of the cortex arc often similarly filled, and it sometimes liappens tliat the arteries which pass in companionsliip with them are likewise jjcrmanently occupied. As a general rule, however, the arteries are natural, as also are the Malpighia'n vessels.
The venous position of the clot in the condition under consideration differs from the similar result of ordinary pyaemia, in that the obstruction there is essentially ai'terial.
the most obvious result of the com]ilicated process. The disseminated abscesses, or regions of cellular infiltration antecedent to abscesses, are intertubular, and have relation to the course of the veins. Cells gather at isolated spots, sometimes obviously accumulated around a minute distended vessel. Occasionally the new formation oversiireads considerable districts, insinuating itself more or less evenly between the tubes, its vascular origin being chiefly evinced by its obvious intertubular position. The Malpighian bodies remain unalfected by the disease, though the adventitious corpuscular formation often collects abundantly outside them. The convoluted tubes are generally clear, though where they cross the districts of infiltration their epithelium is sometimes superabundant, and sometimes they appear to be encroached upon, or confused by.
compressed.
Taking the structural changes in their mutual relation, the dilatation of the tubular exits, tlie morbid occupation of the veins, and the general absence of signs of tubal inflammation, the nature of the process is clear.
The disorder has its origin in the regurgitation of urine charged with morbific products. This, forced backwards by the retention general in these cases, distends or occupies the straight ducts. Thence by transudation, or similarly, it enters the neighboring blood-vessels, and charges them with an infection resembling in its results that of pyaemia. This is distributed by the veins to the rest of the gland, sowing abscesses in their course, and ultimately causing constitutional symptoms analogous to those of pyaemia otherwise derived.
The condition of the kidney may be described as one of pyaemia arising within itself. It has a close general resemblance to that caused by a distant infection, differing from it in the usual dilatation of the urinary outlets, and in the fact that, while with pyaemia from a remote source the materies morbi is necessarily distributed by the arteries, in the condition under discussion it is scattered by the veins into which it was first received.
The disorder in its frequency and fatality has great practical importance. Inflammation of the bladder, or of the pelvis of the kidney, either as antecedent to the change, or associated with it, is so invariably present as to give a seeming warrant to the old view which regarded the disease as a mere extension by contiguity of inflammation beginning in the urinary cavities. The nature of the organic change, however, plainly declares its origin, not in the mere creeping of inflammation from membrane to gland, but in the absorption of morbific matter. Of this the urine is obviously either the source or the vehicle. It remains to inquire whence and in what circumstances the poison is engendered.
To help in answering these questions I have collected the particulars of sixty-nine cases of the disease from the post-mortem books of St. George's Hospital. The following table shows the urinary disease upon which the suppurative condition of kidney followed:
Looking first at the urine as directly connected with the origin of the disease, it appears that three conditions of this secretion usually concur — retention, ammoniacal decomposition, and admixture with the products of mucous infiammation. Of these an essential circumstance aj)pears to be ammoniacal decomposition, which retention may induce, and cystitis either precede or follow. The urine was generally foetid and more or less mixed with vesical products, pus, mucus, and blood. There is reason to believe that it Avas invariably ammoniacal. Wherever the reaction was stated, it was persistently alkaline except in one instance. In this exceptional case, the secretion was alkaline when tlie inception of the disease was declared by rigors, then for a short time acid, and alkaline again before death.
In the cases, comparatively few, in which the reaction Avas not stated, the condition of retention or the state of the urninary mucous membrane was generally such as to point unmistakably to ammoniacal change. The simple presence of pus or mucus in the urine, though lasting for years, does not appear to set up the renal disorder so long as the urine retains its acidity and resists putrefaction.
except in connection with ammoniacal urine.
The ammoniacal change, however, though it may arise independently of mucous inflammation, produces it so constantly that the origin of the disease is always thus complicated. Sometimes, as with stone, the inflammation of the bladder has led to the change in the urine; sometimes, as in cases of paralysis, the change in the urine has caused the inflammation of the bladder. Whichever comes first, so long as the necessary foulness of the urine is attained, a condition which is promoted by the admixture of diseased vesical secretion, the renal suppuration may follow. AVhether primary or secondary, the inflammation of the urinary mucous membrane is invariable. This is usually of the bladder, though the renal change has been known to follow inflammation and retention confined to the pelvis caused by a stone situate in that cavity.
Passing from the state of the urine to its clinical antecedents, these may generally be stated to be of three kinds — obstacles to the escape of the urine, loss of expulsive power, and vesical, or very rarely, pelvic irritation.
Stricture of the urethra is of all causes the most common, giving rise as it does to the needful urinary putrefaction, and in its chronic form insuring the dilatation of the glandular exits which makes them ready recipients of the poison.
disease, acts in the same way.
Next in order of frequency to such impediments come the diseases and injuries of the nervous system, by which the expulsive power of the bladder is destroyed. These, giving rise to retention and decomposition of urine, and its contamination by the products of vesical inflammation, cause changes in the same sequence as those which arise from stricture, but more rapid in progress. The loss of vesical innervation in these cases hastens the disorganization of the mucous membrane, which gives the extreme foulness to the urine observed in such circumstances, and sets up early and severe renal mischief. Similar symptoms may follow from cerebral disease, and occasionally from the general prostration which follows from disease or accident not directly connected with the nervous system.
Lastly, severe vesical irritation, though unconnected with retention, may cause the same results. The disorder was traced to stone in the bladder in fifteen of the sixty-nine cases previously referred to. Though differently begun, a similar putrescent state of urine to that of retention is here in the end produced, contamination by mucous discharges which promote decomposition being apparently the incipient evil. Putrescence appears to be always present. In connection with the frequent origin of the renal suppuration from vesical stone, its rarity as a consequence of stone in the kidney is worth remarking. The difference probably lies in the less putrefactive tendency of the discharges from the pelvic membrane or the less ready intrusion of septic agents.
It is frequently to be observed that the conditions of bladder and of urine apparently sufficient to produce the disease will exist for years without doing so, but that at once upon some surgical procedure, of which the use of a catheter is probably the essential part, it will start into activity as if the ready train were thus lighted. The term " surgical kidney," so generally used in reference to the disease, bears witness to its association with the use of instruments.
Linking the secondary renal mischief with ammoniacal or putrid urine, and having regard to recent researches, which have connected the lower kinds of organic life with pyaemia,' it is worth noting that the condition of urine which causes the disease now in question is one in which vibriones and bacteria abound; but considering the different circumstances in which such organisms appear, it would be unsafe to draw more than a provisional inference as to the nature of the virus beyond the broad fact that it is associated with, and apparently dependent upon, decomposition of urine.
The frequency of the disease after the introduction of instruments may lead to a surmise which must have practical influence, that the essential virus is capable of being conveyed into the bladder by their means.
Since this conjecture as to the origin, or at least an origin, of the surgical kidney was made public, Dr. Ferrier has published some experiments which corroborate it. He found, as indeed had before been ob-
sei'ved, that urine, if preserved from external contamination, might be kept witliout putrefaction for an indefinite time, but that the simple contact of a snrface not freed from germs' was enough to initiate the putrefactive process. In this view the ammoniacal state itself is due to contamination from without. Whether this be so, or whether urine may become ammoniacal by causes acting only from within, as appears not improbable, it is none the less likely that the especial virus, of which tiie ammoniacal urine may be only the vehicle, may be introduced by such means. The practical suggestion as to the invariable carbolization of catheters and bougies is too obvious to need insistance.
In connection with the pathology of the disease I may briefly sketch the symptoms, drawing chiefly from the cases to which I have already alluded. The disorder, particularly when the abscesses, as is too often the case, are widely disseminated, runs a rapid and fatal course. The patient generally dies within three weeks of the first symptom, sometimes within a few days. In fourteen cases in which the dates and symptoms were carefully recorded in the hospital books, the duration of the complaint varied from two to eighteen days. As an example of its rapid course I may refer to an old woman who was brought in with a simple fracture of the tiiigh. Two days after the accident she became unable to pass water. A catheter was used, and the urine found to be natural. It then (piickly became oflfensive and loaded with mucus, and death occurred within a week of the injury, three days after the urine changed its character. Small purulent deposits were scattered through both kidneys.
The course of the disease resembles that of pyaemia, differing from it in the usual exemption of other organs from the suppurative process. The symptoms are general rather than local; they point to contaminated blood rather than to disturbance of glandular function. Pain in the loins, however, sometmies occurs; and often the urine is much diminished, or even for a time nearly suppressed. Shivering happens early and is apt to be often repeated, and is sometimes as strongly declared as in the case of ague. Febrile symptoms rapidly follow, Avith typhoid prostration. The pulse becomes rapid and feeble, the tongue dry and brown, the appetite absent. Vomiting is a frequent and often an urgent symptom. Not seldom hiccough occurs, and sometimes diarrhoea, or profuse sweating. The countenance becomes anxious and haggard, the complexion cadaverous or yellow, and possibly with low delirium, the patient sinks into utter prostration, unconsciousness, and death.
Dropsy is uniformly absent, as in the case of pyaemia.
The disease is not always fatal. In examining the bodies of persons who have long suffered from disease of the urinary organs it occasionally happens that there are found upon the kidney obvious scars, often much pigmented, in place and dimension such that they may fairly be attributed to ancient abscesses. Dr. Wilks tells me that he has made the same observation, and a case of the sort Avas related by Dr. Moxon in the twenty-third volume of the "Pathological Transactions."
and discharge into tlie areohir tissue.
In a body recently examined at St. George's Hospital, a pint of pus lay outside the suppurating kidney; and preparations in the museum of St. Mary's Hospital illustrate a case in which a vast collection of pus reaching from the diaphragm to the groin, pushing forward the bowels and infiltrating the lumbar muscles, had the same origin.
The treatment of the established disease may be briefly described as that of pyasmia, upon which it is not needful to dwell. When the suppuration has taken a general hold of the renal structure, there is probably litcle chance of recovery, though this may follow the slighter or more limited forms. The symptoms are mainly those of septicemia, and our efforts called for to obviate death by the attendant febrile prostration.
Quinine and alcohol are largely needed, as well as special remedies to relieve special symptoms. The vomiting so often present may be controlled by ice and creasote, while active purgatives are often called for by obstinate constijnition, and it appears that, especially when the urine is much reduced in quantity, the general state of the patient improves under their operation.
It is sufficiently clear with regard to this disorder that our efforts must be directed rather to prevention than cure; and our knowledge of the conditions under which it arises is encouraging in this respect.
The frequent appearance of the disease after the use of instruments makes it imperative never to do so without antiseptic precautions. The association of the disease with vesical inflammation, and the admixture of its products with the urine, must furnish a warning to both surgeon and physician, which the latter may take as an indication, in cases of paralysis and prostration, to insure the regular and complete emptying of the bladder. It is necessary to have regard to the conclusion that the disease is produced not simply by cystitis, but by septic changes consequent upon it, which are associated, as it seems invariably, with an ammoniacal state of urine. If, therefore, this can be prevented, so may be the disease.
Next to the proper evacuating of the bladder, the greatest service in the prevention of ammoniacal decomposition may be rendered by acid injections into it, of which I have found one containing nitric acid and quinine — 15 drops of dilute nitric acid, 10 grains of quinine, and 10 ounces of water — to give the best results. The bladder may be washed out daily with this or less often. Towards the same end acids may be given by the mouth. The mineral acids are more efficacious than benzoic or any of the ordinary vegetable acids, and of the mineral acids I have got more decided results from sulphuric than from the others. But perhaps nitric or nitro-hydrochloric are not greatly less effective in acidification, and may be preferable in other respects.
PYELITIS.
Pyelitis is inflammation of the membrane of the pelvis of the kidney; it should not be confused, as it often is, with the disseminated suppuration of the renal substance which may be associated with it or may occur independently. Pyelitis is chiefly known as a consequence of other diseases and tlie immediate cause of many of their symptoms. It is considered in connection with stone and tubercle, and referred to, perhaps sufiicicntly, as the result of malignant gro\vths, parasites, and poisons of the type of cantharides.
As [)roduced by retention of urine and the cystitis associated with it, pyelitis lias a large importance, already accorded to it, as a frequent, but not necessary, intermediary between those conditions and the disseminated renal suppuration which they give rise to. It is further taken into question as the common first stage of perinephritic abscess, and is regarded as originating in so many different ways, and producing so large a variety of results, that little can be said separately concerning it which would not involve useless iteration.
The pelvis of the kidney is not quick to inflame, though under such irritants as have been mentioned it may do so somewhat intensely, and give issue to discharges so i^rofuse and persistent as to cause death by exhaustion, with the intervention either of hectic or of lardaceous disease.
Under recent irritation the pelvis of the kidney may become highly injected, spotted with ecchymoses, and coated with soft, false membrane, which may have almost diphtheritic separability. I have seen a very distinct false membrane in this situation as the result of tinctura lyttae medicinally given. The woodcut at p. 81 shows a well-marked separable membrane formed upon the pelvis as the result of tubercular disease; the membrane is seen to occupy the infundibulum, and had partially obstructed the ureter, as the consequent dilatation shows. This result, however, of pelvic inflammation is not one of the most common. As the condition becomes chronic, it is usually marked by tiie white opacity which is so often associated with the production of pus, varied, if the disease be tubercular, with much roughening, ulceration, and thickening of the pelvis; it is not necessarily accompanied with dilatation, though the two conditions occur togetiier far more often than either separately, owing to the frequency witli which causes of pyelitis are causes also of obstruction to the pelvic exit. The forms and results of pelvic dilatation have been further referred to in connection with stone and perinephritic abscess.
Occasionally the suppurating cavity will become closed, cease to stretch, and the secretion stop apparently because there is no room for more; that which there is becoming reduced by time and absorption to
little more than its mineral residuum. The kidney may be converted by th^s process into a partitioned cyst, of wliich the walls consist of little more than fibrous tissue, and remain as harmless as useless. An example of this result, from the museum of St. Bartholomew's Hospital, is represented in the woodcut. Of the kidney little remains but a shell of fibrous tissue, which contains a substance like mortar, consisting chiefly of phosphate of lime, with a small admixture of carbonate of lime and animal matter. It was found in the body of a woman who died at the age of sixty-two, having for twelve 3'ears before had no sign of renal disease.
it may be associated.
The lesser degrees of pyelitis, more often evident after death than during life, may ensue upon almost any change in the urine, more especially if it be alkaline. Advanced albuminuria and diabetes may be thus accompanied, though usually to an unimportant extent. With regard to chyluria, I have recently seen an instance in which this disease, contracted in India by a boy at the age of four, was found to have been succeeded at the age of seven by a profuse and constant discharge of puS; presumably from the pelvis; the urine retained its acidity, and there was a total absence of bladder symptoms. This discharge continued under observation for a year and a half; I then lost sight of the child for three years, at the
end of which time the urine was natural and the child well. "Whether ia connection with urinary change or the extension of vesical inflammation, pyelitis often takes place in connection with stricture, stone in the bladder, and paralysis, together with the disseminated suppuration which lias been considered elsewhere. And often when this graver complication has not been induced, pyelitis alone, or accompanied only with inflammation of the bladder, may ensue from the same causes, any, to wit, which involve retention and decomposition of urine — diseases and injuries of the nervous system, typhus, and all other states attended with inaction of the bladder, whether from paralysis or prostration.
and has little clinical importance.
It may be observed in passing that pyelitis, unattended with disseminated suppuration, does not give rise to the signs of septic absorption, resembling those of pyaemia, which belong to the latter disease, though it may produce results, as will presently be seen, allied, though dissimilar. The failure to mark the distinction between the two conditions has caused much confusion.
Apart from urinary changes, gout, gonorrhoea, and apparently pregnancy, have definite place as causes of pyelitis. With gout and gonorrhoea the inflammation creeps from the bladder up one or both ureters — if both, often successively rather than simultaneously — and so reaches the cavity of the kidney. Gouty inflammation of the bladder, with its distressing frequency and sometimes intolerable pain, the urine first highly acid and then purulent, is a phase of tiie constitutional disease which has received little notice, though sufficiently striking. It would seem that the pelvis of the kidney may be similarly affected in sequence to it. I saw, with Dr. Baber, a lady between sixty and seventy years of age, the member of a gouty family, though never herself the subject of gout in any ordinary form. After exposure to the severe cold of January, 1881, together with the mental shock attendant upon the partial destruction of her house by the explosion of a boiler, she had severe cystitis, constant vesical pain, incessant micturition, and the passing of highly acid scanty urine, loaded with lithates and containing pus. After about a fortnight, the pain and tenderness passed up the course of the left ureter, and became fixed in the position of the left kidney ; a week or two later precisely the same process took place with regard to the right ureter and kidney. It was next found that the pain in the right side was enhanced when the patient turned upon her face, a tumor at the same time falling forwards from the loin, possibly a kidney dilated as the result of j^yelitis. Siie had never passed stone or gravel.
I have more than once recognized a similar ascendiYig inflammation as the result of gonorrhoea, cystitis being succeeded by pain along the ureters, and that by pain of a more lasting character, together with deep tenderness in the position of both kidneys, the urine containing pus but givrjig no evidence of disease of the renal substance.
A form of renal colic, preceded by chill and fever, and regarded as pyelitis, has boon described as occurring in the puerperal state. The urine is said to be albuminous, and to contain such epithelium as the pelvis affords. I have known severe renal colic at the close of pregnancy to be succeeded and explained by the abundant escape of gravel. The pyelitis of pregnancy, if there be any, apart from such irritation has nothing in common with the suppurative extension known to occur after delivery, and produce perinephritic abscess.
ease, whatever it be, which has given rise to it, may be briefly indicated.
Pain may travel up the ureters, as in the cases referred to, and become fixed in the lumbar regions, as dull or weighty ; but in many instances and for long periods there is no ])ain at all, or only what must be attributed to the disease in which tlie pyelitis has arisen. If the exit is free, there will be no such tumor as can be appreciated from Avithout, except, as sometimes in the case of tubercle, the original disease be attended with this degree of tumefaction. If the ureter be closed, the swelling may be felt from before and behind, more often as a small than as a large renal tumor. Such are detailed too fully elsewhere to need description here. There may be at the beginning a discharge of mucus or of blood, and the latter may be repeated at intervals throughout the course of the disease, particularly if associated with stone, and sometimes if with tubercle. More characteristic is the persistent, or persistently recurring, discharge of pus with the urine, together with evidence that it is derived from the pelvis, or, what may be equivalent, that it is not derived from the bladder. If the exit is unimpeded the pus is " laudable " and inoffensive ; on standing, it separates somewhat abruptly from the urine, which retains its acidity. It has been stated so frequently that a discharge from the pelvis of the kidney can be distinguished by the epithelial cells Avhich are shed with it that I almost hesitate to assert, what I have taken some trouble to ascertain, that there are no characters by which detached cells of pelvic e])ithelium can be positively recognized, however practicable it might be to distinguish the pelvic membrane could it be seen in mass.
Roberts describes the epithelium shed as the result of pyelitis as being "very irregular, spindle-shaped, tailed, three-cornered, elongated, rudely circular, etc.," and as thus affording certain evidence of its origin. It will be seen, however, that these varieties of form, even to the "etc.," are equally cliaracteristic of vesical disease. Ebstein in '"' Ziemssen's Cyclopedia," describes the pelvic epithelium as characteristic in virtue of its shapes — " flattened, laminated, and caudate " — terms equally applicable, as the annexed woodcut will show, to epithelium derived from other parts of the urinary tract.'
' In view of the localization of disease by the urinaiy deposit, it is necessary to ascertain how far tiie epithelium from each part of the tract can be distinguished. The accompanying woodcut shows the varieties of cells which were obtained fi-om each part of the urinary course in a succession of individuals not tlie subjects of urinaiy disease. The results are not valueless, but perliaps disappointing; they amount to this: The solid polygonal figures of the renal epithelium, of small andunifoi'm size, can be easily recognized; diseases in which they are abundantly shed are commonly evident enough without them. Between the pelvis and the ui-eter no distinction can be made with certainty; both abound with club-shaped and tailed cells, and yield also others variously squared, rounded, and flattened, but none which are distinctive of either situation. In the bladder are abundant club-shaped fusiform aiid rhomboidal cells, not to be distinguished from those which belong to the pelvis and ureter, and others which are more significant, though perhaps none which aie absolutely limited to this organ. The most characteristic cells are large and numerously scooped for adaptation with smaller cells below; these are not often to be recognized in morbid discharges, but must be accepted as valuable indications when they are. Besides these are other cells, the like of which are to be found in other situations, but w^hen large, well marked, and numerous, may be generally reckoned as vesical. These ar<» large, rolling globes or spheroids, with a well-marked outline and usually a single nucleus. The urethra may yield cells of many sorts, some globular and coherent, probably of glandular origin, others flattened, spindle-shaped, and of solid poly-
Often., as the result of pyelitis, the urine may be foetid from the presence of putrescent i)urulent matter and still be acid. The alkalinity of the discharge from the diseased kidney is overpowered by the acidity of the normal urine from the healthy one. Had the decomposition taken place in the bladder, it would have affected all the urine alike and made it ammoniacal throughout had it proceeded to any extent. Another indication of pyelitis which admits of a similar explanation is the presence in acid urine of triple -phosphate crystals, Avhich in these circumstances often show signs of superficial solution, from their exposure to acid urine after their formation necessarily in alkaline. The urine of pyelitis is often peculiarly disgusting, redolent rather of sulphuretted hydrogen than ammonia, or distinctly of both. The urine of bladder disease is more simply ammoniacal.
The discharge tlius foetid is apt to intermit completely or partially, being retained and decomposing in the cavity. When it appears it may present to the microscope a mere shapeless debris, from which all corpuscular shape lias disappeared. Tlie collection and decomposition of the urine in the pelvis is sometimes attended with signs of blood-poisoning, different, Jiowever, from .those which proceed from disseminated suppuration. With the latter the symptoms have a ]na3mic type, "witli fever at best remittent, and often with a jaundiced skin. With pyelitis there are fever and eruption, but, as far as I have seen, no jaundiced or py^emic tint. The fever and eruption are both transient, the fever often without eruption, but the eruption seldom without some degree of fever. Febrile attacks with a temperature up perhaps to 101° may come on, last for a longer or shorter time, and then pass away completely. These are usually without organic change, but sometimes associated with a degree of pneumonia. The eruption which presents itself, though by no means regularly, as the result of pyelitis is usually to be classed as erythema, at least it consists of little more than injection of the skin, without the separation of serum or pus. This may occur in vivid spots or blotches, the latter often confluent. They occur mostly on the face, but occasionally on the trunk. The eruption may somewhat resemble that of measles, or more often what is called German measles. It sometimes presents itself as herpes, the blotches being succeeded by the characteristic vesicles.
The course and duration of pyelitis vary as widely as its causes, and cannot be considered but in connection with them. When from stone, the disorder is indefinite in length, and may intermit completely for considerable spaces. When from tubercle, it is more brief; the discharge is constantl}'' present while it lasts ; if it ceases the cessation is linaL Among the results of the disease the lardaceous change takes a ])romiiient position, though death may be brought about independently of it by fever and hectic, or nuiy ensue upon rupture into the i)eritoneum, into the bowel, or externally in modes which are considered in relation to stone, tubercle, and perinephritic abscess. Urtemia is not a consequence of pyelitis, though it may ensue from many of the disorders, obstructive or destructive, with which pyelitis may be associated.
To show the chronicity or tolerance of the disease, I may refer to a
gonal shapes. When many strongly marked squamous cells are to be seen, particularly if they are imbricated, they may be attributed to the vagina. It is to be noted that some of tlie vaginal cells in the woodcut were obtained from the bodies of children, and are smaller and less strongly marked than at more advanced ages.
22 . rvKLiTis.
young hidy now (1882) fifteen years of age, and in fair general health, who has been under my care with it for eleven years. The cause is probably stone. The urine is never quite free from discliarge, the quantity and fcBtor of wliich are exasperated at irregular intervals. There have been occasional attacks of fever and eruption such as have been described, and the cliaracter of the dislodged epithelium was such at least as to exclude a vesical origin. That it was not from the vagina was not equally certain. Occasionally, particularly after increased exercise, the urine disi)laced translucent flakes like bran or very minute fragments of silver paper. These consisted of masses of flat epithelial scales, placed with some regularity, and crossed here and there with lines of fibrous tissue. This patient apparently owed her endurance of the disease to quinine, mineral acid, and frequent change from London to the country or seaside.
The treatment of pyelitis resolves itself into the treatment of stone, tubei'cle, and gout, together with the correction of alkalinity and foetor in the urine, and the compensation of exhausting discharge. No process of counter-irritation has found support by my experience ; indeed the disorder is, as a rule, too deep to be benefited by any local treatment. "Where the urine has been persistently or occasionally alkaline, or even where it has been only reduced in acidity, I have found the greatest use in nitro-muriatic acid, together with quinine and other tonics. Where it is fojtid, and a source of mischief by its retention and absorption, I have thought decided benefit to ensue from the administration of creasote. It is more easy to recognize the effect of this antiseptic upon foetid discharges of many kinds than to explain the transmission of it as such to the place in question. When the discharge is chronic and exhausting, much may be done by liberal diet, quinine, iron, and change of air, especially to such seaside places as are reputed ''bracing." Where pyelitis is conjoined with obstruction of the outlet and has led to so much accumulation of pus as to cause bulging in the loin, the question of puncture or incision from that surface may be entertained ; but I think it is generally safest to wait until the matter has worked through its renal investment and presented in the back, and even then until it is nearly s>ubcutaneous rather than to seek for it deeply. The consideration of this question belongs to the subject of perinephritic abscess.
If the terms perinephritis and perinephritic abscess were confined, as in strictness they might be, to abscess or inflammation beginning in and essentially belonging to the renal circumference, there would be little to add to what is to be found under several headings of renal abscess, stone, and tubercle. But though in the large majority of cases suppuration on the outside of the kidney is directly produced by suppuration within it, yet there are enough cases in which this is not so to make it necessary to refer to perinephritis independently as well as in its relation to renal disease.
Irrespectively of its origin, pus, issuing from the kidney or formed in contact with its surface, commonly remains behind the peritoneum, burrowing among the deep muscles and fascia of the lumbar, pelvic, and ■crural regions. An abscess of extra-renal origin more often begins behind the kidney than in front of it, and thus has this organ between itself and the serous cavity : the same will of course happen should a renal abscess open posteriorly. If it break anteriorly it may penetrate the peritoneum directly and set upon fatal peritonitis ; but even when thus escaping from the front this result is not inevitable, for the matter may either lift up the peritoneum and spread laterally behind it, or in perforating it may become so circumscribed by adhesions that the abscess is as good as post-peritoneal, though not actually so.
The capsule of the kidney itself often displays a remarkable power of confining matter within it. There is a preparation at the College of Sur'geons in which at least half a pint of matter had collected between the capsule and the gland, which retain but few points of contact.
The fat and cellular tissue around the kidney are in close apposition with the muscles of the back, and not separated from the origin of the psoas muscle, the structures behind the iliac fascia, the sacro-sciatic foramen, or the course of the great vesselsfrom the trunk to the thigh. Pus will easily traverse areolar and muscular tissues, but penetrates fasciie and membranes with difficulty. It thus readily crosses the lumbar region, or, taking advantage of natural channels, passes down the psoas muscle to the inguinal region, or with the blood-vessels to the front of the thigh, or through the sacro-sciatic foramen, to appear upon the gluteal surface.
The passage of such matter down the psoas muscle is of interest in relation to diagnosis. It is usually accompanied with flexion of the tiiigh, a symptom which may therefore be produced by disease of renal origin as well as by disease of the spine. I published a case many years
ago in the " Pathological Transactions,'"' in which a psoas al)scess had taken its origin in tubercnlar disease of the kidney, and have since known the same resnlt to ensue from suppuration arising in stone. ^
Another mode of exit which is comparatively frequent is by the bronchial tubes. Matter of renal as of hepatic origin often passes upwards. It enters the muscular lamina? of the back and readily si)reads between them, thus passing behind the diaphragm into the root of one of the lungs, commonly evading the pleura and penetrating the lower part of the lung directly. By this means localized i)neunionia has been set up, and not infrequently the pus has found its way into one of the bronchi and so been coughed up.
It has been known also to be discharged by ulceration into the vagina, into the bladder, and through the prostate into the urethra.^ The greatest; variety of exit is presented by abscesses of calculous origin. These have been known, as detailed elsewhere, to discharge themselves superficially upon tiie loin, the gluteal region, the groin, the thigh, to enter the ]ieritoneal cavity, the ascending transverse and descending colon, the duodenum, the stomach, and the bronchial tubes.
The commonest issue is upon the back, where a wide, brawny, doughy, or boggy surface, possibly erysipelatous or phlegmonous, presents itself between the last rib and the crest of the ilium. The hands before and behind the renal position may distinctly appreciate a fulness in it which will not move with respiration, as it might were it connected with tiie liver or spleen. It is upon the loin that incisions are most often called for, and from it that calculi more often make their exit than from any other part of the cutaneous surface.
Circumrenal abscess in its more ordinary forms, as the result of intrarenal suppuration, has found sufficient mention elsewhere. By far the most frequent of these is that in connection with calculus and produced by dilatation of the pelvis, disproportionate extension of one of the calyces, and perforation by it of the renal capsule. Tubercular suppuration also will sometimes reach the outside of the kidney, a suppurating mass impinging upon and penetrating the capsule and possibly entering the duodenum or descending colon. Pus of this origin, however, docs not as a rule travel far or collect in great abundance. Abscesses of wide range have been known to ensue from the perforation of the capsule by pyajmic and "surgical" renal abscesses. Instances of extensive extra-renal abscesses are related in connection with both these subjects.
Wounds and contusions involving the kidney or its surroundings have been followed by su[)puration about it. Wounds from the front necessarily open the peritoneum and are fatal by extravasation of urine within. But the kidney may be pierced from behind by a bullet or otherwise, so that the escape will take place into the posterior tissues, and spread more or less round the organ, with matter widely disposed but still behind the serous membrane. Such a case is described by Baudeur.' A musket-ball
^ See Chapter XIII. As touching the relationship between urinary and psoas disease, I may mention that there is a preparation at King's College in which there has been a reversal of the process here described. An ordinary psoas abscess lias discharged itself into the ureter, the matter from tiiis source'thus escaping by the urinary channels. So far the symptoms of renal were produced by psoas abscess.
entered the left loin of a soklicr, nc:ir the second lumbar vertebra; retraction of the testicle and painful emission of urine followed; a collection of matter then formed ajjparently between the kidney and the wall of the abdomen, which at last was reached by a sound introduced through the wound, and thus successfully got rid of.
Bruises of the lumbar region may also be followed by suppuration around the kidney/ A French peasant fell from a tree and severely bruised the right loin; hoematuria at once followed, and then deep-seated jiain, fever and lumbar swelling, with recurrent rigors; an incision outside the lumbo-saci'al mass, where fiuctualion had become evident, gave exit to a quantity of "^ phlegmonous " pus, and was followed by recover}'.'^ In another instance a nurse fell down-stairs and struck her right side upon the edge of a pail. The urine became slightly and temporarily bloody; slie had fever, delirium, and diarrhcea; swelling appeared in the lumbar region, levelling the costo-iliac hollow and extending into the right hypochondrium, filling the interval between the liver and the iliac fossa, and reaching to the left across the median line. An openingin the loin, begun with caustic potash and completed by puncture, gave exit to a profuse discharge of pus, and- led to the recovery of the patient. The right leg had been paralyzed for four or five days during the height of the disorder.
Violent strains of the back have been followed by, and apparently have produced, abscess in the renal vicinity. Trousseau mentions the case of a workman in the plaster quarries who felt acute pain in the left lumbar region while lifting a heavy load. Tumefaction, redness, and widely lancinating pain were succeeded by deep fluctuation in the affected loin, incision, and the discharge of a quantity of pus, which was ascertained by means of a probe to come from immediately behind the left kidney. The patient recovered. It is probable that when suppuration thus follows a strain, there occurs either some deep rupture of muscle or tendon, or possibly the final giving way of some part of the renal surface previously undermined by disease.
But there are other causes and shapes of perinephritis which are more obscure, and perha})S some are adduced which are problematical. Tiie large amount of cellular tissue about the kidneys, and generally between the pelvis and the ribs, presents this interval as a favorable seat for disorders which are proper to this tissue, while the proximity of the region to other organs and to large vessels renders it liable to be invaded by matter which has taken its origin elsewhere. An abscess beginning in connection with some other organ, or in the cellular tissue itself as a result of pysemia or some febrile or other general condition which invites suppuration, or possibly from some local cause, whether hydatids or of some sort to be less readily discovered, may, though entirely independent of the kidney, either begin in its immediate neighborhood or so soon reach it to expatiate in the loose tissue around as to behave as if it had taken its origin in this organ.
The apposition of the large bowel to each kidney without the intervention of peritoneum is important, not only as allowing of the passage of matter from the kidney to the bowel, but also permitting it to pass in the reverse direction, from the bowel to the kidney. Abscesses, especially from stone, may escape into the ascending as well as into the
descending colon,' tliougli they do not so often do so; and we have evidence that matter may be directed from the circumference of the ascending colon to that of the right kidney, this transference of the disease being, as it would seem, more frequent on the right side than the left, possibly because the looser peritoneal arrangements of the ascending colon give more room for the accumulation of pus than is to be found on the left side. A man swallowed a pin; this caused perforation of the ascending colon, and an extra-peritoiK-al abscess in the right lumbar region, which contained gas and ftecal matter.- And there is much probability tliat the anatomical associations of the beginning of the large bowel with the right kidney may serve to explain other cases of circumrenal suppuration, of which the origin is less obvious. A large abscess in this situation is described by M. Lemoine^ as having its anterior wall formed by the ctecum and tiie ascending colon. No ulceration of the bowel was found, but the beginning of the disorder had been marked by violent colic and vomiting; pus discharged through an incision made during life had been extremely foetid; the kidney, which was surrounded by the matter, was softened externally, but evidently not its source; and it may at least be surmi-sed that the origin of the disorder was intestinal.
A remarkable febrile disorder was described by Butter as the Plymouth Dockyard disease,* which must be considered to have been an endemic forni of septicaemia, due to some localized poison which was not traced to its source. The symptoms were more nearly analogous to those which sometimes follow dissection wounds than to those of any of the specitic fevers. Slight wounds or abrasions received in tlie dockyard were succeeded in a number of instances by intense fever, erysipelatous iiidammations, effusions of serum and pus into the cellular tissue, localized gangrene, intense injection or inflammation of the ileo-crecal region of the bowel, as discovered on posf-morfem examination, and in two of fifteen cases by suppurative nephritis, or perinephritis. In one of these instances, " the mesentery and meso-colon were vascular with red patches, the whole being amassed in sero-purulent fluid. Tiie right kidney was completely disorganized, and changed into a mass like thick cream in color and consistence. The left kidney was sound."' In the other case, the lower part of the ileum and caecum were inflamed nearly to gangrene, while behind the bowels and around the right kidney, which itself was healthy, was found a pint of pus. It may be conjectured that in these cases the pus may have travelled backwards from the ileo-cteeal region of the bowel, by way of the meso-colon, and a similar explanation may possibly apply to the origin of perine[)hritic abscess in typhoid — a pathological secpience which has been noticed though not explained.^
tion in the neighborhood of the kidney.
Iliac and otlier abscesses are apt to form, as is well known, in these circumstances, as results of venous absorption, and there is nothing to prevent the extension of matter from the iliac to the renal region. A case is described by Trousseau, in his admirable lecture on perinephritis, in which pus so produced invaded successively the right broad ligament, the circumrenal and the iliac regions. The abscess was first found in connection with the right uterine appendages, and acquired from thence two outlets, one into the bladder, the other into the vagina. An interval of improvement was followed by rigors, fever, pain in the right side, and swelling which filled up the right costo-iliac hollow. The iliac fossa at the same time was free from both swelling and pain, though later an abscess was detected in this situation. Both the lumbar and iliac abscesses were opened, and the patient sank with diarrhoea and hectic. There was no jiost-mortem examination, but it was evident that the perinephritis was of uterine not renal origin, probably by way of the iliac veins, and also that tiie iliac was subsequent to, if not secondary to, the perirenal abscess. Pus collected around the kidney might easily, as Trousseau suggests, pass with the psoas muscle to the cellular tissue of the iliac fossa, and its passage in the contrary direction is equally easy.
Among the extra-renal causes of circumrenal abscess must be mentioned, upon the authority of Trousseau, one wliich rests, like some of the other causes which receive credence, upon inference during life rather than ascertainment after death. Perforation of the gall-badder by a calculus was believed by this acute observer to have been the cause of suppurative perinephritis in a case which he relates. Severe hepatic colic, in the person of an old lady, was followed by sym})toms of acute hepatitis, with inflammation of the gall-bladder and intense pain in the sub-hepatic region. Then there was fever, and severe general disturbance of the system; when all at once the pain extended to the right renal region, with the formation of an abscess there, which was ultimately opened, with a favorable result. In Trousseau's view a gall-stone had travelled through an ulceration in the gall-bladder, and reached, through intervening adhesions, the perinephric cellular tissue. Whether or no the stone traversed the considerable interval which separates the gall-bladder from the renal region, it is at least clear, as the narrator observes, that hepatic colic was succeeded by circumrenal abscess.
Circumrenal, or deep lumbar abscess, has been traced to hydatids, originating probably in the cellular tissue. In a case recorded by Feron ' these, mingled with pus, came out of an incision which had been made in a tumor in the lumbar region, and was succeeded by recovery. An abscess in the adipose tissue about the kidney has been known to ensue upon removal of the testicle and the subsequent application of a ligature which included all the structures of the spermatic cord. The pus was serous and foetid, and the cellular tissue about the spermatic cord was infiltrated with the same matter. It was supposed that the secondary suppuration was due in this case to the irritation of the nerve and the attendant pain; but I venture to think it more probable that the inflammatory process was conveyed by mere continuity either of cellular tissue or of venous channels from the place of the ligature to the place of the abscess. I have seen a bulky inflammatory infiltration of the whole
lower end.
Mere neuralgia has been supposed by Trousseau, though perhaps on insuflBcient evidence, to be efficient as a cause of similarly localized su]ipuration. It has been traced to pyi^mia, and stated to have followed ujion other febrile conditions, among which variola and typhus have been mentioned. It has also been attributed to cold, but this must be regarded as more than doubtful.
The leading facts in regard to the symptoms of this morbid condition have been involved in the preceding account of its nature and origin. Occurring as it does in widely different circumstances, it takes as different shapes, appearing sometimes, as in tiie Plymouth Dockyard cases, as part of a severe and acute febrile disease, at other times with the sluggish temper of lumbar or psoas abscess in their most ciironic forms. In its more ordinary kind an early symptom is deep-seated lumbar pain, severe and lancinating or of a pricking character, with tenderness, possibly not superhcial, but evident upon deep handling of the lumbar region. With this, or soon after it, or possibly before there is enough of either pain or swelling; to attract notice, comes fever. This is of the continued type, with evening exacerbations and })Ossibly nightly sweatings, like tliu fever of tuberculosis, which it often resembles, or with which it is often associated. Eigors are commonly observed, and have been known to occur with quotidian regularity. With all this there is much general illness and loss of api)etite, and of flesh, with possibly nausea, vomiting, and constipation. Sooner or later the swelling which I have already referred to shows itself in the back, filling one of the lumbar hollows, giving an undue sense of fulness between the hands placed before and behind, and finally causing the brawny or doughy state of surface which indicates the approach or i)resence of pus. The posture is supine, or, if the psoas be im])licated, the patient may sit, as described by Dr. Bowditch, on one gluteus, and have the bent leg characteristic of psoas abscess.
The great range of duration Avhich the disorder presents is sufficiently evident from what has been already said. It often terminates, as in the Plymouth cases, before the matter has had time to present externally. When it has so done, the course of disorder, according to Feron, is still so rapid that in most cases the abscess is completely formed and evacuated within three months. But there are many instances, such as those connected with calculus, in which the abscess, perhaps sometimes partially closing and opening again, may extend over years, or last indefinitely.
The urine in these cases has relation rather to the presence or absence of some of the causes to which perinephritis may be due than to the affection itself. It gives no evidence of the presence of the extrarenal suppuration, but may declare, by blood or pus, the i)resence of a bruise or laceration of the kidney, or of stone or tubercle within it.
Dr. Duffin collected twenty-six cases to ascertain the frequency of urinary complications. ''Two had been produced by an injury to the loin, and had bloody urine; six had free pus; two, bladder signs; five, kidney disease without bladder signs; and no less than twelve had no urinary complication whatever."'
With regard to the treatment of circumrenal abscess, it is needless to say that, if once the matter be formed, there is nothing to be done but to jirovide for its escape. Incision or puncture has usually been practised
in the loin, an opening sometimes having been effected, at the bottom of which the kidney could be felt with the finger. The average of success has been good, and would have been better were it not that the suppuration is dependent, perhaps, in most cases, upon incurable disease. Dr. Duflfin tells us that of twenty cases he collected, in which abscess in this position was treated by early puncture through the loin, the operation in two was followed by death — in one from peritonitis — while in eighteen it was ".attended with a considerable modicum of success," in twelve with complete recovery.* It is to be presumed that, in these days of the aspirator, puncture by its means will sometimes supersede the old incision, though it must often happen, as when stone or tubercle have given origin to the matter, that a continuous opening is inevitable. As one of the dangers of incision must be mentioned reiterated ligemorrhage, wliich proved fatal in a case recorded by Parmentier.'*
' Duffin. Case of perinephric abscess, Medical Times, September, 1870, p. 362. See also conclusion of case, Path, Trans,, vol. xxiv. p. 138. * L" Union Medicate, September, 1863, p. 575.
Trombosis.
When the blood coagulates in its own vessels and there remains, thrombosis is said to occur; euiholism when the vessels are obstructed bj matters brought from a distance. These two conditions are, as will beseen, different in their cause, in their seat, in their progress, and in their results. Our present concern is with thrombosis.
It has long been recognized that the blood is apt to coagulate in its vessels during life as well as after death. This may occur in many situations and circumstances; sometimes in arteries, more often in veins. It may be limited to one vessel or one system of vessels, or may occur simultaneously in many parts of tlie body.
Tiie knowledge that clot sometimes forms during life in the veins of the kidney is nothing new in pathology, though, from its comparative infrequency, it occasionally drops out of notice, to reappear like an old fashion restored with the freshness of novelty. John Hunter has described it minutely.
The coagulation takes place, almost without exception, in the veins, not in the arteries. Dr. Moxon has related two cases in which, after injury, clots were found in the renal vessels of both kinds. These cases, which in many respects resemble embolism rather than thrombosis, form the exception. The clotting may involve one gland onl}', or both simultaneously. A kidney in which general thrombosis has recently occurred is increased in size and feels unnaturally hard. In section, it is seen that many or all the veins which can be followed with the naked eye are occupied with coagulum, which, according to its date and degree of decolorization, may be black, brick-red, or buff. These coagula are usually continuous through many subdivisions and ramifications, and sometimes occupy the entire venous system of the organ, from the vena cava to the finest branches which can be reached by dissection. Beyond these, the microscope will sometimes show that the minutest veins and capillaries are loaded with blood, sometimes even to bursting. The clots are often adherent to the veins, the coats of which remain natural.
In many cases, this change befalls kidneys which have previously been the seat of disease whereby the circulation through them has become impeded. Sometimes, besides the renal system of veins, those of the lower extremities and the portal vein are similarly affected, while clots have also been found at the same time in the heart and other situations.
The rapidity with v/hich the disease, when general throughout the kidneys, proves fatal, gives no time for such slow degenerative changes as occur in coagulum in less lethal situations. When, however, it has
been limited to one kidney, or to a part of one kidne}^, a process of fatty softening occurs, such as is very common in connection with an embolic block. In the case of a man who died at St. George's Hospital with thrombosis, evidently of old date, affecting the renal, supra-renal, and iliac veins, the anterior half of the affected kidney was occui)ied by a soft pinkish mass, of the consistence of putty, which under the microscope ai^peared to consist mainly of oil-globules.'
Coagulation of the blood during life may be produced by inequality or change of character in the surfaces over which it flows, by retardation of its current, or by a morbid change in the blood itself.^
We often see coagulation determined by alterations of surface in the collection of fibrin upon valves and arterial surfaces; but in the kidney, where, apart from embolism, it takes place especially in the veins, we seldom see the operation of this cause. With regard to this organ, it may be stated that the causes of coagulation are mainly of two kinds: —
2. Morbid coagulability of the blood.
Considering, first, narrowing of the vessels as a cause of renal thrombosis, this occurs in its simplest form when the veins are narrowed and their current obstructed by morbid growths outside them. A case of tins' kind is reported by Mr. Sibley, in the " Transactions of the Pathological Society,"^ in which coagula were formed in the vena cava, the veins of both up])er and lower limbs, and the renal veins, in consequence of the infiltration of the tissues surrounding the inferior cava, iliac, and axillary veins, by a cancerous growth.
We see the same result produced by vascular constriction of a different kind, in the frequency with which renal thrombosis is associated with chronic disease of the kidney. This must be in part, though, as I shall presently show, not entirely, attributed to the hindrance which occurs to the circulation from the encroachment of fibroid growth, the pressure of distended tubes, or the lardaceous thickening of the arterial coats. Under these conditions the blood reaches the veins with its velocity unnaturally diminished, and is accordingly disposed, until it reaches the main stream of the vena cava, to coagulate. The degree to which the renal vessels are obstructed by disease may be easily demonstrated by the simple expedient of allowing water to flow into the renal artery of a healthy and of a granular kidney. It will be found that water traverses the diseased organ with extraordinary slowness compared with the healthy one.*
Independently of local or organic alterations coagulation may depend upon an unnatural tendency of the blood to deposit fibrin. This is fully as important in relation to renal thrombosis as narrowing of the vascular channels. There are many conditions of system in which the blood is apt to congeal where its current is slowest. Such a state appears to belong to many conditions of j^rostration, exhaustion, and febrile disturbance. Under such general influences coagula are apt to form simultaneously in more than one system of vessels, the renal clotting being associated with a similar change elsewhere. The renal
"^ I have discussed the causes of the coagulation of blood in the living body in more detail in a paper upon the Coagulation of Blood in the Cerebral Arteries, St. George's Hospital Reports, vol. i. p. 257.
veins sometimes share with the femoral in the coagulating process which js apt to follow parturition. A young woman, who had been delivered six weeks before, was brought into the liospital with plilegmasia dolens affecting both lower extremities. After death, which occurred nine days later, ooagula of distinctly «M/e-j//or/!e?;i character were found generally distributed in the veins of the uterine organs, pelvis and lower extremities, and also in those of the right kidney. Renal thrombosis has been known to occur in other states of systemic disturbance, as in typhus.
The febrile condition, of whatever nature it be, appears to be a possible cause of coagulation; that this could be produced experimentally by an increased temperature Avas long ago shown by Hewson. It is not needful, .however, to discuss the causes of thrombosis in general; its association with antemia and prostration, Avith gout and, though rarely, with rheumatism, is well known. On whatever cause it depend, the kidney may be its location. Finally, as a cause of thrombosis which is directed especially upon the kidney because it is usually associated with structural disease of that organ, must be mentioned the effect upon the blood of long continued albuminous discharges, whether purulent or of the nature of all)uminuria.
By such means we must infer that the composition of the blood is altered by the withdrawal of its albuminous part, leaving the coagulable element in relative excess. Thus we may account for the frequent occurrence of thrombosis in connection with lardaceous disease. The lardaceous change and the morbid coagulability of blood result in common from exhausting discharges. When the kidneys themselves are the seat of chronic disease, involving the loss of albumin, they are exposed to a double chance of thrombosis. The blood in their vessels, as elsewhere, is rendered morbidl}' coagulable by the drain; their circulation is impeded by local disei^se. This co-operation of obstruction with coagulability accounts for the frequency of thrombosis in connection with chronic albuminuria.
The symptoms of this fatal alteration are not sufficiently definite, or are too often masked by the results of antecedent disease, to lead to its detection during life; but the salient points of its clinical history can be discerned by following back the history of the cases in which it has been discovered. Originating, as it does, in connection with exhausting disease, albuminuria, or some febrile state, its especial manifestations are apt to be overlooked or misinterpreted.
From the fact that instances of general renal thrombosis seldom come to view, as more partial clots often do, in a state of degeneration or change bearing record of the handiwork of time, but the condition is nearly always recent at the time of death, we must infer that it is usually rapidly fatal.
The condition of the patient is generally, either from the disease itself or its antecedents, one of extreme prostration. The urine aiipears to be highly albuminous, sometimes bloody, and much reduced in (juantity, as if from any other cause the kidneys were in a state of intense injection. If the arteries as well as the veins are generally obstructed, there may be, or rather, if the condition is complete, there must be, total suppression. The presence of albumin or blood in the urine in connection with thrombosis is sometimes equivocal, as when this condition ensues upon renal disease; but it is equally to be observed when the kidneys have been previously healthy, as in the instance re-
this disorder.
Limited or general oedema is necessarily often present with it, as the iliac veins may share in the condition, or kidney disease cause it; but it does not appear that this symptom has been traced to renal thrombosis pure and simple, though such a result is probable.
Recovery may ensue when the renal coagulation has been only partial. An instance has been given in whicli thrombosis affecting one kidney only was found after death in a state which sufficiently proved that it had occurred a long time before (p. 31). It is probable that partial renal coagulation would produce symptoms resembling those which belono- to the more common and more easily recognized condition of embolism. The infrequency of renal thrombosis is such that one may wait long for opportunities of observation.
As this affection of the kidney has hitherto escaped recognition during life, the consideration of its treatment would seem superfluous. Should the condition be detected, it is obvious that drugs which lessen coagulability, of which the fixed alkalies are the most trustworthy, would be called for.
Embolism.
The impaction of erratic masses of fibrin in the vessels — embolism, as it is termed — has, since the observations of Kirkes and Virchow, been clearly distinguished from the fixation of coagulum in the place of its formation, which is known as thrombosis. The results of embolism vary in different organs, with the distribution of the arteries and the properties of the tissue, but they are generally easily recognizable, and nowhere ])resent more striking and constant characters than those of the wellknown " fibrinous block," which is the form they take in the kidneys. Tiie left cavities of the heart furnish, as would be supposed, the ordinary source of the emboli which enter the kidney. Whenever accumulated, fibrin is broken from the valves or walls, an accident whicli is of continual occurrence in cardiac disease, more especially in endocarditis of recent date, the fragment is liable to be swept, by their copious and direct arterial supply, into one or other kidney.
There is certainly no organ in which the results of embolism are so often noticed as in this, though it would be too much to assert that there is no position in which they so frequently occur.
The earliest alteration in the kidney which declares to the naked eye that loose fibrin has been swept into its artery is circumscribed injection or extravasation. Of this there may be one or many patches, each patch indicating a separate lodgment.
Often a patch or ring of injection of considerable size is found upon the surface, or, as luippened in a case in which I detected the change at a very early period,' a congested circle about as large as a sixpence was surrounded by a white margin. Later the appearances become more characteristic. Hard, dense, straw-colored edges, bordered by vivid congestion, are seen in section, the point of the wedge being in a cone, the diverging lines crossing the cortex, the base abutting upon the capsule. When the wedges or cones are small, as is the case when the fibrin is confined to the territory of one of the smaller arteries, the arrangement as described is distinctly seen. More rarely the change involves a large
proportion of the organ, often at one end; the conical disposition is then necessarily obscured. As much as a third of the gland, or even more, may be thus transformed, the fibrin filling one of the larger subdivisions of the renal artery, and permeating the whole of its field of distribution.
Under these circumstances, a careful dissection will often show that the artery leading to the block is plugged with fibrin; this, however, is not always the case. Unless the intruded material is very abundant, the minute vessels fill first. The blocks are so different in color and texture from the surrounding tissue that they look like masses foreign to the
kidney, and inserted into it. A close examination, nowever, even with the naked eye, will often reveal pale lines and spots, which show that the vessels and Malpighian bodies still hold their position, though they have lost their color. The blocks are sometimes raised upon the surface, owing to the distention of their vessels by the intruding material.
As time goes on, the vivid injection around them fades, their light bright color becomes duller and yellower, the resilient hardness gives way to a puffy, greasy friability; they no longer protrude upon the surface, but they shrink as they soften, and, through stages of fatty transformation and absorption, disappear, leaving a depressed indurated cicatrix as the only record of their existence. If the infiltration has been extensive.
a large proportion of the organ may be destroyed by this means. Dr. Van der Byl describes a kidney from a case in which embolic blocking had occurred in many organs, which "weighed only an ounce and a half; it was much deformed, and consisted for the most part of firm yellowish substance, very little of the renal structure remaining free from deposit."^ It was clear, from tlie history and surroundings of the case, that this extreme destruction of renal substance had been produced embolically.
The microscope enables us to add a few particulars. At an early stage there is no change in the kidney save blocking of the vessels in a limited, area, and sanguineous distention of those around. The obstructing material is amorphous or finely granular, sometimes blood-tinged or mixed with corpuscles. It appears to consist mainly of comminuted fibrin. It is found in the arteries and capillaries, not in the veins. The material evidently penetrates the smaller arteries with facility, but cannot get through the capillaries. In the capillaries, therefore, or in the smallest arteries, the arrest takes place, and the intruded material accumulates, behind the stoppage, mounting, according to its abundance, in larger and larger vessels. The straight vessels of the cones, and those which pass thence to the cortex, are more often blocked than the Malpighiaii capillaries. The clot passes more readily into the branches of the renal artery which enter the cones directly than into those which supply the Malpighian bodies. The latter are perhaps less easily entered, given oR as they are at an abrupt angle. The knowledge that the cones receive vessels directly from the renal artery enables us to understand facts connected with renal disease which would be otherwise incomprehensible. It used to be thought that all the blood of the renal artery passed through the Malpighian bodies before going to the tubes. On such a supposition the disposition of fibrinous blocks is inexplicable. Did such a disposition of vessels exist, it would be hard to explain the fact, often observed, that fibrin injected by the arteries should be found in the intertubular, wliile none is to be seen in the Malpighian capillaries. The coarse material appears to be unable to pass through vessels of the capillary size, and must necessarily be arrested in the Malpighian bodies, if it reach them first. Dr. George Johnson* has been led by this imperfect view of the renal circulation to maintain that the blocks, which are generally, and, as I have endeavored to show, truly, regarded as embolic, are the result of the coagulation of blood w situ. This view, however, is refuted by the exemption of the veins from obstruction, by the abrupt limitation of each block to the territory of its own artery, and by their invariable association with fibrinous deposits in the heart or elsewhere in the course of the blood which flows to the kidney. Coagulation i7i situ occurs, as has been shown, in different circumstances, mainly in the veins, and without abrupt limitation.
In recent blocks the only change is in the contents of the vessels; the stationary structures within the block soon, however, along with the contents of the vessels, undergo degenerative transformations. The impacted fibrin rapidly becomes fatty, and a similar alteration affects the tubes and other renal elements. General fatty disintegration ensues within the affected region, the broken-down tissues are absorbed, until at
Tlie renal changes which have been described necessarily result, as a rule, from disease of the left side of the heart. Rheumatic endocarditis often gives rise to tliem, as also do more chronic valvular affections, i)articularly if they be accompanied Avith the deposition of fibrin upon the iiuricular or ventricuhir wall. The blocking of the kidney, if it occur alone, is seldom of much clinical importance; unless extensive, it often escapes recognition during life, the symptoms being obscured by the otiicr results of the cardiac disease in whicii it takes its origin. The impaction may be marked by shivering and succeeded by fever,' but these ])erhaps more often occur when the dissemination is general or Avidely distributed tluin Avhere it is only renal. The symptoms of the renal localization are, however, tolerably well marked, and would no doubt be more often found were they more generally understood. The urine becomes suddenly albuminous, often bloody, and at the same time there is sudden and sometimes violent pain in one or the other renal region. With this, should the affection of the kidney be extensive, there may be vomiting and more or less collapse. When the impaction is of small extent, little further may occur than a suddenly albuminous state of the urine, which is usually of high, or at least of unaffected, specific gravity. It contains, besides albumin, blood-corpuscles and numerous tube-casts. The casts are of moderate diameter, and are more often simply fibrinous than of any other kind. It is probable that the change in the urine is not due to any general disturbance of secretion throughout the kidney, but simply to a species of circumscribed nephritis in the block itself and its intensely congested vicinity.
The urine gradually resumes its natural character; the pain, should there have been any, is of short duration, and, after a few days or weeks, all sym])toms of the disturbance have passed away. The block is still in the kidney, but it is no longer a source of irritation.
Blocking of other systems of vessels, particularly of the cerebral, often occurs simultaneously with the renal impaction, and proportionately aggravates the symptoms. Cerebral embolism especially is ai)t to be attended not only with cerebral disturbance, but with severe, and often rapidly fatal febrile prostration. Such symi)toms, however, do not appear to occur Avhen the kidney only is affected.
The account of renal embolism would not be complete without mention of a result which is occasionally produced in the renal as well as in other arteries by embolic obstruction.
Apparently chieily in consequence of the hurt inflicted upon the vessel by the lodgment, aneurism in the place of it has been known to occur in the arteries of the brain, of the limbs, of the lungs, of the heart, and of the kidneys.
With regard to the treatment of embolic obstruction of the renal vessels little need be said. The question resolves itself into the larger inquiry, the treatment of cardiac disease. Generally speaking, the results of embolism in the kidney are not serious or lasting. The block is rapidly disintegrated and absorbed, and its jdace knows it no more. When, as sometimes happens, severe pain results from the impaction, opiates, by injection or otherwise, may be resorted to; beyond this, treatment of the affection may be left to the secret workmanship of nature.
The subject may be conveniently taken in two parts, the tirst dealingwith the general relations of renal enlargements, whatever be their nature; the second with morbid formations, whether attended or not with obvious tumefaction.
Swellings of the kidney are perhaps more often the subjects of errors; of diagnosis than those of any other organ, which as frequently presents; itself in the guise of an abdominal tumor. Doubtfud tumors are apt to present the riddle of their nature in the shape of the question, ''Is it renal or is it not?" This answered, the rest is clear. To suppose a solid renal tumor to be splenic, or a hollow one to be ovarian, are errors of not infrequent occurrence; while a list of the enlargements which have either been erroneously supposed to be renal, or for which renal swellings^ have been mistaken, would be little short of a complete catalogue of abdominal tumors. It would include tumors in connection with the liver and with the uterus; enlargements of the supra-renal bodies, of the lumbar glands, and of the mesenteric glands; intestinal accumulations, abscesses, especially such as are in connection with the vertebra, and, strange to say, ascites, for which not only have renal cysts been mistaken, but even solid tumors. In a child three years of age a fluctuating renal sarcoma was thus misinterpreted.'
The marks whereby renal tumors are to be recognized are mainly anatomical. It is not necessary to say that the kidneys extend from the front of the eleventh rib to near the crest of the ilium, the right coming a trifle lower down than the left. They are supported behind by the flat muscles of the abdominal wall, which are themselves backed up by the great erectors of the spine, and their attachments to the lumbar vertebrae. In front they are separated only by the peritoneum, and partially by the large bowel, from the abdominal cavity, so tliat, should they become the subjects of swelling, their bulk will probably come forwards as the direction of least resistance. It is only in excej)tional circumstances that a renal tumor obtrudes in the loin as more than an indistinct fulness; this, indeed, may be the only backward manifestation of a swelling which may fill a considerable portion of the abdominal cavity. But, however apt to encroach upon this cavity and confuse themselves with the organs which lie within it, there are certain characteristics which cleave to them as post-peritoneal. One is the direction of such diseases as, like cancer and abscess, advance by contiguity from the kidney to the other organs placed with it behind the serous partition. We see this in the invasion of the vertebras by adjacent renal cancer, and in the erosion and possible penetration of the vertebral
oiatnrm.
To state the rule before the exceptions, the ascending colon usually is to be found in front and towards the inner side of a right renal tumor, the descending colon in fi'ont of one belonging to tlie loft side ; besides ■which tumors of either ]<iduey are apt to have coils of small bowel before them, overlying especially tlieir inner half, unless they have attained such dimensions as to l)e widely in contact with tlie abdominal wall.
The position of the duodenum in front of the right kidney would lead one to expect that it would still be in front of a renal tumor. It docs not appear, however, to be carried straight forward. In Dr, Hillier's case of right hydronephrosis referred to at p. 10-4, this portion of the intestine was adherent to tlie upper and left sitle of the cyst; and in an instance of tul)ercular enlargement of the right kidney recently under my care, the duodenum was found (see fig., p. 90) after death closely adherent to the inner side of the organ, while the ascending colon traversed its front.
But so pertinaciously does the colon on each side hold to its position as to be almost never absent from the front of a renal tumor, and can be here recognized, even when flattened and non-resonant, by the sensation which it gives as it rolls under the lingers. With regard to liver, the rule is that under enlargement the front edge falls like a shutter immediately behind the wall of the belly, without intervening intestine ; but exception to this rule may occur when either the shape of the liver is much altered by disease or the abdominal wall much protruded by ascites. The two causes may concur, and bowel be abundantly resonant in front of a hepatic tumor, when the liver, as with hypertrophic cirrhosis, is made globular at the same time thatit is increased in bulk, so that as it passes downwards it slopes away from the abdominal wall, and also sometimes when cancerous masses protrude from its under surface.
The rule that a renal tumor has bowel before it is not, as has been implied, Avithout exception. The colon on the right side is not so closely connected with the kidney as on the left, and a renal growth has been knitwn to insinuate itself between the liver and ascending colon, and to push the latter down instead of carrying it in front.
Again, a renal tumor, if very large, may carry the bowel with it in its advance towards and beyond the median line, so that the colon, though still in front of the tumor, is not on its own side of the body. Another exception may be with a floating kidney, as it is called, or a kidney which enjoys the liberty of a mesentery. This may be uncovered by bowel of any kind, and lie immediately under the surface, like a f^cal accumulation, for which indeed a healthy floating kidney may be easily mistaken. A floating kidney may become the seat of tumor, or, perhaps, more often a diseased kidney may float. A jiaticnt underwent an operation in the Middlesex Hospital for the removal of a tumor, which was thought to be ovarian. It bulged forwards below the umbilicus, on the left of the median line, and could be felt also in the left lumbar region, which was dull on percussion, as compared with the other side. The uterus was in its natural position, and freely movable, independently of the tumor. The renal origin of the disease was first suggested in the course of the operation, when it was discovered that, though not closeld
bound to the lumbar region, the mass was covered by peritoneum in such a manner as to forbid its excision. After death it was found that the growtli belonged to the left kidney, though it had sprung from the cellular tissue of the hilum rather than from the glandular substance. It had, like many other renal tumors, an encephaloid appearance and a sarcomatous structure. The peculiarity of the case, and i)robably the source of error, was in the situation of the tumor wholly in front of the bowel. The kidney, together with the growth within its capsule, "was loosely tethered to the renal position by a "mesentery," which permitted the mass to come so far forward that the descending colon and sigmoid iioxure, with the rest of the bowels, lay behind it. Looking at the case with posthumous wisdom, it is easy to say that the natural position and mobility of the uterus, together with the ha-ge amount of lumbar dulness for the size of the tumor, luul it been ovarian — it was about four inches in diameter— might have raised doubt as to its ovarian nature.'
Kenal swellings, wlien small, are usually confined to their own side ; when large, they encroach upon the other ; when very large, they appear to fill botli, but seldom so equally but that with care a distinction can be discerned. When tlie kidney is distended with liquid, as in hydronephrosis, it may occupy the whole belly; or, short of this, much of its bulk may cross tlie median line as if it were ovarian, which in many instances it has been supposed to be ; it has even jxisseJ as ascites, and that in careful and i)ractised hands. A collection of i)us within the renal cavity may transgress the median line, as in a case under my own observation in which the outline as felt during life is shown at page 41.
Even a solid renal growth may be of such a size compared to the abdomen as to occupy the greater part of it with little distinction of side, as in an instance already alluded to, in which a fluctuating renal sarcoma was mistaken for ascites. The growth was from the concavity of the kidney, so that its line of advance was towards the vertebral column and the opposite side." And where a solid renal tumor has been relatively smaller, I have known some part of it, or of the parent organ — the lower end of the latter in particular — to be thrust downwards and forwards, so as to infringe upon the abdominal wall not only much below its proper position, but across the median line.
The accompanying outlines Avill show the positions in which renal enlargements usually manifest themselves. Win e small, they are evident only on deep pressure, and in tlie })roper renal jiosition. Sir William Jenner long ago told us how to estimate the size of the kidney by touch, a more sure mode than percu--sion.' One hand is to be })laced behind the patient underneath the last riband just outside the great lumbar muscles, the other in front just over tlie hand behind, if in the right side immediately under the liver; thus the kidney lies between the two sets of fingers, and by diverting the patient's attention so as to to secure abdominal relaxation, and by taking advantage of the act of expiration, the bulk of the organ may be appreciated in a thin person, even when not greatly increased. Sometimes in children the healthy kidneys may be felt by this means ; but as a rule a pali)able kidney is a diseased kidney, more especially when only on one side. In three cases recently under
my care a comparatively small alteration in the size or prominence of one kidney was appreciated by touch during life, and the observation subsequently verified. In one tlie organ was lifted by a spinal abscess behind it ; in anotlier it was stretched, but not excessively, as the result of an urethral obstruction ; in the third it was surrounded by adhesions and increased in rotundity, though not in absolute bulk, as consequences of tubercular disease. Renal tumors are indeed often appreciable by touch which are not to be detected by any other means.
As such tumors increase tliey aiDproach the front wall of the abdomen, usually at about the level of the umbilicus, perhaps a couple of inches on one side. The "presentation " of a renal tumor is, liowever, various. With enlargement it fills up the lateral space between the edge of the thorax and the spine of the ilium, and causes that region to impart a sense of fulness or resistance, and in some cases to bulge, to the loss of bilateral symmetry. The fulness passes towards the backbone, and is to be traced as far as the great lumbar muscles will allow. No interval, either of increased resonance or diminished resistance, is to be made out between these muscles and tlie renal mass: important as a means of distinguishing renal from splenic tumors. AYlien of large size, renal tumors may bulge laterally, but they seldom do so posteriorly, their presence being indicated here rather by the effacement of hollows — ''levelling up." It has been laid down that such tumors never protrude posteriorly, but the rule is not without exception. A pulsating renal growth in St. George's Hospital declared itself by a swelling over the right side of the sacrum."
Renal tumors, whether solid growths or fluid accumulations, are apt to retain much of the original shape of the organ — sometimes, indeed, almost its exact shape — notwithstanding great increase of size. There are, of course, exceptions to this rule, where growths are not distributed through the gland, but sprout from a single spot, as from a part of the pelvic areolar tissue. But there are few exceptions to the rule that the kidney, normally rounded as it is in every direction, never acquires a sharp edge. The kidney "is rounded," says Jenner, "on every side, and in disease never loses this peculiarity." This point may often be sufficient to determine the distinction between a renal enlargement and one belonging on the one side to the liver, or on the other to the spleen.
Xo certain inference is to be drawn from the fact that a tumor descends with inspiration. Hepatic and splenic growths do so; the latter conspicuously. A renal growth or dilatation is commonly fixed posteriorly, but it may bend upon itself so that its fore jiart will move with the diaphragm. I have two patients at the present time with pyelitis and renal dilatation; in both the upper and fore part of the mass markedly descends with inspiration. In both it is on the right side, so that it moves with the liver, though distinctly separable at least from its anterior part.
Tumors of the kidney, if large, may compress the vena cava, and cause as much exaggeration of the superficial abdominal veins as is produced by portal obstruction; this appearance is therefore of little diagnostic significance.
mcnt, may be conclusive as to the nature of the disease ; but it often happens that, if the enhirgement be solid, the growth is external to the ]K'lvis, and exerts no aj)preciable influence upon the urine, and generally if it be by fluid accumulation that the exit of the kidney is closed, either permanently or with only occasional escape, so tiiat the urine which comes under examination is entirely secreted by the healthy organ.
It may be of use to epitomize the distinctions by which tumors of the kidney may be distinguished from each of the forms of swelling with which they are liable to be confused.
First as to the liver. Tumors of this organ are continuous downAvardis from the hypochondrium, while those of the kidney are usually separated by softness or resonance from the hepatic position. With enlargements of the liver an acute margin can generally be traced. It is only in exceptional circumstances that bowel is to be discerned before an enlarged liver.
Splenic swelling, when so small as to be just within touch, may be behind tiie bowels, and so far like one of renal origin ; but it will be traceable upwards to beneath the ribs as a renal tumor of that size would not be. A si)lenic tumor of considerable size is easily distinguishable by the absence of bowel in front, by its sharp outline, its notch, and by the existence of resonance or softness between itself and the spinal region. Further, a splenic tumor is movable ; though a displaced healthy kidney may move freely, an enlarged and diseased kidney is usually fixed. Finally, unilateral bulging may suggest that the cause is not splenic but is connected either with the kidney or with some other extra-peritoneal structure.
The distinction between renal and ovarian tumors is of large practical importance. The position of the bowels is the chief guide. Renal tumors almost invariably have intestine in front ; ovarian tumors as a rule do not. Ovarian tumors as a rule push the intestines aside as they come forward and abut Avithout interception against the abdominal wall. This rule is unfortunately not quite without exception, as coils of bowel have occasionally become fixed by adhesions to the front of an ovarian tumor, .•ind have even been perforated in this situation by a trocar. Thus the presence of bowel in front does not absolutely disprove the ovarian origin of an abdominal tumor, any more than its absence absolutely disproves its renal source ; but the indication thence derived is of general value. To determine the absence of bowel the absence of resonance is notenough; the rolling of empty bowel must be sought for by slipping the integument with the fingers ; and, if necessary, the bowel may be inflated per anum ■ — a measure of the more effect as the intestine to be expected is colon. Ovarian tumors are usually more globular than renal, and more central. Further, a distinction may be made by vaginal examination : if the tumor be felt within the pelvis it is probably not renal, nor is it if the uterus be much lifted. A large renal tumor depresses the uterus. Further difference may be found in the fact that ovarian cysts are often multilocular ; renal cysts of such size as to be prominent as abdominal tumors are generally unilocular, except they be hydatids, produced as they -are by simple exaggeration of the normal cavityof the kidney.
Tlie al)senceof albumin and the ]n-e£ence of urea in the fluid contained would ])robably be conclusive of a renal cyst whether the alternative were ovaiian dropsy or ascites. "With regard to the latter condition, in Dr. Hillier's case, where for a time hytlronephrosis was thus interpreted, the diagnosis was finally limited to that of renal cyst by the nature
of the fluid withdrawn : this was essentially urine, it contained at one time no albumin, but urea and uric acid. Other points of distinction between ascites and hj'dronephrosis may be found in those of ordinary application in the distinction of encysted and peritoneal dropsy, and in the tracing of the swelling of hydronephrosis into one lumbar region with greater bulging on that side than on the other.
As to the supra-renal bodies, it would seem strange that growths here arising should be distinguishably differelit in their relations from those of the kidneys with which they are in contact; but these bodies, though placed behind the large bowel, are not overlaid by it in the same direct manner as are the kidneys, and though I have but a single case to appeal to, yet it enables me to say at least that supra-renal tumors are not necessarily crossed by bowel as renal tumors almost invariably are. Tiie only instance I know, in which a supra-renal had attained sufficient dimensions to present itself during life as an abdominal tumor, occurred in St. George's Hospital, when I had charge of the post-mortem department. A girl three years of age presented in the right hypochrondriac region a hard, round, slightly movable mass, of which the whole circumference could be traced. The skin was generally hypersemic ; it was gypsycolored, though not bronzed, and was covered with a remarkable growth of dark hair. The tumor proved to be a globular mass of enceplialoid, six inches in diameter, which had replaced the left supra-renal capsule. This lay immediately beneath the abdominal wall, uncovered by bowel of 4iny kind. It had pushed itself out of its proper place in regard to the kidney, and lay along its inner edge close to the hilum, which, with the tumor upon it, was turned forward, the growth extending without interruption between the concave margin of the kidney and abdominal front. Thus the tumor had assumed the position but not the relations of a renal enlargement.'
Tumors which spring from some of the absorbent glands, whether lumbar or mesenteric, in the immediate neighborhood of the kidney, may be indistinguishable from those belonging to that organ. The annexed outlines refer to a case of encephaloid disease of the lumbar glands which had most of the renal characters. The mass, part of which was the healthy kidney and part a mass of cancer which had started in the lumbar glands, was crossed by the descending colon nearly in the position of the line in the second diagram which limits the palpation area. As is apt to occur with renal cancer, the lumbar vertebras had been invaded and paraplegia produced. In this case it was believed until death that the tumor was renal, and it is not easy, even in the light of i\\Q postmortem, to see how a distinction could have been made.
In another case, also of a child, 1 met with more success. The tumor, like the preceding, belonged to the lumbar glands ; in position and relation it was not to be distinguished from a renal tumor, save that a protrusion from it entered the scrotum, a circumstance which suggested its origin in the lumbar region in relation, not with the kidney, but with the testicle. A character which helped to guide the diagnosis in this case, and of which I have seen the value in others, is the more marked or abrupt prominence of the swelling than is usual with renal tumors.
'The child was under the care of Dr. Pitman, in St. George's Hospital, in the year 1864. The post-mortem examination was made by myself. The preparation IS in the museum of the hospital, series x. prep. 51. It is described by Dr. John Ogle in \\\e Path. Trans, vol. xvi. p. 250.
Adenoid cystic tumor of lumbar glands, which descended into scrotum, but otherwise simulated a renal tumor, as seen during life. The cysts are full and tense. The dotted line shows the extent of dulness. (See woodcut on next page.)
death, are represented in the outlines on this page. The subject
Tumor, outlined from life on last page, as displayed after death, and after removal of the small bowel. The cysts are somewhat collapsed. The scrotal prolongation is seen.
Mesenteric simulating a renal tumor as seen during life. The shaded portions were eoverea by bowel, two coils of \vhich could be traced m front of the tumor. (See woodcut below.)
There may be enough resemblance between a faecal mass in the ascending or descending colon and a renal tumor to make it needful to state the distinctions. A floating kidney, which may lie under the parietes entirely uncovered by bowel, may so nearly resemble a faecal accumulation as to be not at once distinguishable from it. Both are readily movable under the hand, and both give on percussion about the same amount of dulness, not profound, but that of a superficial mass lying upon the intestines. But a floating kidney is a rare condition, more often suspected during life than found after death. To recognize it with anything like certainty, not only should the shape and size be properly renal, but the hilum should be felt. What doubts remain may be solved by the action of purgatives. Not that an accumulation must at once disappear, though under treatment it will gradually lose bulk and eventually do so. The resemblance between a faecal mass and a floating kidney does not hold in the ordinary conditions of renal disease, the deep connections of a renal enlargement and the existence of bowel before it being enough to exclude any such question.
Distribution of Malignant Renal Growths.
A few statements will apply to malignant tumors of the kidney in general, irrespective of any distinction between cancer and sarcoma — such a distinction, indeed, is a refinement of modern pathology; it is seldom to be established during life, and even after death is not evident, save to modes of examination which are not commonly employed.
Renal malignant growths may be practically divided into primary and secondary, forming two class of very unequal importance. When primary, the growth usually affects one kidney only, and destroys life by its progress in or about the organ in which it has originated. Secondary renal growths are continually bilateral; they usually escape notice during life, playing quite a subservient part to that in which they have originated. The secondary are the more common; speaking indeed of cancer as distinguished from sarcoma, this growth is exceedingly rare in the kidney, excepting as having originated elsewhere; tumors primary to the kidney are more often sarcomatous.
tissociated, together with m}' individual experience, the notes of seventeen cases of malignant tumor primary to the kidney, and of twentythree secondary to it. As they are for the most part unpublished, they form an addition, however trifling, to current knowledge.
To take first the class which, though the smaller, has the larger practical importance — malignant renal growths belong to two periods of life, early childhood and declining age; in late childhood and early adult life tliey are nearly unknown, at least as original to the kidney. The following table gives the particulars of distribution:
The proportion of children affected is slightly greater than would generally present itself, as the table includes the experience of the Hospital for Sick Children, from which source two of the cases of primary and one of secondary growth were derived. The j)Ost-morte7n examinations at this hospital from its foundation to March, 1878, are 1,084 in •number. These comprise, besides the cases of renal growths just referred to, eleven of so-called cancer beginning in other organs; but the disease had not originated in any organ in more than one instance, excepting the skeleton and the peritoneum — each of which were primarily affected in two cases — and the kidney. The frequency of malignant renal growths in childhood may be associated with the fact that these tumors are generally of the nature of sarcoma, and belong, like the tumors of the eyeball, not infrequent at the same time of life, to the connective tissue. Tumors which originate in this tissue, whether as glioma or sarcoma, appear to be more common in early life than the strictly cancerous growths which take their rise in the epithelium.
Whatever be the intimate structure of renal growths, they present in a large majority of instances the outward semblance of encephaloid. Like most new formations they are most luxuriant in childhood and present at this time of life the softest structure, and relatively, or even absolutely, the largest bulk. Sometimes the dimensions have been enormous. Spencer Wells^ saw one in a child four years old which weighed between sixteen and seventeen pounds, and had grown so rapidly that hardly six months had elapsed from its appearance to its termination. An outline of the swelling is given at page 41, in juxtaposition to which is to be seen a similar outline from a bov of six who was the sub-
' Of the forty cases here referred to, thirty-seven were descril^ed as encephaloi<l. two as scirrhus, one as colloid; but these distinctions had reference to little more than the consi.stence of the tumor, and are not to be accepted in reference to the minute structure.
ject of a renal tumor' described as enceplialoid, which weighed thirtvone pounds, the total weight of the child and tumor together having been 131 pounds, so that about a fourth of the creature was disease. A child of three years old, named Lily Langley, died under my care at the Hospital for Sick Children with a renal sarcoma; the body unopened weighed thirty-five pounds, the tumor eleven and a half pounds, almost exactly a third of the whole.
The instance of a child three years old has already been referred to, in whom a renal sarcoma was mistaken during life for ascites, such were its dimensions and consistence. Dr. Eoberts found that the average Aveight of the renal tumor in sixteen children whose cases he had collected amounted to eight and a half pounds; the smallest weighed one pound nine ounces. Among fifteen adults the average weight was nine and a half pounds, the growth in the smallest presenting about the size and weight of the natural kidney. Notwithstanding the large variations of size which renal tumors present, it may be stated, as a rule whicli has few exceptions, that a renal growth, though it may not protrude the ^ibdominal surface, seldom fails to attain such a size as to be evident to the touch, though the nature of the enlargement has in many cases been misunderstood.
Growths primary to the kidney usually belong especially to one. It is not the habit of any malignant growth, whether cancer or sarcoma, to start bilaterally, as do morbid actions which depend upon the blood or the nervous system, and the general truth that however widely such growths may be scattered, one is generally to be recognized as the progenitor of all the rest, makes one suspicious of the double origin which, as far as the kidneys are concerned, is sometimes assigned to them. Among the nineteen cases of malignant disease primary to the kidney referred to at page 50 were four in which both organs participated.
In two, many secondary deposits existed elsewhere, so that one of the renal growths was probably of this nature. In the other two, growths Avere found in the two kidneys and nowhere else, so that independence of origin might be inferred; but in each instance the growths were greatly unequal in size, so that, to say the least, they were not simultaneous, and it is not impossible that the second may in each case have l)eon the offspring of the first, though none elsewhere came under observation.
Among sixty-seven cases of primary renal so-called cancer collected by Roberts, the disease was confined to one kidney sixty times. In seven ■cases both were involved, but in three only did the disease appear to be primary on both sides; in the other four one kidney was the seat of ]irimary cancer, while its fellow contained only secondary nodules. Other writers, like Dr. Roberts, have collated published cases with similar results, but to quote any other statement from similar sources would be but to count the same cases twice.
With regard to the lateral selection of renal growths the testimony is somewhat discrepant. Roberts found that of sixty unilateral cases each kidney was affected an equal number of times. Ebstein states that the right is more often attacked than the left in the ratio of 31 to 23.
eleven belonging to the left side, only one belonging to the right.
Looking at the position of malignant tumors with regard to the kidney itself, it is ai)purent that there are two situations in which they chiefly begin — the coitical structure and the submucous cellular tissue. Cancers certainly begin as a rule in the cortex, but cases present themselves in which the growtli is placed chiefly in the interval between the gland and the pelvis. This may be only because the growth has pushed in this direction, as in an instance under my own observation, where a tumor, regarded as encephaloid, largely occupied this position and protruded thence into the mucous cavity; but that it had begun in the I'enal substance was proved by the circumstance that the protruding part displayed upon its surface the divergent lines of a niammillary process, so that the growth had evidently begun behind this structure and pushed it before it.
But, beside such cases in which the cellular interspace is the apparent rather than the real source of the growth, others have been describeil, and the term imranepliric applied to them, in which the actual origin of the cancer is liere, and its subsequent progress directed not into the substance of the organ, but around it in connection with the capsule.' I have recently had a case of an abdominal tumor which was regarded, correctly as it proved, as a renal sarcoma. The growth, however, though in the closest contact witii the glandular surface, was distinct from its substance, tlie gland being expanded into a shell over the tumor. No transition of gland into growth could be traced; and it was not possible but to conclude that the tumor had arisen between the kidney and its mucous or fibrous covering. Wliether such growth arise, as has been supposed, in the endothelium of the blood-vessels I am unable to say. As to secondary cancerous growths, they are often seen around blooavessels, as if brought by them or by the accompanying lymphatics; thus they may be placed in the cellular interspace of the kidney, just as similar formations may appear between gland and vessel in the portal canals of the liver.
The malignant sarcomata are often so intimately associated with the interstitial tissue of the cortex involving the tubes within their encroaching bulk and spreading around the Malpighian bodies, that it must be inferred that the growth has begun in that tissue with the distribution of which its spread is so intimately connected; thus sarcomata as well as cancer would seem to be mainly of cortical origin. But either may spread in the submucous interval; and the position of secondary growths of either sort may be determined, as already stated, by that of the bloodvessels and absorbents in this situation. Lymphadenomata sometimes especially belong here, accurately following the submucous interval and dissecting the membrane from the dand.
No growth recorded except in one kidney, .... 3 Both kidneys affected, no growth elsewhere, .... 2 Both kidneys affected, one perhaps secondarily as other secondary
The influence of a malignant renal growth upon neighboring and related structures is of more than pathological interest. Like other malignant tumors it not only travels along the lines of lymphatic and venous departure, but spreads by contiguity. It frequently encroaches upon the renal vein, and has been known to thrust itself in bulk into it and into the associated vena cava, and to reach the lung in the shape of palpable emboli. As a rule it appears to start by the absorbents ; the lumbar glands, receiving as they do the lymphatics from the kidney, are usually infiltrated as the first step in the advancement of the disease : they may thus become converted into a cylinder, or irregular mass of malignant growth, which lies immediately in front of the spine, and in which the aorta and vena cava are completely imbedded. After the lumbar glands, tlie infection is next potired into the thoracic duct and venous blood, and reaches the lung as presenting the first capillaries to be traversed after the infection has been discharged by the lumbar glands and entered the blood. After leaving the lung and reaching the left ventricle the infection is necessarily impartially distributed — sown broadcast through the system to bear fruit in whatever structure is suited to arrest the contagium and lend itself to its development. The liver and the general absorbent glands appear to be affected most often ; the bones, tlie peritoneum, and the heart occasionally, but with less frequency. My series does not include an instance in svhich the heart Avas affected, but there are three in a list of fifty-one cases of primarily renal "cancer" (for cancer read malignant growth) collected, mostly from published reports, by Dr. Eoberts. In the same collection the bladder, uteru-, penis, and testicle were each in one instance the subject of secondary deposits. But besides its distribution, as in these instances, by absorption and dissemination, it has other and more arbitrary modes of i)rogression. It may liappen that its most fatal and distressing issues are due to its annexation of organs and structures which have no association with it but one of vicinity. The most important result of this kind is the implication of the spinal column and cord. It has happened to me to witness two instances of thi§ : in one, the kidney was the seat of a malignant sarcoma; the vertebras affected were the last three dorsal, and the first lumbar: the body of the last dorsal was so extensively destroyed that when the spinal canal was laid open after death, the finger could be passed through a jagged hole from the spinal into the abdominal cavity. The resulting paraplegia,
Avitli ])ar;ilysis of the bladder and deep bedsores, liad been as complete as if the spine had been broken by external violence. In the other case, that of a man named Temi)ero, precisely the same vertebras, the last three dorsal and the first lumbar, had been similarly involved from the same cause ; and one, tlie eleventh dorsal, had been completely cut in two, so that the upper segment, during life, grated upon the lower with the distinguisiiing crepitus of broken bone — a ])henomenon Avhich was to be elicited by slight pressure upon the spinous process of the affected vertebra. In this case, althougii much cancerous matter was found in the spinal (?anal, there was no i)aralysis but of the l)ladder. The bowel also suffers from its proximity to the renal growth: an instance has been mentioned in which the descending colon, and another in which the duodenum was perforated. The latter bowel has been often completely imbedded in a malignant mass of renal origin, as in a subject examined at St. George's Hospital ; and dilatation of the stomach has been known to have resulted from compression of the duodenum by the same means.
The aorta and vena cava may be in like manner nearly surrounded, insomuch that it is a matter of surprise that the vessels themselves escape destruction ; they, however, though possibly compressed, preserve their integrity in a manner which shows them to be exceptionally resistant to encroaching growths.
The fre(juency with which the supra-renal capsule participates in renal cancer is no doubt due to its apposition rather than its susceptibility. It has often been noticed that a growth primary to the kidney rarely extends to tlie other urinary or genital organs: while it is by no means uncommon for cancer of the testicle to be succeeded by cancer of one or more kidneys. Transmission of the disease in the contrary direction is exceptional. The reason is not far to seek. Malignant disease is conveyed chiefly by the absorbents ; those of the kidney pass to tlio lumbar glands, and so to the thoracic duct, their course lying above, and their current setting away from the pelvic and lower organs. These organs, of course, share in common with every other in whatever systemic contamination may exist, but they have no particular or special associition with the morbid process beyond the exposure of the urinary mucous membrane to morbid discharges. But more often than not the growth is not exposed m the renal cavity, nor is the urine affected by it; and even when it fungates and discharges into the pelvis the discharge ap])ears to have little of infective property. With regard to the conveyance of disease in the other direction, the lymphatics of the testicle pass directly into the lumbar glands, some to those of them which lie near the renal artery; if these become infiltrated the kidney may easily be affected by contiguity, giving place as it does to growths intruding from without. The jirostate, bladder, and uterus are likewise connected with the lumbar glands, but less directly tluin is the testicle. Cancer of the kidney is not a frequent result of cancer of the uterus: it has been traced to cancer of the prostate.
Malignant tumors of the kidney have been so generally described as cancer, that it was with much surprise tiiat I found, on examining a number of specimens to which this name had been applied, that cancer, as structurally defined, was comparatively rare among them. By far the larger number of malignant venal growths fall within the definition of
sarcoma; and the preponderance of tliis form of growth over tlie cancerons becomes still more marked if we liave regard only to such as are primary to the kidney. Of eiglit tumors catalogued as cancer in the Museum of St. George's Hospital, two of which were specified as scirrliu.^, six proved to be not cancer but sarcoma, tlie term "scirrhus" having been applied in each instance to a hard sarcomatous growth. Not that this is the only growth which may simulate renal cancer: I have conio across two instances in which a formation apparently of this nature, and secondary to ulcerating cancer elsewhere, has proved to be notliing more than a cell-infiltration, inflamnuitory in nature, and probably akin to pyaemia.
A profusely cellular, highly malignant, round-celled sarcoma is the most common of all renal growths. It is of interest to note that uoh only as concerns the forms of albuminuria, but also with circumscribed morbid growths, the most frequent seat of disease is the intertubular interval, and the growths to Avhich the organ is most prone are exaggerations or perversions of its connective tissue. This has more than scholastic importance, for it helps to explain why renal tumors so seldom disturb the renal function. The growths, though within the capsule, may be called extra-glandular ; they have no connection with the secreting channels, and only affect the secretion when by accident of fungatiou the products of their ulceration are mixed with the urine in the pelvis. Clinically it is but seldom possible to separate cancer from sarcoma, or to distinguish a renal tumor during life more narrowly than as being either one or the other : a clinical sketch must be common to the tw(), but to this must be superadded a word about the pathological characters proper to each.'
Carcinoma.
Cancers of the kidney are usually encephaloid ; scirrhus, though often spoken of, is, in fact, exceedingly uncommon in this situation. I have ascertained a renal tumor to be strictly of this nature in but one instance, for the opjiortunity of examining which I am indebted to my friend Mr. C. H. Morgan. The subject was a man of the age of sixtv-
' In evidence of tlie relative frequency of carcinoma and sarcoma as renal growths, I may mention that in the course of a systematic examination of renal tumors by means of translucent sections, I found six instances of carcinoma to sixteen of sarcoma. The carcinomas comprised one case of colloid, one of scirrhus, and four of encephaloid. The colloid and scirrhus were primary to the kidney ; one of the encephaloid was primary, two secondary, and one uncertain ia this respect. Of the sarcomas, nine w-ere primary to the kidney, six secondary, one uncertain. As to the structure of the sarcomas, fourteen of the sixteen were round-celled, the small-celled variety prevailing ; two were spindle-celled. Among the round-celled varieties were five which the abundance of extra vasated blood entitled to be called haemorrhagic ; two which were alveolar, and thus approached the characters of cancer. Alveolar sarcoma so nearly resembles cancer that it is with difficulty to be distinguished from it. It would indeed appear that carcinoma and sarcoma are not sei)arated by so definite a line as modern pathology would indicate. The alveoli of a sarcoma may so nearly i-esemble cancerous loculi that it is only in other parts that the distinction is clear ; and even with them it is not always conclusive, for the solid portions of a cancer are not always to be distinguished from sarcomatous tissue. I have seen at least one instance of a renal growth, which could not be regarded but as sarcoma, which was secondary to one in the rectum, which had been pronounced on microscopic evidence to be carcinoma. Clinically it is not possible to distinguish in the individual case, though we know generally that in one organ the growth is likely to be sarcoma, in another cancer. As to malignancy there is little to choose.
eio-ht ; the disease ]n-imary to the left kidney ; the cause of death secondary growths of the same nature in the pleura, with consequent serous effusion. I have recently examined two other instances of su]i]iosed scirrhus of the kidiiov, and found both to be sarcoma. Colloid of the kidnev is :il.=o infroqnent ; an instance will shortly I)e referred to (]l 55). Two modes have been (lescril)od in which renal cancer may begin, and the distinction may ajjply to other growths also. The growth may be discrete or diffuse. In the first one or more isolated and circumscribed formations ajipear in the cortical tissue, and sometimes project from it in enormous bulk, leaving some portion of the organ unaffected, except by distortion and displacement. In the other form the growth takes place generally throughout the organ, or mingles intimately with it from many points, so that, however the organ increases in size, it retains much of its original sliape. In the first form the tumor may be placed far away from the renal ])elvis, and have no tendency to approach it ; and indeed
placed. Occasionally are
to be seen outlying groups of cells, less completely encapsulated. The alveolar structure within, consisting as it does of a fibrous matrix excavated by cavities Aviiieh are lined with, or irregularly occupied by, cells of epithelial type, has suggested an origin in transformation of the renal tubes. The cavities are most irregular in size and sliape, but the smallest, whether seen in length or transverse section, sometimes present so nearly the dimensions and form of the renal tubes that it is difficult not to connect the morbid witli the natural spaces. The superabundant and luxuriating e})ithelium, narrowed and elongated by the mutual pressure of the cells, may possibly be the only noticeable distinction between the section of a renal tube and tluit of a tube-like cancer cavity. The fibroid matrix of the kidney finds its analogue, and ajiparently sometimes its substitute, in that of the cancer. In the prinuiry scirrhus already referred to, the fibroid tissue of the cancer presented an unbroken continuity with that of the kidney, as if it were not an addition, but an alteration. The fibroid mass imbedded here distinct kidney tubes and there
Secondary encephaloid. The growth is a pure intrusion ; it displays none of the renal structures. (From a section prepared by Dr. Watney.)
cancer loculi, wliich so nearly resembled them that it was sometimes difBcult to say wliicli Avas tube and whicli was cancer cavity. The matrix, which could not be regarded otherwise than as that of the cancer, imbedded at its circumference Malpighian bodies, as if it were, or at least were inse])erably joined to, the matrix of the kidney. Thus, in some cases at least, the transition from the structure of the tumor to that of the gland is as if one had been not so much replaced by as converted into the other. In other instances it is no less clear that the cancer-structure is not a conversion but an intrusion, for it is separated from that of the gland by a capsule, on the outside of which arc Malpighian bodies and tubes, on the inside none. Secondary renal cancer can often be traced encircling the arteries, obviously disconnected from the glandular structure.
Whatever be the relation of cancer loculi to cortical tubes, it would appear from the frequent preservation of the natural characters of the urine, either that the altered tubes (if they be so i-egarded) either do not retain their connection with the pelvis, or fail to discharge their contents into it.
Robin' has described as epithelioma a renal cancer which had, in some respects at least, characters which entitled it to the name, though the bulk of the mass more resembled a degenerating encephaloid. The left kidney was the seat of a tumor, about five inches square, which had destroyed most of the organ save a cortical shell. The mass was in parts as hard as the normal renal structure, in parts like putty and in j^arts diffluent and creamy. Hsemorrhage had taken place into its structure in many places. The growth consisted mainly of cells, which, like cancer in general, presented epithelial types. They were of different sorts and sizes; some in particular approached the pavement or prismatic form, and if these were derived, which seems not improbable, from the mucous membrane of the pelvis, the term epithelial may be properly applied to this part of the tumor. The pelvis was occupied or replaced by the growtli, and the infundibulum plugged with it. It is not impossible that the disease may have begun as epithelioma of the mucous membrane, and that encephaloid of the gland may have been secondary to it. A simple squamous epithelioma of the pelvis of the kidney, a phthisis renum cancrosa, has been described by Rindfleisch,Mn which a zone of white infiltration extends from the papillse, which became early involved, for the depth of two or three lines into the renal substance.
Neither is colloid unknown in this situation. It has been described, together with encei)haloid, and I may refer to a remarkable instance, which I brought before the Pathological Society, in which a kidney which contained some large calculi had become dilated into an enormous multilocular cyst, during life thought to be ovarian, and this, apparently as a subsequent process, had been fiHed with gelatinous material, which was undistinguishable from colloid cancer. As an additioiuil peculiarity in this case, it appeared that })ortions of the contents of the cyst^ escaped from time to time into the bladder, with temporary diminution of the tumor. The ureter after death was found to be pervious throughout, and somev/hat dilated; the calculi, which consisted of phosphate of lime, were impacted at one side of its entrance.
The forms of sarcoma which most often affect the kidneys are the highly malignant round-celled varieties, which start usually in the cortic;il, but sometimes in the submucous, connective tissue, grow rapidly, are soft, even sometimes fluctuate, and present so nearly the appearance of encephaloid, that they have been general described as such.
The cellulur growth is often
to be traced in especial luxuriance along the margins of the new bloodvessels. The vessels themselves usually have thin walls and great calibre, so that extravasation takes place readily and profusely, insomuch that in many instances the tumor after death has presented the appearance of mere blood-clot, the sarcomatous skeleton revealing itself only on examination in section. This was the case with regard to a tumor represented at page 58, which "in the recent state looked like a mass of coagulum." It is preserved at Charing Cross Hospital, and I have to thank the then curator, Mr. Bellamy, for allowing me to open and examine the preparation. Not only is blood thus found in the recent state, but these tumors are apt to display cavities full of fibrin, evidently the relics of former hemorrhages, and to be sprinkled with blood -crystals.
Hemorrhagic sarcoma sometimes presents a somewhat equivocal resemblance to lymphadenoma; and perhaps if one were to judge only by the minute structure it might not be possible always to decide between the two; but the distinction involves more than microscopical detail — it relates to the origin of the growth in connective or lymphatic tissue,.
Round-celled sarcoma of very malignant type, from a child thirteen months old, under the care of Dr. Downes. The tumor was spherical, and six inches in diameter. The cells, which were intermediate in size (between those represented at pape 57i, are seen mixed with blood-corpuscles in the swollen interstitial tissue of the kidnej^. A large blood-vessel is seen below and to the left, elsewhere the cavities for tubes. " Cancer " said to be hereditary in family.
Largre rounrJ-celled sarcoma, from the case of Tempero. Very largre irregrviliir more or less rounded cells inclosed in a delicate nieshwork which is inseparable from the normal matrix of the kidney.
Small round-celled sarcoma, the cells arrangjed along partitions of fibroid tissue and blood-vessels. (From a preparation at St. George's Hospital formerly described as scirrhus.) Similar g^rowths found in other parts of body.
Round-celled sarcoma which in the recent state resembled a mass of coagulum. The blood, to be (listinKuislieil from the growth by the small size of tlie corpuscles, is contained partly in large vessels, but chiefly as extravasation in the sul)stance of the tumor.
tissue origin, and to be entitled to be called sarcomatous; a view which, I may say, has the concurrence of the excellent pathologist who formerly described it as lymphadenoma. The marks of distinction, however, are not so sure but that there might still be room for difference of opinion, were regard had only to the microscopic characters and not to the organic situation.
The next instance was brought under my notice by Dr. Grigg, who sent me the kidney of an infant, whicli proved to be the seat of a growth in some respects similar to that already described. The cellular interspace between the gland and the pelvic mucous membrane had been acacurately and uniformly filled with what looked like recent blood-clot. It
had the color and somewhat tlie granular texture of raspberry jam, a shade lighter^ that is, than sim[)le coa.^alum. The maximum thickness of this mass was about half-an-incii. Hardened and examined in section, it proved to be, as had been conjectured, a cellular growth, into the interstices of which bleeding had occurred. It consisted of a mass of small cells or nuclei, much like white blood-corpuscles; these were sometimes in apparent contact with each other, but in places were separated by the threads of a very definite reticulum composed of small si)indle-cells. In some places the mass was traversed by thick bars of common fibrous tissue. It contained in places crowds of red blood-corpuscles and large sprinklings of haematin. Blood-vessels of considerable size were found in it, their edges in some places fringed with extravasated blood. The mass, though in some parts not unlike a lymphoid growth, and in others like a mere extravasation, presented on the whole rather the characters of sarcoma, with v/hich accordingly it is classed.
Tumors which have been thus described would probably in most instances fall within the definition of sarcoma, or at least be so nearly allied, to it as scai'cely to call for separate consideration. Some years ago I exhibited a large renal tumor' as fibro-fatty — a term which its constitution appeared to Justify; it consisted of a gray translucent fibrous basis, in which no cells or nuclei could be found, which inclosed a yellow, opaque structure chiefly composed of aggregated oil-globules. Dr. Bristowe* produced, as a companion to this, another renal tumor whicli presented precisely tlie same admixture of fibrous tissue and oil-globules. I am now enabled, by means of methods of section which were not in use when these growths were presented, to add to, and in one respect to correct, the descri})tion of the one for which I am responsible. Though considerable districts of this consist, as described, of mature fibrous tissue, yet in other parts it proved to be densely nucleated, notwithstanding that the nucleation was not apparent under the rougher methods by whicli the growth was at first examined. It was also traversed by wide thin-walled blood-vessels, and had, in short, the characteristic structure of a smallcelled sarcoma. The growth, in fact, is but a variety of sarcoma in Avhich extensive fatty degeneration has occurred.
Simple fibrous tumors have been described in the same relation, but it is not improbable that further examination might i^h^ce them in the same category. Dr. Wilks' displayed one about as large as a child's head, in which the form of the kidney was almost exactly preserved. It was very hard and looked like fibro-cartilage, but proved to consist of fibrous tissue only. It had been of such a size as to attract notice as an abdominal tumor for six years; four years before this there had been haematuria and pain in the loins; so that ten years may fairly be assigned as the duration of the growth. Beside such larger tumors as have been referred to, small fibromata, from the size of a pea downwards, have been found harmlessly disposed in the midst, of healthy renal tissue. Tubes have been traced into them, and they have been thought to be, as indeed are most renal tumors of the sarcomatous kind, mere exaggerations of the interstitial tissues.''
Melanosis.
Black growths or deposits have been met with in the kidney, and sometimes described as cancer, though it is probable that the term, in its present ]-estricted sense, would not always apply. Walshe observes that the melanotic discoloration of cancerous masses is occasionally,
though rarely, met with iti this organ/ and the similar pigmentation of sarcomatous tumors is not au unfamiliar experience. But melanotic formations may take place independently, as it would seem, of any other morbid growth, simply as a development of pigment-cells in the interstitial tissue of the organ. The accompanying woodcut represents a typical example of this in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons, which, by the courtesy of the curator, Professor "Flower, I was enabled to examine with the microscope. The black spots, which were unattended
with any obvious swelling or displacement of structure, were caused by the sprinkling of the interstitial tissue with large pigment-eells, or black debris, which liad apparently resulted from their disintegration.
The cells were situated wliolly in the intertubular district of the kidney, leaving the tubes and Malpighian bodies unaffected, but often strikingly outlined by the black matter. There was no evidence of new
Gbroid growth or stroma. It is to be noted that the discoloration affected the capsule wliere this was op])osite to the black spots. In the same collection is another kidney, which is uniformly blackened throughout by a change to which the same name would be applied. At the London Hospital is a kidney apparently similar to the first-mentioned, in which the structure is dotted with black deposits varying in si-ze from pins'-heads to peas. These have a powdery look, and are abruptly circumscribed, looking as if lampblack had been inserted into round cavities. There is no history. At King's College are several specimens.
melanotic cells and granules in interstitial tissue. The Malpighian bodies and tubes are exempt.
showing melanotic deposition in the same organ, in one of which it is associated witli villus. Clinically the history of melanosis is that of the growth with wliich the pigment is associated; in addition ' to which we have the fact that in certain instances the urine has been found to contain black pigment, either in casts, granules, or diffused color.
Villus.
Villous disease of the kidney is of great rarity. In most of the cases of which wc have knowledge, it appears to be analogous to the Avellknown villous disease of the bladder, Avhich is not malignant, and which belongs especially to the trigone. A striking example of villous disease of the kidney was related at the Pathologic-'^l Society'^ by the late Mr. Campbell de Morgan; and by his courtesy I was enabled to have made the representation which is annexed.
the preceding two years the urine had been albuminous, and she had had, at intervals of from two weeks to two months, attacks of haematuria, attended with pain in the renal region, so profuse as, on two occasions, to endanger life. On posi-7)wrfe!u examination the pelvis of the left kidney was found to be dilated and full of what at first appeared to be a mass of thick shreddy pus. From this a fluid separated, which contained not puscorpuscles, but nucleated cells, granular corpuscles, and the debris of cells, such as would give the impression that they belonged to a cancerous
gan. Tlie kidney is laid open, and the growtii seen to hang freely from the pelvis.
growth, leaving behind a soft mass of the size of a damson, which on washing spread itself out into the shaggy beard-like growth which is represented. The larger portion grew from tlie wall of the ])elvis by a broad but thin pedicle, wliile smaller tufts were attached to other parts of tlie same membrane. A microscopic examination of the villi showed that many of them were coated with epithelium. They resembled those found in the non-cancerous villus of the bladder, though the latter, as
The compact portion of the tumor was made up of a delicate fibrous stroma, from which a juice containing nucleated cells exuded. But that this structure was not truly cancerous was inferred from a disposition within the stroma to forms like those which constituted the villi, wliile in cancerous growths with villous surfaces tiie structure is purely that found ordinarily in cancer. The absence of secondary deposits bears out this view.
Latterly, after severe pains shooting from the right kidney to the pubes, he became drowsy and nearly unconscious, with dry tongue, muttering •delirium, hiccough, vomiting, and frequent convulsive movements.
were from one to several
lines in length ; they were covered Avith a thin layer of epithelium, and included a ca})illary vessel full of blood. Tlicre was no secondary deposit, nor any formation of the ordinary type of cancer.
In Guy's Museum, there is a preparation which displays a large amount of villous growth in connection with a diseased kidney, which is enormously dilated, evidently from calculi, one of which still remains in one of the calyces. The colon is adherent, and its cavity is connected with that of the kidney by a sinuous opening. From the lining of the pelvis hangs a quantity of shaggy villous growth, and to a different part of the same cavity is attaclied a quantity of more solid pendent matter, which looks like villous structure associated with some more solid material.
The disease is described in the catalogue as malignant, but there is no reference to cancer or growth in any other organ. Through the kindness of Dr. Hilton Fagge, I was enabled to examine this interesting specimen with the microscope. The solid growth of whicli the walls chiefly •consisted was made up of spindle cells of the sarcomatous type, with inter-
Section from the cortical structure of the villous kidney <(at Gu3-'s Hospital). A Malpighian body is seen surrounded •by nucleated fibroid growth of sarcomatous character.
Tills here and there in which numbers of small round nuclei were closely packed. These (vere related to the interstitial tissue of the kidney, and could often be traced abundantly surrounding the Malpighian bodies, which themselves were unaffected. The vascular loops which constituted the villi were thin tubes of simple and bare membrane. The growth is clearly related to sarcoma rather than cancer. Its apparent origin in calculous irritation is of interest.
The process displays little more than thin and bare membrane.
cated in the preceding cases. Attacks of hasmaturia, which completely intermit, but so profuse as to endanger life; possibly some dull pain in the lumbar region, but no acute pain anywhere; urine simply mixed with blood, without deposit to indicate its source, or, if we may reason from the analogy of the vesical villus, with which indeed tlie renal villus ap]iear3 to be generally associated, containing loops of blood-vessel without surrounding tissue. Tliese are, of course, pathognomonic; but they may be searched for repeatedly and in vain. On the other hand, though the
disease be villus, it is possible, if the bladder be affected, that the urine may abound with epithelium, the result of secondary cystitis. Tliis indeed, besides the blood, may be the only product of a villous growth. Its situation as between the kidney and bladder must be determined by the general indication of the symptoms, as pointing to one organ or the other as the seat of disease.
Lymphadenoma.
The kidney is by no means an infrequent seat of lymphadenoma. The growth as it occurs in this organ presents points of contact with sarcoma, insomuch that tumors occur of which it is difficult to determine whether they belong to one or tlie other; one part of such a mass may resemble a growth of lymphatic origin and another part be indistinguishable from one of the small-celled sarcomata already described.
To take first the common and unequivocal form of the disease, it occurs in the kidney only as part of a general disorder, formations of the same nature being found also in the lymphatic glands, probably in the spleen, and occasionally in the liver and lung. The importance of the disorder is rather general tlian local, or so far as local symptoms obtrude themselves, they relate to the swollen glands rather than to any internal organs. The renal symptoms, if such there be, have been hitherto overlooked in the presence of the signs of lymphatic anasmia, which mark the fatal tendency of the disease. It is worth noting that, in Dr. Murchison's case,' which furnishes the most extreme example of renal lymphadenoma which I am acquainted with, the urine was found to be pale, clear, and free from albumin.
The appearance of the kidneys under the disorder is sufficiently striking. Bounded masses of variable size beset the renal substance, more especially in the cortex, and present themselves, often numerously, under the capsule. In this position they usually display a circular outline, though when cut at right angles to the surface, they may give one which is elongated or pear-shaped. In the typical example figured by Dr. Murcliison, the masses, of which about a hundred are displayed on the lateral aspect of one kidney which the drawing presents, vary in diameter from about three-eighths of an inch to the size of a mustard-seed. The growths, however, have often been known to exceed in size the largest of these. They are yellowish-wliite, somewhat like large masses of tubercle, but are harder, closer in grain, and less apt to caseate. Microscopically, they present the characters which belong to lymphoid growths generally — a strongly marked fibrous reticulum, which blends with the intestinal tissue of the organ, in the substance of which are crowds of small circular uniform nuclei, and in its spaces nucleated cells.
"White marrow-like tumors, consisting of white blood-corpuscles in a very delicate reticulum, varying in size from a mere dot to a cherry, have been described as occurring in the kidney in connection with the general condition of leukhaemia.^
' Path. Trans, vol. xx. p. 192. "With the report of the case are excellent illustrations of tlie naked-eye and jnicroscopic appearances. See also case published by Dr. Coupland, Path. Trans, vol. xxviii. p. 126.
Sometimes the extravasations, thongli mainly consisting of white corpuscles, present so much the appearance of ordinary hemorrhage that they are not to be distinguished by the naked eye from such sanguineous outbreaks as have been described in connection with some of the varieties of sarcoma.
Dr. Greenfield gives an instance of this in the " Pathological Transactions " for 1878.* A child four years old, born of syphilitic parents, became the subject of purpura, and lapsed into a condition of extreme ansemia, in which it died. The blood displayed during life an excess of white corpuscles. Not to mention many external ecchymoses, the most remarkable changes found after death were in the liver and kidney, and were due to the extrusion of white corpuscles into the interstitial tissue of these organs. In the liver, this took the form of a white veining, corresponding with the interlobular divisions of the portal canals, which was found to consist of extravasated leucocytes. In the kidneys, patches of extravasated blood were found underneath the capsule. The cortical surface was marked by large irregular hjemoi'rhagic blotches, which were slightly raised, and were but the bases of cone-shaped haemorrhagic masses, which penetrated deeply into the organ. These masses consisted of extruded leucocytes, which had collected abundantly between the tubes and outside the Malpighian bodies. These were not separated by any stroma, save a delicate interlineation of fibrinous threads.
local is of quite secondary importance to the constitutional affection.
A syphilitic tuber as large as a small potato is described and figured by Dr. Moxon,^ occujiying the renal glandular substance nearly from the pelvis to the capsule. A minute examination showed that the tumor essentially consisted of a profuse nuclear growth in the intertubular portion of the organ. Both kidneys were enhirged and lardaceous; the pair weighed twenty-two ounces. The enlargement of the left, in which was the tuber, was felt from the front during life. The jiatient had the general signs of syphilis, together with general dropsy and pale albuminous urine. The latter symptoms were probably to be attributed to the lardaceous disease; the localized swelling, however, is more distinctive.
A few similar tumors have* been described by other writers; they appear to have been invariably imbedded in lardaceous kidneys, by wliich the symptoms are necessarily masked.
I have seen patches of fibrosis in the kidney in connection with congenital syphilis; it is probable that general fibrosis of the kidney, as of the liver, may sometimes have this origin.
The kidney offers no exception to the law that morbid growths are but exaggerations of normal structures. Thus the growths wliich arise in this organ are conijniratively few; possibly cancer from the tubes, certainly sarcoma from tlie interstitial structure. This structure may also degenerate into oil, and in certain circumstances become converted into fat, as is rendered probable by the occasional substitution of the glandular tissue by this material. Under irritation, more particularly such as is connected with stone, pyelitis, or the retention of urine, fat is apt to increase in connection with the capsule and in the pelvic or interlobular cellular-tissue, until it may happen, should the growth be associated, as it often is, with a corresponding atrophy of tlie glandular structure, that fat may largely take the place of the shrunken oi-gan. This is a form of fatty substitution rather than tumefaction, and there is another change to winch the same term may be applied. Instances have been described in which the whole glandular ticsue of the organ has been transformed into fat, in which little or no trace of the proper structure remains, though the cones and the cortex are distinguishable from each other. '
Bony, Calcareous, and Cartilaginous Groavths.
True bone very rarely occurs as a renal growth, though an instance has been referred to in connection with ])yelitis (p. 17). Cartilage is of less irequent, and even doubtful, occurrence.
There are many preparations in museums which show formations "within the kidney of bony hardness; these appear to be usually derived from the transformation of hydatids. There is such a specimen at Guy's Hospital, which is described in the catalogue as a " kidney containing a mass of bones." Under the microscope, however, no trace of osseous structure could be seen; the mass was simply cretaceous. There is a preparation at the College of Surgecuis, in which the kidney of a man who for ten years had passed hydatids in the urine is transformed into an irregular ovoid mass of cretaceous matter, which has lost all renal semblance.'
Instances have also been described in which the capsule of the kidney has been partially "ossified," to use the term commonly applied to the change. J)r. Elliotson sent to M. Eayer an atrophied kidney, of which Jjoth the pelvic mucous membrane and the capsule were represented by hard shells, but whether bony or only calcareous we have no means of ascertaining, probably the latter. The same writer' gives a representation of a tumor of bony consistence, as large as an orange, which occupies one end of the kidney. This was enveloped in a cyst of carti-
have been the residuum of a suppurating hydatid.
Abscesses, Avhether arising in hydatids or in tubercle, or independent of either, may become quiescent "in the kidney, and be represented only by the cretaceous residue of the pus they have once contained.
Touching the symptoms of malignant disease of the kidney, no distinction is possible between cancer, properly so-called, and tlie sarcomatous growths which take their rise in the connective tissue of the organ. And in regard to the literature of the subject, it is needful to bear in mind that what is generally described as cancer is seldom to be more nai'rowly interpreted than as an encroaching and destructive growth.
In most cases the cause is undiscoverable. Those which present themselves to our notice are of two kinds: mechanical violence and stone •within the kidney. Hereditary predisposition is not strongly declared, though sometimes apparent, as in the instance Avhicli is illustrated by a ■woodcut at page 56. Falls, kicks, and violent blows of several kinds ■which appear often to have affected the lateral aspect of the trunk, towards which the kidney is more exposed than directly to the front or rear, have been mentioned by many writers in this relation. Ha^maturia has been recorded in most instances iis an immediate result of the accident. The growth has made its appearance at varying periods subsequently : in a case mentioned by Bright in little more than three months after the fall down-stairs to which it was attributed, in other instances in six months, in another in two years. Renal stones are equally distinct antecedents of renal growths, whether the nature of the sarcoma or cancer, though they have attracted less attention in this relation than have injuries by ■violence.'
A case of malignant sarcoma which ensued upon years of suffering from renal calculi is reported. An instance of villous disease associated vvitli sarcomatous tliickening. is referred to at page 64, and an instance of colloid subsequent to calculous obstruction at page 55. There ap2)ears, indeed, to be no form of renal growth which may not be instigated by this irritant. Pathology abounds with instances in which malignant and other growths have been started by accidental irritations; cancer of the gall-bladder from biliary calculus is a parallel instance to cases in which the pelvis is the seat of the villous or other growth sequent upon renal stone; cases where the growth has begun apparently in the substance of the organ are less easily to explain as the result of pelvic irritation; but that stone is more often a precursor of renal growths than can be explained by chance concurrence is certain.
The symptoms by which malignant disease of the kidney is commonly declared, are tumor, pain, hajniaturia, cachexia, which must be held to include loss of flesh and strength, and embrownment of the skin, and the several signs which denote the extension or transplantation of the growth
CLINICAL ASPECT OF MALIGNANT TUMORS. 71
to other organs, as to the spine or hiiig. In a large majority of cases the renal swelling presents itself as a ])alpable tumor; of all the signs of malignant renal disease this is the most constant. The swelling, particularly in children, may appear as a prominent, or even as an exceptionally large, abdominal tumor. The relations and means of identifying renal tumors have been already stated (p. 37); it only remains to say, with regard to those of malignant character, that they are not always conspicuous; deep handling of the belly may be needed for the detection, and even this may be ineffective until the muscular resistance has been overcome by means of chloroform. The enlargement of a renal growth is almost always chiefly in front, though some degree of fulness and levelling uj) of hollows is to be felt in the lumbar region. As an exception must lie mentioned a man who was in St. George's Hospital, under the care of Mr. Holmes, and whose case is related in the "Pathological Transactions." ' A large pulsating swelling occupied the lumbo-sacral region on the left side, and emitted a low soft blowing murmur. This was fonnd to have been produced by a highly vascular malignant growth belonging to the corresponding kidney, which was enlarged thereby to the weight of 30 oz. Among nineteen cases of malignant tumor primary to the kidney of which I have the particulai's before me, there were but three in which a tumor was not detected during life. Among the three exceptions was one in which, though a large tumor existed, and was suspected, tenderness from peritonitis forbade its being adequately sought; in one of the others a tumor which could have been easily felt escaped notice, for no other reason than that it was not felt for; in the third, the renal mass weighed 17^ oz., and possiljly would have been detected had not implications of the brain or skull withdrawn attention from what was probably the first seat of the growth. Thus in all a renal tumor was, if not perceived, at least jierceivable; those which escaped notice were not indeed so small as some wliich were found. But though renal growths are generally to be distinguished as palpable swellings, they are not so easily to be known as renal; in one of the cases referred to, the tumor was supposed to be a slight enlargement of the spleen, in another to be an ovarian cyst.
Next to swelling perhaps comes pain in order of frequency as a symptom of malignant disease of the kidney. Children with large soft tumors often apj)ear to be free from it, but elder persons with harder growths are seldom so, and sometimes suffer severely and persistently. The harder the growth, as a rule, tlie greater the pain. It is dull and wearying rather than acute, and is not generally intensitied by movement, these circumstances marking the distinction between pain from this source and that from stone. The pain of malignant growth is usually most marked ^bout the proper renal region on the affected side, and is accompanied by tenderness, which may make the patient keenly conscious that the fingers of the explorer are exactly adapted to the seat of the disease. The line of the ureter and the testicle are less affected than with stone. The extension of the pain to the spinal region, more particularly if tenderness over individual vertebrse belonging to the lower dorsal or upper lumbar region can be recognized, is a sign of the extension of the disease in this direction, and an indication at once of its nature and of its impending termination. Pain down the thighs may accompany this extension, and
be shortly followed by paralysis, first of the bladder, and possibly not extending to an observable extent further, to be succeeded, should time allow, by paralysis of the lower limbs, and the sphincter ani, and uncontrollable bedsores.
Perhaps the next degree of significance must be attached to the constitutional results of malignant disease in loss of flesh and change of color; with the rapid growths of childhood the complexion may remain perfectly unaffected, and loss of flesh be at least not observable until late, but with older subjects both emaciation and tinting of the skin may be very conspicuous, the lean figure and brown face possibly giving a delusive suggestion of tropical experience. With this, or apart from it, is sometimes an extraordinary failure of strength, spirits, and vitality ; the patient may sicken of a vague disease, get thin and weak, take to his bed without pain or definite complaint, and at last die without giving up his secret. Urasmia rarely, if ever, appears as a result of renal growths.
Hasmaturia has been variously estimated as a symptom of malignant disease of the kidney. It perhaps has no greater value in tiiis relation than as present in an important minority of cases. I have before me the notes of seventeen; of which hematuria was known to have occurred in six, in one of which it was probably due to stone, which existed as a complication. Eoberts, out of fifty-nine cases, collected mostly "from published records, found mention of this symptom in thirty-one, in five of which there was intervention of other possible cause — stone, Bright^s disease, or external violence. Ebstein, in his larger compilation, found notice of haematuria in twenty-four out of fifty cases.
Kenal cancers, though possibly tubal in their origin, are commonly separated by encapsulation from the })r<)per glandular structures ; sarcomata, though often diffuse, are interstitial in their position. Cut off as both are from the tubes and Malpighian bodies, neither, as a rule, bleed into the urinary passages, except as the result ©f fungation into the pelvis, either by participation of the mucous membrane in the disease, or by protrusion by way of one of the mammillary processes. Thus haematuria is by no means of necessary occurrence, but when it does occur is constant. Earely in the history of such cases an isolated hemorrhago has been reported early in the disease, where the urine was said to havebeen bloody four years before death, and to have recovered its normal cliaracters. Possibly in such circumstances the kidney becomes congested under the early process of morbid growth, but the rule that hemorrhage in connection with renal tumors indicates ulceration into the urinary passages admits of few exceptions. The bleeding, once begun, is generally continuous, if left to itself, though it does not entirely ignore styptics. It is often profuse enough to cause anaemia, though less so than that which proceeds from villous growths of the bladder.
The renal characters of the luematuria are generally at once evident. The blood is generally more tawny or embrowned than when from the bladder, and is so uniformly admixed with the urine that each micturition is bloody from first to last; the latter portion perhaps more so than the earlier, but not with the accumulation of blood at the end which belongs to vesical hemorrhage. Clots, if any occur, are small and generally somewhat fibrinousor decolorized ; they may have a slenderly vermiform shape which they have taken from the ureter, but this is infrequent. Bladder-clots aro usually soft and red as if newly congealed; they are shapeless, and often
of such bulk tliat their escape by the urethra would seem an impossibility; tlioy are often indeed shot out only after prolonged effort. Renal hemorrhage, on tiie contrary, though it has been known to cause obstruction of the ureters, and fatal supj^ression, seldom if ever impedes the urethral exit. The hemorrhage, unlike that from renal calculus, is not more abundant on going to bed at night than on rising in the morning — indeed, the reverse is often the case, as if the discharge were favored by the horizontiil position; and the distinction from the bleeding of stone is further marked by the almost invariable cessation of the latter after some days in bed, while that of malignant disease is not much, if at all, lessened thereby.
The urine, when not bloody, is usually perfectly natural — the growth has not broken into the pelvis, and the secretion is that only of the healthy glandular structure. As to the microscopic appearances of tlie urine, into which a morbid discharge has found entrance, it necessarily contains blood-corpuscles, usually in vast abundance, but never anything; pathognomonic of their source.
Casts as a rule are absent — a negative symptom of some importance, as excluding a form of nephritis in which bleeding may be profuse enough to suggest a growth, but with which these evidences of disease are many, dark, and striking. Exceptionally casts are to be found. These may be the result of renal disease, only accidentally associated with the growth, or they may proceed, as may happen in connection with many localized renal changes, from tubal disturbance in the immediate neighborhood of the growth.
Pus, if present, is so only as an accident. "Cancer-cells," or nucleated bodies which could pass for them, are conspicuously absent. With bladdei'-cancers and villi, squamous cells, exhibiting every form of morbid luxuriance in nucleation and shape, are often abundantly found, and even considerable masses of cellular growth are sometimes expelled, within which blood-vessels can be detected.
The pelvic and vesical mucous membrane may be stimulated to desquamation by a variety of circumstances, some of a transient nature; and from one part or another, cells of every degree of rotundity or flatness may proceed. But with renal tumors, such evidences of disease are seldom, if ever, found. Keviewing my own experience, I have found cases in plenty where large cellular deposit has been associated with cancer of the bladder. I have known several in which the presence of cancer in some })art of the urinary tract has been confidently presumed, in consequence of the abundance in the urine of nucleated and proliferating cells, and in which the recovery of the patient has negatived any such supposition. I have met with not a few in which a discharge of cells of epithelial type, together with blood, has been supposed to indicate cancer of the kidney, but not with one in which this supposition has been verified. If I am told that such a one is passing " cancer-cells '" in the urine, I conclude that, whatever his disease may be, it is not cancer of the kidney. A deposit consisting of blood-corpuscles, mixed, if with anything, with indefinite sanguinolent material, and that constant, during repose as well as under exercise, is a sign in this i-espect of more meaning. It is to be borne in mind that a f ungating tumor of the kidney is less often cancer than sarcoma, the cells of wiiich, associated as they are with connective tissue, are not to be easily and abundantly shed, while, even should they reach the urine, they are at least in the small-
The remaining symptoms of the disease may be termed accidental; they relate to extension of the disease to other organs than that primarily affected. That most distinctive of renal growths, whether cancerous or of the nature of sarcoma, is the spinal complication. With a considerable propoi'tion of malignant renal growths, tiie adjacent vertebral surface is more or less eroded, and tlie spinal column is sometimes cut througii, with evidences of spinal disease, severe pain in that situation, localized tenderness, and possibly, as noted in one instance, crepitus, like that of broken bone, between the adjacent halves of a severed vertebral body. With these come the various stages of paraplegia, which, as far as I have seen, are apt to begin with paralysis of the bhidder, and be evident tliere for a little time before the extremities are affected. Tiie suffering which this extension may involve, the pain of the encroaching growth, the paralytic helplessness, the retentiion of urine, the nonretention of faeces, the deep and extending bed-sore, is more than is often comjn'ised in the process of natural death.
Another result of malignant renal tumor, which, though indirect and not peculiar to disease of this origin, has yet been so striking in some instances which I have seen, as to deserve special mention, depends upon the conveyance of the morbid process to the lung, and takes the form of asthmatic or laryngeal dyspnoea. In one instance, attacks like severe asthma occurred, which were unaccompanied with stethoscopic evidence of disease, completely intermittent, and were found after death to have been associated with scattered growths throughout the lungs. In another case there was severe dys})noea on exertion, particularly on going upstairs, wdiich the patient referred to the larynx, together with spasmodic cough, like whooping cough, and the occasional raising of peculiar hollow sputa, around which a cellular or corpuscular growth was detected, foreign to the proper structure of the lung, which gave the only conclusive evidence as to the kind of disorder from which the patient was suffering.
charged, or intrude itself variously.
A child three years of age, who was in St. George's Hospital with a large cncephaloid (?) tumor of the left kidney, passed blood by the bowels, and then after an interval had much abdominal pain, vomiting, and purging, under which it sank, seventeen days after the discharge of blood. It was found that the descending colon and the tumor were firmly connected by adhesions, and that in the midst of the tumor was a cavity, due to breaking down of growth, the products of which had escaped into the colon by an ulcerated opening through its walls.
The duodenum has likewise been penetrated by a renal cancer, as in an instance recorded by Kayer,' in which a portion of a tumor of this nature, belonging to the right kidney, was found to have intruded itself through an ulcerated opening into the cavity of the bowel. Death had been preceded by obstinate vomiting and hiccup.
Perforation of the abdominal wall by renal cancer has been recorded at least in one instance: that of a child, three years old, mentioned by^ Abele, in whom a medullary growth of renal origin sprouted artificially.
charged faeces superficially.
The duration of malignant renal growths, most conveniently estimated independently of their division into cancers and sarcomata, varies with age. The growths of childhood are softer and more rapid than those of later life; and, besides this, they are more often painless, so that the apparent may be often much out of proportion to the real duration, since there may be no sign of the disease until the abdominal tumor becomes obvious. It is indeed evident that under most circumstances a o-rowth so deeply seated, and one that usually does not seem to interfere with the function of the organ in which it is placed, is likely to remain in obscurity for so mucli of its early life that to every statement of the duration of the disease an uncertain time must be added.
In fifteen of the cases to which I have referred from hospital and private records, the time from the advent of the first symptom to death is stated with distinctness. This varied from eighteen days to four years:
Collected experience shows a similar distribution. Of nineteen cases among children, collected by Roberts,* the mean duration was nearly seven months; the minimum ten weeks, the maximum over a year. With adults twenty-one cases gave an average of two and a half years, the extremes ranging from five months to seven years. Ebstein'" gives the apparent duration in children at from five weeks to two years, in adults the time being variously extended to a maximum of eighteen years, for which length of time the disease " was demonstrated to have lasted" in an instance in which it took its origin from a fall.
Roberts observes justly on the frequently long duration of renal "cancer," and refers it in part to the duplication of the organ; but a more fundamental reason presents itself in the fact that renal cancer of clinical medicine is commonly not cancer, but sarcoma — a sarcoma sometimes of exceeding malignancy, but in other cases having the hard structure and slowness of extension which belongs to the more sluggish forms of the recurrent fibroid tumor.
Treatment of Malignant Disease of the Kidney.
Witli regard to the treatment of renal growths, the first consideration must be of the feasibility of operation and cure. Modern surgery lias demonstrated the possibility of the removal of one kidney withouta necessarily fatal result. Malignant tumor of the kidney will surely kill if left alone; with the rapid growth of childhood this end is seldom long delayed after the detection of the growth. If excision could cure even a considerable minority a gain of life would ensue, even though the death of the rest shoiikl be hastened. Looking first at the question in the light of morbid anatomy, I must refer to page 51, where is a statement of tlie frequency of malignant growths in otiier parts of the body secondarily to those arising in one kidney — since I presume that no surgeon would think it right to extirpate the kidney were the operation to leave progressive and fatal disease elsewhere. It appears that of nineteen cases of malignant renal tumor which were examined after death, which had occurred in the natural course of the disease, there were but three in which the growth was confined to one kidney. Allowance must of course be made for the fact that in all these cases the disease was permitted, in the absence of operation, to extend to the utmost limits consistent with life. It is to be presumed that at an earlier date the proportion of secondary disease would have been less; nevertheless it is of grave significance. Looking now at the results of experiment, there have been up to this date (July, 1882), as far as I know, eleven instances in which a kidney, the seat of a malignant tumor, has been extirpated, either by design or as the result of an operation begun with some other view. The results are briefly — six deaths as the immediate results of the operation, five recoveries.' Thus it must be allowed that excision of a cancerous kidney
' I subjoin a brief enumeration of the cases of excision to which I have referrei-l, for which I am mainly indebted to Mr. Barker's tables in the Med. Chir. Trans, for 1880 and 1881, and to which I must refer for further particulars. Among the eleven cases mentioned are four in which the operation was undertaken on erroneous diagnosis — once for a cj'st of the liver, once for a tumor which was thought to be either splenic or ovarian, once for ovarian tumor, once for renal calculus. The description of the tumor removed is probably not always to be accepted as the result of minute observation.
IS practicable without such inordinate danger as to put it out of consideration. The question must turn on the permanence of tlie cure; and here our evidence is as yet imperfect. Lossen's case recovered from the operation, but we have no fiirthei- knowledge of the patient. Martin's patient was in good healih two and a half years afterwards; Byford's two vears and four months afterwards. Jessop's patient died under a return of tiie disease, within a year; Adams's patient in about six weeks; both with disease of the same nature, in the lumbar glands and elsewhere. Tlius, in the whole number we have but two cases, or possibly three if we incUide Lossen's, in which the ultimate result was favorable. It is clear that both cancer and sarcoma of tiie kidney are highly malignant; neither are as a rule discoverable until they have attained the bulk of palpable aljdominal tumors, and reached therefore a comparatively advanced stage; and on the whole I doubt whether a permanent cure is to l^e anticipated in a sufficient proportion of cases to justify the large risk of immediate death which the operation entails.
The palliative treatment of malignant renal growths has to be directed for the most part towards the relief of pain and the control of hasmorrhage. The use of morphia by the mouth, or, better, by the skin, is of ilie first value; its systematic use will sometimes prove of the greatest omfort. A smaller measure of relief, with a complete absence of any injurious effect, is to be obtained from the a]iplication of plasters of opium or belladonna, or the aconite liniment. Sometimes in connection with renal or vesical growths, a burning sensation over the kidney or ureter is a source of distress; for this, as observed by Prout, an ice-bag is the best remedy. Hemorrhage, when present, is usually the symptom which most urgently seeks relief. That the bleeding is from a growth may be
more certain than either the position of the growth or its nature; but, whether from the kidney or bladder, whether compact or villous, internal astringents are often attended with advantage. Striking and speedy results have indeed sometimes ensued upon such remedies, where, from the case having presented itself only in its clinical phase, it has been impossible to define it with certainty further than as one of a bleeding growth.
I have seen the best results from iron alum, tannate of alumina, gallic acid, ergot, and the witch-hazel. Gallic acid and ergot, given together, have been followed by the complete arrest of profuse hgemorrhage, presumably of villous origin, while I have often known bleeding, evidently from malignant disease, to be conspicuously controlled by the tannate of alumina or iron alum.
Pathology.
Looking at tlie kidney itself, and first at the manifestations of disease which are evident to the naked eye, tubercles and tubercular concretions present themselves in it of every size and grade. These range from delicate, scarcely visible, gray tubercles of the finest miliary dimensions, up to caseous and softening- masses which may be as large as peas,
ir nuts, or even larger than to be so comj^ared, and which may be sa numerous as to present a considerable bulk in comparison witli what is left of the renal tissue. It is not practicable to make any definite distinction between the miliary and the caseous, the miliary become caseous ;is they enlarge, so that, though in some cases there may be only one or
different results of the same process.
The growths, especially when miliary, are more often found in tlie cortex than in the cones, though often in both. They are commonly distributed apparently at random through the cortex, with no further bias than one towards the surface, upon which they display tiiemselves in circular outline while they push inwards in somewhat conical shape. Occasionally it is to be discerned that their distribution IS determined by that of some arterial branch. Where recent, they ;tre often surrounded by zones of injection almost like emboli or ])V£emic abscesses. When of larger bulk, as considerable caseous masses they may soften in their centres and form abscesses, which may be long locked up, or may possibly escape by the surface or through one of tlie cones into the pelvis. But Avhen such discharge occurs it is more often from the deposition of tubercle in tlie cones themselves than by way of exit to an abscess of cortical origin. T'hus the occurrence of tubercle in the pyramids, though less frequent than in the cortex, has especial interest in relation to the symptoms of the disease. These portions of the organ are apt to display some small tubercular masses at their apices or to be extensively, or some even completely, replaced by caseous tubercle or abscesses of tubercular origin. The cone splits between its converging lines, and the pus thus fiiuls its escape into tlie pelvis where the manimillary process points. Often the opening is delayed, and a considerable globular cavity formed in the place of the cone, before the narrow orifice has been formed; thus the vomica may have the shape of a flask or bottle, a rounded cavity discharging by a narrow neck. Many pyramids may be thus excavated, and the kidney so converted into a mere cyst, with many septa, each septum or partition being the condensed remnant of the portion of cortex between adjacent cones, wliile the pelvis is the common vestibule with which all the chambers commu-
TUBERCLE.
nicate. The process may extend until the outer cortex is so excavated, and so mucli transformed by the concurrent processes of glanduhir atrophy and fibrous increase, tluit it also may be reduced to little more than fibrous tissue, and tlie whole organ to a chambered shell. The process of transformation is sometimes aided by stoppage of the ureter, and accumulation of the renal contents, as a consequence of which the organ may be distended as well as excavated. The organ may at last shrink, and be-
come quiescent, a partly caseous and partly calcareous mass, or possibly one wholly calcareous, remaining imbedded in its fibrous case. It is to be observed that as this process goes on, fat accumulates ujion and about the organ.
occurrence of tubercle elsewhere. Among them were many in which the origan had been so completely transformed into a bag of pus, or of something resembling wet plaster of Paris, or chalk, that neither renal tissue
order. Several cases of similar destruction of the kidney occurred without either remaining tubercle in the organ, or any external to it, to declare the nature of the disease; it is probable that many such were tubercular, as indeed they were regarded; but since renal suppuration of other origins may produce a similar result, each such instance may be attended with doubt.
Proceeding with the help of the microscope to further detail, it was found that the gray miliary and the yellow caseous tubercle differed in size, distribution, and standing rather than in kind. To take the small miliary nodules as typical of the rest, these may be first noticed as small circumscribed masses of interstitial growth, consisting of minute, illdefined nuclei. Though less definite in structure, this resembles in situation the common fibrosis of the kidney, accumulating around the Malpighian bodies, and swelling the reticulum. These formations may
be scattered apparently at random in the cortex without any indication of what determines their i)osition. Tlie next stage is the transformation of the central part into a yellow rounded mass of indefinite structure, which has lost all trace of organization, and tends to crack or break in the centre, while it is surrounded by a zone of the same ill-marked and indefinite fibrosis as formerly constituted the wliole. In some instances of recent and rapid growth, the injection, though less intense, is not very unlike that which suri'ounds an abscess. The larger masses, connected possibly with arterial branches of considerable size, may display their anatomical relations with graphic distinctness, one sometimes looking like a bead upon a thread, or, should the section so determine, like a plum upon a stalk.
The annexed woodcut shows tlie yellow amorphous mass in immediate contact with the vessel, the nucleated growth outside it and around all the renal structures, with evidence of localized nephritis in the obstructed
condition of some of the tubes. Another outline shows also the stalklike arrangement produced by the section of the vessel in the midst of the mass. The tubal obstruction is not the only, or even the chief, infljinimatory change which the kidney undergoes in consequence of the tubercular action: interstitial nucleation, or fibrosis, is often conspicuous, not only in the immediate neighborhood of the tubercles, but also somewhat widely distributed. Sometimes tlie common interstitial nucleation is connected inseparably with the tubercular, as if they were but different parts of tlie same process.
The tubercular masses, when they occur in the cones, are sometimes collected into wedge-shaped groups lilvc the iisposition of emboli or pysemic ab^nesses, and the resemblance may be inci-eased by a circumference of vascular injection.
In one instance which came under my observation, the minute anatomy ])roper to tubercle was remarkably intermixed with that of a large-celled growth. The kidney to the naked eye had ordinary tubercular characters. There were several collections of half-caseous pus in the cortex, which were regarded as suppurating tubercle ; and their tubercular character was confirmed by the presence of an apparently tuberculous ulcer in the bladder, and an abundance ■)i miliary tubercles in the lungs. Under tlie microscope the kidneys displayed in parts the nuclear and caseating appearances which usually belong to tubercle, but in other parts were aggregations of very large nucleated
Mass of tubercle upon an artery cut diagonally so as to give stalk-like appearance. Amorphous matter next vessel, nuclear growth outside. (From cortex of kidney of same subject as preceding.)
cells lying together like the cells of cancer or of an alveolar sarcoma. In some places were fibrous bars or partitions, which divided groups of cells in mutual contact; elsewhere — and this was most stritcing, as forming the lining of one of the considerable abscesses — these cells were heaped
together without any further evidence of reticulum than a few ragged shreds protruding from the edge. If we regard this as a concurrence of two growths, as tiie mixed characters would suggest, we have to observe that tlie sarcoma broke down with suppuration, certainly not a habit with tliat growth. On the other hand, if the large cells were tubercular, they were at least exceptional in that relation.
Tlie disintegration and excavation of the tubercular masses is an important step in the destructive process. These, having attained a certain size, break down in their centres and form cavities which, so long as they are confined to the cortex, are more or less circular; but on reacliing the cones tiiey are apt to elongate in pyriform shape with the narrow end toward the pelvic cavity, into which they eventually discharge. A cavity in the lung empties itself by a broncluis; a cavity in the kidney should by analogy relieve itself through a renal tube, or a channel formed out
Trom same case as precedintf
woodcut. Section of the wall of tuberculous (?) cavity. The lar^e cells above form the wall of the cavity; the smaller below are in coatact with the renal structure.
underneath the epithelium.
of one. But, as far as I have been able to observe, this is not the case. Collections of debris, somewhat, but not much, larger than the sections of tubes, are sometimes seen to be surrounded with a membrane which might pass for the wall of a tube, but I have never been able to discern an epithelial lining upon it, or to satisfy myself that such apj^arently tubercular cavities were really of tubal origin. Enlarged and obstructed tubes are sometimes seen in the neighborhood of tubercular excavations, but 1 have never been able to trace a continuity between them. Thus it would api^ear that the renal vomicae find exit otherwise than by the reiuil ducts.
It has been said that the cavities, which are more or less round in the cortex, tend to become elongated should they touch the cones. In the cones the whole structure is disposed in nearly parallel lines, between which ic tends to yield under encruacliment like wood before the wedge.
The lines of cleavage converge upon the apices of the pyramids, and it is here or hereabout, often by a constricted channel, that the renal vomica finds its exit. When it happens, as it often does, that the growth of tubercle begins in the cone, its discharge into the pelvis is of course the more ready. The mucous membrane of the pelvis, ureter, and bladder may be affected by tubercular disease, together with the kidney, either independently or consequently. When the kidney has been excavated so as to discharge, as it usually does, into the pelvis/the mucous membranes in the line of exit are so constantly affected that concurrent evidence of cystitis is of the first importance in leading to the diagnosis of tubercular disease.
The pelvis of the kidney in such circumstances is commonly injected^ inflamed, thickened, even into a stiff caseous layer, or variously ulcei"ated. It sometimes presents considerable tubercular bosses, it is some^ times sprinkled with miliary tubercle, while in some cases a definite nuclear layer, apparently of a tubercular nature, may be traced in the submucous tissue.
It is to be noted sometimes that a distinct layer of false membrane will line the pelvic interior almost like that of diphtiieria. (See woodcut at p. 81.) The connected ureter shares in the same changes; it becomes thickened, ulcerated, and transformed into, or occupied by, caseous material, often so as to lead to its complete and permanent closure,, while the same result is in some cases attained by the protrusion into thechannel of tuberculous nodules or bosses.
The bladder commonly participates, more especially near the entrance of the nreter which leads from the affected, kidney, if there be but one involved, and in other j^arts, perhaps particularly, at least I have seen it so in several instances, about the exit of the urethra. The membrane often displays tubercular nodules and isolated or diffused, ulcerations. The arrangement of such localizations in the line of the discharge is often suggestive of their dependence on its irritative or infective contact. It may indeed be inferred that tubercular disease of the ureter or bladder is commonly secondary to, and produced by, that of the kidney, from the circumstance that tubercular disease of the kidney is seldom associated with a similar condition of these cavities, unless the disorder in the glands have proceeded to ulceration and discharge. Among the cases I have referred to were thirty-four of excavation of the kidney, the tubercular character of which was testified to by tubercle in other oi'gans. Among these, disease of the bladder or ureter was recorded in twentythree instances, and would probably have been found even more ofteni had the examinations been conducted with this question in view. Among thirty-eiglit instances of non-ulcerated renal tubercle these cavities were noted as diseased in but one example.
It is undoubtedly i)ossible, though perhaps not very common, for the bladder to become tuberculous while the kidney is not so; but such is the tendency of tubercular suppuration of the kidney to produce disease of tlie same nature in the bladder that the absence of vesical symptoms in i)resence of a purulent discliarge from the kidney would indicate, with little chance of error, that the source of the jnis is not tubercuhir.
The kidneys may participate in a general or scattered tuberculosis, or may suffer alone. The former is by far the more common, insomuch that, of ninety-five cases examined after death, there were but eleven in which the disease was limited to one or both of these organs. Of all but one of these the subjects were adults.
It might be supposed that, where the kidney only is affected, the disease would reach in this organ a stage of furtlier destructiveness than when it is liable to be cut short by similar changes elsewhere; but, however this may be, among the cases recorded were numerous instances of almost total destruction of the kidney by tubercular disease, in which other organs shared.
Among the ninety-five cases referred to, there were forty-eight in which the disease had progressed to extensive excavation: in forty-one of these, tubercles were found elsewhere than the kidneys, in seven not. These facts lend little su])port to the views which have recently been ini])orted, according to which caseation is in a considerable proportion of cases in-dependent of tubercle. In the cases before us, it was declared, by the ])resence of widely scattered tuberculosis, that the "consumption of tlie kidney" was, in a large proportion of cases, associated with unmistakable tubercle.
Among eighty-four cases of tubercular disease of the kidney associnted with tubercle in other organs (sixty-one from St. George's Hospital, twenty-three from the Hospital for Sick Children) were fifty-nine in which pulmonary tuberculosis existed, not including those in which the lungs took part in acute general tuberculosis. Among these were thirty-four instances of extensive pulmonary phthisis, eighteen in which the chronic tubercle was generally distributed, seven in which the lungs contained tubercular cicatrices or tubercle in small amount. Including the cases in which the lungs were involved as part of acute tuberculosis or tubercular meningitis, at least two-thirds of the number were the subjects of ])almonary tubercle — a fact of much diagnostic importance. Next to pulmonary tubercle in order of frequency came tubercular meningitis, which occurred in seventeen instances. It is worth remarking that, of four of these, the subjects were over twenty years of age, in three over forty years of age, so that, in this, as in other associations, tubercular meningitis presents itself as by no means limited to childhood. In five of the instances of renal disease under discussion, acute tuberculosis occurred without meningitis. Peritoneal tubercle, or tubercle of the abdominal glands, occurred in eight cases, tubercle of the supra-renal capsule in two, of the prostate in one, of the ovary in one.
Caries of bone was found in sixteen cases.
Roberts' observes on the comparative frequency of tubercular disease of certain of the male organs of reproduction, the prostate, the vesiculge seminales, and testicles, while with the female the generative organs have little tendency to be implicated. The clue to the local distribution of tubercular disease in cases of excavation of the kidney of this nature is to be found in the tendency of tubercular discharges to produce disease by their contact: thus the pelvis, ureter, bladder, and possibly the prostate and urethra, are apt to be involved. Nothing of the sort happens with cancer or other malignant disease of the kidney, vvliich, however generally it may be disseminated, has no tendency to involve the outward passages. Apart from communication by discharge, organs other than the kidney become involved much according to their general proclivity, the lungs taking the lead.
Both kidneys are affected together in about as many instances as one separately. If only one be affected, it is more often the right than the left, though in childhood this difference is not apparent. Of ninety-
five cases, both kidneys were affected in forty-seven, one only in forty€ight. Taking childhood, apart from other periods of life, of twentyeight cases of which the subjects were under twelve years of age, both kidneys were concerned in nineteen instances; one only in nine — the right in five, the left in four. Of sixty-seven cases in persons over twelve years of age, both kidneys were affected in twenty-eight; the disease was limited to the right in twenty-two, to the left in seventeen.
The accompanying table, compiled from the 2^ost-moi'tem books of St. George's Hospital and the Hospital for Sick Children, shows the frequency of renal tubercle in childhood and afterwards in persons dead from all causes. Considering liow rarely consequences attributable to renal tubercle are detected during life, it might not have been anticipated that this formation is to be found on an average in about a tenth of all who die — in children in nearly a sixth.
Tubercle is especially a disease of early life, as the table shows; but the proclivity of the disease in this respect is more strongly displayed in regard to the brain, the abdominal structures, and the kidneys than with regard to the lungs. Renal tubercle is nearly three times more frequent under than over the age of twelve.
Table slioiuing the frequency of tubercular formations in the kidney, and other organs, in 600 jjost-ninrtem examinations; the subjects of 300 being under the age of 13 years, the subjects of the other 300 being of the age of 12 years and iqnuards.
Clinical History and Symptoms.
Tubercular disease of the kidney during childhood affects the sexes with impartiality ; in later life it attacks the male more often than the female. Of twenty-eight hospital cases wliich occurred under the age of twelve, fourteen affected male and fourteen female subjects. Of sixtyseven cases over this age, forty-four related to males, twenty-three t@ females— a proportion of nearly two to one.
So far as we may trust the experience of a general hospital, at which cases of every kind and of all ages are admitted, tubercular disease of the kidney is most frequent between twenty and forty, rare after fifty. That it is common at all the epochs of cliildhood the records of the Hospital for
Sick Children abundantly show. It occurs in early life as part of acute tuberculosis and in association with tubercular meningitis, and tlierefore presents itself with frequency under the age of four, when these conditions are most common. In such circumstances, and indeed more often tiian not at every time of life, renal tuberculosis occurs merely as a small part of a scattered disease, with the incidence of which its distribution corresponds; while it may be added, that in such circumstances its presence is seldom declared by any symptoms which are recognized as. renal.
The most frequent causes of renal tubercle are those of tuberculosis in general, among which inherited proclivity takes the first place. Caries of bone, as with tubercle in general, is often noted as an antecedent. Measles, so often to be recognized as incentive of tuberculosis, is occasionally followed by tubercle thus localized. This occurred in two of the cases I have referred to from the Hos})ital for Sick Children. Lastly, as giving rise to the disease primarily and chiefly localized in the kidney, blows and falls upon the lumbar region are conspicuous. Among the cases to which I have referred were three in which tlie injury was so directly followed by the symptoms of the disease that there could be no hesitation in regarding them as cause and effect. A man was knocked down by a cart and injured in the right lumbar region. This remained persistently painful. Four years afterwards the rigiit kidney was found to be extensively excavated, and the pelvis and ureter thickened; the lungs contained scattered tubercle but no vomicae. Tiie psoas abscess was found to be connected, as was expected, with disease of the spine; but, in addition, both kidneys were stuffed with softening tubercle, and the pelvis, left ureter, and
bladder ulcerated. He died in three months, after an epileptiform attack, apparently uremic . Both kidneys were full of tubercle, miliary in the right, caseous and suppurating in the left. Miliary tubercle was also found in the lungs. Cold has been assigned as a cause of renal tuberculosis, but my cases give no instance of this association.
The symptoms are those of sup}nu-ative pyelitis, usually with an elevated night temperature and vesical irritation. The constitutional signs of tuberculosis, chronic fever and wasting, are commonly present, while the subject is often of scrofulous appearance or antecedents.
There is sometimes pain in the loins and occasionally down the ureter, though less sharp in either situation than may be produced by stone. The bladder-symptoms are possibly so urgent as to raise a suspicion of calculus: there may be much discomfort referred to the position of the bladder or to the penis, while micturition is frequent, even hourly, and sometimes difficult ; there is, however, this distinction from stone — when the bladder is empty relief is complete. The patient is usually sounded, and only a little roughening detected. Another distinction from stone is to be found in the Continuance of the purulent discharge with the urine; when from stone the discharge is apt to stop, often for months, and tlien recur; if from tubercle, the first complete stoppage is final, as it is due to the occlusion of the ureter from extension of the disease, or to the consumption of the tubercular growth.
The constitutional symptoms are more tuberculous than renal, unless, as is no infrequent complication, lardaceous disease be superadded. Among ninety-five hospital cases to which I have before referred, in some of which it must be allowed that the disease had not advanced so far in the kidney as elsewhere, convulsions and coma were recorded as the direct result of renal tuberculosis only in three instances; less often than in this series of renal cases similar symptoms occurred as tlie result of the participation of the brain m the disease, in the shape of tubercular meningitis. It is strange that uncomplicated tuberculosis should so seldom cause either uraemia or suppression, consklering how frequently both kidneys are involved in the disease. The symptoms are mostly those of exhaustion, as a result of the discharge, together possibly with the effects of the advance of tubercular disease in some other organ. The patient undergoes slow wasting, much as if the consumption were of the lung instead of the kidney — too often it is of both, as the foregoing statements sliow — has evening fever and night-sweats, and often lapses into fatal prostration, with a dry tongue and a typhoid aspect. An important ]ioint in the diagnosis of renal as of other tubercle is the temperature. In the case referred to on page 810, the morning and evening records were generally 98° and 103°, frequently 97° and 103°, giving a nightly rise of from 4° to 6°. In many other instances the temperature was that proper to general or pulmonary tuberculosis.
It is comparatively rare for tubercular disease of the kidney to produce ])alpablo tumor, but I have met with two instances in wliich this occurred, and to a sufficiently noticeable extent. In both, the right kidney was the one to which the tumor belonged, and the hypochondi-ium the place in Avliich it became evident. The outlines of the swelling in each case are represented in the annexed woodcuts; its renal character in each was clearly declared during life. In one case, that of a woman named Ann Evans, sixty-one years of age, the tumor was felt extending from the edge of the ribs to the level of the umbilicus: the
inner part was overlaid by bowel, the outer Avas immediately beneath the abdominal wall; tlie mass could be felt deep in the lumbar depression. After death the right kidney was found to be enlarged by tubercular
disease, but appeared less prominent than it had done during life. It had the ascending colon immediately in front; the duodenum was closely ,a,dherent to its inner edge, where Avas a tubercular abscess, the outer wall
Tuberculous kidney, wliicli had been tapped in the belief lluit the tumor was hepatic. As felt during life. The place of the ptmcture i.-; indicated. The tumor was superficial outside the faint vertical line, very deep inside the stronger vertical line.
Tuberculous kidney, as shown after death (from same case as preceding). The upper part of the tumor was uncovered by bowel.
■of which consisted of this ])ortion of the bowel. In the second instance, the morbid features were almost the same. A mass lay in the right hypochondrium, reaching from the edge of tbe thorax to three inches downwards in tlie nipple line. I'lie mass, which Avas on its inner part covered
by bowel, could be traced under the abdominal wall, round the side, to the lumbar region. The patient came into the hospital as having an abscess of the liver, and a depressed cicatrix was pointed out as the place of its puncture some five years before. But though in contact with the liver, the mass was unequivocally renal. There was no depression of the liver edge, or indication of increase of size in this organ, while, on the other hand, the mass could be traced into the lumbar region and grasped in this situation between the hands. Post mortem, the right kidney was exposed to view below the liver as soon as the integuments were put aside — across the lower part lay the beginning of the colon. The duodenum, as in the preceding case, was in contact with its inner edge. The kidney, little changed in shape, though much in size, measured six inches in length, extending from the last dorsal to the last lumbar vertebra.
When the kidney excavates, and the process is not cut short by disease elsewhere, the symptoms are so often complicated with those of lardaceous disease, that these may be regarded as almost necessary to the later stages of the complaint. The urine becomes pale, it displays more albumin than the pus could account for, the legs become dropsical, and the patient sinks, with vomiting and diarrhoea, or, as I have seen in more than one instance, dies with the ordinary signs of cerebral uraemia.
Among the accidents which occur in the course of the disease are irregular modes of exit for the matter developed within the kidney; when this is of tuberculous origin it far less often escapes otherwise than by the ureter than when dependent on stone, but it does so sometimes. Among the cases from St. George's Hospital to which I have referred, is one in which the front of a tuberculous right kidney presented a sloughy aperture which communicated with a large abscess, which lay behind the peritoneum in the lumbar region, between the kidney and the ascending colon and the duodenum. In another instance, a hole similarly formed in the left kidney had given rise to an abscess circumscribed by adhesions within the peritoneal cavity. A third case was a somewhat remarkable example of a psoas abscess of renal origin. A young man had a psoas abscess which discharged in the usual situation for a year, and of which he died without any suspicion that the abscess Avas not spinal. It proved to have its source in the left kidney, which was extensively excavated by tuberculous disease; but strange to say, there was also found, though upon the other side, an incipient psoas abscess, connected, as is usual, with diseased vertebrae. This had penetrated about two inches into the muscle.
The urine usually shows traces of albumin even before the tubercle has proceeded to softening. I have l)efore me records of the state of the urine in six cases in which the kidneys were found after death to contain unsoftened tubercle; in four albumin was detected; in one a little blood as well. There are as yet no other changes, but as soon as the organ begins to excavate, pus appears, tliough it is seldom so 'Maudable," not so sharp in microscopic outline, nor separating so cleanly from tiie supernatant urine as when pyelitis is the result of stone. Blood is observable in a minority of cases, it is seldom in large amount. In the course of thirty-nine cases from St. George's and the Hospital for Sick Children in which the state of the urine is recorded, hgematuria was noticed in nine. In three of these it was connected with much disease of the bladder, and })resumably of vesical origin. In one it was associated with marked lardaceous disease. In the remaining cases the discharge of blood was ap-
parently dependent on the tuberculous condition of the kidney or its outlet. In no instance was the discharge profuse, though it was in some obstinate, especially where connected with vesical disease. As the disease progresses, the urine is apt to become ammoniacal and variously putrid and offensive, to be mingled with ropy mucus, and to deposit triple phosphate, often as the results of vesical disease; but it may be alkaline and even ammoniacal in consequence of disease limited to the kidneys. Both may be so much damaged that only plain alkaline urine of low specific gravity is secreted, and this may become more or less decomposed by partial retention in the pelvis, and thus be passed ammoniacal, as in a case recently under my care, even though there be no such bladder disease as to account for the alteration within this cavity. Often with the advance of the disorder the urine becomes highly albuminous, and displays hyaline casts as the consequence of the superaddition of lardaceous change, by which the secretion of the hitherto unaffected kidney becomes modified. The occasional impoverishment of the urine, with a specific gravity as low perhaps as 1.006, is occasionally a marked result of double tuberculous disease of the kidney, even though there be no lardaceons change, or this be only inciiMent and trifling.
The time that elapses between the commencement and the close of renal tuberculosis is difficult to limit; many cases are cut short by pulmonary phthisis, and many by meningitis; taking those in which the beginning has been marked and the end mainly renal, it would seem that the range extends from about four months to as many years.
In those instances in which the outset was marked, and apparently occasioned by a blow or fall, the duration of the disease was respectively four months, three years, and four years. A renal psoas abscess was open for a year before death; an abscess of the same origin in another case which discharged from the thigh was open also for a year; the organic disease necessarily of longer date. In three instances in which the presence of the disease was declared only by the more ordinary symptoms, these were noted for periods before death of seven weeks, eight months, and four years respectively. In the case with the briefest reconl, however, one kidney was reduced to a mere shell, so that the disorder had existed for a much longer time than the symptoms appear to have been observed.
Instances are met with in which one kidney has been destroyed by suppuration apparently tubercular, and the disease has been limited, has become quiescent and practically harmless. Some of tliese cases, however, are of doubtful nature; the absence of tubercle elsewhere, whicli is almost necessary to recovery, may raise a doubt as to whether the suppuration may not have been of other than tubercular origin. It is sufficiently obvious that destruction of a kidney by calculous pyelitis or some other form of supi)uration is a less dangerous process than when a disseminating growtii is the agent; but there is no reason to doubt that tubercular disease of the kidney, as of the lung, may sometimes be restricted and be outlived, though the frequency with which other organs participate, as shown at page 85, is a discouraging fact in its natural history.
The treatment of renal tuberculosis involves, first, that of the constitutional condition, and may be much that called for if the consumption were pulmonary instead of renal — nourishing diet, sea-air, iron, quinine, and the general anti-tuberculous regimen. The tendency of the urine to alkalinity, and, when alkaline, to putrescence, with possible results in the way of septic absorption, may be met by the use of the mineral acids>
quinine, and perchloride of iron. I have sometimes found distinct advantage, when the urine has been offensive, from the use of creasote by the mouth, though I think that such antiseptic treatment is not so often called for as when urine is locked up in the pelvis in consequence of stone. The bladder-symjitoms, which are often pressing, and may be regarded as generally necessary to the disease, may be palliated by pareira, with hyoscyamus or belladonna and opium, or by these sedatives as suppositories.
aspirator with relief.
With regard to the excision, it must be presumed that so dangerous an operation would not be justifiable, were not permanent cure likely to ensue upon its immediate success. It has been shown (p. 86) that both kidneys are affected by tubercular disease about as often as one alone; and further, that, given advanced renal disease of this nature, there is only about one case in seven in which the formation is not shared by other organs. These facts would appear enough to discourage, and probably to prohibit, the operation. It was performed fatally by Peters, in a case referred to in the table in Chajiter XIV. Lucas' removed a supposed tuberculous kidney with success, but as the organ was described only as containing abscess-cavities, there must remain doubt as to the nature of the disease. Baker^ removed with present success, from a child of seven, a kidney which proved to be tuberculous: six months afterwards the urine still contained pus. Dr. Goodhart' and Mr. Golding Bird record the unsuccessful excision of a scrofulous kidney from a man of the age of twenty-seven, who had a temperature which ranged from 100 to 104. The operation proved tedious and difficult, and the patient died four hours afterwards. The tubercular disease proved to be confined to the kidney, which had been removed, excepting that it involved the ureter and to a slight extent the bladder. Dr. Cole^ of Bath has recorded an interesting instance in which a tubercular kidney would have been extirpated, had not the patient begun to die on the day before that fixed for the operation. It was found that the kidney not in question had been so completely destroyed by antecedent disease of the same nature, that the removal of the organ to which the symptoms referred would have taken away all that remained of the secreting tissue.
' Trans. International Med. Congress, vol. ii. p. 271. 2 Trans. International Med. Congress, 1881, vol. ii. p. 262. ' Clinical Transactions, vol. xv. p. 139. *Brit. Med. Journ. Aug. 5th, 1882.
HYDRONEPHROSIS AND PYONEPHROSIS.
Whek the cavity of the kidney is extended by aqueous fluid, the condition is described as hydronephrosis; when by purulent fluid, as pyonephrosis. Hydronephrosis, hydrops renum, or dropsy of the kidney, is a condition to which much practical interest attaches, since it is apt to present itself as an abdominal cyst of which the nature may be mistaken, and with regard to which questions of operation may present themselves, whether it be recognized as renal, or regarded as ovarian, or as ascites. Hydronephrosis may be congenital or acquired, of either kidney or of both, constant, variable, or intermittent.
It is difficult to draw a line which shall always hold good between hydronephrosis and dilatation, for hydronephrosis is only extreme dilatation. For the most part hydronephrosis affects one kidney only, and arises in obstruction of the ureter; the accumulation is now cut off more or less completely from the vesical cavity, is not relieved by the emptying of it, and consists not so much of urine as of an aqueous fluid which bears only a remote resemblance to it. The distention is here persistent as well as extreme, and the distinctions between this condition and the more passing kinds of dilatation are sufficiently marked. They hold good no less when both kidneys are affected, as they sometimes are, from similar or accidentally concurrent stop])ages of both ureters. But the name is also applied to extreme dilatation of the urinary cavities from obstructions in the urethra or bladder, in which the distending fluid is urine not at all or but little altered; in such circumstances it may be a somewhat arbitrary matter to decide whether hydronephrosis or dilatation shall be the term employed.
The following account of hydro- and pyonephrosis is based in part upon an analysis of sixty-nine cases completed hy pof^t-morfcm examination, which I have brought together from various publications, the descriptions of preparations which I have had opportunitions of examining in several museums, and my own practice. 1 may say that twenty-two of the whole number are derived from the records of St. George's and the Hospital for Sick Children, and are for the most part unpublished. In collating i)ublished cases I have been greatly indebted to the paper ol Mr. Henry Morris, in the fifty-ninth volume of the " Medico- Chirurgical Transactions." My records contain forty-three cases of single, sixteen of double, hydronephrosis, and ten of i)yonephrosis. This may represent the relative frequency of these conditions. It is not practicable to separate the consideration of pyonephrosis from that of hydronephrosis
disease.
Hydronephrosis is distributed between the sexes, like most renal diseases, with a slight preponderance towards the male side. Of sixty-one cases of hydro- and pyonephrosis, certified hj posf-mo7'tem examination, of which I have records to the point, thirty-two belonged to the male and twenty-nine to the female sex.
This is of interest in relation to the origin of the renal in uterine disease, which would seem not frequent enough, in comparison with other causes, to give preponderance to the female sex.
With regard to age, none is exempt. Of 51 of the above-mentioned cases, in which the age is stated, death occurred at birth, or within a few liours of it, in 3; during the first year of life in 5; between the ages of 1 and 10 in 10; between 11 and 20 in 5; between 21 and 30 in 6; between 31 and 40 in 8; between 41 and 50 in 9; between 51 and 60 in 2; between ■U and 70 in 1; between 71 and 80 in 2. Thus death from this cause is especially frequent during the first ten years of life, as the result of congenital lesions; as an acquired disease, largely due to stone, it produces its fatal issue with increasing frequency up to 50, beyond which age it is seldom delayed.
Of the cases in which hydro- or pyonephrosis affected one kidney only, the side is stated in 45; 25 left, 20 right. It is probable that this difference is accidental; I do not find that stone, apart from hydronephrosis, exhibits any decided preference for one side.
For the causes of hydro- and pyonephosis I might refer to the chapter on Diseases of the Ureter as comprising their greater number; but as all could not be here included it is needful to take them into separate consideration. For the production of the great dilatation to wiiich these names are given it is generally needful that the exit of the ex])anding cavity or cavities should be obstructed, but not completely and finally. Cases are known to occur, like one recorded by Eayer (vol. iii. p. 488), in which the ureter Avas from the first impervious and incoml)lete, but as a rule such absolute and permanent stoppages are attended with atrophy of the kidney, its extensive dilatation commonly being due to an obstruction which is either incomplete or intermitting.
It is certain that a larger number of cases of hydro- and pyonephrosis are due to stone than to any other cause; as compared with this all other causes are, separately, of slight frequency, though they appear numerous when taken together. Many of the causes which have been assigned to the disease — obliquities, twists, and valvular openings of the ureter, may, with as much jirobability, be placed among its cou■iquences.
In the collection of cases to which I nave referred, comprising sixtynine /jo.s^-wior^e?^ examinations of hydro- and pyonephrosis, the causes of Mie dilatation, or in other words the nature of the obstruction, is thus Lated: —
Stone in bladder, .....
Stricture at neck of bladder, .... Congenital stricture or imperfection of urethra. Stricture of urethra, not congenital, . Congenital obstruction aj^pai-ently in urethra, but not clearly
Cause not ascertained, .....
It is at once seen that the causes of the single and of the double affections are for the most part different. The dilatation when one-sided is invariably due to obstruction of the ureter or its orifices; when bilateral it is in some cases due to simultaneous obstruction of both ureters, but more often to hindrance in the exits common to both kidneys, the bladder and urethra.
Taking one-sided dilatation first, it is seen that of 42 cases in which the nature of the obstruction was ascertained this was clearly due in 17 cases to stone in the kidney or ureter, while in 2 others calculus in the unaffected kidney suggested the probability that there had once been a stoppage of the same nature on the side which was the scat of the obstruction. A small stone may lodge for a time in the ureter, and then pass out, leaving an abrasion, which will eventuate in a cicatrix and a stricture. It is possible that some of the cases in which only an unex-
plained stricture of the ureter has been found may have had such an origin. Causes of compression of tiie ureter external to itself, tumors, enlarged glands, and bands of adhesion find place, but it is to be noted that disease of the uterine organs is not frequent in this relation.
Cancer of the uterus is apt to involve both ureters rather than one only, and then appears seldom to cause the larger degrees of dilatation which are now under discussion. Suppression of urine would seem to be a more common result of such lesions than hydronephrosis. The traversing of tlie upper part of the ureter by an abnormal branch of the ■onal artery is generally accepted as a cause, however infrequent, of its obstruction. It might have been supposed that the relaxation of the artery during diastole would have afforded sufficient exit.
Another class of causes is still more problematical. A comparatively large number of cases are attributed to obliquities, sudden bends, and valvular arrangements of the ureter at its origin. It is obvious that if the pelvis be dilated more on one side of the origin of the ureter than the other (and such irregularity often happens) the origin of that tube may be subjected to lateral compression or made to slant, so that the menibrane on one side may overhang and perhaps occlude the orifice; but it may be suggested that in many or most of these cases the distortion of the orifice is in the first place the result of dilatation of the pelvis, though it may be a means of increasing it. Great extension of the pelvis must necessarily change the position and relations of its duct.
In the case, for example, of congenital hydronephrosis 'reported l)y :\Ir. Glass (" Phil. Trans.," 1746), where the cyst held thirty gallons, the ureter, which was not otherwise obstructed, was abruptly bent and opened obliquely into it. It is clear that much displacement of the ureter was inevitable as a result of the distention; we are left in doubt as to its original cause, save that it was not a permanent and complete organic stricture. One case is referred to from St. George's Hospital, in which the obstruction, which was of intra-uterine origin, was a loose fold of mucous membrane in the ureter within the vesical wall; this presents itself as a first cause with more probability than the valvular arrangements which are so often found at the junction of the ureter and the distended pelvis.
Much dilatation has been known, as in a case reported by Mr. Morris,* to follow upon vesical growths involving the orifices of one or both ureters. In Mr. Morris's case there were growths in connection with both orifices; one kidney was dilated, the other atrophied. Lastly, injuries of the ureter by violence from without — in one case by a kick from a horse,' in another by a fall at leap-frog — were followed by obstruction and accumulation, whether of aqueous or purulent matter.
Double hydronephrosis depended upon obstructions in or about the bladder or urethra in a proportion of nine instances out of fifteen, in which the seat of the difficulty was approximately ascertained. In the majority of these cases the obstruction was congenital and involved the urethra. An instance has been recorded in which the obstruction was apparently a membranous obstruction at the vesical end of the urethra. This was broken down with a sound, after which urine was passed freely, and the swelling disappeared. The child, three days old at the time of the operation, had passed no urine since birth. ^
A peculiar obstruction has been described by Dr. Hare as tlie cause of double hydroncplirosis, which, like many of the hiterai and valvuUir orifices so common witli tlie uuilateral condition, may not improbably be its result. Each ureter was coiled, at a little distance from its origin, " like a turn and a half of a corkscrew brought closely together," the coils being adherent to the dilated pelvis, and held together by the tissues around, upon the detachment of which by dissection the channel gave ready exit to the accumulation above, which before could not pass, even when the kidney was subjected to i)ressure. It is to be suggested that the coiled condition may have resulted from some process in the course of disease, whereby the extremities of each ureter have been unnaturally a[)proximated; each duct would thus have a su[)erfluity of length which must be disposed of in curves of coils, or otherwise than as a straight line. Hypothetically, the ureters might be rendered longer than their course by del^ression of their orifices, such as might arise from enlargement of the l)elves, by elevation of their exits from distention or displacement of the bladder, or by elongation of the ureters themselves as the consequence of dilatation. The conditions, whatever they were, which preceded the twists were in the end obscured by their results; these circumvolutions, like the bends and valvular entrances so often described, though probably not the originators of the distention, were at least causes of its increase. One case of double hydronephrosis is ascribed to pressure upon one ureter by an abnoryial branch of the renal artery, while the duct on the other side was congenitally narrowed. Diabetes insipidus, by means probably of the profuse secretion of urine which it entails, causes extreme dilatation of both kidneys, which may be called hydronephrosis, if dilatation due to Urethral or vesical obstruction be so termed.
When hydronephrosis arises before birth, the swelling may be enough to cause difficult labor. The child may be stillborn or perish in early infancy, or the cause may, particularly if one kidney only be affected, operate gradually and declare itself only in advanced life.
Disease of the uterus or ovaries is a frequent cause of the lesser degrees of hydronephrosis, which are usually described as dilatation. Dr. Koberts, in collating the causes of fifty-two cases of hydrone|)hrosis, assigns six to encroachment upon the ureters of the disease of the uterus, ovaries, or pelvic organs. Cancer of the uterus, starting equidistant from both ureters, is apt to involve both, if either, and seldom gives rise to enough swelling to cause a tumor palpable during life. Mr. Morris observes that at the Middlesex Hospital, where the cancer wards sui)ply a large number of cases of cancer of the pelvic organs, and where scarcely a week passes without the presentation in the dead-house of some degree of hydronephrosis from this cause, yet that none of the present surgeons remember to have detected an abdominal swelling of this nature during life. The comparative rapidity of malignant disease, and the fact that both sides are so often involved, does not give the opportunity for extreme expansion which is found with more chronic conditions, and where one kidney is left to perform the function of both. Displacements, also, of the uterus may cause obstruction of the ureters and accumulation in the kidneys, though perhaps not enough to give rise to tumors tangible clinically. Retroflexion of the uterus has been shown to bend and so obstruct the ureters as they pass by its side, and prolapse to displace the bladder and compress the ureteral exits.
the kidney has heen without exit from the first, and the child born with hydronephrotic distention, as in a case quoted by Rayer, from Billard ; but more often in such circumstances the kidney is simply atrophied. Occasionally in older subjects great dilatation has been found to be due to a stone, which after death at least appears completely to block the infundibulum; but such obstacles have necessarily been of slow formation and the stopj^age long imperfect. As regards the course of the ureter, a
. -^^^^.^I'^n of a kidney dilated in consequence of the impaction of calculi. The expansion of the intunilibulnm and calyces, the latter of which open like diverticula into the pelvis, is well shown . ine calculi, which were of uric acid, have not been preserved. . (From a preparation at the Loudon rlospitai.)
perhaps narrow, but not impervious, stricture in connection witli stone is a more common cause of hydronephrosis than the impassable lodgment of stone itself. The rule is, that if the adult kidney become suddenly and completely occluded, the consequent dilatation is not excessive. Wlien the ureter is stopped two processes ensue — dilatation and atrophy, when the stoppage is incomplete the former predominates, when complete
the latter. The urine is secreted with so little force that the point of accumulation is soon reached which i^uts an end to it. The ghmd will now secrete only as much as is removed by absorption and leakage. The absorption is insignificant; if there be no leakage the secretion will be
A kidney which lias become converted into a dehcate transhicent cyst, nothing apparently remaining but the cai)sule, tlie pelvic lining, and some septa, which indicate the original structure of the organ. The ureter liangs down similarly stretched and attenuated. The kidney is but little enlarged externally, however extended within. There is no record of the nature of the obstruction—it may have been stone. (From a preparation at the Middlesex Hospital.)
be maintained, and with it a slight but constant pressure upon the cavity. Reviewing the causes of hydronephrosis — meaning by this dilatation enough to be palable during life — it is clear that the majority involve only partial or intermitting stoppyge: stricture rather tlian obliteration, injuries caused by stones more often than their impassable fixture, valvular entrances and exits, obliquities, twists, and external pressure, whether by arteries or growths.
Given the required obstruction — necessarily incomplete, should both sides be involved, as deatli by suppression would prevent any chronic changes — and a sufficiency of secreting tissue, distention, and dilatation of the pelvis may ensue which, according to its contents, is hydro- or pyonephrosis. Pyonephrosis is hydronephrosis ^j/?^? pyelitis. The mammillary processes are replaced by depressions, and the cones by excavations, which increase until they are separated from each other only by plates of condensed fibrous tissue, while the contact of the [)elvic membrane with the capsule is prevented possibly only by remnants of renal tissue,, scarcely recognizable except with the microscope. As the swelling increases it loses more and more of its renal character, retaining, however,, in most cases something of the renal outline, and still having abbreviated partitions, or radial folds on its inner surface.
The organ in extreme cases will expand into a thin ovoid cyst, wliichy as far as regards the outside, is to be recognized as renal only by its relations to the ureter and. the colon, which latter is usually inseparablefrom its surface. If the inside of such a cyst be examined, it is possible that all septa, may have disappeared, but a record of the renal structure be still preserved in a peculiar delineation, for it may be little more, which marks the places where the mamillary processes pierced the pelvic membrane. The lining of the cyst may present an arrangement of round holes, which look as if they had been punched, through whicli protrude thin laminae, which are the attenuated and extended cones. The effect is that of a "slashed doublet," the lining showing through the cuts. The dimensions of such a cyst may be great, or even gigantic. In a boy of eight at the Hospital for Sick Children, the longer and shorter diameter of an ovoid cyst of this nature were nine and eight inches, and its contents eighty-three ounces. This, though large for so small a subject, is enormously exceeded in the adult. I have elsewhere (p. 55) referred to a largely dilateil kidney, which had given lodgment to an accumulation of colloid materia,l: the kidney, which still retained its shape, measured eleven inches by six, and far larger examples could be cited, the only limit being the ca[)acity of the trunk. The largest instance on record is probably one which I havft already referred to, and whicli has been quoted by Dr. Roberts, from the report of Mr. Glass in the " PIiiloso])hical Transactions" for 1747. A woman, who had been dropsical from birth, died at the age of twenty-two; her belly then had the circumference of six feet four inches, and measured four feet and half an inch from the ensiform cartilage to the pubes. The swelling was produced by a cyst, which represented the right kiddey, and held thirty gallons all but a pint of liquid, limpid as urine, but lightly tinged of a coffee color. The ureter opened into this cyst without recognized obstruction.
The distention of hydronephrosis is usually general to the pelvis, but instances occur in which it is limited to a portion of its wall, and others in which a cyst from the outside has become connected with the renal cavity. As an instance of partial or local dilatation, there is a preparation at St. George's Hospital which exhibits a great expansion, limited to
the top of the ureter and its funnel-shaped entrance, the pelvis itself being elsewhere but little affected. This superadded cavity, which may have held half a pint, stretches inward from the kidney, and must have extended during life across the vertebral column.
The contents of the cavities whicli have been described are watery or purulent, as their names imply. AVithin the term hydronephrosis there is a considerable variety. If the dilatation, as often in double hydronephrosis, be common to all the urinary cavities, their contents will be urine, little changed, save that the specific gravity may be low, as with urine secreted against pressure, and it may have become ammoniacal. Ill Dr. Little's case, where botli kidneys were distended from a congenital obstruction below the bladder, tlie fluid withdrawn by tapping had a urinous smell, and contained urea and uric acid, but had a specific gravity of only 1.004. It is sufficiently obvious that, when hydronephrosis depends upon stoppage below the bladder, as in most cases of congenital origin, the collected fluid is necessarily urinous, since it contains the "whole renal secretion. When the dilatation is of one kidney only, the destruction or metamorphosis of the organ may be carried further than is consistent witli life where both are involved; but even in the most extreme of these cases, if the cyst be actually a dilatation of the kidney, the fluid gives evidence of urinary constituents, unless much clianged by decomposition, or replaced by suppuration or colloid. Tiie fluid found in unilateral dilatation is usually clear, either aqueous or albuminous, urinous in appearance and smell, and giving evidence of urea and uric acid to chemical tests. It has sometimes been dark in color, probably from blood; the liquid in Mr. Glass's case was limpid as urine, but of a coffee color. In otiier cases, it has been ammoniacal and offensive. In Dr. Hillicr's case, the fluid withdrawn from the cyst during life was foetid, highly albuminous, and contained urea; that removed after death was clear, pale, urinous in smell; it contained a mere trace of albumin, and had a specific gravity of 1.002.' Mr. Cooper Rose has described a case of liydronepiirosis which was tapped, witii tlie result of a permanent fistula and tlie habitual issue^ of a foetid discharge, in which none of the elements of urine could be detected. In ]\Ir. Caesar Hawkins's case, elsewiiere referred to (p. 119), where tlie cyst was virtually external to the kidney, however closely connected with it, the absence of special urinary constituents Avas ascertained by Dr. Prout; and it may, perliaps, generally be inferred that, if aqueous or simply serous fluid, not obviously putrid, be found to be free from urea, it is not from a hydronephrosis. If the cavity be altered by suppuration, the contents may be either such as Hiave been described, more or less mingled with pus, or may be sim[)ly purulent, the pus possibly not differing appreciably from pus formed in other situation. A truly hydronephrotic cavity may become filled with a gelatinous material, having all the cliaracters of colloid cancer, as in the case already referred to, and in another of the same kind which has since been ])ublislied by Damreicher. Cholesterin has been found in tiie fluid of hydronephrosis.^
The symptoms of hydronephrosis, when it is congenital and double, are — to place them in the order in which they present themselves — possibly difficult labor, abdominal tumor, absence of urine, and death, unless
the urethra can be made pervious within perhaps two days of birth. If the obstruction be incomplete, in which case it may long escape notice, the disease may not cause death until much later. Instances have been published by Broadbent, Faber, and Little, in which distention of both kidneys with their ducts, of congenital origin, proved fatal at the ages respectively of three months, 5| and 6^ years. The case fatal at the age of 5| was so suddenly, after a fall; with that of 6|, death was preceded by convulsions and coma. The chief symptom in all was abdominal swelling; one which was subsequently tapped was at first thought to be ascites.
When hydronephrosis presents itself later, its course is ruled by that of the disease upon which it is dependent; if unremoved or irremovable stone in the bladder, it is early fatal; if on diabetes insipidus, it but little interferes with life. When double hydronephrosis ensues as a result of calculi in both kidneys, as in a case reported by Rayer, or of obstruction in both ureters, as is not uncommon, death may occur by uraemia, with or without total suppression of urine. In a case published by Dr. Roberts, in which one ureter was compressed by a branch of the renal artery, the other narrowed by an old stricture, death was ])receded by sixty hours of suppression. It is not necessary to describe the swellings of double hydronephrosis, save as cysts in the renal positions and with renal characters which have been sufficiently dwelt upon in the general consideration of renal tumors. Double tumors seldom attain the dimensions of single dilatation; they are often of unequal size; one often evident during life, the other not so. In one of Rayer's cases the right kidney formed a sac eigl)t inches by five, the lefc a small membranous sao not discoverable until after death. In others, particularly where the obstruction has been m the urethra, both have been voluminous. Tlie more or less persistent swellings of double, as of single liydronephrosis (excluding, that is to say, distentions like those of diabetes insipidus, which are habitually relieved with micturition), so frequently intermit, either spontaneously or under pressure or friction, as to be importantly characterized by their thus becoming relieved by urinary discliarge. Out of the sixty-nine cases of hydro- and pyonephrosis, upon which this account is chiefly based, subsidence of the tumor occurred spontaneously in twelve cases, under friction in two. In one of the instances the discharge was by the rectum, in the rest ascertainably or presumably by the urinary channels. This occurrence is more frequent with hydro- than with ])yonephrosis; in the cases of the latter, it took place but once. It is relatively more frequent with double than with single hydronephrosis; among the sixteen cases of double hydronephrosis this phenomenon presented itself either once or repeatedly in six patients; among the forty-three of single hydronephrosis, it occurred in seven. This habit of renal accumulation, to which especial attention has been drawn by Mr. Morris in the paper already referred to, is obviously to be associated with the incompleteness of the stoppage which usually give rise to the disorder.
To revert to double hydronephrosis, the general symptoms, apart from the swellings, are various; and, excepting the forms of uraemia and constipation from pressure on the descending colon, may be called accidental. Febrile disturbances, or signs of prostration described as febrile, have been noted in some cases; in others the more definite results of •urEemia, vomiting, convulsion, and coma. Pain in the back and other immediate signs of urinary disturbance sometimes present themselves, and also thirst and frequency of micturition, as the results of the state
of renal secretion whicli belongs to the dilated condition of the glands. The urine wlien it finds exit is usually pale, copious, of low specific gravity, and often with a trace of albumin. It has been found to contain blood and epithelium of pelvic characters. It is liable to occasional suppression and sudden, often large, increase from the overcoming of a ureteral obstruction.
It is not necessary to refer to the urine of single hydronephrosis, which, except at the times of intermittent discharge should these occur, is solely supplied by the undilated kidney, and is healthy if this be so. It may be albuminous, bloody, or purulent, as the result of disease in the practically solitary organ.
When hydronephrosis is limited to one kidney, the cystic transformation of the organ and consequent abdominal swelling may be greater, as already stated, than is consistent with life where both are involved. The greatest on record is Mr, Glass's, already referred to, where the abdomen measured six feet four inches in circumference, the cyst held thirty gallons, the heart was pushed up to the clavicle, and the lungs reduced by compression to the size of those of a new-born child. The patient was described as a tall, well-proportioned woman. Slie died at the age of twenty-two. Smaller, but still considerable, degrees of abdominal swelling from single hydronephrosis are matters of familiar experience ; and in many cases have involved botli sides of the abdomen. I estimate that, in about one-fourth of the cases of single hydronephrosis, the swelling, as observed during life, has ceased to be limited to the lateral half of the body, while, in perhaps a tliird of these, it has come to occupy the greater part of the belly. Wiien the cyst has transgressed the limits characteristic of renal tumors, tiie dilatation has become great, tlie walls attenuated, and the fluidity of the contents obvious. In tiiese circumstances it has been mistaken for ascites, and often for ovarian dropsy. In Dr. Hillier's ' case at the Hospital for Sick Children, tlie swelling was at first thought to be of this nature, so large, so symmetrical was it, and so superficially did it fluctuate ; its nature was first suggested by the character of the fluid withdrawn, which, though albuminous, was urinous in smell, and contained urea und uric acid. The ovarian error is more frequent and more important. I have before me records of seventeen cases of single hydronephrosis in females: in eight of these the tumor was thought to be ovarian, in five ovariotomy was jn-oposed, and in four attempted.^ To refer to pyonephrosis in this connection, though somewliat out of order, this error of diagnosis is somewhat less frequent: with five female subjects it occurred but twice.^ Wlien once such a mistake is recognized as one to be guarded against, it should cease to be possible. The depression of the uterus witli the renal cyst, as compared with its elevation with the ovarian, should suggest farther inquiry, part of wiiich should be by puncture and examination of the fluid for urinary constituents. A renal indication second to none in reliability, but not always present, is the abrupt variation of the tumor in size witii or without noticeable discharge with the urine. But I need not recapitulate the distinctions elsewhere stated between renal and ovarian tumors. Another error of diagnosis has occurred in the mistaking of a right hydroueplirosis for
hydatid of the liver, and the tumor in this belief ' been repeatedly tapped and injected with idione. The distinctions between hepatic and renal tumors have likewise found mention elsewhere.
One of tlie most important cliaracters of renal dilatation, whether hydro- or i)yonephrotic, is intermission by discharge into the urine, whether spontaneously or nnder pressure or friction. It has been already shown that these expansions usually result from incomplete closure ; the consequence is, that when a certain degree of fulness and of tension is attained, or a valvular obstruction is so stretched as no longer to act, there is an escape, partial or complete, of the accumulation. The addition to the urine in these circumstances may attract notice, as im[)arting to it some unusual character; but more often a simple increase is observed, or the urinary change wholly eludes observation. The intermitting habit of these tumors has already been noticed in connection with double hydronephrosis. The accumulation of hydronephrosis when on the left side has been known, like accumulations of pus, to enter the descending colon, and tlius escape by the rectum.*
Slightly to sketch the remaining symptoms of single hydronephrosis, it is first to be noted that, so long as the other kidney be healthy, there may be none apart from tlie tumefaction, and this may not be such as to attract notice. There is at St. Gl-eorge's Hospital a kidney dilated, as the result of stone, into a cyst, which must have held nearly a gallon, and reached from the pelvis to the diaphragm. This was taken from tlie body of an aged clergyman, of whom it was said that he had never had a day's illness, nor any symptom to draw attention to the tumor, until two or three days before his death. He had been a great walker, and was well known in his neighborhood by a peculiarity of gait, as if from spinal curvature.
Tlie symptoms which in other cases have presented themselves have been occasionally, but rarely, pain in the lumbar region and retraction of the testicle as if from stone, though no stone was present. Tlie more serious results of uraemia do not occur so long as the other kidney is healthy, though repeated vomiting, whether arising in this or otherwise, has been known, as also has an urinous smell from the skin, the result of absorption from the cyst and cutaneous excretion. Hydronephrosis may cause death by discharge through the bowel, as in a case already referred to, or by rupture in the peritoneum, with consequent peritonitis and collapse,^ But the greatest dangers which hydronephrosis entails are in the surgical procedures which it suggests, chiefly by its deceptive resemblance to ovarian disease. In the collection of cases I liave referred to are four in which death was caused by attempted ovariotomy ; four in which it followed upon tapping, which, in two instances, was performed in the belief that the cyst was ovarian.
If hydronephrosis of one kidney be accompanied with disease of the other,* as in an instance in which the dilatation on one side, the result of calculus, was conjoined with obstruction by calculus of the opposite ureter, fatal suppression of urine may ensue; but that tlie disease is not one of rapid or large mortality is evident from the fact that about onethird of the patients that present themselves die of causes unconnected
Disease unconnected with renal state, ...... 7
The range of duration of single hydronephrosis is, as must have been already inferred, nearly as wide as that of human life. Of eight cases in whieh the disorder was apparently congenital, death occurred at birth in one; during the first year in four; in one at the age of eight; in one at twenty-two; in one at thirty-two. Of twelve cases in which the disorder was acquired subsequent to birth, the time between the first recorded symptom and death, often an obviously insufficient expression of the duration of the disease, was in one case "a few days; " in two a year; in four between one year and four years; in two between four years and ten; in one ''many" years; in one thirty-two years; in one forty-two years.
Pyonephrosis is dilatation plus inflammation of the pelvis; hydronephrosis, dilatation without inflammation. The dilatation may come first, and the inflammation afterwards, as in the ordinary occurrence of a hydronephrotic cavity becoming the seat of suppuration, either as the result of tapi)ing or spontaneously, in which case hydronephrosis and pyonephrosis are but the earlier and later stages of tlie same disease. Or the inflammation may precede or accompany the dilatation, as when a stone sets up pyelitis, and subsequently, or at the same time, obstructs the exit. In this case we have pyonephrosis ab initio, independently of hydronephrosis.
The symptoms of pyonephrosis are more urgent, its course more rapid, and death more often its direct result, than is the case with hydronei:)hrosis. It is due in a larger proportion of cases to calculus (see p. 96), a loose body within the urinary cavity being suited to cause irritation as well as obstruction.
With pyonephrosis the symptoms of suppuration, whether with the discharge of pus or of its retention, are superadded to tiiose of iiydronephrosis. Lardaceous disease is common as a result of the chronic discbarge, while in other cases the patients have become hectic and sunk without this adjunct. In other instances there have been rigors, ^vith the intermittent fever of septic or purulent absorption, not, however, going so far as the establishment of pyaemia or secondary abscesses. The suppurative process sometimes extends beyond tlie kidney and penetrates the bowel, usually the descending colon, the affected kidney being the left; and it has been known to extend backwards and cause erosion of
the spine, as in an instance within my own experience, where a large collection of pus in connection with a calculus was in contact with the denuded transverse processes of the second and third lumbar vertebrae. No paraplegic symptoms were noted, but it was obvious that, with a little further extension the cord would have been involved. Further particulars as to the extension of suppuration of renal origin will be found in the chapter on *' Perinephritis."
In treating hydronephrosis it is necessary to bear in mind its slow progress and small mortality. Produced, as the secretion is, with less force than that of ovarian cysts, it is more easily arrested by the pressure it naturally encounters; the tendency to increase is smaller, and the need for interference less imperative. The spontaneous occurrence of discharge by the ureter so frequently noted, and the almost invariable fact that with hydronephrosis this channel is only imperfectly closed, afford much encouragement to the use of friction and pressure. As long ago as the year 1837,' it was put on record that a tumor in the abdomen of an infant, afterwards found to have been formed chiefly by a great dilatation of the ureter, altered in size when rubbed, the bladder at the same time swelling under the hand.
Dr. Broadbent* related at the Pathological Society the case of a large double hydronephrosis of congenital origin which completely subsided, with profuse discharge of urine, under friction with the ointment of iodide of potassium, and judiciously infers that the result was due rather to the friction than the ointment. Dr. Eoberts completely emptied a unilateral cyst of this nature in a child by diligent manipulation every •other morning with a lubricating ointment; and it is an obvious suggestion that re-accumulation might be prevented by a suitable pad secured by a bandage or truss. When the cyst has become so large, as in Mr. Glass's case, as to encroach upon the organs of respiration, or otherwise cause dangerous pressure, or, as in one recorded by Mr. Thompson, to be painful when distended, it may be necessary to draw off the fluid. Most •of the cases in which this has been done have been anterior to the aspirator, and the results less satisfactory than would probably now be the case. I have before me the particulars of fourteen cases in which a renal •cyst, holding an aqueous or purulent fluid, was tapped once or repeatedly: in six a fatal result was immediately due to this operation, in four by way ■of escape and peritonitis; in one case death occurred only after fifteen years' discharge through a fistulous opening tlius established; in seven, the operation was unattended with injurious results. Tapping Avas executed often on a false hypothesis: in one instance, as Avas suj)posed, for ascites; in one for hydatid of the liver; in four for ovarian disease. I presume, however, that, when the organic site of the disease is clear, the ureter closed, and the accumulation purulent, it would be riglit to relieve it from the loin, notwithstanding the results which have attended abdominal tapping. The proper course would probably be to aspirate from behind, post-peri toneally, after having found the matter by tentative puncture with a capillary tube. Dr. Coghill ta]>ped^ a hydronephrotic cyst from the loin behind the peritoneum, with the discharge of over four pints of aqueous fluid. The patient, as I learn from Dr. Coghill,
The question next arises as to excision of the cyst, whether hydro- or pyonephrotic. This has been performed in a considerable number of cases, some of which were known to be renal, many supposed to be ovarian. We are indebted to Mr. Harker ' for valuable tabular statements, which represent the published experience on tliis subject up to March, 1881. Mr. Barker has collected fourteen instances in which renal cysts or dilatations have been removed: eiglit by abdominal section, with five deaths, and three recoveries; six from the loin, with four deaths and two recoveries.* In five of the cases of abdominal section the tumor was thought to be ovarian; three cases were operated on knowingly as hydronephrosis, all by abdominal section, with one death; three were operated on knowingly as pyonephrosis, all by lumbar section, with two deaths. Thus it would appear, so far, that the mortality attending the removal of diagnosed renal cysts is fifty per cent. The condition found in the fourteen cases referred to was described as hydronephrosis in three, with one of which sarcoma Avas conjoined; as pyonephrosis in two. There were seven in which dilatation and sacculation were found, but which cannot be definitely ascribed to one category or the other, though it is probable, from the frequency of calculus among them, that most would have fallen under the description of pyonephrosis. Four cases were of renal cysts of uncertain character.
As might be expected, the incision of renal cysts presents itself as more successful wlien performed intentionally than by mistake; but, in any circumstances, the operation involves too much risk to be recommended unless more than ordinary danger be involved in the progi'ess of the disease. Hydronephrosis, chronic and comparatively harmless as it is, can scarcely justify such hazards as are properly incurred in dealing with an ovarian cyst; and as compared with ovariotomy, it is probable that the dangers of removing a large reiuil cyst through tlie abdomen will always be the greater. But when the collection is purulent, from stone or otherwise, danger may threaten, whether by exhaustion or extension, which may warrant the operation, thougli, as far as we yet know, those are greater than are incurred when aqueous distention is in question.
I have recently been informed by my colleague, Dr. Barlow, of a successful excision, in a case of pyonephrosis under his care, performed by Mr. Cowper. The patient, a girl of sixteen, in good general health, had lumbar pain, passed highly purulent urine, with much frequency, and displayed a tumor in the right renal region, Avhich was traversed by bowel. Nephrectomy was performed tlirough the loin, with the removal of a thin-walled suppurating cyst which represented the kidney. There was no sign of tubercle or caseation about it, nor any evidence as to the cause of the dilatation. The patient had perfectly recovered by the following August.
Cysts as closed cavities witliin the renal substance are sufficiently distinct from the cystiform dilatation of the hollow organ to which the term hydronephrosis is given. And it must be needless to refer to the essential differences between the cysts in question, which are for the most part transformations of the proper elements of the organ and those of parasitic origin, which will find consideration elsewhere.
For practical purposes renal cysts may be thus classed:
1. Minute cysts which occur as part of some other form of renal disease, more especially the interstitial, and occasionally present themselves in kidneys ostensibly healthy.
birth.
3. Large cysts which are solitary, or only accompanied by a few others, usually of minute size. These may be similar in nature to those previously mentioned, or may be connected witii malignant or other disease.
I do not now propose to deal with the renal cysts, usually of small aize, though often in considerable numbers, which present themselves as the concomitants of other renal changes, to which they play only a secondary part; these have found mention in connection with the types of renal disease to which they belong: I refer at present only to the large cystic kidney, in which the vesiculation transcends all other changes, and produces such increase of bulk that the organs may fairly be considered as abdominal tumors.
The kidneys are transformed into collections of cysts so completely, in well-marked cases, that it is diflBcult to discern with the naked eye any remnants of the proper tissue, though with the microscope this is always to be abundantly found, however its ordinary semblance may be destroyed by extension and distortion. Tiie increase of bulk is usually great, though the renal shape is more or less preserved, as if the addition of substance were distributed with some uniformity. Such kidneys often measure ten inches in length, and weigh two or three pounds each. Two at St. George's Hospital, described by Dr. Whipham in the twenty-first volume of the '' Pathological Transactions," weighed eightyone and three-quarter ounces, another pair from a patient under the late Dr. Page weighed six pounds ten ounces, while the maximum of
Large cystic kidney, one of a pair which weighed eighty-one and three-quarter ounces, referred to on preceding page. (From a patient in St. George's Hospital, under Dr. Wadham, reported by Dr. Whipham.) " Path. Trans." vol. xxi. p. 245.
' This remarkable case is recorded by Dr. Hare in the Path. Trans, for 185051. By a printer's error it is stated that " some of the cysts contained hydatids." I have Dr. Hare's authority for stating that for some should be read none. The case is therefore unequivocal, and is of great interest.
natural size.
The cortical substance, and to a less extent the cones, are Tcplaccd by cysts which vary in size from the smallest distinguishable by the naked eye — while smaller still ai-e shown by the microscope — to the bulk of walnuts as is common, or much beyond this. In Dr. Hare's case, the largest cavity held more than half a pint. The cysts protrnde from the surface as circular bosses, raising the capsule, which, together with the cyst-wall, is so trans^iarent that the variously colored contents can be seen from without. The external appearance roughly resembles that of a water-worn mass of conglomerate or pudding-stone, the prominent pebbles representing the
loid; they are sometimes purplish, variously blood-tinged, purulent, or caseous; epithelial cells and renal tubes have been found in tlicm, sometimes uric acid, cholesterin, or triple phosphate. The pelvis and ureter are commonly free from dilatation, though this alteration to a sliglit extent has in some cases been recorded. I have occasionally noticed that the pelvis has been stretched with the dimensions of the organ, but undergone no increase of capacity.
Both kidneys are usually affected. I find that among twenty-six cases of which the morbid appearances are fully recorded, there was only one in which the disease was not obviously bilateral, though often more advanced on one side than the other. In the single exception,* many of the tubes of the apparently unaffected kidney were found to be de-
I have made translucent sections of as many large cystic kidneys as I have been able to obtain, including fresii specimens, and others that have been preserved in spirit, some as taken from the body, and some after minute injection of the arteries; the results are as follows: The cysts are globular, ovoid, or somewhat irregular closed cavities which range u])wards in size fi'om about the normal diameter of tubes to sizes which are beyond the comprehension of the microscope. They lie for the most part among the convoluted tubes, but occasionally among the straight, closely surrounded, wherever they be, by the proper structure of the organ. The boundaries of the cysts or cavities often appear to be formed only of exposed and condensed renal tissue, though in some instances
Cyst in large cystic kidney filled with detached, crumpled, and denuded tubes.
this is seen to be lined by a delicate layer of epithelium, a basement membrane beneath it being a matter rather of inference than demonstration. The epithelial cells are of small size, but mostly solid figure, such as might have been derived with little alteration from the tubes. Occasionally they are flat. The thin, almost imaginary, walls of the cysts are in marked contrast with the thick coats of the neighljoring blood-vessels. The C3'Sts, as seen under the microscope and in section, are generally empty, especially those of large size, while the smaller are sometimes filled W'ith a translucent, structureless material, which hardens in spirit or chromic acid, so as to retain its place in thin sections. In three S])ecimens I have found contents which were at first sight i)uzzling, but which I think can be accounted for without improbability. The cysts or cavities I refer to, which are comparatively seldom met with, are of small
size, perhaps four or five times the diameter of a Malpighian body, and contain tubes detached from their surroundings, and either little altered or, as in the woodcut (p. 112), crumpled and denuded. I liave seen such tubes as in the illustration, comprised within a regular cyst, or in other cases sticking raggedly out of the walls of a broken cavity. The appearance suggests that tlie cavity in each case has resulted from a local destruction of tissue rather than by mere distention of any existing structure ; the frequent absence of lining membrane corroborates this view. Supposiiig a tube to burst in the process of distention, it might give rise to such appearances as have been described — a somewhat indefinite cavity would be formed, into which surrounding tubes might protrude or fall. Witii time the cavity might acquire, as in the woodcut, a regularly cystic outline.
The tubes and Malpighian bodies lie, as has been intimated, in close apposition to the cysts ; the Malphighian bodies are often close to the cavity, and even protrude into it, as if some process of destruction had worn away the less resistant parts of the glandular structure ; but they are clearly normal in character and position, as if any association they miglit present with the cavities were accidental. The most noteworthy condition of the tubes about the cysts and in cystic kidneys elsewhere is irregular dilatation. This may be more or less general, so as to give to the section an almost honeycombed appearance, or limited to certain tubes, whether convoluted or straight, which are conspicuous by their solitary enlargement, and are often densely plugged with epithelium or blood. These are often of such size — many times the common diameter of tubes — that, when seen in transverse section, it requires care to determine whether they be tubes or cysts. A longitudinal view is of course conclusive, but Avhen this cannot be obtained, it is often impossible to say whether one is looking at a tube or a cyst, so close may the resemblance be.
There is often about the cysts and the kidney containing them much hypernucleation and fibrosis ; usually not general, as with the granular kidney, but scattered or partially distributed. The blood-vessels of the organ appear, both in injected and uninjected specimens, to be, like the Malpighian bodies, natural; they have no special relation to the cysts, though they often pursue an uninterrupted course riglit up to the edge of the cystic cavity, as if this were a mere broken hole, without any se])aration between the surrounding tissue and its cavity. Less frequently capillaries can be traced in circular arrangement around the slender cyst- wall.
The cysts in question, unaccompanied as they are Avith any formation foreign to the kidney, are necessarily but an alteration of it, either by destruction of its tissue or transformation of its elements. I have shown reason to suppose that some at least are attended with destruction of tissue, but the majority are obviously the results of transformation. I have seen nothing to justify a view which has been advanced, that tiiey are excessive and peculiar overgrowths of the epithelia. I have never seen a cyst within a tube, however often they api)ear to replace tubes. Tiie choice lies between transformation of the tubes and of the Malpighian bodies. With regard to the Malpighian bodies, it is beyond doubt that these are sometimes dilated as the result of interstitial disease, though not so far as I have been able to make out, to much beyond microscopic limits. In large-cysted kidneys, I have never been able to satisfy myself that any of the cvsts had this origin. The Mal-
pighian bodies are evidently unconnected with the cysts, though often in apposition to them, and display no change, save tiiat rarely a capsule may be a little dihited, as is so often seen in other forms of renal disease. The presence of cysts within the cones, where no Malpighian bodies are, is evidence that in this situation at least they have no such origin. There is a large cystic kidney at the College of Surgeons (1,902a), of which the cysts are stated in tlie catalogue to be formed by enlargement of the Malpighian capsules, within which the Malpighian tufts were seen. By the courtesy of Professor Flower I was enabled to examine this preparation. The Malpighian bodies were generally natural ; the cysts clearly had no association with them except that of accidental contiguity; in some cases the Malpighian body lay in tlie wall of the cyst, clearly separated from its cavity by the undilated Malpighian capsule, virtually external to the morbid process however near to it. It cannot be doubted that the cysts are, as a rule, altered tubes; whatever uncertainty there is, is only as to the manner in which the change has been wrought. The epithelial lining of the cysts, the tenuity of their walls and their resemblance to the walls of tubes, the presence of the cysts wherever tubes are found, the frequent arrangement of these morbid formations in line, and their containing urinary constituents, together furnish apparently conclusive evidence. The mode of their formation can scarcely be but by constriction, closure, and final obliteration of the tubes at certain points between which secretion continues, but cannot escape. The only appearances suggestive of obstruction wliich such kidneys present are ordinary tubal distention, not to be distinguished from that of ordinary tubal nephritis, and, what is more constantly present — indeed, it occurs Avithout exception, as far as I have seen — inter tubal overgrowth, Avith consequent constriction of the tubes; if there be any other cause of obstruction it is either transient in its nature, or not such as to present itself to microscopic examination.
To complete the pathology of the cystic kidney by reference to associated changes, cysts, roughly speaking of a similar nature, have been found in the liver and spleen, though so infrequently that it may be doubted Avhether the connection is more than accidental. Special attention has been drawn to this concurrence in the '' Pathological 'J'ransactions," by Dr. Bristowe in the first place, and later by Drs. Wilks and Pye Smith, and four exam})les there recorded, in which the liver was cystic together Avith one or both kidneys, and one in Avhicli the spleen was atfected together Avith the kidneys. Including these, there Avere among the total of thirty-three cases of the cystic kidney, five in Avhich the liver Avas thus affected, one in Avhich the spleen Avas affected; but it is not probable that cysts in other organs actually concur Avitli those in the kidney in nearly so large a proportion as this represents; for the cases of concurrence have been especially sought for and brought together. The origin of the cysts in the renal tubes, of which no doubt can be entertained, is enough to dissociate their nature from such as arise in organs which, like the spleen, have no secreting ducts, or, like the liver ducts, Avhich are so dissimilar to those of the kidney that they can scarcely be supposed to share the same diseases. The cysts in the liver have generally been small, seldom numerous; they have been supposed by Dr. Lionel Beale' to originate in a change in the hepatic cells, Avhich Dr. Pye Smith defines as vacuola-
tion. It is sufficiently clear that the C3'Sts do not depend on any new growths common to several organs, but are modifications of the organs themselves, probably different in each situation, and connected remotely, if at all.
To complete as much of the morbid anatomy of the disease as may be considered apart from its progress and termination, the heart has in many cases been found to be hypertrophied, as with the granular kidney. In three instances which occurred at St, George's Hospital, this organ, which was enlarged chiefly in the left ventricle, and without the occurrence of valvular disease, though in one of them the aorta was noted as atheromatous, weighed respectively twenty-three ounces, twenty-two and a quarter ounces, and nineteen ounces. The state of the heart, therefore, is much what it would have been had the kidneys exhibited the ordinary form of granular degeneration instead of cystic transformation and enlargement. The whole morbid anatomy of the disease points to the inference that, although it is possible that in some cases the cystic change may be due to obstruction by tubal nephritis, yet, as a rule, it is due to a form, perhaps a peculiar form, of interstitial fibrosis. Evidences of this overgrowth are always abundantly present, and appear sufficient to account for the cystic conversion, while no distinction in kind, however much in degree, is to be recognized between the small and scattered cysts, so common in the contracted granular kidney, and the gigantic and innumerable chambers which produce the cystic enlargement.
The clinical outline Avliich follows is chiefly founded upon an analysis of thirty-three cases, ten of which have been obtained from the records of St. George's Hospital, two relating to patients of my own in that institution. The rest were obtained from other hospitals and pathological collections, and various publications.
The subjects of the enlarged cystic kidney are more often males than females, in the proportion of 21 to 7, judging from 28 cases which afford information in this particular. They are always adults (I am not now considering the congenital cystic kidney, fatal about or before birth): the ages at death varied in 21 cases from 20 to 98 years. In five instances death occurred between the ages of 20 and 29; in one between 30 and 39, in eleven between 40 and 49; in five between 50 and 98. It thus presents itself as an acquired chronic disease somewhat resembling in its incidence the granular kidney. The mortality between 40 and 49 is noteworthy in this light; and scarcely less so its early period of fatal activity between 20 and 30, which may correspond with those cases of early granular kidney which are due to scarlatina and the other affections of childhood.
As with granular degeneration, the causes of cystic enlargement are obscure, and its beginning unmarked. Gout has not presented itself in the cases from which I have drawn. Tuberculosis, generally in the form of phthisis, was present in five cases of twenty-eight of which details arc given; not of ten enough to indicate any pathological association. In two cases the diseiise followed a blow or injury; in one it was attributed to cold.
The disease, which is usually latent until an advanced stage is reached, not unfrequently remains so until revealed hy post-mortem examination; this was so in nine of twenty-five cases of which I have histories. When the disorder is declared, it is usually by symptoms which are so nearly those of the granular kidney that it is only by the presence of the renal tumors that a sure distinction can be m^de. The differences are chiefly
these: With the large cystic kidney there is almost no tendency to dropsy, while pain in the loins is more obtrusive, and hematuria more frequent and profuse, than with the more common form of disease. The latter distinction is strongly marked. Dropsy, whether superficially or in the serous cavities, appears to be generally absent. A patient under my own care was said to have had swelling of the legs, but when Isaw him there was none. The only recorded case I have met with in which oedema was mentioned, presumably as a result of this disease, was that of the gigantic cystic kidney recorded by Dr. Hare (see p. 110). In this it is probable that the swelling was due more to the mechanical effect of the tumor than to the constitutional influence of the disease. The oedema was most marked on the side to which the renal swelling was nearly limited.
The urine furnishes the most marked evidence of the presence of the disease, though not of its kind. It has the characters which belong to the granular kidney. It may possibly be normal, as with the earlier forms of this disorder. Dr. Conway Evans has described an instance in which this secretion was natural, and the large cystic kidney found to exist. But there are few exceptions to the rule that, with the advanced disease, it has been found to be albuminous if examined, though in many cases the urine and the disease have alike escaped notice. The albumin has varied from a small amount up to about two-thirds. The urine has usually been pale, co))ious, of low specific gravity (in one instance down to 1.005), and has been found to contain casts, as in a case under my own observation, of the coarse granular variety. It is characterized in most cases by the frequent admixture of blood, often so copiously as to call for styptics. Of sixteen cases in which symptoms were present, hsematuria was prominent in eleven. In some it largely contributed to death by the exhaustion it caused; in others it gave trouble by the formation of coagula, which were passed with difficulty; and in one it helped to produce suppression by the blocking with coaguluni of one ureter. In a few instances small amounts of pus have been found.
The pathognomonic feature of the disease is the double tumor, a sign generally unfound and unsought for, the observer being generally satisfied to regard the case as one of the granular kidnev. Among the general characters of renal tumors (p. 41) is to be found an outline from a case recorded by Bright. The laterally symmetrical, though often unequal, tumors are softer than solid renal growths, but do not fluctuate.' Dr. Hare's case, already referred to, gives an instance of the largest abdominal swelling from this cause, as of the largest renal tumor. The palpable tumefaction reached from the thorax to an inch and a half below the spine of the ilium, and from the loin to within an inch of the median line. Tins bulky mass presented in the abdomen in the guise of two tumors on the same side, with bowel between; but since both could be moved together from the loins, it was decided, Avith the help of Dr. Brigiit, that there was but one, and that kidney. The kidney on the other side, it may be observed, was not affected so as to be appreciable from without.
The general aspect of the patient, his sallowness, his cardiac hypertrophy and his arterial tension, are, like the urine, all indicative of chronic renal disease, and deceptive as to its nature, unless, indeed, it be held, as may be the case, that the cystic and the granular kidney are varieties of the same essential condition. With the advance of the dis-
ease ursemiii often presents itself with gastric and cerebral disturbances, obstinate vomiting, convulsion, and coma. This is, indeed, the most frequent cause of deatii. I noticed in one instance that the body emitted not the ordinary odor of uraemia, such as is usually produced by disease of the substance of the kidney, but a truly urinous smelll, such as more often indicates retention of urine in a cavity, as with obstructive suppression, wiiich, however, did not exist. In an instance I have already alluded to, under my owii observation, nearly complete suppression existed for two days before death, after which the lower part of the right ureter was found to be })lugged with a decolorized clot, tiie other ureter and the bladder being natural. Death by uraemia is sometimes anticipated by exhaustion from iiaematuria, and not seldom by bronchitis, pneumonia, or congestion of the lungs, with sudden and severe dyspnoea. This termination occurred in two cases in St. George's Hospital, which have been placed on record by Dr. Whipham.' As with the granular kidney, cerebral hemorrhage has been known to occur in these cases; in a case recorded by Dr. Cliurch there was evidence of an attack of this nature three years before death. ^
It is difficult to estimate the duration of a disorder of which the beginning is usually so indefinite. It must necessarily be considerable. In a case at St. George's Hospital the outset was apparently due to a blow seven years before death; in another, at the same institution, lumbar pain appeared to mark its beginning five years before death. Dr. Bright's patient, from wliom the outlines were taken' which have been reproduced, was attacked with hematuria two years before death; Dr. Hare's nine months before death.
Congenital Cystic Transformation of the Kidneys.
The kidneys of the foetus sometimes undergo a cystic transformation similar to that which belongs to extra-uterine life, though it is sufficiently clear from the age at which the later disorder declares itself, that is not a continuation of a congenital condition, but an acquirement of advancing years. The foBtal condition is of little interest to tlie physician, however important to the i)athologist as showing typically and simply the results of obstruction. The disorder has not come within my experience, and I have nothing to adil to what is generally known. Tlie kidneys may have become swollen in utcro so as to equal or exceed the bulk of the healthy kidney of the adult, by a cystic transformation which closely resembles that which has been already described, and is due to absence or obstruction of the urinary exit. Th.e cysts have been found to contain urinary matters, and there is a concurrence of evidence and probability that they generally consist of dilated and intersected tubes, as those of a later date have been shown to do. Sir W. Gull " who reported many years ago upon a typical example of a congenital change of this nature, inferred that the cysts were dilated Malpighian capsules, but it is not unlikely that with recent methods this excellent observer might have been
led to a different result. The cystic transformation of foetal life is generally associated with absence of the ureter or pelvis, or some malformation which renders the escape of urine impossible. In the case examined by Gull, and reported by Lever, tliere was a total absence of ureters; and in otlier instances, other parts of the urinary channels have been occluded or deficient. In certain cases Virchow found closure of the straight tubes a result, as he supposed, of the impaction of uric acid and iutra-uterine nephritis. In most cases there has been absence or imperfection of the pelvis, ureters, or other of the larger exists, which has been often associated with malformations in other parts of the body.
The absence of renal function in these cases may cause the death and premature exi)ulsion of the foetus; the abdominal tumor which arises may be such as to be a hindrance to birth, which can only be overcome by operation; or, should tiiis difficulty be overcome the child may perish shortly afterwards from respiratory embarrassment, due to the encroachment of the abdominal swelling upon the thoracic cavity.
Solitary Eenal Cysts.
Otherwise healthy kidneys are often found, especially in persons of advancing years, to contain small solitary cysts, which project from the capsule and burst with miniature violence as this is being removed. These are apparently of the same nature as the multiple cysts which have received attention, due to the accidental occlusion of a single tube. Such cysts may occupy either the cortices or cones, may be absolutely single, or be accompanied with one or two others, as if to declare their alliance with the multiple cystic disease, and they may attain a considerable size, so as to come within the category of renal tumors. A cyst probably differing only in size from the small and multiple variety is to be seen at the College of Surgeons. It is thin-walled and membranous, of spherical form, and six inches in diameter. This protrudes from the outer surface of a somewhat enlarged kidney, Avhicli is granular, and exhibits a few more cysts, apparently of the same sort, but only a line or two in diameter. This must have formed an abdominal tumor of considerable prominence.
Paranephric Cysts.
There are some cysts, not always of the same kind, but which may be classed together as neither developed in the kidney tissue nor dilatations of its cavity, though they often open into it, but as involving the organ from the outside. The terms 2^c(ra}iephric, or pararenal, may be applied to these formations as to solid tumors similarly placed. Some of these cysts are congenital, others of later and perlia])s doubtful origin. The occasional connection of these cavities with that of the pelvis must make them clinically indistinguishable from hydronephrosis, however distinct in their nature.
A large cyst protruded from the back of the pelvis, which is generally out little dilated, and is scarcely unnatural except that its posterior wall opens into the cyst behind it. Tlie ureter which was unobstructed opened into the cyst, so
that this cavity lay in the course of the urine, between the pelvis and its duct. The cyst resembled in extent, and somewhat in shape, a distended stomach, and held above four pints of clear albuminous fluid.
The abdominal tumor was first noticed when the patient, a woman of the age of thirty-seven, was brought into the hospital in consequence of having been knocked down in the street. She fell down, became unconscious, and died in a few liours from causes which the post-mortem imperfectly explained. She had emphysema and bronchitis.
but clearly external in origin as well as jiosition.
A remarkable preparation of this sort is to be seen at St. George's, and is described by Mr. Caesar Hawkins in the eighteenth volume of the " Medico-Chirurgical Transactions." It had presented itself three months before death as a tumor in the right side of the abdomen of a boy six years of age. The cyst, which held five pints of transparent fluid, ascertained by Dr. Prout to be free from urinary constituents, lay beliind the kidney, which was closely attached to its wall, but had no essential connection with it.
Tliere were, however, two small openings in the pelvis, apparently the result of ulceration, which made communication between the renal and the cystic cavities. The ureter had no communication with the cavity of the cyst, but entered tlie kidney in the usual manner. Attached to the cyst wall was a itidimentary tliird kidney of the size of a walnut. A prolongation of the cyst passed under Pouparfs ligament, and through tlie femoral ring. Tlie formation was clearly of foetal origin. I have elsewhere alluded to a case (p. 48) in which' the the appearance in the scrotum of a portion of a cystic growth of equivocal origin led to a just inference that it had originated not within, but outside, the kidney, the outlying portion having probably been brought down with the descending testicle, the embryonic tissues about which organ in its first situation being, as it seems, rather apt to undergo morbid development.
Distribution.
Many secretions — urine, bile, saliva, and the secretions of the prostate gland and tonsils — are apt to throw down witliin their channels or reservoirs certain of their elements which are superabnndant, or which, from other circnm stances, are no longer capable of solution. Of all secretions, the nrinary is the most apt to undertake this process. It is highly complex and highly variable. Furnishing, as it does, the main exit by which the blood discharges its superfluities of almost every kind, its several components change in amount with every change of system. According to the nature of the superfluities which it thus receives, the urine continually becomes loaded beyond its capacity of continuous solution with various materials, which are in their Avay out precipitated in one part or another of the complicated urinary channels. Besides the numerous deposits which thus result from an excess in the urine of their components, there are others which owe their precipitation, not to any superabundance of their material, but to some change in the urine which renders it less than naturally capable of holding it in solution.
The precipitation is most apt to occur in the pelvis of the kidney and in the bladder, in which cavities the urine may remain for a time in considerable bulk and in comparative quiescence. Calculi, especially if they be composed of uric acid, oxalate of lime, or cystine, generally take their first concrete form in the pelvis, though they sometimes escape notice until they have reached the bladder, become the centres of further concretion, and the source of vesical symptoms.
Renal, though generally more simple than vesical, calculi, present a considerable variety of composition. Tlie following concretions have beea found in the human kidney, or presumably passed from it:
RENAL CALCULI. 12L
for of xanthine and incligo we know but little — are thrown down in the kidney independently of any preceding; local change. When renal calculi consist of one ingredient only, they are always composed of one of these substances. When renal calculi consist of more than one material, one of these substance invariably forms the nucleus.
The three secondary deposits occur only in kidneys which have been the seat of previous disease; they are continually deposited upon stones of some other sort, as the result of the pathological changes they have set up. They occur as layers upon the primary calculi, never as independent concretions in healthy kidneys.
In order to give a general idea of the relative frequency and mode of combination of the different kinds of calculous substances — a point of great practical importance — I have compiled the following table, wiiich gives the composition of ninety-one analyzed renal calculi belonging to the thirteen pathological museums of London. Considering from what scattered sources the hospitals of the metropolis attract ])atients and specimens, it may be held that the collection represents not merely the local tendencies of London, should there be such in relation to this question, but comprises the jiroduce of a wide field of disease, and jierhaps portrays not very unfairly the general constitution of English renal stones.
The table has been compiled with much care, the results of personal inspection having been in the case of each of the hos])itals corroborated or coi'rected by the gentleman in charge of the museum,'
It may be assumed that tlie errors of the table are only of omission. There is no I'eason to doubt in any instance the existence of the calculous substances in the position assigned to them. But, on the other hand, it is by no means unlikely that many of the concretions may have contained matter which escaped observation, so that calculi represented as simple might, to a more minute analysis, have declared themselves compound. Hence it must be taken that the table rather under- than overstates the complexity of renal stones.
The calculi were in most cases obtained from the body after death, though one or two examples have been included of calculi voided by the urethra immediately after a nephralgia attack.
The table gives the composition of ninety-one renal calculi. Of these fifty-two are simple; thirty-nine compound. Of the compound stones, twenty-two are composed of two ingredients; ten fo three; seven of four.
As regards the simple calculi, uric acid is their most frequent material, forming rather more than a tliird of the number. Oxalate of lime comes next. Mixed and triple phosphates occur not seldom in the guise of sinii)le calculi, though it is probable that, in some cases at least, a nucleus of a different substance would have come into view had the section fallen more happily.
The list does not comprise any example of the pure phosphate-oflime calculus, the concretions of which are described as phosphate of lime, from the circumstances under which they were found, almost certainly (see note 1, p. 122) consisting of the mixed phosphates. Carbo-
' I have to acknowledge my obligations to Dr. Green at the Charing Cross Hospital, Dr. Moxon at Guy's, Dr. Kelly at King's College, Mr. McCarthy at the London Hospital, Dr, Cayley at the Middlesex, Dr. Gee at St. Bartholomew's, Dr, Payne at St. Mary's, and R. J. Lee at the Westminster, all of whom liave given me assistance in this matter. To Mr. Carter at University College I am indebted in an especial manner, since he undertook, with a view to this inquiry, the analysis of seven calculi which had not previously been examined.
tlie mixed i)liosphates. That in St. Bartlioloniew's i.s described as mixed Avith much animal matter, and similarly must probably be regarded as of mixed phosphates. Tliere is, therefore, no renal calculus of pure phosphate of lime included in the table.
tine in two. Of xanthine there is no example.
As to the compound calculi, it appears that they have almost invariably sprung from a nucleus of oxalate of lime, uric acid, or the urates. Oxalate of lime occurs most often in this relationship, and indeed is the most frequent constituent of compound calculi, existing in about two-thirds of the whole number. The tendency of oxalate-of-lime calculi to become compound may be explained partly by the fact that such stones are, from their roughness and hardness, particularly apt to set up local inflammation and consequent phosphatic deposition, and partly by the consideration that persons who have deposited one lime salt are constitutionally liable to deposit another.
Regarding the presence of the pliosphates in these calculi, it is of little practical importance to distinguish the calculi-phosphate from the ammonio-magnesic, or the mixture of the two from either alone. These salts are all the pj'oduct of alkaline urine, and are apt to occur in succession or jointly. They are all incapable of being diminished, but, on the otlier hand, are liable to be increased by the use of alkaline solvents.
Tlic same statements apj^ly to carbonate of lime, which is often deposited in association with the phosphates. Of the compound calculi, twenty-four out of the thirty-nine, or about three-fifths, contained either one of the phosphates or carbonate of lime; and thus had grown, as we may certainly infer, in connection witli alkaline urine; a fact, the importance of which will appear in relation to the action of solvents. Of the whole number of calculi, simple and compound, included in the table it is worth observing that thirty-one were wholly composed of uric acid and urates, while there were forty calculi in whicii uric acid appeared either alone or with other matters. Uric acid therefore was not present in half the number; and did not compose wholly, or with the sole assistance of the urates, above a third. The proportions do not bear out a statement sometimes made, that three-fourths, or even five-sixths, of all renal calculi are composed of uric acid; it is probable, however, that uric acid would be found in greater proportion in the smaller stones of routine practice than in these museum specimens, which especially represent advanced disease, and, of necessity, phosphatic deposits.'
Of the ninety-one renal stone, fifty-eight contained oxalate of lime, one of the phosphates, or carbonate of lime. The carbonate of lime and the phosphates forming usually the superficial layer, would not only have
"01 s\xtj-two vesical calculi,'' says this observer, "the nucleus was composed of urates mixed 'with crystals of oxalate thirty-four times; of oxalate chiefly twenty-one times; of uric acid chiefly seven times." Thus of sixty-two calculi the nucleus of fifty-four consisted wholly or in part of this salt of lime. Speaking of its presence in vesical calculi generally, either centrally or otherwise, it was found to be tlieir most frequent component occurring in no less than seventy per cent of those examined. Urates which came next in frequency were found in sixty-two per cent; uric acid in thirty-six per cent. These observations relate only to India, where possibly uric acid may be less common, and oxalate of lime more so, than in England; but it is probable that under all circumstances oxalate of lime, with its remarkable tendency to crystalline aggregation, more often lays the first stone of calculus, though as a urinary deposit it is far less common than the urates and uric acid.
There are several points in relation to the origin of urinary calculi, which, since they are common to many kinds, may be referred to before entering upon the separate consideration of each. These stones are often highly complex in their nature, consisting of many ingredients, and these arranged in an elaborate manner. Dr. Vandyke Carter'' has shown that their structure is largely crystalline, and that the crystals present much variety of form and arrangement, sometimes giving rise to patterns which simulate agates or some other production of the mineral kingdom. In the next place, there is a constant intermixture, and sometimes the existence, as a nucleus, of animal matter. Particles of bloodclot have long ago been referred to as forming the centres of urinary stones, and Bilharzia have since been found in the same position. Dr. Vandyke Carter states that in his examination of the calculi of India, an organic basis was generally to be detected after the removal by solvents of the stony matter. This was distinctly to be seen, whether as a basis or a subordinate formation in calculi of uric acid, urates, or the oxalate. It is described as a translucent, generally structureless, substance, interfused through the stone; it is not to be supposed that it is other than a secondary product. The crystallization occurs in an organic fluid, and organic matter must needs be involved.
The varying consistence of the urine in which the calculi are engendered, and the various intermixture with them, particularly with the ))hosphatic kinds, of mucus and other morbid secretions, have, as Dr. Ord has shown, a large influence upon the mode and character of the crystallization.
The influence of viscidity in the mothor liquor in the determination of globular forms, as of carbonate of lime, is not to be disputed, and it must be allowed that crystals of the oxalate are occasionally to be found in a web of mucus or fibrin, like fish in a net; but it is not clear whether the crystals have collected the Aveb or the web the crystals; and perhaps we should hardly be justified in assigning to tenacious admixtures so large a part in the begetting of calculi as Dr. Ord is disposed to do.'
I think it is to be asserted with general truth that, putting aside the phosphates and carbonates, calculi are formed more often in obedience to systemic states and consequent variations in the normal constituents of the urine than from local disease or " colloid" admixture. Stones are not especially common with albuminuria and diabetes where colloids and viscidity abound. On the other hand, we have sufficient evidence that they abound much in proportion to the abumlance of their material in the urine and the degree of concentration of that secretion. Thus calculi are common as in Xor/olk, where the drinking water is hard and the excretion of lime necessarily superabundant; they occur especially in persons whose habits or predispositions tend to the making of uric acid; and it is a matter of unwritten as well as of recorded experience that calculous disorders are frequent in India, where the renal secretion is drained of water by that of the skin.
The geographical distribution of urinary calculus throws great light upon its causation. Tiie prevalence of this disorder in the eastern countries, especially in Norfolk, has long been a matter of notoriety. It has recently been numerically displayed by Mr. Cadge, of Norwich, to whose valuable yjaper I must refer for particulars. He has deduced from the reports of the Kegistrar-General that deaths from stone are more frequent in proportion to the population in Scotland than in England and Wales, and in England and AVales than in Ireland. In England the greatest pro2:)ortionate mortality from this cause is in the eastern district, the smallest in the districts described respectively as the north-western and south-western. Arranging the counties of England according to the mortality from this cause, Norfolk, Huntingdon, Kent, and Sussex head the list, Cumberland, Cornwall, and Cheshire conclude it. This mortality in Norwalk is al)out ten times that in Cheshire; in Norfolk, 1 in 42,744: of the population; in Cheshire, 1 in 4'25,520.' From the experience of hospitals all over Great Britain Mr. Cadge has drawn a similar conclusion. In the Norfolk and Norwich Hospital the stone cases bear to the total number of in-patients in one year a proportion of 1 to 55; in the Devon and Exeter Hospital a proportion of 1 to 1,298. It is possible that cases of one sort may be attracted to a local hospital by its reputation in connection Avith their treatment; but this reputation may have been due to the practice afforded by the prevalence of such cases in the neighborhood, and be only another testimony to its morbid proclivities; while it may be further said that jDatients of the hospital class are not
his own words: — 1. lu experiments I have never found oxalates, or uric acid, or urates, form calculous masses unless in tlie presence of colloids. Uric acid, indeed, sometimes forms layers of matted crystals on the sides of vessels. 2. In the presence of colloids either cohesion or metamorphosis to spherical form always occurs; not always both. 3. Hundreds of people pass uric acid and oxalate in abundance witliout getting calculus. 4. The same may be said of people having albuminuria ami inflammation of the urinary passages. 5. I have never examined any calculus whicli, in addition to its crystalline substance, had not also a colloid matrix. 6. I believe that it is most probable that no calculus is formed of oxalates, urates, and uric acid, or phosphates, without the intervention of a colloid. This may be albumin in solution, exudation in renal tubes, mucus or exudations in renal passages, ureters, or bladder. Tlie most active element in forming calculi I believe to be the exudative matter of the tubes and mucus from the tracts. With albumin, spherical forms are produced, but there is less tendency to aggregation. In this I believe the viscidity of the mucus acts by holding the cr3-stals once formed in such a position as to invite accretion.
prone to select distant institutions when nearer are available. The practical conclusion from Mr. Cadge's extensive inquiry is a confirmation of tiie old belief that stone prevails where the water is hard, or in other words contains a superabundance of lime. That this association exists is proved abundantly. In Norfolk, Huntingdonshire, Kent, and Sussex the water is almost invariably hard; in the western counties it is generally soft. Stone ap]iears to flourish upon chalk and limestone, to be but sparsely produced on sandstone and granite.
The prevalcPiCe of stone in Norfolk and the eastern counties has been otherwise attributed to the coldness of the climate, the Teutonic origin of the inhabitants, and the use of Norfolk dumplings. Cold docs not appear to be productive of calculus, but rather the reverse. Mr. Cadge informs us that a smaller proportion of stone cases comes from the coast of Norfolk, where the cold is greatest, than from the inland villages. Parts of the eastern coast, such as Durham, the East Eiding of Yorkshire, and Aberdeen, which are probably colder than Norfolk, present the disorder with less frequency. At the Norfolk and Norwich Hospital 1 case in 55 is of stone; at the Infirmary of Aberdeen, 1 case in 184-. Beyond these facts Mr. Cadge has pointed out, and our knowledge derived from other sources confirms this statement, that urinary stone ia rare in Sweden, Norway, and some other cold countries, common in India and some parts of China. From cases I have seen I should conclude that stone is common in the West Indies as well as in the East, and it must be accepted as a general truth that it belongs rather to the warmer tlian the colder zones. It could not indeed well be otlierwise; the concentration of the urine must needs assist its crystallization.
Race probably occupies only a secondary place in giving rise to calculous disorders. In India both Europeans and natives suffer; and if in Great Britain Teutons are more often affected than Celts, it is possible that other differences besides those of race intervene. The east of England, which is most strongly Saxon, is especially the district of cereals and beer; the beer district is generally more jirolific in stone than where the local beverage is cider or whiskey. The question of diet in relation to uric acid will be further considered, but I may refer in passing to the discredit which since Front's time has attached to Norfolk dumplings as a cause of stone. The large local experience of Mr. Cadge is against the view that these dumplings, wliich consist of flour, water, and yeast, are indigestible or unwholesome, and we have evidence that at least other causes overrule this one; stone is common in Kent and Sussex, where the water is hard, but the dumpling unknown.
The comparative infrequency of stone in Ireland is of interest, more especially as the water in many parts of this country is recorded as hard. The use of whiskey instead of beer may help to explain the absence at least of lithatic deposits, while some of tiie immunity may, perhaps, be attributed to the potato, notwithstanding the views Avliich have been propounded, on somewhat theoretical grounds, to the effect that such vegetable food jiromotes, instead of preventing, calculous deposition. The rarity of stone in Ireland may indeed be taken as an argument in favor of this article of diet, rich as it is in alkali, and poor in nitrogen, in many cases in which it has been the custom to prohibit it.
Another dietetic point turns upon the general infrequency of stone among the children of the rich, its commonness among those of the poor. Operating surgeons concur in bearing witness to this disparity, which has been made prominent by my colleague at the Hospital
for Sick Children, Mr. T. Smith.' He assigns the frequency with which the children of the poor suffer to arrested cutaneous action from dirt, and to unsuitable food. Mr. Cadge, probably Avith more exactness, attributes it to the absence of milk from their dietary. It is obvious that where milk is largely rejilaced by bread or other solid food, the urine may fail to be supplied with "vvater in proportion to its solid constituents.
Putting aside hereditary and othercausesproper to the individual, the overruling influence which ai)pears most strongly marked in the causation of stone is calcareous impregnation of the water. It Avould be hanl to explain this but for such evidence as has been already adduced with regard to the frequency of oxalate of lime as the nucleus of stone, although it may be that the later deposit is of a different kind. Mr. Cadge represents the stones of Norfolk as almost always consisting of the salts of uric acid, and deals with their production as a simple question of lithuria. But it is not easy to show how hard water should determine this deposit. If they are especially diuretic, as they are said to be, they should, beyond other waters, prevent the deposition at least of the salts of uric acid. If the stones thus begotten of water are begun with the oxalate, their origin ceases to be a mystery. And Norfolk stones must be very different from stones elsewhere, if this is not more often the case than superficially appears. I have often administered lime experimentally, as lime water, the saccharated solution of lime, chalk mixture, and a solution of the acetate; urinary deposits result abundantly, not as uric acid or urates, but as oxalate and phosphate of lime. Crystals of the oxalate constantly appear from such medicaments, often of striking size and abundance. Whether oxalic acid is a normal constituent of urine I will not discuss, but it is at least clear that the oxalate of lime appears in a large majority of persons after the ingestion of the earth. This fact cannot but throw light upon the connection of calculi and hard water.
Calculi being different from each other in physical and chemical properties, arising from widely different causes, and requiring diverse and even opposite treatment, each must receive individual consideration.
mates of Bence Jones and Roberts have been stated.
Sir H. Thompson, speaking not especially of renal calculi but of calculi of constitutional as distinguished from local origin, says " nineteen out of twenty of such stones have uric acid for their basis, the remaining one in twenty being oxalate of lime."^ But I cannot doubt, from the evidence already brought forward, that the frequency of uric acid in renal concretions is less than these observers represent. From my facts it would ai)pear that of simple calculi from the kidney, about one-half are composed of uric acid or urates; while of compound calculi more than half contain neither of tliese substances. These facts are of importance as bearing upon the medical treatment of these deposits.
phates, but not nearly so hard as oxalate of lime. They are usually smooth externally, arranged in concentric layers by a process of even stratification; contrasted in this respect with oxalate of lime calculi, which are spiked, as if dis-
Renal calculus which weighed seven and a half ounces. Nucleus urate of ammonia; remainder uric acid, nearlypure; oxalate and phosijliate of lime on the exterior (From illustrated catalogue, College of Surgeons.)
Uric acid calculus from the kidney. The shape is characteristic. ( From a specimen at the College of Surgeons.)
plugs wliich fit with fatal accuracy.
A common form of the uric acid concretion is that described by Dr. Prout as pisiform.* Numerous and minute concretions, which have been likened to hemp-seed or peas, often collect in the pelvis, and are discharged with the urine, sometimes in great numbers. A gentleman under the care of Mr. Nunn, during the space of two months passed witli the urine above SOU such calculi, which evidently had but recently left the kidney.
Uric acid calculi appear generally to originate in the kidney, often while small traversing the ureter, painlessly or otherwise, to become in the bladder the centres of concretion, or thence to be happily expelled. Under less fortunate circumstances the calculi remain in the kidney, and there grow until they are too large to make their escape. Whatever be their destination, the kidney appears to be their usual birthplace ; the pelvis, except in infancy, more often than the tubes. It is known that uric acid and urates are apt to concrete in the straight tubes during the first
tubes after the secretion of urine has been fairly established.
In its rapid movement and small volume, the urine in the tubes is not advantageously circumstanceil for crystallization. Under ordinary circumstances it reaches the pelvis loaded with all its redundancies. During sleep, when the stream in the ureters is not assisted by gravity,. and to a less extent in sedentary postures, whereby those exits are compressed by unshifted and constrained abdominal viscera, the urine is apt to collect, remain quiescent and deposit. The process is analogous to what takes place on a larger scale when torrents tlirow down mud on entering a lake. According to Prout the uric acid is first })reci})itated as a. gelatinous or amorphous hydrate, which afterwards gathers into crystals. This process may be accompanied or followed by a dull pain or sense of weight in the lumbar region, which may shortly pass away or may give place to more marked signs of renal concretion. What is known as to the chemistry of uric acid in the body may be shortly stated, and is enough to be of some value, thougli much still remains to be learned. Uric acid as an excrementitious substance of the nitrogenous class supplies a form of exit for a certain proportion of the nitrogenous waste. It is derived in part from food, and in part from tissue ; the proportion which each supplies probably admitting of much variation. Food plays an important part in the process. With healthy organs and sound digestion, the more nitrogenous tlie diet the more uric acid is discharged. The following table given by Dr. Harley^ illustrates this fact, and many more statements of the same kind might be adduced. With wholly
When uric acid out of the body is subjected to an oxidizing agent in the presence of water it is converted into urea, and it has been inferred that a similar action is continually taking place in the body, that uric acid in fact is only an intermediate step between albumin and urea. Whether the relation between these excrementitious substances is thus simple is a matter as yet sub judice. Urea is believed to be largely formed in the liver. It is found in the blood which leaves this organ in much larger proportion than in the blood which enters it. In congestive and other morbid conditions of the liver uric acid, with purpurates, is found in excess in the urine, and it may easily be supposed that in the embarrassment which such disease implies the process of transformation may be arrested, so that uric acid is discharged in the place of the more elaborated product. There is another fact, however, which, first noticed by Dr. Parkes ' and since observed by others, is less easily explicable on the theory that uric acid and urea are only steps in the same process. In leucocythaemic enlargement of the spleen the uric acid of the urine is greatly increased, whereas this organ is not known to have any special duty with regard to the making of urea ; from this it would seem that uric acid and urea take their origin in different organs and are independent of each other. Leaving the relation between urea and uric acid as undetermined, it is enough for the present purpose to regard uric acid as the less oxidized i)roduct of nitrogenous waste. For the diminution of uric acid, therefore, chemistry would indicate the introduction of more o.xygen and less nitrogen, more air and less meat, practic.il rules in the promulgating of which modern science has been anticipated by ancient experience.
Uric acid may be in excess without being deposited, or it may be deposited when not in excess. Its deposition depends partly upon the acidity of the urine, and partly upon its dilution. Alkaline urine holds it in solution. The presence of a free acid by which the urates are decomposed, determines its precipitation the more readily the greater its quantity and the more concentrated the urine. Another circumstance is accessory, the contact of an inanimate surface, which unprotected by alkaline secretion invites crystallization.
132 KKNAL CALCULI.
Clinical observation makes it sufficiently evident that the whole mystery of uric acid is not yet revealed. Overmuch nitrogenous food, too little air and exercise, whatever causes hepatic congestion, whether by way of diet, mechanical obstruction, or ague, may be within our understanding as causes of uric acid excess. Gout is likewise associated with it, though the mode of the association is less clear than its existence.
I have known uric acid gravel to be passed largely and regularly bv pale, thin, and impoverished old women, whose diet has assuredly comprised no excess of flesh or luxurious food. With these the deposit occurs in connection with dyspepsia associated with a coarse and poor diet, or with organic changes as yet imperfectly understood.
Vegetable food since Prout and Bence Jones has been supposed to be Ji frequent source of ''acidity." Prout insists on the malassimilation of dumplings and such admixtures of flour and fat, and their effect in producing uric deposits, Avhile Bence Jones dwells upon tlie amount and variety of acid theoretically liable to be produced in the course of the conversion of sugar and starch into carbonic acid and water. But we do not know how far this acid transmutation actually occurs in the body, though possible out of it.
We know as a matter of observation that under animal diet the urine becomes more acid, under vegetable diet less acid or ali^aline. With regard to uric acid in particular, we have the ascertained increased excretion of this acid upon animal diet, and its diminution upon vegetable, and to the same purpose the infrequency of stone upon the potato diet of Ireland.
But whatever be the relation of vegetable food to uric acid, it is at least clear that an excess of this substance may occur under two distinct and even opposite conditions, the one caused by overmuch food in relation to exercise, the other occurring without any such excess, to be described somewhat vaguely as the product of malassimilation, or perhaps more correctly as the result of organic conditions at present unknown, or known but imperfectly. The influence of hepatic and splenic changes in the production of uric acid has already been adverted to.
Deposition of uric acid is more common towards the ends than in the middle of life — more common before ten and after forty than in the intervening ])eriod. In infancy and childhood this tendency sometimes is, as Dr. Prout has observed, obviously hereditary, derived from gouty or dyspeptic parents. Among the causes of this deposition in early life ne{)hritis, whether from cold or scarlatina, deserves a prominent place. During convalescence from this disease it is not uncommon to find a remarkable abundance of uric acid crystals in the urine. As the renal channels reopen after their tem})orary closure, the accumulated excrementitious matters hurry out in superabundance, more uric acid escapes from the kidney than can be retained in solution, and crystals are passed, often in great abundance, with the urine. It may happen that some remain behind, to become tlie centres of concretion. I have known cases in which the symi)toms of renal calculus have dated from, and probably thus originated in, an attack of scarlatinal nephritis.
Among the pathological associates of uric acid diabetes must be mentioned ; the deposit is often noticed in the earlier stages of the disease, while as yet the urine is not veiy copious; the concurrence may possibly be attributed not so much to greater or less oxidation — a theoretical cause to which both sugar and excess of uric acid in the urine have been
which is iissociuted, as I have elsewhere shown, with diabetes.
During the vigor of early middle life uric acid deposits are comparatively rare. They reappear when tlie habits of life begin to produce their results and the changes of age to commence. Intimately connected as uric acid is with gout, it may be said that after middle life the causes of gout are the causes of the uric acid diathesis. Both are engendered by bodily inactivity, and occur in those who have lived not wisely but too well."
As to the treatment of tlie uric acid diathesis, or, in other words, the prevention of uric acid calculi, we may be wise in our present state of knowledge to be mainly guided by the results of clinical observation.. Experience is not in favor of a general recourse to an exclusively or mainly animal diet, though according to Bence Jones, the fare in extreme cases of the uric acid diathesis should assimilate t(^ that of diabetes — little more than lean meat and brandy and water. It appears to be generally wise to cut off saccharine and oleaginous matters and indigestible forms of pastry, though I believe harm has been done in this condition by the too general avoidance of vegetable food. Malt liquor must be entirely interdicted. It has been observed that as productive of uric acid the presence of acetic acid in any liquor is more injurious than that of malic, tartaric, or citric acid ; hence beer does more harm in this respect than wine or cider. All rich and imperfectly fermented wines, port, ricli sherry, burgundy, and champagne must be avoided, and the patient restricted to claret or weak spirit and water. Excess of uric acid is often cured by poverty, with its attendant advantages of frugal fare, abstinence, and exercise.
Physicians hold are good,
especially for those who make uric acid superabundantly. Of this prescription the water plays no unimportant part. It is impossible to exaggerate the use of diluents, of which none can be better than pure water, in the treatment of urinary concretions, particularly when they are of this kind. Water is a universal solvent: it furnishes the natural vehicle for the removal of all the urinary excreta: it is a diuretic of rare virtue, for it is free from irritating properties, while it has the power, rarely possessed by medicines of the diuretic class, of increasing the solids of the urine. And beside its effect in purifying the blood by increased urinary elimination, it will by its solvent action prevent precipitation so effectually that it may be generally stated that the tendency to the crystallization of uric acid will diminish precisely in the same proportion as the urine is diluted.
almost specific, importance.
However the liver may be concerned in the production of uric acid or in the action of mercury, there, is no doubt that occasional doses of calomel and of some saline aperient, as sulphate of magnesia or some purging mineral water, as Pullna or Friedrichshall, are often beneficial.
Alkaline remedies, the bicarbonate, or, what comes to the same thing, the citrate of potash, or, less effectively, lithia in similar combination, may be trusted as a means of preventing the precipitation of uric acid, though they do not lessen its production.
to twenty grains of the bicarbonate to the bottle, is convenient and agreeable. Vichy water answers much the same purpose: it often proves of great service in preventing the deposition of the uric acid; as containing soda, however, it is probably less efficacious, and is in some respects more objectionable than solutions of potash. The water of Contrexeville' has been vaunted in disorders of the uric acid kind; it seems to have a marked diuretic action, and it is supposed thus to expel gravel and small calculi Avhich otherwise might have grown in peace; it, however, contains a large quantity of lime, which must be a source of danger where the formation of the oxalate or i)hosphate is to be apprehended.
In connection with tiie etfect attributed to these waters, abounding lis they do with lime,^ Prout noticed that hard waters, thougli generally to be avoided in calculous disease, sometimes brought away large quantities of gravel by their diuretic action. Similar results occasionally follow terebinthinate remedies.^ Dr. Henry related the case of a middle-aged lady who, when led by customary symptoms to expect a fit of gravel, was in the habit of taking a mixture chiefly consisting of turpentine and laudanum. This uniformly produced a discharge of uric acid gravel, sometimes amounting to more than four ounces in two or three days. Possibly some of tliis deposit may have been formed as discharged under the constitutional influence which the patient had learned to recognize, assisted possibly by opium; but the bulk probably was merely dislodged by the diuretic. It has happened to me more than once to find on post-mortem examination so large a collection of uric acid gravel in the pelvis of tiie kidney that it was difficult to understand how it could have thus accumulated. Possibly in the case alluded to by Di-. Henry some such lodgment luid taken place. Small discharges of uric acid gravel under the influence of turpentine are, however, by no means uncommon.
Mixed Urates.
These require but abrief notice. Uric acid in combination with potash, soda, ammonia, and occasionally lime in varying proportions, the potash generally being in larger quantity than the soda and ammonia, forms the hest known of all urinary deposits, marked as it is by the obvious character of ready solubility with warmth. Under certain circumstances this forms or contributes to form renal calculi.
Kenal calculi consisting only of the urates are exceedingly rare — the museums of London contain but two specimens. They are always of small size, and are, as far as I am aware, peculiar to children. The College of Surgeons has a specimen which was taken from the body of an infant only four months old. Such calculi are light or yellowish in color, and in texture soft and friable. Their peculiar characteristic is their solubility in boiling water. It is probable that they originate in the deposition of urates in the kidney-tubes. Lines of amorphous lithates mixed with crystals of uric acid are continually found in the straight tubes of children who die soon after birth. It is stated that the dej)Osition is very rarely found in still-born children, or in those who have breathed for less than twenty-four hours, but that it is generally present between the first and tenth days of extra-uterine life. It is probable, as suggested by Virchow, that this phenomenon depends upon increased
production of uric acid by the tissue change consequent on the establishment of respiration, wliile there is no proportionate excretion of water to hold it in solution. In cases in whicli the tubes are thus charged, red sand is often found in the pelvis and bladder, which may easily furnish the seed of a calculus and explain the frequency of stone in childhood. In later life it happens, though comparatively rarely, that lines of urates are found in the cones: possibly this may sometimes be a post-mortem occurrence due to cooling of the body, and consequent jjrecipitation of urates.'
As one of the components of compound renal calculi the urates are not uncommon. In thirty-one compound calculi in the museums of London the urates are described as occurring sixteen times. In one instance the ordinary urates were associated with urate of lime. Dr. Vandyke Carter found the urates to be present in some form in sixty-two per cent of the vesical calculi of India, forming the nucleus in fifty-six per cent: as a deposit he found them commonly to precede, but rarely to follow oxalate of lime; sometimes to precede uric acid, very seldom succeeding to it. Thus the urates are present in half the renal stones, in more than half the vesical. .
Xanthine" — xanthic, or uric, oxide — i-esembles uric acid in composition, from which it differs only in containing one atom less oxygen. It is believed to be a normal constituent of the urine, though existing in it in very small amount.^
Xanthine has been found in many parts of the body, including the liver, spleen, pancreas, brain, and muscular tissue. It has been found in the intestinal concretions of animals, and in guano.
This substance forms almost the rarest of known urinary calculi. Though obviously of renal origin, it has not yet beenfound in the kidney, and therefore is not strictly included within the scope of the present Avork. Since Dr. Marcet, in 1817, described *' a nondescript calculus," which he termed xanthic in reference to the reaction of nitric acid, I am aware of but four instances in which urinary calculi of this nature have been discovered.
shown by M. Langier, in the year 1829, to consist of tliis substance.
A stone removed from the bladder by Professor Langenbeck, of Hanover, a portion of which is in the Museum of the College of Surgeons and another portion at Guy's Hospital, the composition of which was detected by Professor Stromeyer, and investigated by Liebig and Wohler, furnished the next confirmation of Marcet's observations. A fourth specimen was removed from the urethra of a boy by Professor Dulk, of Konigsberg, and the fifth and last was found by Mr. T. Taylor, in tlie
Museum of the College of Surgeons, and is described by him in the "Pathological Transactions" for the year 1868. The stone was extracted from the bladder of a Mussulman boy by Mr. George Coles, a surgeon in the service of the East India Company: it had been in tlie college since the year 1851, and supposed to consist chiefly of uric acid.
In appearance and hardness the calculi of this material wiiich have hitherto been discovered have closely resembled uric acid. Tiiey are described as smooth and of a yellow or brownish color. Dr. Mareet's calculus had a reddish cinnamon color, and was compact and laminated; Langenbeck's was also laminated; it had a light-brown color, and was externally partly polished, of an earthy texture. This calculus, which is the largest yet known, was of about the size of a small hen's egg. A peculiarity of the material is its acquirement by friction of a waxy or resinous lustre.
Calculi of this material are readily soluble in caustic potash, xanthine being precipitated by acid from tlie alkaline solution as a white powder. Xanthine is soluble in nitric acid without effervescence, in that respect differing from uric acid, which dissolves with copious evolution of gas, the solution leaving on evaporation a lemon-colored residue, which does not become red when acted upon by ammonia.
From the resemblance of xanthine to uric acid, whether it occur as a calculus or as a urinary deposit, it is probable that the formation is not so rare as is supposed, but is usually mistaken for uric acid.
Clinically, Avhat has been said regarding the formation of uric acid nearly applies to that of the oxide, since the oxide is but the acid incomplete by the want of its last stage of oxidation. Dr. Bence Jones, as the prophet of oxygen, was of opinion that with more of it the production of xanthine, as of uric acid, can be exchanged for that of more highly oxidized normal products, and recommends the restriction of fuel in the food, with resort to exercise, warm clothing, alkalies, and iron. Probably the formation of xanthine, as of uric acid, is not to be fully explained until more is known of its relations to definite organic change.
It has been stated that xantliine has been found in the urine as the consequence ' of bathing in sulpluirous water, and of the inunction of sulphur. It is difficult to see any connection between sulphur and uric oxide; if the statement had concerned cystine it would have corresponded 'better with our expectations.
Oxalate of Lime and the Oxalic Diathesis.
Oxalate of lime forms the hardest and most insoluble concretions to which the human body is liable. They are soluble only in strong acids, not in any alkaline or slightly acid solutions, such as could reach them in their native cavities. They appear nearly always to originate in the pelvis or tubes of the kidney. Crystals of oxalate of lime of the dumb-bell shape are often found in the straight tubes, and these and octahedra have sometimes been seen in and upon casts. Dr. Beale noticed this in particular in connection with the suppression of urine of cholera. Of all urinary dc})osits the oxalate has the greatest tendency ta cohere — some, like the amorphous urates and phosphates, adhere, and that with much readiness, to any dead surface, but they seldom concrete independently. Uric acid concretes independently, and the oxalate does-
so even more strikingly. Numbers of octiihedra, or of dumb-bells, or of irregular lumps derivable from the latter, are often found under the microscope in concrete masses, the component ])articles sometimes held together by a translucent web like a film of structureless mucus, ormaintainiug their contact without visible means. Each mass so formed is a calculus in miniature, and needs but to stay in one of the urinary cavities to acquire concretion perhaps of otiier kinds. I have before me many sketches of microscopic concretions formed as I have described, which, however, I need not produce, as Dr. Beaie has already illustrated the subject.' This tendency of the oxalate is a sufficient explanation of the frequency, upon which I have already dwelt (see p. 124), with which stones are originated by it.
A rare form of oxalate of lime. Small smooth calculi, "f which three ounces were found within a dilated kidnej'. (From a specimen in the College of Surgeons )
Oxalate of lime calculus from the kidney, consisting as seen in section of aggregated spheres, i From the illustrated catalogue of the College of Surgeons.)
of translucent crystals, which look as if they belonged to the mincrul instead of the animal kingdom. In traversing the ureter, these produce severe, often agonizing pain. The divergent groups of sharp spines or plates become the centre of stratified deposition, wiience arises the peculiar tubercnlated exterior by which oxalate of lime calculi, wliether in the kidney or bladder, are characterized. The spiked or bossed exterior is often such as to give a resemblance, more genuine than most morbid similitudes, to a blackberry or mulberry. Though when oxalate of lime calculi are small they are often obviously crystalline, this is not always the case. They sometimes take the aspect of black or dark grains — black gravel as it has been termed — wiiich much resemble poppy-seeds. Sometimes they are of a light color. At the College of Surgeons are a number of renal concretions of oxalate of lime, which consist of minute polished spherules, which but for their faint yellowish tint might pass for a collection of small pearls.
Often these concretions attain a considerable size in tlie kidney, though they do not reach the enormous bulk occasionally presented by uric acid, and often by the phosphates. One of the largest renal calculi of oxalate of lime which I have met with is represented (woodcut, p. 137). It belongs to the College of Surgeons.
Sometimes a large number of calculi of this substance are found in one kidney, where their angular forms are well adapted to cause irritation. These calculi, from their Inirdness and close texture, take a high ])olish, and with their irregular stratification and variegated color often resemble agates, and might well be applied to ornamental purposes, were
duction of jewelry.
It is probable that no varieties of renal calculi cause so much i^ain as oxalate of lime, tbougli from the fact that they are less often disposed Avith bilateral symmetry, they are not such frequent causes of fatal suppression of urine as are concretions of uric acid.
AVhat has been termed the oxalic acid diathesis has been, since it was first brought into notice by Prout, the subject of much discussion. The deposition of oxalate of lime in the urine lias been regarded by some as a sign of the gravest disturbance of jiealth, by others as of comparative insignificance. There is no doul)t that ci-vstals of oxalate of lime are
often produced in urine by changes which have occurred subsequent to its secretion; Avhile, on the other hand, it must be admitted that the habitual production of these crystals is often associated with a condition of nervous depression akin to that which attends the excessive secretion of lime in any shape.
So much as concerns the formation and prevention of concretions of the oxalate may be briefly stated. Oxalate of lime is precipitated only in acid urine. Oxalic is closely allied to uric acid, uric acid being, it is said, convertible by the addition of oxygen and water into oxalic acid and urea. Dr. Owen Eees has shown that by virtue of some such change when urine containing urates is heated, oxalate of lime is produced. He believes that this conversion is of very frequent occurrence, and is in fact the only source of oxalic acid in the urine.
Whether or no oxalic acid in the urine is usually thus produced, we have evidence that it may also appear in this secretion after having been swallowed, and on the strength of this possibility persons prone to the deposition of the oxalate have been made to abstain from rhubarb and sorrel, too often an ineffectnal injunction, for practically the development of the salt, as will be presently shown, is a question more of lime than of oxalic acid.
That this acid is more oftea developed within the organism, whether in the urinary cavities or elsewhere, than introduced from without is evident from the frequent and abundant discharge of it, though all food known to contain it be excluded. According to Dr. Bence Jones, the ''oxalic diathesis," like other forms of acidity, is a result of the insufficient action of oxygen and the arrest at the stage of oxalic acid of the process of oxidation, by whicli the hydrocarbons of food should be transmuted into carbonic acid and water.
But what is of more practical importance than this hypothetical development of the acid is the influence of the base. Given excess of lime in the urine, oxalic acid, come it from whence it may, is seldom wanting. Whether it be that an abundance of lime accelerates the process of decomposition by which oxalic acid is made from other urinary substances, or whether this acid is more generally secreted with the urine than has hitherto been thought, the excess of lime only bringing into view what previously existed, from one of these causes or some other it is certain that if much lime be passed with the urine, whether as a consequence of the excessive ingestion of this earth, or otherwise, some of it will usually appear as oxalate.
If chloride of calcium be added to healthy urine, crystals of oxalate of lime will generally be thrown down. Similarly, if lime in the form of lime-water or oxalate of lime be administered for a few days to a liealthy person the lime will reappear in the urine, partly as phosphate, and, so long as the urine remains acid, partly as oxalate. A similar production of oxalate of lime probably occurs from tlie continued drinking of water highly ciiarged with lime ; hence the known frequency of urinary calculi in limestone districts. It may bo generally stated that when the urine contains excess of lime, if the secretion be normally acid, much of the lime will appear as oxalate; if it be slightly acid or neutral, as acid or crystalline phosphate; if alkaline, as amorphous or basic phosphate.*
lime may be briefly explained.
When tiiis deposit is formed persistently in copious clear and pale urine, it may generally be regarded as the result of secretion, and a sign of a constitutional state. When it is found in high-colored or lithatic urine, it may possibly have resulted from a decomposition of urates, and be without clinical significance.
Accord i ng to Dr. Prou t, the oxalic diathesis is more common i n men than in women, it affects chiefly persons of either a sanguine or a melancholic tem})erament, it is often associated with affections of the skin, and it is apt to be developed by residence in a damp or malarious district. The association of oxalate of lime and malaria is of interest in connection with intermittent hasmaturia, a disease which is connected with ague, and in which crystals of oxalate almost invariably abound. Often the de[)Osition is associated with flatulent; dyspepsia, and with nervous depression and irritability, though it is by no means certain that the state of the nervous system is not more often the cause than the consequence of the disturbance. Dr. Bence Jones thus describes the symptoms of the ** oxalic diathesis " : —
''The most common symptom i? flatulent dyspejisia; frequently before food considerable uneasiness is felt and eructation occurs. Eating for a time removes the symptoms, only to return, in an hour or two, with increased intensity. The pain sometimes is so severe, persistent, or intermitting, that it can only be produced l)y actual cramp of the muscular coat of the stomach. This state of suffei'ing may last from half-an-hour to three or four hours, and then cease to return for some days, months, or years. In the urine the presence of oxalate of lime may be suspected when sudden changes in the quantity made in twenty-four hours are observed. Usually an increased urgency and frequency of making' Avater accompanies this increased flow, and there is a general feeling of irritability of the nervous system, exaggerating external and internal annoyances to a degree far beyond that to which they would give rise if no dyspepsia existed."
It: is certain, however, that while such disturbances ai-e often found in conjunction with the deposition of the oxalate, they may equally occur as a result of tlie gouty condition without any production of oxahite of lime in the urine, and further tiiat oxalate of lime may be precipitated abundantly in persons who appear to be in perfect health, and neitlier present tlie symptoms nor possess the constitutional characters which have been associated with the oxalic diathesis.'
The oxalic diafhesis is a condition whicli has been considered too much as an isolated one, instead of being connected, as it is, with that tendency to pass earthy salts in excess whicli is so constantly associated with an active, restless, or irritated nervous system. Oxalic, like other earthy deposits, are found in persons of a nervous temperament, who have pale complexions, pass abundant light-colored urine, and for the most part lead studious and sedentary lives.
vention of tlie concretion of oxalate of lime, it is obviously advisable to inhibit hard water, and by way of theoretic accuracy, the vegetable vehicles of oxalic acid, rhubarb and sorrel. If there be any tendency to concretion, tliefree use of distilled or soft water is indicated.
Dr. Front, seconded in this respect by Dr. Bence Jones, held that the diet should approximate to that now commonly enforced in diabetes, of which meat and s[)irit and water form the staples. Sugai-, according to Dr. Prout, should be entirely prohibited. French cookery, "by wliich animal matters are reduced to a semi-fluid or pultaceous mass," agrees better, according to the same authority, than the "solid cliops or steaks of this country." Dr. Basham, however, nowise assents to these views. He commends "good English fare, neither a vegetable diet nor an animal diet prevailing," and I think that experience is with Dr. Basham. Persons who pass lime freely, though often dyspeptic, need a liberal diet, one not too narrowly restricted. Plainly cooked meat, without the exclusion of vegetables, and with a little non-saccharine wine — claret or light sherry — may be generally resorted to, while in some cases distinct benefit will follow from the occasional admission of port wine or bitter ale.
or nervous disturbance.
As medicine, nitro-muriatic acid has been reputed since the days of Prout to prevent the deposition of oxalate of lime, and there can be no doubt that the reputation is deserved. Strychnia, with or without the acid, is often of the greatest use, apparently correcting the conditions of nervous system in which the tendency takes its rise. Quinine and iron are less generally useful.'
Phosphatic Calculi and the Phosphatic Diathesis.
Three varieties of calculi are found in the kidney, consisting of earthy or ammoniacal phosphates — the calcic phosphate, the ammoniomagnesic phosphate, and the fusible calculus, which is a mixture of the two.
Calcic liliosphate, or bone earth, CajP^O^, in an unmixed state, is rare as a urinary concretion. Calculi of this material are generally chalky in appearance, or with a faint brownish tinge. They are often laminated concentrically, Avhile their outer surfaces are polisiied. The material cannot ,be fused with the blowpipe. It dissolves readily in hydrochloric acid, from which solution it is precipitated in a gelatinous state by ammonia.
A deposit of this nature, derived as it is from urine which is alkaline, but not ammoniacal, is very apt to be succeeded by the triple or mixed phosphate, which ammoniacal urine induces, for tiie obvious reason that alkaline urine is apt to become ammoniacal. Stones of tliis nature, therefore, seldom or never attain a large size uncomplicatt'd by other deposits. Indeed, stones of pure phosphate of lime of any size are among the rarities of pathology. The largest and best-described collections in London, namely, those at the College of Surgeons and St. George's Hospital, contain no example.
phosphatic deposit may be overlaid by another or by carbonate of lime^ it is almost unknown for uric acid or oxalate of lime to be deposited, bearing out the statement of Dr. Marcet, that the phosphatic diathesis is never succeeded by any other.'
The ammonio-magnesic or triple phosphate (H^NMgPOJ* is the product of ammoniacal urine. It rarely occurs as a primary deposit, excepting as an intrustation upon a diseased surface. It forms a coating upon stones of every sort, being deposited wherever the primary concretion causes enough mucous irritation to make the urine in the pelvis ammoniacal by the admixture of diseased secretion. The substance is white, soft, and friable, of loose texture, seldom laminated, often sparkling with crystalline grains. It fuses with difficulty before the blowpipe, giving an ammoniacal odor. Dilute acids dissolve it readily, and the solution when neutralized with ammonia deposits it again in a crystalline form.
* I have known as an exceptional circumstance the ammonio-magnesian phosphate to be deposited, and that most copiously, and immediately upon the emission of the urine, when that secretion has been alkaline, but not appreciably ammoniacal or decomposed. A striking instance of this occurred in a case of tubal nephritis, in which recovery took place. The ammonia was of course present in the urine, though not in a volatile form, probably the result of secretion, not of decomposition. It may be noticed also that there are special circumstances in which crystals of the same kind are habitually found in acid urine, though not formed in it. The urine in tlie pelvis of one kidney may be ammoniacal from stone or other local disease, while that in the other kidney is healthy, and the mixture in the bladder acid. The ammoniacal crystals may escape complete solution in the bladder, but present in the corrosion of their outlines signs of partial solution, which may be generally taken as evidence of unilateral disease.
ney, the larger of which is partly, and the smaller entirely, composed of the triple phosphate. The smaller stone, in being thus solely composed of triple phosphates, hardly need be regarded as an exception to the rule that this deposit is always consequent upon some other, since the smaller stone was probably secondary to the larger, and resulted from the mucous disturbance it set up. A renal stone of almost pure triple phosphate, which weighed seven and a half ounces — one of the largest on record — is represented in the annexed woodcut. The calculus was taken from the body of a daughter of the well-known Sir Richard Steele; the kidney had been reduced to a mere cyst.
as well as externally to them.
Calculi, consisting mainly of this material, vary much in size, often attaining a great bulk. Tiiey are often of very irregular shape, curved and branched, so as to follow the shape of the pelvis. In their irregular and fantastic shapes and earthy white outsides these calculi often resemble rough flints fresh the chalk. They are loose and friable generally, but not always, showing stratification on section. Their substance often sparkles with minute crystals of triple phosphate. It fuses readily before the blowpipe; it is soluble in dilute acids; from its solution animonium-
Renal calculus, weighing seven and a half ounces. Nearly pure phosphate of magnesia and ammonia. The central part is confusedly crystallized, the rest'laminated. (I'roui the illustrated catalogue of the College of Surgeons.)
Of late years much light has been thrown upon the precipitation of the earthy and ammoniacal i)liosphates. Prout — the accuracy of whose observations of disease must give his work permanent value, however time may modify his chemical theories — thought that the deposition of the triple or earthy phosphates was necessarily owing to their superabundant secretion in the urine, and associated grave sym})toms of nervous prostration and irritability Avith their ])resence as urinary sediments. It is probable that Prout. did not over-estimate the clinical significance of these deposits, though later observations have shown tliat the earthy phos])hates, though not existing in more than their natural amount, may be deposited by urine simply because it is wanting in acidity, and that the ammoniacal salt is the product of decomposition, not of secretion. Phosphate of lime is soluble in acid, but not in alkaline urine, and is thrown ■down wherever the urine loses its acidity. From urine which is neutral or barely acid the crystalline or acid phosphate is deposited. Decidedly .alkaline urine deposits the neutral or amorphous phosphate. 80 long as the urine remains free from ammonia the lime-salt will be thrown down without any ammoniacal admixture, and a stone, should one form, will consist of phosphate of lime unmixed with the triple phosphate — a rare variety of calculus. Urine alkaline only from fixed alkali is generally unconnected with any local irritation in the urinary tract, and is unmixed with mucus. The sediment, therefore, is loose and powdery, and has little tendency to cohere into calculi. If the urine be ammoniacal, the deposit will be mixed, containing ammonio-magnesic, in addition to the •calcic, salt- Possibly under such circumstances the ammonio-magnesian salt may be in much the larger proportion, and may concrete almost by itself. The concretion is facilitated by the mucus, which in such cases is alwa^'s present. AVitli this dependence of phosphatic calculi upon alkalescence of urine, it is necessary to revert to the conditions under which fixed and ammoniacal alkalinity occur.
Urine alkaline from fixed alkali has been so secreted. It is secreted ammoniacal only in exceptional circumstances. If ammoniacal, it has almost invariably become so subsequent to secretion as a result of putrefactive change, and the conversion of urea into carbonate of ammonia. "When urine is pi'imarily alkaline from fixed alkali, it the more retidily takes on ammoniacal decomposition, for which reason the dej)osition of the calcic is likely to be early succeeded by that of the mixed i)hosphate.
The urine may be alkaline from fixed alkali, either because the alkalies or lime are in excess, or the acid, especially the phosphoric, deficient. The condition is usually associated Avith a depressed state of health, especially involving circumstances of nervous depression. Many condiditions of serious chronic disease have been mentioned as thus accompanied— phthisis, dyspei^sia, chronic vomiting, gout, chlorosis, etc. It sometimes happens that the urine is thus alkaline at an advanced stage of granular degeneration of the kidney; under these circumstances the condition is one of evil augury, as it appears to depend upon defective elimination of phosphoric aciil. Apart from states of health, the urine
may obviously be rendered alkaline by medicines containing potash or soda, their carbonates or their vegetable salts, which in the body are converted into carbonates, or by fluids containing lime, such as lime-water, or, as has been used experimentally, the solution of the acetate.
Fixed alkalinity of urine as a morbid condition, unconnected, that is, with food or medicine, suggests a treatment of a generally tonic character, in which mineral acids, perchloride, or other salts of iron, and quinine, strychnia, or other vegetable bitters are included. The condition, however, comparatively seldom occurs unconnected with some other morbid state, on which the management of the patient will chiefly dejiend.
Ammoniacal urine becomes so, as a rule, in consequence, as has been stated, of change subsequent to secretion, and is therefore a sign of diseased urinary cavities, rather than of alteration of blood. Instances have, however, been recorded in which there is reason to believe that the urine has been secreted ammoniacal.' I could not doubt that this was so in the case of a feeble old lady who often passed ammoniacal urine when more than usually debilitated, the normal condition of the urine being as often restored by mineral acids and tonic treatment. The urine of advanced renal disease often has a fishy and distinctly ammoniacal smell, together with an alkaline reaction, and must be presumed to have been so secreted when, as often happens, the cavities and passages are free from disease.
Dr. Graves ^ mentions two instances in which carbonate of ammonia was apparently present in urine when secreted. It may be accepted as a rule which has few exceptions that whenever the urine is ammoniacal to the smell, or, in other words, contains carbonate of ammonia, it has become so in the bladder or pelvis of the kidney as the result of local disease, comprising either retention of urine or inflammation of the urinary membrane, or both. Urine retained in the bladder by mechanical obstruction or from loss of expulsive power decomposes, becomes ammoniacal, sets up thereby vesical inflammation, and tnus becomes mingled with morbid mucous products, which intensify its putrescence, and add to its irritating jiroperties. The urinary mucous membrane is apt to discharge, when irritated by calculi, morbid growths, or retained urine, alkaline fluid, which, by acting as a ferment, causes decomposition. From this or some similar reason, urine mixed with the products of mucous inflammation rapidly decomposes and acquires ammonia. A calculus, whatever its composition, if it be such as to cause much mucous irritation, is apt to be bathed with ammoniacal urine intermixed with mucous or mucopurulent flux. The earthy and triple phosphates are necessarily precipitated, while the tenacious mucus binds them together into a coherent form, thus supplying all the conditions needed for the formation and retention of calculous matter. The precipitate supplies the stone, and the mucus, so to speak, adds the mortar. Calculi of vast size thus accumulate. It used to be thought that under some circumstances the urinary mucous membrane actually secreted earthy matter, instead of, as now understood, only causing its precipitation. The abundance of thcphosphatic accumulation in some cases is enough to suggest that there may be truth in the old view; but I am not aware that any observations have oeen made as to the amount of earthy salts in urinary mucus, nor would it be easy to obtain it in sufficient quantity for analysis unmixed with urine.
Any source of irritation in the pelvis, or any means by which theurine is rendered ammoniacal, may determine the formation in this situation of a mixed phosphatic calcuhis. Probably most calculi of this kind take their rise in a concretion of oxalate of lime or uric acid. Others originate in a clot of blood or a mass of agglutinated mucus. A phosphatic calculus in the kidney may t.rise from a state of urine set up by a stone in the bladder. A preparation recently added to the collection at St. George's Hospital may serve as an illustration. The bladder, that of a child, contains a large uric acid stone partially encrusted with phosphates. Each kidney contains an irregular, elongated calculus of mixed phosphates accurately moulded to the shape of the pelvis. It would seem that the uric acid stone developed in the bladder until it at last caused by its irritation an ammoniacal condition of urine, and became consequently coated with phosphates. The ammoniacal urine regurgitated, or the mucous inflammation travelled upwards until the ammoniacal condition prevailed in the pelves. Precipitation then took place in both kidneys, until the cavity of each was filled with the earthy deposit almost as regularly as if plaster of Paris had been artistically poured in.
The ammoniacal state of urine connected with paralysis of the bladder from disease of the spine or cord, or the vesical inaction which may accompany typhus and other febrile states, is occasionally productive of phosphatic calculi in the bladder,' and possibly sometimes also in the kidney. Dr. Thudichum ^ analyzed a stone which had been formed in the bladder as the result of typhus, and found it to consist of the ammouio-magnesic phosphate with but a minute admixture of the calcic phosphate.
When the urine is ammoniacal, the first thing to be done is to inquire into the condition of the bladder, prostate, and urethra with a view to removing any stone or other source of irritation or obstacle which may be found. I do not propose to trench upon the domain of surgery, but may briefly say that the indication is to secure a free exit for the urine in such a manner as not to exasperate existing inflammation or introduce septic agents into the bladder. The frequency with which fatal renal suppuration follows the use of the catheter makes the instrument one of the most deadly of all the means of offence possessed by the surgeon. There can be no doubt that antiseptic precautions lessen the danger (see p. 13).
A free exit to the putrefying urine having been secured, the mucous membrane may right itself, and nothing more may be needed. Should the cystitis persist, great good may be sometimes done by acids, of which the mineral, nitric and nitro-hydrochloric, answer best. Such remedies by the mouth correct the alkalinity of the urine, and take away its most irritating property, by preventing the evolution of ammonia. In some cases vesical injections of nitric acid and quinine may be called for, while pareira and uva ursi form useful adjuncts. Good living is generally necessary.
' See the remarkable case of Sir Walter Ogilvie, recorded in the catalogue of calculi belonging to the College of Surgeons, part i. p. 116. An attack of paraplegia, consequent upon an accident, was succeeded by the formation in the bladder of a calculus of mixed phosphates, which eventually attained the weight of forty-four ounces.
Calcic Carbonate.
Concretions of carbonate of lime are often formed in the prostatic ducts, whence they escape into the bladder or with the urine in the guise of vesical calculi. Whether such stones ever originate in the cavity of the bladder is yet uncertain: we have evidence that they sometimes do so in the kidney. "Whatever their actual origin, they present, as obtained from the urinary cavities, tolerably uniform ciuiracteristics. They are usually numerous, of small size, and more or less spherical shape, often comparable to peas or hemp seeds. They are generally yellowish, translucent, and very hard, though some have been described as friable, or capable of being cut with a knife. They are finally laminated concentrically, and were found by Dr. Eoberts to display a cross with polarized light. The calculi he describes consisted of carbonate of lime, readily detected by effervescence with hydrochloric acid, deposited upon a well-marked organic matrix discernible after the solution of the eartiiy matter, and usually mixed with more or less phosphate. The influence of a colloid fluid in determining a globular instead of a crystalline shape is well illustrated by these calculi. There is reason to believe that of all calculi those of carbonate of lime are most closely dependent in their origin, and not so much upon urine as upon pus and other products of disease within the urinary cavities, and the prostatic secretion within its own channels. As a urinary formation this substance is of exceeding rarity save as a secondary deposit.^ It has indeed been doubted whether carbonate of lime ^ is ever deposited from the urine in the form in stone, but it is at least certain that it is thus thrown down either by the urine itself, or by pus or other morbid products mingled with the urine, and so not only sometimes forms a part of comiDOund calculi, but may be the chief component of simple ones. In compound stones carbonate of lime is not rarely deposited with or after phosphates; the table gives five instances in which it has thus formed a component of renal calculi. As a concretion within the kidney, independently of any preceding calculous deposit, we have evidence of its occurrence in at least two instances.^ For one we are indebted to Mr. "Wagstaffe, whose description may be inserted as relating to a case in some respects unique.
A large branching calculus was found in the right kidney, and had generally a dark-brown color, though the portions which projected into the calyces were colorless and presented, where not in contact with other calculi, a translucent crystalline surface. A quantity of brown sand and several rounded loose calculi lay in the calyces.
closely resembling uric acid in appearance.
' There is but a single specimen of carbonate of lime in the fine collection of urinary calculi at the College of Surgeons; and this, though it was removed from the bladder by lithotomy, is regarded by Mr. Taylor, with apparent justice, as of prostatic origin, having escaped probably by ulceration into the cavity from whence it was removed. The symptoms of stone in the bladder had been preceded by those of severe prostatic irritation. The stone contained 89 per cent of carbonate of lime, the rest being oxalate and phosphate of lime, phosphate of magnesia and ammonia, and animal matter. See catalogue of the calculi in the College of Surgeons, by T. Taylor. Supplement i. series ix., li,
nated iji structure.
*Eacli of these kinds proved to consist of carbonate of lime with a very minute trace of phosphate. They all evolved gas freely witli hydrochloric acid, leaving in the case of the laminated spherules an animal matrix, which retained the spherical form.
The specimen was obtained from the body of a man forty-two years of age, Avho died of disease of the heart and cirrhosis of the liver. Tliere was much anasarca. Tiie urine was slightly albuminous but otherwise natural. The only symptom recognized in connection with the calculus was an attack of hsematuria, which occurred rather more than two months before death, and lasted two or three days.
Dr. JIaldane found half a teaspoonful of sandy matter, held together by a liocculent substance, which resembled coagulated blood, in the pelvis of the left kidney of a man who had caries of the lumbar vertebrae. The particles were generally of the size of grains of sand; some were as large as hemji-seeds. Dr. Koberts, Avho reports the case,' found the matter to consist of an animal matrix, impregnated with carbonate of lime mixed with a little phosphate. A few gritty particles were imbedded in the cones of the right kidney, which wore also found to consist i)artly of carbonate of lime.
the phospliates.
When the carbonate occurs alone, as in the case which has been related, we must jiresume that the phosphates were simultaneously formed, but failed to concrete. Possibly the capacity Avhich carbonate of lime has of aggregating into spherules may exjilain its separation and retention apart from other deposits. When carbonate of lime forms a component of compound renal calculi, it almost invariably occurs subsequently to or in company with earthy or triple phosphate. In four cases out of five comprised in the table it occurred with or upon jihosphate of lime, probably ensuing from the development of ammonia in urine previously alkaline.
Cystine and the Cystine Diathesis.
Cystine (CgH^NSO^) is one of the rarer of urinary concretions. It was called cystic oxide by its discover. Dr. Wollaston, because the earlier specimens were from the bladder, though it is perhaps more often found in the cavity of the kidney. It is remarkable for the quantity of sulphur it contains, no less than 25.5 per cent, or more than a quarter of its weight. This substance generally occurs alone, though it occasionally happens that a cystine calculus becomes coated with phosphates, and instances have been known in which cystine has been deposited upon uric
Calculi of this substance appear generally, or at least frequently, to originate in the kidneys. They not unfrequently traverse the ureter and escape by the urethra in a lenticular or pisiform character. In the bladder they sometimes attain a considerable size, seldom, however, reaching the weight of two ounces. The largest known specimen is in the Museum of University College; it weighed, when entire, 850 grains. It was extracted from the bladder by Listen. The most numerous were those, nineteen in number, which were removed by Mr. Christopher Heath, by lithotomy, three from the bladder, the rest from the prostate.'
Cystine is comparatively soft, forming stones which are favorable objects for the lithotrite. Tliey have a waxy, semi-transparent aspect and crystalline structure. It has, when fresh, a decidedly yellow color, which on exposure changes to a delicate leek-green. Cystine is insoluble in water, alcohol, and ether; it is dissolved by the stronger acids, by the caustic alkalies, and by tlie bicarbonates of potash and soda. It can generally be recognized by dissolving a })ortion in ammonia and allowing the solution to evaporate, whereupon the characteristic hexagonal crystals Avill be obtained;^ when heated, cystine decomposes with a peculiar and disgusting odor.
The circumstances Avhich lead to the formation of cystine are matters of conjecture. It is secreted as such by the kidneys in consequence, as we must suppose, of the superabundance of its elements in the blood. The sulphur may theoretically be attributed to the deficient oxidation of albumin. It has been shown that healthy urine contains sulphur not only as sulphuric acid, but also in an unoxidized state, and it is conceivable that an increase of sulphur in this state, owing to excess of sulphur or lack of oxygen, may result in the formation of cystine. Dr. Bence Jones thus explains the formation of cystine, as of much else, to depend on deficient oxidation, and from the composition of the substance, as well from what little is known of the antecedents of those in whom it has been developed, there is some warrant for such a theory.
Dr. Prout mentions eight cases of which the antecedents were ascertained in which cystine as calculi or crystals was found. One of the subjects was described as bilious or dyspeptic, one as leading a sedentary life, another as a stout and corpulent woman, a fourth as having indulged freely in eating, as well as in spirits and wine. These facts, however, may be looked at from a different point of view. Many circumstances point to the liver as the source of cystine, and to cystinuriaas but a sign of hepatic derangement. Cystine, as pointed out by Dr. Roberts, is closely similar to taurin in composition. Cystine has been found in the liver of typhoid patients. In some cases cystinuria has been associated with jaundice or other evidence of hepatic disturbance.
In the year 187G I saw, with my friend Dr. Glover, of Highbury, a member of our own profession, who had habitually passed cystine crystals with the urine since the year 1856, and at intervals since this date three calculi of the same substance, with symptoms of their having come from the kidney.
obstruction of the portal vein, which his eventual recovery indicated as thrombotic. He had established no claim to hepatic disease by his habits, which had always been active and abstemious, but liis dark hair and sallow comiilexion pointed to what is called a bilious temperament; and disturbance, connected apparently with hepatic inaction, was frequent with him. A second attack, apparently of portal thrombosis, more severe than the first, and attended Avith hsematemesis profuse enough to endanger life, occurred during the year 1880. During convalescence from this at Lowestoft, the cystine was observed to be unusually abundant. It was noted that bile was almost absent from the stools, the previous inactivity of the liver having been aggravated apparently by the influence of the locality. No hereditary proclivity has been traced in this case; there are several sons and daughters, in none of whom has cystinuria been discovered.
The patient from whom the cystine calculi were removed by Mr. Christopher Heath was found after death to have a liver which is described as "amyloid and somewhat enlarged.''
It must be allowed, however, that the clinical associations of cystinuria are too various to warrant any conclusive deduction on this head. Cystine has been passed with the urine without any other noticeable disturbance of health, by children frequently, and in later life for years together. It has been passed by scrofulous, tuberculous, and chlorotic persons, as well as by many who jiresent none of these conditions; persons haJjitually exposed to wet and cold, like a sexton, operated on by Mr. Southam,' of Manchester, have been the subjects of cystine concretions, and in one instance calculi of this kind were found in the kidneys of a lunatic* who was intemperate, while in many cases no pathological association has been noticed or recorded.
The most striking clinical peculiarity of cystine is its tendency to run in families. Many cases have been recorded in which brothers, or brothers and sisters, have passed or concreted it, others in which a cystine calculus has descended as an heirloom from father to son. Dr. Marcet mentions two brothers who died, one at the age of thirty, the other between thirty and forty, Avith symptoms of renal calculus, cystine stones being found in the kidneys of both. A calculus was extracted from the urethra of a third brother, but its nature was not ascertained. Both Lenoir and Civiale extracted cystine calculi from the bladders of two brothers.' A boy was cut for stone by Mr. Teale, of Leeds, and a cystine calculus removed. Two of his brothers passed crystals of cystine with iJie urine.^
According to Poland, out of twenty-two collected cases of cystine calouli, ten occurred in four families, while in three cases the subjects of the complaint Avere brothers. Golding Bird alludes to an instance in which cystine was found in the urine in three successive generations.
As to the treatment of the cystine diathesis we have, from the rarity of the condition, little experience. Dr. Prout advises the avoidance of indigestible food and the use of nitro-muriatic acid; Dr. Bence Jones urges measures of oxidation. In deference alike to every view we may
' Brit. Med. Journ. Dec. 23d, 1876. ' Dr. Risdon Bennett, Path. Trans, vol. iii. p. 383. ^ Roberts's Urinary and Renal Diseases, p. 219.
Indigo.
On the observation of Dr. Ord' indigo must be added to the list of substances Avhich may concrete in the kidney. The left kidney of a woman of middle age had been destroyed by a small, round-celled sarcoma, and reduced by obstruction of the ureter to a closed cyst, which contained a branched earthy calculus of which nothing further is related. The right kidney was hypertrophied and somewhat hypergeniic, but healthy in structure. In its pelvis was found a calculus of the size and shape of a fruit lozenge and the weight of forty grains. This was partly of a dark-brown and partly of a blue-black color, granular and without polish. It made a blue-black mark on paper, and gave chemical reactions characteristic of indigo, of which its bulk consisted. Associated with this was a small quantity of phosphate of lime; and the brown part of the stone displayed crystals of hasmin.
The existence of indigo in the urine has often attracted notice; its concretion never before. Little is positively known with regard to the source of indigo in the urine, except that a substance indistinguishable from it appears in this secretion after the ingestion of creasote or carbolic acid, the former of Avhich, as Dr. Ord informs us, had been taken by the patient from whom the calculus was obtained. Apart from this mode of introduction, circumstances of two kinds are to be recognized as often preceding the discharge of this pigment, or a substance easily convertible into it, with the urine — the confinement of pus within the body, and disease of the intestines. I displayed at the Pathological Society'^ some urine which contained an amount of indigo I believe unexampled, which had been passed by a young woman in whose abdomen was found a circumscribed abscess, ■which held at least two quarts, in connection with an ulcer of the stomach. Dr. Ord points out that some such retention with consequent absorption may have occurred as the cause of the indigo calculus, since the kidney, in which it was not, had been destroyed while its exit was closed. That jdus is occasionally associated with pigment has been testified by the green and blue colors known to have been i^resented by this secretion. With regard to intestinal disturbance as preceding the escape of indigo and allied substances with tlie urine, we have the examples of Asiatic cholera and obstruction of the bowel of various kinds, the result being due, as is suggested,^ to the non-escape and consequent absorption and excretion of indol, a product of pancreatic digestion which has a near chemical relation to indigo.
Fibrinous and Blood Calculi.
Concretions to which these names have been applied may receive a passing notice, more especially as they are sometimes very hard, and passed with as much pain and difficulty as if of stony substance. The fibrinous calculus of Marcet has been described as of much the color and
consistence of bees' wax, and as presenting the reactions of fibrin. Other concretions have been more distinctly sanguineous, and have given evidence in color and structure of the presence of blood-corpuscles. Such an instance, which was observed at the Consumption Hospital by Dr. Scott Alison, is recorded and figured by Dr. Bcale.' The kidney was reduced to a thin sac, which weighed but one and a half ounce. The infundibulum and pelvis were stuffed Avith hard bodies, most of which were of a coal-black color, but some whitish-gray. The black calculi, which were chiefly within the pelvis, were about six in number, and ranged from the size of a coriander seed to that of a horse-bean. They were hard but friable; they were soluble in ammonia, and displayed forms which Avere thought to be the remains of blood-corpuscles. The gray calculi which were in the infundibulum were apparently phosjihatic. It is probable that the changes originated in these or other calculi of one of the ordinary types by which the ureter was obstructed, the kidney transformed, and hemorrhage produced, the blood being retained within the closed cavity to undergo further changes.
It has been supposed that the so-called fibrinous calculi were the product of an albuminous exudation from the kidney, but tliis is hypothetical; it is more consistent with experience to regard these as blood-clots modified by time and maceration. Vermiform coagula from the ureter are well-known, as also are the lumps of cancer' which are sometimes expelled from the bladder in disease belonging to this organ; these cannot be called calculi, though they may possibly become encrusted so as to. give rise to them.
Urostealith.
A fatty or saponaceous substance, to which this name has beeir given, has been met with as forming the chief bulk, or the central portion only, of concretions which have been found in the bladder or passed from it. It does not appear ever to have been seen in the kidney, and therefore does not fairly come within the scope of this work. The bestknown and earliest described specimens are the two in the College of Surgeons,^ in each of which a lump of fatty or soapy material, consisting of oleate and margarate of lime, has become involved with concentric layers of phosphates, so as to present the exterior of a common vesical calculus. The fatty centre in one case presents a section as large as a sixpence, the other is not much smaller. There is no reason to doubt the explanation provided by Mr. Taylor, that these concretions have been produced by the injection of soap into the bladder for the cure of stone or some affection mistaken for it. The soap in this view has been decomposed by the urine, the alkali forming soluble salts with the urinary acids, and the fat concreting with the urinary lime. Nearly resembling these " soap-stones," and possibly of a similar origin, though, as in the Hunterian case, we have no history to bear out the supposition, were some concretions which were passed by the urethra, described by Heller in the year 1845, and dignified with the name Urostealith. A peculiarity of these fatty bodies w:is a resinous or aromatic odor emitted on combustion. Later, some apparently similar calculi were described by Dr.
Moore.' Two passed from the bladder were of a brown color, and consisted of fatty matter in combination witb. lime. Of two removed from the body of the same patient, presumably from tbe bladder, one was a common phosphatic stone, the other, which was as large as a hen's egg, consisted of phosphate of lime and fusible calculus externally, while within was a cavity containing, but not filled by, a quantity of the same dark brown fatty substance which was found in the concretions which had before been passed.
We know that fat is passed abundantly with the urine when chyle becomes mixed with it, but there must be considerable doubt as to whether oil or fat in a separate form and tangible quantity is ever a product of renal secretion. A few instances have been reported in which oil or fat has been found in the urine, and believed to have been secreted with it; it hiis even been sui)})osed that a dose of castor oil has been chiefly eliminated by the kidneys; further observations are needed before the intervention of error, accident, or fraud can be looked upon as altogether outside the question.
Differential Diagnosis of Eenal Calculi.
It may be convenient to condense into a few sentences the chief considerations by which we can ascertain, or with probability conjecture, the nature of a calculus lodged in the kidney.
Should calculi have been previously voided and preserved they will give the most trustworthy information. It may, as a general rule, be inferred that stones left behind or subsequently formed are of the same nature as those which have escaped, or differ from them only in the acquirement of a phosphatic crust.
Information will be given by the habitual reaction of the urine. Uric acid and oxalate of lime are deposited by acid urine, j)hosphate of lime by urine alkaline from fixed alkali, mixed or triple phosphate by ammoniacal urine .
If the urine be constantly acid and free from pus or mucus it may be presumed that a renal calculus consists either of uric acid or oxalate of lime, or of both together. It must be borne in mind that the vast majority of renal calculi consist either solely or centrally of one of these substances.
Crystals of uric acid or oxalate of lime, if numerous, and particularly if they be present in the urine when passed, will furnish a presumption that if there be precipitation in the kidney it will be of the same kind. Uric acid will be pointed to
early childhood, or have dated from an attack of scarlatinal nephritis.
Should the urine exhibit oxalate of lime, the infei'cnce that the calculus is of this nature will be strengthened should the patient be j)allid, dyspeptic, and of a nervous temperament.
A persistently alkaline state of urine will lead to the inference that the stone, whatever be its centre, is encrusted with phosphates, which, should the urine be ammoniacal, will be of the mixed variety. The mixed phosphates being extremely common, and the pure phosphate of
lime extremely rare, it may generally be reckoned that should circumstances indicate a phospliatic calculus in the kidney it is of the former kind; should much pus or mucus be passed phosphatic dejjosition may sometimes be inferred, even though the urine remain acid. It may hap})en that a stone in the pelvis of one kidney may cause the urine to be alkaline in that cavity and phosphates to be there deposited, while the acidity of the secretion is restored in the bladder by admixture with the healthy product of the unaffected gland.
Cystine, from its rarity, need not be suspected unless the characteristic hexagons are found in the urine. Should these concur with the symptoms of renal calculus there will be a considerable probability that the stone will be of unmixed cystine.
Urates s(!ldom occur alone. Xanthine and carbonate of lime, may, from their rarity, be omitted from diagnostic consideration. Unites and xanthine occur under similar circumstances to uric acid; carbonate of lime under circumstances similar to those which point to the mixed phosphates.
Pathological Consequences.
When" calculi lie in the kidney, they usually rest in the expanded •commencement of the ureter, or cling to the calyces; very rarely they are embedded or encysted in the renal substance.' When lying in the pelvis they are apt to obstruct the outlet, and cause more or less hindrance to the exit of urine. If the stone is of suitable size and softness, as happens especially with uric acid, it may be worn by the friction of the mucous membrane to fit the origin of the ureter with water-tight accuracy. In other circumstances, notably with hard mulberry calculi, the concretion is not exactly adapted to the outlet, and instead of forming a prohibition to the escape of urine, scarcely interposes a difficalty. Considering the incomplete closure first, this results in a gradual dilatation of the mucous cavity of the kidney with commensurate atrophy of the secreting structure. This sometimes is, and sometimes is not, accompanied by pyelitis. Tlie pelvic mucous membrane takes on inflammatory action less readily than the vesical, whence urine retained in the pelvic cavity, less largely intermixed with mucous secretion, has not the same proneness to putrefactive change as when in the bladder. Hence it may come to pass that simple dilatation, with corresponding attenuation and atrophy of the kidney, may be the only pathological results of a renal stone.
The kidney is sometimes reduced to a mere husk, in which a stone is encased. This process is usually connected with pyelitis, as explained in connection with the origin of phosphatic calculi. The kidney may be dilated as the result of stone to an extent which varies from a trifling increase in the size of the pelvis to such an expansion that the organ may occupy the greater part of the abdominal cavity. The extreme extension does not take place unless the obstruction is so nearly impassable as only to open at times and under ])ressare. The organ under these circumstances becomes transformed into a multilocular cyst, which retains little of the kidney save its fibrous tissue and something of its shape. The pelvis gradually stretches, and consentaneously atrophy of the secreting
' In the museum of Guy's Hospital, there is a kidney the cortical part of which contains a cyst the size of a hazelnut, in which are some small calculi. The cyst has a narrow communication with the pelvis, and has probably been formed by an obstruction in the straight tubes and accumulation behind.
PATHOLOGICAL RELATIONS OF RENAL CALCULI.
structure takes place. Where the pyramids terminate in the mammary processes, the tubular structure is in immediate contacc with the accumulating fluid. To its steady pressure their soft structure gradually
Kidney, which is reduced to a mere shell, occupied br enormous calculous masses of the mixed phosphates. The patient was not known ever to have had renal symptoms (From a preparation in St. George's Hospital.) Case related by Mr. Holmes, Path. Trans, vol. x.
upon more and more until, partly from atrophy and partly from displacement, the position of each cone is occupied by a deep inlet from the pelvis. This inlet widens and deepens at the expense, first of the medullary, then of the cortical structure, until at last it reaches the capsule, which comes to form its outer boundary, while on each side it meets with cavities similarly formed, and approaches them more and more closely until only condensed fibrous tissue keeps them apart. The kidney thus comes to consist of a central cavity corresponding to thejielvis, into which open a number of chambers divided by fibrous septa. In this it may not be jiossible, even with the microscope, to find any tubes left, but such a complete and total destruction of the secreting structure is rare (see woodcuts at pages 99 and 100), for in cases where no kidney-tissue has been evident to sight, it has been found that the contained fluid has still possessed urinous qualities. It commonly happens that thin isolated patches of brown tissue, which are remnants of glandular structure, can be seen in the walls.
By the time that extreme dilatation is reached it commonly happens that more or less suppurative inflammation has occurred in the lining membrane, and the urinous contents have become mixed with pus or muco-purulent matter. Colloid matter also has been known to form in the cavity. I have already referred to a cyst,^ nearly a yard in circumference, which consisted of a kidney, dilated and partitioned as the result of calculous obstruction, which had become thus occupied. The dilatation of the kidney from calculus takes place gradually and painlessly, and when unaccompanied by any discharge of pus or by disease in the other kidney almost harmlessly. As one kidney is destroyed the other undertakes a compensating hypertrophy, and maintains the function. In slight cases the condition of the organ often escapes notice until after death. When the dilatation is great an obvious fluctuating tumor is found, the characters of which, especially if they be corroborated by a history of calculus, may suffice in a male subject to point to the nature of the case. In the female it may require some care to distinguish a renal from an ovarian cyst. Further details relating to the diagnosis of renal cysts are to be found elsewhere (p. 42).
Clinical Eelations akd General Symptoms of Kenal Calculi.
Eenal calculi originate sometimes in the tubes, more often in the pelvis of the kidney. Uric acid, the urates, oxalate and phosphate of lime, have been recognized in the tubes by the microscope. They never attain a considerable size in this situation, but reach the pelvis as sand or grit, thence to escape or there to grow. In the pelvis calculi vary widely iu number, shape, physical characters, and size. The pelvis may contain a single stone, two, or more, up to a multitude which may be reckoned by hundreds. In size tlie concretions range from the miiuitest aggregation of crystals or smallest laminated spherule, up to a mass of stone weighing nearly a pound. In shape they have generally, if small, more or less of a spherical or ovoid shape, or retain a crystalline outline; if large, they are generally moulded upon the pelvis, sometimes adapting themselves with deadly accuracy to the outlet of the infundibulum. The particular characters of each variety of calculus have been
siderations as are of imjiortance clinically.
One kidney or both may be affected. The dei^osition of uric acid, oxalate of lime, and cystine, arising as it does from a state of blood, is apt, with perilous consent, to occur in both kidneys simultaneously or in succession. Phosphates, springing from local causes, are less often disposed with bilateral symmetry. Both kidneys are affected far less often than one only; where one only is affected the right has a slight j^re-eminence.
Of fifty-nine cases in which renal calculi were found after death at St. George's Hospital, both kidneys were thus occupied in eleven cases, one only in forty-eight. The stone was on the right side in twenty-five cases, on the left in twenty-three.
Males, according to the same showing, are more subject than females to renal calculi. Of sixty cases thirty-six belonged to the male, twentyfour to the female sex. This preponderance may be attributed to the greater addiction of males to excess and their greater liability to gout and the formation of uric acid.
With regard to the age at which renal calculus presents itself, I may refer first to that at which it proves fatal; and for this purpose appeal to the sixty cases already mentioned which, as representing nearly forty years' experience of a general hospital, may be taken as demonstrative in. many respects of the distribution and issues of the formation in question. In forty of the sixty cases in which renal stone was found, death was due to causes independent of it; in twenty it was produced more or less di-
rectly by the stone. Of three people who have stone one will die of it; thus far is the disease fatal and no farther. There appear to be two periods at which death is prone to occur: between twenty and thirty, and between forty and fifty. The earlier date probably belongs to the stones which are originated, as so many are, in infancy or early childhood; the latter to those which are developed by the habits and accidents of adult life.
after middle age. It is probable that the uric acid concretions of the first few days of extra-uterine life often form their nuclei, while it has. been shown that scarlatina not seldom leads to a deposition of the same kind. Thus calculi with a centre of uric acid may be often traced to infancy or childhood. With regard to oxalate of lime it would seem to be more often deposited after than before puberty. It is extremely difficult, from the frequent latency of the disease, to obtain satisfactory clinical evidence as to the time at which in any particular case it originated; but it very frequently happens that it can be traced back from middle or advanced age to childhood or early life.
Stone in the kidney varies more than most disorders in its history, its symptoms, and its issues. It generally makes itself known by pain and bleeding, but these symi)toms are not always present. It is sometimes latent and apparently harmless. Occasionally stones of enormous size are discovered in the kidney after death (see woodcut, page 143), though no renal disturbance had been known to exist at any period of life. In other cases a renal stone produces an amount and persistence of suffering which entitles it to be regarded as one of the most unwelcome, as it is one of the most tenacious, companions that a man can travel withal. Stones in the bladder may burst, or disintegrate, and come away piecemeal, but it does not appear that renal stones are capable of this process of natural lithotrity.*
The stone may lie in the infundibulum, which, as has been stated, it may be moulded to fit, or one, or several may be seen holding tenaciously to the calyces. A calculus of considerable size may have its lower part in the infundibulum, while the upper end is jagged or branched, so as to be adapted to these points of discharge.
The symptoms which it causes depend first upon the contact of the stone with the sensitive and irritable mucous membrane, producing pain, inflammation, and bleeding ; secondly, upon the mechanical hindrance to the escape of urine, whereby the kidney becomes variously damaged by extension and pressure, and whence, should both kidneys be involved, fatal suppression of urine may result. Putting aside for the present the consequences of obstruction, we may consider the more ordinary symptoms of renal calculus, which are those associated with irritation and hemorrhage.
Prout describes the most frequent symptoms produced by foreign bodies in the kidney as being lumbar pain, gastric disturbance, retraction of the testes, and bloody urine.
The kidney is not only a highly vascular organ, prone to dischargeblood on small provocation, but it is endowed with extensive nervous connections, the influence of which we see in many phases of disturbed action under the irritation of a stone.
So long as a stone is perfectly quiet it may cause no pain, nor any symptoms by which its presence can be recognized. Hence it often happens that a very large calculus tightly embraced by an atrophied
The kidney is brought by the pneumogastric nerve into sympathy with the stomach, by the spermatic plexus into relation with the course of the ureter and substance of the testicle, with the cremaster muscle and skin of the inside of the thigh by means of the genito-crural nerve, while the anterior crural nerve establishes a less direct communication between the kidney and other parts of the lower extremity.
organ are awakened.
There is a distinction between the symptoms produced by a stone as it lies in the kidney, and as it traverses the ureter. Dealing first with the symptoms of an imprisoned or unavoidable stone they are widely various. To quote the words of Prout, '' the pain produced by the presence of renal concretions differs almost infinitely both in kind and degree."
The pain is generally of a dull kind, a sense rather of weight than pain, felt at times in the loin of the affected side, and possibly more or less in the other, though one kidney only is diseased. The pain sometimes passes along the course of the ureter into the testicle, which niay be retracted, swollen, and painful, and into the thigh, affecting especially its inner surface, which often becomes numb. Sometimes the pain reaches or appears only in the lower parts of the limb; a case is recorded in which obstinate pain in the knee was found after death to have been associated with a renal calculus. I had a patient in whom the chief pain caused by a concretion of this nature was in the sole of the foot, and another in whom much of it was in this position : in the latter instance the sensation was '*as if the sole were raw and being rubbed with scouring-])aper."
side of the umbilicus.
The pain is generally inconstant; often absent or trifling during bodily quiescence, aggravated by movements, especially such as are jerking or tremulous. Of all modes of locomotion walking is the best borne. It is sometimes found that when the pain is of the paroxysmal neuralgic type, pedestrian exercise, with its concomitants of fresh air and change of scene, lessens the frequency and severity of the attacks.
ing or vibratory movements of a carriage.
With regard to the sensations produced by a stone in the kidney, Howship observes that even a small calculus will in some cases excite a a distinct impression as to its existence in the patient's mind. In one instance he found a small stone not larger than a pea in the kidney, with scarcely any evidence of consequent irritation, where t e patient had for two years been conscious of a stone in that situation. He alludes to another patient who was made aware of the i^resence of stones in her kidney by their grating together on movement of the body.'
Recently my colleague, Mr. Pick, ascertained the existence of stones in the kidney by making them grate upon each other i)erceptibly to himself by pressure of the hands before and behind.
Prout observes,^ with general truth, that of renal concretions lithic acid produces the least pain, what there is being dull, oppressive, and connected with a sense of weight: oxalate of lime causes jain of a more acute kind, and that often referred to a particular spot over the region of the kidney, and sometimes discursive, shooting in the direction of the ureter, epigastrium, or shoulder. Phosphates he has found to be attended
vated.
These distinctions correspond with much of our experience. Severe neuralgic anguish is undoubtedly most apt to occur with long-standing calculi, which are, at any rate, superficially phosphatic, though it must be allowed that sometimes, as in the instance before referred to, such stones become absolutely innocuous.
The pain of a renal stone often aflfects habitual posture. The sufferer may seek relief by lying on his belly, on his back, or on the unaffected side. A gentleman told me that in his attacks of pain, which came on with daily regularity, he *' lay on the floor and wriggled like a worm." Sometimes positions are habitually taken which have an appearance of constraint, but which, as has been taught by sad experience, are those in which the injured organ has to bear least pressure. A gentleman thus affected observed that in sitting he always instinctively lounged to one side, while in walking he had a peculiarity of gait by which he could be recognised at a distance, due to a lateral bend of the body, the shoulder of the affected side being the higher. Another patient habitually sat with the knee of the affected side held up by his clasped hands, thus relaxing the muscles of the abdomen. Sometimes pressure gives relief, as in the case of a gentleman who found most ease while kneeling upon a chair with his abdomen bent over the back.
In some, fortunately rare cases, the pain caused by a renal calculus is of almost unendurable severity. It is not always easy to explain the differences which are observed in this respect. A distinguished member of ■our own profession, who has been aware for some thirty years of the presence of stone in one kidney, and has carried on a laborious practice under circumstances of bodily suffering by which many men would have been rendered incapable of any sustained pursuit, describes the pain, which originates in one lumbar region and passes horizontally outwards and forwards, as being of an extreme acuteness, like pain ordinarily described as neuralgic. Attacks of intense agony frequently recurred, the more often when, from other circumstances, the general health was be-low par, necessitated an immediate interruption of business or pleasure, and a recourse to chloroform at the earliest available moment. Such attacks often occurred at night, inasmuch that for many months together this gentleman never dared to go to bed without a bottle of chloroform under his pillow, the inhalation of which he found to be the only mitigation of his sufferings. The duration and intensity of the suffering which may arise from a renal calculus are exemplified in the life of Robert Hall, the eloquent Nonconformist, of whom it is said that from his infancy to his death, in his sixty-seventh year, he was seldom free from severe pain. When he was six years old he often had to lie down on his road to school to relieve a pain in his back, and through his subsequent life this pain, which increased with his years, was seldom absent, and often agonizing. It was aggravated by sitting or standing; he could seldom sit for more than an hour together, and passed a large proportion of his life in a horizontal position. He wrote one of his most celebrated sermons lying upon the floor. He was accustomed to stretch himself upon three chairs, the l)osture in which he found most relief. For more than twenty years he never passed a whole night in bed, but was compelled after a short sleep to get up and seek ease in his favorite attitude. Intolerant as he was of sitting, he often found relief from walking, and it was even thought for a time that horse exercise was beneficial. The intensity of the pain
compelled him to have large recourse to opium; in a single night he was known to take nearl}^ four ounces of laudanum. He found alleviation also from smoking, an art which he had acquired in order to qualify himself for the society of Dr. Parr. The sufferings of his last illness, which was mainly dependent upon disease of the aorta, were cruelly aggravated by his inability to breathe in the horizontal posture, which was imperiously demanded by the lumbar pain. After death, the cause of his sufferings, which during life had remained undiscovered, was found to be a large, rough pointed calculus, which entirely filled the right kidney. It is worthy of remark, as illustrative of the frequent coincidence of renal calculus with mental disease, that this gifted man was twice insane.
Gastric disturbances, nausea, vomiting, and various forms of indigestion, are, next to pain — with which tiie disturbance of stomach is, as Prout observes, generally commensurate — the most frequent symptoms of renal calculus. Tiie sympathy between the stomach and kidney, under these circumstances, probably depends upon their community of supply by the pneumogastric nerve, the irritation of the renal being reflected to the gastric branches. The action of the stomach is variously interfered with.
Vomiting frequently occurs, often with the evacuation of nearly pure bile; this being in some cases so far the most prominent symptom that its renal origin may escape notice. Nausea, acidity, flatulence, and gastrodynia occur in every permutation, being, as sometimes necessarily happens, enhanced by the gouty disposition of the patient. Attacks of stomach disturbance are often coincident with pain, hematuria, and the other signs of increased renal irritation.
Eetraction, pain, and variously perverted sensations in the testicle of the side affected are sometimes early and prominent signs of renal calculus. When the pain is long continued the affected testicle is apt to swell and become tender. Sometimes, instead of drawing up, the scrotum becomes relaxed or affected with a sense of coldness or numbness. These sensations are often associated with numbness or pain on the inner surface of the thigh. Neuralgia of the testicle has been known as the chief svmptom of renal calculus, as in a case of renal lithotomy reported by Mr. Butlin.'
Irritation of the bladder, and that to a distressing degree, may be a direct or indiiuct consequence of stone in the kidney. A young woman died under my care in St. George's Hospital witli symptoms of pyelitis, which might have been the result of either stone or tubercle; but her distress was almost wholly vesical; the urine, which was persistently purulent, was passed with much frequency, pain, and diflBculty, and the catheter often needed. Both kidneys were occupied by large, rough stones; the bladder and urethra were perfectly natural; the vesical trouble wholly of renal origin, no doubt in part due to the irritation of the purulent and alkaline urine.
call for styptic remedies.
As an exception to this statement I may mention the case of a lady who was reduced by habitual though not profuse haemorrhage, the result of a renal stone, to a condition of exceeding anaemia, as evinced both
The haemorrhage of calculus is rather constant or oft-repeated than copious, though in all these respects it is subject to great variation. In some cases it is seldom absent, in others never present; in some it constitutes almost the only evidence of a renal concretion.
The great peculiarity of liasmaturia from this cause is its dependence upon movement; it recurs with exercise or locomotion and ceases with rest. Thus the urine is found to be bloody during the day or on going to bed,^ rather than during the niglit or on rising in the morning. This is the converse of what occurs as tiie result of cancer or villous disease; the supine posture of sleep appears to favor the accumulation of blood in renal growths, whence they are more apt to bleed in the niglit than the day.
The blood from renal calculus, though sometimes enough to tint the urine in a manner alarming to the patient, is in other cases in so small quantity that it cannot be detected except with the microscope. The blood is yielded by the mucous membrane of the pelvis and not by the kidney-tubes; it is consequently not moulded into casts, but occurs as an incoherent sediment mixed, should the haemorrhage be large, with minute indefinite clots. Tiie blood is generally less intimately mixed with the urine than occurs when hasmaturia is the result of disease of the substance of the kidney; it less often forms the persistently smoky or porter-colored mixture so often found with albuminuria; but the globules readily subside and form a colored stratum, in which sometimes shreddy clots may be detected, superincumbent urine having its natural appearance. The deposit is coffee-colored when the urine is acid; red or pinkish when it is alkaline.
Different stones are accompanied with different tendencies to haemorrhage. Oxalate of lime, from its crystalline, spiky, or tuberculated exterior, produces most, phosphatic calculi the least. Concretions composed of or coated with phosphates, associated as they necessarily are with local inflammation, are usually surrounded with thickened and altered mucous membrane, which is more apt to yield pus than blood.
It is to be noted as a possible source of erroneous diagnosis that the local irritation of stone will sometimes cause a cast or two, which I have sometimes noticed to contain epithelium, to show themselves in the urine, even though it be practically certain that there is no disease general to the renal structure.
It may be worth while briefly to sum up the distinctions by which the haematuria of stone can be distinguished from other conditions of renal bleeding. (See chapter on Ilgematuria.) I presume that in the case under consideration it has been ascertained, by the absence of symptoms referable to the bladder, that the blood proceeds from the kidney. The common causes other than calculus of the discharge of blood from this organ are albuminuria, j)urpura or scurvy, intermittent haematuria, tuberculous, malignant, or villous growths. In deciding between either of
' Renal haemorrhage, presumbly from stone, may come on without external provocation, and possibly be preceded by some sensation which will enable the experienced patient to foretell its advent. A distinguished army surgeon, who has presumptive evidence of a renal calculus, finds that an attack of haematuria is usually preceded by sleeplessness; a night or possibly two during which he is sleepless, but not restless or otherwise disturbed, is followed by pain at a spot in one renal region, and that by haemorrhage.
these and stone we shall have regard to the existence of tlie symptoms or history of renal calculus, or of the jiassage of gravel. Beyond this every other form of haematuria has characters which distinguish it from the liaematuria of stone.
With albuminuria, beyond the evidence afforded by casts, the urine contains more albumin than the superadded blood suffices to account for and remains albuminous when it has ceased to be bloody.
with calculus, they remain distinct.
AVitli regard to malignant or villous disease the distinction is often a matter of some, though seldom of insuperable, difficulty. Growths cause moi'e profuse haemorrhage than does a stone, often producing, as a stone seldom does, conspicuous signs of anaemia. Bleeding from a growth is apt to occur during sleep, at which time the bleeding of calculus, depending as it does on movement, isdiminished or quiescent. The urinary sediment, examined with the microscope, especially during the intervals of haemorrhage, will sometimes display the vascular loops characteristic of villous disease. Should the growth be cancerous, and of the bladder, large, round, or flat nucleated cells may be abundantly seen in the urine; or even considerable fragments of cancerous growth may be expelled. If of the kidney the growth is usually sarcomatous, and the escape of cells or any distinctive elements with the urine is of exceeding rarity. The presence of the ''malignant cachexia" is a guide, though a somewhat untrustworthy one. The presence of a tumor in the renal region, together with haemorrhage, may be genei-ally taken as indicating a growth; for though a tumor may be produced by calculous obstruction, it does not often happen tiiat blood proceeds from a kidney thus obstructed.
The distinction between the hemorrhage of scrofulous or tuberculous disease and that of stone may be of more difficulty. With both the blood may be mixed with pus; and with stone it is possible that there may be a febrile temperature, such as is more common with tubercle. The elfoct of movement is a guide; while with tubercle hoBmorrhage is more often absent, and when present is less often repeated than with stone.
The symptoms which have been described, those which a stone ])roduces by moving in the pelvis oi- irritating the membrane by ill-adjusted pressure, may, should the stone enter the ureter, become exaggerated and accompanied by agonizing pain and much constitutional disturbance. To the symptoms of a pelvic calculus, the results of spasmodic contraction of the ureter are superadded. Spasm of involuntary muscle, always ])ainful, is never more so than when the ureter is the subject and a calculus the cause. The painful passage of stone or sand along this duct constitutes what is described as a fit of the gravel. The patient is attacked, l)erhaj)S suddenly, after some exertion, jerk, or unusual movement, or withuot any external ])rovocation, with acute pain in the loins, or in the course of the ureter, which shoots towards the testicle, groin, and bladder, and amounts in some cases to as severe agony as the human body has the power of making for itself. It may be, as Prout says, of such an overwhelming nature as, together with the sickness which accompanies it, to paralyze the stoutest iiulividual. The pain is not at first associated with tenderness to any marked extent, though it may become so after a
time. The attitude and manner of the sufferer who moves in restless anguish are cliaracteristic of colic rather than inflammation. There is much constitutional or nervous disturbance. Sliivering early comes on, or, short of actual shaking, horripilation, and a feeling of cold, to be succeeded after a time by more or less febrile reaction. With the cold the patient becomes faint, or even actually faints, and may display other sigus of nervous disturbance, in the form of epileptic seizures or jiassing delirium. A medical friend, one whoso nerves are not easily shaken, described his sensations on passing a mulberry calculus as an altogether novel experience. While in a hi})-bath he was seized with an intolerable exacerbation of the pain, with a rushing in the head and wild confusion of mind, in which he sprang from the bath and ran unclothed out of the room. A few minutes afterwards he passed water and with it the stone, and was himself again. The unbearable pang marked the passage through the narrow termination of the ureter. The stomach early sympathizes in the disturbance, nausea and sometimes urgent and repeated vomiting being among the first symptoms. When the stone is passing, especially from the left kidney, there is often so much discomfort and distention of the bowel that the attack is looked npon as intestinal colic, until the expulsion of the calculus provides the interpretation. The pain, as tlie attack continues, moves downAvards, and sometimes terminates suddenly during a fit of retching, with a piercing exacerbation. The ureter is narrowest at its lower end, where it passes through the coats of the bladder. At this spot the stone is particularly apt to stick. Having passed this strait the stone falls into the bladder, and the attack is at an end. The time occupied by the process varies much, the symptoms are sometimes over in an hour or two; they sometimes occupy days, and have even been known to last, with little intermission, as long as three weeks.
The pain is not always such as has been described. After the first attack the symptoms are much milder; the ureter becomes dilated and tolerant. Even, for tlie first time, small, smooth stones are sometimes passed without any of the characteristic symptoms. Of all calculi those of oxalate of Hme cause the most distress in their descent; uric acid, as a rule, the least.
The following narrative was written at my suggestion by a respected member of the medical profession, who has frequently passed small crystalline calculi of oxalate of lime. It illustrates in a graphic manner many of the symptoms which attend the com])laint in a not very severe form. It is to be premised that this gentleman had been in the habit of drinking hard water, and that freely : —
' One day in February, 1863, then having taken a sixteen or seventeen mile country walk, soon after going to bed I was seized with a severe pain in the right lumbar region, extending down the groin and through the pelvis. This was accompanied by retraction of the testicle on that side to such a degree that it was almost worse than the pain. On getting out of bed I could hardly stand upright; however, I managed to procure some twenty drops of laudanum, and soon after fell to sleep. In the morning there was asHght appearance of blood in the urine, which was very acid. I was prescribed some alkaline sahne with tincture of henbane, and in the course of a few days, after some more pain at night, relieved by liot hip bath and laudanum, I passed a small calcukis. After this I was in my sual healtli and vigor for I suppose a year or more, when I had much the same
train of symptoms, but I think if anything less pain. The next attack was again in about a year, when I was resident at the hospital and taking less walking exercise than formerly. Up to this time I had done very little by way of treatment, but as I had several attacks one after the other, I consulted Dr. Dickinson, and at his instigation put myself under regimen. I left off beer, fruit, pastry, reduced my consumption of vegetables, drank distilled water, and took nitro-hydrochloric acid. This treatment I continued for some months during the early part of 1865, and I certainly for a time was much better, and under the microscope the oxalate of lime crystals were scarcely to be found, wliereas formerly tliey had been numerous. Towards the end of the year I suffered a good deal again, and having lived now nearl}' two years in the hospital, felt generally a little out of health, though I was not for a single da}' disabled from following my duties. At the end of 1865 I left town, and went to Bath for a week. During this time, after soakmg for some time in the hot bath there, I passed a rather longer calculus than I had before discharged. After tl)is I went to live at home, and for a long time was quite free from any symptoms, and so by degrees became careless of any lestriction in diet. I generally found, however, that champagne or anything of that nature would cause vague lumbar pains, and I think I had one or two sliglit attacks of calculus, but 1 forget; I took no medicine, and did not examine the urine by microscope.
" In March, 1868, I had an attack of scarlatina, but no renal mischief, and in numerous examinations never detected any albumin in the water. In August of that year, after a rough steamboat journey to Scarborough, I had some sharp lumbar pain, next day detected blood in the urine, and a day or two after passed a small calculus, having carried it about in my bladder some twenty -four hours or more. About Christmas that year 1 began to suffer from sciatica on tlie right side, and for months was not free from it. Once or twice, from sheer inability to move, I stayed indoors all day, but generally I jnanaged to limp about as usual. I hail at first no renal pain, though ic came on subsequently. When the sciatica was not very severe. I contented myself with some restrictions in diet, merely «uch as leaving off beer; but when a severe attack came on I found relief from "Vin. Colch. S ss; Pot. Bic, Sodse Bic, Pot. Nit. aa gr. xv.; Sp. Amnion. Ar. 3 ss; Aq. ad 3 iss; once or twice a day, and the application or camphor liniment, and laudanum over the nerve at night. Tliis generally produced relief in a day or two. After going on in this way for some months I passed the largest calculus I had yet discharged, without much pain or any sedative. For some time before it passed, any unusual exercise, as running, dancing, etc., was sure to be followed by )»ain in the kidney, and sciatica, and by urine the color of claret. Before finally leaving me, the calculus remained some daj's in the bladder, jiroducing great irritation, and constant burning pain at its neck.
" After getting rid of this calculus I was much better for some time, but during the next twelve months I passed two or three small calculi at intervals, preceded generally by sciatica of two or three days' duration. I found that the colchicum and alkali, etc., always produced relief. In July, 1870, 1 had been feeling rather " renal" for some time, and one day sciatica came on so sharply that having to walk some two miles gave me exquisite torture, besides producing a feeling of great misery and depression. A hot bath, colchicum, etc., relieved me, and in a day or two I was rewarded with a calculus. In September I spent a "week walking about twenty miles per diem in the Isle of Wight, and a day or two :ifter my return got rid of a small calculus, with scarcely any pain or trouble. To sum up then, the attacks seem to come on indiscriminately in summer or winter, spring or autumn. And the calculus passes down the ureter either day or night, though generally by night. The pain is seldom sufficienth' great to interfere •with my appetite or rest, though generally producing some depression of spirits, particularly at the commencement of the attack. Often a slight degree of heematuria is the earliest indication, sometimes it is the pain. I have noticed that the amounts of pain or of hiemorrhage are not always proportionate to the size of the calculus, or to each other; sometimes there being more hsematuria, sometimes more pain."
Modes of Death.
Tlie modes by which renal stone kills and their relative frequency may be fairly represented by the post-moi-iem experience of St. George's Hospital, which has been systematically recorded since the year 1842. Of
Immediate cause of death. of cases.
The extension of suppuration beyond the kidney into the circumjacent tissue, the peritoneum, the bowel, and the loin, is represented by seven cases — about a third of the whole. Lardaceous disease was recognized only in two instances; many of the observations were made at an early date; but it may bo safely stated as the result of recent experience tliat death rarely ensues from pyelitis or chronic extra-renal suppuratien without more or less of it. Fibrotic atropliy, with some dilatation of the pelvis, with or without the development of the granular condition marked organically and clinically, is a distinct result of renal stone, and is represented in the table. Pyasmi a appeal's a.s the cause of death on the warrant of a case in which this condition jiroved fatal, but for which no cause could be discovered though laboriously sought, save a renal stone, which had been lately productive of bleeding. The locally disseminated suppuration of the "surgical kidney" finds no place as a consequence of renal stone either within the table, or so far as I know outside it. It was found once in conjunction with renal calculus, but there was also prostatic disease, to wiiich the suppurative lesion Avas at least in part to be attributed. Traumatic suppuration presents itself by chance. The kidney which contained the spiked calculi, represented at page 138, singularly ill-suited as they must have rendered it to endure violence, was ruptured thirty days before death by the fall of a brick. The cortex was iound to be sprinkled with miliary abscesses.
The dilatation of the kidney which results from stone is often accompanied with suppuration of the pelvic mucous membrane, set up by the contact of the accumulated and decomposing urine. Suppuration under these circumstances is generally coincident with much extension and atrophy of the kidney ; the converse also holds that much extension from calculous obstruction is seldom reached without more or less suppuration. The lining membrane first becomes vascular, traversed by vessels which in extreme cases may be so numerous and turgid that the surface looks almost black. Later appears the smooth, opaque, creamy surface of supi)uration.
The symptoms of early calculous pyelitis are those of pyelitis added to those of stone. Later, it is not unknown for the stone to have escaped or to have fallen into quietude and oblivion, the pyelitis only remaining evident. The pyelitis is first displayed by the urine, which contains mucus, though there be no signs of vesical inflammation. With this the microscope may show epithelial cells of various forms (see woodcut, page 20), and perhaps blood-corpuscles. The mucus, especially abundant when the stone is of oxalate of lime, sometimes makes its exit in tenacious gelatinous masses, which may cause scarcely less distress in traversing the ureter than stony concretions. After a longer or shorter time, particularly if the urine be retained in the pelvis in considerable bulk, the mucus is replaced by pus. There is generally little doubt as to the renal origin of the discharge. The pus, when the condition is fully established, is apt to be eminently "laudable," unmixed with such foul and stringy discharge as proceeds from the bladder, its corpuscles displayed in a regular and typical form. Such matter separates readily and distinctly from the supernatant urine, which remains acid and inoffensive.
Urine of this nature, passed as it often is without frequency or any vesical disturbance, cannot fail to be regarded as of renal origin, a view which will probably be corroborated by the presence of unmistakably renal symptoms. Less often the urine is peculiarly offensive, and the discharge broken down beyond recognition, as the result of accumulation and putrefaction in the pelvis. In such cases it often escapes intermittently.
There is usually pain either in the affected loin only, or sometimes in both, of a dull continuous kind : or there may be, in the same situation, a sense of weight or of heat. Uneasy sensations are also frequently felt in the course of the ureter and in the testicle. With these there is some-
ON CERTAIN RESULTS OF RENAL CALCULI. i09
times slight, sometimes severe and continuous febrile disturbance, with gradual loss of strength, loss of appetite, nausea, and even vomiting. Irritation of the bladder, apparently the result of nervous sympathy, evinced by frequency of micturition, sometimes occurs, especially in the early stage ; it sometimes is sufiQciently persistent and severe to raise a suspicion of disease of the bladder, though this organ be perfectly healthy This is especially the case when tlie urine is alkaline.
It will be seen from the preceding description that there is seldom any doubt as to the renal seat of calculous pyelitis, but that a difficulty may occur in distinguishing calculous from tubercular suppuration. Should this fail to be solved by the early history of the case, it may be useful to bear in mind that the discharge of calculous pyelitis often intermits, while that of tubercular disease is continuous. Besides this calculous suppuration is more protracted than tubercular, and it usually leaves the bladder healthy, while with tubercular disease this organ generally becomes involved.
The production of pus within the distended and attenuated kidney gives rise to further consequences. The obstruction, whether it be a stationary calculus or a stricture which has resulted from the temporary lodgment of one, may be complete and permanent, allowing no fluid to escape at any time; or it may present an obstruction which will only yield to extreme pressure, so that the contents of the cavity generally retained will escape at intervals, when the needful vis a tergo has accumulated; or it may be that the constriction never amounts to an absolute dam, but allows the contents of the cyst habitual though not free exit; finally, the stone may have gone on its way, and left no narrowing. The symptoms of the disease and the prospects of the patient vary materially with these circumstances. Next to an unobstructed channel, it is probably best that it should be closed. The impediment had better be quite, than nearly, insurmountable. If there is no outlet it may happen that the production of pus will after a time cease for want of room, thewatery part subsequently disappearing, and the atrophied kidney collapsing upon putty-like matter, in which a stone may be imbedded, the whole forming a useless but perfectly quiescent and innocuous mass. Under less fortunate circumstances the imprisoned matter may make its way to the surface of the body, or may reach the bowel or peritoneum. Of such results I shall speak presently.
When the obstruction is partial the secretion of urine is less completely arrested, and the kidney may fill and empty many times with successively increasing distention. The intermitting discharge of pus which happens in these cases, with intervals, often lasting for months, during which the urine is natural, and the patient, perhaps, apparently well, is very characteristic of the disease. An example of this intermittence is afforded in the case of the old woman whose kidney formed a tumor, thought to be ovarian (referred to, p. 55).
When the nature of the obstacle is such as to allow of a continuous, but not a free discharge, the disease exists in its most protracted form.. There is not enough pressure upon the walls of the cyst to arrest secretion, while there is too much to allow of any contractile })rocess. The suppuration may be profuse and long-continued, pure hiudable pus being habitually passed with the urine, sometimes for years. In these cases the constitution is apt to suffer from the drain, and general lardaceous deposition to ensue. It may happen that other results of profuse suppura-
fall into a hectic febrile state, succeeded by typhoid prostration.
We have little clinical knowledge of calculous pyelitis existing apart from obstruction of the ureter by present stone or consequent stricture. The mere mechanical irritation of the calculus seldom seems enough by itself to kcej) up continued su})puration. Retention and decomposition of urine, impossible while the ureter is open, are necessary. It is sometimes found that after death, perhaps from some cause unconnected with renal disease, an attenuated kidney, the pelvis of which still bears traces of suppuration, has tightly contracted upon a stone, the pervious ureter having given exit to the once cojiious contents of the cyst. In such a case the wasting of the gland is sufficient record of past retention. The obstruction, however, has been overcome, probably by the passage of the occluding stone, the pus has escaped, the kidney has contracted, and though useless has ceased to be mischievous.
Pus originating m the pelvis in connection with a stone sometimes makes its way out of the kidney, and travels in various directions. This <jan only occur when the ureter is either completely closed or much obstructed. The pus may pierce the muscles of the back, and make its exit through the skin in that region. It may enter the psoas muscle and give rise to psoas abscess, which scarcely differs from that which is so commonly associated with spinal disease. It may break into the peritoneum. It may, if belonging to the right kidney, ulcerate into the ascending or transverse colon or duodenum; if in the left, into the descending colon. It has been known to traverse thediapliragm. and make its way out by the bronchial tubes; and lastly, it has been stated, though not on conclusive evidence, that urine and calculous matter have passed from the kidney into the stomach, and thence been rejected l)y vomiting. Of these events tlie most common are the discharge upon the loins and into the descending colon. Peritoneal rupture comes next in order of frequency. Penetration of the duodenum, transverse colon, and bronchial tubes is comparatively rare.
The opening of a calculous abscess superficially has been recorded by liowship, Brodie, and many other writers. Sometimes stones have made their way out by this route, and the patients recovered, but more often the slow and exhausting process has terminated fatally.
Dr. S. F. Simmons^ records the case of a woman who passed seven small calculi, at intervals, from a sinus in the left loin, and Cheselden states that from three patients he removed stones " whicii had made their way from the kidneys to tlie integuments, and there occasioned an imposthumation." A calculous abscess usually occupies the lumbar region, and is apt to be mistaken for disease of the spine. A woman, twenty-six years of age, died in St. George's Hospital, under the care of the late Mr. Keale, witli a lumbar abscess, which was thus misinterpreted by that careful and acute surgeon. It was found, however, after death, that the suppuration had proceeded from the left kidney, the outlet of which had become obstructed by several large calculi. Matter had col-
lectod in the pelvis, made its way backwards through the lumbar muscles :and penetrated to the skin in this region. The pus lay in considerable quantity around the kidney, and had worked its way upwards to the diaphragm, the complete penetration of which was only prevented by some adhesions, which had closed what would otherwise have been an open channel, conducting the renal pus into the pleural cavity.
The progress of the disease is usually excessively protracted. A scanty discharge has been known to flow for many years from an abscess of this nature. Once open, such sinuses appear to have little tendeaey to close, though in some cases the discharge has become insignificant. As to diagnosis it is probable that a careful consideration of the antecedents would in most instances suffice to suggest a calculous origin, a suggestion which would be confirmed by the absence of definite spinal symptoms.
It is far less common for a calculous abscess to break into than behind the peritoneum. When this usually fatal accident happens it is where the kidney has been much dilated and the peritoneum tightly stretched over its front surface. I say usually fatal accident, for it is not impossible for the rupture to be so guarded by adhesions that no immediately evil consequences follow. An example of this is given in a case in which a calculus made its way across the peritoneal cavity, from the right kidney into the colon. It more often happens, however, that such limitation is absent or incomplete, and the occurrence fatal, with the wellknown symptoms of peritonitis in the acute form which is associated with jierforation of the hollow viscera.
A calculous abscess in the right kidney may open into the duodenum. It has been known to cross the peritoneal cavity, as already stated, and find an exit in the right extremity of the transverse colon. A stone in the left kidney, or matter connected therewith, frequently makes its way into the descending colon, where it lies in close relation with the diseased organ. This is by far the most common track by which a renal calculus reaches the intestinal canal. It is a rare event for a calculous abscess to reach any part of the bowels which are separated from the kidney by the peritoneum, since perforation of the serous cavity is usually, though not invariably, the last injury inflicted by a renal concretion.
Penetration of the descending colon by a calculous abscess is a common and probably not always an unfavorable event. The apposition of the descending colon and the left kidney, behind the peritoneum, gives facilities for this mode of exit. Instances of this occurrence are frequently related in books and illustrated by jireparations.
In St. Bartholomew's Hospital is a kidney which has become sacculated in consequence of the lodgment of a calculus in the mouth of the ureter. Two ulcerated openings connect the cavity of the pelvis with that of the descending colon. During life there had been frequent attacks of pain in the loins, which had been as often relieved by the escape of pus from the bowels.
A singular connection between the left kidney and the bowels is illustrated by a preparation at St. Thomas's Hospital. The pelvis has become dilated from calculous obstruction, and has become the seat of sup-
puration. The pus made its way through the anterior wall of the dilated pelvis, and formed a circumscribed abscess between the kidney and the descending colon, into which it opened.
I am not acquainted with any unequivocal case in which a renal calculus has caused a perforation of the stomach. Vomiting of urine is a not unknown occurrence, but the subjects of the plienomenon are usually hysterical women, and the route from the kidney to the stomach more circuitous than they would have believed.'
As often happens with perinephritic abscess, let it depend on what it may, matter of calculous origin may make its way through or behind the diaphragm, and thence into tlie bronchial tubes. It appears, either because the matter rises along the spinal muscles and thence enters the root of the lung without crossing the pleural cavity, or because the pleural cavity becomes under the process of perforation securely guarded by adhesions, that the bronchial tubes rather than the serous interspace become the recipients of pus entering the thorax from below. The passage of matter from below to above the diaphragm is perhaps most familiar in connection with hepatic abscess.
Writers of the ante -pathological era speak of paralysis of the kidney as if that gland were apt, like a discontented workman, to strike though still able to work ; but it has been shown in another part of this volume that though the secretion of urine may be temporarily, or even finally arrested by constitutional causes, yet that it never stops altogether as the result of renal disease, unless the outlets are blocked. This closure may be by growths or clots, but in by far the larger proportion of cases it is due to calculi, or to the injury calculi have inflicted.
An obstruction to cause suppression must occur simultaneously in connection with both kidneys, or else, should it refer only to one, theother must have been destroyed by antecedent disease.
to the same extent.
When the kidneys are successively disabled by calculous disease, suppression occurs only on the incapacitation of the second. One ureter may, either by impacted stone or consequent stricture, become permanently closed, and the kidney sacculated, and for purposes of secretion practically non-existent, but yet no serious consequences may result^ unless in process of time calculi be formed also in the second kidney.
' Dr. Sclater, of Pliiladelphia. relates, in the Trans, of the College of Fhyaicians of that city (vol. i. part i. p. 96;, the case of a woman with retention of urine. Whenever the catheter was withheld, urine, often mixed with urinary gravel, was either vomited or passed from the bowel or discharged from the navel. The patient died apparently of ulceration of the stomach — a condition continually associated with hysteria. The kidneys and bladder were found to be substantially natural. Under these circumstances perhaps few persons in the present day will be inclined to adopt the explanation suggested by the author that the urine reached the stomach by a retrograde course through the lymphatics. The case was probably one of hysterical deception.
-which now does all the work, and one, by evil chance, slips into and plugs its outlet. The obstruction which now results will cause suppression of urine, and will, if not speedily dislodged, be necessarily fatal.
Obstruction from calculus usually occurs either at the funnelshaped mouth of the ureter, or at its narrowed exit as it is traversing the coats of the bladder. If a calculus be small enough to enter the ureter, it will generally make its way to the vesical constriction. A case is related by Sir James Paget in the second volume of the ''Transactions" of the Clinical Society. In the early days of the suppression there was a total absence of constitutional symptoms; then came pain in the left loin, a slight convulsion, frequent twitchings, nausea, and drowsiness. The right kidney was dilated, its secreting structure reduced to a thin shell, and studded Avith cysts of various sizes. It contained half a pint of urinary fluid, but was probably useless as an agent of continued secretion. The left kidney was hypertrophied and gorged with blood, and its ureter blocked by a calculus two inches above the vesical orifice.
Sir James Paget attributes the unusual tolerance of the disease in this •case partly to the advanced age of the patient, and the attendant slowness of the changes of nutrition, and partly to an insensitive disposition which naturally belonged to him.
The smallnessof a stone, which will cause fatal suppression in traversing the sole acting ureter, and the comparative ease with Avhich after death it can often be displaced, may be a matter of surprise. One may be disappointed that the trifling amount of force necessary for its expulsion was not by some happy chance directed upon it during life. A stone under the weight of two grains has been known to be thus fatal.
The subjects are often
described as robust or corpulent. Sir Henry Halford describes as "paralysis of the kidney," a case almost certainly of tliis nature: the patient was a "very corpulent, robust farmer, of about fifty-five years of age."' Sir Henry adds that all the patients, five in number, who fell under his care with similar symptoms were "fat corpulent men, between fifty and sixty years of age." The subject of Sir James Paget's case, already referred to, was a fat farmer seventy-four years of age, older than most thus affected. The four patients, whose cases I have given in detail, varied in age from forty -six to sixty-two: three were of the male sex, one ■corpulent to monstrosity.
Dr. Eoberts has placed upon record three cases of fatal calculous sup]>ression, in all of which the subjects were of the male sex and of ages between forty and sixty-seven. Tlie late Mr. Nuneley, of Leeds, recorded in the "Pathological Transactions," vol. xi. p. 145, an instance of su])pression in a woman, whose age was thirty-three, calculi being found after death in both kidneys, but in both sex and age this occurrence was somewhat exceptional. I may mention as unusual in age and sex the case of a girl of seventeen, under my care as a hospital patient, in whom total
sui»[)re3sion of urine for sixty-seven hours was relieved upon the passage of u ([luintity of uric acid. I have never ascertained tlie existence of calculous su[)pression in childhood, though a ease is mentioned in the chapter on suppression in which it was jiresumed to liave existed.
The course of the disease may be sufficiently gathered from the foregoing instances. An elderly, but apparently healthy man, who perhaps has at some former time had symptoms of gravel, fiiuls, to his surprise, that he no longer needs to pass water. The cessation may take place in connection with an attack of sharp pain, indicative of a moving stone, or it may occur without warning.
For a time t)ie patient seems little the worse. He is either entirely free from local uneasiness, or he has merely a dull pain or sense of weight in the loins, which does not trouble him much. His appetite is good, liis general sensations are those of health, and at first little notice may be taken of the sensation. Presently the unusual nature of the occurrence, rather than any feeling of illness, causes him to seek medical advice. A catheter is ]iassed, and the bladder found to be empty. The urine may remain totally absent, or small quantities from time, or now and then something approaching the amount of a natural urination, may be discharged. TJie urine, sometimes albuminous, is pale, of low specific gravity, and wanting in urea. According to the father of medicine,* "persons affected Avith calculus have very limpid urine." This is particularly the case when the renal outlet is obstructed. It has been elsewhere explained that there is a direct relation between poverty of urine and obstruction of the renal outlet. The longer uraemia is postponed, the greater the chance that the stone, should it be " viable," may complete its ]ierilous course and allow the kidney to resume its functions. This it will do with extraordinary activity on removal of the obstacle. Should the obstruction fail to be removed, symptoms of uragmia will gradually appear, and ultimately prove fatal, the period at which this result happens being very variable, depending much upon whether the suppression be complete or incomplete. In tlie case presumably of calculous obstruction related by Sir H. Halford, of which he says that the others he saw were exact copies, the jiatient died in a state of stupefaction on the fourth day. The lady whom I saw with Mr. Tatham, in whom the obstruction was complete, died on the fifth day; the man seen with Mr. Keen, in whom it was likewise complete, died at the end of the sixth. Dr. Koberts relates a case in which death occurred on the sixth day, of complete suppression, but from the a<|ueous character of the urine there was reason to believe that some obstruction had existed for a longer period. In two other examples which the same physician was able to pursue to post-mortem examination, death occurred on the tenth day of suppression, which in each case was so far incomplete that in one fifty-four ounces (divided over three days), and in the other two ounces, of urine were ])assed. Dr. Bagshawe's patient died likewise on the tenth day, and in liim also the period of suppression was interrupted by the passage on one occasion of a small quantity of urine. Eichardson died on the eleventh day; with him the sujipression was so far inclompete that small quantities of urine, generally two or three ounces, were passed on seven of the eleven days. The woman under the late Mr. Nunneley survived twelve days of suppression, uninterrupted so far as was known; while the Hampshire farmer, under Mr. Paget, endured for
twenty-two days suppression, which was intersected by the passage during one night, near the middle of the period, of about a pint of urine. It thus appears tiiat, poor as the secretion is wliich is yielded against pressure, and small as it may be in amount, it generally may be reckoned, upon to prolong life. It is possible that in many cases of incomplete obstruction more urine has escaped than has been observed. The results of obstruction may, however, ensue, though a considerable quantity of the pale urine in question has been voided. Dr. Roberts mentions a case almost certainly of calculous blocking, fatal on tlie fifteenth day by uraemia, in which a daily average of two pints of urine — pale and of a specific gravity of 1006 — was discharged throughout. The explanatioi\ of the fact lies in the small proportion of excrenientitious matter which the urine in these circumstances contains.
Unless the obstruction be overcome, the constitutional signs of uraemia will inevitably appear sooner or later, though they are seldom prominent until within a short time, a few days at most, of death. Once evident their course is rapid. The functions of the stomach are among the first to suffer, as shown by loss of ai)petite, nausea, and occasional rather than continued vomiting. Sometimes there is much flatulence. Failure of muscular power early occurs and increases with the uraemia. Lassitude and debility are succeeded by embarrassment of breathing, which becomes hurried or slow, panting, and laborious, probably chiefly in consequence of weakness of the muscles of respiration. Finally the heart shares the change, the pulse becomes weak, then slow, irregular, or intermittent, and at last in a large proportion of cases death occurs from asthenia, the ventricles after death being found to be totally uncontracted. The asthenic state of the heart may determine the manner of dissolution, which often takes place suddenly, perhaps upon a change of posture, or while the patient is sitting uj), without any premonitory disturbance of breathing or of the mental faculties, death being immediately due to an abrupt failure of the powers of circulation.
Before muscular failure has reached its climax there are other results of blood-poisoning, the most constant of which are muscular twitchings, which occur sometimes almost all over the body. These appear to be generally, though not always, present in advanced uraemia from this cause. General convulsion occurs with comparative infrequency. The tongue, first moist and tremulous, becomes coated, then brown and dry. The functions of the bowels are but little affected. Constipation is sometimes present early in the attack. There is seldom diarrhoea unless due to medicine. Latterly the motions are often dark and peculiarly offensive. The skin is clammy and moist, sometimes there is much sweating, seldom of the distinctly urinous character occasionally observed in other diseases of the urinary organs, more especially with retention. The skin is noticeably cool, aiul to the thermometer slightly sub-normal (9G' or 97°). There is a remarkable absence of dropsy. Notwithstanding that five or six days may have passed but not a drop of urine, or two or three weeks with only as many urinations, the only oidema observed, and even that is exceptional, may be a slight puffiness about the face. The patient is sometimes drowsy, in other cases want of sleep is experienced, he is often restless and sleeps fitfully, with sudden star tings, and semiconvulsive disturbance. Low delirium sometimes occurs, but, as a rule, is not a prominent symptom. The pupils are contracted towards the end, sometimes to mere points. In some cases coma supervenes at last. but far less often than in uraemia from other causes. In suppression.
The preceding account has been of necessity founded upon cases which have received the elucidation of a post-mortem examination, but it is not to be supposed ti)at the disorder is always fatal, though the mechanical disablement of both kidneys must always involve mortal peril.
Insanity axd Epilepsy ix Coxxection with Rexal Calculi.
The numerous and important nervous relations of tlie kidney have Toeen elsewhere adverted to, and it has been sliown that neuralgia, sometimes of extreme severity, is apt to affect certain branches of the lumbar plexus in connection with the irritation of a renal stone. Remote nervous disturbances, of the kind ordinarily called reflex, may also have their origin in the same irritant. Epilepsy is known to occur occasion4illy in connection with renal calculi, more especially when their movement, as in entering or traversing the ureter, gives rise to severe pain. It would also seem that there is a concurrence, too frequent to be acci<lental, between renal calculus and certain forms of mental derangement. Among thirty-three cases from the hospital books in which calculi were found in one or both kidneys, were two of epilepsy with loss of intellect— one of chronic lunacy, and one of dementia, considered to be senile, the patient being eighty-eight, succeeded by mania. Besides these there were four cases of cerebral disease, probably unconnected with <;alculi, comprising softening, coagulation in the arteries, and meningitis. Counting only the demented epileptics and the lunatics, we still have a larger share of mental disease than usually belongs to thirty-three fatal cases in St. George's Hospital. It will be remembered that Robert Hall, whose sufferings in connection with a renal calculus have been elsewhere described, was twice insane; stones of cystine obtained from the kidney of a lunatic have been referred to (page 150), and I may add the instance of a large collection of stones of triple phosphate, for which I have to thank my colleague Mr. Thomas Smith, which were obtained from a similar source.
Mitigation.
Before discussing modes of treatment which aim at cure, and are at best so perilous or so protracted that they are never likely to be otherwise than excejotional in their use, something may be said with regard to alleviation. To this end nature does much, and art can do something. The kidneys are comparatively tolerant of stones ; renal calculi, when quite immovable, are often as completely latent ; and we may truly say, for the consolation of those who have them, that they are more often a source of inconvenience than of danger.
Much may depend upon a prudent regulation of bodily movement. The patient should avoid whatever causes pain or bleeding, not only for the sake of his present comfort, but to keep off pyelitis and encourage the dormancy of the stone. Jolting is obviously to be guarded against, and tremulous or vibratory movements are often not less injurious. To those who cannot avoid rough carriage travelling by road or railway the evil may be mitigated by the use of an air-cushion as a seat. This I first learned from a surgeon who has been already alluded to as an extreme sufferer from renal calculus. He could scarcely endure the jolting and vibration of his carriage, until he found that by this means the movements could be equalized and the tremor deadened. Riding on horse-back is seldom safe. Of all exercise, walking is the best, and is often not only bearable, but advantageous from its influence upon the general health. The intelligent springs of the lower extremity are smoother than the finest contrivances of the coach-builder. The gentleman to whom I have referred, though seldom failing to suffer from other kinds of locomotion, could walk twenty miles a day in Switzerland with much benefit and little inconvenience. A false step, however — missing, for example, the edge of the pavement, and descending for an unexpected three inches — would cause a paroxysm of pain, and was instinctively guarded against. Violent muscular efforts of every kind must be avoided, especially such as cause tension of the abdominal muscles. I have often known a severe attack of hemorrhage to be brought on by the lifting of heavy weights, or the effort of jiulling, as at railway signal levers, and have done good by advising those actively employed to change their callings for sedentary ones.
Patients with renal calculus, or indeed with calculous disorders of any kind, may easily be too sparing of water, tlie general solvent and antagonist of concretion. It is commonly advisable that this should be soft, as rain water, distilled Avater, or Malvern water, since salts of lime, even if they have not formed the centre, are seldom altogether absent from the xDuter parts of stones which have acquired any considerable size. Alcoholic
gravated by them.
To such general rules it will be necessary to add others which are called for by the diathesis. These, which have already been discussed, will vary with the nature of tlie concretion, and be indicated, for the most part, by the Jiabitual character of the urine. For uric acid, pure diet, pure air, exercise, and potash or litliia water ; for oxalate of lime, nitromuriatic acid and vegetable bitters — remedies which are equally called for, and to which strychnia and otlier tonics may be superadded should the urine display a marked excess of earthy salts, and which must be further enforced should the secretion be alkaline from fixed alkali, and phosphates be deposited.
The pain of renal calculus, varying almost infinitely in amount, calls for a large variation of treatment. It may much depend upon movement, the regulation of which has already been discussed. When the attacks are intermitting and of the neuralgic type, they are often much influenced by the general health, and kept off by fresh air, quinine, and strychnia. When severe, anodynes must be used, the best of all being morphia, or morphia and atropine together, injected under the skin. Prout found the burning sensation sometimes produced by calculi of oxalate of lime and the phosphates to be relieved by the application of l^ounded ice to the region of the kidney.
Patients need no medical sanction to have recourse to quack narcotics with seductive names, which are as a rule less effective and more disturbing to the general health than the subcutaneous use of the alkaloids which have been mentioned. Sometimes the pain in its neuralgic form in the loin or along the ureter is so agonizing that the j^atient is driven to the inhalation of chloroform. I have known a gentleman thus suffering to go to bed habitually with a bottle of chloroform under his pillow, and to inhale it frequently to the verge of unconsciousness — a dangerous comfort, one seldom to be preferred to the subcutaneous injection of opiates. Local anodynes, plasters of opium or belladonna upon the loins, are of trifling service, and counter-irritants of none. T have known the periodic pain of renal calculus to be as regularly relieved by a full dose of alkali, notwithstanding that the duration and presumed character of the stone were such as to put any solvent action out of the question.
For the hemorrhage which a renal calculus causes, rest is the best remedy. Loss of blood from this cause is never so profuse as, like the hajmorrhage from malignant disease, to be a source of immediate danger. Even when considerable it will generally cease after a few days, or less, of quiet. When patients become blanched by this means, as they sometimes do, it is from the frequent provocation rather than the profusion of the bleeding. When in such cases styptics are called for, recourse may be had to ergot, iron-alum, tannate of iron, gallic acid, or acetate of lead with opium — the last remedy not the least effective, though the least suited for frequent use. Drugs, however, are seldom needed where rest can be obtained.
Pyelitis from stone is very indirectly under our control. In the slighter forms, where there is no purulent accumulation, but only a slight discharge connected with the immediate irritation of a movable calculus, rest will do much. When the outlet has become narrowed, and possibly the stone impacted, so that, as often happens, matter collects, a superfluity only making its way through the difficult exit, the continual irritation of the retained matter is apt to make the condition perpetual. The
natural remedy, a free opening, is within the reach of practical surgery, and may be associated with the removal of tlie stone. Sometimes the disease will wear itself out, leaving the kidney as a shell closely fitted upon the stone, and sometimes it will wear out the patient by means of hectic or lardaceous change, danger of either calling for tonic treatment.
It has occurred to me that the curative efforts of nature might be hastened in suitable cases of this kind by external pressure, whereby accumulation in the cyst would be prevented, and its closure and obsolescence invited.
Counter-irritants have had their day. Sir B. Brodie' used setons and issues upon the loins in cases where renal suppuration had ensued upon a calculus, and did not doubt that such measures were sometimes eminently useful; the advantage, however, of thus adding one injury to another may well be questioned.
The definite symptoms which accompany the descent of a renal calculus— a fit of the gavel, as it is often termed — may require measures to be energetically directed towards the removal of irritation, the relaxation of spasm, and the relief of pain. A dose of calomel, or of some other rapid aperient, may be followed by copious injections of warm water into the bowel, which, if the left kidney be affected, will exert their emollient action in its immediate vicinity. Awaiting the action of the aperient, the patient may be placed in a warm bath, or hip bath, or less effectively treated by hot poultices or fomentations. Opiates, of which none are so suitable as morphia subcutaneously, may be used at once if the pain be severe. Sometimes the anguish is such that the inhalation of chloroform is called for. The free drinking of diluents, where permitted by the state of the stomach, will increase tJie urine, render it less irritating, and facilitate the passage of the stone. Alkalies may be liberally superadded if the secretion be, as it often is, highly acid.
Supression occurs, as has been already explained, when either both kidneys, in pelvis or ureter, are simultaneously obstructed, or, one kidney having been disabled previously, a stone closes the outlet of the other. The treatment of this perilous state is rendered uncertain by the difficulty of ascertaining the precise state of the obstruction. Where this condition has proved fatal, the nature of the obstacle is sometimes discovered to be such as to have conceivably admitted of mechanical relief. Not seldom the obstruction is a conical stone, worn to fit the outlet of the pelvis, lying, like a bullet in a valve, without impaction, maintaining its place and the obstruction chiefly by its weight. In such a case, if the body were inverted, as put in practice long ago by the late Sir James Simpson,^ the fatal adaptation might possibly be deranged; but the relief at best would be but temporary, since there would be nothing to prevent the stone falling back into the same position.
Other cases occur in which retention has proved fatal when the stone has traversed the whole of the ureter and lodged at its vesical exit, where the canal is at its narrowest. It sometimes inspires a feeling akin to remorse to find how little would have sufficed to have cleared the channel and cured the patient. The merest touch has been enough after death to throw into the bladder a stone, the last stage of whose
journey has been thus fatally delayed. The vesical ends of the ureter are not within the reach of external manipulation ; but should the stone, as sometimes happens, be exposed to tlie vesical cavity, the cautious use of a sound might occasion its displacement.
External manipulation of the renal region, aiul of as much of the course of the ureter as is open to external pressure, has been recommended ; and Dr. Roberts found in two cases a transient flow of urine to follow such measures. "Walking, if necessary with support, change of posture of various kinds, and blows upon the sacrum have been suggested.
Diuretics are sometimes of use. Of these, digitalis, liberally though watchfully given, promises best. Mr. Brown,' of Haverfordwest, published some remarkable cases of this nature which Avere relieved by the external application of this drug. Reapplied a poultice to the abdomen, made when tlie fresh leaves could be got, by bruising them with boiling water; or failing these, by mixing an ounce of the tincture with a linseed poultice. The application was continued until the pulse was decidedly reduced in rate, a matter generally of some hours. A discharge of urine generally, in his cases, accompanied tlie fall in the pulse, and he describes the abundance of the flow in graphic terms. In an instance where, as he thinks, the remedy was too long persisted in, the suppression was superseded by an alarming diuresis at the rate of eight chambervessels full in six hours, under which the patient sank. I cannot adduce my own experience in warrant of such an extreme result, but I have known small stones to be discharged and suppression terminated under the influence of this remedy applied externally and iiiternally, and cannot doubt that it is more effective than any other we know of.
favor as warrants digitalis.
When all other expedients have been exhausted, and so much time has passed without escape of urine as to leave little hope of natural relief, surgery offers a chance of rescue. Behind the obstruction the pelvis is necessarily distended, and would offer a fair mark to the point of an aspirator. This instrument can in ordinary circumstances be directed upon the kidney without risk; and it is possible that, with care, a pelvis distended with urine might be safely tapped with it, a present exit provided, and an opening left which might be available for future proceedings. The chief difficulty, as I have ascertained on the dead body, is to gauge the depth. Should the distended pelvis be transfixed, it is not impossible that urine might be extravasated into the peritoneum. The safest and surest plan would probably bo» to dissect from the loin, and open the pelvis as in renal lithotomy, with the incidental possibility of removing the stone, as well as relieving the suppression. I may refer to a case in which this operation was designed, though its performance was antici])ated by the death of the patient. It must be a matter of nice judgment to time the operation — not until all chance of relief by discharge of the stone is over, and before there be any such constitutional results of suppression as to make it unlikely that the patient should survive any operative procedure.
Rexal Lithotomy, and Excision of the Kidney for Stone.
Renal calculi have been assailed by two methods: excision of the stone with or without the kidney, and solution; solution may be put aside for the present as of little practical issue, and the first consideration given to renal lithotomy.
It has been shown by what various channels renal stones, if they be small, may escape from the body, and it has often happened that, when their course has been toward the surface, their efforts at escape have been crowned by their artificial removal from sinuses and superficial aljscesses. The cautious surgery of nature is suri'ounded by safeguards which rarely attend tlie rougher operations of art.
have been extracted.
Mr. Annandale' successfully drew a branched stone weighing 72 grains, which, no doubt, lay in the pelvis of the kidney, from the bottom of a lumbar sinus three inches in depth; and many other instances are known in which small stones have been taken from near the surface, or have effected their escape without extraneous aid.
Surgery, long limited to thus assisting nature, has of late years taken the initiative, with the result of showing that renal lithotomy is possible without any help or guidance on her part. The feasibility of this operation is so important a question that I shall briefly review the existing experience of it, as far as it has come to my knowledge: it is probable that, as a record of fruitless attempts and fatal performances, the list may be incomplete, but it is to be presumed that no successful extraction of a stone from the kidney has escaped notice.
The cutting out of renal calculus appears to have occupied the thoughts of snrgeons from remote times, and even to have been once successfully accomplished at a comparatively early date with or without the aid of a natural fistula.
I exclude as beside the question, the archer referred to in Mezeray's "•History of France" as of Baguelet, and of the time of^Louis XII., who is there stated to have undergone the removal of a stone from " the kidneys" instead of the execution of a sentence of death which he had incurred.^ Mezeray gives no authority, but the story is to be traced to Ambrose Pare, who, Avriting in the year 1579, relates it as follows: — ^
The following history, taken out of the Chronicles of Monstrelet, exceeds all admiration. "A certain Franck-Archer of Meudon, four miles from Paris, was for robbery condemned to be hanged; in the meanwhile it was told the king by the physicians that many in Paris at that time were troubled with the stone, and amongst the rest the Lord of Boscage, and that it would be for the good of many if they might view and discern with their eyes the parts themselves wherein so cruel a disease did breed, and that it might be done much better in a living than in a dead body, and that they might make trial upon the body of the Franck-Archer, who had formerly been troubled with these pains. The king granted their request; whereupon, opening his body, they viewed the breathing parts, and satisfied themselves as much as they desired, and having diligently and exactly restored each part to its proper place, the body, by the king's command, was sewed up again, and dressed and cured with
The operation was not so much lithotomy, either renal or vesical, as "vivisection, intended not so much for benefit of the Archer as of the Loid of Boscage. The Archer recovered from the experiment, each part liaving been ''diligently and exactly restored to its proper place." AViiether he recovered from the stone, where it was, or whether, indeed, he had any disease at the time of the operation, though he "had formerly been troubled Avith these pains," upon these points the narrator is silent.
success.
Tlie first instance of the o])eration on which reliance can be jilaced is the oft-quoted one of Mr. Hobson, the Consul at Venice, from whose kidney several stones were excised by Marchetti of Padua. The incision was made through the back "into the body of the kidney," from whence two or three small stones were removed at the time, and another the size of a date-stone escaped afterwards by the fistula which remained. The fistula was open ten years afterwards, and still discharged urinous fluid; but for this the cure Avas complete. The case is rej^orted by Mr. Charles Bernard, in the "Philosophical Transactions," for 1696; it was drawn up from the narrative, not of the surgeon, but of the patient, corroborated by an examination of the sinus ten years after the operation. The story has detail and the appearance of truthfulness, and must claim belief at least in the point of cliief interest to the patient, the cutting into him deeply from behind and extraction of stones by the wound. What guide the surgeon had may have been less vividly recalled: there may have been a previous sinus, though none is mentioned. Indeed, it is highly probable that this was the case. Tlie patient himself suggested the operation, imploring Marchetti "that he would be pleased to cut tiie stone out of his kidney," to which the surgeon responded by a course of dissection which extended over two days. It is not to be supposed that both patient and surgeon could have been thus assured of the existence and position of the stone, had not there been some external evidence of it; while the tedious nature of the operation is consistent with the careful following of some such guide. As a rule, a renal stone does not impress itself distinctly as such upon its bearer; he knows that he has certain discomforts, but the cause of them is a matter of infei'ence, "which even in these days is often erroneous, as the results of nephrotomy testify. Two hundred years ago the means of diagnosis were less, and the doubts which must have beset such a case, proportionally greater.
The next case is even less explicit; it is stated in the "Gentleman's Magazine" for August, 1773, that "Mr. Paul, a surgeon at Stroud, in Gloucestershire, lately extracted from the kidneys of a woman, by an incision through her back, a rough stone as large as a pigeon's egg, and made an entire cure." * Xo further particulars are known.
For the origin of neplirolithotomy we must revert to Marchetti, the citation of whose case by Mr. Thomas Smitii and tlie observations with ■which it was accompanied appear to have been the chief agents in the recent iiitroduction of the 0])eration, whether it be regarded as a revival or a novelty.
Female, aged 50. Recurring attacks of haematuria for eight years; latterly discharge of pus with urine. Tumor in left renal position, which extended from the loin to within 3 inches of the umbilicus, and measured four inches vertically. Much pain in left lumbar and iliac regions. Flexure of left thigh. Increase of pain and swelling, with diminution of discharge of pus.
Exploring trocar introduced into the tumor with witlidrawal of pus. Incision made from last rib to crest of ilium, after the manner proposed by T. Smith. Kidney ex plored and incised to depth of ^ inch. Calculus removed from pelvis, and drainage-tube inserted. Stone weighed only 20 grains; | of an inch long, \ inch broad, composed of ammonio-magnesian phosphate.
F., aged 44. Large oval tumor in abdomen, extending into right iliac fossa and nearly to umbilicus. Colon traced over its anterior aspect. Much pain in right side, extending down thigh. Blood and latterly pus in urine. Emaciation and hectic.
Incision as for colotomy; cavity of kidney laid open and much concrete pus removed Branched calculus removed after portions had been broken from it with bone-forceps. Stone weighed \\ ounce, composed of lithates coated with phosphates.
F., aged 43. Urine tui'bid and purulent. Tumor in right I'enal region, which was punctured and 8 ounces of pus withdrawn. Three weeks after, incision made in right loin as for colotomy; cyst exposed, opened, and a large branched calculus felt, the greater part of which was removed in pieces with difficulty — a deeply-placed fragment was left behind. Patient never fairly rallied f roin the operation, and died thi-ee days afterwards. Nopos^-?uo/7e»i. Stone which was removed weighed nearly 2 ounces, and consisted almost entirely of phosphate of lime.
F., aged 40. Had symptoms of stone in kidney and abscess, pointing in left loin. This incised with relief, small fistula remaining.
About ten months afterwards oblique incision made in loin, guided by the fistula, and stone extracted from pelvis of left kidney. Stone measured \\ inch by \ inch. Consisted of uric acid
Attempt to remove stone from the kidney by incision through the loin, but none found at the time of operation. After death stone found impacted in the upper part of the ureter.
F., aged 19. For eight years pain in right side with feeling of sickness or vomiting. Repeated attacks of hsematuria. No pus in urine. Lumbar tenderness, but no swelling.
Right kidney exposed through oblique lumbar incision, renal substance incised, and mulberry calculus extracted, weighing 31 grains.
A married woman, aged 23. Seven years previously had passed, by the urethra, a rough calculus as large as a date-stone. Later, much pain in left loin increased in paroxysms. Pus, and sometimes blood in urine. Tumor felt in left renal region, which, under cliloroform, was ascertained to extend about four inches downwards from the lower ribs and about as far from the outer box'der of the loin towards the median line. Incision made as for lumbar colotomy, dilated kidney exposed and opened, with evacuation of 2 ounces of purulent fluid, and removal of calculus from lower part of cavity. Drainage-tube left in wound. Gradual recovery; a small sinus which remained ultimately healed, and in January. 1882, patient was seen in perfect health.
Male, age 19. Subject to pains in back since Cured, age of 7. Two j^ears before operation occasional haematuria; increased pain, affecting left loin, testicle, and buttock, made worse by movement, and occurring in paroxysms. Frequency of micturition. Slight fulness felt in left loin. Urine free from albumin; alkaline; contained only trace of pus. Kidney exposed by lumbar incision, explored with a needle, and stone felt. Kidney opened and stone removed, which was found to weigh 26 grains, and to be composed of uric acid and phosphates. Wound was healed by 35th day, and patient convalescent. Irritability of bladder ceased after removal of stone. Small quantity of pus still found in urine. Resumed work.
Male, aged 20. Severe " neuralgic " pain Cured, and retraction of right testis; some pain in lumbar region; urine contained oxalate of lime crystals, and trace of albumin. Kidney exposed by vertical incision along the
Feb. 9, 1883.
border of the erector spinae, and a soft spot felt, in which was a hard body. This, which proved to be a stone, was exposed and removed. It was of oxalate of lime and weighed 60 grains. The neuralgia of the testis ceased, but pus appeared in the urine after the operation, though there had been none before. This eventually ceased, and the patient perfectly recovered.
Laundress, aged 56. Pain with micturition; frequent passing of gravel and occasional haematuria. Pain in left flank and groin, increased by movement. Urine alkaline; passed in small quantities; specific gravity 1.006; contained f)us, with crystals of uric acid and of the phosphates. Muscular resistance and fulness in left loin, but no distinct tumor felt; in right loin much fulness, pain on pressure, but no distinct fluctuation. In front of abdomen universal tenderness. October 6, incision made in centre of left lumbar swelling, cavity of kidney opened, but no stone felt. Much pain about wound, and discharge from it. On Nov. 23, wound enlarged and further explored; no stone found. Patient never rallied, but sank on the following day. Post-mortem — Left kidney dilated; pelvis opened into suppurating cavity behind it, into which incision had been made. Two or three small pieces of calculus, like pins' heads, had formed in calyces. Large branching calculus in right kidney, which almost blocked ureter.
Man, aged 27. Portion of elastic catheter Permanent disbroken into bladder — consequent cystitis charge of with abscess in left iliac fossa, which pre- urine through sumably became connected with the pelvis the wound in of the left kidney. Five weeks later rigor loin. Recovand suppression of urine occurred. A ca- ery incomplete theter brought from the bladder only mucus at date of reand a small calculus. Obstruction of the port. right kidney by calculus diagnosed. Inci sion made from the eleventh rib to the crest of the ilium. Stone felt in the hilum. Pel vis exposed at bottom of wound, and stone as lai'ge as a bean, with several smaller pieces, ultimately removed through an incision in the commencement of the ureter. Urine afterwards passed entirely through wound. Four days later ureter cut and upper end fixed in wound, through which urine was permanently discharged. At date of report, wound uniting, and patient recovering, though feeble.
Coal miner, aged 34. Symptoms since six- Wound perteen, hasmaturia, ropy discharge, pain in fectly healed loin increased by exertion. Occasional at- and recovery tacks of renal colic; small stone passed, complete. Incision from the loin, stone not felt with finger, but by acupuncture. Kidney ap-
pareutly liealthj-, incised vertically, and stone extracted, which was 3 inches long, and weighed 1 ounce. Chiefly phosphatic. Much bleeding, pain, and shock. Subsequent slight pleurisy. Female, aged 26. For several years attacks of pain in right hj'pochondrium and vomiting. Fluctuating swelling in loin, from which 4^ ounces of pus removed by aspiration. Cavity of kidney evacuated by lumbar incision, and stone taken out, apparently consisting of oxalate of lime. It weighed 64 grains and measured Ij inches in length. Urine ceased to escape by wound 16 days after operation. Wound closed in 31 days. Coexistent urethritis and vaginitis.
Renal Lithotrity.
Symptoms of renal calculus were verified by the passage of trocar and canula, and the striking of a stone in the kidney. Canula left in for some time, after which wound dilated by tents, until the sinus was large enovigh to admit the finger. Lithotrite , passed, stone crushed and removed. Sinus afterwards healed.'
F., aged 41. Incision along the edge of the erector spinae, from the pelvis to the eleventh rib, hilum of the kidney reached with little difficulty, but no stone found. Pelvis and ureter examined on the outside, but not opened. All appeared perfectly healthy. Recovered from operation, but not relieved of pain, hsematuria, and other symptoms from which she had suffered. [For conclusion of case see Table IV., Case 1.]
Man, " who for five months had suffered from symptoms which indicated the probable presence of a renal calculus." Kidney exposed fi'om behind; pelvis and commencement of ureter examined, but no stone found. Organ seemed shrunken and soft, but was not interfered with. Recovered from the operation; nausea which had been nearly continuous, was relieved, and pain
six weeks afterwards.
Fulness perceptible to hand and eye in left loin; pain down spermatic cord. Pus in urine. Diagnosis of renal cyst containing pus. Stone to be removed if found. Oblique incision in loin like that for colotomy. Kidney fairly exposed; curved trocar passed through its cortex, and flow of pus ensued. Pelvis explored internall3\ but no stone found. After death kidney found to be the seat of tuberculous excavation; no stone present. Incision, which had entered back of pelvis, was healing.
Lady, aged 56. Passed a stone six years before, after an attack of renal colic on the right side. Pain relieved but not removed; continued of a dull aching character. Pus in urine. Right lumbar region incised down to kidney, and 10 ounces of pus evacuated. Kidney found "honey-
combed," but no stone discovered. Operation gave relief at once: pus disappeared from urine. For a time urine passed through wound, w^hich was washed out daily with iodine water. In two months lumbar opening closed, and patient well.
Intense "renal neuralgia," on the left side, in a boy, from whose urethra an impacted calculus had been removed; also pain in bladder. Kidney cut down and explored, back and front, but no stone found. Temporary relief, then pain returned. Afterwards Mr. Durham cut into bladder, but no stone found.
Girl, 7 years of age. Attack of hasmaturia eighteen months before admission; another subsequently. Urine became jiurulent. Swelling in region of right kidney; much hectic. Incision made as for lumbar colotomy; no stone found. Drainage-tube inserted; pus in urine and hectic continued. (See Table IV., Cases.)
Boy, aged 16 years. Frequent attacks of pain in left renal region for four years before admission. Fluctuating tense swelling, evident during attack of pain, in left renal region; subsiding afterwaixls, with dis-
the operation.
' I have to thank Mr. Bryant for giving me the advantage of his large experience, both published and unpublished. In his well-known work on surgery (edit. 3, vol. ii. p. 57) are two cases in which he cut from the loin into a renal swelling, evacuating in one instance 3 pints, in the other a quart, of pus. In the latter the finger was easily passed into the dilated pelvis of the kidney. As to the results of these operations, one patient "made a good recovery," the other received "marked benefit." I have been informed by Mr. Haffenden, under whose care one of these patients now is (April 1881), that she has a permanent fistula as the result of the operation, through which what appears to be all the urine of one kidney makes its exit. I have not included tliese cases in the table, as the object in view appears rather to have been the release of imprisoned matter than the removal of stone.
charge of pus with the urine. Incision as for lumbar colotomy; dilated kidney exposed and incised, but no stone found. Patient recovered from operation with permanent fistula, in which a drainage-tube was inserted.
ney exposed by an incision parallel to last rib, and felt all over without discovery of stone. The kidney does not appear to have been opened. The wound readily healed, and the patient left his bed in a fortnight.
F., aged 30. Symptoms of calculous pyelitis Died on thirtyfor twelve years. Kidney extracted by first day of lumbar incision. Vomiting and abdominal pyaemia, pain afterwards. Kidney small, fibrous; contained calculus.
M., aged 21. Symptoms of calculous pyelitis for three or four years. Renal abscess opened in September, 1877, and drained Nephrectomy by lumbar incision, when fistula closed. Perinephritic abscess after ■wards, which had to be drained into rectum Kidney dilated into sac with adherent calculi.
M., aged 23. Pain and haematuria from childhood. Pain increased by exercise, Avhich latterly became imiwssible. Nephrectomy by lumbar incision; which had healed in fourteen days. Small calculus in slightly dilated, but otherwise healthy, kidney.
F., 32 years. Renal pain since childhood; swelling noticed one montli. Pyonephrosis diagnosed, and attributed to calculus. Nephrectomy by lumbar incision. Kidney vascular and dilated. Small calculus in mouth of ureter.
F., aged 38 pears. Anasmic. Pain fifteen months. Pyelitis. Swelling twelve months. Diagnosis between stone and tubercle, determined by striking stone with needle passed through loin. Kidney exposed by lumbar incision, and opened. Large branched stone found, but only a portion extracted. Kidney then enucleated and tied, after which it was found that stone
could be exti'acted. Kidney sacculated Colon torn in course of operation, M., aged 18 years. Swelling in loin, which broke and discharged. Urine contained muco-purulent matter, and afterwards much pus. On October 18, 1880, incision as for lumbar colotomv ; 6 ounces of pus discharged; sinus left, at bottom of which stone was ultimately felt. May 5, 1881: Another lumbar incision outside sinus; stone found to be deeply imbedded; broke and could not be removed Kidney there, fore ligatured and removed. Many frag ments of stone came away during operation and afterwards. Married woman, aged 57. Passed stone twenty-six years before. For three months pains in back. Urine thick, milky, and frequent. Tumor felt in right side from ribs to within linger's breadth of crest of ilium, at lower part of which was projection, which was thought to be calculus. Much pus in urine. Legs oedematous at times. Stone felt with needle introduced through loin. Kidney removed by incision in medium line of abdomen. Operation protracted. The kidney, which had been removed, contained several calculi of uric acid; it was almost entirely disor ganized. Other kidney healthy. Male, aged 43. Frequent attacks of htema turia since age of IS. Passed many stones of size of lentils. Swelling in loin which was punctred.and pulpy and chalky matter let out. Hsematuria recurred after punc tux-e. Some months afterwards kidney removed by lumbar opening. Found to contain matter and many concretions of phosphate of ammonia and magnesia, the largest of which were of the size of cherries. Married woman, aged 34. For 9 years, pain in right loin. For 4 years urine ammoniacal and contained pus and blood. Procidentia of uterus and bladder of long-standing, consequent upon labor. Tumor as large as fist felt in right loin, at inner margin of which was nodulated lump as large as walnut, thought to be stone. Kidney removed by incision along edge of rectus muscle. Left kidney felt through wound in normal position. Right kidney pyelitic, contained phosphatic stone weighing 135 grains. Obstruction of bowels after operation. Wound reopened and abscess found near stump of divided vessels which pressed on ascending colon. Three ounces of pus discharged and obstruction relieved. Abscess thought afterwards to discharge into bladder.
Result.
lithotomy in Table II. Two years after this operation, patient not having been relieved of pain, hsematuria, and other symptoms, right kidney removed bj' lumbar incision, and found to be healthy. Details wanting
aged 36. Symptoms for nineteen months,
York), May 16, Frequency of micturition; pains in bladder 1872. ("New and right renal region; much pus; and oc York Med. casional streak of blood in urine. Swell Journ." vol. xvi. ing of right testicle and spermatic cord p. 473, 1872.) Enlargement in position of right kidney
aspirator withdrew 3 ounces of pus; supposed fragments of stone in eye of trocar, Incision from lower border of twelfth rib to crest of ilium. Kidney found to contain pus; no stone discovered. Thought to be useless and to have been damaged in operation— therefore removed. Found to be extensively tuberculous, as also were right ureter, seminal vesicle, and epididymis. Dumrarei c h e r M., aged 33. Weak and anfemic. Symptoms (Vienna). Aug. I from childhood, worse for ten years. Pyelitis supposed to be of calculus origin; with perinephritic abscess on left side. Nephrectomy by lumbar incision. Pleura wounded in course of operation. Kidney vascular and dilated; imbedded in dense inflammatory tissue. No stone. M., aged 54. Passed calculi twenty -six years. Died before. Healthy until fourteen years before. Symptoms of calculous pyelitis. Lumbar incision. Kidney difficult to remove in consequence of dense mass of adherent tissue by which it was surrounded Severe haemorrhage from renal veins. Kidney enlarged and sacculated.
eighteen months before admission; another subsequently. Urine became purulent. Swelling in region of right kidney. Much hectic. December 7. 1880, incision as for lumbar colotomy. No stone found. On February 22 kidney removed through place of former incision. Kidney scrofulous. Much improvement; but in July, 1881, urine still contained pus. M., aged 58. Pain in right loin three years before admission. Urine then purulent, foetid, and passed with frequency. Urine sometimes nearly clear; discharge reappearing with rigors and paroxysm of pain from
loin to testis. Pyelitis diagnosed ; probably of calculous origin. Kidney exposed by lumbar incision, and much pus let out. No stone found. Removal of kidney attempted, but only partially accomplished. Right kidney found to be sacculated in consequence of stricture of ureter of uncertain origin, and surrounded by adhesions. Opposite kidney natural. M., aged 30. Hsematuria for two years; latterly constant and profuse. Clots expelled with difficulty. Constant pain in right loin; no increase of lumbar dulness. Phosphates, blood, and epithelium; but no casts in urine. Marked anfemia. Incision in loin; no stone found. Kidney then excised— it proved to be the seat of a malig nant growth.
I have annexed in a condensed form the particulars of thirty-five cases in whicli operations have in recent times been performed for stone in the kidney, omitting several of which the result is uncertain or not fully stated ; tlie catalogue, even if not complete, may fairly represent present experience. First, as to tiie existence of the disease whicli it was designed to remove, it a^ipears that in thirteen of these cases no stone was found, a proportion of erroneous diagnosis wliicli is certain to diminish now that attention is called to this subject. It can scarcely be accepted as a persistent rule that in a third of the instances in wliich a renal stone is confidently diagnosed, no such concretion exists. Did the difficulty of diagnosis amount to this, the feasibility of any operation for its removal with or without the kidney would scarcely need further dis-
ciission. But, as in many novel enterprises, the early adventurers fell into errors, which may serve as warnings against their repetition. The incision into and the removal of the healthy kidney presents itself in this light. With such facts before us as the tables present, we may at least insist that no operation for the relief of renal calculus be undertaken on the evidence of pain or general symptoms, unless corroborated by the discharge of blood or pus, or at least, as in Mr. Butlin's case, of crystals and albumin. The doubt likely to occur in future, is not between disease and no disease, but between stone and tubercle. The distinctions have been detailed elsewhere (pp. 89, 1G4:). With tubercle there is usually a characteristic look, family liistory and temperature, and often disease possibly incipient in the lungs. The pain is not acute, nor does it widely extend, nor is it aggravated by movement or in paroxysms. Hasmaturia is the exception, cystitis the rule. With stone, these statements may be reversed. By way of insuring the diagnosis, a calculus has been struck with a needle inserted behind; this could scarcely be reckoned upon unless, as in a case in which Mr. Barker thus detected a stone, it presented a large surface. Manual explorations by the rectum may sometimes be of use, and an instance has been referred to in which the grating of stones in the kidney was felt through the abdominal wall. It has been supposed that single stones could be detected by palpation through the integuments, particularly in children and under chloroform, but though a lump may be thus discovered in the renal position, its nature may be doubtful. A stone diagnosed by this means has, within my knowledge, turned out to be tubercle. As a rule, the diagnosis of stones in the kidney rests not on any one certain indication, but on the concurrence of a number each of which and all together may be mistaken. A somewhat careful balancing of evidence is often needed, Avhich in the cases before us does not appear always to have found place. A doubt as to the existence of a stone must, as a rule, negative any operation for it, notwithstanding that it is clear that the kidney can be cut into from behind, whether tentatively or otherwise, without great danger, supposing that nothing else is attempted.
The kidney has been opened from the loin for tlie purpose of removing a stone from it, in sixteen cases, in fourteen of which the operation was limited to lithotomy or lithotrity, and is accordingly detailed in Table I.; in two nephrectomy was executed upon the failure of the less formidable procedure, and the instances therefore referred to in Table III. Of the sixteen operations, eight were immediately successful; eight unsuccessful ; six fatal. Of the unsuccessful operations, two were, as stated, followed by nephrectomy, once with a favorable, once with a fatal issue. In one of the cases of successful lithotomy there was a previous sinus; in seven, none. One instance is included in which tiic stone was crushed, and then removed through a puncture rather than an incision. In two of the cases counted as successful, a sinus was left at date of the report, one of which did not communicate with the kidney; in the rest healing was complete. Among the unsuccessful cases was one in which the stone was not on the side of the operation, one in which it was inaccessibly placed in the ureter.
The causes of death after renal lithotomy are not stated in every fatal case, but it is to be remarked that extravasation of urine finds no place among them. Of four cases where the manner of death is stated it occurred from sinking in tliree instances; from pytemia in one. Among the results of nephrectomy for existing stone we find similar dangers; shock or sinking in three cases ; pyaemia in one. Peritonitis presented itself as a cause of death in one instance, in which a tuberculous kidney Avas exi)lored for stone, but did not occur as the result of any operation in which calculus was correctly diagnosed. Suppression of urine occurred in one case of fatal nephrectomy in which no stone was found.
Grave as the recorded results are, thej^ are encouraging and are daily becoming more so; we owe a debt of gratitude to those surgeons whose enterprise has placed renal calculus in the list of curable diseases. Mistakes of diagnosis can scarcely be so frequent in the future as in the past, and the attempt to remove bodily a kidney from which a stone could not be extracted, or in wliich it could not be found, is an addition to the mor-tality which may be avoided. It appears that a kidney may be laid open from or exposed behind without special danger, and with a death rate represented, so long as no evisceration be attempted, by six deaths in twenty-two cases. It is to be expected that with further experience the operative process will improve, and to be hoped that in future surgical enterprise may be more successfully guided by medical judgment.
The system is tolerant of renal calculi more so than of vesical ; with pain slight, and danger remote or hypothetical, no such operation as in question can be justifiable. But in some cases the pain is so great as to warrant much risk in search of cure, and in others the tendency of the disease is such that, should an operation kill, it will only anticipate by a little the action of nature. In such circumstances it maybe right to cut for stone in the kidney, accepting the teaching of experience mainly in two respects — not to do so when the diagnosis is doubtful, and, in doing it, to do as little as possible. Another rule wliich may be laid down, is not to cut for stone if the renal discharge intermits and accumulates, since this habit would indicate obstruction in the ureter, a condition which no operation would be likely to remove. A discouraging consideration is the possibility that, if the stone be of long standing and ])resumably phosphatic, it may be of such a size or branched in such a manner as to make its removal during life clearly impracticable.
The frequency with which stone affects both kidneys (about one case in five) can scarcely be held to militate against the operation. The danger of it may be somewhat more if there be any obstruction of the unconcerned kidney; but in this case there is the greater need that the risk should be incurred, since it is an attempt to remove a condition which is one of mortal, though, perhaps, not immediate peril.
Solvent Treatment of Kenal Stones.
"When an imperfect and much dreaded process of lithotomy was the only method of removing stones in substance from the bladder, lithonthryptics, as they were called, were sought eagerly and not without success, though the composition of urinary calculi was then unknown, and the search was guided solely by empirical considerations. Alkalies were early used for this j^urpose. Basil Valentine used a fixed alkaline salt in
calculous disorders, and Sennertus in similar circumstances is said to have em|)lo3'ed cream of tartar. The searcli received a later direction from Joanna Stephens. Her nostrums for the solution of stone having become notorious, Parliament, acting by the advice of a scientific committee Avlio put her ren;iedy to the test of clinical experiment, bought her secret in the year 1739 for £5,000, and made it public as follows for the benefit of mankind.' " My medicines are a powder, a decoction, and j)ills. The powder consists of eggshells and snails, both calcined. The decoction is made by boiling some herbs (together with a ball wliich consists of soap, swine's cresses burnt to blacivuess, and honey) in water. Tiie pills consist of snails calcined, wild carrot seeds, burdock seeds, ashen keyes, hips and hawes, all burnt to blackness, soap and honey." Tlie powder was given in drachm doses; the decoction by half-pints. The pills, which were luirchased by quarts, were swallowed at the rate of fifty or sixty a day, in weight about two ounces.*
Calcined eggshells and soap had been long esteemed as lithonthryptics, as also had most of the vegetable ingredients of her charred and nauseous mass. The essentials of the mixture were lime and soap, or, in other words, lime and potash, since in considering the remote action of the soap we may put aside the oil and have regard only to the alkaline bases, which Avith Alicant or Castile soap are lime and potash. Thus a powerful alkaline remedy was given in large doses with the effect, as we learn from the case published by Dr. Parsons, of making the urine alkaline and keeping it so for months. Mrs. Stevens' alkalies did not cure, but it is evident from the published cases that they often much alleviated, and even when they apparently did the reverse they did not fail to encourage the patient by engendering phosphatic sand and grit, which he fondly attributed to disintegration of the stone. After the death of a man (Mr. Gardner) whose supposed cure had helped to make the fame of the medicine and the fortune of the proprietor, no less than nine stones were found in his bladder. These had become sacculated in such a manner as to elude the experienced sound of Cheselden.'
In spite, however, of this solution, rather of the doubt than the stone, soap, lime, and alkalies continued to be introduced in all shapes, both by the mouth and by the urethra, in calculous affections of every kind. There is still to be seen in tlie College of Surgeons a large saponaceous mass, which had accumulated in the bladder as the result of this misdirection of a valuable external ai)plication. Subsequently, when, owing in great measure to the researches of Wollaston, the nature of urinary calculi began to be understood, alkalies by themselves came to be extensively used. Dr. Marcet, in the year 1819, pointed out that the alkalies, which he recommended as bicarbonates, could exert a solvent action only u])on lithic acid, while phosphatic concretions might be aggravated or originated by their use. He, however, despaired of materially lessening large concretions of any kind in this manner, having regard to the small surface tliey exposed in relation to their bulk, and limited the use of alkalies to the correction of the uric acid diathesis, the prevention of the increase of existing calculi and the formation of fresh ones, and to such solvent action upon small stones and gravel as might round their edges,
The solution of urinary calculi was subsequently investigated, at the instance of the Academy of Sciences, by Gay Lussac and Pelouze, with reference to the researches of d'Etoilles upon the subject. The results ^ were published in the year 18-42. Experiments were made upon different sorts of calculi and with various reputed solvents, of which the alkaline carbonates received most consideration. Stones were exposed, even for a year, to solutions containing from 1 to 2 per cent of the carbonates of potash or soda. None were dissolved; some were not even diminished in bulk. They had lost from a quarter to half their original weight.
In another experiment fragments were ex^iosed for three months to a stream of water holding in solution one-twentieth of its weight of carbonate of soda. The fragments did not generally lose volume, but became friable, and lost from ten to sixty per cent of weight.
After such experiments, and others upon the living body, in which alkaline carbonates were given as medicine, and passed as injections into the bladder, the Commission reported that, without denying the possibility of the cure of stone by solution in certain cases, they were of opinion that unless the calculi were small they were not likely to be destroyed by agents acting indirectly, as baths or potions, and that as to solvents applied directly by injection, though they acted more powerfully, yet the process was attended with difficulty and danger, not counterbalanced, as in lithotrity, by the prospect of speedy cure. Finally, the Commission suggested that the plan might be of use in conjunction with lithotrity, where a large surface was exposed by fracture to the action of the solvent.
Front,' writing in 1843, spoke hopefully of the solution of stone by medicine, but did not materially add to the previous knowledge of the subject. He. believed healthy urine to have in itself a certain amount of solvent power over concretions of lithic acid. Medicinally, in the treatment of such stones he recommended Vichy Avater, or the alkaline bicarbonates, giving the preference to potash, which he advised in quantities of from one to two drachms a day, with an equal quantity of tartarated soda. He used these salts in solutions containing an excess of carbonic acid, in which shape he attributed them to a peculiar disintegrating power. He thought that by such means ''an impression might be made " on calculi in the kidney or bladder, but admits that the method is long, tedious, and uncertain. He restricts the use of solvents by injection to the employment of acids in the jihosphatic diathesis.
More recently the subject has been resuscitated by the researches of Dr. William Roberts,^ which enable us to direct the old remedies with new precision; though it must still be admitted that the dissipation of stones of bulk by agents which have to traverse the general circulation is a matter of hope rather than experience.
After this indication of the steps by which it has been reached, our present knowledge of the subject may be easily disjilayed, so far as it bears upon the subject of this treatise.
Phosphatic stones are soluble in dilute acids. Uric acid, the urates,
' Marcet on Calculoxis Disorders, 1819, p. 152. ^ Coinptes Rendus, vol. xiv. p. 429. ^ On Stomach and Renal Diseases, 3d edit. p. 424 et seq.
from consideration.
With regard to acid solvents, as there is no way of causing the urine to be secreted so acid as to act upon stones, they can only be applied by the urethra and to the vesical cavity. Stones in the kidney are out of their reach. The coats of the bladder will endure a solution of nitric acid strong enough to produce the slow dissolution of phosphatic calculi, and I have seen this means resorted to, though vainly, in the treatment of a concretion of this character which was considered, justly, as it turned out, too large to be dealt with by either cutting or crushing. The case must be quite exceptional in which this tedious and uncertain method can be preferred to the recognized surgical expedients. It w^ould jseem to have its use, as long ago suggested, rather as an adjunct to lithotrity than as a substitute for it. In a case mentioned by Dr. Roberts,' the fragments left after the operation Avere dissolved, and the formation of fresh phosphatic matter, to Avhich there was a great tendency, was prevented by the injection every day, or every other day, of a solution of two drachms of dilute nitric acid to a pint of water. The treatment of Tesical stones, however, to which only this method applies, is foreign to the design of this work.
With regard to stones which remain in the kidney, the question reduces itself, in the present state of our knowledge, to the solvent action of urine, alkalized by the mouth. Solvents can reach renal calculi only by secretion, and those only which are alkaline can be thus conveyed. The stones which we can ho])e to affect in this way are uric acid, the urates, and cystine; uric acid as the most common, must be chiefly considered.
The belief in the efficacy of lime-water as a solvent for calculi, which prevailed in the last century, with the evidence which was adduced, at least of relief by it, together with the present commendations to the same end, of calcareous waters, make it of interest to look somewhat narrowly at the powers of solution which this earth possesses, and can impart to the urine.*
Lime-water out of the body will dissolve uric acid and disintegrate calculi mainly consisting of it, and lead to their destruction more readily, at least, than any of the alkaline carbonates. A piece of uric acid calculus soaked in lime-water, which was frequently renewed, became so friable in three weeks as to break at a touch, while in six weeks it had crumbled so neai'ly to powder that no fragments remained but such as would have readily escaped by tlie urethra. Similar portions of the fiame stone scarcely lost percei)tibly in solutions of carbonate of i)otash and of ammonia; while in carbonate of soda and in carbonate of ammonia they underwent a slight increase of weight. Next to lime-water, the greatest disintegration in this experiment was effected by pure water.
Thus, if lime-water could traverse the system as such, and reach the bladder with its jiroperties intact, it would clearly be an efficaceous and safe lithonthr3'ptic as far as uric acid is concerned. But it is sufficiently clear that lime given by tiie mouth cannot reappear in the urine either as the calcic oxide, or even as the carbonate.
The calcic oxide must necessarily form salts in the blood, and thus lose the activity which belonged to it before; while the earth cannot emerge in the urine as a carbonate by reason of the insolubility of that compound. It can reach the urine only as a salt, presumably a phosphate to which we have no reason to attribute any such solvent power as the alkaline earth possesses. But although lime cannot enter the urine in a free state, or as carbonate, it yet has the power of making the urine alkaline, and upon this depends any action it may liave upon uric acid. The urine may be made alkaline by limewater, by the Liquor Calcis Saccharatus, or, more conveniently, by the acetate of lime, which is decomposed in the body, and has much the same ultimate effect as a corresponding quantity of lime-water. The amount of this water needed to make the urine alkaline is, of course, very large, as were the doses given of old — two quarts a day, for example. With the addition of the saccharate the same effect can be accomplished without preposterous dosage. Of the acetate I have found from 'Z to 12 drachms daily, according to age and circumstance, effective in making ordinarily acid urine alkaline.
Lime thus given probably leaves the system largely by the bowels, but somewhat with the urine. It may sometimes be noted, however, that the urine becomes alkaline before it disphiys any increased precipitate with liquor potass*, or, in other words, before any of the lime so administered has reached it. The alkalescence is due to the potash and soda which the lime has displaced. If the urine, therefore, in such a case has any solvent power, it owes it to these alkalies, not to the lime. Indeed, it is clear, from the reasons I have stated, that the lithonthryptic properties of this caustic earth cannot survive transit by the blood, in which phosphoric acid abounds ; but nevertheless it makes the urine alkaline, and thus a solvent of uric acid, whatever the immediate cause of the alkalescence be. But if lime is to make the urine alkaline by the agency of potash and soda, it only does indirectly and with concomitant risk what can be done directly and safely. Lime promotes the formation of the oxalates in acid urine, of the phosphates in alkaline. The alkalies may, indeed, increase the deposition of the phospluites, but not of the oxalate. Lime, therefore, as a solvent of uric acid by the mouth is inferior to the alkalies. If the question were the solution of uric acid by injection into the bladder, lime would be more effective than anything but liquor potassge, than which it might prove to be better borne. But with lithotrity possible, injection need not be consitlered.
It is scarcely needful to add a corollary touching the use of calcareous waters, such as those of Contrexeville, which have been vaunted as solvents or expellers of gravel. Contrexeville is a slightly alkaline calcareous water. It contains sulphate of lime in chief (in a proportion of about 1.2 in a thousand parts) with smaller quantities of the carbonates of lime, magnesia, and soda, and other salts. This is drunk at the rate of twenty or thirty glasses a day, with the obvious results of diuresis and sometimes purgation, and the reputed effects of bringing away gravel and relieving gout and vesical catarrh. It may well be believed that scanty urine may be made abundant, over acid urine not so, that gravel may be washed from tiie pelvis and tubes, and that the salutary consequences of irrigation may be wrought in a system loaded with the ]n-oducts of inactivity and excess ; but whether all this would not be better done by some non-calcareous water is a question to be asked. I do not know whether stone is especially common among the natives of Contrexe-
ville, bat we know enough of the endemic influence of calcareous water in our own country, to make us cautious in the use of it wliere a calculous proclivity exists. And it has been already sliown that lime-salts taken by the mouth impart no solvent ])ower to the urine which may not be equally given by other means. Lithia is more promising than lime in respect of the solubility of its carbonate, which appears to reach the urine and act there according to its kind. I shall postpone what I have to say of this earth until after the consideration of potash, with which it may with convenience be compared. Soda must be at once discarded. Urate of soda is a difficultly soluble substance of greater bulk than the uric acid of which it was formed, so that salts of soda may, under certain circumstances, lead to the increase of uric acid calculi rather than their decrease. I found that a fragment of a stone of this nature had added oneseventh to its weight in a week, by a rough incrustation which a solution of carbonate of soda had imparted to it. Hence, soda must be put aside, and with it the numerous waters, with Vichy at their head, which owe their alkalinity to it.
A word may be said in passing as to the action of ammonia. Though this alkali is not secreted by the kidneys when given by the mouth, yet its carbonate is so often present in the urine as a product of decomposition, that its action upon stones is not without interest. Ammonia and its carbonate have in water an effect upon uric acid which is comparable to that exerted by the fixed alkalies and their carbonates — forming an urate which may be either dissolved or left as an incrustation — but in urine ammonia, whether free or as carbonate — the carbonate only need be considered — produces such a deposition of the triple or mixed phosphates that any stone which may be present is both increased thereby and protected from any solution that might otherwise be possible. Nevertheless, it may be supposed that if an uric acid stone or part of it be kept clear by friction, a certain amount of solution may in course of time be produced by the ammoniacal products to which itself has given rise, and thus may probably be explained the signs of spontaneous solution which are sometimes to be discerned upon the calculi.
Dr. Eoberts came to the conclusion that salts of potash were more effective as solvents of uric acid calculi than those of soda or lithia, and that of carbonate of potash in particular, the solvent power was up to a certain point increased by dilution, the maximum action upon the uric acid belonging to a solution of sixty grains to the imperial pint. With increasing strength the solution was arrested by an incrustation of biurate of pota.sh,' insoluble in all but very dilute solutions, which protected the stone from further action. AVith solutions containing from forty to sixty grains to the pint, tiiere was scarcely any accumulation of this material, as it was removed as fast as formed; with eighty grains there was a loose, with 120 grains, a tenacious coat.
Having ascertained the material and the strength of solutions which have'the greatest })ower of dissolving uric acid out of the body, the next step is to impart to the urine within it the needful amount of tiie needful substance. The salts which the alkalies form with the vegetable acids appear in the urine as carbonates, a fact which as regards citrate of potash Avas originally pointed out by Sir Gilbert Blane. AVith potash, for example, the urine will equally contain its carbonate whether the
alkali be given in a caustic state, as bicarbonate, or as tartrate, acetate, or citrate. Of these preparations the citrate a])pears to create tlie least disturbance. It may indeed be given in quantity sufficient to keep the urine alkaline for an almost unlimited time without injuriously affecting the stomach or bowels, without causing vesical irritation, Avithout causing the patient to lose weiglit or strength, or hurting the health in any manner. A man whom I treated unsuccessfully for a presumed uric acid stone in his kidney took a drachm of citrate of potash every four hours for nearly five months, during which time his urine was constantly alkaline. Under the treatment he gained slightly in weight, lost an appearance of anaemia which he had at its commencement, and improved in general health. Sligiit nocturnal frequency of micturition was the only undesirable consequence which was noticed. From this and many similar experiences, including those afforded by the alkaline treatment of acute rheumatism, it is certain that most persons can take the citrate of potash and other neutral salts of the alkalies in considerable doses, and for a considerable time, without liarm.
I must here say a Avord about lithia, which as a lithonthryptic is more encouraging to the chemist than the physician. Dr. Garrod, as is Avell known, has been led to the belief that this earth is a more active solvent for uric acid than potash, Avhile Dr. Eoberts has come to the contrary conclusion. I have made many experiments, in which fragments of uric acid stones have been exposed under the same circumstances to the action of carbonate of lithia and carbonate of potash, and I have found as a constant result that outside the body the earth has dissolved more than tlie alkali. Among others I may briefly relate three. Of the first the subject was a small stone, nine-tenths of which consisted of uric acid and urates, one-tenth of phosphates. Three similar portions, each weighing .377gramme, were suspended each in six pints of liquid, one in distilled water, one in a solution of carbonate of potash, a drachm to each pint of distilled water, one in a solution of carbonate of lithia of the same strength. After nineteen days of the month of June the stone in water was found to weigh .365 gramme, that in potash .254, much encrusted, that in lithia .091, clean and so friable as to crumble at a touch. The Avater had taken aAvay a thirty-first, the potash a third, the lithia three-fourths. Another experiment dealt with two similar portions of a large stone of almost pure uric acid, each of Avhich Aveighed 2.775 grammes. One of these Avas suspended in a solution of carbonate of potash in distilled Avater, half a drachm to 10 ounces, the other in a similar solution of carbonate of lithia. Both were kept in a Avater oven at a mean temperature of 100° Fahr. ; the solutions Avere changed every day but the stones not touched. After four days and nights, the piece in lithia had become so attenuated that the experiment Avas discontinued lest there should be nothing to shoAv; what remained Aveighed .404 gramme, six-se\'enths having gone; what Avas left was uncoated and extremely friable. The piece in potash Avas covered Avith a brittle Avhite crust including Avhicii it Aveighed 2.053, having lost a little over a quarter of its Aveight. In the last experiment to which I need refer, tAvo portions of the same stone as in the preceding were treated similarly in all respects except that they were brushed tAvice a day so as to remoA'e any crust which might form, as might be presumed to be done Avithin the body by movement. Each piece Aveighed at starting .728 gramme. After tliree days and nights the stone in lithia had been reduced to .042, and in potash to .225. The inferior result from the potash thus appears to be
upon uric acid.
Accepting this conclusion as constant out of the body, we come to the most unsatisfactory part of the question. The salts of litliia, whether carbonate or citrate, are not tolerated in anything like the quantities in which potash can be generally given with impunity, and cannot be suitably employed so as to keep the urine constantly alkaline. Whatever value lithia may have in doses short of this result, it appears that enough to accomplish it generally produces disagreeable consequences — headache, sickness, trembling, and dimness of sight. I have given for short periods as much as half a drachm of the citrate or carbonate every four hours, with the effect of rendering the urine quickly and decidedly alkaline; could we continue the drug in anything like these quantities we might find the solution of caculi within the body practicable, but it is sufficiently clear that such doses cannot be long borne, and indeed it would appear that in ordinary circumstances the alkalinity necessary to the solution of calculi cannot be long maintained by lithia without such constitutional disturbance as would call for its discontinuance.
It must be borne in mind that there are those to whom alkalies of any kind are i'»eculiarly inimical. The class is small but easy of recognition. The disturbances which belong to it, as elsewhere detailed, though often having a superficial resemblance to those in which alkalies are of use, present essential differences to them. The individuals referred to are of nervous temperament, and have one form of what has been called the phosphatic diathesis. The urine, which may be naturally or over acid, but perhaps more often is wanting in acidity, is pale, copious, and gives a bulky precipitate with liquor potassae in consequence of the excess of earthy, chiefly of lime, salts which it contains. Oxalate of lime and the crystalline phosphate are of frequent occurrence as spontaneous deposits, and if calculi are found they are apt to be of the oxalate or some other earthy salt. Uric acid is seldom thrown down. Lithates, if they occur, are pale, not red. These characters of the urine are conjoined with a sensitive, mobile, and often intellectual character. There is bodily as well as mental activity, and an aspect tending to i)allor, or at least not rubicund. The tongue is apt to be tremulous, and as if boiled, anasmic, uniformly coated, and wliat is called oedematous. All these conditions are aggravated by mental disturbance, under which the amount of lime in the urine is at once increased, possibly as an evident crystalline deposit. With these persons gout take an asthenic shape; if they have rheumatic fever it is not with the acute symptoms and acid overi)lus common to others, or with the same liability to cardiac complications. Thus their diseases do not suggest alkalies, and should such drugs be inadvertently administered their inappropriateness is shown by early alkalinity of urine, the aggravation of any neuralgic symptoms that may exist, the tongue at the same time turning more white, sodden, and shaky, and by increasing malaise and nervous prostration. Persons in general, however, and especially those who deposit uric acid, endure alkalies well enough to allow of their free and protracted use. By such means considerable vesical stones have been so acted upon as to show, after their removal from the bladder, evident signs of solution; small ones have, it is believed, been entirely dissolved
or reduced to viable size. With stones in the kidney, this amount of success, small as it is, appears to have been seldom attained,' though Dr. Ralfe has recently related an instance in which one came away in an attenuated state, owing as was thought to alkalies and soft water. Stones in the pelvis are probably less effectively exposed to the action of the urine tiian in the bladder. Renal calculi are washed, vesical are soaked. The bladder usually contains urine in which the stones lie more or less completely and constantly exposed to its influence. The pelvis is generally empty, or nearly so, the urine leaving it, except under constrained positions of the body or morbid obstruction, almost as fast as it enters, so that calculi here lodged are only acted upon, and that transiently, by as much of the secretion as trickles over their surface.
The solvent plan must, as has been shown, be practically limited to concretions composed almost entirely of uric acid or urates, or the two together. With this in view it becomes of importance that we should know the numerical chance that the stone is of material thus soluble. The table (page 122) which has been already explained, was compiled with this object. Thence it appears that of ninety-one renal calculi in the museums of London, twenty-one were wholly composed of uric acid, three of urates, seven of uric acid and urates together, and two of cystine. These, thirty-three in number, comprise all, even theoretically, assailable by alkaline solvents. For practical purposes we may exclude the rare cystine stones, the solution of which has as yet received little attention, and regard as amenable to the alkaline treatment, only those calculi which consist of uric acid and the urates. These, as it is seen, comprise almost exactly a third of the whole number. It must be borne in mind, however, that the calculi enumerated were with few exceptions taken from the body after death. They had, therefore, had the utmost time to gather phosphates and remove themselves from the class of soluble stones. It is probable that, at an earlier period, a few of them may have consisted wholly of uric acid and been possible subjects for solution. But it is evident from the fact that the compound calculi have more often a nucleus of oxalate of lime than of uric acid, that the number at any time soluble by alkalies never could have amounted to one-half. It may be observed that thirty-nine of the ninety-one calculi whicii contained either a phosphatic deposit or carbonate of lime, had necessarily been associated at some period of their growtii with alkaline urine, and were therefore not only insoluble in alkalies but were liable to derive fresh accretion from alkalization. It will be readily inferred that the causes of renal calculi amenable to alkaline treatment are proportionately few. The stone must be of pure uric acid, or at least must contain no admixture but urates. It must also be of small size. If the urine be alkaline, it may be presumed that a phosl^hatic crust exists, and all such cases must be discarded. If the stone be of long standing, a similar condition must be suspected, notwithstanding that the urine retains its acidity, and a similar encasement must also be apprehended, should the urine contain much pus or mucus of renal origin. If oxahite of lime habitually exist in the urine, it may be presumed also to occur in the stone, and must also contra-indicate solvent remedies.
age, and when crystals are habitually passed it is often easy to arrive with some confidence at a belief that there exists a small renal stone of this nature. With children the stone, necessarily recent, is probably small and simple.
Given a suitable case, citrate of potash must be accepted as the best material for charging the urine with the desired carbonate; the dose to impart the greatest solvent effect is for the adult, as Dr. Roberts has shown, from 40 to 60 grains every three hours, in three or four ounces of water. Two conditions may arrest the solvent process.
If the urine become ammoniacal the treatment must be discontinued, as then the mixed pliosphates will be apt to be deposited as an insoluble crust. It is beyond question that by this state of urine stones have often been increased and multiplied. Secondly, it is needful to guard against a too great alkalinity of urine from fixed alkali, since, as has been shown, under this influence the stone may become incrusted with the insoluble alkaline biurate. Thus dangers of two kinds lie in the direction of over-alkalinity. It is safer to give too little alkali than too much.
It is a matter of common experience that the symptoms caused by the passage of uric acid gravel receive marked and speedy relief from alkaline solutions, but I have never been successful in removing by such means the signs of a stationary renal concretion. In cases where unmistakable symptoms of stone in the kidney have been associated with highly acid urine and the habitual passage of uric acid gravel, so that the nature of the concretion was scarcely more doubtful than its position, I have kept the urine alkaline with potash for periods varying from two to five months. Under such treatment, without injury to the general health, the local symptoms have mitigated, but they have never disappeared. The benefit has declared itself in a diminution of pain, with increased tolerance of rough locomotion and improved power of walking. A lady whose walks had been restricted to a mile a day by pain in the loin, leg, and foot, attributed to a concretion of uric acid in the left kidney, became, under alkalies, able to walk four miles with no more inconvenience, and she subsequently endured much rough travelling with little annoyance, which it was thought she could not have done previous to the treatment. Beyond such alleviation of symptoms my success in the solution of calculi has not gone.
To sum up, the solution of stones whether in the bladder or kidney, is not yet within the range of practical medicine. Lithia is not well borne; potash out of the body in the most favorable circumstances acts slowly; within the body, there is the uncertainty as to the nature of the stone, and the suitability of alkaline treatment. When in the bladder, any such tedious and worse than uncertain method can never be opposed to the operation of lithotrity, though when it is impracticable, or as an adjunct to it, acid injections may find the use which has been assigned to them. As to the kidney, enough has been said to show that no methods which have as yet been tried are substantially effective; if the solution of calculi is ever to be accomplished it must be from a new departure.
Before considering the movable kidney, which may either be congenital or acquired, a word may be said about congenital misplacement of the organ so far as this condition is capable of clinical recognition or has practical importance. The common horseshoe fusion of the two kidneys hardly comes within this description, but one kidney has often been found to be misplaced downwards, either upon the lower part of yertebral column on its own or the oj)posite side, often upon the sacroiliac promontory or the sacro-iliac synchondrosis. The organ has been found in one of the iliac fosste, or partially or entirely within the j)elvis. It appears that the development of the renal structures commences in front of the bifurcation of the aorta, and that the ordinary misplacement of one of these organs is due to its retention in or near its original situation. The misplaced organ usually presents itself as a post-mortem surprise, though its situation is often such that it could not fail to have been felt as an abdominal tumor had there been any symptoms which suggested palpation of the abdomen. The kidney thus out of place has indeed been so recognized, and in one instance extirpated in circumstances which will be presently referred to. A gentleman, aged 45,' whose case is related by Mr. Durham, had an attack of fever, during convalescence from which a swelling was noticed in tlie hypogastric organ, somewhat to the left of the median line ; it Avas oval, elastic and fixed, not nodulated, nor did it present any distinct elevations or depressions. j\Ianipulation caused disagreeable sensations, but not acute pain. No conclusion Avas arrived at as to the nature of the tumor. Five years later it was exposed, ^;o.s^ mortem, and found to be the left kidney, which was situated over the sacro-iliac synchondrosis and extended somewhat on to the promontory of the sacrum, and also by its lower part into the true pelvis. The colon formed no sigmoid flexure in the left iliac fossa but passed across the median line, and the commencement of the rectum was on the right side of the sacrum. The kidney was partially divided into three lobes. Four ureters left it, which shortly united into one ; there was no distinct liilum, and consequently not the characteristic kidney shape. The organ received three arteries, the largest from the aorta near the bifurcation, a branch from the right common iliac, and one from the left internal iliac. The supra-renal capsule was in its normal position.
The misplaced kidney has been known to form an impediment to labor, as in one instance quoted by Rayer, in which it was found after death deeply situated on the inner side of the psoas muscle. ' Two children had been borne ; with the delivery of each a tumor was recognized on the left side of the pelvis, which became painful with each contraction of the uterus and retarded the passage of the head.
Congenital misplacement of the kidney is in a considerable majority of instances of the left, and in the male sex ; acquired dislocation or mobility chiefly alfects females, as will presently be seen, and the right side.
Displacement and Mobility.
The kidney is apt to be displaced or to become movable as the result either of acquired or congenital states. It is sometimes completely surrounded by peritoneum, the folds of which meet behind, like those of the mesentery, forming what has been termed a mesonepliron, which may allow so much liberty of movement that the organ may be immediately beneath the abdominal wall or elsewhere, far from its proper position. In other circumstances the kidney becomes loosened in its bed, so as to be capable of being moved within it, but within which its movements are limited.
It is ordinarily covered by the peritoneum, but not embraced by it, nor, putting aside a long anchorage from the hilum, is the organ fixed in the interval in which it lies otherwise tlian by the cohesion of the areolar tissue around it. A temporary increase in the size of the gland can easily expand the inclosure which it occupies, so that this, when the enlargement has subsided, is too wide for the structure within ; or any force brought to bear upon the organ may cause it to split its encasement in one direction ot another, and thus come to occupy a cavity which is too large for it, and within the limits of which it can move. In the first of these circumstances the kidney may float ; in the second, without floating, may become movable. The movable and the floating kidney may be distinct in origin and nature, the movable kidney an acquired, the floating a congenital state, or they may be merely difiierent degrees of the same condition : the peritoneum may become loose enough to enfold the kidney and meet behind it, much as though the mesonephron had been an original structure.
I believe that acquired mobility of the kidney is more common tlian it is generally supposed to be. I have notes of eleven cases of it Avhich I have seen during the last five years.
The movable kidney is usually found in women, and on the right side. Eoberts estimated that of 70 cases Gl occurred in women, 9 in men ; Ebstein, that of 96 cases 82 were in females, 14 in males. To these I may add 12 cases of my own, as yet unpublished, of Avliich the subjects were females in 10 cases, males in 2. As to age, the disorder is exceedingly rare in childhood ; the earliest instance I have seen was in a girl of 10, in which mobility was associated with, probably, congenital displacement. Instances have been recorded at the ages of 8, 7, and G
years. In a large majority of case^ the peculiarity presents itself in early adult and middle life, coincidently with the j^eriod of child-bearing, and the frequency of accidental violence.
It has been said that the subjects of the movable kidney are always thin, a statement by no means consistent with my own experience. I have seen it most often in women with large, loose abdomens, often inclined to corpulency.
With regard to the side affected Ebstein — to quote his enumeration as the latest and largest — found that of 91 cases, the right kidney was affected in 05, the left in 14, both in 1^. Among the 12 instances referred to, 10 belonged to the right kidney, 2 to the left.
The condition is usually acquired after birth, though sometimes the result of a congenital peculiarity of the peritoneum. Mr. Durham' reports a case in which this membrane presented an abnormal arrangement which was associated with malposition of the colon. In this instance the affected kidney, which was the left, could Ije made, after death, to ya&s from its proper position into the left iliac fossa, and also across the spine, somewhat to its right side.
It once happened to me to observe in the course of the post-mortem examination of a person in whom no renal symptoms had attracted attention that the layers of peritoneum met behind one kidney, forming a complete mesonephron about an inch and a half long, to the extent of which the organ enjoyed free play. This arrangement, of which several similar examples have been recorded, was probably congenital. As to the acquired conditions, the organ has been known to have been displaced downwards, in connection with a hernia which involved the caecum, possibly dragged down by the descending bowel. Usually the state found is mere looseness of the peritoneal covering by which, together with the structures which enter the liilum, the kidney is held in place. The amount of mobility varies much; the gland usually slipping down for an inch or two under pressure or change of posture, sometimes moving, as in a case referred to in the "Pathological Transactions," ^ within a circle having a diameter of eight or nine inches. The kidney itself has in most cases been found to be healthy, though sometimes its condition and environment show changes which account for its' peculiarity, and sometimes alterations which are subsequent, and possibly consequent, upon it. A deticiency of the circumrenal fat has been often noticed, and the mobility of the organ found to follow upon rapid emaciation. An instance in which the organ had probably thus become loosened in its bed by losing its packing has been reported by Dr. Jago,3 and others of the same sort have been recorded.
stance within my own experience to which I shall presently refer.
Dr. Sawyer' relates the case of a woman W'ho died at the age of thirty-five Avith svmptoms of a right movable kidney and pyelitis. She had had seven children, and for six years had had pain and frequency in passing urine. Latterly the urine had contained much pus, evidently
of renal origin. She died of acute peritonitis. The right kidney which lay between the umbilicus and the anterior superior spine of the ilium was riddled witli abscesses, and the ureter dilated and thickened. We have no evidence of the cause of the pyelitis in this case, or whether it preceded or followed the mobility, but the fact of the association is of interest. The same concurrence is to be seen with hydronephrosis, as in one instance related by M. Fritz.' A woman of the age of thirty-three, who had long had pains in the right iliac fossa, w^as found to i)resent an oval tumor in tliis region which had the character of hydronephrosis. The tumor, which extended from the lumbar to the umbilical region, was movable in all directions. After a time a calculus was passed, and the tumor much diminished, still remaining movable.
Another instance of a similar association is related in the same paper from the experience of M. Urag. A woman wdio was the subject of bronchitis was found to present a reniform tumor in the abdomen below the anterior border of tlie right lobe of the liver. This moved with respiration, and could be displaced towards the median line, towards the right lumbar region and slightly downwards. Manipulation caused considerable pain. After death it was found that the tumor was the right kidney, Avhich was attached by old adhesions to the liver, the gall-bladder, and the transverse colon. The organ was hydronephrotic, the ureter being occluded, inconsequence of ^'engorgement" of the posterior wall of the uterus. In the latter case the condition was complicated by the adhesions which occurred in the course of the disease ; but in both it is probable that the essential cause of the mobility was the alternation of bulk which the condition of hydronephrosis generally involves.
Whether a-soeiated with pyelitis or hydronephrosis, there is not infrequently a history of calculus or gravel in connection with the movable kidney — accidents which particularly tend, to cause the variation of bulk which are so ajit to loosen its attachments.
To complete the morbid anatomy of the condition before further discussing its mode of origin, the kidney, though usually healthy, has been found to have become affected in various ways, either consequently upon its mobility or independently of it. The most common change is perinephritis, as indicated by peritoneal thickening, and occasionally by adhesions to the neighboring organs— especially the liver. The frequency of pyelitis in this relation suggests that the inflammatory state may occur not only antecedently, but also as a consequence of the mobility by means of the constriction of the renal outlet which the shifting must often involve. The displaced or movable kidney is not thereby exempted from other chances of disease. It has been found to be granular, as in an instance related by Dr. Coats. °
The causes of the condition are in great part explained by its morbid anatomy. Loss of bulk, whether in or about the kidney, whether the escape of an accumulation from the pelvis Avhereby the kidney shrinks so as no longer to fill its bed, or loss of the surrounding fat so that its bed becomes too large for it, has been sufliiciently dwelt upon in connection with its origin. It remains to add what is needed to make the tale complete. The kidney appears to be often displaced by external pressure or violence. The leading facts in the distribution of the pecu-
larity. its frequency with women, and on the right side, may point to intiuence of pregnancy, of tight lacing, and of the pressure of the liver. It has been observed that movable kidneys are most often found in women who have borne children, and that after delivery the abdominal muscles are lax, and the viscera comparatively unsupported. Of twelve cases of movable kidney under my own observation, the subjects of nine were women who had had children, though one of these attributed her disorder not to pregnancy but to severe and repeated exertion in lifting a sick husband, and another to a fall upon tl>e right lumbar region.
One of my patients became aware of the mischief upon recovering from chloroform, Avhich had been given during labor ; another attributed it to violence used in the extraction of the placenta by an inebriated accoucheur. The condition had been somewhat doubtfully attributed in the same sexto a hyper.Tmic swelling of the organ supposed to occur at each menstrual period and subside with it. Tight lacing by which the liver is pressed down upon the right kidney has been assigned as a cause of its becoming loosened and displaced; and the same result has been with more certainty traced to strains and falls and other violent
injuries. It has been said, though my own personal experience scarcely bears out the statement, that movable kidneys are proportionately more often met with among women of the working class than amongst those in easy circumstances, with whom tight lacing is more common.
A gentleman under my care, whose case will be further referred to, attributes the peculiarity which affects the right kidney to repeated falls in hunting. An instance is related ' in which the left kidney became thus movable inconsequence of a fall upon the ice, and another in wliich both became so after a fall from a horse. A laborer ^ over whose loins a cart passed was found by Dr. Yeo to present afterwards the signs of movable kidney.
With regard to the clinical aspect of movable and displaced kidneys, the latter, so far as congenital malposition is concerned, need no further notice than has already been given them. Movable or floating kidneys, however, have much importance from this point of view. They are to be
recognized by the presentation of a tumor of renal size and shape in a position not 1)elonging to the kidney, from which, under pressure, it withdraws itself in the direction of the proper renal region. The peculiar slipping of the movable kidney under the influences of pressure and position, at once distinguishes it from every other abdominal tumor; it moves like the testicle in the scrotum or a pea in its pod. The organ emerges from the depths of the liypochondrium, commonly the right, to present itself as a tumor tangible from the front or lateral aspect of the abdomen. The position of the tumor has a wide range: it nuiy not descend further than as if the lower end of the kidney protruded from under the edge of the ribs, or the organ may pass as low as the umbilicus or even into the iliac fossa, and occupy almost any i)art of the S})ace between the lateral limit of the trunk and the median line, which boundary, indeed, is sometimes partially crossed by the erratic mass.
The lump suddenly presents itself from under the ribs from the effect of bodily movement — the patient possibly turning on the side on which the movable kidney is not — or of deep inspiration, perhaps undertaken with the purpose of displaying the condition. The rounded and reniform mass may then be more or less grasped, and made by directed pressure to hastily withdraw itself in the direction whence it came, gliding at once out of reach, giving to the fingers a sensation as if it were slippery. When the organ descends, its absence can be detected from the lumbar region by hollowness and comparative resonance. The displaced kidney may be near the surface, though usually not so superficial but that bowel resonance can be detected over it. The pulsation of the renal artery has been felt, though the mass is seldom sufficiently suj^erficial to allow of this. Sometimes it is very deep, only to be reached by somewhat forcible palpation, and even may be distinctly recognizable only when the abdominal resistance is overcome with chloroform. Pressure on the organ usually gives rise to a sickening sensation.
The shifting may be quite or nearly without discomfort, or may be attended with much pain and intestinal or nervous disturbance, symptoms which are probably largely due to the tension or forced flexure of the nerves which enter the hilum.
The pain is often described as of a dragging character. It chiefly accompanies displacement of the organs, though in some cases always present more or less. It is aggravated by movement and relieved by lying down. It stretches from the lumbar region to the tumor, which is apt to become tender, and often shoots in various directions, into the testicle or labium and down the thigh. I have known a patient so suffering to have severe pains of a neuralgic character in parts of the body not locally connected Avith the affected part.
The pain of the movable kidney has been observed, as with a patient of my own, to become aggravated at the monthly periods, and the displaced organ thought to swell. A peculiarity of the disorder is the occurrence at irregular intervals, and often without any obvious cause, of severe attacks of pain Avith constitutional disturbance, not unlike fits of renal colic. The displaced organ swells and becomes exquisitely tender, and cannot be replaced. There is intense pain in its neighborhood, together with shivering, sickness, and prostration. "With a lady under my care, the attacks recurred about every five or six days, each lasting ten or twelve hours. -The jmin was described as ver}' severe, passing through the abdomen under the liver to the spine. These were attended with vomiting and extreme prostration. They subsided under the influences of morphia and rest in bed. These seizures have been thought to depend upon retention of urine in the pelvis, owing to some twist or compression of the renal outlet, but the evidence of this is incomplete, and indeed with the remarkable toleration of obstructive suppression when it affects only one kidney, we can scarcely assign the severe and sudden symptoms wliicli have been described to this origin. It has been supposed with more probability that a sharp bend or twist of the renal vein, with consequent congestion and swelling of the organ, is more particularly concerned in the production of these paroxysms; at the same time it must be allowed that their symptoms, apart from the swelling, tlie pain, vomiting, and prostration, show at least that the nerves are closely implicated in the passing disorder, even if not its primary cause in some mechanical manner connected Avith dislocation.
Vesical irritation and frequency have occasionally' been noticed. A gentleman, who applied to me with a movable kidney, had, at the time of its appearance, symptoms which were attributed to cystitis. When I saw him some weeks afterwards, I found that the urine was phosphatic, but free from pus; I presumed that the irritation might have been purely of nervous origin. Various forms of bowel disturbance are frequently noticed in connection with the condition. A gentleman under my notice who had a movable right kidney, found that occasional diarrhoea was the chief trouble it caused. Tlie diarrhoea was connected in sensation with the movable organ, and was always brought on wlien, by increased bodily movement or mental excitement, the pain in it was made worse. In a case mentioned by Dr. Roberts, also of a movable right kidney in a man, there was much irritability of the bowels, associated with dragging pain in the situation of the kidney and ascending colon. Constipation and faecal accumulation have also been found. A girl of 10 years old under my care had a misplaced kidney, which lay near the surface of the belly to the left of the umbilicus. She had at the same time a number of superficial lumps in the abdomen, which were removed by purgatives, and no doubt were f«cal. An instance is recorded by Dr. Johnson^ in which accumulation of the same nature had similarly resulted.
A displaced right kidney has been known, as in an instance recorded by Girard,3 to compress the vena cava and cause a3dema of the right lower limb. Jaundice has been produced by the compression of the common bile-duct by a dislocated kidney, which was in contact with the transverse fissure of the liver* and adherent to the duodenum.
The kidney may be diseased independently of its displacement, but, putting this aside, the only urinary changes proper to this condition are such as give evidence of pyelitis. When this complication is not present the urine is natural. Evidences of pyelitis, possibly only microscopic, scales of epithelium, presumably from the pelvis, and perhaps a few pus-globules, are found more often than not with such cases, while in some the urine is abundantly purulent, showing a high degree of the same inflammatory state. It is clear from what has been already stated that some conditions associated Avith pyelitis may precede and cause the mobility, but it is no less probable that the necessary distortion of the pelvic outlet may in some cases prevent the free escape of urine, and thus produce results due to its retention.
The diagnosis of the condition presents little difficulty ; the peculiar mobility is pathognomonic. A movable kidney has been mistaken for the spleen, and frequently for a morbid growth within the abdomen. Women who have had them have been known to persist that their movements were those of a foetus i)i utero.
As the disease has little tendency either to shorten life or to get well, its duration is absolutely indefinite. Among 11 cases under my own observation, where the date of beginning was noted, was 1 in which the condition had lasted for thirteen years, 1 for six, 3 for five. Dr. Jago "
years.
Death usually occurs from some cause unconnected with the state of the kidney, though where it has been associated with pyelitis a fatal issue has been brought about by this complication. A woman' under the care of Dr. Hickenbotham, whose case has already been referred to, had a floating right kidney, together with pyelitis, as evinced by the passing of pus, blood, and phosphates with the urine. Fourteen days before her death she was seized with pain in the movable kidney, which she had not had before, followed by symptoms of peritonitis. It was found that, in addition to general inflammation of the peritoneum, the right kidney was riddled with abscesses, and its ureter dilated and thickened. The peritonitis had probably been produced by the renal suppuration, that by the pyelitis. No cause apjjears for the j^yelitis besides the displacement.
The medical treatment of the condition essentially consists in the replacement of the organ, its retention in its proper position, and the relief of the pain to which its displacement gives rise. A simjile and often sufficient measure of relief is the recumbent posture. The avoidance of riding on horseback, and all rough exercises and modes of locomotion, and straining at stool, is no less obvious. A woman, whose case is mentioned by Dr. Hare,^ lost her symptoms almost entirely under the influence, as was thought, of two successive pregnancies, the enlarged uterus supplying the needed upward pressure. Artificial sup2:)ort by means of a belt or truss has often been used with advantage.- For a lady who suffered from severe and frequent paroxysms of pain, connected with a movable right kidney, I had a truss constructed with a powerful spring, of which one end rested od the spine, the other pressed a conical pad, with a spiral spring, deep into the right hypochondrium. This instrument proved so effective that whereas the attacks formerly recurred every five or six days, after its application the lady passed six months with only one, which had been brought on by exceptional exertion. The objection to a truss is the inconvenience of the necessary pressure.
A less uncomfortable measure, but one which is found in some cases to suffice, is a broad elastic belt, fitted to the shape, with a firm pad upon the hypochondrium. I have at present five ]')atients who wear with advantage renal supports, three trusses, two bandages.
Dr. De Mussy arranged, with benefit, that a lady, whose right kidney had become loose, should have an action of the bowels every evening, and before rising in the morning — that is, before the organ had become displaced by movement — should slip upwards over the lower extremities an elastic bandage, to which a horse-hair pad was so fixed as to press in front of the affected lumbar region.
The urgent paroxysms of pain and vomiting which are sometimes attributed to strangulation of the ureter, but which are more probably due to stretching or twisting of the nerves or veins, are to be treated with absolute rest and morphia, the replacement of the organ when this can be accomplished without violence, and such measures as leeching and fomentation, should symptoms of local peritonitis present themselves. The attacks usually appear to be of brief duration.
Importance must be attributed to the regulation of the bowels; while the anjemic, hyijochondriaeal, and neuralgic conditions so common with the disorder call for ferruginous medicines and others of the tonic class.
tions of the treatment should these complications present themselves.
Regarding the movable kidney, as we must, not so much as a danger as an inconvenience, and an inconvenience which can be mitigated almost to nothing by safe and jjainless measures, it can seldom be justifiable to risk life in search of cure. Nevertheless, kidneys in this state have been removed often enough to enable us to measure with some accuracy the death-rate of the operation.' Martin, of Berlin, states that he has excised a floating kidney in seven cases, with the result of four cures and three deaths. He always cut from the front throilgh the peritoneal cavity. The operation was once performed by Meckel,- also from the front, with a fatal result, and by Smith, of New Orleans, from the loin, with a favorable one. Thus with nine excisions there were four deaths. Dr. Harris, of Philadelphia, in a recent collection of one hundred cases of extirpation of the kidney, includes sixteen in which floating kidneys were thus treated.' Putting aside one in which the removed organ was the seat of sarcoma, and the result fatal, there were five deaths to ten recoveries, surgical enterprise having thus provided a considerable mortality for a disorder which of itself has little or none. A startling case is reported by Dr. Polk, of New York, in which a painful tumor in the left iliac fossa, which was supposed to be what it ultimately proved, a misplaced left kidney, was removed from a young woman in whom, as has been ascertained, the vagina and uterus were absent.* The patient survived the operation for eleven days. It was afterwards found that the kidney of which she had been thus dejirived was her only one. No trace could be found of any structure corresponding with or belonging to the right kidney. It is to be observed that the left kidney is more often the subject of congenital misplacement than the right, which fact, together with the other congenital defects which were found, might have suggested some uncertainty as to the rest of the organism. My personal experience of the excision of movable kidneys amounts to my having successfully advised against it in several instances. There are conditions of suffering in which life may be i3roperly endangered in search of cure. That belonging to the movable kidney may be one, but we have to ask whether there are not safer means of relief ?
As an apparently less formidable operation the movable organ, or rather its capsule, has been fixed by sutures to a wound in the loin, upon the healing of which it has been found that the kidney has been soldered to the side by granulations and cicatricial tissue, so as to be no longer movable. The present experience of this operation, nephroraphy, as it has been termed, is small ; it has been performed some seven times without death, and generally with benefit. ' It would appear that sur-
gical enterprise in regard to the movable kidney is more promising in the direction of fixation than removal ; further than this it would not become me to express an opinion.
Certai^t renal diseases are liable to produce paraplegia. Malignant growths beginning in the kidney may encroach upon the vertebrae and eat into the spinal canal with results as strongly pronounced in the way of paralysis as are found to follow fracture or dislocation. Whether pus, which has broken out of the kidney ever penetrates the inter- vertebral foramina I do not know; it seems not impossible, but I have not yet found an instance. Advancing still further into the region of hypothesis we come to the doctrine of Reflex Urinary Paraplegia, which Avas conceived by Stanley, christened by Graves, and adopted by Brown-Sequard. The theory of Stanley was that an irritation commencing in the kidney was conveyed by the nerves to the cord, which itself underwent no change, but transmitted the irritation to the lower limbs, to the impairment of their nervous function. The theory later took more definite shape, and met Avith much, and for a time with general, acceptance. The mode of operation was thought to be clearly made out by reasoning and experiment, and under the great authority of BrownSequard became a part of medical belief. Anaemia of the cord was believed to be the essential change, this being brought about by a spasm of its blood-vessels, and this by an irritation carried to their nerves from the part, whether kidney or bladder, which was primarily at fault. If a nervous centre, it was urged, be deprived of blood, its function is abrogated, as hemiplegia may result from the tying of a carotid, or paraplegia from ligature or compression of the aorta. So the cord, if deprived of blood, though only by vascular spasm, may feasibly be supposed to cease to act as a channel of nervous influence. This theory is so generally accepted, at the same time that its application to the kidney and the existence of urinary paraplegia as of reflex origin have been so gravely questioned, that it is necessary to look somewhat narrowly at the facts which bear upon this part of the question. Dr., now Sir W. Gull, in a judiciously sceptical paper,' showed that in some of the cases which had been accepted as of reflex paraplegia the paralysis was not real, while in others it was not reflex, but more probably connected with organic disease of the cord, and later still Dr. Weir Mitchell in a no less masterly criticism* not only enforced the incredulity which since Gull's paper had begun to attach itself to the interpetration which Stanley and Graves had put upon their cases, but also threw doubts upon the whole theory of reflex jjaralysis. It was urged that it was highly improbable that a
vasal spasm conld he steadily maintained for months or year? without any intervals of relaxation; while supposing it to be so maintained with com]ileteness enough to abolish function by want of blood it was inconceivable that a tissue so mobile as the nervou^ should not become softened or show otherwise in textural change some result of the prolonged starvation to which it had been subjected. Softening of the brain rapidly follows embolic obstruction, and no less so when the blood has been cut off bv ligature, as of the carotid, presuming that the collateral circulation is not efficient for vicarious duty.
The questions to be answered are two — first, whether there is any Buch thing as urinary paraplegia ; whether in any way, by nerves or vessels, by any reflexion, conveyance, or extension of disease apart from the encroachment of a growth, paraplegia is brought about as a consequence of disease of the urinary organs; — and secondly, Avhether if paraplegia does arise from this cause, whether it comes on without material change in the cord by the mere suspension of function which is implied by the term reflex. To find replies I Avill briefly review some of the evidence which has been adduced.
Mr. Stanley, in the paper wherein the theory of urinary jaaralysis was first propounded, related seven cases as examples.' In five of these the supposed cause of the paraplegia was that disseminated suppuration of the kidney which, as we now know, is so consistently a result of it. Disease of the cord, paralysis of the bladder, jDutrefaction of urine, and scattered renal suppuration as the result of absorption, is a morbid sequence which is well made out and presents itself but too often. It is at least a suspicious circumstance that the particular form of renal disease which is credited with having produced spinal j)aralysis is precisely that which spinal paralysis so regularly produces.
It is to be presumed, in the absence of any conclusive evidence to the contrary, that what Stanley supposed to be the cause was in reality the effect, and his deduction, so far as it is based on cases of this nature, correspondingly mistaken. That it was so must be clear to any one who reads the cases. Four of these present much the same outlines: a man jjerhaps has an injury to the spine or he has pain there, or without either he becomes unable to move his legs or pass his water. He dies with the kidney of disseminate suppuration, but with no disease of the spinal cord which is evident to the naked eye. Presuming one of the many changes to exist in the cord which are effective for its destruction, though not for its disfigurement, the sequence becomes intelligible and consistent with our daily experience. With the naked eye only almost any change confined to the cord short of diffluence might escape notice. It is therefore impossible to infer that the cords in these cases were healthy or the paralytic symptoms and the renal lesion otherwise than dependent upon spinal disease. The argument as api)lied to these of Stanley's cases is equally suited to a large number of similar ones related by other authors, and it may be stated as a general conclusion that when the kidney of scattered suppuration is concurrent Avith paraplegia, the disease of the kidney is not the cause but the consequence.
Among the other conditions regarded by Stanley as the cause of paraplegia Avithout disease of the cord is dilatation of the kidney. This was exemplified by a case supplied by Burrows of a man who for two years
had had severe pain in the spine and incontinence of urine, whose kidneys Avere found after death with dihited and inflamed pelves and mottled structure. The spinal cord displayed no further evidence of disease than much vascularity of the lumhar pia mater and an excess of fluid within the sheath. During life there had been much tenderness about the sixth dorsal vertebra, difficulty of breathing, and the involuntary passage of urine and faeces. Presuming the vascularity and excess of fluid to indicate disease of the cord, as we cannot doubt that they did, notwithstanding that in the absence of microscopic examination no other evidence of disease was discovered, the whole case is clear. The condition of kidneys is precisely that which must necessarily result from long continued paralysis of the bladder with retention of urine, and it needs no further argument to justify the obvious conclusion that the renal disorder was the result, not the cause of the spinal.
Two cases are related in which complete motor paralysis, involving the lower extremities and the sphincter together with loss of sensation ensued upon gonorrhoea; one was fatal in sixteen hours, the other in about a fortnight, with sloughing. In the more rapid case the kidneys were found to be merely congested, in the other they contained abscesses. In the more rapid case the cord was congested, in the other it appeared natural. It is scarcely possible to doubt that in both these cases myelitis was present though not disclosed to the naked eye. The comjaleteness of the paralysis and the sloughing are characteristic of disease of the cord of definite and acute kind, while we have the light of several cases minutely examined by Sir W. Gull in which paraplegia ensuant as in these instances ujjon gonorrhoea was found to depend upon distinct inflammatory change in the cord, apjjreciable Avitli the microscope, and in one instance not otherwise.' Sir W. Gull infers that paraplegia after gonorrhoea is produced by means of an infection, whether purulent or specific, which is conveyed to the cord after the manner in Avhicli the swelling of the Joints and the other secondary results of gonorrhoea are produced: and I think we need not hesitate to accept this conclusion.'^
Thus it may be argued that of Stanley's cases from which the theory of urinary paraplegia was originally constructed there is not one which, according to our present knowledge, is to be explained on that principle. It is to be presumed that in every one there was disease of the cord, either as a primary lesion or as the consequence of gonorrhoea, to which as constantly the renal changes were secondary.^
Many other instances of supposed reflex paraplegia following upon gonorrhoea, some of which have ended fatally and some in recovei-y, are scattered through medical literature, but in the absence of minule examination of the cord it may at least be said that none are conclusive. Dr. Graves's cases, published soon after Stanley's, are equally equivocal Avith his; some, indeed, more so, if that is ])ossible:^ in one a tumor, the size of "half a very small hazel-nut," Avas found external to the sheath of the cord, and it is not unreasonable to sup2)ose that this may liaA^e
bladder,
M, Leroy d'Etiolles has published a large number of cases of supposed urinary and reflex paraplegia, many of which were of gonorrhceal origin, and may probably be explained by implication of the cord in the manner already suggested. Others are cases in which the Aveakness of the legs, as justly remarked b}' Sir \V. Gull, appears to be not more definite than as part of general debility,' which the lower extremities, as having to support the weight of the body, usually express more distinctly than the upper. This is notably suggested in the instance of a man who died with an abscess in the neighborhood of the bladder, consequent upon urethritis, together with disseminated renal suppuration. He had a trembling gait, and dulness of sensation, which appeared to be general. He had diarrhcea, and soon sank into the state of prostration which characterizes purulent absorjition.
Similar remarks will apply to a man with stricture and perineal abscess, who had weakness of the legs with some obtuseness of sensation, coincidently with a febrile attack which caused much prostration.
Of the cases related by this author those in which the reflex theory is best borne out are some in which enlargement of the prostate, or stricture of the urethra independently of gonorrhoea, were followed by loss of power in the lower limbs, which in some instances was restored after the discharge of an abscess, the use of the catheter, or some other surgical procedure. The parajilegia seems, as a rule, not to have gone beyond enfeeblement of the limbs, though the circumstiince that this was in some cases more marked in one leg than the other is a point in favor of its being more than mere weakness. In one case spasmodic and convulsive movements (of the lower extremities?) occurred at the time of emission of urine. In this instance some loss of sensation was noted in the lower limbs, while the motor power in the two was unequally impaired. The patient recovered after the evacuation of a prostatic abscess.
It is scarcely to be doubted that in this and in a few similar instances there was some degree of real paraplegia, as a result of disease of the bladder or prostate, and therefore properly to be called urinary; but to call it reflex, or in other words to assert it to be independent of disease of the cord, is to go not only beyond evidence but beyond probability. It is to be observed, as pointed out by Sir W. Gull,- that where paraplegia has ensued there has always been suppurative inflammation, mostly as a circumscribed abscess in or about the urinary organs, and the inference is obvious that by the veins or otherwise there has been some extension of the inflammatory process to the cord. Myelitis after gonorrhoea is a sequence which may be considered as beyond doubt; and it is at least probable that a similar result may now and then ensue after other kinds of suppurative disease. It is to be observed that with many of these cases there have been rigors or other febrile symptoms consistent with purulent absorption. A case directly to the point is quoted by Sir W. Gull.' A man, long the subject of stricture, with retention of urine,
underwent, together with other measures, daily dilatation of the urethra; in the course of them he became feverish and rather suddenly paraplegic. A slough formed on the sacrum, the evacuations passed involuntarily, and he died one month after the outset of the spinal symjDtoms. *'A small quantity of pus was found lying on the outside of the sheath of the cord, opposite the bodies of the sixth, seventh, eighth, and ninth dorsal vertebrae, and one of the vertebral veins in the lumbar region was full of well-formed pus. The spinal fluid was densely coagulable. The arachnoid was thickened, and presented traces of recent inflammatory exudation. The dorsal portion of the cord was very distinctly and generally softened. An old stricture existed at the commencement of the membranous portion of the urethra, and several false passages, one opening into an abscess behind the bladder, and two returning into the bladder. The vesical veins in the neighborhood of the pelvic abscess were thickened and partially obstructed by recent lymph." In this instance the process is made clear; and it is not to be doubted that in others paraplegia has similarly been brought about by the conveyance by the veins of purulent or septic matter from the urinary to the spinal region. The veins inside the spinal canal communicate freely with those outside the vertebrae, and these with the vessels ascending from the pelvis and lower extremities. The veins of the vertebrae have no valves, so it is conceivable that blood may occasionally flow from without inwards, even though the current be commonly in the reverse direction.
Apart from the cases where inflammatory or septic products may be supposed thus to have impinged upon the cord we find nothing to encourage a belief in urinary paraplegia. It does not arise from stone, great as is the nervous irritation shown in other modes which stone, especially in the kidney, produces.
Other observers, mostly coeval, or but shortly after those I have referred to, have published cases which at the time were explained on the reflex theory, but which now present themselves with sufficient clearness in another light. Mr. Spencer Wells published a lecture' on " Incomplete Paralysis of the Lower Extremities connected with Disease of the Urinary Organs," but the condition he describes, as he himself would now readily admit, is one in which the bladder has simply participated in a more or less general loss of nervous power. There is no stricture or definite urinary disease, but merely a loss of expulsive power, together with other signs of muscular failure. The description applies, indeed, with much accuracy to locomotor ataxy. This transposition of cause and effect is apparently not of uncommon occurrence in the annals of reflex paralysis. Loss of power in the bladder and retention without stricture may possibly be the first noticeable signs of structural disease of the cord; cystitis probably will quickly follow, and it may not be until afterwards, particularly if the patient be in bed, that the paralysis becomes evident in the lower extremities; this therefore may present itself as secondary in time, and ostensibly in cause, to the urinary disturbance.
liecent observation has added nothing to the records of reflex paraplegia of urinary origin. I have long sought but hitherto failed to recognize the condition, and I find that other inquiries have met with the same want of success."
Paraplegia may as a rare occurrence ensue upon certain inflammatory" disorders of the bladder and neighboring parts, more especially when these are of gonorrhcpal origin; it is then a result of the extension to the cord of an inflammatory condition by infection or otherwise, presents the symptoms of myelitis, and may be fatal, even rapidly so, a circumstance inconsistent with tlie supposed character of reflex paralysis.
We have no evidence that disease of the kidney extends to the spine by similar means. "When the suppurating or "^surgical" kidney concurs with paraplegia, the renal condition is not the cause but the consequence of the paralysis; the same may be said with regard to renal dilatation and pyelitis.
There is no evidence of, but, on the contrary, many reasons to doubt, the existence of a form of piaraplegia dependent on the state of the urinary organs but independent of structural change in the spinal cord. In many instances supposed to be of this nature the evidence of paralysis is defective, in others there is reason to believe that the nervous disorder has actually preceded the urinary, though the urinary symptoms attracted notice as the first sign of spinal failure, while in no instance of paraplegia associated with urinary disease has the cord been asserted to be healthy save on examination which has been entirely insufficient and inconclusive.
Diseases of the Ureters.
As of all tubes, diseases of the ureter tend to its obstruction, which whether complete and of both sides and rapidly fatal by suppression, or iilcomjDlete or one-sided so as to give rise to hydronephrosis, is of so great importance as a source of disease that it would be difficult to find any other part of the body where so small an extent of lesion is productive of such formidable results. The ureters have little liability to independent disease, though they may be congenitally defective in various ways, may be involved in surgical accidents, and are apt to be damaged by morbid products and share in morbid processes which take their rise elsewhere.
An ureter appears sometimes to have been impervious from birth and shrunk to a cord, while the corresponding kidney has become atrophied, usually with cystiform dilatation of the jjelvis, while the other has been hypertrophied.
There is a preparation at St. George's Hospital showing a congenital obstruction by means of a valvular fold of mucous membrane in the portion of the duct which passes through the wall of the bladder. The ureter behind this was dilated to the thickness of the colon and the kidney in a state of cystic degeneration.
Sometimes the development of the kidney and its duct appears to have been arrested simultaneously, as in an instance under my own observation in which a shrivelled kidney, weighing but 43 grains, was connected with a ureter which though partially pervious was much shrunk and terminated in filaments before reaching the bladder. In this instance, as in many such, there were no symptoms, but the importance of the condition is obvious as half-way towards suppression.'
A similar result" has been described as due to malposition, the duct starting, not at the bottom of the infundibulum, but at its side, so as to be liable to obstruction from lateral pressure; but I must refer to the chapter on Hydronephrosis for reason to believe that many such malpositions and valvular arrangements are the consequences of obstruction and dilatation, not their cause. Supernumerary renal arteries compressing the upper part of the ureter have in the same place found sufficient mention.
obvious results. Constrictions of the ureter have been attributed to this cause sometimes on inconclusive evidence. An instance is elsewhere referred to where stricture of the ureter/ and consequent pyonephrosis were traced to a kick from a horse. After rupture of the kidney by external violence the pelvis has been known to become tilled with coagulum, and the ureter thus completely and permanently stopped. A kick from a horse on the right hypochondrium was followed by collapse and li£ematuria; the ha3maturia did not occur after the second day, and the patient recovered, to die eighteen months later with granular kidneys. It was then found that the kidney had been ruptured into the pelvis, which, together with the ujiper part of the ureter, had become filled with coagulum, to the complete and permanent obstruction of the duct.
Inflammation of the ureter is usually a result of the ascent of cystitis or of the descent of stone. In the former relation it has been sufficiently referred to in connection with pyelitis as the result of gout or gonorrhoea. Under inflammation the mucous membrane of one or both ureters, in part or wholly, may become swollen, congested to a purple color, and bathed with pus. A man in St. George's Hospital had continued shooting pains in the lumbar region, pain in the abdomen, pus in the urine, and frequency of micturition, which symptoms were succeeded by uncontrollable vomiting, prostration, and death. He had been sounded for stone but none found, nor was any discoverable after death. Both ureters were in the state referred to from near the bladder to within about three inches of each kidney. The bladder and pelvis were slightly vascular and contained small quantities of pus. No other lesion Avas found save slight recent endocarditis. The kidneys themselves were healthy. There was no history of gonorrhoea, but whether set up by this cause or by calculi which had escaped, it appeared that the inflammation of the ureters was much concerned in the production of the symptoms. ° The ureter has been known to become lined with lymph under the inflammator}^ process, or, as in an instance recorded by Murchison,* to be coated, in common with the calyx of its kidney, with a loosely adherent membrane, resembling that of diphtheria, shreds of which were passed wath the urine during life. The kidney itself was studded with small abscesses. In this instance as in the last the inflammation was attributed to the passage of stone, but none found. The ureter has been known to become surrounded from the bladder to the kidney with suppurative inflammation of the cellular tissue which involved also the renal and vesical neighborhood; in the case I refer to some small calculi were found in the peritoneal cavity and the affection ascribed to perforation by them, though its position was not discoverable at the time of the post-mortem examination. The local suppuration was succeeded by pyaimia.
Injury, probably ulceration, caused by stone may be succeeded by stricture, or even complete occlusion, and' thus give rise to dilatation and atrophy of the kidney, possibly with pyelitis or hydronephrosis or taking a half share in suppression of urine. When not causing complete obstruction the irritation of stone at the top of the ureter will
It is not necessary to add to what has found phice elsewhere with regard to tubercular disease of the ureter: thickening and ulceration of its wall often with total and permanent obstruction of the channel is an accompaniment, usually a result of tubercular disease of the kidney. Malignant growths are less common, as proper to the ureter, than tubercular, though this duct is oftin encroached uijon by cancer from without. Cancer confined to the ureter is, I believe, unknown, though it often participates in renal and vesical growths. Its walls from end to end ' have become thickly infiltrated with malignant matter continuously with a like formation in the bladder, and superficial patches of fungous growth have been found upon its mucous surface in connection with a renal growth as if descending germs had taken root."
nection with the development of lymphadenoma elsewhere.
Cancer of the bladder may encroach upon and stop the channel of the ureter as it passes through the vesical wall, and the same result may be produced by polypoid and other growths. I knew a case in which a small mucous polypus grew from the bladder in such a position as exactly to close tlie orifice of this duct and cause dilatation of it and of the kidney. Growths external to the urinary organs often involve the ureter; some such have been referred to in connection witli suppression of urine; tumors, especially when malignant, of the uterus, vagina, or ovary, may thus invade and close one or both ureters; an instance is related by Dr. Burdon Sanderson^ of a fibro-cellular tumor which had sprung from the capsule or hilum of the kidney and imbedded the ureter in its mass, constricting the duct at its origin to the size of a crow-quill. Beside growths of various kinds the ureter has been compressed by fibrous bands, the result of inflammation of the uterus or in its neighborhood, or variously constricted in consequence of displacement of that organ.
It is not necessary to remark further upon dilatation of the ureters, except that both may be dilated, together with the pelves, in consequence of chronic difficulty in emptying the bladder, and that with such stretching the valvular passage through the vesical wall necessarily becomes ineffective, so that the contents of the upper chanels become contaminated by those of the lower, with results which are explained with the subject of renal suppuration. In connection with, and probably as a result of the dilatation from urethral obstruction, the ureters have been known to become prolajDsed into the bladder by reason apparently of the downward pressure exerted by the swollen and rigid cylinders into Avhich the flaccid and yielding tubes have became converted.''
The ureter has been known to become dilated to such an extent as to cause an abdominal tumor more or less resembling that of liydronephrosis. An instance is mentioned at p. 101 in connection with that subject; another was reported by Mr. Estlin" and is referred to by Dr. Bright. A
man had a tumor *•' of an oblong form, situated in the right hj'pocliondrium, about the edge of the rectus muscle, extending nearly from the eleventh rib to the right side of the symphysis pubes, and being particularly prominent about the situation of the internal abdominal ring. It soniewhat distended the integuments, so as to be perceptible to the eye, and might be considered to be about threa inches in width." The swelling repeatedly subsided on the emptying of the bladder with a catheter. After the patient's death, which occurred under an attack of influenza, it was found that the tumor was the right ureter enormously dilated and thickened. The prostate gland was the seat of three semi-cartilaginous tumors, by which the orifice of the urethra was obstructed. The bladder was sacculated and contained a large number of phosphatic calculi which varied in size from that of a chestnut to that of a pea. It is not explained why one urethra was dilated and not the other; possibly a calculus may have determined the inequality.
The ureter may be perforated by abscesses of the neighboring parts and the pus thus find exit with the urine. An ordinary psoas abscess may do this, as is testified by a preparation at King's College, as also may a pelvic abscess of puerperal origin. A patient of the Late Dr. Lee in St. George's Hospital discharged pus with the urine for three years after pelvic cellulitis of this nature. An abscess then opened upon the back, and death shortly followed. An irregular suppurating cavity was found below the left kidney, which opened upon the loin and also into the ureter which, at about its centre, was lost in the abscess. The kidney was dilated and atrophied. This case bears also upon the subject of perinephritic abscess after labor. A frecal abscess was supposed by Dr. Ord to have entered the ureter; it had certainly entered some part of the urinary tract, as fffical matter was found in the urine; but the case does not rest on post-mortem evidence. '
The renal artery is liable to certain anatomical peculiarities and defects of development which it is not my purpose to refer to except so far as they are associated with renal disease or deficiency. The supposed origin of hydronephrosis in compression of the ureter by a supernumerary vessel has been already mentioned.
In many cases of congenital atrophy of one kidney the artery has been found to be incomplete or impervious, notwithstanding that tlie duct and vein have been open, as if the defect in the artery was the cause of the general defect of development or nutrition. The shrivelled and effete'' remnant of the organ has generally been found to consist mainly of fibrous tissue and even in some cases to present the granuhir exterior and cystic change of acquired fibrosis; not, it is to be presumed, that there has been any morbid formation of the tissue wiiich thus appears in relative excess, but rather because the lack of nutrition has told Avith greater effect upon the mere vascular and mobile structures than on that which is more passive and enduring.
It has frequently been noticed that where one kidney has been thus destroyed the other has become the subject of inflammatory disease, due no doubt to the increased work thrown upon the sole organ.
Embolism and thrombosis have been considered elsewhere. An interesting case is related by Dr. Moxon,' in which a short embolic clot from a diseased heart had stopped up the renal artery close to its origin but not extended into the organ; tlie aortic end of the plug was covered with a smooth membrane, and we are led to infer that the affected artery was completely closed, though from the state of the kidney it is evident that its blood-supply was not totally cut off. Tlie chief interest is in the contrasted state of the two kidneys. The right, which remained in free connection -with the circulation, was the large white kidney of Bright; a result, probably, of the disease of the heart, which was much dilated, and of which the valves were thickened as the result of rheumatism. The kidney from which the blood had been cut off' was practically natural, excepting that it Avas of rather small size. Dr. Moxon observes upon the infrequency of unilateral Bright's disease, and suggests with probability that the smaller healthy organ had been saved by the accident which had deprived it of a large portion of its blood.
The renal artery becomes the subject of atheroma, though perhaps scarcely so often as some other parts of the arterial system. The atheroma has been such that the vessel has been nearly but not quite closed, with the result of fibrotic atrophy in the connected organ, which was found to weigh in a case of this sort recorded by Dr. Greenfield only an ounce and a half; or the closure has been made complete by coagulum,. with resultant changes of a more acute kind, comprising chiefly anaemia of tissue, fatty degeneration, and the accumulation of leucocytes in and about the vessels.^
The effect of complete closure of tlie renal artery is to stop the secretion of urine, with comjjlete suppression should both kidneys be simultaneously affected. This point is further touched upon in connection with the subject of suppression; but I may here refer to a case in which both renal arteries were so compressed by an aneurism of the superior mesenteric that their aortic openings were reduced to mere slits. The patient had repeated convulsions, which were succeeded by coma and death. The urine was incompletely suppressed; a little which was obtained with a catheter was highly albuminous.^
Aneurism of the renal artery occurs both from embolism and as the result of atheroma. I have elsewhere related a case in which extravasation of blood about the kidney external to the pelvis was attributed to the bursting of an aneurism of embolic origin, and M. 01livier* has given an instance, which probably must be regarded as exceptional, in Avhich discharge of blood with the urine repeated during the course of six years was found to be associated with atheromatous aneurisms of the renal artery and its branches. An aneurism as large as a filbert was found at the bifurcation of the renal artery, while on the further branches were smaller aneurismal dilatations, the bursting of which into the dilated pelvis had apparently given rise to the re peated haemorrhages. Pyelitic symptoms not unlike those of stone had
The parasites which have been recognized beyond doubt in the human kidney are but four — the Ecliinococcus, ov Hydatid, the Bilharzia hcematobia, tlie Strongulus gigas, and the Filaria sanguinis hominis. The Pentastoma deniicidatum is stated to have been seen in the iiidney, and the Tetrastroma renale to have come from it. Beside these, the Dadylus aculeatas and the Filaria 2jiscium, under the title of Sjyiy'o^jtera hominis, have been produced as urinary parasites, but tliere is every reason to believe that their appearance in this relation is the result of accident or fraud. The filaria will be considered in the next chapter in relation to chyluria.
Hydatids.
The only parasitic cyst which has attracted notice in the kidney is the Ecliinococcus or Hydatid: the cysticercus cellulosse is widely scattered throughout the body, and it is scarcely to be supposed that the kidney enjoys an exemption from its attacks, but I cannot find that cysts of this nature have been recognized in this situation.
It is not necessary that I should recapitulate what is to be found in every text-book with regard to the genesis of the hydatid. This is the cj'stic stage of the minute taenia echinococcus, which in its phase as an intestinal worm belongs only to the dog and the wolf, though in its cystic or hydatid form it infests many animals, of which the human being is one. It is curious that this tape-worm, which is one of the smallest of its race — it consists of but four segments and is altogether only of about the size of a millet seed — should engender, in the shape of the hydatid, the largest parasitic growth to which the human body affords residence. The eggs of the taenia pass with the fseces from the bowels of the animal, and are conveyed into human food with a frequency corresponding with the intimacy which exists belsween man and '"the faithful dog which bears him company."
In Iceland, where dogs are necessary and numerous — each jieasant has on an average six — and where men and animals are closely associated with little distinction of persons, hydatids are said to be fatal to oneseventh of the population. The spread of the disease is assisted by the strictly homoeopathic practice of the Icelandic quacks, whose favorite remedy for internal administration is dog's dung, or, as it used to be called, Album Grajcum. It is easy to imagine, also, how the ova of the tjfinia may be conveyed by water into which dogs' excrement has passed, or may cling to various articles of diet or culinary utensils where cleanliness is unknown and dogs ubiquitous.
The hydatid disease is known also to prevail largely in Silesia, where it has been attributed to the use of dog's flesh as food: tasnia, or their eggs, probably escape from the bowel in some of the butchering processes, and
contaminate the edible portions of the animal. By such means some of the ova of the taenia, which are very numerous — about 5,000 in the last or only fertile Joint of the minute worm — are carried into the alimentary canal of the animal destined to lodge the hydatid, and thus enter ui)on a new phase of existence. The eggs each contain a minute six-hooked embryo, whose occupation appears to be that of fixing upon and boring through the structures in contact with which it finds itself. It is difficult to suppose that the tissues are traversed by any effort or design on the part of the embryo; more probably its translation is accomplished by some such process as that by which needles travel from one part of the body to another. The movements of the parts of the body on each other must necessarily tend to produce the frequent displacement of the germ, while the hooks prevent its movement save in one direction. Should a vessel be penetrated by this process, the embryo is of coui.-e liable to be swept in its current, and implanted in one of the capillanes to which it leads. Should the situation reached by one means or another be suited for its development, the hydatid will here spring from the tape-worm germ. And should the flesh holding the hydatid become the food of a dog, its germs may reproduce the ttenia in the bowel of the animal, and thus carry on the eternal interchange between intestinal worms and cystic tumors.
Thus it appears that two animals in succession, and those of the nobler species, are required to minister to the engendering of a tapeworm. It is a little puzzling why tsenia^ and hydatids should not flourish within the same creature: why should not the eggs which must almndantly escape from the tteni^e in dogs' bowels start on their travels' there and then, and develop into hydatids within the same animal ? They do not do so. On the contrary, the eggs must form the food of another individual, usually of a different species, so that the tape-worm is proper to certain animals, its cystic successor to other and different animals. The dynasty is continued only by the eating of the flesh which contains the cyst by the animal who inherits the tape-worm. Thus the worms commonly belong to flesh-feeders, the cysts possibly to animals wliicli live on vegetables. The germ which belongs to the hydatid can scarcely be introduced but with the eating of flesh, while the eggs of the worm, being detached as excrement, may cleave to anything. It is to be observed that at each transfer the egg, or the cystic germ, as it may be, is exposed to the process of digestion — usually a destructive, but in the case of tliese parasites a vivifying process.
The proper hydatid cyst, supposing it to have been produced within a parenchymatous organ, is surrounded externally by a concentric layer of tough fibrous tissue, which is derived from the organ itself. Within this comes the parasitic formation, the wall of which has been divided into two portions, described as the ectocyst and the endocyst. The outer portion, or ectocyst, is thick, elastic, and laminated, but otherwise homogeneous. It is this portion of the cyst which is so readily recognizable as hydatid membrane. The inner layer, or endocyst, is excessively tliin and delicately cellular; it appears to represent the germinal membrane or essentially vital part of the animal, and to supply the surface by which the characteristic fluid is secreted. From this membrane grow, and push inwardly, what have been described as daughter cys/s or brood capsules, as part of which scolices,^ or rudimentary tape-worm heads, after a time develop.
These heads, which are not six-hooked like the embryos, but armed, like the mature worm, with a com])lete and formidable circle of hooklets, are little else than tape-worms in brief, and are prepared to complete themselves whenever a fitting situation presents itself.
For this opportunity they are indebted to accident, and to the catholic appetite of the dog. The vast majority must perish with a destiny unfulfilled, but those that find fruition and completion do so in the duodenum and upper small boAvel of that animal of whose food they have made part. From the tape-worm matured in this situation the circle recommences. The scolices or booklets which have been derived from them are continually found floating loose in the hydatid fluid, where their presence, easily detected with the microscope in small portions withdrawn with the hypodermic syringe or aspirator, furnishes ready and conclusive evidence of the nature of the cyst. But it is to be observed that these creatures are not naturally thus detached. Dr. Cobbold, whose account I have chiefly followed, points out that their separation from the brood-cysts, however frequent, is a result of accident, and is attended with the death of the animalcule which has been thus cast loose.
The hydatid fluid is aqueous, and slightly saline, in its uncomplicated state quite devoid of albumin. The saline matter is chiefly chloride of sodium, though organic salts of soda have been found in it, and also crystals of cholesteriu and of hasmatoidin. In renal hydatids have been noticed special renal products, such as crystals of uric acid, of oxalate of lime, and the phosphates. The absence of albumin is by no means invariable; indeed, after each tapping of a hydatid cyst the fluid will become more and more serous in character, until at last it is highly so. Finally, it may suppurate and be converted into an encysted abscess full of liquid pus, or the fluid portions may be gradually absorbed, to leave a shrunken semi-calcareous nodule, in which the shrivelled remains of the secondary cysts are flattened and folded together, imbedded in the earthy residue.
Hydatids affect different organs with very different frequency. Dr. Cobbold, placing together his own researches with those of Davaine, gives the following statement of the number of times they have been found in the several situations they frequent:' —
other organ; about as often as all the rest of the body together. This organ is affected about five times as often as the lungs which stand next in order of frequency, about six times as often as the kidney, which has the next place. After the liver there is no marked difference between the important organs. The comparative frequency witli which the liver is attacked, being, as it is, the recipient of all the blood which returns from tlie alimentary canal, cannot but suggest that tbe blood is largely concerned in the distribution of the ova. Ova have indeed been detected in the blood of the abdominal veins, after the experimental feeding of an animal with tape-worm joints.'
If one of the ova, on its way from the bowel, should enter a vein, the liver will, as it would seem almost inevitably, be the place of its arrest; it is not to be supposed that the hooked embryo could by any process short of boring traverse the capillary system of this, or indeed of any organ. The probably constant arrest of the blood-borne ova in the liver, and their corresponding exclusion from the general venous blood, explains the position of the lung with regard to the distribution of hydatid tumors. The lung is not exempt from them, but shares only equally with most other organs. Did these germs in any appreciable proportion pass through the liver, and thus enter the systemic venous circulation, the lung, as presenting a capillary obstruction which must be traversed before any other organ is reached, would probably be affected, as in the case of pytemia, incomparably more often than any structure which receives only a subsequent and fractional supply. But this is not the case. We may therefore infer, in the first place, that the eggs which come by the portal vein stop in the liver, and that the lungs, kidneys, brain, and other organs all receive, by some mode of distribution which is independent of the course of the blood, from the alimentary canal: whether the germs penetrate the aorta and are thus distributed with the arterial blood, or whether they scatter themselves by an impartial system of burrowing, remains to be seen.
The liydatid disease affects most frequently the miudle of life, though perhaps no part of its course can be asserted to be absolutelv exempt. Hydatids have been found in tlie kidneys of the fu'tus, but they appear to be almost unknown in infancy. They attain their greatest prevaknce between thirty and fifty, but are known up to old age. The cases of hydatid of the kidney collected by Roberts — forty-seven in number — gave a mean age of thirty-four; the youngest sulgect was four, tlie oldest seventy-five. This statement corresponds with and evidently includes results obtained Ijy Beraud from forty-two cases.
Hydatids in general appear to be distributed between the sexes with much impartiality, though in Iceland women appear to bo affected more often than men, probably in consequence of the closer confinement of the former to their dwellings, and more constant use of the water which dogs are liable to have fouled. With regard to the kidney in particular, and the disease as we know it in less extreme latitudes, men suffer more often than women in a proportion, as Dr. Roberts reckons, of about two to one. Of sixty-three cases collected by this author, the subjects of forty-one were males, of twenty-two females. Of Beraud's cases, fortynine in number, twenty-nine related to males, twenty to females.
ratlier more often than the right. Of forty-two cases collected by Dr. Koberts, both kidneys were attacked in but two; of the rest, the left was the seat of the disease in twenty-two instances, the right in eighteen.
Hydatid cysts are apt to be imbedded in the proper glandular substance of the kidney, either in the cortex or the cones, and to present themselves, or possibly to originate, in the cellular spaces under the capsule and around the pelvis. The renal tissue undergoes various degrees of atrophy from pressure, the remnant often presenting, as when pressure is due to any other cause, a positive or relative excess of fibrous tissue.
Many cysts of different sizes often exist together: in Baillie's case they were described as varying in size from an orange to a j)in's head. "When of considerable size they have a great tendency to open into the pelvis, which leads to the discharge of hydatids with the urine, which is so common and so characteristic of this disease. The orifice by which the cyst opens upon the pelvis may be comparatively small: in a case under Rayer, recorded by Beraud, it had a diameter of half a centimetre.'
It is stated that about half the instances of renal hydatids have attained such a size as to be appreciable as tumors during life; at least one instance has been known in which the tumor was regarded as ovarian,' and an operation performed in this view, and another in which it gave rise to a suspicion of pregnancy.*
From the last case it would appear that hydatid growths may be large enough to cross the median line, but usually they do not go beyond the half of the body in which they have originated. They are usually globular.
A growth of this nature in the kidney is commonly painless and unattended with febrile symptoms or any constitutional disturbance. The prominent signs of the disease apart from the tumefaction are usually to be found in the escape of the hydatids by the urethra, or possibly by the urethra together with some other exit. Hydatids, or pus' from a suppurating hydatid cyst, carrying with it shreds of membrane, have been known to make their way from the kidney both into the bladder and into the bronchial tubes, so that the contents of a hydatid cyst of renal origin have been expectorated and passed by the urethra by the same person. The tendency of a renal abscess, upon whatever it may depend, to burrow behind the diaphragm and into the root of the lung, is one of
* Spiegelberg. Quoted in Ziemssen's Cyclopaedia, vol. xv., p, 7.")3. An operation intended as ovariotomy exposed a hydatid cyst of the kidney of the size of a man's head; it was surrounded by firm and numerous adhesions. The tumor had been developing for one and a half years in the right hypogastrium
by Mr. Beraud, loc. cit. p. 63. A hydatid cyst of the riglit kidney presented these two openings with the results described. The case ended fatally, and post-mortem examination was performed. An instance is related by Rayer (Inc. cit. vol. iii. p. 'S'2'S) in wliich the pus from a suppurating hydatid cyst connected with the left kidney burrowed behind the diaphragm into the base of the lung, and was thence expectorated.
the prominent facts in renal patliology. Hj'datids, presumably renal, have been vomited — a woman who had a tumor in the side, and' habitually passed these cysts by the uretlira, vomited a large quantity.' It has more often happened that the urethral exit has been associated with one by the bowel; several instances have been put upon record in which hydatids have simultaneously made their way out by both these channels, but either they have not terminated fatally or no post-mortem has been performed, so that the site of the formation must remain in question. "
It is to be observed that presumably renal hydatids, becoming as they do the centres of suppuration, travel out of the kidney much as do calculi, which are apt to burrow their way out by the agency of the same penetrating process.
Points of ditference are, however, to be observed in two notable respects. Suppuration in connection with a stone sometimes breaks into the peritoneum : this issue has not been recorded in regard to hydatids or a hydatid abscess. Matter of calculous origin, and calculi themselves, will sometimes make their way out through the back ; this mode of escape has never been verified with regard to renal Jiydatids. Several instances have been recorded in which hydatids have been discharged superficially from the lumbar region, but proof is wanting of their renal origin ;' in one instance indeed, in which a post-mortem was made, they were found to have come from outside the kidney.
Roberts, to whose research in this subject all subsequent writers are likelv to stand indebted, thus analyses, with regard to their mode of opening, sixty-three cases in which hydatids were found in the kidney or passed by the urethra.
No hydatids discharged by urethra in 11 cases.
In the majority of cases in which hydatids are formed in the kidney it appears that some of them habitually escape with the urine ; the tendency of renal hydatids to break into the pelvis is, indeed, the characteristic by which the affection is generally recognized. Of presumably renal hydatids Roberts estimates this result, as has been seen, at -47 of 63
loc. cit. p. 70.
5 A case is related by ^I. Rayer, vol. iii. p. 552. footnote, in which a man who had a tumor in the left iliac fossa passed hydatids by the bowel, pus and gas by the urethra. The same author, vol. iii. p. 554, quotes from M. Fourcroy the case of a perruquier who after a debaucli passed blood and hydatids by the anus, hydatids with the urine. The patient recovered.
The case of a woman is quoted by Davaine {loc. cit. 2d edition, p. 529) in which a tumor appeared in the right flank after an effort, and subsequentlj' hydatids and pus were discharged both with the motions and urine. The patient recovered after nine and a half months' illness.
cases. Beraiid estimates it at 48 of 64. But it is to be borne in mind tliat all hydatids that thus esca}3e are not of renal origin. They may thus make their way out, and that abundantly, though the cyst belong elsewhere. In a case under Mr. Birkett, referred to at page :^34, hydatids obtained from the bladder by means of a catheter were found to have proceeded from the cellular tissue behind it. A number of cases in which hydatids were passed by the urethra were brought together in the "Medical Times," ' with an expression of belief on the part of the compiler that in most the parasites were derived, not from the kidney, but from the cellular tissue in some part of the abdominal or pelvic cavity.
But however often hydatids are thus connected with the cellular tissue, we have abundant post-mortem evidence of their occurrence within the kidney itself. A preparation at Guy's Hospital which shows a hydatid cyst springing from the 'liilum and pressing into the pelvis illustrates the first stage of the process ; while the last is displayed by another at St. Bartholomew's, which consists of an ovoid mass of cretaceous matter, scarcely to be recognized as a kidney, but being all that was left " of this organ in a man who for ten years had jiassed hydatids by the urethra.
with the urine.
This mode of getting rid of renal hydatids is often preceded by a sensation of something having broken in the lumbar region, and been immediately attributed to a blow or fall or jolting movement. The attack resembles the ordinary foi-m of renal colic which attends the passage of a stone, but is less acute than the latter often is. The pain begins usually about the hip, and passes down the line of the ureter into the thigh. The testicle is often retracted. The process is often preceded or attended with hsemorrhage. These attacks are often attended with obvious lessening of the renal swelling. Mr. Evans, of St. Neots,^ described a case in which a lobulated tumor, which presented througli the integuments the dimensions of eight inches by four, totally disappeared after successive discharges of hydatids with the urine. Many hundred cysts of this nature were voided in one day.
growth.
Having reached the bladder, the hydatid may cause temporary retention of urine, and give occasion for the use of a catheter ; or they may be shot out of the urethra with considerable force. Women have been kuown to release the skins from the orifice with the fingers. The hydatid skins do not, as a rule, appear to have a very irritating effect upon the bladder, though occasionally some degree of cystitis, with a discharge of mucus or pus, has been traced to their influence. More often the urine contains pus which is of renal origin, being discharged from a suppurating cyst in process of natural cure. Hooklets and cretaceous material have been found in the pus thus produced. Not only may retention of urine, though usually in this case of a passing nature, result from the transit of renal hydatids, but fatal retention has in at least one instance
been produced by hydatids not of renal origin. The neck of the bladder was pressed upon by a growth of this nature belonging to the celluhir tissue between the bladder and the rectum, and the use of the catheter delayed until it was too late.'
contents of the cyst into it.
Calculi sometimes occur in the same kidney with hydatids, apparently as secondary productions. Crystals - of triple pliosphate, oxalate of lime, and uric acid, have been found within hydatid cysts passed with the urine, and it is easy to suppose that such a discharge may either establish phosphatic dei^osition as a consecpience of the mucous irritation which it involves, or may simply furnish the nuclei on which any urinary deposit may collect. Chopart * found in tlie pelvis of the kidney of a child four years old hydatid cysts, or what were thus described, some of which contained a stone as large as a pea, evidently phosphatic, in their 'interiors. Stones of the same character were found in the bladder. In Blackburne's instance presently referred to, in which there was but one kidney, and that the seat of hydatids, its pelvis contained a stone.* And other instances of a similar association might be referred to.
Paraplegia has been noted concurrently with hydatids of the kidney. Instances have been recorded in which the leg and the kidney of the same side have been affected.^ A case is related by Dr. Richardson as having come under the notice of Mr. Mackinder, of Gainsborough," in whicli a woman who had paralysis of the lower extremities and bladder was found after death to have hydatids in the liver and both kidneys. It is not to be supposed that there is any but an accidental connection between the renal parasite and the spinal failure. The spine may be diseased independently and differently. Or it is possible that the spinal canal, as it proved to be in a paraplegic patient not long ago under my care in St. George's, may itself be the seat of a hydatid formation. Apart from such chances it is unlikely that a renal hydatid should affect the spinal cord. A cyst of this nature cannot encroach by filtration like a malignant tumor ; and our knowledge of renal abscesses sliows it to be highh'im^jrobable that even should the cyst suppurate the matter should penetrate tlie s^Dine or in any wa}' affect the cord.
With r(!gard to tiie diagnosis of renal hydatid, this condition can scarcely be assured but by tlie passing of hydatids or booklets with the urine while a tumor of renal situation is recognized. The latter Avill be distinguished by the rules which have already been laid down, which should suffice todistinguisli a renal from an ovarian cyst the more surely when, as in case of hydatids, the formation in question is never of such large size as to obscure its relations. In case of otherwise insoluble doubt, the aspirator may be resorted to. The character of the fluid withdrawn might at once determine between the two. The presence or
^ Chopart, Traite dea Maladies des Voies Uriiiaires. vol. i. p. 145. Paris, 1830. It is not improbable tliat. though these cysts are described as hydatids, they may have been cavities of some other nature. At the date of this ticcount the distinction was not clearly made
absence of albumin must not be solely relied upon: hydatid fluid, though not usually albuminous, may be highly so, and conversely, cysts other than hydatid may be aqueous. The finding of booklets or laminated membrane would, of course, be conclusive. The hydatid fremitus is seldom if ever to be detected in connection with the kidney; it is probable that the tumor is seldom superficial enough to transmit vibrations from the cyst to the surface with the necessary distinctness.
It is not possible to state the duration of hydatid of the kidney more exactly than as variable, sometimes very brief, sometimes apparently unlimited. The cysts are apt to escape by the urethra in successive crops, separated by considerable and uncertain intervals, so that it is difficult to say that any one is the last, notwithstanding that even years may have elapsed since its occurrence. One of the longest cases of the sort on record is one quoted by Beraud' from M. Vigla. A woman 37 years of age had passed hydatids with the urine every year of her life; she had had an attack lasting about four days every winter, mostly in January, with now and then others at odd times. A woman mentioned by Davaine,* whose left kidney after death was found to have been transformed into a bag of hydatids, had been liable for twenty years to attacks of renal colic with escape of the cysts by the urethra. The case quoted from Blackburne^ by the same author, in which the disease attacked a solitary kidney, proved fatal in four years. Many instances of a different kind have been placed on record in which the patient has apparently recovered after a few outbreaks or even one. A natural cure is sometimes brought about by the process of suppuration. This finally arrests the cystic growth by killing the parasite, and leaves an abscess which may at last cure itself by discharge.
Hydatid of the kidney, as already stated, is less fatal than when single organs or organs which have no such ready exit as the ureter affords are the seat of the disease. Of the cases recorded, only a minority have terminated fatally; and of those some have done so from causes unconnected with the growth which, in several, bas presented itself as a postmortem surprise. Relying, as we must do in dealing with a disease of the infrequency of this, more upon published records than personal experience, it follows that the jiroportion of fatal cases should appear larger than it is. Those which present this ending are more noticeable than many Avhich do not; some instances are brought to light only by post-mortem examination, so that it is inevitable that cases whicli are completed by death must show a larger proportion in literature than in nature. But even in literature it is not very great. Of sixty-three cases collected by Roberts, recovery was assumed to have taken place in twenty. Twenty terminated fatally, but in nine of tbese death was brought about otherwise than by the hydatid disease, so that this affection caused tbe death of but eleven of the number
The tendency of renal hydatids, as has been shown, is to break into the pelvis and wear themselves out by discharge, while the functions are sufficiently carried on by the kidney which does not participate in the disease. But if this be incapacitated by any simultaneous or preceding accident, or if, as in Blackburne's case, the affected kidney be solitary, fatal results may be brought about by partial or complete suppres-
sion of urine, and in the rare instances where hoth kidneys have been involved in the hydatid disease, the same issue may present itself. Fatal results have followed the opening of the cyst' into the bronchial tubes, and have also been known to occur from extensive pleural etfusion,- set u]) by the progress of the growth in the same direction. Death has been known to have been brought about by the exhaustion of a ])urulent discliarge with the urine, derived from a defunct hydatid cyst, and also to have ensued, as more often happens in the case of the liver, from the formation of a closed abscess in the place of one.
In a case under M. Nelaton, related by Beraud,^' a fatal conclusion followed the artificial opening of a renal hydatid cyst: the cyst, which lay in close relation to the bowels, and had contracted extensive peritoneal adhesions, was punctured by means of caustic. It is difficult to say in this case how far the result was due to the disease and how far to the remedy. In other instances death has followed upon senile gangrene, phthisis, or some accident not obviously connected with the parasitic affection.
The usually favorable delivery of renal hydatids makes it unjustifiable to encounter risk in search of artificial cure, save in the presence of circumstances which add exceptional danger to the condition. What can be done beneficially may be briefly stated. Vermicides, administered by the stomach, appear to be powerless as regards parasites in the tissues. This is made evident in the case of the liver, an organ which is more advantageously situated than any other to receive the influence of drugs introduced into the stomach aiid admitted into the system probably by the portal vein. Hepatic hydatids flourish in contempt of all such modes of attack; and there is no reason to suppose that such growths elsewhere will yield to them, exposed as they are only in a remote degree.
I have satisfied myself that the oil of male fern is useless in this relation; and though many iiistances have been reported in which discharge of hydatids with the urine have ceased after the use of turpentine, there is no reason to believe that they would not equally have come to an end, transitoi'y as their nature is, had this drug not been given.'
The question of surgical treatment can arise only in those few cases where a tumor presents itself near the surface. And even with such, if no danger obviously threatens, if there be no embarrassment of renal function, no rapidity of increase, and no sign of tlioracic complication, we may generally be content to wait upon nature. If there is reason to interfere, it would probably be best to use the method so often and so successfully used witli regard to the liver: puncture the cyst, where it is least covered, with a very fine aspirator, and with it draw off much, but not necessarily all of the fluid contained. This will at least be a measure of relief, and with repetition it may be curative; for the contents of the cyst, at first aqueous, will become more serous with each renewal until at last they are so much so as to constitute an element in which the parasite cannot live; the solid structures belonging to which will gradually shrink, concrete, and become inert. This method causes less pain and constitutional disturbance than that which has been of late
in preferring the former.
A single puncture, and that without the removal of fluid, or with the removal of but a trifling quantity, has been known to be followed by rapid diminution of the tumor. The larger methods, which seek the extraction of the cysts, in propria persona, by trocar, caustic, or incision, are scarcely likely to suggest themselves with regard to cavities seated as deeply as in the kidney.
Apart from the evacuation of hyatids from without, the fact that their escape into the pelvis and so out has been determined by blows and falls must be recognized; but such natural surgery — surgerv not of the surgeon — would be too uncertain in result to be recommended even were it possible, which it perhaps never is, to diagnose as renal a non-discharging hyatid.
Measures of palliation are thus on every ground more likely to be called for than such as aim at cure. The vesicles have been helped along the ureter by external pressure directed by the patient himself, and their removal from the bladder has often been assisted with the catheter. This instrument will of course be at once resorted to should there be any distress from retention of urine. The use of diuretics has been thought to facilitate the discharge of the cysts; Beraud ' found in one case that these escaped after nitre or white wine; but probably such remedies will bring away only cysts which would as surely escape without them. During the attack, should it be attended with much pain, such treatment — opium, warm baths, etc. — may be indicated as would be proper were a calculus in transit.
It has long been known that several parts of the old world, most notoriously the island of Mauritius, but also certain districts belonging to the continent of Africa, including Egypt, especially the valley of the Nile, and also the southern extremity of the same quarter of the globe, comprising the Cape of Good Hope and Port Natal, are tlie seats of an endemic disorder of which h^ematuria is a prominent symptom. The ha^maturia of Mauritius has been longest under notice, and its symptoms have been minutely and repeatedly described, so as to leave no doubt that the disease is of the same nature as that which prevails on the continent; yet is has been imperfectly traced pathologically, and though it is said that the Bilharzia'- lias been found in the island, yet it must be allowed that the nature of the insular endemic is rather a matter of inference than demonstration.
The corresponding affections of Egypt and the Cape have been more completely worked out, owing to the labors chiefly of Bilharz at Cairo aad of Dr. John Harley in regard to the southern localization, and followed in both these widely-removed fields to identically the same cause, the ravages of a minute bloodworm, Avith which the name of its discoverer has been connected. It is hardly to be supposed that the intermediate
portions of Africa are entirely destitute of the parasite which infests its extremities; and indeed it is believed that the animal frequents the whole of the eastern seaboard of this continent, manifesting a preference for littoral rather than the inland districts, and for low rather than high levels. Further research must add to our knowledge of the distribution of the disorder; but we know enough already to make it impossible to consider the liEematuria of Africa excepting in relation to the parasite; and as to the haematuria of the Mauritius, it is so similar in symptoms to that of Africa that it can scarcely be of a totally different nature. The consideration of the Bilharzia, therefore, is inseparable from that of endemic hajmaturia, and it may be convenient to sketch in slight outline the natural history of the parasite before referring in particular to the symptoms which it has been ascertained to produce, or which are presumably associated with a similar cause. Our knowledge of the animal in its Egyptian location has been largely contributed to by post-mortem research, and is fairly complete so far as relates to the portion of its existence during which it is a denizen of the human body; as yet we know it at the Cape chiefly by ova which have been passed with the urine during life; it is i)ossible that our knowledge in this respect may soon be extended.
The animal whose existence was discovered by Bilharz in the year 1851, and since described by Kuchenmeister and Leuckhart, is a distinct species of fluke or trematode.' The creature enjoys complete sexual distinction: the male, which has much the contour of a leech, is about half an inch in length, the female measures about four-fifths of an inch, but is of such slender proportions that much of its body is imbedded within that of the male during the act of sexual association. The body of the male contains a canal which has been called gynecophoric, within which nujjtial chamber the female is for the time inclosed. The comparatively plum^) body of the male is somewhat tuberculated, that of the female is smooth. With both sexes there are oral and ventral suckers, by means of which the animal secures its position. The eggs are oval or pearshaped. They have a spine or sharp jjoint, usually at the hinder extremity, but sometimes at the side. Dr. John Harley found in his South African cases the hinder spine only; in Egypt both kinds have been found. According to Dr. Zincarol,-' of Alexandria, the ova from the bladder have a terminal spine, those from the intestine a lateral one. The eggs give exit to ciliated embryos, which move about with much activity, as Griesiuger witnessed in the bowel, and as has been often seen in the urine.
Though the eggs may possibly be thus hatched in the urine, the embryo cannot live long in this fluid; water is the place of its further development. For its prolonged existence pure or only brackish water is required. Urine is fatal to it, though not at once. Harley never found a live embryo in this fluid. Eoberts was more fortunate, and witnessed the activity of the embryo in this secretion several hours after it had been emitted; but we have the evidence of Cobbold as to the impossibility of jDreserving its life for forty-eight or even for twenty-four hours, excepting in water which is free from organic admixture. Traces of blood, mucus, or decomposing matter of any kind added to spring water caused the death of the embryo within twenty-four hours, as also
Thus it api^ears tliat for the continuance of the race the egg or embryo must be passed with the urine into fresh or brackish water; if the egg, it is hatched, as Cobbold has shown, almost immediately upon coming into contact with the water; and it then commences the extrahuman portion of its existence, of which nothing is ascertained excej^t that a time comes when the creature, in some shape as yet unknown, refcuriisfrom the water to the vertebrate body.
The 2)arasite infests man and the monkey. A variety, which is stated to be distinct, has been found in the ox and sheep. In the portal vein of a monkey which had been imported from Africa and died in the Zoological Gardens, Dr. Cobbold found so fine a specimen of this fluke that he was for a time disposed to distinguish it as the Bilharzia magna.
The animal in its adult state belongs especially to the blood; it is found particularly in the vessels of the bladder, and in the abdominal veins, the portal vein and its intestinal, mesenteric, and splenic tributaries, and the hepatic vein.
Ova have been abundantly found in the liver, to which it is evident that they may readily be conveyed; and egg-shells within the left ventricle, the means of their reaching which are less obvious. Though the worms are, as a rule, confined to the blood, the eggs are somewhat widely distributed. Tliey are deposited mainly in the mucous membranes of the bowel and of the urinary system, in which they give exit to the ciliated and active embryos which escape with the evacuations to find adventures as yet unknown to us, but no douljt to provide adequately for the continuance of the race. The worm in the blood appears to cause less disturbance than would be expected; the presence of the parasite is chiefly made known to us by the irritation occasioned by its progeny in certain mucous membranes. In the large intestine, which is the jjart of the bowels chiefly affected, the ova were found in polypoid excrescences, and their presence indicated by diarrhoea, with discharge of mucus and blood, and much jiain of the nature of colic. In the urinary membrane, which is the chosen site for the dej)osition of the eggs, the results are produced by which the disorder is especially characterized. The bladder is found to be extensively spotted with ecchymosis, and variously pigmented; the mucous membrane is sometimes partially detached or undermined by accumulations of eggs beneath it, and it is sometimes lifted up into warty or villous elevations. These changes are necessarily attended with much irritation and the discharge of blood and mucus, together with eggs, embryos, egg-shells, and now and then a deceased parent.
The accumulated and partially imbedded ova often become the centres of oxalic and lithic deposits from the urine, so that vesical calculi are common complications of the parasitic disease. Similar changes occur in the lining of the ureters, and, less often, of the })elves. The ureters are apt to become obstructed or constricted, and the kidneys to present in consequence the various phases of dilatation and atrophy which follow ujion urethral stricture. They may become the subjects of hydronephrosis, or tliere may be pyelitis even to the degree, as in a case described by Griesinger, of converting the organ into a mere bag of pus. But beside these consecutive changes it appears that the kidneys are affected by the parasitic disorder in ways which arise within themselves.
It is sufficiently clear that the pelvis of the kidney affords lodgment to the ova, as do other parts of the uriiiary membrane, though not with the same frequency, and adult animals have been found in the renal bloodvessels. Whichever may be the effective sources of irritation, the kidneys are described as swollen and congested, affected with a dark red hyperemia, and, in tlie later stages, fatty. Whether these changes depend upon venous obstruction or upon irritation of the renal substance by parasitic intrusion are questions which must be answered by further observation.
Both in Egypt and also in a person Avho had come from Natal, filariaj' have been found in individuals who have also given residence to the Bilharzia; but the animals and the symptoms produced by them are totally distinct and the concurrence accidental.
AVe know the symptoms of the disorder as it occurs in Egypt, chiefly from the researches of Bilharz and Griesinger, as in South Africa chiefly from those of Dr. John Harley, though as regards both localizations many other observers have more recently added to our stock of knowledge. *' Gravel and ulcers of the kidneys," if we may trust the statement of Prosper Alpinus,^ appear to have been frequent among the Eg\'ptians even as far back as the year 1645 — not to mention a still older reference to the turning of water into blood, Avhich may have found its suggestion in the diseases proper to the place. So common is the parasite in Egypt that M. Griesinger found it in 117 of 303 autopsies. Its effects are most noticeable from June to August, and least so from September to January. The prevalence of the disease in summer is owing, as Dr. Cobbold supposes, to the prevalence of the larvae, wheucesoever derived. The symptoms of the disease are, in the first place at least, chiefly local, vesical, and prostatic irritation, with the passing of blood, mucus, sometimes pus, and not seldom calculi, which may be either of vesical or renal origin. Pain in the back is mentioned, though the bladder-symptoms appear to be usually more prominent than the renal. A form of dysentery, diarrhoea with the passing of blood and mucus, is a frequent concomitant. "With the local symptoms there is often much loss of flesh, anaemia, and nervous prostration. ''Egyptian chlorosis '' has been spoken of as one of the results of the disease, but it appears that this especial affection is rather to be attributed to another parasite, the Ancldistoma duodenaJe.^ Beside dysentery, pneumonia has been mentioned among its fatal results, though it would seem from our experience in South Africa that the disorder seldom leads to a fatal issue. It is stated that in Egypt it occasionally presents itself in an acute constitutional form, resembling typhus in its symptoms and duration. The symptoms appear, however, to be iisually, and as far as we know in South Africa always, of the chronic and local sort, with hematuria and vesical or i^rostatic irritation, without much or with no early effect upon the general health.
A little blood is passed, mostJy after the urine; there is little frequency of micturition, though perhaps a difliculty in retaining the water when the call has come. In one instance the prostate appeared to be solely affected, since there were no properly vesical or renal symptoms. Mucous casts were passed, imbedding the eggs, while small quantities of
' Zincarol, Med. Times, January 21st, 1882, p. 76. Cobbold, Lancet, January 14th, 1882, p. 84. Sonsino, Med. Times, May 2Tth, 1882, p. 5.56. ^ Quoted by Davaine, 2d edition, p. 320. ^ Sonsino, Lancet, 3Iay 2Ttli, 1882, p. 553.
Tenons blood, mixed with nrine, were from time to time passed b}' ihe urethra, the rest of the secretion being nnaffected, save that it was clondy with mncns." Such symptoms appear to be seldom attended with danger to life; the only fatal case referred to by Dr. Harley is that of a Scotchman, who died ''worn out by the various concomitants of the disorder '' at the age of seventy-six. Among concomitants must be mentioned the ]iassage of renal calculi, in two instances of which Dr. Harley found the irgs of the parasite in the interior of the stone; constituting, as we can •arcely doubt, the point of primary deposit. This observation is of interest as placing beyond doubt the particijjation of the kidneys in the disease.
though uric acid, which is a frequent deposit in such cases, takes part.
The urine itself was not, in Dr. Harley's cases, usually changed in quantity, or specific gravity, or in quality, save by the addition of the jiarasitic pi'oducts, with blood, and its proper amount of albumin. It was not ammoniacal nor alkaline, but, on the contrary, apt to deposit uric acid. None of the ordinary products of cystitis Avere usually present, though sometimes there was a little blood-stained stringy mucus. In a case presumably of prostatic location the blood was passed only after breakfast or defsecation.
The disorder in South Africa appears to attack foreigners and colonists in preference to the native population. KaflEirs are exempt, while coolies suffer. The disease seems to be nearly, but not absolutely, limited to males. When females suffer, it is said often to disappear with the advent of the menses, almost always to cease on the occurrence of pregnancy.^ It was not transmitted to a wife whose husband had passed numbers of eggs every day of married life. Three or four healthy children had been born to the pair. Boys after the age of three or four are most liable, the complaint often disappearing about puberty. It has, however, been known to have been acquired at the age of fifty, and to have proved fatal at seventy-six.
The endemic hasmaturia of the Isle of France has long been known, but has not yet been definitely traced to the Bilharzia ; there can, however, be little doubt that it is produced by this or some closely similar parasite. The symptoms and incidence of the disease are almost exactly those described at the Cape. Repeated attacks of hsematuria occur with frequency of micturition and other signs of vesical irritation. The blood is in but small amount, not so much as to discolor the whole bulk of the urine, but only its last portion, after the discharge of which a few drops of blood may escape unmixed. Small clots are occasionally seen. Under the microscope have been found oxalate of lime, blood, mucus, and pus, with scales of blood-epithelium. Probably before long this list will include the parasite. =*
The disorder is here, as elsewhere, often associated with attacks of renal colic. It is said that three-fourths of the children in the island suffer from it, both sexes being affected, but boys apparently with the more frequency, since of these it is said that few escape. The disorder, as elsewhere, often disappears about the time of puberty. It has been attributed to masturbation and the use of spiced dishes — causes which,
were thej effective in this respect, might be expected to give rise to the disease in many other places — and with some probability to the quality of the water drunk. A form of hfematuria, presumably of the same origin, has been stated to occur in Madagascar.'
It is of importance to inquire Avith regard to the creature a portion only of whose existence is passed within the liuman body, whence it may be derived and how admitted. As it is not known save as a human parasite, its derivation must be a matter of conjecture, but water is to be suspected as the means of its distribution. The Nile is thought to be the vehicle of the parasite in Egypt, and it has been suggested that some of the fish of that teeming river may furnish its temporary abode. Dr. Cobbold thinks it more likely that the larval form infests some gasteropod mollusc local to the district where the disorder occurs. At Uitenhage and Port Elizabeth, at the other extremity of the continent, the disorder is likewise attributed to water which is supplied by exposed streamlets in which water-plants abound. It is stated that in South Africa those only are liable ^ who drink river water or the water from marshes or pools, those who use well or rain water being exempt. Dr. Harley has shown reason to suspect watercresses as conveying the parasite, Avhether themselves affording attachment to it, or, as he suggests, by means of minute mollusca in which the parasite is lodged adhering to the plant. It has been suggested that the ova find admission into the body during bathing, and that the frequency with which boys are affected as compared with girls is due to their more often doing so. The urethra has been regarded as the point of entrance, and it has been stated that in South Africa the natives are in the habit of tying grass round the orifice before wading or swimming across a river. On the other hand, it has been remarked that in South Africa the Kaffirs, who bathe often, are exempt from the disease, while the coolies, who bathe seldom, are often affected. Whether the parasite is admitted by the urethra or by the mouth must be regarded as at present uncertain ; what we know of the habits of other similar creatures and the abundance with which these are found in the jiortal vein, "where indeed they were first detected, would lead us to attach the greatest probability to entrance by the mouth; entrance by the urethra is supported by the concentration of the disorder upon the urinary organs and the blood-vessels in immediate connection with them. It has been suggested that the ova may be deposited in the skin and thus enter the superficial veins ; but if thus introduced they should be conveyed to the systemic, not the portal vessels. Dr. Harley tells us that persons bathing in the Booker river, about which the disease is common, are sometimes attacked in consequence with an nrticarious eruption, and that the colonists of Natal are constantly affected, when first resident, with indolent sores, especially upon the legs, which resemble syphilitic ulcers.^ It is stated, however, by Dr. Guillemard, that the ''Natal sores " are distinctly and solely caused by the bite and subcutaneous burrowing of a species of tick which is quite unconnected with the Bilharzia ; and though bathing must be admitted as Avith possibility affording means for the introduction of the animal, the evidence is against cutaneous entrance.
disease comes to an end spontaneously ; this occurs especially about the time of puberty. As to treatment, since the habitation of the parent worms is in the blood, they are practically out of the reach of vermicides ; this organized fluid could not be supposed to tolerate any admixture which would be destructive to animal organisms within it. All we can do, therefore, when the disease is established is to support the patient against it and use such local measures as may be effective against its more accessible manifestations. The latter endeavor resolves itself into the destruction by some suitable injection of as much of the parasite or its progeny as is lodged in the coats of the bladder. Whatever may be effected with regard to the unhatched eggs, it would not appear tliat any trouble is needed to destroy the ciliated embryo, since urine itself is fatal to it. With regard to the worms, most of them are obviously out of reach; those only which have penetrated the vesical wall are thus assailable ; and even here not too readily, for the guest is protected by the sensibility of the host. The more active disinfectants or parasiticides could scarcely fail to injure the bladder. Experimenting Avith non-irritant solutio7is Dr. Harley got the best results from iodide of potassium in a strength of five grains to the ounce. This gave rise to no vesical irritation and was followed by the expulsion of various parasitic products. Dr. Harley made trial of other remedies, including oil of male fern, wormwood, and quassia, with less satisfactory results. It is obvious that there is room for further experiment : quinine, the sulphides, and permanganate of potash might be suggested. Dr. Allen, of Pietermaritzburg, emi^loyed a concentrated solution of santonine in absolute alcohol, and injected this in quantities of two drachms into the empty bladder, with the constant result of cystitis, as might have been anticipated, but with the effect, as he thought, of destroying the parasite. It is indeed possible that the ova, like the bladder itself, may have been seriously injured by this application and the disorder locally suspended ; but such relief is scarcely worth the cost if the parasite remain intact in the deeper veins. Dr. Allen ' supposed also that by the administration of santonine by the mouth the creature would be killed in the blood-vessels, a presumption from which local treatment might be inferred to be unnecessary. The destruction of the worm in the blood-vessels by medicine conveyed by the blood cannot as yet be regarded as proven or as possible. Dr. Cobbold disapjoroves of injection, and directs his attempts to the arrest of the hemorrhage rather than to the destruction of the parasite. He thinks the catheter should be avoided as injurious, and parasiticides as useless. Nothing, in his view, should be done to disturb the plugs which spontaneously form at the points of ulceration. He has found good results from the administration by the mouth of buchu and bearberry.
With regard to prevention, if the parasite is, as there is reason to believe, brought by water and admitted by the mouth, it is obvious that spring or rain water should be drunk when possible, to the exclusion of that from streams and pools. But with the latter, infection should be completely intercepted by boiling or effectual filtration. Fish and vegetables from suspected water shoiuld be wholly avoided, or at least never used as food until after having been raised in cooking to boiling point. In view of modes of entrance other than by the alimentary canal, there should be no bathing but in the sea.
The Stroxgulus Gigas.
The "worm which has been thus called, or otherwise the Eustrongyhis giqas, both names alike bearing witness to its rotundity and to its size, is not only the largest individual parasite which takes residence within the human body, but is the largest nematode known. It may nearly be compared in its dimensions to one of the snakes common in this country, the male to the adder, the female to the common field snake, AVith the thickness of about half an inch the male attains the length of about a foot, the female of about three feet. The serpentine proportions of the
Strongnlus piRas in the CoDepre of Surgeons, "found in the kidney of a patient of the late Thomas Sheldon, Esq." The woodcut is of one-half the actual dimensions. The animal, a female, 18 inches long, has been laid open to show the intestinal canal, spiral CESophagus. and reproductive organs.
in this situation.
This variety of strongnlus, though not peculiar to the kidney, is most often found in this organ, of which it becomes the denizen in a large number of animals. It is said to occur with especial frequency in the
weasel and the North American mink, destroying the snbstance of the kidney and giving rise to calcareous dejiosit in its walls. Among the animals in which this worm has been found Cobbold mentions the dog, wolf, puma, glutton, racoon, coati, otter, seal, ox, and horse.
The general aj^pearance and something of the anatomy of the animal may be gathered from the accompanying woodcut, which represents the specimen which, on Cobbold's authority, we may accept as undoubtedly from the human body, which is preserved at the College of Surgeons. The adult worm, to follow Cobbold's description, is cylindrical, more or less red in color, and somewhat thicker behind than in front. The head is broadly obtuse, the mouth being supplied with six small wart-like papillae, whereas the lumbricus, which the strongulus someAvhat resembles, has but three. Two of the papillre correspond with the commencement of the two lateral lines of the body. There are six other longitudinal lines Avhicli traverse the body from end to end. The tail of the male shows a simple cup-shaped bursa, which jiartly conceals the simple spiculum. The tail of the female is blunt and pierced by the centrally placed anal opening. The vulva is situated near the head in the ventral line. The eggs are stout and oval, measuring -j^o-" in length and -^^-a" in breadth.
In the stages of existence through which this parasite passes before entering the human or mammalian body and assuming the form to which the term gif/fts is applicable, it appears that certain fish, as probably in the case of the Bilharzia, play the part of intermediary bearers. It has been inferred by Hchneider, and the interference accepted by Leuckart and Cobbold, that the worm known as the FUaria cystica, which is found encysted beneath the peritoneal membrane of the Galaxias scriba and Si/ndranchus laticandatus, is the sexually miniature and undeveloped strongulus. It is easy to imagine that the minute inhabitant of the fish may be transferred to the fish-eating animal, the otter, seal, and even the dog and the wolf, and man himself, but it is less easy to explain its transmission to the ox and the horse. Probably water is the vehicle.
With regard to the geographical distribution of the strongulus, it appears to be less uncommon in the Low Countries than elsewhere both in man and animals. Of the eight cases i-eferred to as probable, two were recorded in Holland. Of another, the subject was a Frenchman who had been to Walcheren. Two others occurred in France. Of the eighth, from which was obtained the specimen in the College of Surgeons (see woodcut), nothing further is known than that it was taken from the kidney of a patient of the late Thomas Sheldon, Esq.
The chosen position of this worm is the pelvis of the kidney, in which it lies in a coil or knot; but as it has been passed with the urine in the human subject, it is obviously not limited to any subdivision of the urinary cavity. In dogs, in which opportunities of observing the habits and effects of the parasite have lieen more frequent than with other animals, it has been found stretched along the whole length of the ureter, in the bladder, in tlie peritoneal cavity, into whicli it had i)assed from the renal pelvis, and in external swellings in the neighborhood of the ])enis.
Davaine has gatliered so many of the scattered instances in which this worm has secured its admission into the human body that it is to his research that we are chiefly indebted for our knowledge of its clinical results. From the year 1074 to his date of publication, 1877, this writer has collected seven cases which he regards as '"probable," eight as ''very uncertain,'' which may be taken to represent our whole recorded ex-
perience of this parasitic disorder in the human subject. Among the seven " probable " cases were two in which the worms had been passed by the urethra only, one in which they had escaped by lumbar fistulae, and the urethra also, four in which they were found in the kidney after death. Of these four to Avhich alone we can apjjeal for pathological information, there is but one in which the condition of the kidney is described with any minuteness: in this case the secreting structure was nearly destroyed, and the weight of the organ reduced to about half (see p. 247). With animals the kidney has often been noticed in these circumstances to have displayed all the effects of pyelitis, to have become variously dilated, as happens from stone, and in the North American mink in particular to have become converted into a cyst, the walls of which are the seat of calcareous deposit. An instance has already been referred to in the dog, in which worms of this nature had passed from the renal into the abdominal cavity.
The instance' relating to the human subject in which stronguli were discharged through a lumbar abscess may be further mentioned, notwithstanding that it has been quoted by other writers. A boy was cut for stone by M. Moublet at the hospital of Tarascon, and a large calculus removed. Four years later, after an attack of partial suppression of urine with much constitutional disturbance, an abscess was found in the lumbar region, was opened, and healed. But the cicatrix after a time was undermined by renewed suppuration and again opened. From the opening thus made a living strongulus was withdrawn by the child^s mother, and a few hours afterwards another by M. Moublet. Two days afterwards two worms of the same kind were passed by the urethra, one with the help of forceps, the second spontaneously. Having thus got rid of four of these formidable interlopers, the child recovered.
If we may accept a case, which, however, Davaine has shown to want corroboration, the concurrence of a stone with this parasite, which M. Moublet's patient presented, is not singular. A worm apparently of this nature was, as far back as the year 1595, found in the kidney of a Belgian archduke, together with a calculus. Given the Avorm, the stone is not improbable as a result; some of the exuvi* might readily give ground for concretion."
The symptoms produced by the presence of this parasite in the kidney are those of stone aggravated in respect that rest brings no relief, and with the repulsive addition, if we accept the evidence of a single instance, of a sense of movement in the renal region. The symptoms are gra])hically displayed in a case related by M. Aubinais^ and quoted by Davaine. A French husbandman, sixty years of age, was seized with shar[) pains in the region of the right kidney, which were supposed to be nephritic. For three years, then, in spite of many anodyne and other remedies, these were incessant and most severe, and the man, formerly somewhat obese, was reduced to a skeleton. In this condition of attenuation, movements of swelling and undulation, apparently in the situation of the right kidney, could be felt and seen through the thin abdominal wall. The patient himself was conscious of crawling movements, or movements of ''' reptation,'' as M. Aubinais terms them, in
the same position. After three years of these sufferings, bed-sore.? formed, and death was brought about by wasting and exhaustion. The right kidney was removed twenty hours after death by an incision through the flank, Undulatory movements were still perceptible within it, and a living strongulus over seventeen inches long and nearly a quarter of an inch in thickness (from five to six millimetres) discovered in the pelvis. The tissue of the kidney was much altered, its parenchyma in great part destroyed, and its weight reduced by half.
It is scarcely needful to dwell further on the symptoms: severe attacks of hjematuria have in some instances marked the presence of the worm, but this symptom has not been noticed in all. Temporary suppression of urine has occurred apparently in consequence of its entering the ureter; in such a case, the other ureter must have been also obstructed, possibly by other means. This distinction from stone or growtii must be seldom practicable until either worms themselves or their eggs have been passed. The passage of the latter with the urine, should the domestic relations of the parasite be consistent with their production, ought, considering their conspicuity as microscopic objects, to furnish ready means of detection. As to treatment, it may fairly be inferred that parasiticides are useless. If in the bladder or urethra its removal will be indicated ; the means must be suggested by the case itself. If in the kidney, it may be considered whether the circumstances are such as to justify nephrotomy.
Pentastoma Denticulatum.
This creature, which would be comprehended under the common term tick, must ap])areutly be counted as a renal parasite, though it has no clinical significance in this relation. Like many other parasites, it presents two different phases, which have become known by different names. In the adult state, as the Pentastoma tenioides, it lives at large in the nasal cavities, chiefiy of the dog, where it presents the shape of a maggot or wingless insect, covered with rings of mail, varying according to sex from one to three inches in length, the male being the shorter. In the larval state, as the Pentastoma denticulatum, it attains the length only of about an eighth of an inch, and is narrowly confined within a cyst which is imbedded usually in one of the abdominal organs. The animal in this stage of its existence, in which only its interests are concerned with those of the kidney, is somewhat ship-shaped or navicular, with a rounded forej^art, where are placed four booklets or anchors, with lines narrowing towards the stern and sides beset with fine spines.
The relationship between the largo and active adult and the minute and imprisoned offspring appears to have been fairly ascertained. The ova of the nasal intruder, carried out Avitli mucus or expelled by sneezing, may readily attach themselves to the food of men or of animals; thus taken into the stomach, the embryos escape and bore, for which purpose Nature, with an impartial consideration of their necessities, has provided them with a suitable api)aratus; they thus enter various organs and tissues, among which the liver appears most often to snpi)ly their resting-place, but occasionally the lung,- the submucous tisssue of the small bowel, and the kidney. The kidney, so far as I know, has been mentioned but once in this relation, aiul that by Wagner; but our knowledge of tlic distribution of this parasite in its larval stage makes it more than probable that this localization of it is not solitary, though
otherwise unnoticed. The imbedded larvae, or those of them which are destined for further development, are released when the flesh in which they lie is torn up by the dog or wolf, and thus liberated, sniffed into, or otherwise enabled to enter the inquiring nose of the quadruped. From this the completed cycle begins again.
The embryo having reached its place of rest, repeatedly casts its skin with rapid growth, and at last attains tlie perfected larval form to whicli the name Pentastoma deiiticulatum has been given, wliich remains encysted and inactive in the organ in which it has been imbedded until it is introduced to the upper world by some such process as has been referred to. Unlike the Pentastoma constrictum, the presence of which has been associated with destructive inflammation, no symptoms have been traced to the denticulatum. It appears to be by no means uncommon in some parts of the Continent, however rare in this country. According to Frerichs, it is to be found in the liver more often than theecchinococcus; though Murchison, in England, long sought for it without success. It appears to be especially common in Brazil.'
In the only instance in which the parasite was recognized in the kidney, a small Avhitish, slightly raised oval patch of flbrous appearance, about one-seventh of an inch in length, was found underneath the capsule. This little body was hollow in the interior; it contained a yellowish mass, which on examination disclosed the presence of the worm."
Tetkastoma Kexale.
The so-called Tetrastoma renale may be briefly dismissed as of uncertain origin, though probably parasitic. A parasite to which this name was given was found by Lucarelli in the urine of an old woman who was thought to have symptoms of stone, and it was inferred that it had come from the kidney tubes. On the death of the patient, however, two months afterwards, no such parasites were to be found there or elsewhere.^ This trematode was described by Delia Chiage as having a length of five lines, an oval flattened body, and four suckers at the caudal extremity.
Worms Accidektallt Present ix the Urixary Passages.
Worms belonging to the alimentary cavities may accidentally enter the urinary. Oxyurides, or thread worms, may crawl from the rectum and reach the vulva, or the orifice of the female urethra, into which channel they may possibly intrude themselves to be passed witli the urine.
Other bowel worms, should they be found in the urinary cavities, must have come through a fistulous communication. This has most often been the case with regard to lumbrici, animals whicli have a remarkable propensity for penetrating into small holes of every kind. Tliese worms have often thus fatally entrapped tliemselves in buttons and "hooks and eyes," which have been accidentally swallowed, and others have penetrated into abscesses and other cavities opening upon the alimentary canal. With regard to the bladder, a large number of
instances are on record in -whicli these worms have got into it through fistulous openings and been passed with the urine, and we are indebted to Davaine ^ for bringing them together.
Several of these worms have at intervals been expelled or withdrawn from th6 same urethra. A boy seven years of age, after having retention of urine for seven days, perceived the extremity of a worm protruding from the meatus, pulled it out and was relieved. A year later another lumbricus presented itself, and was removed by the boy's mother. During the two years succeeding the second removal, many worms of the same sort were similarly got rid of. Subsequently, many similar worms escaped by the anus, violent pains occurred in the region of the bladder, purulent urine was discharged with the stools, and the patient sunk. It was found that the vermiform appendix was displaced, and was adherent to the bladder, with the interior of whicli that of the vermiform appendix communicated by a fistulous openiiig. A large calculus was found in the bladder, and in the calculus a pin. This had probably been the origin of the whole complication ; it had been swallowed, had entered the appendix, and thus set up inflammation, which had led to adhesion and then to ulceration, by which it had reached the bladder and become the nucleus of the stone.
The symptoms, after the early retention of urine, were apparently due more to the stone than to the worms; indeed, Avhere lumbrici have reached the bladder from the bowel, unless they have entered the urethra and caused retention, the symptoms appear to be little more than those which commonly attend the fistulous communication.
Another case is recorded nearly parallel to that mentioned, in which lumbrici, passed from the bladder, were found to have reached it through an adherent and perforated vermiform appendix. In this case also a stone was found in the bladder. Instances are likewise on record in which a similar intrusion has occurred by way of a fistula between the bladder and rectum."
Spurious Worms.
An endless variety of insects, worms, and vermiform bodies have been introduced into the urine by accident or design, and placed upon record as urinary parasites, while some have been not i)arasitic, and others neither parasitic nor urinary. Some supposed worms have clearly been vermiform coagula from the ureter. Of other supposititious parasites, the extraordinary research of Davaine has provided a largo selection collected from ancient and modern literature. These would appear to include all possible and some impossible insects. These are variously described as winged, provided with legs, antennae, or eyes of fire, while others present tlie form of scorpions or the more familiar shapes of beetles and grasshoppers.
Though such obvious mistakes are little likely to be now repeated, nevertheless modern days, as if the art of deceiving improYed pa?'i passtc with the means of detection, have witnessed such successful imitations of urinary parasites as to pass current with observers of approved skill and technical accomplishment.
A girl five years of age was supposed to have passed with the urine a number of worms of from four-fifths to two-fifths of an inch in length. These were carefully examined by Mr. Curling, and described by him in a paper read before the Medico-Chirurgical Society as a new urinary parasite under the name Dactylius aculeatus. For a time the discovery appears to have remained unquestioned, but there appears to be little reason to doubt from the observations of Cobbold and others that the worm was but a species of earth-worm known to frequent flower-pots, and described under the name Euchytroeus aJbidus. The mode of migration, as Cobbold observes, from the flower-pot to the receptacle in which the supposed parasite was found is not difficult of explanation.
Two other spurious urinary parasites, which were furnished by the same patient, and have been dignified by the names Sjriroptera Iwminis and Diplosoma crenatum, need a passing mention, as connected with one of the most remarkable of those female simulations which are so incomprehensible to the masculine mind. The primary victim and sponsor of the imposture was, together with Mr. Barnett, the acute and sceptical Lawrence, who brought the case as one of parasitic disease before the Medico-Chirurgical Societ}^ A 3'oung woman had obstinate retention of urine with symptoms such as commonly indicate stone in the bladder. The catheter Avas used as frequently as such a patient could desire. She was sounded for stone in vain, but described a " fluttering" in the bladder, presently succeeded by the withdrawal of several small worms which had become curiously entangled in the eye of a catheter retained for a time in the urethra. "Worms, or what passed for them, were evacuated actually or ostensibly to the number of above 800. These were of two kinds: small veritable worms, which were desci'ibed as Spiroptcra hominis, and larger vermiform bodies, which Dr. Arthur Farre, after elaborate examination, entitled Diplosoma crenata. Specimens of both were forwarded to Continental museums ; the discovery was for a time accepted, and two parasites were added to the list of these concealed enemies of mankind. The small worm, however, truly parasitic though it was, proved to belong not to the human being but the fish; it was identified beyond doubt by Dr. Schneider as the Filaria piscium, a worm of common occurrence in the haddock and cod ; while the Diplosoma crenata, as Cobbold has shown, almost certainl}' consists of slices of haddock's roe. The smaller worms, from half an inch to an inch in length, sometimes made their appearance alive, and lived in the urine for tliree days. The report is explicit as to the circumstances that most or many of these were actually discharged through or withdrawn with a catheter, so that it is certain that some at least actually came from inside the bladder. The patient, therefore, must have introduced not only sham worms, but loathsome living parasites, within the penetralia of her own body. The satisfaction she derived from so doing must have been considerable if it bore any proportion to the sufferings entailed: these comprised the utmost distress from strangury, typhoid prostration, arid a large abscess which burst into the vagina after constitutioiuil disturbance which well-nigh proved fatal.'
'See "Case of a Woman who voided a large number of Worms by the Urethra," by W. Lawrence, Med.-Chir. Trans., vol. ii. p. 383. Dr. Arthur Farre, Archives of Medicine, vol. i. p. 2!t(). Also Dr. Farre's article "Worms," Libntry of Medicine, vol. v. p. 241. Di-. Beale, Kidney Diseases, etc., 3d edition, p. 399. Cobbold, Entozoa, pp. 406, 409.
HiSTOEY AND ClINICAL AsPECT.
The disorder which is known by this name, and characterized by the passing of urine, which has been regarded as chylo-serous, chylous, or haematochylous, or more barely described as oleo-albuminous or albuminous and fatty, is one which both in its cause and in its symptoms presents itself with remarkable isolation and distinctness. The leading symptom^ is the admixture with the urine of a fatty emulsion which has all the properties of chyle; while its most common if not its only cause is the presence in the living body of parasitic worms, of which the adults appear to be located in the absorbents, while the progeny find their habitation in the blood-vessels, and their element in the blood.
The disorder is one which has long excited curiosity; and, indeed, it seems to have received its name almost prophetically at a time when, neither chemically nor by the microscope, could the chylous admixture be ascertained. John Peter Frank, in his fifth book, De Frofluviis, which represents the state of knowledge in the year 1794, speaks of diabetes chylosus, or flux2(s per renes cmliaciis. It is needless to interpolate that, in the language of tlie older writers, a coeliac flux was an escape of what they thought to be chyle. Further than this, Frank uses the actual term chyluria, and distinguishes between this condition and one of purulent admixture; though it is not impossible, and is indeed suggested by his description, that urine which was thus regarded as chylous may have been merely phosphatic. He attributes it especially to persons, otherwise in good health, who take active exercise after a full meal; a familiar cause of phosphatic urine, and, it may be added, no less an incentive to a chylous state of that secretion in a chylurious subject.
Cruickshank,' also, in the year 1806, speaks of urine of a white color, as was supposed from chyle; but since he attributes this to children who are subject to worms, it is probable that he also refers merely to urine milky with })hosphates. Thus chyle, although conjecturally spoken of as passed with the urine, does not appear to have been conclusively recognized in that relation until the time of Prout,^ who, in the year 1821, described some urine as so closely resembling chyle in all respects that, had it been brought before him as a specimen of that fluid, he might not have discovered the imposition. This observer, however, though he gives a clinically excellent sketch of the disease, scarcely attained to an adequate idea of its nature. He saw in it only an arrest of
assimilation, and the discharge by the kidneys of chyle which had failed to undergo its proper transformation into blood. In describing the urine as chylo-serous rather than chylous, he pointed to its supposed analogy Avith the disorder characterized by serous urine, of which he held this to be a mere variety. Dr. Bence Jones ' thought, with Prout, that the chylous discharge was derived from the blood, but attributed it, not to defective assimilation, but to some slight alteration in the structure of the kidney, which allowed the constituents of chyle to transude from the blood-vessels, and which remained without repair for years. He thought the leak could be closed by means of gallic acid, and detailed a case with much minuteness which afforded this inference. The cure, however, was only temporary, and the habit of the complaint to intermit for long periods, independently of treatment, must make us cautious in dealing with the effects of remedies.
The views held by Prout and Bence Jones were not very different from those expressed at a later date by Dr. Waters,'^ who believed that ''the main pathological feature of the complaint was a relaxed condition of the capillaries of the kidneys," which allowed fibrin fat and corpuscles to filter from the blood-vessels into the urine, the leading idea up to this time being that the addition to the urine was supplied by the blood; a view which, besides other objections, is inconsistent with the fact, which frequent observations have placed beyond doubt, that though the urine be milky the blood is not; the peculiarly subdivided fat which is a characteristic of chyle and of chylous urine being uniformly absent from the blood.
Perhaps it may be fairly said that until quite recently, though many examples have been placed upon record and the clinical characters of the disease well illustrated, yet no clear light has been thrown upon its pathology further than was apparent to Prout.
The important suggestion that the urinary change was produced by a direct discharge of the contents of the absorbents into the urine was made by M. Gubler,^ and the derangement attributed to a varicose state of the renal lymphatics, analogous to that which on the surface of the body had been known, especially within the tropics, to be attended Avith a lymphatic discharge. Later this view presented itself to Dr. Vandyke Carter, of Bombay, who, in an admirable paper read before the MedicoChirurgical Society, went far to prove the change to be due to the direct discharge of chyle into the urinary system. He attributed this to some morbid communication between the lacteals and lymphatics of the lumbar region with the pelvis of the kidney, ureter, or bladder.
Lastly, Dr. Lewis, of Bengal, made the striking discovery which associates the mechanical derangement with the presence in the blood, in the kidneys, and elsewhere, of vermiform parasites; a discovery to which important additions have been made by other observers.
AVithout further preface I will proceed, with the aid of a series of cases collected from different sources, including several under my own care, to sketch the more i)rominent features of the disease as in the present day it presents itself to our view. The definition lies in the state of the urine, and is implied in the name. Though the chylous admixture appears to be commonly associated with a tropical parasite,
' Lectures on Pathology and Therapeutics, 1868, p. 256. ^ Med.-Chir. Trans, vol. xlv. p. 221 (1862). ^ Gazette Medicate de Paris, 1858, p. 646.
and the disorder correspondingly frequent in such regions, yet it is clear that beside the endemic we have what may be termed an accidental form of the disease, which occurs in persons who have never left our own country; either because the parasite may be engendered as well in temperate as in tropical places, or because the necessary communication between the channels of chyle and those of urine may be made otherwise than by its agency.
To touch first upon the geographical distribution of the disease, I find that among 72 cases (67 placed on record by various writers to whom reference has mostly been made in the course of this chapter, and 5 within my own knowledge) there are 5 in which tlie disease was unequivocally of English origin; 59 in which it had originated in tropical or subtropical regions, using the last expression somewhat liberally, so as to include that large proportion of the earth's surface which lies between 40° of north latitude and 40° of south latitude; from the south of Europe, that is, to the south of Australia; and 8 in which the place of origin was uncertain, among which is classed one to be presently related, of which the subject had lived in India, but had been in England for five years when the symptom appeared.
First, as to tlie cases of European beginning. One, under my own observation, was in tlie person of a man who was born in Suffolk, had lived almost all his life in London, and never left England. Dr. Beale relates a case, which was witnessed by Mr. Cubitt, of which the subject, a woman aged 50, was a " native of Norfolk, in which county she had always resided." Another case, from the same county, that of an agricultural laborer, 57 years of age, is reported by Dr. Dale in the "Lancet" for July 23d, 1877. The man was a patient in the Norfolk and Lynn Hospital, and had never left Great Britain. It is of interest to observe in passing that this patient was the subject of a fluctuating swelling on the left of the spine, which was thought to be a chronic abscess, but disappeared. The fourth instance, that of a woman who was born in the neighborhood of Manchester, and had never lived out of the country, is related by Dr. Koberts. The changed appearance of the urine in this case was first observed after delivery — not the only case in which a relation has been apparent between chyluria and gestation. Another instance, not, however, of persistent chyluna, is mentioned by the same author, in which a transiently chylous condition of the urine, associated with a chylous discharge from the surface of the al>domen, was noticed in a man '^always a resident in Lancashire." Another indigenous case is recorded; the young woman wlio was tlie subject of it was born in a suburb of London, and had never left England, or indeed been far from home. These instances, a minority though they be, are enough to show that the disorder is not necessarily of tropical or subtropical origin. But how often it is one or the other is shown by the fact that among sixty-five instances in which the place of origin was known, sixty pertained to persons who had been born in or had visited the latitudes between that of South Australia and that of Gibraltar, and had probably contracted the disease within these limits ! We have evidence of its origin in many parts of India; it is well-known in each of tlie three Presidencies; in China; in the West Indies, with especial mention of Barbadoes, Trinidad, and Demerara; in Cuba, Bermuda, Brazil, frequently in Mauritius, in the Isle of Bourbon, and further south, so as to include the southern parts of Australia. We have, indeed, received important information from Brisbane, where the
disorder is well known. It appears to prevail especially in insular and maritime districts, and with this preference to include within its range portions of each of the four quarters of the globe and of Australia, It may be doubted whether any parasitic or endemic disease is equally widely scattered. For our extensive knowledge of it we are indebted to the extent of our empire and the wandering propensities of our race. Within its chosen localities it attacks, without exemption, natives, persons of European birth, Jews, and negroes. As to sex, of the seventytwo cases mentioned the subjects were of the male sex in forty-one, of the female in thirty-one instances. The preponderance of males in our records may be due to the more numerous exposures of men, among Europeans, as the more frequent travellers, to the endemic influence which causes the disease, while perhaps among Orientals women may be less accessible to medical observation than are men. Dr. Lewis, indeed, tells us that at Calcutta the patients sulfering from chyluria have for the most part been women; but, on the other hand, it is to be noted that the larger number of instances he has recorded were of the male sex, while of the cases referred to by Dr. Vandyke Carter, whose field of observation was Bombay, all were males. The disorder is probably divided with much impartiality as regards sex.
With regard to age no period of life appears to be exempt from its attacks. Prout mentions an instance at the age of eighteen months. I was consulted touching the son of an Indian surgeon, who was attacked with the disease before completing his fifth year. A case is known to have proved fatal at the age of twelve. After this period the frequency of the disorder appears to increase; it is common in adolescence and middle age, and not unknown in advanced life. Eayer' refers to the case of an old woman, a native of the Isle of Bourbon, who had the disease, with one short intermission, from the age of twenty-five to that of seventy-eight, when it was still unconcluded.
The course of the disorder, and its symptoms so far as there are any, may be broadly sketched. Putting aside the condition of the urine, it ma}' be said that of sjjecial or distinguishing symptoms there are none. It is remarkable even that the urinary organs themselves seldom show any signs of disturbance. There is sometimes pain in the back of a somewhat indefinite kind, but there are no dropsical, uraemic, or any other constitutional signs of renal disorder, and what perhaps is more surprising, there is no frequency of micturition or evidence of vesical irritation. Such symptoms as are produced are those of inanition; in one case, wasting, pallor, loss of strength, and depression of spirits were marked so long as the discharge was unchecked, at once mitigated with its control. Tlie catamenia were irregular; the temperature of a somewhat low average. The constitutional results of the disorder appear to be produced solely by the waste of nutritive material. Some persons bear the loss better than others, and in several instances the general health seems to have been perfect; the patient has remained of robust aspect, and displayed no failure in strength; women thus affected have repeatedly borne children. As it happens when nutrition is impaired in other ways by waste or want, tuberculosis often supervenes, and indeed has been found in most of the cases Avhere chyluria has ended fatally. Whether the tubercles are always strictly of this nature, or whether, as is possible, they may in some cases have been local results
to show.
In the condition of the urine lies the definition of the disease; and, indeed, so solely is its recognition dependent upon the state of this secretion, and so little may disturbances of any other sort obtrude themselves that, as Dr. Bence Jones observes, were a patient blind he might not know himself to be ill.
Chylous urine showing molecular base. X600 diameters.
will remain apparently in uniform suspension for many days. This peculiarity is due to the presence of fat in a state of molecular or immeasurably fine subdivision. Occasionally oil globules have been detected as such, but this is rare. Usually the fat appears in a delicately granular shape as represented, and sometimes in so fine an emulsion that though the milkiness is evident enough, yet under the microscope nothing more can be discerned than an indefinite turbidity. The fat sometimes collects on the surface in the shape of cream or creamy flakes. The amount of fat or of milkiness in chylous urine depends closely upon
that of fasting containing less or even none at all.
Besides the fat, blood is a nearly constant constituent of chylous urine. This often gives a delicate i^iukish tint to the fluid, though this tint is less deep than would be expected from the quantity of blood involved, the red color being covered by the Avhite opacit}-.
It has been observed that whether wholly derived from blood or otherwise, the pinkish tint of the chylous clot deepens on exposure to air,' a circumstance which points the resemblance between the urinary admixture and the sujierficial discharge from absorbent glands, Avhich has in some instances been associated with it. A more distinguishing peculiarity of chylous urine is its habit of spontaneous coagulation; shortly after expulsion it will, if rich in its characteristic addition, set into a tremulous jelly which has been likened to blanc-mange, and which will after a time break into a mixture of liquid and flaky coagula. The gelatinizing process sometimes takes place in the bladder, and the clots have often formed troublesome obstacles in the urethra.
lated here, are given with cases under my own care, subsequently related.
Dr. Beale describes the urine passed in the morning 'by Mr. Cubitt's patient as having the appearance of fresh milk. It became clear on the addition of an equal volume of ether. The reaction was neutral, the specific gravity 1.013. A second specimen of the same patient's urine, jaassed during the same day, which was not albuminous nor milky though slightly turbid, was also examined. It had a specific gravity of 1.010. a reaction very slightly acid.
The milky urine contained no oil globules. The fatty matter was equally diffused throughout in a molecular form. By the highest powers of the microscope only very minute granules could be detected which exhibited molecular movements.^
In Dr. Beale's analysis the chylous urine differs from the non-chylous chiefly in the presence of albumin and fat, the larger proportion of phosphates and the smaller of sulphates and chlorides. Occasionally, as in a case published by Dr. Bence Jones,' the oil has been known to take a globular form, collecting on the surface in this shape, and leaving the bulk of the fluid clear. Even in this instance, however, as in others, the fat was usually finely divided and evenly diffused.
Corpuscles indistinguishable from those of chyle have also been found. Dr. V. Carter, in the case of a Hindoo who had also a chylous discharge from the scrotum, points to the resemblance between the superficial and the urinary discharge. Both coagulated on exposure, and assumed an increasingly pink color. In the superficial discharge besides red corpuscles were bodies ''resembling the lymph corpuscles of blood." In the urine, together with red corpuscles, were "granular cells much larger than these, and showing, on the addition of acetic acid, three or four nuclei in their interior; they were in short chyle corpuscles/* I must also draw attention to large rolling cells of globular
Large globular cells, probably vesical, from chylous urine. X 350 diameters.
form and epithelial type, which resemble some which belong to the bladder so nearly, that it is at least probable that they have this origin. I have never had opportunities of watching a case of chylous urine without finding these cells repeatedly and abundantl}^ in men as well as in women. If they be vesical tliey afford a pathological indication of some importance. Next to the fat the most remarkable constituents of chylous urine is the fibrin, conferring as it does the power of spontaneous coagulation. In Dr. Bence Jones's case the urine could not be got out of the bottle until the coagulum had been broken up by agitation. A patient of mine who had passed cliylous urine in India, described it as retaining for a time the sliape of tlie vessel in which it liad solidified, like jelly turned out of a mouhl; and the same phenomenon was observed in another case, tlie urine falling out of its receptable in a ju'iik tremulous mass like a large jelly-fish. The coagulation sometimes takes place in the bladder with consequent difficulty in expulsion; clots sometimes
stick in the urethra, or have to be drawn from its orifice. The fibrin, however, is not alwa3'S present in chylous urine, or at least not in sufficient quantity to show itself by coagulation. The fibrin is most deficient wliere the molecular base is most abundant. The chyle in its passage from the bowel to the thoracic duct becomes, according to Dr. Vandyke Carter, increasing fibrinous in its course, and the varying amount of fibrin and fat in chylous urine he explains on the hj^othesis that in different cases the chyle which enters the urine is withdrawn at different stages in the course of the absorbents.
The fibrinous constituent of chylous urine has never been found in the form of casts,' though these shapes have been sought by, I believe, every observer of late years who has written upon the subject. This alone is suggestive of a view which is corroborated by many other circumstances of the disease, that the chylous admixture reaches the urine
age, a native of Suff ilk, who had never left England. The molecular base was very abundant.
otherwise than by the renal tubes. The faults of the urine appear to be essentially those of addition. Taking from it the constituents of chyle, the characters become those of health or depart from them only to the extent of an impoverishment which leaves the urine still sufficient for the relief of the system. The disease is not productive of uremia or any effect of renal deficiency. And that the urine must sometimes fall short in its essential ingredients is as evident as that the materials which should go to form them are discharged in other shapes.
amount was found to be little more than 15 grammes, while in relation
' I once found two hyaline casts in a case, but as none were ever seen again, though the disease persisted, it was inferred that they were due to some passing and accidental condition and furnished only an apparent exception to the statement in the text.
to the weight of tlie body the amount should have been about 22 grammes. In Dr. Bence Jones's case the iirea amounted to 13.26 in 1000 parts; the salts to 8.01, a diminution in both particulars. Dr. Beale's observations, as already quoted, show the same change in a greater degree. Instances, however, have been published, one, for example, by Dr. Golding Bird,' in which no want of urea appeared. Uric acid crystals have been frequently noticed. They were abundant in one of the cases under my own observation.
Perhaps the most important inference to be drawn from the state of the urine in this disease is one for which we are chiefly indebted to Dr. Vandyke Carter. Rayer long ago demonstrated experimentally that when chyle and urine were mixed together a liquid closely resembling the chylous urine of disease was produced. He, however, does not seem to have inferred that the morbid process involved any such direct mingling. Dr. Carter showed how minutely chylous urine corresponds with a mixture of normal chyle and normal urine, and insists that the disorder is produced by a direct admixture of the contents of the absorbent with those of the urinary channels. Fibrin is absent from the early course of the lacteals, to be acquired in'the mesentery; so chylous urine is sometimes coagulable and sometimes not, as if the admixture were derived at different points in the route of the chyle. Again, the proportions which the albumin and the fat bear to each other in chylous urine are the same which they have been found to display in chyle itself; in one case of chylous urine the albumin and the fat were equal, in another the albumin was twice as much as the fat; both these proportions have been found in chyle. There are further points of resemblance or rather indications of iilentity in the molecular base common to both, and present in no other fluid; in the corpuscles indistinguishable from those of chyle which have been found in chylous urine; and, lastly, in the peculiar deepening of color under exposure, which both fluids have been known to present.
The urine is sometimes rather lymphous than chylous; the molecular base, even Avith well-marked chyluria, is not always present; the urine sometimes remains perfectly transparent, but becomes loaded with transparent jelly, not easily distinguishable from the fluid itself. '^ In such cases fat is probably entirely absent, as if tlie contents of the lymphatics instead of the lacteals had been poured into the urinary channels.
The disease is of indeterminate, always long, duration, sometimes extending, usually with intermissions, over a considerable proportion of ordinary life. Dr. EUiotson mentions a lady then sixty-four years of age, who had had the disorder interruptedly for twenty-eight years; and I have already referred to Quevenne's case of a woman who had it from the age of twenty-five to that of seventy-three without interval, and at seventy-eight was still suffering from it.
Looking at cases of which the history has been closed by death, we find that within the experience of EUiotson a woman died at the age of thirty, having had the complaint for twenty years ; in that of Lewis, one in whom it proved fatal together with general tuberculosis after sixteen years, with however an intermission of half the time. The same
observer, however, mentions an instance in Avliich it proved fatal at the age of sixteen. In this instance the disorder was, as proved by postmortem examination, uncomplicated. Prout records a case in which it proved fatal at the age of fifteen, together with some inflammatory condition of the bowels.
It is a habit of the disorder to be dormant or make long intermissions often without obvious reason, and as capriciously to return. A lady, whose disease had presumably originated in India, showed no symptoms of it until five years after her return to England. With Dr. Elliotson's patient also, who had probably acquired the seeds of the disease in India, it did not attract her observation until nine years after her return to Europe; it then continued for seventeen months, disappeared after bathing in the sea, and remained absent for thirteen years ; it reappeared after an attack of infiammation of the lungs, which had been treated by calomel and bleeding, and afterwards held its ground with shorter but still with occasional intervals. One of these ensued upon violent grief, another accompanied the formation of a carbuncle, and another occurred together with a second attack of pulmonary inflammation. Dr, Lewis refers to a native of Madras who had six attacks, each of about two months' duration, within the space of two years and a half.
The chylous condition has also its lesser variations, being influenced by food, posture, exercis3, abdominal pressure, and pregnancy. The effect of food has often been noticed, the urine of fasting being sometimes natural, or at least clear or only bloody, while that passed after food is milky. In the case of Dr. Bence Jones's patient, the urine was most chylous after dinner, and least chylous before breakfast. It was more frequently chj^lous after animal than after vegetable food; and it was oftener free from chyle before breakfast when the diet was vegetable than Avhen it consisted more of animal food.
My patient Eugenia P passed during the day what looked like
rich milk or cream, in the night and before breakfast urine which was less opaque, often urinous in color or conspicuously sanguineous. Carter noted, with regard to one of his Hindoo patients, that ingestion of flesh or wheaten bread increased the disease, while in the case of another, if he abstained from food for a whole day, the urine ceased to be chylous.
One case has been recorded as exceptional, in which " the urine passed during the day Avas clear and free from chyle, while that voided during the night and in the morning was deeply loaded with it."' It may be suggested that in this case there was some peculiarity whereby the discharge was alTected by jjosture, as sometimes occurs.
As a rule, the urinary admixture is tlie most plentiful when the proper chyle channels are at their fullest, and on the other hand it is to be observed that conditions of health which interfere with nutrition are apt to cause the urine to revert to its normal state. Thus, in Dr. Prout's experience the urine ceased to be chylous during an attack of hepatitis with much fever, and again during severe mercurial salivation. The same suspension has been known to occur upon the appearance of a carbuncle,* during inflammation of the lungs, and on the approach of death.
exercise, mitigated by repose, though, in oue of Rayer's cases, riding on horseback was thought to favor the return of the urine to its natural state; it is affected also by position. An instance is mentioned in which the urine ceased to be chylous when the patient lay on his right side. A tight belt round the belly and loins was found by Bence Jones to have but a slight restraining influence upon the discharge. The striking re-, suits in this respect of pressure upon the front of the lower lumbar vertebrje is related in another paragraph.
Among the conditions which influence the disease, perhaps pregnancy and its sequelre are those which boar upon it in the most striking manner. The disorder often begins during lactation, or returns or becomes exaggerated after delivery. With Mr. Pearse's patient the chyluria three times appeared during lactation, and twice subsided on its discontinuance. Dr. Roberts saw a case in" which the disorder came on immediately after confinement. Dr. Lewis mentions one in which it began two months afterwards, and tinother in which the complaint appeared in the third month of pregnancy, passed off, and reappeared upon the birth of the child. S.uch cases cannot fail to suggest that the channels necessary to the perversion of the chyle are less patent when the uterus is full than when it is empty, as if they were pressed upon by its larger bulk. But conditions aft'ecting in other ways the state of the pelvic vessels appear sometimes to influence the disorder. A case ' is mentioned in which the urine always became chylous for eight days preceding menstruation; and another in which the chylosity was suspended for three years on the establishment of a hsemorrhoidal flux. Thus it appears to be promoted by turgidity, relieved by evacuation.
A discharge of chyle with the urine is in a certain proportion of cases accompanied by a similar flux from the surface of the body, usually from the lower part of the abdomen, groin, scrotum, or thigh. Such superficial discharges are apt also to occur where chyluria is endemic in persons who have not become subject to it ; circumstances which suggest that the superficial and urinary discharges are common results of the same peculiarity of the absorbents, whatever that may prove to be. Dr. V. Carter has related several cases of these kinds, and shown how close is the resemblance between the discharge from the surface and the admixture with tlie urine.
Dr. Carter describes the case of a Hindoo, the skin of whose scrotum was peculiarly corrugated and studded with small tubercles or pimples, which varied in size from a pin's head to a pea, and opened from time to time, discharging milky fluid, often to the amount of a pint daily. The inguinal glands on both sides were enlarged, soft, and doughy, and diminished in size under pressure. The urine was sometimes chylous, this condition alternating with the swelling of the inguinal glands, which was greatest two or three hours after a full meal. The fluid that escaped from the scrotum Avas, says Dr. Carter, probably chyle or a mixture of this with lymph. AVhile flowing it assumed a decided rose tint, which increased on further exposure. It coagulated entirely in eight or ten minutes. The urine also coagulated more or less completely, and assumed after some exposure a pinkish color. The microscopic characters of the two fluids were almost the same; chyle corpuscles were recognized in the urine ; in the scrotal discharge corpuscles like those of lymph, together with the molecular base characteristic of chyle. The
blood serum was quite clear. In such a case it is scarcely possible to doubt that the same chylous fluid escapes both into the urinary channels and also by way of the inguinal glands to the skin of the scrotum.
Instances have also been recorded in which, without any alteration of urine, milky, apparently chylous fluid has been discharged superficially from the lower part of the trunk or upper part of the thighi?. always, it would seem, from some surface which is within the range of regurgitation from the lacteals or receptaculum, supposing valvular hindrance to be overcome. Pellucid or lymphous discharges have indeed been known to proceed fi-om the upper parts of the body, as from the eyelids, and Dr. Lewis' has described an instance in which this discharge was "" slightly milky; " under the microscope, however, it displayed " clear fluid ^'' with numerous granular cells; the molecular base of chyle was apparently absent. The fluxes which have the characters of chyle, that is to say, are milky from molecular fat, are without exception within the anatomical range specified, a fact which is sufficiently suggestive that in these cases, as in those of chyluria, we have but the simple retrogression and escape of chyle. Such an instance is related by Dr. Y. Carter. A Parsee youth had, in the cutaneous surface of the thigh, a few inches below Poupart's ligament, a small, hardly perceptible pimple, from which there occasionally issued a milky fluid, sometimes so copiously that in the course of a day a pint could be collected. Pressure just above the spot caused the flow to cease; when the spot itself was comi)ressed the fluid squirted out as if from accumulating pressure behind. The inguinal glands were enlarged, soft, and doughy. The fluid resembled rich milk in appearance; it coagulated spontaneously, it was uniformly hazy, under the microscope contained blood corpuscles, granular cells, and oil globules — had, in short, the character of a ch3'lous fluid. Another striking instance of this kind is related by Dr. A. B. Buchanan.^ A woman forty-six years of age had a semi-excoriated surface as large as the j)alm of the hand upon the inner and posterior aspect of the left thigh. From this and from broken vesicles upon and about it flowed milky fluid so jirofusely that five ounces were collected in an hour. The fluid was often absolutely undistinguishable by color and smell from pure new milk; it coagulated throughout after being passed, the mass breaking down on agitation. Chemical analysis showed that it nearly resembled in its composition the chylous urine examined by Dr. Beale (see p. 25G), except that the crural discharge contained more albumin and less fat than the renal. Dr. Buchanan repudiates as anatomically impossible, and pathologically unnecessary, "the theory that in such a case the discharge is actual chyle, which has found its way by the absorbents to the surface, and prefers to regard the flux as a functional affection of the glandular a})})aratus of the skin." But that so small a cutaneous surface should yield so profusely and so long as the result of any change limited to itself is inconceivable; and if the skin but furnishes the exit — and it would seem that it can scarcely do more — to fluid derived from within, tli9 characters of the discliarge, as in the case of chylous urine, assimilate it so nearly to the contents of the lacteals that it is scarcely
possible but to assign its origin to those channels. In Dr. Carter's case there was no altered extent of skin, but merely a pimple which gave exit to the discharge; so that in this case, at least, the theory of cutaneous secretion is inapplicable.
A case of the same sort came under the observation of Dr. Eoberts of Manchester. A man always resident in Lancashire had a succession of subcutaneous abscesses in various parts, among others, one upon the abdomen. This Avas succeeded by an extensive vesicular eruption upon the front of the belly, between the level of the umbilicus and the groin. Some vesicles were scarcely visible to the naked eye, others as large as peas; all were at times filled with fluid which looked like rich milk, gelatinized when discharged, contained albumin, and displayed under the microscope fat molecules, sometimes distinct oil globules, and white corpuscles like those of blood. This exudation varied in color according to the state of digestion, was pale or lyraphous with fasting, milky after food. The vesicles discharged freely; one which was punctured at the rate of eight ounces an hour. Tlie discharge was apparently identical with that which forms the admixture in chylous urine, and, indeed, on two occasions chylous urine was passed by this patient. He died with pulmonary tuberculosis. Nothing abnormal was detected about the thoracic duct or large lymphatic vessels. The affected skin was thickened and excavated with large lacuna, of which the suj^erficial vesicles formed the orifices. The sweat and proper cutaneous glands were not involved in the change, which Dr. Eoberts regards as the development in the skin of an abnormal lymjjhatic structure, analogous to Peyer's patches or the lymphatic glands, which new structure is, in his view, not merely the outlet but the source of the discharge.
The pathology of cutaneous " chylorrhoea '*' has been made the subject of further inquiry in regard to a case published by Mr. Sydney Jones in the " Pathological Transactions " for 1875. The inner and back part of the right thigli and the cleft between the thigh and the buttock Avere covered with knotty swellings and varicose lymphatics, from which chylous fluid escaped sometimes to the amount of one or two quarts a day. Similar fluid also escaped from a tuberculated prominence on the shin, and the skin on some of the toes was tuberculated as in elephantiasis. When the discharge from the thigh was absent the inguinal glands swelled. Portions of the affected skin were removed from the thigh and one of the toes and minutely examined. They were traversed in both instances by large communicating chambers which were dilated lymphatics or lymphatic spaces. These were lined by an endothelium, but appeared to be destitute of any proper secreting cells. Veins were in close apposition to their walls, and in some instances appeared to communicate with their cavities. No filarijB were found in the blood or tissues, but the superficial dilatation of the lymphatics, together with the swelling of the inguinal glands when the discharge was absent, are enough to suggest a similar state of the deeper and larger channels, and the probability of regurgitation from the j^roper chyle vessels. This case affords no support to the idea of a local chylous secretion; and indeed it is probable that, with the knowledge which has now been gained, those who formerly held this view will no longer maintain it.
As touching the relationship between cutaneous and urinary discharges of clwle, some cases reported by Dr. Lewis have especial interest. Dr. Lewis gives examples of the concurrence of chyluria and elephantiasis, and relates an instance of the latter disorder in which from
264 CHYI.UKIA.
the scrotum, which was the part affected, exuded by minute orifices a chylous fluid in which living filarice were detected.' ^Ye here see a superficial chylous discharge associated, not indeed with chyluria, but with a cause of chyluria. The evidence adduced by Dr. Lewis suffices to show that all three conditions, a discharge of chyle both by the skin and with the urine and elephantiasis, are alike associated with filarise. The discharge from the eyes already referred to was also found by Dr. Lewis to contain these parasites.
The Filaria.
The pathology of chyluria, together with that of superficial chj'lous discharges and of elephantiasis, has been reconstructed, I may also say created, by the recent discovery of the filaria sanguinis hominis and the larger worm, also a denizen of the human body, of wiiich the filaria is the offspring. The accumulated evidence that the filaria is nearly always to be found in the blood at certain times, in concurrence with superficial or urinary chylous discharges and often in the urine when the flux occurs with this secretion, makes it necessary to preface the morbid anatomy of these disorders with a description of the parasite. The great discovery of Lewis, for it is no less, and the observations which have been added, esi^ecially by Bancroft, Manson, and Mackenzie, have not only made our previous knowledge coherent and intelligible, but have removed the pathology of chyluria out of the region of speculation and guesswork to that of knowledge, incomplete as yet in some of its details, but enough to give the assured outlines of a striking and even astonishing picture.
It had long been known that dogs, particularly the pariah dogs of India, were liable to be infested with a peculiar round worm, to which from its red color the name filaria sanguinolenta was given, which lodged chiefly in the walls of the oesophagus and aorta, and discharged its ova according to circumstances into the alimentary canal or circulation. More recently another similar parasite, to which the name Jilariainwiit is was given, was ascertained to exist chiefly in the dogs of China, taking its residence in the right ventricle, and pouring living embryos into the blood. The parent worms in both these cases are of considerable size, the filaria sanguinolenta approaching four inches in length, the filaria immitis exceeding six. The embryos, which in botli cases are abundantly distributed throughout the systemic blood, nearly resemble the filaria sanguinis hominis, which will be presently described.
The minute human haematozoon, whose existence as such was made known to us by Dr. Lewis at Calcutta in the year 1872, is a minute vermiform creature about forty-six times as long as it is wide, and whose width is about that of a red blood-corpuscle. Its structure is nearly simple, granular matter within a hyaline sheath, with a point at each end which appears and disappears with movement, one passing as a tail the other as a tooth. Dr. Lewis found six of these in a single drop of blood from the ear, and gave 700,000 as an approximation to the number contained in the whole body. This estimate has been very greatly exceeded since it has been recognized that it is the habit of the parasite to come abroad at night. Dr. Mackenzie calculated that a jjaticnt whose case he has reported had nightly from thirty-six to forty millions of em-
bryo filarifB in his blood. The worms show much vivacity among tlie corpuscles, throwing them aside by their active serpentine movements. It was at once conjectured that these minute creatures were the young of a larger worm, and the surmise was verified by the discovery of the parent on Dec. 21st, 1876, by Dr. Bancroft of Brisbane. The mature form, a worm of the nematode class about the thickness of a human hair and three or four inches long, was first found in a lymphatic abscess of the arm, and afterwards in hydrocele fluid obtained from patients who were known to be infested with embryonic filarise. The adult was mi-
nutely described by Dr. Cobbold, from specimens sent by Dr. Bancroft, and named filaria JBancrofti, different names being thus awarded to different stages of the same parasite. Tlie annexed figure is copied from Dr. Cobbold's description.' I have added anotlier from a photograph published by Dr. Stephen Mackenzie, which enables the immature off-
spring as it is found in the blood to be compared in size with the corpuscles. Dr. Lewis himself found the parent worm at Calcutta on tlie 5tli of the following August, in a scrotum infiltrated with chylous fluid in connection with elephantoid disease. ' Two white threads were found in a blood-clot, which proved to be male and female specimens of the adult filaria. The female contained ova witli embryos identical with those which Dr. Lewis had already found in the blood. The occurrence of these creatures in pairs in tlie remote recesses of the human body shows the efficacy of the sexual instinct, in virtue of which one worm follows and eventually finds anotlier witliin a maze to which that of Fair Eosamond was comparatively uninvolved. Dr. Manson ' has recently demonstrated the position of the parents in a dilated lymphatic belonging to a h/mph-scrotttui which he had recently amputated. The creature is viviparous, normally discharging its ott'spring extended and free ; miscarriage, however, appears to be a frequent accident, in Avhich case the ova are discharged unhatched, with the worm curled up within, thus presenting a larger bulk than when the process is more happily con-
adverted to.
Many valuable observations have since been added throwing light upon the habits of the j^arasite, its means of transmission, and its relations to disease.^ Dr. Manson, in China, in the year 1877, provided the next step by a discovery not inferior in interest to any that had been already made. Believing that the asexual embryo did not attain maturity in the place of its birth, but required, after the manner of parasites, to be transferred to another animal for further development, he sought for the nurse among the insects that feed on blood, and found it in the
mosquito. Dr. Manson, suspecting this insect, induced a Chinaman who was infested with filariae to sleep in a house where mosquitoes were wont to congregate. A number of these, which had been attracted by means of a light, were shut up with the man, and in the morning found upon the walls in a state of repletion. Filariae Avere abundantly found in their distended stomachs, and Dr. Manson ascertained by numerous observations that upon entering the mosquito the more fortunate of the filariae began a process of development which, in from four to six days, transformed each into a somewhat complicated animal, with an cesophagus, rudimentary generative organs, and papillre upon its head, perhaps for boring or attachment. The filariae are said to be found in the blood in the mosquito's stomach in larger proportion than in that of the man from which it has been taken, as if the parasites were especially attracted by the insect. The mosquito, of which only the female is capable of thus abstracting blood, retires, when replete, to the neighborhood of water, to digest its meal and mature its ova. At the end of about five di\ys both processes are complete ; the blood, and possibly many of the filariae, are digested, but the survivors, still within the mosquito, have become transmuted into the formidable parat'ite which Dr. Manson has described. The insect now dies, probably falling into the water, upon which she has already laid her eggs, and the now vigorous filarife, if the)' have not already escaped with the ova, either bore their way out of the mosquito, or fall out upon its decay, to enter the water and probably be swallowed by the animal which is destined to become the seat of its further growth and completion. The details of this, the last stage of its career have not been followed, but there is little doubt that the creature makes its way by boring into a suitable lymphatic channel, and there completes its growth into the tangible worm which has been already described ; is there, by good hap, joined by one of the opposite sex, and the species continued by the pouring of the embryonic filariae into the lymphatic channels, from whence they reach the blood and the mosquito.
The embryo filaria is, as Dr. Manson pointed out, of nocturnal habits; abundantly to be found in the blood during the night; not to be found during the day. He found them to present tliemselves at about 7 o'clock in the evening, to increase up to midnight, and to have disappeared by 8 or 9 in the morning. Dr. Mackenzie ' added the observation that this periodicity depended upon sleep: on reversing the hours of sleeping and waking in a case under his observation, the filarire changed their course of proceeding, coming out while the patient slept, and remaining hidden during his waking hours. What becomes of the filariae, or where they retreat to during their disappearance, we have no evidence to show.
These parasites, which obstruct the lymphatics and teem in the blood, do, on the whole, less harm than might have been expected. The embryos appear to pass through the capillaries without difficulty, and to have no tendency to cause obstruction. It might be supposed that each filaria would become a centre of coagulation and an embolus; but the blood appears to be as tolerant of the animal as of its own corpuscles, and to alloAV it as free passage through its smallest channels. But it is not so with the ova, which have been seen unhatched in the lymphatics, in the blood, and in the urine, as the result, probably, of accident or abortion; these, as Dr. Manson has shown, present at least five times the
diameter of the outstretched filaria, and, though passing easily along the larger lymphatics into whicli they are borne, are arrested in the smaller channels of the first lymphatic gland the\' reach. Here they become imjjacted, and, as the process goes on, accumulate in sufficient numbers to make the gland impervious, and give rise to the localized lymphatic congestion which is the essential fact of elephantiasis, lymph-scrotum, and similar conditions. As tlie result of obstruction by such means of lympliatic glands, we may have a series of affections which are limited to the tributaries of the gland concerned, and are often su])erficial. But other affections may ensue from the occlusion, by the parent worms, of the larger lymph and chyle channels. These have been demonstrated, as already stated, in a scrotal vessel, and there can be no doubt that the deeper channels, among others the thoracic duct, are liable to be similarly stopped.
Eecent as our knowledge of the filaria is, we have already been provided with extensive information as to its pathological effects and the absence of them. Dr. Manson found, as the result of systematic search, that of every ten Chinamen at Amoy, taken at random, the blood of one contained filariae. But many of those were apparently in perfect health. Of 195 persons in this condition, ten were found on examination to be filarious, so that to harbor this parasite is not necessarily injurious.
But we have evidence from Lewis, Bancroft, Manson, and others, of a large variety of disorders which occur together with this parasite, and are presumably caused by it. A large i:)roportion of these are of the elephantoid type, elephantiasis especially of the scrotum, what is known as lymph-scrotum, and enlarged and varicose inguinal glands. Dr. Manson found that of sixty-three persons with one or other of these affections, thirty-six were filarious. Passing attacks of fever, known as elephantoid. a]3pear to be of frequent occurrence. Hydrocele, orchitis, inflammation of the scrotum, and a number of superficial affections of the lympliatic system, have been recorded in the same relation — cutaneous lymph-vesicles, chylous and lymphous discharges, a disorder of this class known in Brazil as crow-crow, and a peculiar form of facial steatoma. Besides results of obstruction, superficial abscesses, presumably due to the death of the parent worm, have been repeatedly observed, as also have attacks of diarrhoea and dysentery. As the only morbid result due to the embryo in the blood. Dr. Manson mentions ulceration of the cornea. '
Filarije have been found with leprosy; * it is yet too early to say whether the concurrence is accidental or necessary. The list may be closed with chyluria, which, whether associated with some elephantoid affection or occurring alone, is one of the most important, and in some districts one of the most frequent of the consequences of the parasite. Dr. Manson at Amoy found elephantiasis far more frequent than chyluria. Dr. Bancroft at Brisbane found chyluria more frequent than any superficial localization of the disease, though not so frequent as all of them together. Among thirty-one cases of disease, presumably of filarious origin. Dr. Bancroft found chyluria in eleven instances; some superficial affection, probably of the same origin, in twenty.
Passing from the filaria in general to its particular result chyluria, I may briefly state what is known with regard to the morbid anatomy of that condition, together with that of superficial chylous discharges. There is still room for conjecture in som.e details, though enough has been ascertained to place our knowledge of both ujion a simple mechanical basis.
With regard to chyluria we are, to begin with, indebted to Prout," who examined the kidney of a girl who had died with chylous urine at the age of fifteen, and found it to be perfectly healthy — the immediate cause of death was inflammation of the bowels. Not to refer to equivocal instances, the next is related by Dr. Priestly. The subject Avas a boy twelve years of age, who had passed the greater part of his life in the Mauritius and Ceylon. Some days before death the urine had lost its chylous character, this being coincident with a rapid change for the worse, the patient sinking by asthenia. Both kidneys were extensively diseased, the distinction between the cortical and tubular portions was lost, and the vascular network on the surface of the healthy organ obliterated. The microscope showed the whole structure to be fatty, as in some of the advanced forms of Bright's disease. The liver Avas loaded with fat, and the muscular fibres of the heart had lost their transverse striae and were replaced by oil globules.^ There was also tubercular disease in the apex of one lung. For a third post-mortem we are indebted to Dr. Isaacs.^ The case what that of a Spanish soilor who had had the disorder at irregular intervals for three years. Both lungs were studded equally and throughout with miliary tubercles, from the size of a grain of sand to that of a mustard or hemp seed. Under the costal pleura they were also in countless numbers. All the other organs were healthy, with the exception of small deposits of yellow tubercular matter in the interior of the mesenteric glands. In the substance of the prostate were three tubercles about the size of buck-shot. " The structure of the kidney was decidedly healthy — the only morbid appearance was the presence of a very few small and scattered tubercles, which did not apparently interfere with its functions."
I have already referred to a case in the experience of Dr. Roberts, in which a chylous discharge issued from the skin of the abdomen. Chylous urine was passed on two occasions; but as death did not occur until more than three months afterwards, little is, to be inferred from the state of the urinary organs. The bladder, whicl) was minutely examined, and the kidney, were healthy. " No enlargement or unnatural condition of the thoracic duct or of the lymphatic vessels or glands could be detected." The condition of the skin has been already referred to.
Dr. Lewis records the post-mortem appearances in the case of a European woman who had died in India with chyluria, which she had had Avith intermissions for sixteen years. lisematozoa had been found numerously in the blood and in the urine.* The immediate cause of death appeared to have been tuberculosis; tubercle and vomica Avere found in both lungs, and there were ulcers of the same character in both the small and
large bowel. The liver was soft and fatty. " The kidnej's presented nothing abnormal to the naked eye.'' A further examination showed that several of the pyramids, especially near the apices, had a smooth, tallowy appearance, suggestive of lardaceous disease. No iodine reaction could be obtained either upon the kidney or liver. "When longitudinal sections of the kidney were subjected to microscopic examination, numerous translucent, oil-like tubules, of a somewhat varicose appearance, could be observed running alongside the uriniferous tul)es, as if the lymphatic or minute blood-vessels of the part had become plugged. These sections, when placed in boiling ether, and afterwards subjected to prolonged maceration in it, did not appear to be materially affected by the process — the translucent oil-like tubules being quite as evident as before. No other morbid changes could be detected in either the tubular or cortical tissue of the kidneys, but in every fragment, no matter from what part of the kidney removed, numerous microscopic filariffi were invariably obtained. On slitting open any portion of the renal artery, from its entrance into the kidney as far inwards as I was able to follow its ramifications, and scraping the inner surface, numerous hfematozoa could always be obtained. The renal vein when similai;ly examined also yielded specimens of the filariae, but they did not seem to be so numerous in it. The vessels themselves did not appear to be diseased.'*' It is to be added that the same parasites were also found in the supra-renal capsules. The condition of the bladder and urinary passages is not mentioned.
To proceed to the pathological significance of the facts, it is in the first place certain that the admixture with the urine is obtained directly from the chyle channels, and not eliminated from the blood-vessels. The identity of the urinary addition, both in substance and shape, with the contents of the further lacteals and thoracic duct, is, as has been already shown, sutficient warrant for the presumption that the urinary organs import rather than manufacture the constituents which are foreign to their secretion. As to the route by which the chyle reaches the urinary cavities, we may at once i)ut aside the secreting structure of the kidneys as not involved in the covirse. If the sensitive renal tubes were for long traversed by a material so novel to their habit and purpose, it might be taken as certain that obvious changes in the gland, probably of an inflammatory kind, would ensue; but this does not occur — after years of the disorder, the kidneys have been found to jiresent to a critical eye no departure from the natural state. In Dr. Priestly's case, where the kidneys were fatty, this change was shared by other organs, and may probably have been connected with the tubercular disease which was present. The necessary properties of the urine do not appear to be impaired by the disease, neither do ura^nic or proper renal symptoms ever result. Again, though chylous urine is often so fibrinous as to coagulate within the body, yet casts^^ of the remil tubes are not found in it. It would seem that they could not fail to be formed did the fibrinous mixture traverse the ducts, so readily in almost all circiimstances of renal disease does fibrin solidify in these narrow and tortuous channels. Presuming, therefore, that the chylous matter is not a renal discharge, it can only be attributed to scrme part of the urinary mucous membrane. Taking this together with the cutaneous manifestations of what may be termed chylorrhoea, the occasional association in the same person of both the urinary and the cutaneous form, and the limitation of the cutaneous variety to the parts of the body the absorbents of which, like those of
CHYLDRIA, 271
the bladder, run by a short and nearly direct course into the lower end of the thoracic duct, it is not possible to doubt that, whether affecting the skin or mucous membrane, the disorder is essentially the same, consisting in each case of a regurgitation of actual chyle from its proper Tessels. The chyle after reaching the lower part of the thoracic duct by the lacteals, instead of pursuing its upward course is turned backwards along tlie lymphatics, which proceed res2)ectively to the urinary mucous membrane and the adjacent skin.
The absorbents from the pelvis, lower limbs, and neighboring parts enter the thoracic duct at its lower part, close to the point where the contents of the lacteals are received ; should the chyle meet with any obstruction in its upward flow, it is into these that it would be diverted, supposing their valvular arrangement should prove insufficient to prevent a retrograde current within them. The lymphatics of the bladder and of the parts adjacent to the groin are of great size, and are comparatively short, so that a regurgitating current would soon reach their extremities. A backward stream from the receptaculum would pass first into the absorbents which accompany the iliac arteries ; thence numerous and wide channels lead to the bladder, while others enter the inguinal glands to pass downwards to the thigh and upwards over the abdomen. The pelves of the kidneys and the urethra are also in close communication with the thoracic duct, and within easy reach of regurgitation. It must be allowed that, notwithstanding the valuable dissection which we owe to Dr. Stephen Mackenzie, we are still in doubt as to the exact part of the urinary mucous membrane upon which the chyle is discharged. The constant occurrence in chylous urine, as I have already pointed out, of large globular cells sucli as belong to the bladder, would suggest that its wall is the place of the leak. At the same time it must be allowed that there is usually, though not always, complete absence of vesical irritation, while if there be pain with chyluria it is usually in the lumbar region. We must, therefore, regard the place of the discharge of chyle as still uncertain. It may not always be the same.
As to the hindrance which the valves of the lymphatics present to the retrograde current, it is evident that a certain amount of dilatation is all that is needed to make them inefficient.
It is possible that there may l)e more than one cause which leads to the regurgitation. Any obstruction in the thoracic duct, whether by parasites or otherwise, would conceivably cause it ; but we are justified in putting aside other causes of stoppage as at least exceedingly infrequent. Knowing as we now do that an arrest in the lymphatic system leads to regurgitation and discharge, we can but infer from the absence of such results that the thoracic duct has a power of evading aneurisms and growths Avhich is not possessed by either veins or arteries. The mere circulation of embryo filariae does not appear to be })roductive of chyluria, or indeed of any other prominent symptom ; this flux can be due only to obstruction in the thoracic duct, or large channels between it and the urinary organs. The completion by Bancroft of the discovery of Lewis, and the location of the parent worms in the large absorbent vessels, supplies the mechanical hindrance and occasions the regurgitation to which the symptoms are duo. The constant admixture of blood with chylous urine is presumably to be explained in this view. Injury to the thoracic duct may easily be sujiposed to affect its valvular entrance into the subclavian vein, so that not only chyle but blood may regurgitate. The blood in such iirine might possibly proceed from the
272 CllYLURIA.
coats of the bladder; but it could scarcely be derived from the secreting structure of the kidney without such injury to the gland as our observations, scanty though they are, are sufficient to show does not exist. If the hffiniatozoa were to escape from the blood-vessels into the tissue, so as to open connection between channels not normally communicating, it is impossible but that inflammation would accrue, probably in the form of diffuse suppuration.
With regard to the minority of ca^es of chyluria which originate in Great Britain, it is to be borne in mind that the mosquito occasionally visits our shores, and it is possible that tlie filaria nuiy be introduced as in countries where this insect is more abundant. It is also possible that there may exist other causes of lymphatic obstruction which have not yet been identified.
Treatment.
As to the radical cure of clnduria by the destruction of the jtarasite, we know of no drugs which are effective in this respect. The thoracic duct is in more immediate reach of absorption by the stomach than are the systemic blood-vessels, though scarcely nearer than the portal; but it is not consistent with our experience of the Bilharzia that an animal in the latter situation should succumb to anything which the tissues can endure; and it is not to be expected that the filaria Avill prove more vulnerable. Without looking for specifics we must be content to seek measures of relief, much encouraged by the consideration that if we can only maintain the patient against the disease for a time, it will often, with apparent caprice, terminate or become suspended.
Considering that the disease does harm chiefly by the diversion and loss of the nutritive fluid, it is obvious that it may be of service to prevent this even temporarily. I have made use of pressure, directed as nearly as might be made upon the lymphatics between the bladder and the thoracic duct, in the hope of arresting the regurgitating current. Passing as these vessels mainly do with the internal iliac arteries, and thence by the lumbar glands, it would seem that the front of the lower lumbar vertebroe affords the only position at which pi'essure from without could be effectively brought to bear upon them.
Dr. Bence Jones was led to the belief that compression of the kidney might be serviceable, and to tliis end i;sed in one instance a tight belt around the loins, but the results were insignificant. The enlarging uterus appears to exert the necessary pressure more effectively. The relation of the disorder to pregnancy is indeed of interest in several respects. The favorite time for its accession or return appears to be the period of lactation ; during pregnancy we hear little of it ; in an instance mentioned by Dr. Lewis,' the disoi'der began in the third month, passed off five or six weeks later, and returned after delivery. The suspension of the complaint corresponds with the presence of the uterus in the abdominal cavity, while the peculiar liability of the period of lactation to its attacks may be connected with the abnormal relaxation of tissue which follows the emptying of the uterus and the continuance of lactation.
Putting aside local measures, the indications are two: to constringe, and to compensate. With regard to the first, Bence Jones thought that the discharge was controlled by gallic acid, given in the amount of 60
grains a day; and other observers have attributed good results to the astringent salts of iron. How far the discharge is under the control of astringents of this sort may be doubted. There can be no doubt as to the importance of compensation by diet and nutritious drugs. The constitutional symptoms of the disease, so long as it remain uncomplicated with tubercle, are simply those of inanition. The discharge involves the loss both of the fatty and of the nitrogenous elements of food, so that the diet must be liberally adjusted in all respects. Cod-liver oil and iron were obviously indicated by the wasting and pallor of my own patient, and were given with the best results. Mangrove bark has been recommended as an empirical remedy, but we must have more evidence than has yet been adduced before we attribute any decided benefits to its use.
The disorder originally described as intermittent lijematuria has of late become possesssed of additional titles. Sir William Gull proposed to substitute the term licBinatiniiria for that previously in use in assertion that hffimatin rather than blood in its entirety was introduced into the urine. It has since been shown, however, that the characteristic discharge is hfemoglobiu rather than htematin, and the name correspondingly changed to hgemoglobinuria, the term now in most frequent use. It is clear, however, that most if not all the constituents of Ijlood, whether in shape or in substance, are discharged by the kidneys in this disease. Fibrin and albumen are certainly present, the former both in casts and otherwise; and albumin is to be detected independently of the corpuscular products and after they have ceased to appear. Perhaps, therefore, we may remain content with the oldest substantive by Avhich the haemorrhage has been designated. Dr. Pavy has sought to replace the adjective Intermittent by Paroxysmal as better suited to describe the ■ irregular recurrence of the attacks, and more recently tterms have been, introduced, as Winter Hsematuria, Haemoglobinuria a Frigore, or From Cold, in assertion of the general exciting cause of the attacks. But in both respects I prefer the original distinction. Intermission does not necessarily imply periodicity; a disorder may intermit irregularly and in obedience to external circumstances; ague itself ma}' return capriciously, not according to date but according to weather; and using tlie term intermittent thus widely, it Avould seem to be especially suited to the disorder in question, since it is to be distinctly reckoned among the results of the marsh poison. The terms which refer to cold as the cause of the fits are descriptive of one character of the disease, but the older qualification has also a special apj^ropriateness which cannot Avith advantage be lost sight of.
The disorder is one of remarkably definite characters. The patient, one frequently who has had ague or been exposed to malaria, is attacked sometimes periodically, but more often after chance exposure to cold, with rigors like those of ague, speedily followed by the passing of urine, which to rough observation would seem to contain blood, but in which, the corpuscles are replaced by a pulverulent sediment either loosely scattered or more or less shaped by tlie kidney-tubes. With warmth the shivering ceases, the urine slowly resumes its natural character, and the patient remains free both from the shivering and the hsematuria until, as happens in the majority of cases, an accidental chill, or as is the manner with some, the recurrence of the period, brings a repetition of the process; Occasionally Avith the attacks the skin assumes a yel]>c)AV tint like that of slight jaundice. AVith this as the outline of a t}^ical case, I
details as have as yet been brought within our view.
Front as early as the year 1825 ' alludes to an instance of obstinate hgematuria in which the bleeding was constantly preceded by a shivering fit. In the later editions of his work * he enlarges upon malaria as a cause of this form of hajmorrhage, dwells upon " the multiform degrees and shapes assumed by this fearful scourge," as making it difficult justly to estimate its effect, and discusses the treatment of " haematuria decidedly connected with affections of malarious origin," recommending the mineral acids, quinine, and perchloride of iron.
In the mean while the subject had attracted the notice of others. Dr. Elliotson ^ described a case of irregular ague which had been contracted in the Walcheren expedition, in which he mentions as a peculiarity unexampled in his experience that with every cold fit the urine became bloody. There were also symptoms which were held to indicate hypertrophy of the heart, but the bloody urine, says Dr. Elliotson, was intermitting like the rigors, and was thought to belong to the ague, not to the cardiac disturbance. The jiatient recovered under quinine.
In the year 1837, Gergerc's' reported a similar case as one of quotidian hrematuria. A naval captain had fits, apparently of severe ague, in which he passed blood instead of urine. These attacks recurred at tlie same hour for three successive days, and they were cured by large doses of quinine. More recently the conjunction of aguish symptoms with haBmaturia was referred to by Sir Thomas Watson," with the mention of a case within his own experience in which this discharge was always marked by a smart rigor.
Details have since been added to these broad observations, of which the most important is the distinction between the intermittent and common hematuria in the absence of blood-corpuscles in the discharge belonging to the former; and attention has lately been drawn by Dr. Wickham Legg " to a paper by Dressier,' published in the year 1854, which had hitherto escaped notice, in which this and other particulars of the disorder were pointed out and the names Intermittent Albuminuria and Chromaturia employed.
More recently fresh attention was drawn to the subject by two jmpers Avhich were read on the same evening at the Medico-Chirurgical Society (May 9th, 1865). The first read and first contributed was by Dr. George Harley, the second by myself. These recorded, with microscopic details not hitherto attainable, cases which had been observed independently. The attention thus drawn to the curious particulars of the disease was followed by the publication of many instances which at this date it is not necessary to enumerate, but of which a list up to the year 1874 may be found in Dr. ^Yickham Legg's paper to which I have referred. My own experience, besides fragmentary observations, is represented by 21 cases, of which I have tolerably complete notes, and in
AV'hich the nature of the complaint was beyond doubt, though in two of them I did not see the urine under the paroxysm. I shall appeal to these as presenting facts for which I can vouch, and experience which is for the most part unrecorded.
First as regards sex and age: of my 21 cases 15 related to males, G to females. In age the subjects when brought under notice varied from 3 to 48 years. 4 were between 3 and 5 years of age; one 9; one 10; one 19. Afterwards the disorder was distributed between the ages of 25 and 48 without great inequality. The earliest age at which the disease has been observed, according to Dr. Legg's inquiry, is 2 years; the latest at which it has been known to commence, 52.
Next as to the antecedents of the disease and of its attacks. As preceding the liability, the influence of malaria is to be traced more often than any other, though by no means always; while cold with much constancy is the excitant of the attacks. As to malaria, careful inquiry among the 21 cases I have referred to gives the following results: In 3 there had been tertian ague. In 2 there had been fever, which was described as of malarial origin, but which was less exactly defined. As to the 16 cases in which no intermittent or malarial fever had been recognized, they were thus circumstanced as regards the marsh poison. Two patients had formerly lived in households others members of Avhich had had ague; one with a brother at Waltham Abbey, who died with it; one in a village near Tunbridge where two uncles had it. Three had lived or worked where there was evidence or suspicion of malaria of a less direct kind; one at Barking in Essex; another used to go harvesting to the Essex marshes, and sleep in a barn. And I have made esi^ecial mention of the case of a man who was attacked with the disease, and apparently contracted it, while digging foundations at Charing Cross in the ancient bed of the Thames. It is notorious that newly exposed soil in a malarious district is especially dangerous. Beside these instances in which a malarial influence may be regarded as ascertained, there are others in which it may be suspected. Five came from the immediate vicinity of the Thames in AVestminster, Pimlico, Bermondsey, and Oxford. Two came from Haverstock Hill, where, according to the testimony of one of them, ague was known. I have ascertained, however, from Dr. Coffin, Avho practises in that neighborhood, that though there have undoubtedly been cases of ague there they have apparently all been imported. Putting aside, therefore, the Haverstock Hill cases, but including those from the banks of the Thames, there are out of the 21 cases 15 in which there had been a history of ague or a probability of exposure to malaria. I may mention in connection with this origin of the disease that a late physician who suffered fi'om the disorder but did not consider it to have had this this source, was born at Hythe in Kent, where ague was, and probably is, well known.
I have preferred to appeal to cases which I have myself inquired into with this end in view, but I might adduce evidence to the same purport from other sources. I find that among 22 published instances taken without selection ague is mentioned as an antecedent in 0. But I think it is clear that the precedence, often remote, of malaria must be admitted in many cases where ague has not been definitely declared. In some cases the malarial fever, as in the case of Catherine Evans, has been accompanied or immediately succeeded by the h^ematuria, but more often there has been an interval between the two affections, in one of my patients, one of 3 years, in another of 9 years, in a third
of 14 years. In one instance mentioned by Dr. Ilarley a West Indian intermittent had not subsided when the htematuria commenced; one of Dr. Roberts's patients who had repeatedly had ague, also in the West Indies, lost it two years before the later complaint declared itself. The disease, also, as has been made sufficiently clear, may ensue upon malarial exposure without the intervention of anything that can be recognized as ague. We have evidence in those cases where the haematuria has immediately succeeded upon ague that malaria is able by itself to sot up the condition in question, while in others, and those the more frequent, this agency presents itself rather as a predisposing than the exciting cause. But it is present in one guise or another so frequently that considering the tenacity of the malarial influence, its insidious and often latent character, and the certainty that it is often present where it cannot be traced, it must be allowed, that this is, to say the least, the most frequent of the causes to which, whether predisposing or exciting, this peculiar form of hfematuria is to be attributed.
The disease presents itself almost invariably without any suspicion of heredity. It has been known, at least in one instance, to occur m two generations — a young man had h^emoglobinuria and much enlargement of the spleen,' his sister presented traces of hfemoglobin in the urine, but had no enlargement of the spleen. Their father had passed dark urine and died with a spleen weighing 7 pounds. The organic enlargement in father and son would at least suggest the possibility that both may have been malarial, and the disease endemic rather than hereditary.
Instances have been reported in which violence or exertion have appeared to be concerned in the production of the disease. Sir W. Gull mentions that of a young lady in which the peculiar condition of urine followed an injury to the back in a fall in getting into a railway carriage. Eosenbach has reported a case in which the first attack succeeded upon a fall from a wagon, though recurrences were induced by exposure to cold. A case is recorded by Fleischer in which hemoglobinuria, unaccompanied by shivering or sweating, appeared in a soldier first after a long march, and recurred as the result of walking, not from stationary exercise or from cold.
Among the other antecedents of the disease which require mention are syphilis and alcoholism, but it is to be questioned whether either is really concerned in its production. Among my 21 cases, mostly men of the hospital class, there was evidence of syphilis in 6, perhaps not more than might in any circumstances have been reckoned upon. As to alcohol, it presented itself apparently as the exciting cause in two cases, in one of which the disorder presented itself during a debauch; in the other the bloody urine was said to have been first passed immediately after intoxication. In one of these there was no malarial history; in the other there had been malarial exposure but no ague. In both there had been syphilis.
In one or two instances haemoglobinuria has succeeded immediately or remotely upon suppurative conditions; haemoglobinuria does not present itself with the lardaceous state so common a result of suppuration; and it may be doubted whether the evidence is sufficient to connect this process with the disease in question.
The excitant of each attack is generally cold; but the actual cause of the disease must be sought in the circumstances which have rendered the subject of it liable to be thus peculiarly influenced by an agency which commonly produces no such result. Cold with intermittent htematuria appears to stand in the place which time occupies with regard to ague; it does not cause the disease, but determines the paroxysms.
The influence of cold in this respect is one of the most striking characteristics of the disease. The patient is well so long as he is warm. The flit beginning with rigors is, as a rule, produced immediately by a chill; among our modern instances, however, where the description is minute and conclusive, there is at least one instance, that of Dr. Druitt, where the disorder occurred diurnally. and by the older writers such haemorrhagic attacks are frequently spoken of as periodic.
The cold by which the sequence of symptoms is started is usually applied in some obvious manner, and is productive of a distinct sense of chill. A laborer is habitually attacked as soon as he goes out on a very cold or frosty day. The same man, though commonly exempt in the summer, once brought on an attack in warm weather by cleaning windows with cold water. A greengrocer attributed an attack to his having been for several hours on a cold day in an oj^en shop; a laundress, hers to standing all day in a damp wash-house. An excursion into the country in an open cart instigated a seizure in another instance. A sailor who had many years before had ague in Havannah was first affected b}' the hfemorrhagic disorder during seven days of exposure after shipwreck. Some persons, however, have become so susceptible in this respect that waiting in a cold out-patient room, exposure to a chance draught, leaving bed in an attempt at convalescence, drinking, or washing the hands in, cold water, have been sufficient to re-initiate the morbid series.
Thus started, a fit follows which might be taken for one of ague with, however, the distinguishing peculiarity that it is succeeded by the discharge of urine which contains the substance of blood, and displays its color but not its shapes. As typical of the commencement and course of the seizure, I may adduce the habitual experience of a man whose case I brought before the Medical and Chirurgical Society. He would get up and go to his work as a builder's laborer api)arently well. If he hapl^ened to get chilled he would very shortly be attacked with shivering and retching, together with yawning and an inclination to stretch himself, pain in the loins and down the thighs, and retraction of the testicles. Within an hour or so he would pass a considerable quantity of black urine, and the pain in the loins, up to this time on the increase, would gradually subside, and the constitutional disturbance cease. When the attack came on he used to leave his work and go liome and to bed, taking care to be very warm. The urine usually retained its character for two or three times of passing and then resumed its natural appearance. The attack varied in length from three to twelve hours. It was often succeeded in the evening by griping or colicky pain about the umbilicus. Next day Aveakness and pallor were the only remnants of the attack, and upon recovery from these he remained without ailment until after an uncertain interval the process was repeated.
In the larger number of instances the sanguineous discharge has ceased after two to three emptyings of the bladder, or even with one, the whole attack being comprised within the period of twenty-four hours.
It has frequently been observed that under the attack the patient has become jaundiced or yellow. It is probable, however, that the discoloration has nothing to do with the secretion of bile, but is a tinting of the skin by the hgematin which is set free. And not only may hsematin be thus generally diffused, but local haemorrhages have been known to occur in the shape of purpura, and there is at least clinical reason to suppose that effusions of blood or of some of its material sometimes take place into the joints or cellular tissue.
"When beginning with a marked rigor, yawning, retraction of the testicles, and pain in the loins and thighs are seldom wanting. The attacks are most apt to come on in the early part of the day, though they do not invariably do so. A patient assured me that he could bear in the evening with impunity an exposure which in the morning would never fail to bring on an attack. In some cases the coldness and lividity of the extremities, or of the nose or cheeks, in the beginning of the attack, have been almost as if the parts were about to mortify. Dr. Druitt describes his face as spotted with blue-like patches of incipient gangrene. And it has been observed, from whichever point of view Ave regard the concurrence, that together with the attacks of local coldness and arrest of circulation followed by symmetrical gangrene, and described by Eeynaud, haemoglobinuria has occurred.
When repeated in a severe form the patient is apt to become pallid from loss of blood, or may present a yellowish or earthy complexion. Loss of sexual power has been noted, as in a case reported by Mr. Neale. '
Urticaria sometimes appears in connection with the disease. Dr. Forrest^ has recorded an instance in which a sufferer from hgemoglobinurla often had patches of the same nature after washing in cold water or exposure to rain or a cold wind. The concurrence has been held to indicate a nervous origin for the urinary disorder, and from another point of view may be taken to associate it with ague and with Eeynaud's disease, in connection with both of which this eruption has been known to present itself.
The attacks vary in degree from severe rigor and profuse hasmorrhage to a transient chilliness, succeeded by urine which is merely lithatic or but slightly discolored. Even with the slighter forms, however, the complexion may be yellowish, sallow, or earthy. Such abortive attacks, in which there is no rigor but 07ily an approach to one, and in which the urine becomes only lithatic, ofte present themselves in the place of the more complete fits when the mplamt is on the decline; and possibly such mutilated symptoms may be the only evidence of the disease in an obscure form in which it sometimes presents itself.
The range of temperature under the attack is generally lower than that of ague, and the fluctuation smaller, though some instances have been recorded in which both in level and variation the ha^maturic chart has closely resembled that of the more common intermittent. With a fit of ordinary ague the temperature begins to rise, as the first intimation that the cold fit is beginning, and continues to mount until the sweating
period, when it descends rapidly. With intermittent haematnria it has frequently been noted that the temperature is lower than normal in the cold stage, and the elevation on its termination small or unol;servable.
In Dr. Harley's case, the temperature in the axilla during the cold stage was 96.1°. In one recorded by Dr. Eoberts, the thermometer in the same situation, at the same period of the attack, marked 96.6''; a few minutes afterwards the patient passed bloody urine, and five minutes later said he felt quite well, and displayed a temperature of 98.6°. Dr. Druitt, after a statement of the large variations which he underwent in some paroxysms of apparently ordinary ague with which his disorder was complicated, remarks that, with these exceptions, the temperature of the mouth and axilla were steadily 98.4°. Thus, in some cases, unlike what occurs in ague, it is clear that the cold stage is one of actual coldness, while in others there is at least no abnormal heat.
Other examples, however, present more of the aguish character in this respect. One of Dr. Greenhow's patients gave under the rigor on three occasions temperatures which varied from 100'' to 100.4°; while after the rigor it was once found to have reached 103.2'. Added to this, the attack has in several instances been succeeded by profuse sweating, so that at least sometimes the pyrexial character of the haematuric paroxysm has been marked and the resemblance to ague obvious. It is not improbable that in all attacks which are sufficiently acute to be attended with a cold stage, the temperature, however low at first, must rise as the fit goes on, and so present some sort of parallelism to that of ague, however much lower may be the general level of the curve and less marked the fluctuations. It is worth noting that in two of the cases presently recorded — those of Dare and Dr. Druitt — venous coagula were formed in the limbs.
Other disorders may attack the subjects of this disease and run their course independently of it; instances are recorded in which diphtheria, quins}', and measles have thus presented themselves, the last Avith a fatal issue; pneumonia, in one case, came on while the patient was in the hospital, as if connected in some way with the disease or its treatment; and it is to be observed that this disease was the immediate cause of the death of Dr. Druitt, though not obviously connected with hsemoglobinuria. Perhaps the only disorder to be traced as a direct result of that condition is nephritis, of which association more than one instance has come under my observation.
To comprise in a few sentences what is known of the condition of the urine in this disorder, the secretion in the intervals of the attack is absolutely natural. With the attack it suddenly assumes a color which is ostensibly due to the admixture of blood, though the range of tints, however deep, is rather vinous than red, smoky or black, as with other forms of hfematuria. The urine is, on standing, divisible into two portions, a bright superstratum, perhaps of the color of port or burgundy, or of the lighter tint of brown sherry or Madeira. This is coagulable with heat and acid to a greater or less extent, usually giving a dark brown floating clot in which most of the coloring matter is comprised. The coagulum produced by heat is sometimes, but by no means constantly, largely dissolved by nitric acid. The solubility of albumin in nitric acid admits of great variation. Paraglobulin, as estimated by precipitation with sulphate of magnesia, is usually present, though in much smaller quantity than the albumin (see cases of King and Collingbourne). After
cum test will often give the blue.
Many observations with the spectroscope have been made of late upon urine under the peculiar form of haemorrhage in question. Haemoglobin or oxyhgemoglouin has been always found together with, in some instances, methtemoglobin. In the urine of Taylor under an attack Dr. Stone found the double absorption band of oxydized htemoglobiu. Drs. Forrest and Finlayson in similar cases found similar evidence together with that of methsemoglobin or acid hsematin ; and we have much other testimony to the same purport — hgemoglobin being constant and methaemoglobin occasional.' I have of late habitually examined specimens of urine under this disease with a large pocket spectroscope recommended by Mr. Browning for the purpose. Oxyhtemoglobin has never failed to present itself when the blood was fairly abundant. I have not recognized methsemoglobin. The spectroscope as a test for blood, whether corpuscular or disintegrated, appears to be inferior in delicacy to others.
The sediment examined with the microscope consists of two components: first, a translucent filmy expanse, which has no more structure than the non-corpuscular basis of mucus, or the fibrinous sliape which belongs to the most delicate form of tube-casts; secondly granules which the first imbeds. The web is soluble in potash and acetic acid, and probably consists of coagulated fibrin. The granules entangled in it may be too small for recognition, excepting as a fine brown powder; but in many instances this is mixed with crystalline or crystalloid masses of a yellow color, closely resembling the blood-crystals often found in the pia mater and elsewhere. Frequently, where no crystalline shapes are to be discovered, much of the deposit presents itself as sparkling granules, which are suggestive of crystalline structure, though too small to
Urinary deposit in case of Edw. Harvey, April 1st, 1878. Fine pranular matter interspersed •with bright yellow crystalloid masses, apparently blood -crystals. Two of these are represented black. Also granular casts and leucocytes. From drawing by the late E. H. Cowburn.
Urinary deposit from John Dare, aged 34, with intermittent haematuria. Yellow translucent crystalloid masses, api)arently imperfect blood-crystals, sprinkled through a faintly j-ellow finely granular web of irregular outline. No definite casts. XOOO D.
obviously blood-crystals, though generally irregular or rounded in outline. In one well-marked instance I found them to be soluble in liquor potassae, not in acetic acid, as would be the case did they consist of haemin or oxy-h£emoglobin. Taking their characters, together with the spectroscopic evidence as to the urine, it is probable that they should be called oxyhfemoglobin, though the point is one upon which further observations are needed. Sir W. Gull ' described them, in a case under his own care, as prismatic crystals of hgematin.
Next to the presence of disintegrated blood prominence must be given to the absence, complete or nearly so, of corpuscles. Sometimes a few red corpuscles are to be seen, especially in the later stages of each attack, as if the modified hasmorrhage were succeeded or accompanied by
Urinary deposit in case of Cath. Evans from June 8th to 27th. Amorphous brown granular matter held together by a faint translucent web. Many renal cells tinted of intense Drown color. Casts containing brown granular matter and epithelium. One was filled with translucent specks of yellow blood-pigment. Uric acid crystals were seen, but are not represented; neither are a few blood-corpuscles, whic^li were found in the later examinations only. Generally magnified 260 D. Two cells of renal epithelium and the cast to their left are magnified 500 D.
traces of ordinary haemorrhage; occasionally also a few leucocytes are associated with the other deposits; but such evidences of the escape of unaltered blood are trifling and probably secondary, and it frequently happens that not a single blood-corpuscle can be seen at any period in the course of the paroxysm. As an exception to these statements I may refer to the case of King, in which the disintegrated discharge occurred at one time and at another one wholly corpuscular, and I might
curred together with or after the peculiar flux.
Mixed with the brown powder}' sediment which has been described, and often chiefly composed of it, are casts of the renal tubes, usually somewhat narrow, as if the pulverulent material of which they are made had been moulded, together probably with some recognizable flbrin, in the normal channels. Besides such casts, hyaline and epithelial kinds may often be seen in considerable variety, should the special attack be succeeded, as often ha])pens, by a transient condition of renal inflammation. In such cases renal epithelium is often found stained of a deep brown color. Oxalate of lime and crystals of uric acid are found, the former frequently, the latter occasionally. Amorphous lithates are generally present, and that abundantly, in succession to the haemorrhagic products as the attack is subsiding. Lithates may also present themselves as substitutes for these products in the imperfect or abortive attacks which are apt to occur on the decline of the disorder.
Attention has been directed rather to the abnormal than the normal constituents of the urine since the alterations are chiefly by way of addition. Under the paroxysm the diurnal quantity appears to be usually increased, as also is the specific gravit3^ In Dr. Druitt's case, in which the paroxysms were quotidian, the quantity ranged during 7 days from 40^ to 67 ounces; the sp. gr. from 1.007 to 1.028, generally higher when the sanguineous discharge was present than when it was not. My patient, Parker, passed on the day of a severe fit 1,525 CO., which was his maximum as compared with other days, though not a marked increase. The specific gravity was taken for every urination during a week for which the urine was sometimes bloody and sometimes not. The average sp. gr. for 16 observations on which the urine was bloody was 1.015; for 22 observations on Avliich it was clear it was 1.011. In a case I published in the " Medico-Chirurgical Transactions'" the specific gravity of the bloody urine was 1.025; the next urination, which was natural, had a specific gravity of 1.009. With regard to the urea during the paroxysm observations conflict. In Dr. Harley's cases * it was in increased proportion in the bloody urine, in one 3.6 per cent, in another 2.5 per cent; the urine in the latter instance presenting before and after the attack the percentages of 1.7 and 1.8 only. In my case,* published in the same volume, the percentage of urea during two paroxysms Avas found to be 2.35 and 4.25 respectively, while in an interval it was 1.6 per cent. Later observations have given different results. In Dr. Druitt's case the urea during the paroxysms for three consecutive days ranged from 1.00 to 1.10 percent, while two specimens of clear urine passed after the fit gave percentages of 1.62 and 2.26. The uric acid in Dr. Druitt's case was somewhat diminished during the paroxysm, increased on its subsidence. It is a matter of common observation that lithates are often superabundant after the blood has ceased to appear. Observations are wanting as to the mineral salts. In my case the chloride of sodium, both during the ])aroxysm and afterwards, was somewhat low; .45 per cent in the bloody urine, .5 per cent in the clear.
Some details may be referred to in the case of Collingbourne, which show that the variations of quantity, specific gravity, and urea as between the fit and the interval were not constant; the phosphoric acid
was generally increased in the 24 hours which included the fit. the chloride somewhat diminished, though during the haemorrhage this constituent displayed a larger percentage than immediately after it. The indigo or similar pigment was seen in several of the appended cases to be much increased both during the hccmorrhage and in its absence.
The blood and serum have been examined under attacks of this disease with results which, though as yet scanty, are enough to show that products of corpuscular dissolution are present in the general circulation. Eed blood-corpuscles withdrawn from a frigid great toe at the outset of a paroxysm have been described by Professor Murri ' as distorted or deformed, while the surrounding serum displayed granular material. Further, blister fluid produced during an attack has been found to give evidence of hajmoglobin.'' Besides these significant observations the ordinary blood conditions of ansemia have been found to be j^resent in this disease.
With regard to the morbid, anatomy of this disorder a case which was concluded by a post-mortem examination is related in an earlier part of this work, in which the symptoms of it were somewhat equivocally associated with those of acute' nephritis. Beyond that my own experience is limited to four instances.
I may now refer to a case which presents the state of the organs twenty-five days after a paroxysm. The particulars may be condensed into the statement that there was intense injection, particularly about the junction of the cones and cortex, and several evidences of extravasation, the most marked of which was an interstitial mass of blood, of irregular shape, three or four times the diameter of a Malphighian body. The extravasations appeared to be chiefly of arterial origin and to consist mainly of corpusles, but in part of granular matter, apparently the result of their disintegration. I shall place next an instance in which death occurred two months after the cessation of a severe and long-continued hemorrhage of the kind in question, which was sequent upon malarial fever. Extravasations were found in many parts, whether connected with intermittent hematuria, or directly with malaria; there were corpuscular extravasations in the liver and a preposterous quantity of blood-pigment in the spleen, as shown in woodcut, p. 286. The kidneys were marked by intense injection, and contained minute extravasations in connection both with the cones and cortices, the most striking of which surrounded a Malpighian body, as represented in Avoodcut, p. 28G. The extravasations appeared to be wholly corpuscular, both of red and white. There were evidences of tubal and interstitial nephritis, and the tubes contained granules of blood-pigment. Together with these facts I must revert to the remarkable case of congestive nephritis related in an earlier part of this work, which presumably took its origin in the intermittent condition, though the clinical evidence was not complete on this point. The kidneys were not only intensely congested, but Taoth had burst their capsules, with much superficial extravasation, an exceptional result of renal disease which cannot but point to a connection between that case and those more recently adduced. In this case, in addition to the tubal and interstitial results of acute nephritis, many of the tubes were lined
' Professor Murri, Emoglobinuria da Freddo. Bologna, 1880. ■Fleischer, Berl. Klin. Wochenschrift, 1881, No, 47. Hayem; case by Mesnet, Archives Generales de Medecine, May, 1881, p. 513.
Hsemorrhage around a Malpighian body and about the adjacent structures in case of Evans,
tions have been recorded, but none which throw any further light upon the disease. We owe two to Professor Murri, of Bologna, one upon a patient also syphilitic, who died apparently of tuberculosis seven months
fever.
after his last attack of haemoglobinuria. There was general miliary tuberculosis. The kidnerys were of unequal size; the left natural to the naked eye, excepting a few tubercles, the right hypersemic and with an
increased cortex. Upon microscopic examination besides the tubercles which were present in both, it was found that the interstitial tissue was increased, the epithelium in some parts of the cortex swollen and detached, and collections of yellow and black pigment seen in the cortical tubes.
Taking these cases together "with the perfectly natural action of the kidney often observed during life in the intervals of the attacks, we may conclude that no permanent or structural change either of the kidney or of any other organ is necessarily involved in the disorder. But at the same time interest must necessarily attach to the extravasations which were found in three cases, if the third, in which the capsules were thus ruptured, may — of which there seems to be little doubt — be reckoned as of the same nature, and to the remarkable and intense injection which was uniformly observed when the haematuria was of recent date. We thus may regard intense renal hyperaemia frequently accompanied with extravasation as the immediate result of the attack, while tubal catarrh, interstitial overgrowth, and chronic fibrosis are to be traced as sometimes consequent upon it, due probably to the repeated congestion which the disease involves. The renal changes, essentially consisting of hyperemia which is usually transient, are consistent with the belief that the disorder is primarily of the blood, the kidneys affected only as the channels of elimination.
With the facts now before us we may take a general view of the phenomena of the disease. They have been differently interjireted. Dr. George Harley ' was led by the Jaundiced appearance to infer that the attacks were in some way connected with disturbance of the hepatic function. I ventured at the same time'^ to attribute the symptoms to a disintegration of blood-corpuscles within their proper vessels, and the subsequent discharge of the debris by the kidneys rather than to any hepatic or primarily renal change. The view which thus presented itself nearly twenty years ago has now found general acceptance. Sir W. Gull =* held, that whatever the primary change might be, there was at least good evidence that the kidneys were affected, and adduced in an instance of the renal source of the disorder the case of a lady who passed the urine characteristic of it in consequence of having received an injury to the loins. ^ Dr. Greenhow, the next commentator, used the term dyscrasia in connection with the disorder, and while admitting the evidences of renal congestion during the attack which are sufficiently obvious, accepted the view which placed the essential change in the blood.
Dr. Stephen Mackenzie,^ to whom we are indebted for an able and comprehensive paper on the disease, though formerly he thought that the corpuscular destruction occurred in the kidney, has found himself unable to resist the accumulated evidence that it takes place in the general circulation. And that it is here would seem now beyond doubt, since the products of corpuscular dissolution, hcTemoglobin, and, according to Murri, granular matter, have been found in the serum or liquor sanguinis. In what system of vessels the destruction takes place may be less certain than the fact of its occurrence, but it has been supposed
3 Guy's Hospital Reports, 1866, p. 390. * Clin. Soc. Trans., 1868, p. 53. ^Lancet, 1884, vol. i.. pp. 156, 198, 243.
with probability to come to pass in the parts of the body, chiefly the extremities, the blueness and coldness of which mark the outset of the attack. In these regions of local cyanosis, from which Professor Murri infers that the arterial blood is shut by a spasmodic vascular action, he supposes that the corpuscles are broken down by the combined action of cold and carbonic acid, to be eventually eliminitated by the kidneys.
It has been often observed that a feeling of general illness precedes any urinary change, any lumbar pain or renal symptoms. The rigor probably marks the time of contamination. A rigor, says John Hunter, is commooly the first symptom of a constitutional affection. And whether the poison be febrile or septic, the truth expressed is one of daily experience. The change in the urine is subsequent and probably due to an escape by the kidneys of the morbid product. Dissolved or broken-up corpuscles cast loose into the circulation may easily account for the tinting of the skin as if by hfematin ; and also for the articular effusions, presumptively of blood or blood substance, which were observed, as if the blood waste had sought other exits beside the renal. That the kidneys become congested, sometimes intensely so, under the process, is evinced by the lumbar pain, the retraction of the testicles, and the other passing signs of irritation which they manifest; there is even the suggestion of the case, to which I need not again recur, that they may become congested to bursting or fatally inflamed under the disturbance. But it is clear that whatever happens to the kidneys is consequent upon the disorder, not antecedent to it. The natural action of these organs in the intervals, and the post-mortem evidence which we have, are suflflcient to show that their change of function is due to passing circumstances, not to permaueut change.
Apart from ha?moglobinuria as an intermittent or paroxysmal disorder, a similar condition of urine is known to occur as the consequence of many states of blood, some produced by disease, others by matters artificially introduced. It has long been known that the inhalation of arseniu retted hydrogen produced a condition of urine in which blood was apparently dissolved, and the same result has been extended to other toxic agents, among which may be mentioned naphtha, benzol, hydrochloric acid, and chlorate of potash. With regard to the latter. Dr. Dreschfield and Mr. Stocks have recorded the case of a woman who. after taking, in the course of twenty-four hours, an ounce and a half of chlorate of potash, passed haemoglobin in the urine, by vomiting, from the rectum, and from the vagina. The convoluted and straight tubes of the kidneys were filled partly with granules and partly with bloodcorpuscles, in which the coloring matter appeared to be precipitated. The Malpighian bodies were natural. Blood-corpuscles are known to be soluble in water, and it has been stated that the injection of Avater into the veins of animals, as well as of glycerin and water into the cellular tissue, have been followed by the exit of dissolved blood with the urine, and the same result has been noted in dogs who have been subjected to a starvation diet of sugar and water. The same condition has been found in the human subject in connection with certain septicaemic and febrile conditions, among which is typhus ; and it is said also to have been found with scurvy and purpura, though I may say that in my own not very large experience of the latter disorders I have noticed the blood discharged with the urine to retain the corpuscular form.' Thus
it appears that blood-corpuscles may be dissolved within the body by many agents and in many circumstances, and the product make its way out by the kidneys; but these conditions of haemoglobinuria, in which the solution is ostensibly and primarily due to some toxic agent in the blood, or change in its composition, present only a partial analogy with the obscure and recurrent disorder under consideration.
A closer analogue to this is occasionally presented in cases of the symmetrical gangrene, or localized asphyxia of Reynaud. This condition may. concur with the state of urine which has been under discussion: and, indeed, the disorder of Reynaud appears to be so closely connected with intermittent hsematuria that no distinct line of demarcation can be drawn between the two. The essentials of Reynaud's disease are the arrest of circulation, with coldness, blueness, and often subsequent gangrene, in certain parts often prominent, such as lingers or toes, and often disposed with bilateral symmetry. In certain instances and in certain phases of this disease hgematuria has occurred and recurred, much after the manner of the intermittent haemorrhage under discussion, either with the escape of corpuscles or as hasmoglobinuriii. A boy, whose case is related by Dr. Wilks,' had, after protracted suppuration, the result of an injury, gangrene of the fingers, such as is described by Reynaud, attended Avith the discharge of haemoglobin and casts with urine, with only the occasional presence of corpuscles. Dr. Southey gives the case of a lad who had gangrene, first of the right index and then of other fingers, while purple patches, which threatened to lead to the same condition, appeared on one ear and the nose. The parts about to become gangrenous first became red, swollen, throbbing, and hot like chilblains. The skin generally was peculiarly sensitive to cold impressions, becoming on exposure remarkably mottled, while parts that were covered were apt to become hot and red, and throbbed and burned, so that he could no longer bear anything upon them. The mottlings referred to developed into patches of urticaria, which presented themselves widely over the face, trunk, and limbs. The urine became bloody under superficial cold, then, after exi^osure and being washed, it would be bloody; a few hours later not so. Blood-corpuscles were found, but no casts; the urine was often albuminous out of proportion to the blood. No haemorrhages occurred, except with the urine; iliere was no dropsy. In this case, though the hgematuria might be termed intermittent or j)aroxysmal, there was no evidence of the corpuscular destruction which belongs to what is termed hemoglobinuria.
A case recorded by Dr. Barlow is more to this point. The subject was a girl five years of age who had, especially in cold weather, repeated attacks of coldness, blueness, and pain in one or both feet, or one hand, which lasted several hours, but did not proceed to gangrene. Some of these attacks, but not all, Avere attended Avith the passing of urine, usually once only, Avhich had all the haemoglobinuric character. It was very dark; contained no corpuscles, but much brown granular matter; gave a blue reaction with guaiacum, an albuminous clot of a tenth, and a deposit of oxalate of lime. Occasionally under the attacks the urine I)ecame lithatic, but not bloody. The coldness in the limbs Avas often preceded by abdominal pain. Dr. BarloAv points out — Avhat indeed is
sufficiently striking — the resemblance between this combination of symptoms and that described as intermittent or paroxysmal haemoglobinuria. The condition of urine may be the same in both, even to tlie lithiasis which ap])ears to replace the iieculiar haemorrhage. The attacks occur usually with the same irregularity and from similar causes; in both abdominal pain, yawning, and vomiting may mark tlie beginning of the attack, and in both urticaria may present itself. The difference may declare itself by little else than the more narrow limitation, and the greater intensity, of the superficial arrest of circulation in the one case than in the other. Indeed, the two conditions seem so to approach each other and mingle as to make it impossible to make a distinct demarcation between them.
With the facts which have been passed in detail, it will now be possible to present in brief retrospect a rational view of the intermittent condition of hfemoglobinuria. It occurs independent of organic disease, though the kidney is concerned usually temporarily in the attacks, but depends on a destruction of blood within its proper vessels from causes which have to be considered. The association of the disorder with malarial fever and its sequence, without the intervention of fever upon malarial exposure, is such as to lead to the inference that, at least in many cases, it is but ague misdirected. With ague of the common sort, we may presume that the rigor indicates the presence of a poison in the blood, which is presently eliminated by sweating and the discharge of lithates with the urine. With the hfematuric attack, the disorder points renally. The heat of skin is not indeed always absent, but is usually little marked, to be replaced, as we may fairly infer, by a corresponding condition of the kidney, with relief by renal instead of cutaneous evacuation. The frequent mixture of lithates with haematuric discharge, and their substitution for or succession upon it, bears out the analogy.
The increase of urea, which is so marked under the ordinary ague fit, is not equally so with that of hemoglobinuria: probably the materials which should form the urea are expended as haemorrhage. Under paroxysms of ague the urine has often been found to be albuminous, and sometimes bloody: the hiematuria of an ague fit may be attended with corpuscular disintegration, and the one disease may jjass into the other, so that the two conditions present themselves but as phases of the same disease.
This is seen with the malignant malarial disorder described as bilious or haematuric fever, in which it is said that the urine presents the haemoglobinuric characters.' The renal congestion of the ague fit is indeed a prominent fact in its pathology, and is probably the means by which granulation of the kidney is brought about, as has been insisted upon in an earlier section of this work, by intermittent fever. And not only are the two disorders associated by the renal congestion common to both, but it would seem, from the anaemiating results of common intermittents, as well as from the diffusion of pigmentary products under their influence and the occasional yellow tinting of the skin, that with them as with hgemoglobinuria there is extensive destruction of blood in its own vessels. Another point of resemblance is to be found in the enlargement of the spleen common with ordinary ague and occasionally
found in the hsemorrhagic disorder. The heaps of blood-pigment found in the spleen of Catherine Evans (see woodcut, page 286), are quite such as might have belonged to malarial disease, with which, indeed, this case was associated, insomuch that it might have been termed, with equal truth, haemoglobinuria or malarial fever.
But the association with malaria, though possibly more frequent than our records show, does not comprise the wdiole history of the condition. Cases present themselves in which no malarial influence can be ascertained or suspected. 1 have adverted to the occurrence of hemoglobinuria with the local asphyxia of Reynaud. We do not know enough of this condition to assert that it is regularly, or often, of malarial antecedents, but Reynaud has given a case on the authority of Dr. Landry, in which this sequence held; and it must be noted in connection with this occurrence that gangrene has frequently been observed in connection with, and apj^arently as a result of malarial fevers.'
Whatever be the remote cause of the condition, it appears that the immediate precursor of the discharge is contraction of the superficial arteries, whether in connection with ague, with the local asphyxia of Reynaud, or possibly, independently of both, as belonging to an isolated and unexplained form of hemoglobinuria. We may accept provisionally the view of Professor Murri that the corpuscular destruction takes place in the superficial vessels in which the stagnation has occurred, and that arterial spasm, whatever be its cause, is the essential factor in the disease.
These conclusions are not contradicted by the exceptional appearance of the disorder after violence, exercise, and alcoholic excess; the disease has not been thus created; the attacks have been brought on in a person who has previously acquired the liability.
As to treatment: tenacious as the disorder proves itself in many cases, there are others which show that, independently of medicine, it has a tendency to recovery. No patient is as yet known to have died directly of the disease, though many have died with it; some have been ajjparently cured, and others have outlived it. The measures which are indicated are of two kinds: quinine as possibly curative of the disorder; uniform warmth as jn-eventive of the attacks.
The most remarkable point in the therapeutics of the complaint is the effect of temperature. Patients when attacked instinctively seek warmth; go to bed if they can, cover themselves with clothes, and await the relief which the warmth brings. In most instances, cold is the only exciting cause of the attack; in constant warmth they are totally absent. Even when, as in the case of Dr. Druitt, the disorder in a temperate climate has displayed a periodic or diurnal tendency, its habit in that respect has been completely broken by a tropical temperature. Dr. Druitt had but one attack of his disorder, and that brought on by a definite chill during his winter in Madras. Possibly some such tropical, or a subtropical, resort, with quinine if indicated, and especial care to avoid malaria, would be more often desirable than attainable in this disease. Where not attainable, much may be done with warm clothing and by the avoidance of exposure, together with a dietary, including wine or some alcoholic drink, somewhat oftener than might otherwise be needed. Such measures may keep off the attacks; and with a disorder often of limited duration, this may be equivalent to curing the dis-
ease. Dr. Barlow' found that a patient of his wlio from childhood had been washed in very hot water, became less susceptible to the disorder Avhen cold water had been gradually substituted for hot: the suggestion presented must be put to the test of further experience.
As to pharmaceutical measures, quinine takes the first place. Obviously suggested by the aguish similitude and the occasional aguish antecedents of tlie disease, tlie remedy is no novelty in this relation. It was, as already stated, employed by Prout. Though its specific action appears to be less marked than with the common forms of ague, the facts which have been accumulated do not allow us to doubt that something of the same effect must be attributed to it. Dr. Druitt, who spoke from an experience which probably no other member of the profession can adduce, says, "of medicines deserving the name there was but one, and that was quinine in full doses." He found that the attacks were kept off by large doses of the drug, but that its beneficial effect diminished with repetition, until at last, though it still continued to be generally beneficial to health, it lost its control over the hasmorrhage. And many other cases testify at least to the suspension of the disorder under quinine, while with some it has totally ceased under its influence.
My own experience amounts to this: I have treated seven patients with quinine alone; four with quinine and iron; one with quinine and iodide of potassium; one with iodide of potassium alone; one with iron alone; and several without medicine. Of those who took quinine alone, five were obviously benefited, two of whom were apparently cured. In one the remedy was discontinued on the occurrence of measles; in another, no definite result was obtained. Two considerations make it difficult to estimate the effects of any remedy in this disorder: one is the capricious manner in which it will sometimes come to an end; the other is its tendency to recur after a long interval when thought to be cured. The cases most amenable are those in which the aguish antecedents are most distinct. The man whose case I brought before the Medico-Chirurgical Society in the year 1865, who had had ague fourteen years before his attack, and*was attacked in an aguish district, having all but died under the combined effects of mercury and pneumonia, lost his symptoms under qui-' nine and iron, left the hospital apparently well, and when by chance I saw him four years later (1869), had had no return.
In five cases the attacks ceased to occur under full doses of quinine conjoined, in two of them, with iron, though the evidence of recovery is inconclusive. In one of these, the hrematuric symptoms entirely ceased, and remained absent until her death, which was due to another cause. The remaining four patients — Madden, Hercock, Taylor, and Jones — left the hospital apparently well, though it was not known how long they remained so. Two cases, treated with quinine alone, left the hospital apparently well, but had recurrences afterwards (K. Baker and Stone). The quinine to be effective, whether permanently or temporarily, needed to be given in full doses, generally about twenty grains a day. One of these, a child nine years of age, had recurrences under six grains a day, none under nine grains.
Other drugs may be more briefly dismissed. Arsenic has been nsed, and may be i;seful as an antiperiodic, should quinine fail or be inadmissible. Antisyphilitic measures have been resorted to, though we have no reason to suppose that syphilis is often, or especially, associated with the disease. Yet it may co-exist, and in two of my cases iodide of potassium was given with apparent advantage. Professor Murri has attributed benefit to mercury in similar circumstances. Apart from syphilis, mercury proved so obviously injurious in a case I have already adverted to that I have refrained from employing it. The yellowness of the skin has occasionally directed the efforts of the practitioner to the liver, and suggested mercurials, nitro-muriatic acid, and other reputed remedies for jaundice. But bile is not wanting in the motions; and if the color of skin is by blood and not by bile, such drugs at best are useless. The action of this metal in reducing the number of blood-corpuscles and causing anaemia would seem to render it better suited to increase than to diminish the effects of the disorder.
Of direct means of stopping the htemorrhage there are none except it be warmth. Iron is an obvious requirement to mitigate the results of the haemorrhage, and may be given in an astringent form.
LARLY PHOSPHATE OF LIME, IX URIXE.
L^XTiL recent years much confusion attended the use of the terms phosphatic urine and phosphatic diathesis ; the urine was said to be phospliatic and the i^erson to have tlie phosphatic diathesis whenever the urine deposited earthy salts: in other words, whenever it was alkaline, whether it had become so in the bladder by ammonical decomposition, or had J)een so secreted by the kidney from a deficiency of acid, or an excess of alkali. Urine alkaline from whatever cause necessarily deposits its earthy salts, whether they be much or little, and thus the jDhosphatic diathesis was found by the older writers in a large number of widely different conditions, comprising some of constitutional disturbance, and may others in which the reaction was simply due to the state of the urinary organs. Urine is very seldom — it used to be thought never — secreted ammoniacal. There are excejjtional conditions of exhaustion or prostration apart from any localized disease, either of the nervous or the urinary systems, in which it will at times, and even for a long time together, present itself in an ammoniacal state in circumstances which lead to the belief that it has been so secreted (see page 145); but these may be put aside as exceptional, and the general rule asserted that its being passed in this state is merely an evidence of retention or cystitis. AVith such various conditions leading to alkalescence and deposition, it would seem impossible without reference to their differences to discern any common diathesis or systemic state as antecedent to the urinary condition. Prout, however, in whose time the necessary distinctions had not been made, associates these depositions, however various their origin, with depression and nervous irritability; and though it is clear that in many of the instances to which he alludes the urinary state has been brought about only by disease of the urinary organs, yet there would seem to be a partial truth in his view which has escaped some later observers.
Dr. Hassall attributed grave constitutional symptoms to the precipitation of the crystalline phosphate of lime ; but this view also has been shown to need modification since this deposit may be caused either by the increased excretion of lime, which may be caused by the a<lministration of lime salts, or by a diminished acidity of urine short of alkalescence.' Whether the lime secreted by the kidneys shall appear in crys-
' Dr. Bence Jones published in the Journal of the Chemical Society for 1861 the results of some experiments and observations in which I had taken part havinj? reference to the deposition in the urine of tJie crystalUne phosplvate of lime. The conclusion, which was inevitable, was that the formation of these crystals simply depends on the amoiuit of lime iu the urine and on its degree of acidity.
EXCESS OF EARTHY SALTS IN URINE. 295
tals as the acid phosphate, shall be deposited as the amorphous or alkaline phosphate, or shall be held in solution in the urine, is so far a matter of chance that it depends only on the degree of acidity of the urine. If the nrine be alkaline, the amorphous phosphate is precipitated; if it be slightly acid or nearly neutral, the crystalline phosphate appears; while, however great the amount of lime if the urine be fully acid, there is no deposit whatever, or a deposit only of oxalate. No inference, therefore, save as to the acidity of the urine, can be drawn from the shape which the earthy salts take in that secretion.
But while, therefore, we regard the shape which the earthy salts take as only of secondary importance, I think that clinical evidence, to a certain extent corroborating Prout and Hassall, shows that the absolute excretion of lime, or the amount passed be the shape what it may, has an important significance as bearing upon the constitutional state, more particularly with reference to the nervous system.
In common with what I believe is a very general impression, I have learned to recognize a certain condition of nervous irritation or exhaustion, or a habitual state of exaggerated nervous mobility, as associated with urine of which the leading characteristic is an excess of earthy salts. Such urine may be alkaline and turbid, but is usually pale and clear; its tints incline rather to lemon than orange; lithates, if deposited, are pale or white; it is but rarely of insufficient acidity, and sometimes is acid to excess, even to scalding. Excepting occasional lithates, it is usually free from deposit, or deposits only oxalate of lime. The addition of liquor potassffi or ammonia, however, throws down a heavy cloud, which consists chiefly of phosphate of lime. The persons who have passed such urine have mostly t)een men not far removed from middle life, usually of active minds and nervous temperaments, easily agitated or depressed, tremulous, excitable, and prone to sleeplessness. Many have had obscure arthritic pains which have been regarded as gouty, but few gout in a sthenic and declared form. The characters of the urine became more marked, and in some instances first attracted my attention, after some period of anxiety or mental distress.
A symptom to be often noted in such persons as I have described is a somewhat indefinite numbness in the legs which comes and goes ; others have complained of singing, dizziness, or other abnormal sensations in the head. The tongue is usually anasmic, flabby, and sodden ; it becomes more coated under salines or alkalies, and clear with strychnia and nitro-hydrochloric acid. There is intolerance of alkalies in these cases, for whatever cause they may be given, displayed by general prostration and early alkalinity of urine. Strychnia and the mineral acids, on the other hand, are as constantly beneficial.
Instances of an excess of the earthy salts, particularly of the phosphate of lime, in such circumstances as I have mentioned might be greatly multiplied. I have learned to recognize the manner of man in whom it exists, and seldom look for it in vain. The nervous, mobile, and hypochondriacal temperament, with perhaps half-latent gout, suggests the testing of the urine with liquor potassa?, and the fall of the bulky precipitate no less suggests the use of strychnia and the mineral acids. Examples, some of which have been already alluded to, which show the
They could be generally caused by the administration of lime or its vegetable salts until the urine became charged with lime while its acidity was lessened. Dr. Roberts independently had arrived at similar conclusions.
Tlie only one of the tabulated cases which needs further mention is the last of the first series. It was remarkable in the habitual presence of profuse alkaline sweat which was poured out abundantly, particularly under the arms, even though the patient kept cold and perfectly still. The secretion was alkaline from fixed alkali. It increased with depression or exhaustion, and lessened with rest, good diet, and tonics. Both lime and magnesia must be considered as increased, considering the age of the patient.
To take a somewhat wider view of the urinary secretion of lime and magnesia, I have subjoined a few observations in reference to other disorders, from whence it appears that in instances of tubercular disease of the brain, tubercular meningitis, epilepsy, and cerebral amaurosis, the exit of lime was increased. 'J'o the foregoing facts may be added that in some cases of diabetes, especially the most acute, there is, perhaps, a larger increase of phosphate of lime than occurs in any other circumstances. The woman Mackay passed as much of the salt in one day as she should have passed in ten; more than three grammes of lime, or about six of the phosphate. This salt was increased out of proportion to the urine, and in larger ratio than any other of its constituents. The condition was associated with cerebral changes of unusual extent and rapidity. In another rapid and severe case was nearly as great an increase of the earth in question. It is noteworthy that this enormous increase of lime was not dependent on any increase of food; but, on the contrary, was most marked when the disorder was approaching its fatal termination, the power of taking food almost lost, and the urine no longer saccharine, or but slightly so.
Observations on the excretion of phosphates in disease were made by Bence Jones as long ago as 184G. ' The most marked result of his inquiry was the contrast in this respect between inflammatory affections of the brain and delirium tremens; in the former, meningitis and the like, both the total i^hosphoric acid and the earthy phosphates being much increased, in delirium tremens both being as strikingly diminished. According to the view of Bence Jones, the phosphorus which so largely enters into the composition of the brain undergoes under inflammation increased oxidation, with a correspondingly increased production and exit of phosphoric acid. The lessened discharge of this acid in delirium tremens was no doubt partially due to absence of food, but it was shown that it could not wholly be thus accounted for, and might with ])robability be attributed to lessened chemical action in a brain of which the condition was the opposite of the inflammatory.
About a third of the phosphoric acid which is normally passed with the urine is in combination with lime and magnesia, the rest with potash and soda. It is not my purpose to dwell upon the variations of phosphoric acid in disease, which have received full attention, but rather to refer to those of the earths which are more striking, and appear more indicative than any alterations in the urinary phosphoric acid taken as a whole.
ity; and the oxalate, however frequent, does not attain an amount to be appreciable save with the microscope. The amount of earthy phosphates can be judged of either by ascertaining the amounts of lime and magnesia separately, the more laborious process, but as distinguishing the earths the more instructive, or by precipitating both together as phosphates. A rough but trustworthy bedside guide, if the urine be clear, is the bulk of the precipitate presented to the eye on the addition of liquor potassae or ammonia. Perhaps it is more to the purpose to associate the earthy excess clinically with conditions of nervous irritation, than to speculate on the internal chemistry by which the discharge is produced. "What lime can have to do with brain is hard to see; it enters most sparingly into its composition, and can scarcely be an appreciable product of its waste; phosphorus, on the other hand, abounds in nervous tissue, and under disintegration or change may be a copious source of phosphoric acid. And this poured into the blood, the conversion of much of it into phosphate of lime, and its exit in this shape, is what may be reckoned upon having regard to the affinities of the acid and the base. Against this view we have the lack of evidence that the phosphoric acid is increased otherwise than in earthy combination, and also the minute but at least suggestive appearance of lime in other forms than as phosphate. Whatever be the explanation of the facts which have been noted, it is clear as a matter of clinical experience that an increased discharge of earthy salts in the urine appears in connection with many forms of nervous irritation, and affords in some circumstances a ready and valuable therapeutical guide.
TO RENAL AND OTHER DISORDERS.
Ukine may be secreted albuminous, or may be made so, since its secretion, by admixture with some albuminous product. To dispose, in_ the first place, of what may be termed accidental albuminuria: this may be due to the intrusion of blood, pus, or chyle. It was formerly thought that the spermatic fluid could produce this effect, but now stated that semen is not albuminous. These vehicles of albumin are easily recognized by their obvious and microscopic characters ; the only doubts which ever need present themselves are, supposing the urine to contain blood or pus, whether the albumin is wholly or only in part due to this cause.
It is not my design to dwell at length upon the means of testing for albumin, some of which have occupied much attention of late.' "Whenever the urine is described as albuminous in this work, it is upon the evidence of heat and nitric acid. I examined for albumin by five methods the urine of 100 patients, as they presented themselves consecutively in hospital and private practice. The results which are given in the annexed table are scarcely calculated to make us abandon the old tests for the new. The potassium mercuric iodide gave a precipitate in every instance, including many in which there was no reason to doubt that the urine was absolutely natural. Picric acid was the next frequent in result. It is known that both these reagents precipitate other matters besides albumin, more particularly the peptones. Whether urine always or almost always contains a substance analogous to albumin, which is not true serum albumin, niust be determined by further inquiry. Dr. Greeve has published some interesting researches, from which he concludes that healthy urine contains an albuminoid substance which he calls leth-albumin,^ a modification of albumin not recognizable by ordinary tests. Whether this be so or not, it is certain that a slight precipitate or opalescence with the mercuric iodide is not necessarily a sign of disease, and that the test cannot be accepted as a practical guide. Probably nitric acid and heat, used so as to be mutually corrective, and the ferrocyanide with citric acid are the best tests for practical use. Picric acid and the mercuric iodide are not sufficiently discriminating.
The reactions of albuminous urine with the precipitants of albumin, apart from the peculiarities which depend upon its occurrence in acid or alkaline urine, are liable to variations whiqh appear to be explicable only on the supposition that there are differences in the albumin. Prout describes chylous urine as containing a substance which was coagulable
41 100
by acid, but not by heat, which he regarded as hydrated or incipient albumin. I suppose it would now be called paralbumin. Presuming the urine to be acid, this reaction must be exceptional even in chylous urine. A peculiar albuminoid substance was discovered by Bence Jones'^ in the
' When the urine of the .«?anie case has been examined repeatedly, the first obsei'vation alone has been tabulated. No examination was made without finding a precipitate or opalescence witii the potassium mercuric iodide.
^ A substance resembling albumin, which Bence Jones regarded as a hydrated deutoxide of protein, was discovered in the urine of a patient who had mollities ossium. This substance was discharged in large amount — twice that of the urea — the urine was acid, of verj- high specific gravity — 1.085 to 1.040 — frothy and glutinous. Heated to boiling, it gave a precipitate like albumin; with nitric acid, however, in the cold, no immediate precipitation took place, though after a time the urine became converted into a yellow, transparent mass, which, like gelatin, was dissolved by heat and again consolidated on cooling. Though some degx'ee of
302 ALBUMINURIA IN RELATION TO OTHER DISORDERS.
urine of a patient who had mollities ossium. On the addition of nitric acid, no change was at once produced; on standing, the urine became solid; with heat it resumed its liquidity.
With regard to the reaction of albumin and nitric acid, it was long ago pointed out by Bence Jones that the addition of a minute quantity of this acid to albuminous urine will often prevent its giving a coagulum with heat, though it will still coagulate on the addition of more acid. This he supposed was owing to the formation of a nitrate of albumin, coagulable by acid, but not by heat. This reaction appears to present considerable variation in the proportion of acid needed, and to be not always obtainable. Next, it is to be recognized that albumin is soluble in excess of nitric acid, and that this solubility differs greatly in dilferent specimens. An albuminous cloud produced by acid will often disappear on the addition of only a few drops too much, while a bulky coagulum, produced by acid or heat, will disappear with excess of acid, the amount required for this re-solution being liable to great variation. Sometimes an amount of acid equal to that of the urine will do; more often three or four tinaes the bulk is needed.
A gentleman who recently died with albuminuria, presumably dependent on the granular kidney, habitually passed alkaline urine, which with heat and one drop of nitric acid in an ordinary test tube, coagulated to about a fifth. Three or four drops reduced this to a mere opalescence ; five or six made the urine clear. I may add that this urine, when it chanced to be acid, displayed abundance of casts, and that it gave evidence of globulin with sulphate of magnesia. Albumin precipitated by acid is generally more soluble in excess of it than that thrown down by heat. The albumin of lardaceous disease is often more soluble than that which presents itself in other forms of albuminuria, and it has been occasionally noticed that the clot produced with hsemoglobinuria is re-soluble in more than ordinary proportion, and the peculiarity in this instance attributed to admixture with globulin.
We probably have much to learn with regard to the behavior of albumin and its allies in different circumstances. Such differences as have been adverted to, together with the occasional slowness with which nictric acid causes coagulation, have given use to the term, peculiar albumin/ to signify albumin which is less coagulable or more soluble than common. Some of the phases of incoagulability may be supposed to indicate an approach to the peptones.
I do not propose to dwell upon the subject of peptone in urine, of which both the chemical and clinical relations are as yet imperfectly understood. Peptone 'is not precipitated by heat or nitric acid, and so does not complicate the subject of albuminuria if only these tests be used; but it is thrown down by picric and citric acid, and also by the potassium mercuric iodide together with citric acid. The formation of a precipitate with these reagents, particularly with the mercuric test when the older means of discovering albumin give no result, is so common, that the presence of something which acts like peptone in this
oedema was present in this case, the kidneys were found to be natural after death, so that we can but attribute the peculiar discharge to some condition of blood connected with the softening and wasting of the bones.
respect must be the rule rather than the exception. But it is probably not peptone, but rather something else allied to albumin not yet identified, for it is often present in considerable quantity when the copper test gives no result. Peptonuria, as recognized chiefly by the latter test, appears to be comparatively infrequent, and to have scarcely as vet acquired practical interest. It has been found in a variety of disorders not especially renal or attended with albuminuria, among which phosphorus poisoning, suppurative conditions, and gastric and'intestinal disturbances have been mentioned.
The presence of globulin, or rather paraglobulin, in urine has more to do with albuminuria than has that of peptone. I'he occurrence of this substance together with the other constituents of blood in hemoglobinuria has no separate interest. The amount of it may be easily estimated by precipitation with sulphate of magnesia.' It would seem that paraglobulin is almost never present in urine except it be also albuminous, and that when it is so, unless it be also bloody, this addition is found only exceptionally or only in very minute amount. Paraglobulin is not soluble in pure water, though it is so in weak saline solutions. Dr. Roberts has recently pointed out tliat a drop of albuminous urine allowed to fall into a glass of distilled or even ordinary drinking water, a delicate ring of opacity, like a puff of smoke, will often accompany its descent. This he attributes to the paraglobulin separated from the albumin by its insolubility. This reaction is often to be found when globulin is not to be detected with sulphate of magnesia, and it must still remain suh judice upon what it depends.
This constituent of the blood appears to have been found in urine more frequently with the acute and the lardaceous forms of renal disease than with others. A fatal instance of acute nephritis with dropsy has been described, in which the urine contained globulin, to the entire exclusion of serum albumin. Casts were present as in ordinary cases. ^
Speaking of albumin as something which is to be detected with heat and nitric acid, it may be said that urine which is secreted albuminous is to that extent abnormal. The arrangement is faulty either in the renal mechanism, or in the composition of the blood, or in the pressure to which it is subjected. Whether a minute trace of albumin, such as to be inappreciable to most tests, may consist with health, or whether healthy urine contains traces of an albuminoid substance, possibly occupying a position between albumin and urea, are questions which must be postponed; but, at any rate, it is certain that any such considerable admixture of albumin as to be readily detected with heat and nitric acid is evidence of disease, whether permanent or temporary.
Albuminuria has been divided into permanent and temporary, and many observations have been made to show in what proportion of persons one sort or the other exists, and with what disorders they are associated. Thus, of 303 adults in the medical wards of University College Hospital, 39 had, according to Dr. Parkes, ])ermanent, and 37 temporary, albuminuria, while in the remaining 'Z'Zl cases no albumin was present at
' Dr. Marcet reminds me of the reactions of globulin as obtained from the crystalline lens. It is precipitated by carbonic acid; soluble in ammonia; precipitated from the ammoniacal solution when this is neutralized with acetic acid ; redissolved in excess of acetic acid.
Dr. Saundby examined the urine of 145 male out-patients at the General Hospital, Birmingham, and found albumin in 105.^ In 64 the albumin was attributed to renal disease. Deducting these, there remain 81 cases of non-renal disease — dyspepsia, debility, phthisis, morbus cordis, etc., among which the urine was albuminous in 41, or about half. I have already stated the proportion of albuminuria in patients taken indiscriminately from hospital and ]u-iYate practice as deduced by different tests (p. 301). Of the 100 cases referred to, 19 were of kidney disease, necessarily attended with albuminuria : of the remaining 81, the urine showed albumin to heat, and nitric acid in 21, about one case in four. It is seen with sufficient clearness in the table how much the results differ with different reagents. Dr. Mahomed found albumin to be present in the urine of persons proposed for life assurance in a proportion of 15.5 per cent. Dr. Mann^ in the same circumstances found albumin in 11 per cent. With our present knowledge we must believe that, however slight or transient a disturbance may make the urine albuminous, this condition, as it is ordinarily recognized, is not consistent with absolute health.
The causes of albuminuria afford a more convenient basis of classification than its persistence. Urine which, independently of admixture, is persistently albuminous indicates a persistent change in the kidney, wliether arising in it or secondary to disease elsewhere ; but, on the other hand, it is possible that, though such disease exist, the urine may be albuminous only at times. Thus no safe distinction can be made between permanent and temporary albuminuria.
To bring within a simple classification the various circumstances upon which an albuminous state of the urine may depend, they may be arranged into three great classes : the first may be termed accidental albuminuria, or albuminuria by admixture, in which the secretion has been rendered albuminous subsequently to its secretion ; the second comprises the many modes in which the urine may be made albuminous by renal disturbance, whether connected with structural change or circulatory embarrassment ; the third includes those rare instances in which the kidneys secrete albumen in consequence of an altered condition of the blood "itself . In the accompanying table all the subdivisions except the first and last presumably belong to the second class.
Causes of an Albuminous State of the Urine.
Admixture with blood, lymph, chyle, pus, or the contents of cysts opening into the urinary channels, or with products derived from the bladder or tissues after death.
Cholera and diarrhoea.
{Certain nervous conditions — injury of brain and state connected with exophthalmic goitre— presumably affecting renal blood-vessels.
Albuminuria, so far as it relates to renal changes, has been fully discussed. Casts often throw liglit upon the source of albumin. If these contain blood, or, as with intermittent haematuria, its substance, it is obvious that the glandular structure gives exit to the discharge, though it may remain to be determined whether local congestion or humoral change is the cause. If epithelial, they indicate tubal disturbances and an organic reason, though possibly only of a transient kind, for the albuminous discharge ; if merely fibrinous, they show at least that not albumin only, as if that substance were in excess, but the liquor sanguinis in toto is making its way out by reason probably of local hyperemia or structural change. But while casts as a rule show that the issue of the albumin depends upon some change in the structure of the kidney or in the tension of its vessels, it is not to be concluded from their occasional
absence that it is not so. In the early stages of the granular kidney casts are often as infrequent as in tlie early stages of nephritis they are abundant. The evidence afforded by the presence of casts is therefore more to be relied upon than any inferences to be drawn from their absence. "Witli embolism and renal pyasmia easts are usually to be found, often Avith blood ; with tubercular disease of the kidney, though casts are not necessarily present, yet they are often to be found in consequence of some localized tubal disturbance in the affected organ or secondary lardaceous change in the other. "With renal stone a few casts are occasionally found, probably from localized irritation, though it may be practically certain that there is no general disease of the kidney substance.
As to whether albumin be the result of mechanical congestion as from heart disease or of some disorder particular to the kidney, the distinction may often be made at a glance ; with cardiac congestion the urine is apt to be scanty and loaded with lithates ; with disorders primarily renal, the urine however scanty is only exceptionally lithatic.
In distinguishing the structural diseases of the kidney from each other, the albumin is often a guide in its mode of accession ; with nephritis it becomes early large, to decline gradually with disease ; with the granulating kidney it is at first, and often for long, slight, or intermittent, in the later stages sometimes little and sometimes much ; with the lardaceous it is early in minute quantity, latterly abundant.
There are few structural diseases of the kidney which are not apt to make the urine albuminous, though they may not do so of necessity. Albumin appears with renal embolism, and also when the renal veins are obstructed by thrombotic clots. Tubercular disease often appears, probably from tubal disturbance in the neighborhood of the formation, to cause more albumin than the pus can account for, and it has even been stated that at the outset of the disease the urine may contain albumin and rarely epithelial cells. Cancers and other growths do not necessarily make the urine albuminous ; it may hapjoen, indeed, that this secretion is absolutely natural, notwithstanding the extension in the kidney of large growths, so long as these be not exposed in the pelvis ; but traces of albumin are apt to present themselves apparently from irritation of the gland by pressure or contiguity.
The urine may be albuminous from cystic disease as with the granular kidney ; and it commonly shows at least a trace of albumin, the urine being pale and of low specific gravity, if the kidneys have been much impaired by dilatation.
The urine, usually pale and copious, which is passed after obstructive suppression, is sometimes slightly albuminous, whether, as has been suggested, from compression of the renal veins, or, as perhaps is more probable, from distention of the tubes, and irritation of the gland by its own secretion.
Next to structural disorders it is sufficiently clear that mere increase of pressure within the renal vessels, particularly when this is connected with venous obstruction, may cause the transudation of serum. Dr. Kobinson long ago made the urine albuminous by compressing the renal vein, and we see a similar process in operation, as has been enough dwelt upon, when the abdominal veins are compressed by the gravid uterus or the whole venous system made turgid by cardiac obstruction. Though structural changes may be produced by these causes, yet from the frequently fugitive nature of the albuminuria so engendered, it is certain that the transudation may take place quite independently of renal disease. Of
the same nature is albuminuria of dyspnoea; it is very general to find at least a trace of albumin in croup, even though this be catarrhal, not diphtheritic; and the urine has been found to be temporarily albuminous after severe epileptic convulsion, no doubt from the respiratory embarrassment pertaining to it. To these causes of increased blood-pressure within the kidney must be added the influence of the cold stage of ague with the internal congestion which it involves, and also the external action of cold in bathing. All these are causes of albuminuria, though the kidneys be undisturbed, save temporarily in their circulation. We may have to add another. Increased arterial tension is a marked accompaniment of certain diseased states with which the kidneys are apt to be granular and the urine albuminous. Does this increased arterial tension ever cause the urine to be albuminous irrespectively of renal change ? This question must wait for its answer ; my own observation so far points to the negative.
Many of the causes of albuminuria her 3 referred to have been considered in the preceding pages and need no further notice ; with regard to some which relate less particularly to the kidneys a few words are required.
The transient albuminuria produced by the various drugs which act as renal irritants has been considered in connection with tubal nephritis; as also has the sometimes more lasting condition which results from the renal exit of bile and sugar, and from the influence of several exanthemata which presumably act similarly by discharging through the kidneys a special morbid irritant.
Eeference Avill also be found in connection with nephritis to the form of albuminuria which has been known to ensue upon extensive injury to the skin by disease, or in animals by the experimental arrest of its function by impervious coverings. There is, however, another mode in which cutaneous disease may render the urine albuminous ; I have recently seen a case of extensive and fatal eczema in which the kidneys had become lardaceous, possibly in consequence of the protracted and exhausting discharge.
not yet been accorded to it.
This disease, though not to be recognized as a cause of enduring renal disease, is perhaps as frequent a cause of albuminuria as diphtheria or scarlatina. This complication of pneumonia has been much studied, and its phenomena fairly exposed to view. The frequency of albuminuria in this relation has been variously estimated. Parkes found it in 6 of 13 cases, and quotes Finger, who found it in 15 of 33 cases, and Becquerel, who found it in 9 of 21, giving a total of 30 instances of albuminuria among 67 of pneumonia, or a proportion of nearly 4:5 per cent. Dr. Wilson Fox found the urine to be albuminous 10 times in 32 cases, and Griesinger 03 times in 121 cases. On the other hand, Metzgar failed to find albumin once in 48 cases ; while Martin Solon and Ziemssen each found albumin only twice in 24 cases. My own experience, so far as it relates to true lobar pneumonia, more clearly corresponds with the figures of greater frequency; though with pleurisy and bronchitis the urinary complication is comparatively rare. Dr. Isambard Owen, when Medical Kegistrar at St. George's Hospital, kindly drew up for me the following table, the accuracy of which may be relied upon. From this statement it appears that of 26 cases of pneumonia treated in St. George's, the urine presented more or less albumin
in all but four; and of those four the opportunities for observation were not always so frequent as to allow of the inferences that the urine was free from albumin throughout the whole course of the disease. It will be observed that the albumin appeared at all times between the second day and the tenth, and that no fixed relation held between its date of appearance and that of resolution.
Pneumonia.
The following table includes all the cases of acute pneumonia admitted into St. George's Hospital, from January to August, 1877, with nine exceptions. Of these, one was complicated with acute rheumatism, four were rapidly fatal, and in the remaining four other causes prevented the collection of the urine.
The morning secretion was, as a rule, examined whenever obtainable until convalescence was approached. The fourth column of the table contains the result of each examination made, whether positive or negative.
Urine albuminous on 7th and 8th days; a trace of albumin present on 10th ; a faint trace on 11th ; none on 12th.
or 11th.
Urine slightly albuminous on 9th day; albuminous on 10th; a trace of albumin present on 11th; none on 13th.
No albumin on admission.
Urine slightly albuminous on 5th, 6th, and 7th days; suppressed on 8th ; free from albumin on 10th, 11th, and 12th.
Urine albuminous on 9th day; free fromallnunin on 18th; collection irregular owing to delirium tremens.
from albumin on 11th and 12th.
The albumin is often enough to form a bulky coagulum, and it is not uncommon for the urine to contain blood, though not enough to account for the albumin. Epithelial casts are generally to be found. The characters of the urine are such as belong to tubal nephritis, save that, contrary to what occurs in nephritis as an independent disease, the urinary solids, with the exception of the chlorides, appear to be in-
creased. (Edema is practically unknown as a result of pneumonic albuminuria, tliough Professor Bartels mentions, in Ziemssen's Dictionary, an exceptional instance, in which general dropsy with the ordinary symptoms of acute nephritis arose in the course of a genuine pneumonia. This patient recovered, and I am not aware that persistent renal disease h;i3 ever been traced to tliis beginning. The albumin either disappears witii the acute symptoms, or withdraws more slowly during convalescence. There is some variation in the time at which this urinary change presents itself, but it does so in most cases at, or rather before the height of the disease, while tlie hepatization is on the increase, and the febrile disturbance great. The advent of the albumin appears usually to anticipate the process of resolution, so that, with our present knowledge, we can hardly adopt the theory which has been advanced that tiie renal disturbance is due to the irritating effect of the pneumonic products escaping by the kidneys. Nor can we with more probability refer to the dyspnoea as connected with the change of secretion; difficulty of breathing when extreme, as from laryngeal disease, may cause the urine to become slightly albuminous, but with pneumonia the dyspnoea is comparatively slight, and the albuminous addition considerable.
The hypothesis which of late has gained- most acceptance is that the kidneys are primarily implicated in a general congestion and exudation, of which the lungs afford but the most marked localization; it would seem, however, that the kidneys are usually affected after the lung, and less severely, while the manner of their disturbance is much that which succeeds, obviously as a consequent affection upon many other febrile states. If on such grounds we discard the view that the renal affection is, so to speak, pneumonia of the kidney, we may take refuge in a supposition which seems indeed to spring naturally from the facts of the case. The urine becomes albuminous, and the evidences of tubal nephritis arise at the period in the disease when the essential urinary excreta are in extravagant excess, and the urinary water deficient. The increase relates to the urea, the uric acid, and the sulphuric acid; the urea in particular may be increased beyond the wont of any other disease, excepting, perhaps, diabetes, where the ureal discharge occurs together with a great flow of urinary water. Parkes found between 80 and 90 grammes of urea (between twice and thrice the normal amount) to be secreted daily from the sixth to the tenth days of pneumonia; and other observers bear similar testimony, both as to the enormous amount of urea secreted, and as to the fact that the increase is greater before than during resolution — connected, tliat is, witli the febrile state, rather than with the absorption and discliarge of inflammatory })roducts. It is not improbable that the kidneys owe their disturbance to the functional demand thus made upon them, the attendant irritation enhanced possibly by the want of water. Observations are, however, wanted as to the exact relation of the albumin and the other nitrogenous components of pneumonic urine.' Cases have been reported in whicli, under this disorder, the urea has been less than in health; in them albumin has been either absent or in trifling quantity.
That cases of pneumonia in which albuminuria occurs are more fatal than others, does not admit of doubt. Probably this complication is the more apt to occur in the more severe cases, while choking of tlie
has found place under the heading of nephritis.
During the cold stage of cholera, the urine becomes nearly or quite suppressed, and that which is next secreted is albuminous and contains epithelial casts. The kidney itself displays much tubal obstruction and often early fatty change in the epithelium, while by some observers small vascular blockings have been described. Putting aside the latter complication, the condition, clinically and pathologically, is one of tubal nephritis, and has been considered in its place as such. But there are some further points of interest with regard to the way in which this condition is produced. It has been repeatedly asserted that the urine becomes albuminous only in cholera which is truly Asiatic, the presence of albumin being regarded as a pathognomonic symptom in this respect; but albuminuria with English cholera is by no means uncommon; and we have the evidence of Dr. G. Johnson' that, in a large proportion of cases of ordinary summer diarrhoea, the urine first secreted after the severity of the attack has passed contains for a few hours albumin and tube casts. Dr. Johnson infers the existence in all cases of a morbid poison by which the kidneys, as well as the bowels are irritated; but the experiments of Herrmann,^ of Overbeck,^ and of Cohnheim* enable us to regard the matter in a new light, by showing the changes which the renal function undergoes in consequence of the arrest and re-establishment of the circulation. By these experiments, it was shown in the first place wliat is sufficiently obvious, that the renal secretion is suspended when the current in the renal vessels is stopped, whether by compressing the renal artery, or the artery and vein together, or the aorta. The removal of the ligature and the readmission of blood then causes in the dog results which are precisely analogous to those ensuing upon cholera in the human subject. A condition of nephritis comes on, which lasts longer or shorter according to the length of time for which the ligature has been applied. The kidney becomes at once swollen and congested, and the urine bloody; the renal vessels are found to be dilated and liquor sanguinis and corpuscles to have been effused. A similar condition of hyperaemia was produced in other structures — in the ear, for example — by a similar process, so that it could be demonstrated as a law which applied to more than one structure, that re-establishment of the circulation after its arrest is attended with congestive or inflammatory change. As the failure of circulation in the collapse of cholera is general, it may be asked why the subsequent inflammation should be most marked in the kidney; possibly the arrest of circulation may be more complete in this organ than elsewhere, in consequence of the removal of water, which is especially necessary to the renal function, and presumably to its circulation. The double system of renal capillaries must be little suited to the transmission of the viscid blood of cholera.
Pyrexia has often been referred to, as if this condition, irrespective of its origin, were a cause of albuminuria. It is undoubted that this occurs in many pyrexial states, but it is open to question whether the complication is due to the pyrexia, or to what has caused the pyrexia.
Dr. Chaffey, the Registrar at the Hospital for sick children, kindly made at my request at tliat institution some observations which are consistent with the supposition that the albuminuria is not due to the temperature per se. A comparison of the cases of diphtheria and pneumonia with those of high temperature connected with tubercle and local disease shows how much more frequent is albuminuria in the zymotic conditions, if we may include pneumonia under this head, than where no contamination of blood is suspected. It would indeed appear that the urine is albuminous, not as the result of fever, but as the result of febrile poison, or, in the case of pneumonia and cholera, of special influences which have been discussed.
The temperatures were in most cases taken in the evening. Tlie urine examined was in each case passed at the same time, or as soon as possible afterwards. The tests used were heat and nitric acid.
Claude Bernard long ago ascertained that while puncture of the floor of the fourth ventricle in the centre of the space between the origins of the auditory and pneumogastric nerves caused the urine to become saccharine, a puncture ' a little higher up often made it superabundant and albuminous. A prick '^ just behind the cerebellar peduncle in a rabbit caused the urine to become both albuminous and saccharine. Further than this the same experimenter found the secretion to be rendered albuminous by injury to the sympathetic in the neck; and to approach the kidney itself, he ascertained that when all the nerves accompanying the renal blood-vessels had been crushed by the temporary pressure of a ligature, the kidney was subjected to a rapid process of destructive inflammation. Other observers have supplied further details. Von Wittick showed that the urine became albuminous after section of the nerves, vaso-motor in function, which surround the renal arter}^ but not when only those between the artery and vein, secretory in his view, were divided. The relation of the nervous system to renal secretion needs to be further inquired into, but it is at least evident that arrest of the vaso-motor influence causes albuminuria probably by way of vascular paralysis and organic congestion. Whether the same changes of secretion can be produced by any other form of nervous action has yet to be proved.
In the human subject the influence of the nervous system upon the quantity of the urine, and upon the amount of earthy phosphates which it contains, is indeed of daily experience. The watery urine of hysteria and the characters of nervous urine in either sex are well known. Suppression of urine has in some instances ensued upon concussion and an albuminous condition of the secretion has been known to follow the same accident. Fischer describes transient albuminuria as a common result of concussion; such cases, howevei, come but little under the notice of the physician, and have, in this country at least, been insufficiently studied m this respect. As a cause of persistent renal disease, injury to the brain is scarcely recognizable.
Beyond such rare and possibly somewhat doubtful instances of traumatic albuminuria, we have other instances in which this condition has apparently taken origin in morbid conditions of the nervous system. I have elsewhere referred to mental disturbance as a cause of the granular kidney, an association which has been much insisted on by Dr. Clifford Allbutt. The occurrence of albuminous urine as a result of mental strain has been referred to by Sir Andrew Clark,^ who asserts as the result of personal observation that of the young men who compete for the Indian Civil Service Examinations, above a tenth become albuminuric. This statement may be taken as illustrating the albuminuria of adolescence shortly to be discussed. Another nervous source for the same change of secretion has to be referred to in exophthalmic goitre. This was carefully observed l)y the late Dr. Warburton Begbie, who showed that in many instances of this disease the urine was markedly albuminous after food, though quite free before.* The vaso-motor paralysis which affects the thyroid is probably so far extended to the kidney that the blood-vessels yield to the slight extra pressure which each meal occasions.
Vaso-motor failure, whether as part of a special disease or of general nervous depression or of injury to the intra-cranial part of the system, appears to be the essence of nervous albuminuria; it is easy to supply the steps of the process in vascular dilatation and congestive or inflammatory renal change.
Attention has been drawn recently to a form of albuminuria which affects young persons,' mostly males, in their teens, or, to give a wider range, from about the age of ten or eleven to two or three-and-twenty, which has been called that of adolescents, and described as intermittent or transitory, and as unconnected with organic disease; though there is evidence that this liad not entirely escaped earlier recognition. Sir W. Gull appears to have been long familiar with it; the leading features Avere brought into prominence by Dr. Moxon in the paper to which I have referred, and the subject has now engaged attention long enough to be spoken of in the light of experience. Scarlatina in childhood often proceeds to the granular kidney in early adult life, the event being indicated during many years of ithe interval by little else than slight or intermitting albuminuria. But apart from adolescent albuminuria thus connected with fibrosis, as yet latent or nearly so, there are other kinds in which no persistent change can be suspected. The cases Dr. Moxon has especially called attention to — many of which sort have, since his paper has made me watchful for them, come under my own notice — occur in this wise. A pallid, depressed, and perhaps shy or sullen youth is found to be out of health; he may have headache and inability to study. He has no dropsy or cardio-vascular change or increased arterial tension. There is sometimes a little pain in the lumbar region, more often none, or only some sensation along the lower part of the spine. The urine, which is natural in appearance, save that it is usually pale, has a natural specific gravity, and is in normal quantity, but is found to contain albumin, which varies much at different times — a good deal after breakfast, little or none before — and I may add that in some cases the albumin is more than usually soluble in excess of nitric acid. It contains no blood, nor ever has it done so. The microscope shows a large deposit of oxalate, but usually no casts.
Dr. Moxon, who has kindly communicated to me the results of his later experience (May, 1884), tells me that in one such case, where the albumin was often present at all hours, and unusually enduring, but ultimately entirely disappeared, casts were found, but this is certainly exceptional. Dr. Moxon has constantly convicted these patients of masturbation, and I have been similarly successful in this respect, so much so that I think there can be no doubt that most of the cases in question have this origin; but nevertheless cases occur in which this suspicion does not present itself, and in which some other cause of disturbed health is apparent. The albumin, after a longer or shorter time, ceases to reappear, its presence being unaccompanied throughout by any more precise evidence of renal disease than the annemia which has been adverted to. We have no guide as to the state of the kidney save that its condition is not one of nephritis. It may be that it becomes congested in concurrence with neighboring organs, a possibility which finds support in the occasional though infrequent appearance of casts.
Albuminuria from blood change, independently of any structural or dynamic alteration in the kidney, sinks into the more narrow compass the more closely it is examined.
It has been shown that all extraneous poisons which make the urine albuminous do so by way of renal irritation; the febrile conditions, including pneumonia and cholera, frequently as they cause the same change, appear to do so in association with tubal disturbance. Putting aside these causes of transient albuminuria, and also those in which, like heart disease, dyspnoea and ague, we recognize operations of venous congestion or increased blood pressure, there remain few conditions in which this state of secretion can be unequivocally traced to changes in the composition of the blood.
Among the most simple of these is the albuminuria which some observers have testified to as the result of the large ingestion of egg albumen. Berzelius found that, if white of egg were injected into the veins or cellular tissue of animals, the urine became albuminous; Claude Bernard noticed the same result in his own person from the eating a number of hard eggs after long fasting; and that raw eggs may produce the same effect is testified to by Brown-Sequard and other observers. Some experimenters, like Stokvis, have taken white of egg largely without finding any albumin in the urine, but this only proves that the power of assimilation differs in different persons. Alimentary albuminuria must hold its place as experimentally possible, though not as clinically frequent. It has been stated that the urine has become temporarily albuminous as the consequence only of dyspepsia; but, knowing as we do how often inconstant or periodic albuminuria together with dyspepsia is the accompaniment of an early stage of the granulating kidney, particularly when this is connected with gout, we can but suspect that when the urine has become albuminous with symptoms of indigestion, the kidneys may not have been perfectly sound. Temporary albuminuria has further been attributed to the rapid absorption of large serous effusions, but the evidence on tliis point is by no means conclusive. In modern experience, consiiderable collections of this sort are taken up without any such result, and we may suspect that when the urine has become albuminous in such circumstances, there has been some renal disturbance, either from blisters, as suggested by Dr. Warburton Begbie,' which in some instances had been recently applied, or connected with pneumonic or other change.
Mere hydraemia has been thought capable of making the urine albuminous. The well-known experiments of Mosler'' and Kierulf demonstrated that this result could be produced l)y the injection of water into the veins, but the further observation of Stokvis, that the effusion of albumin could be prevented by withdrawing a quantity of blood equal to that of the water introduced, was enough to show that the result was generally due, not to the dilution of tlie blood, but to the increased distention of the vessels. But so much water could be introduced as to partially dissolve the crpuscles, and give rise to the escape of their coloring matter together with globulin and albumin, as with hajmoglobinuria of morbid origin; but irrespective of such discharge, and without increasing intra vascular tension, the addition of water does juit
make the urine albuminous. The rapidity, indeed, with which healthy kidneys will discharge any excess of water which is introduced by the stomach, without any accompaniment of albumin, is enough to show that albuminuria from excess of water in the blood has, at least in the human subject, no practical existence.
Albuminuria, as connected with intermittent haematuria or haemoglobinuria needs no further notice here. The urine in this condition contains albumin, along with the other matters of the corpuscle, and will even remain albuminous after it has ceased to be colored; this, however, is probably due to the glandular irritation sequent upon the abnormal discharge. Next come conditions of purpura and scurvy. With purpura blood is often largely discharged with the urine, and as with intermittent hematuria, may remain albuminous after it has ceased to be bloody. It is possible, again, in this case, that some degree of tubal disturbance has been set up by the passage of the blood. It is said that a similar condition of urine sometimes accompanies scurvy; and in the same category, that of albuminuria associated with, and dependent upon, haemorrhage, may be placed those instances in which blood, whether in shape or solution, is discharged with the urine in connection with the more malignant types of small-pox, scarlatina, and other febrile disorders. It is said that in such cases the blood is discharged in a state of solution, as with intermittent hsematuria; if in such cases albumin appears without the coloring matter, it must with probability be attributed to the occurrence of such transient nephritis as febrile conditions are apt to set up.
With regard to the albuminuria of pyaemia and septicaemia, the kidneys are frequently the seat of pyaemic localizations, and the urine gives evidence accordingly of renal inflammation. As to less definite conditions of blood-poisoning to which the term septicaemia has been applied, these are sometimes associated with erysipelatous inflammation and attendant nephritis, and sometimes have a purpuric character, together with Avhich heemorrhagic transudation may take place into the urine. Further than this, Mr. Henry Lee' has drawn attention to the appearance of albumin in the urine often together with the coloring matter of the blood, but without corpuscles, in cases where clot or effused blood has been absorbed after accidents or injuries. We know that blood may be taken up without this result; probably the absorbed matter thus ejected has become, from decomposition or otherwise, unfit for the uses of the system.
There are certain observations which would seem to indicate that derangement of the liver alone may cause the discharge of albumin by the kidneys. I do not refer to the common albuminuria of jaundice, with which the escape of bile by the kidneys creates an oi)vious condition of tubal nephritis, as evinced by the discharge, together with albumin, of bile-tinted ej)ithelium and tube-casts — this has been considered elsewhere— but to a possible albuminous discharge l)y the kidneys as a consequence of hepatic independently of renal disturbance.
' " On Albumen in the Urine, sometimes in conjunction with the coloring matter of the blood, as a consequence of surgical diseases and operations," by H^ Lee. Lancet, Aug. 21st, 1869, p. 363.
Blood may become admixed with the urine in so large a variety of circumstances that it may be well to classify them, to name the more important, and to indicate the clinical distinctions by which the classes at least are separated. It is not needful to dwell upon the changes produced in urine by the presence of blood, further than to indicate the differences which attend differences of origin. It is sufficiently known that the color which blood imparts to urine is smoky or brown, if the mixture be acid; pink or reddish, if it be alkaline. Blood-corpuscles, which readily fall to the bottom, and in acid urine long retain an outline which, though possibly not unaltered, is recognizable with the microscope, furnish the best test which exists for blood in minute quantity. Small quantities, even, can be discerned by the unassisted but practised eye, as a brown line which the corpuscles present at the bottom of a slowly tilted vessel. The corpuscles may be abundantly evident, while the albumin is inappreciable. Similarly, the color of blood in urine is strongly marked, and is associated with an amount of albumin, supposing the albumin to be only that belonging to the blood, which often falls short of the expectation Avhich the depth of color has raised.
It is not necessary to refer to the spectroscope' as a test for ordinary blood in urine, since other means of examination are more easy and more accurate; it has been used with haemoglobinuria to declare its analogy with common urinary ha3morrhage or indicate minute points of difference. The results are not very conclusive.
The guaiacum test has its uses, the chief of which is the detection, not so much of blood in its entirety, as of the crystalloids, the transudation of which into the urine may precede or stop short of actual haemorrhage or even of albuminuria. Dr. Mahomed ^ connects the guaiacum reaction with increased arterial tension, and relies upon this test to define a pre-albuminuric stage of albuminuria. If it should prove that this reaction is generally to be recognized before albumin, it would have a practical value which, perhaps, we are hardly yet warranted in assigning to it. It is at least evident that the guaicum reaction is more often afforded by albuminous urine, in which case it adds little to our knowledge, than by non-albuminous. I examined 12 cases of each sort, taken by chance from among hospital patients. None of the non-albuminuric cases gave the reaction in question; it was found in 7 of the albuminu-
ric. The non-albnminuric class comprised several varieties of disease of the heart and vessels, pneumonia, bronchitis, pleurisy, asthma, and several forms of paralysis. The albuminuric series included acute and chronic nephritis, the granular and the lardaceous kidney, and albuminuria from cardiac congestion. The reaction was given in"o cases of acute and 4 of chronic disease. It was absent in tiie case of cardiac congestion, and in that of lardaceous disease. The test can scarcely have practical utility except when albumin is absent but expected.
The forms of ha^maturia may be first considered in relation to the source of the blood — whether from the kidney, the bladder, or the urethra— and, secondly, if it be derived from the kidney or bladder, Avhether it be dependent on local or systemic disease. Blood from the kidney is, as a rule, uniformly mingled with the urine, which is as bloody at the beginning as at the end of micturition. Distinct or tangible dots are exceptional as results of renal haemorrhage, though, in jiarticular when the kidney has been lacerated by violence, the urine may exhibit casts of the ureter in coagulum or small clots of indefinite shape. The sediment in general is a brown powder, which presents no shape except to the microscope. When separate clots are seen, the blood is usually from the bladder, prostate, or outward passages; when they are of large size, it is invariably so. Thus the presence of considerable clots is nearly conclusive against renal hemorrhage, though the absence of clots proves nothing. Blood from the bladder is most abundantly passed at the end of micturition; the first urine may be natural in appearance, the last a mere collection of sanies and clot. Outside the body vesical blood is less intimately mixed with the urine than renal, and preserves a more sanguineous appearance. Blood from the urethra, which has little importance medically, is, or at least may be, discharged separately from the urine and independently of micturition. These leading distinctions will be assisted by such evidence of renal disease as is afforded by the existence of albumin disproportionately to the blood, or by the presence of blood-casts which may possibly indicate the exact source of the haemorrhage. The vesical or prostatic origin of the blood may be warranted by the urine being ammoniacal, by its depositing triple phosphatic and tenacious mucus along with the blood, and not least conclusively by its displaying " cancer " cells, or cells of the epithelioid type in such abundance as to indicate a growth. " Cancer " cells often come from the bladder, but almost never from the kidney, the growths in which are commonly sarcomas, the cells of which are not shed whole and abundantly as those of carcinoma are apt to be, but come away, if at all, impalpably.
I have dwelt chiefly upon the distinctions which may avail when more obvious signs of the nature of the disease are wanting. It may be that local or constitutional symptoms point so unequivocally to one organ that there is no room for speculation. The evidences of acute nephritis, of renal tumor, of stone, intermittent haematuria, purpura, or scurvy may be beyond doubt. Dropsy may be equivocal — either a result of haemorrhage or a sign of renal disease. In a doubtful case it is well to look narrowly for *' bladder symptoms " — vesical tenderness, pain in the bladder or penis, frequency of micturition, or pain after it.
The chief varieties of hematuria may be stated in a tabular form, with further reference only to those points of difference and to such circumstances as call for separate mention.
Bleeding from the kidney tubes ina}^ occur in connection with any disease of the secreting tissue which gives rise to albuminuria. It is most severe and continued with nephritis, especially from cold. This bleeding, though not of bad omen as regards the result, is often profuse and obstinate; the urine may be nearly black with blood for weeks, and the loss such as much to aggravate the anaemia proper to the disease. But the symptom need not greatly modify the treatment otherwise called for, or give rise to much anxiety. I think, indeed, that with free
bleeding lasting disease is less apt to ensue than "when there is none. The astringent salts of iron are of use, and may be associated with sulphate of magnesia or sulphate of potash, so as to relieve local congestion, and insure free action of the bowels. Haemorrhage sometimes occurs, occasionally rather than continuously, with the granular kidney, and is probably a result of intercurrent attacks of nephritis. With lardaceous disease bleeding is less frequent and less profuse. Albuminuric hsemorrhage is generally easily recognized by the casts which accompany the blood; these will probably contain blood-corpuscles, or will at least display the brown color of blood if not its distinguishing forms. Haemorrhage of similar origin is sometimes a result of the congestion of heart disease, though in this case it is less persistent. Blood is sometimes found in the urine with all the specific fevers, the more often with the more severe. The hemorrhage is generally renal in origin, and due to inflammation of the kidney or congestion akin to it; occasionally it depends on the condition of Idood rather than of structures, and then may proceed either from the kidney or the mucous surfaces. Enough has been said with regard to the nephritis of scarlatina, measles, and erysipelas, and the hsematuria which so often attends it. Typhus may be similarly accompanied, the kidneys presenting, after death, the appearances of acute nephritis. Together with albumin epithelial and bloodcasts may have been found in the urine, and even blood in conspicuous amount, the latter addition being, according to Dr. Murchison,' a dangerous sign, connected possibly with a state of blood as well as of kidney. The same evidences of renal inflammation are associated, though less frequently, with typhoid, copious haematuria having been met with for the most part in conjunction with other haimorrhages.^ A similar association is sometimes, though fortunately not often, seen with small-pox. Often as the urine is albuminous Avith this disease, it is seldom bloody, though it is apt to be so in the malignant form, in which haemorrhages occur from the mucous surfaces and in other situations.
With yellow fever, as with other specific ' and contagious fevers, albumin casts and blood have been found in the urine, apparently in connection with associated nephritis. Kelapsing fever is an occasional cause of copious hsematuria. Dr. Murchison" observed the urine to be largely bloody, and to contain albumin and blood-casts, in both paroxysms of this disease, while during the interval it was free from even a trace of albumin.
Connected with renal inflammation, though often transient, sometimes coincident with a similar condition of the pelvis or some other part of the urinary mucous membrane, is the htematuria of irritant poisons, represented by cantharides and turpentine. Bleeding of this origin is apt to occur together with much vesical irritation. It is not necessary to add to what has been said in connection with toxic albuminuria and abscess from cantharides.
the kidney, but neither in this case is it of long continuance.
The renal haemorrhages of the greatest practical importance (putting aside for the present that of intermittent hematuria or hsemoglobinuria, which, though renal in source, is not so in cause) are those which belong to stone and tumor. The means of distinguishing tiiem have been detailed under the heading of stone (page 1G3). The influence of rest in stopping bleeding from stone supplies the most useful guide. The bleeding from stone is less profuse and more transient than that from tumor, though sometimes, when rest is not attainable, it is such as to cause pallor and call for iron. I may here mention two observations with regard to the bleeding of stone, which have not found place elsewhere. Though it be brought on by movement, it does not always ensue immediately, but an interval of a day or more may possibly elapse. It will sometimes follow the free use of alcohol ; I have known it to do so with such constancy that an attack could be brought on at option with beer.
Growths to bleed must ulcerate into the pelvis. They then cause hemorrhage which is more profuse, persistent, and unmanageable than that from any other cause in which the kidney is concerned ; nevertheless, it occasionally happens that the discharge will intermit or come to an end spontaneously, or apparently give way to the last remedy. I have seen remission more often sequent upon iron alum or tannate of iron than from ergot or any other styptics. Ergot is of more use with the vessels of a normal structure than with those of a growth. The great thin veins of such sarcomata as belong to the kidney probably have little contractile power. No casts are to be found in blood of this source, but only blood-corpuscles, with perhaps some amorphous powdery sediment. Cancer cells, or morbid cells of any kind, are conspicuously absent ; unlike what occurs when the disease is in the bladder, when they are often abundantly present.
The ha?maturia of haemophilia appears to be of renal origin, if preceding pain in the back is to be taken in evidence, and is probably due to some such attenuation of the renal blood-vessels as has been observed in other parts. Whether casts appear in these circumstances, or in what guise the blood presents itself, I have never had an opportunity of ascertaining. There is at least one instance on record in which this manifestation of the haimorrhagic diathesis has caused death.'
I think the largest amount of blood I ever knew to be discharged with the urine was in the case of a gentleman whom I saw at Manchester with Dr. Lloyd Roberts, whose bladder, as was ascertained jifter death, was the seat of a ragjied cancerous growth of little thickness, and about two and a half inches in diaiiit-ter. This gentleman began to pass blood with the water in occasional small quantities, without pain, frequency, or discomfort, rather more than five years before his death. Dr. Roberts passed a catheter, and broke up and evacuated with immediate relief a quantity of coagulum with which the bladaer was filled. At a later epoch a recurrence of similar symptoms made it necessary to repeat this operation. After the first profuse hajmorrhage the at-
tacks were repeated every two or three months — being brought on sometimes by an effort, such as lifting, coming on sometimes insidiously in the night, the patient waking to relieve the bladder, but passing only blood, or what looked like it. The blood was often passed, apparently unmixed, after the urine, which itself had presented a perfectly natural appearance. During tlie attacks there was much vesical irritation, in the intervals none. For the last year the bleeding was nearly continuous. The patient described graphically the trouble he liad in expeiUng these, which were often six inches long, and were shot out only after much straining. Some were so bulky, indeed, that it was difficult to believe that they had passed through the urethra. He was blanched, emaciated, and prostrate, as after such loss of blood he could not fail to be. Under the tannates of iron and alumina, gallic acid and pei'chloride of iron, together with the rest in bed which was now inevitable, the bleeding finally ceased, leaving the urine clear, albuminous, and with a plentiful deposit of epithelioid cells, which were presumed to have come from the bladder, but could scarcely have come from it in such abundance but as the results of a morbid epithelial growth. These were of large size, round, pear-shaped, and irregularly elongated and tailed. Without further bleeding the patient gradually sank, death being due rather to the constitutional than to the local consequences of the disease.
Such hsemorrhage from any cause is exceptional : from cancer of the bladder it is often scanty, and for long periods absent. As a rule, the bleeding of villous growths which may not be malignant is more profuse, and may be directly fatal, which that of cancer seldom is. Large quantities of blood, scarcely changed by the urine, and containing large clots which have formed in the bladder, and often been expelled tlience with difficulty, issue as the result of this condition. Hare as villus is in the kidney, it is common in the bladder. It is readily identified by the finding with the microscope of loojjs and filaments of vascular structure often entangled in coagulum. These should be looked for, repeatedly if necessary, in a case of profuse vesical hemorrhage. Villus is almost always of the bladder, though this formation has been known to be associated with solid malignant growths in this situation or in the kidney. Such a concurrence is too rare to form an exception of any practical importance to the rule that villus is innocent. And it may be added that it is very amenable to astringents, especially if locally applied.
A fat man of 50 was under my care in St. George's Hospital in the year 1867 with profuse hsematuria, vesical in character; the blood was accompanied with large clots, which were expelled, however, without much diflSculty ; and large epithelial cells, such as might have come from the bladder, were found with the microscope. The haematuria was constantly present for rather more than a month, at the end of which he was anaemic to the last degree and oedematous. After one injection of the tincture of perchloride of iron (two drachms to eight ounces of water) the bleeding abruptly stopped, the next urine being free from blood. The heemorrhage reappeared for one day three weeks afterwards, but with this exception remained absent. The patient rapidly regained the appearance and sensation of robust health, and then went his way. Seven years afterwards he had a recurrence of the same symptoms, came again into the hospital, was treated again with the perchloride with the same result as regarded the haemorrhage, save that one or two small coagula could still be seen in the urine. But the urine was now albuminous independently of blood, and he died in coma, the result of concurrent kidney disease. A papillomatous growth, which might equally well have been described as villus, was found in the bladder.
The readiness of villous growths to be detached gives capriciousness to their course, and adds complication to their symptoms. Portions, or even the whole will sometimes break away, and leave the patient thus cured, or at least completely relieved. A gentleman who suffered from.
lI.EMATURIA. 323
an issue of blood of this nature, became the subject of a medical consultation.' During this he had an urgent call to pass water, and discharged in response to it a quantity of nearly pure blood, and with it the villous growth, in regard to which he had sought advice. The riddance seemed complete, and with it the cure; but in ten years the disease returned, aud ended fatally. A brother of this gentleman died of the same disease. I have known a portion of a villous growth to become detached, but remain in the bladder to become incrusted with phosphates, and set up independently as a stone.
I need not dwell upon the forms of vesical haemorrhage which more often come under the notice of the surgeon: those connected with stone and with enlarged prostate are the most common. That from stone is small and repeated rather than profuse; it is often only microscopic in amount. Its obvious dependence upon bodily movement is enough to distinguish the hiemorrhage belonging to stone in the bladder from that due to any other affection save stone in the kidney; and with this it can scarcely be confounded. Enlarged prostate gives rise to more profuse bleeding than any other vesical affection, putting aside morbid growths; large quantities of dark blood, which, as far as I have seen, has less tendency to clot than that derived from cancer or villus, are thrown out from this source in separate outbreaks rather than continuously. The bulk of the blood passes from the bladder with the urine; a few drops usually alone after the bladder is empty. Bleeding of this origin is usually associated with the other concomitants of prostatic disease — advancing age, frequency of micturition, pressure on the rectum — which will be sufficiently significant of its source. I need not dwell upon the treatment of this form of hemorrhage: sulphate of magnesia and other saline purgatives will relieve the congestion on which it depends; ergot may be used with advantage, and ice introduced into the rectum should other measures fail.
Among the rarer causes of hfematuria may be mentioned vesical naevus. A child,'' with a malformed bladder and a large "mother's mark " on the pubes, passed blood in its urine. It died eight days after birth, and a number of prominences of vascular tissue like that of a naevus were found upon the vesical mucous membrane.
I have lately seen a case presumably of this nature. A gentleman of the age of 38, apparently in robust health, has had, since the age of 16, three or four attacks of haematuria a year; the bleeding commonly presented itself with three or four micturitions, and then completely ceased until next time, the urine in the intervals being perfectly natural. The urine which came under my notice, in a fit of unusual severity, in which large clots had been expelled, looked like pure blood; numbers of large spheroidal nucleated cells were seen with the microscope, such as might have come from the bladder. There was some uneasiness and tenderness in the vesical region, and a small quantity of blood, unmixed with urine, had often been noticed to leak from the urethra with straining at stool. The bleeding was never brought on, or increased, by even violent exercise. This gentleman has five children, four of whom have external naevi, and it is to be presumed that he has a formation of the same nature in connection with the bladder or prostate. The bleeding has hitherto stopped spontaneously, or under the influence of styptics, chiefly ergot, by the mouth. The injection of the perchloride is, perhaps, in the future.
Iltematuria, like most otlier haemorrhages, has been thought to be vicarious of menstruation, and on doubtful evidence. It has, at least, never been my fortune to trace the urinary flux to this cause. And whether such bleeding is ever vicarious to that of piles may be also taken into question. Tlie bleeding of piles is related to that from the stomach and bowels by a common origin in cirrhosis, and a common source in the portal vein; but the vascular circumstances of the kidney are different, and the connection of renal hemorrhage with that of 2)iles at least remote.
A discharge of blood with the urine has been said to supersede asthma and to be caused by mental emotion; of the first I have no experience; with regard to the second, I may mention the case of a skilled medical observer, now in his fifth decade, who attributes the recurrence of small urinary hemorrhage in his own person to excitement or mental tension. For twenty-three years he has been liable to occasional bleedings of this sort, about eight attacks in a year at most. These were noticed as occurring with especial frequency after lecturing; in the year of their greatest frequency five of the eight took place immediately upon the conclusion of this effort. It seemed probable, from the character of the hemorrhage, that it was prostatic or vesical.
Purpura and scurvy are causes of hematuria, which are generally made clear by the concomitant symptoms. With purpura, blood is often liberally extravasated into tlie renal tissues. I have traced it in cylinders, and otherwise between the convoluted tubes, and in the areolar tissue, especially that part of it wliich surrounds the pelvis. Blood is sometimes to be traced in such close connection with the pelvic mucous membrane as to suggest that this must have given issue to the discharge, and probably the vesical membrane also may sometimes give exit to it. I have found blood also in the renal tubes and blood-casts in the urine, so that the hemorrhage may present all the characters indicative of its renal origin. The extravasated blood is corpuscular, as a rule, though it is said that, in cases of exceptional severity, both of purjnira and scurvy, it has appeared in the dissolved state to Avhich the term hemoglobinuria has been given. Of this I have had no experience. It may be added, to complete in this place as miich as need be said of renal purpura, that beyond the appearance of blood in the urine, there are usually no symptoms to point to the local change. A marked example under my observation was in a case of general purpuric extravasation connected with jaundice and obstruction of the common hepatic duct by hydatids. The kidney was deeply yellow and liberally dotted with interstitial ecchymoses. It is not necessary to particularize the treatment needful for purpuric hematuria, which is that of the primary disorder.
Infants who are brought up by hand, especially when milk has been withheld or insufficiently given, are liable, at about the time of teething, to a form of hematuria which cannot be described as otherwise than scorbutic, though the superficial ecchymoses may be slight or even absent, and there be no discharge of blood save with the urine. I have lately been consulted in five such cases, and made aware of a sixth. The children varied in age when attacked from 4i- to 11 months. In all the diet had been conspicuously wanting in fresh milk; the substitutes whicii were employed will be presently indicated. The urine in every case had a full sanguineous color, remained so for many weeks, and ceased to be so under the influence chiefly of milk. The blood in each case was corpuscular; the urine not albuminoiis, save in one instance, beyond what
was apparently due to the Wood; casts were found in three cases, while in the otliers hirge epithelial cells, with more or less mucus or pus, suggested that the blood proceeded from the urinary surface rather than from the kidney substance.
The circumstances of these cases, the presence or absence of superficial haemorrhages and of changes in the gums, would permit some to be described as simple hannaturia, others as purpura, others as scurvy. It is clear that all were of the same nature, however restricted the symptoms, and akin rather to scurvy than any other condition. Tiiey sufficiently show that Nestle's food and Swiss milk are not to be regarded as substitutes for fresh milk in the process of bringing up by lumd, though as an addition to fresh milk and water Swiss milk can often be advantageously used.
To allege the occurrence of simple hoematuria, of hematuria unaccompanied by any alteration in blood or tissue, is almost to assert the existence of an elfect without a cause. But, nevertlieless, it is matter of experience that the urine will sometimes become bloody, slightly or profusely, and will so remain for a longer or shorter time, and then will cease to be so without our being able to obtain any clue as to the cause, either of the disorder or its cessation. Sometimes such Inemorrhage may be small and transient and apparently connected with some general liability to hemorrhage, as shown by the frequency of slight nose-bleedings. In other instances profuse and even dangerous hgematuria has come and gone thus inexplicably.
I could mention cases in which free and protracted haemorrhage with the urine has thus come and gone without declaring its nature, either by its characters or its sequelae. Such haematuria, however, is not to be called simple but obscure. A non-malignant bleeding growth is the explanation which usually commends itself.
Malaria is a fruitful source of hajmorrhage. Whatever processes contribute to the extravasation, there is at least one agency, the results of which are simple and obvious, the driving of the blood out of vessels temporarily constricted into others that are not so. If it be that some burst or leak, it is only what is to be expected.' The liver has been found studded with clots of extravasation, the stomacii and bov/els with ecchymoses; extravasations have been found within and upon the walls of the heart, and in connection with the brain and the retina.
An amputated stump has been known to bleed periodically under the influence, as was thought, of a previously contracted ague, and to cease to do so under that of quinine.'
Prout regarded this influence as predisposing to urinary hajmorrhage rather than directly inducing it, enhancing the effect of stones and bleeding structures, and making profuse what might otherwise be a slight discharge. The occurrence of haemorrhage from the kidney during an ague fit is a matter of old, though not frequent, experience. The voiding of bloody urine, after pain in the loins, at the neck of the bladder, and in the gians, was common with the severe intermittents which gave so large a mortality to the Walcheren^ expedition. I have elsewhere re-
ferrod to the experience of Dr. Elliotsoii upon this point, and tliere Avould be no difficulty in adducing tliat of other observers to the effect that mahirial fevers, whetlier of the intermittent or remittent type, are occasionally productive of this haemorrhage.' A form of malarial hematuria, after death from which blood is found in the kidney tubes, has been described by Dr. Joseph Jones, of New Orleans, as resembling yellow fever, but distinct from it;^ and we have testimony from Mauritius of a "paludal fever "^ which appears to be irregularly periodic, in which the stage of rigor is regularly followed by renal haemorrhage. The attack is accompanied by either a general condition of jaundice, involving the eyes and skin, or else extensive subcutaneous and submucous haemorrhages of a purpuric character. We are not told whether the blood in the urine in these cases is corj^uscular or disintegrated; but the deficiency is supplied by a case of fatal malarial fever contracted in Minorca, in which the symptoms, inclusive of the subcutaneous haemorrhages and the yellowness of skin, indicate a similar condition. In this instance the urine was loaded with blood which was entirely disintegrated and in all respects characteristic of hgemoglobinuria the malarial origin of which is in question.
Such cases, where definite malarial disease is accomj^anied by the typically disintegrated urine, form an inseparable link between the hematuria of ague and the variously named intermittent hematuria, the recognition and the definition of which depend on the pulverization of the blood-discs. The analogy between the attacks of this affection and of ordinary ague is sufficiently obvious. It is beyond question, as has been shown in another part of this volume (page 276), that a significant proportion of those who suffer from this form of hematuria have either had ague or been notoriously exposed to the malarial influence. The point of inseparability between the two diseases appears to lie between ordinary ague, every recurring fit of which is accompanied by hematuria, and intermittent hematuria, the fits of which recur with regular periodicit}". If it should prove, as I suspect it will, that the blood passed with ague is generally disintegrated, as in the case which has been cited, then it must be inferred that intermittent hematuria is but a variety of malarial fever.
The solution of blood-corpuscles in the body and the exit with the urine of the coloring matter together with albumin is not peculiar to intermittent hematuria, though charactistic of it; a lesser amount of blood-pigment together with albumin has been found in the urine with various states of septicemia and blood-poisoning, which have been sufficiently referred to. It would appear that any of the numerous agencies which tend to dissoh'e or disintegrate the blood Avithin the body may give rise to more or less of this condition.
The treatment of hematuria generally resolves itself into that of the diseases on which it depends. When from stone, absolute rest is of the first importance; when from growths, active movement should be avoided,
though rest in bed is attended with little advantage. The kidney is not to be reached by cold superficially applied, or to be directly depleted from the loins; it may be influenced by styptics taken by the mouth, iron alum, tannate of alumina, gallic acid, acetate of lead, Avitch-hazel, and ergot, or by the last of these introduced hypodermically. Local congestion may be lessened by saline purgatives — sulphate of magnesia, perhaps the best for the purpose. This may be given, as a general rule, when the bleeding depends either on albuminuric disease or renal or prostate congestion. Ice, though useless upon the loins, may be of service in the rectum when the bleeding is from the prostate or bladder. For malarial and intermittent ha?maturia, quinine in large doses and long continued is the remedy, often usefully associated with the astringent salts of iron. I need not add to what has been already said as to the necessity of fresh milk with the scorbutic ha?maturia of infants.
Though suppression of urine as a symptom of renal disease has been referred to in various parts of this work, it ma}' be convenient to phice in juxtaposition the several disorders upon which it ensues, and the circumstances which attend the occurrence.
Suppression of urine may be conveniently considered as of two kinds: first, renal suppression, depending on disease of the kidney or of the urinary or vascular channels in immediate connection Avith it; secondly, systemic suppression, in which the gland, though natural in structure, ceases to act in consequence of an intiuence external to itself, which involves the whole system in its morbid ojjeration.
Rexal Suppression.
There are many conditions of kidney which are attended with partial suppression of urine; others in which the absence of urine is complete. As a rule, partial suppression depends upon disease of the secreting structure; total suppression upon a mechanical obstruction in the renal outlet.
Partial suppression, or in other words extreme scantiness of urine, sometimes results, as described elsewhere, from disease of the secreting substance of the kidney. With tubal nephritis especially the diminution is sometimes extreme. There is a rapidly fatal form of the disease, consequent upon scarlatina, in which the tubes become early and all at once filled with a fibrinous exudation. The urine is usually free from blood, of a deep yellow color and high specific gravity; it is generally loaded with albumin, though cases have been known in which under these circumstances albumin has been totally absent; and it abounds with strongly-defined fibrinous casts. This form of scarlatinal nephritis is illustrated in the case of Vallance. His minimum of urine in the twenty-four hours was 45 centimetres, or about an ounce and a half. Sometimes in similar cases the secretion is even more scanty, falling to a few drachms in the day, while less than an ounce daily is passed for several days together. Such cases are usually fatal by way of ura^mic disturbance of the brain, though it may happen that this result is anticipated by one of the forms of acute inflammation, to which children with nephritis are especially liable.
The urine may also be remarkably diminished in that highly congestive nephritis Avhicli cold sometimes produces in grown persons. Under this condition the urine is always loaded with albumin, and of high specific gravity. It is generally l»lack with blood and full of thick casts. The case of Benjamin Patrick, in which on one occasion
only two ounces of urine were voided in the twenty-four hours, may serve as an example of this affection, while a still more striking instance is afforded in that of Lord Z 's groom, who passed during
the last five days of the disease only three and a half ounces of urine, the quantity for one day and night having fallen as low as five drachms.' This affection, like the scarlatinal form, is rapidly fatal, and as a rule by cerebral urajniia. Such affections of the kidney, much as they may lessen the production of urine, rarely cause total suppression, but it is worth remarking that though the suppression is but partial, death often ensues in shorter time than where as a consequence of mechanical obstruction the suppression is absolute. Towards the close of granular degeneration the urine may fall considerably below the habitual amount, and may even on the approach of death be absent for many hours.
In an advanced stage of lardaceous disease the urine, once superabundant, may become very scanty; but there is seldom such diminution as has been recorded with other forms of albuminuria.
Suppression, for the most part partial, but occasionally total for a short time, may occur when the kidney is the seat of suppuration, whether this be of the limited sort, which is occasionally produced by an extenuil injury, or be disseminated as the result of pyi'emia or of septic urinous absorption. A remarkable instance of disseminated renal suppuration consequent on scarlatina is related by Dr. Bates,- of New York, in Avhich for the nine days preceding death the total of urine secreted did not amount to half an ounce. An instance of transitory suppression in connection with a traumatic abscess of tlie kidney is given from Rayer at page 2. The urine was absent during one day, the secretion reappearing on the following with the admixture of pus. Suppression in connection with renal pytemia is exemplified in the case of AVilliam Long, The outset of the pyasmic affection in the kidney was marked by a suspension of micturition for forty-eight hours; at the end of this period five ounces of urine were removed with the catheter, so that the suppression was then only partial. The urine when obtained, and for the rest of the patient's life, was very deeply colored and albuminous. Blood and pus corpuscles and cells of renal epithelium were seen both scattered and entangled in fibrinous casts.
Those cases of renal abscess in which the suppression, though usually incomplete, may for a short time be total, lead us from partial suppression or extreme scantiness of urine to the circumstances in which suppression is complete or the secretion totally absent.
As a corollary to the suppression of the disseminated suppuration of local origin may be placed the fact that occasionally after catheterization and operations upon the urethra, the urine has become suppressed and the kidneys have been found intensely congested. It is probable that this condition is but the early stage of the suppurative process, which has been sufficiently dwelt upon, Xephrectomy, ovariotomy, and other operations involving the abdominal and pelvic organs, have been followed by suppression apparently of a different kind, Mr. Godlee * removed by abdominal section a kidney which was the subject of calcu-
Ions pyelitis (p. 189). The patient survived the operation for twent}-^four hours, for the hist twelve of which only an ounce and a half of urine was secreted. The preceding urine was black with carbolic acid absorbed during the operation. The remaining kidney presented a normal appearance to the naked eye, and practically so to the microscope. Mr. Howard Marsh ' (p. 190) removed in })art, tlirough the loin, a sacculated kidney. Complete suppression of urine followed the operation, and death at the end of thirty hours. The remaining kidney was ''fairly healthy.'^ The capsule Avas adherent, and there were two or three small cysts on the surface, but tliere was nothing to indicate advanced disease. Much temporary diminution of urine has been known to follow ovariotomy, as in a case recorded by Mr. Thornton.^ How the suppression is produced in the circumstances which have been adverted to is not very clear. It is not from any visible change in the kidney itself. It must be taken into question whether it is to be hypothetically attributed to an inhibiting nervous influence, or, what is more consistent with other experience, to the collapse produced by the operation, or the general failure of function which may precede death.
The most striking cases are those which have been described as obstructive, the suppression being due to a substantial barrier between the mammillary processes and the bladder.
Putting aside the rare occurrence of arterial obstruction, and the obvious systemic causes of suppression — collapse, intestinal stoppage, cholera, and poison — it is at least of exceeding infrequency to find the secretion of urine arrested for forty-eight hours, and that totally, except there be a palpable obstacle. And where this exists it is due in nine cases out of ten to stone. It is only needful here to recapitulate the general character of the affection and to describe the causes, unconnected with stone, to Avhich it may be due. When mechanical obstruction produces suppression, either both kidneys are simultaneously obstructed, or else, wliat more often happens, the obstructed kidney is the only source of urine, the other having been incapacitated by previous disease.
Calculi, for example, may be symmetrically disposed in the two kidneys; or, on the other hand, one kidney having been sacculated or atrophied by a past fit of stone, the ureter belonging to the other may become occluded by a similar impediment and a total stoppage ensue. Examples of both these occurrences have been related.
Suppression of urine may be due to simultaneous sacculation of both kidneys — double hydronephrosis, as it is called — whether due to calculi or to congenital or other obstruction; and it may be produced by morbii growths, which are so circumstanced as to press at the same time upon both ureters. A case of double hydronephrosis has been quoted in which suppression, for the most part incomplete, was succeeded by copious discharges of urine and coincident diminution of an elastic lumbar swelling. Renal tumefaction lessening suddenly Avith increase of urine may be regarded as characteristic of the affection. The bowels in the same case were obstinately confined, in consequence, as was found, of compression of the descending colon by the cyst representing the left kidney. From the apposition of the colon and the kidney intestinal
obstruction may often be suggestive of renal enlargement. These circumstances, together with other evidences of renal tumor, will suffice to distinguish hydronephrosis as a cause of suppression from the other conditions to which the arrest may be due. A further presumption of hydronephrosis in a case of suppression may be found in the recurrence of urinous sweating. Suppression of urine from obstruction, unaccompanied Avith dilatation of the kidney or vesical retention, does not give rise to this symptom, which, on the contrary, is sometimes strongly marked with hydronephrosis. Urinous exhalations from the skin are generally associated with the accumulation and resorption of urine. It is scai'cely necessary to repeat that to produce suppression hydronephrosis must exist on both sides, or if it be confined to one, the ureter of the healthy kidney must be obstructed by some other means.
Lastly, suppression may result from the consentaneous obstruction of both ureters by a morbid growth. Growths which produce this effect are usually cancerous, and arise in connection, not with the kidney or ureter, but with one or other of the pelvic viscera which occupies the median line. Tumors which originate in the kidney or ureter are usually confined to one side, leaving the gland on the other free to act. When both ducts are occluded the disease has commonly arisen external to and between them in connection either with the bladder or prostate, or with the uterus or vagina. Growths in connection with these organs are apt to start nearly equidistant from the ureter, and, spreading to the right and left, to involve both simultaneously or in succession. Less often both ureters have been known to have become occluded by growths which have begun in the ovary.
Suppression of urine may be produced by disease of the bladder itself. A woman died in the obstetrical ward at St. George's Hospital after suppression of urine which was complete, as far as was known, for ten days, excepting that on the sixth day she fancied she passed a little in a bath. It was found that the bladder was the seat of extensive encephaloid growth by Avhich the orifices of both ureters were obstructed. The growth was primary to the bladder.
In cases of suppression from growths the symptoms of the primary disease are usually obvious. Growths cause suppression far less often than calculi. The symptoms of obstructive suppression, putting aside those which are due to the special cause, are much the same whatever be the nature of the obstruction. They have been described in connection with calculi. The urine, if any be passed — and generally some is passed at irregular intervals — is pale, watery, of low specific gravity, and wanting in urea.
The watery character of the urine under these circumstances, with its low specific gravity and want of color, are, as has been shown by Dr. Roberts,' important indications that the secretion has taken place against adverse pressure. In the normal dynamic state of the renal apparatus pressure exists within the blood-vessels, but none in the tubes. This difference of pressure upon the two sides of the membrane between the blood and the urine is, as has been shown by experiment, a condition essential to secretion. It has been shown in animals that when the renal artery is narrowed by means of a clamp, so as to lessen the blood-j)res-
suro in the kidney, the nrine is diminished ; while conversely a similar result follows when the nrine is made to exert pressure backwards. A column of mercury in the ureter causes the urine to be produced in diminished quantity and with a diminished percentage of urea, the secretion becoming poorer and more scanty with each increase of pressure, and at last stopping altogether. Corresponding changes take place when the ureter is obstructed in the human being. The distention of the pelvis at first retards and then arrests the secretion. Any small quantities of nrine which the obstacle permits to escape during the process, having been secreted against pressure, are pale, watery, and deficient in urinary elements. The urine under the circumstances is sometimes, but not necessarily, albuminous. This depends upon the previous state of the kidney, and on the amount of congestion which the arrest of secretion has engendered. There is a total absence of dropsy, and unless urine be retained in a dilated kidney or elsewhere, there are no urinous exhalations from the skin or lungs. There is a progressive failure of strengtii, succeeded almost always by twitching of the voluntar}' muscles. The respiration becomes embarrassed and the action of the heart enfeebled. The digestive system is disturbed, as evinced by vomiting, loss of appetite, coating and subsequent dryness of the tongue. Sometimes thirst is complained of. The mind usually remains clear, or but slightly affected. Occasionally drowsiness, or want of sleep, or distressing restlessness supervenes. The pupils, towards the end, become contracted. Sometimes, but by no means constantly, epileptiform convulsion takes place, and more rarely death is preceded by coma. More frequently death takes place in a somewhat sudden manner, apparently from asthenia.
Obstructive suppression alfects the heat of the body slightly but with some constancy. In five cases of which I have particulars before me, the highest recorded temperature was 100. U, the lowest 97.0. It is not unusual for there to be a slight febrile disturbance at the outset, indicated by the higher temperature : but as the condition continues the temperature usually becomes subnormal, as is the rule with uraemia, whatever its cause may be. Mr. Hutchinson's case of obstruction by cancer appears to be peculiar, insomuch that the temperature rose, instead of falling, as the results of suppression declared themselves.
The duration of cases ending fatally is very variable. Wliere the urine has, before the stoppage, escaped with difficulty and consequent impoverishment, death may occur after a few days only of total arrest. Dr. Eoberts fixes the ordinary duration of complete obstructive suppression at from nine to eleven days. Cases are related in one of which total suppression lasted for twelve days, and in another suppression, total but for one interruption, lasted for twenty-two days. This last case, however, is very exceptional in its duration. In the great majority obstructive suppression proves fatal in the course of the second week. The passage of small quantities of such urine as has been described gives but little protraction.
The rare occurrence of suppression of urine m connection with obstruction of the abdominal aorta or both renal arteries completes the enumeration of the circumstances especial to the kidney under which the secretion of urine may be arrested.
Some interesting illustrations of the effect of obstruction of the aorta upon the urine are given by Dr. Bristowe.'' In two instances, in which the abdominal aorta was suddenly obstructed by coaguluin belonging to aneurisms of this vessel, the uriue was at "^ first suppressed, then scanty, bloody, and highly albuminous. In one of these cases no urine was passed for twenty-four hours after the presumed date of the obstruction, and then only three ounces, Avliich were albuminous to twothirds, and contained casts and blood. The return of the secretion after its stoppage is probably due to the re-establishment of the circulation by the collateral channels which connect the upper and lower jjarts of the aorta. The kidneys were found in each case to be greatly congested, correspondingly with the evidences of nephritis which had been evinced during life. The hyperajmia, or inflammation, might have been partly explained in one instance by the jiresence of blocks, or infarcts, derived from the detached clot, which may have been sources of irritation; but in the other case no such explanation was presented. It is to be observed that other structures in the territory of the obstructed vessels— the bladder and rectum for example — were likewise congested and ecchymosed. Thus congestion of some sort, probably venous and by reflux, may be a late result of arterial stoppage. The congestion about fibrinous blocks is well known; and it is at least of interest to associate with these phenomena the nephritis which succeeds upon the suppression of collapse.
Suspension of the renal function may occur in connection with cerebral injury or concussion, or Avith a variety of other morbid conditions, of Avhicli it is to be noted that they are generally accompanied either by universal collapse or by unwonted discharges of fluid from some other exit, or by both these conditions conjointly. Concussion of the brain may be a cause of transient but total suppression. The suspension of nervous function, though chiefly relating to voluntary movements, is not confined to them, as is seen by the embarrassment of respiration sometimes present. The kidney, with its ])neumogastric communications, is especially under the control of the brain, and its action is increased, altered, or suspended by cerebral causes. Suppression from concussion is necessarily transient, terminated shortly either by recovery or death.
There are general states of system expressed by the terms prostration, collapse, and exhaustion, in which for a time the urine ceases to be formed. The renal is suspended in common with other functions, and is restored with them should reaction occur.
The suspension is, in its nature, temporary, the secretion returning as the strength of the circulation is restored and the exhausted vessels are replenished. In some of the conditions in which the urine is thus absent, cholera and some forms of poisoning, at least two causes may l)e supposed to concur — failure of circulating force, with loss of circulating material. But we may consider first a simple relationship which exists,
quite independently of depletion or change of blood, between unmixed collapse and suspension of renal action. Suppression from this cause has been frequently observed in connection with perforations of the stomach, of the duodenum, of the jejunum, of the ileum, from typhoid fever or otherwise, and in connection with peneti-ation of the large intestine. It has been known to folloAV laceration of the bile ducts. Under such circumstances death usually comes too rapidly to allow of any very protracted suppression, but it has been noted that as long a time as two days has passed without any secretion. After death it is usually found in these cases that the bladder is empty and contracted; and it Avould seem that not mere emptiness, but unnatural contraction of that organ, has in some instances existed during life, as painful straining, a fallacious sense of distention, and a resistance to the catheter thought to be unusual, have been observed.
The immediate cause of the symptoms in these cases is probably an influence upon the abdominal centres of the sympathetic through irritation of the peritoneum by the extruded matter. And it is known that other causes of collapse, acting possibly on other nervous territories, but equally unconnected with any material drain, may also be accompanied by suppression of urine.
In collapse, upon whatever it ma}' depend, there appears to be a general contraction of the arterial system, the blood being driven thence to stagnate in the veins. The left ventricle is, as seen after death, contracted to the utmost, the arterial pulse everywhere fails, becoming feeble in the large arteries, and imperceptible in the smaller, while the skin is cold and cadaverous, giving in warmth and color no evidence of moving blood. The condition would seem to be one of hindrance in the vessels rather than failure at the heart — arterial closure, not cardiac weakness. The contracted and empty left ventricle, unlike the relaxed and loaded cavity of asthenia, has done its duty. But the blood, probably from a kind of spasm affecting alike heart and arteries, does not circulate, the absence of circulation being, under these circumstances, more complete than with asthenia, is long compatible with life. With, the absence of circulation the derivatives of blood necessarily cease to be formed, and urine, like other secretions, is in abeyance.
Suppression of urine may be produced by certain poisons, especially when their action is attended with collajjse. Corrosive sublimate has, more often than any other poison, been followed by this symptom, though the same result has been known to arise from the mineral acids, putrid animal matter, poisonous fungi, and occasionally from arsenic.
With regard to corrosive sublimate, a poisonous dose of this substance produces a condition of collapse which resembles, as Mr. Sedgewick has shown,' that of cholera; the intestinal discharges are usually but not always excessive, and the urine, often for several days, totally wanting.
Taylor* relates the case of one John Wright, 38 years of age, who swallowed two drachms of corrosive sublimate, and an hour afterwards was received into Guy's Hospital.
of the urinary secretion. Mr. Sedgewick, in the paper referred to, quotes the case of a boy who died five days and six hours after taking this poison, where the urinary secretion during the whole time was suspended, and the bhidder after death contracted. He mentions also a servant girl, who died from the effects of corrosive sublimate on the eighth day, with whom there was total and permanent suppression ; no urine could be obtained with the catheter, and after death the bladder was empty and contracted.
In such cases it would appear that the suspension of secretion is due to the general state of collajise rather than to any change localized in the kidneys. Where the kidneys have been examined, they have been described either as natural, or as presenting only a slight degree of congestion, not enough to add perceptibly to their bulk or materially change their aspect. So slight a local change is totally insufficient to account for the arrest of function. We must, therefore, look for the cause of the cessation in the state of sj'stem rather than of kidney. Two systemic causes of suppression may concur in these cases: first, exhaustion by profuse discharges, with possible diversion of urinary fluid; secondl}', the restraint of arterial flow which belongs to colla])se. Of these it is probable that want of circulation has more to do with the absence of urine than have the diarrhoea and vomiting. The loss of fluid in these cases is not generally such as would seem to counterbalance the missing secretion, and it may be observed that with poisoning, more especially with nitric acid, Avhere similar suppression follows, the bowels are obstinately confined. We may, therefore, presume that the suppression of corrosive sublimate is a part of the collapse which attends the action of this poison.
With poisoning by nitric acid suppression of urine is especially associated. Extreme collapse is present in these cases. There is vomiting, but no diarrhoea; on the contrary, the bowels are usually confined, and are found after death to be occupied by indurated fa?ces. Suppression has also been noticed in cases of poisoning by sulphuric and hydrochloric acids. With regard to arsenical poisoning, the urine is suppressed occasionally and for short periods, but not with any regularity.
Finally, suppression of urine has been noticed in connection with the choleraic symptoms produced by putrid meat and poisonous fungi. It is probable that in all these cases the suppression is due to the state of circulation which constitutes collapse. It is manifest that the profuse loss of fluid by diarrhoea and vomiting which occurs in some forms of poisoning and in cholera must also tend to diminish the urine. Suppression may, therefore, be especially looked for where profuse discharges have produced, or coexist with, a condition of collapse. Cholera and poisoning by corrosive sublimate are the typical examples of this morbid concurrence.
The suppression of cholera is complicated, partly systemic and partly renal, arising from general, but frequently protracted by local causes. In the cold stage there is, as a result of the intestinal drain, the general condition of arterial emptiness, the loss being especially of the water of the blood, which is essential to the solution and elimination of the urinary elements. The rice-water evacuations of cholera' are
chiefly aqueous, insomucli that on an average 100 parts of rice-water stools contain more than 98 of water, the small amount of solid matter consisting chietly of salts of potash and soda, with only a trace of albumin. They contain no urea, and of uric acid have given but rare and doubtful indications. They take the water, but leave the renal exerementa. Tbe blood accordingly becomes viscid; its specific gravity is greatly increased; its water is lessened; the organic solids are proportionally raised, after much purging, even to half as much again as in health,' and urea is constantly found. This condition of dehydration, together Avith the failure of circulation which accompanies it, produces a general suspension of all the fluid secretions which are not under the stimulus of the disease. Urine may accordingly be absent during collapse for thirty hours, or even longer. But, though unable to respond by secretion, the kidneys, even at this stage, give evidence of irTitation,"^ which we must ascribe rather to the urinary elements in the blood than to any direct influence of the cholera poison. The kidneys, if examined during or immediately after the stage of collapse, though not as yet much altered in bulk, are congested sometimes to a general violet tint, some excess and some alteration of epithelium is found in the tubes of the cortex, while those of the cones frequently contain crystals of uric acid or oxalate of lime. 'With these signs of incipient inflammation, the urine as it begins to reappear is scanty, albuminous, sometimes bloody, and loaded Avith casts, usually of the epithelial type. The kidneys may now gradually right themselves, or it may happen that the symptoms and local changes of acute tubal nephritis maydevelop. Early and marked uriemia occurs — it appears, indeed, that what is termed the consecutive fever, or the typhoid strge of cholera, so far resembles uremia in its symptoms that we cannot but regard this condition of blood as one of its pathological factors.' The kidneys under these circumstances are found to be m a condition of tubal nephritis, they are much increased in bulk, weighing, as in a case mentioned by Dr. Gull, 15^ ounces; they are pale, loaded Avith more or less fatty epithelium, and are, in short, in' a tvpical condition of tubal inflammation, not unlike that Avhich results from exposure to cold. The urine is scanty, albuminous, and deficient in urea, and occasionally dropsy ensues._ We thus have in cholera a condition of complete suppression arising in dehydration and collapse, and succeeded by partial suppression depending upon renal inflammation.
A cause of transient suppression, connected presumably Avith renal congestion, maybe occasionally found in the so-callea cold stage of ague, under Avhich influence the urine has been known to be absent for a time, to reappear albuminous or bloody. AVe may attribute the accident to the driving inwards of the blood upon the kidneys as upon other internal organs.
ished, and sometimes entirely withheld.
It has been generally stated that the amount of urine formed with intestinal stoppage is a guide to the ^losition of the obstacle — the higher the obstacle the less the urine — the diminution of the secretion depending, as Avas thought, upon the loss of the absorbing surface below loAV the stricture. But as Dr. Brinton has shoAvn, this relationship is by
uo means invariable, copious urine sometimes concurring with a high obstruction, and scanty or temporarily-suppressed urine with a low one. Besides the mere loss of absorbing surface, there are at least two otlier morbid conditions to consider in connection with the renal secretion under these circumstances; first, the drain of fluid by vomiting, which, especially when the obstruction is near the stomach, is profuse, and apparently out of proportion to what has been swallowed; and se3ondly, the collapse, so often productive, as has been shown, of anuria, but which has relation to the nature of the lesion rather than to its position.
Bony growths in kidney, 68
Bowel, relation of. to renal tumors, 38 perforated b}' renal tumors, 53 Bronchial tubes, perforation of, from renal calculus, 170
Carcinoma of kidney, 53
Carter, A^andyke, on chyluria, 252 Cartilaginous" growths in kidney, 68 Casts with intermittent hajmaturia
Encephaloid of kidney, 54
Epilepsy, with renal calculi, 176 Epithelial cancer of kidney, 55 Epitlielium, urinary characters of, in
Saundby, on frequency of albuminuria,
Sex in relation to floating kidney, 205 Soda in solution of calculi, 199 Spectroscope in haematuria, 317
in haemoglobinuria, 281
Spine involved in renal tumors, 51 Spurious urinary parasites, 249 Stanley, on urinary paralysis, 216 Stephens, Joanna, her stone solvent,
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IEMpQKYogPz4prCi | Martyrs and sufferers for the truth. | STRANGE THINGS.
THE word of God leads us to expect that truth and piety will always be opposed while there are in the world wicked men. The hatred of the ungodly to the friends of truth is ever deadly. It was malice against those who looked for Christ to come into the world that made the Egyptians so cruel to the Israelites. Saul's malice against David was very much of this nature. Wher he wished for a tool of his vengeance against the innocent, he found him. One of his most brutal
6 MARTYRS AND SUFFERERS
minions was Doeg, the Edomite. This bloody monster, at Saul's bidding, fell upon the priests at Nob, and slew on one day fourscore and five (that is, eighty-five) persons that did wear a linen ephod. The good men mentioned in the Old Testament were terribly hated and hunted. They were tortured, refusing to save their lives by denying their God. They had trial of cruel mockings and scourgings — yea, moreover of bonds and imprisonment. They were stoned, they were sawn asunder, were tempted, were slain with the sword ; they wandered in sheepskins and goatskins, being destitute, afflicted, tormented. They wandered in deserts and mountains, and in dens and in caves of the earth. This is the true history of many of the people of whom the world was not wrorthy. They died at the hands of the men for whose salvation they prayed.
Nor did the coming of Jesus Christ put an end to deeds of blood against the saints. The Lord Jesus himself was put to death in the most malignant and shameful manner.
FOR THE TRUTH. 7
All his faithful apostles also died by violence, except one, and he was saved only by miracle. Indeed, our Lord Jesus candidly told his disciples that they should be hated of all men for his name's sake; and that the time should come when those who should kill them, would be so filled with rage and blindness that they should believe they were doing God service. The apostles no less faithfully warned all who would live godly in Christ Jesus that they must suffer persecution.
Let no one, therefore, be offended at the Christian religion because of malice, slander and persecution for Christ's sake. The seed of the bond woman has always hated the seed of the free woman. Holy and fallen angels cannot work together, for they are not agreed.
These things are indeed strange. ^Vhy do men in spirit still cry, Release Barabbas and crucify Jesus ? The reason is, that the carnal mind is enmity against God.
I HAVE thought the young reader might be pleased here to see how some great and good men have despised the malice and cruelties of those who sought to frighten them out of their avowed love to Christ, and what others have said of these things.
Stephen, the first Christian martyr, dying, offered two prayers. One was for himself: " Lord Jesus, receive my spirit." The other was for his foes : " Lord, lay not this sin to their charge."
Paul said : " The Holy Ghost witnesseth in every city, saying that bonds and imprisonments await me. But none of these things move me, neither count I my life dear unto myself, so that I might finish my course with
Gregory Nazianzen said : u Do they cast us out of the city ? They cannot cast us out of that which is in the heavens. If they who hate us could do this, they would do something real against us. The only thing we have really to be afraid of is fearing anything more than God."
To the king of Navarre, Beza said : " Sire, it belongs truly to God's Church rather to suffer blows than to strike them ; but let it be your pleasure to remember that the Church is an anvil which hath worn out many a hammer."
Leighton said : " The church has sometimes been brought to so low and obscure a point that if you can follow her in history it is by the track of her blood, and if you would see her, it is by the light of those fires in wThich her martyrs have been burnt."
Jortin remarks : " To banish, imprison, plunder, starve, hang and burn men for religion is not the gospel of Christ, but the gospel of the devil. Where persecution begins, Christianity ends. Christ never used
anything like force or violence, except once ; and that was to drive bad men out of the temple, and not to drive them in."
Milner says: "Persecution often does in this life what the last day will do completely— separate the wheat from the tares."
Spencer says : " Let the Church's enemies plough never so deeply, and make furrows on the backs of God's people never so long ; yet God's ends are grace and mercy, and peace to do them good in the latter end."
PERSECUTION is of three kinds : 1. Mental. A wicked spirit is the root of all bitterness. Out of the heart are the issues of life and of death. Every man is what he is inwardly. Cain had never hurt a hair of Abel's head but that he first conceived mortal enmity against him. 1 John iii. 12. The Jews never would have clamoured for the death of Christ had they indulged no deadly malice against him. Matt, xxvii. 18; Mark xv. 10. The patriarchs, moved with envy, sold Joseph into Egypt. Acts vii. 9. Every malignant passion is in its nature persecuting. Envy is a fearful incitement to wronging others. Yet it is very common. James iv. 5. And although it torments and even slays
its subject (Job v. 2), and is a rottenness in the bones (Prov. xiv. 30), yet it is busy in all lands and in all hearts where the grace of God reigns not. It is the parent of much evil. " Where envying and strife is, there is confusion and every evil work." James iii. 16. It is a base passion, often condemned in Scripture. Prov. xxiii. 7; Rom. xiii. 13; Gal. v. 21. Another form of wickedness leading to persecution is bigotry. The very ignorance of these hot zealots only makes them the more intractable. Watts : " In philosophy and religion the bigots of all parties are generally the most positive." Bigotry is full of spleen and spite. It constantly tends to violence and cruelty. Bigots do every day commit murder in their hearts. Some are bigots by nature, others by trade. Narrow, contracted views are the foster-parents of wrath and wrong. A wrong creed, and a creed blindly adopted, often lead to the same result. Bigotry is not dead. Perhaps it never flourished more than in the nineteenth century.
2. Persecution is often by the tongue. " The words of the wicked are to lie in wait for blood." Prov. xii. 6. " The words of a talebearer are as wounds." Prov. xviii. 8. He who has never felt the power of scornful and contumelious language, of irony, sarcasm, ridicule, calumny, detraction and evil surmisings, knows not the anguish of good men hunted and hounded by the wicked. There is " a persecution sharper than the axe. There is an iron that goes into the heart deeper than the knife. Cruel sneers and sarcasm, and pitiless judgments and cold-hearted calumnies — these are persecutions." Well does Paul put down "cruel mockings" alongside of scourgings, bonds, imprisonments and death in its most dismal shapes. Heb. xi. 36, 37. " If God's people were not strangers here, the dogs wrould not bark at them." 11 Woe unto you, when all men shall speak well of you ! for so did their fathers to the false prophets." Luke vi. 26. "Blessed are ye when men shall revile you, and persecute you, and shall say all manner of evil against
3. Again, persecution breaks forth into acts of cruelty and murder. It arrests, fetters, whips, banishes, plunders, confiscates, smites, tortures, burns and hangs. It gloats over the misery of its victims. Sometimes it expresses great compassion for the sufferer, but all this is sheer hypocrisy. It is as malevolent as hell. It riots in carnage. It delights in groans. To make its power felt is its feast of fat things.
PERSECUTION may be for any cause, or without cause. It is commonly on alleged grounds of difference in science or literature, politics or religion. The scorn and violence of one school of letters toward another is sometimes amazing. Persecution for difference in science is matter of history. The case of Galileo always comes up when this subject is named. Whately says : " Galileo, probably, would have escaped persecution if his discoveries could have been disproved and his reasonings refuted." Political differences commonly engender great animosities. A party long out of power, at last gaining the reins of government, and fearing that their tenure of office will be short, commonly stirs
up the passions of men to an intense glow of heat. Rev. xii. 12. But on no subject is passion so violent and prejudice so potent as on religious differences. Yet seldom do men avowedly persecute others for the real opinions they hold or the actual usages they practice. They often charge something foreign from the real ground of animosity. Persecutors dress their victims in the skins of wild beasts before they set the dogs on them. The anaconda smears its prey all over before swallowing it.
The prophets predicted that the coming of Messiah should engender the spirit of love and concord in all who were heartily subject to him ; that the mountains should bring peace to the people, and the little hills by righteousness; that he should break in pieces the oppressor ; that he should come down like rain upon the mown grass, as showers that water the earth ; that under his glorious reign the wolf should dwell with the lamb, and the leopard should lie down with the kid, and the calf and the young lion and the fatling
together ; and a little child should lead them. And the cow and the bear should feed ; their young ones should lie down together ; and the lion should eat straw like the ox. God says that in that blessed day they shall not hurt nor destroy in all my holy mountain. Ps. lxxii. 3-6 ; Isa. xi. 6-8.
PJEMSJECUTION is forbidden.
JESUS CHEIST condemned and forbade a fiery, persecuting spirit. When the Samaritans thought that Christ had decided, or was about to decide, against them the controversy betwixt them and the Jews, they did not receive him. " And when his disciples, James and John, saw this, they said, Lord, wilt thou that we command fire to come down from heaven to consume them ?" Luke ix. 54. John iv. 22. They refused to receive the Lord from heaven. Yet Christ would not allow his followers even to imprecate judgments on their enemies. Christ says the very temper displayed by these disciples was all wrong. He says he came not "to destroy men's lives, but to save them."
Tillotson : " He came to discountenance all fierceness and rage and cruelty in men one toward another ; to restrain and subdue that furious and unpeaceable spirit which is so troublesome to the world and the cause of so many mischiefs and disorders in it; to beget a peaceable disposition in men of the most distant tempers." So when Peter drew his sword, even in defence of Christ's sacred person, the Master said, " Put up again thy sword into his place, for all they that take the sword shall perish by the sword." Matt. xxvi. 52; John xviii. 11.
The apostles carried out the principles inculcated by Christ. They taught, wrarned, rebuked and reproved with all long-suffering and doctrine. They called on the early Christians to follow peace and holiness ; in meekness to instruct those that fell into error, that they might be recovered from the snares that entangled them ; to lay aside all malice and guile, and envies, and wrath, and bitterness, and evil-speaking ; to be gentle toward all men ; to bless and not to curse.
That for centuries the early Christians held the same views is clear from their writings. The primitive Christians carried out the teachings of Scripture, opposing all compulsion in matters of religion.
Ignatius says : " Count them enemies and separate from them who hate God, but for beating or persecuting them, that is proper to the heathen, who know not God nor our Saviour ; do you not so."
Speaking of Christians, Origen says : " We ought to use the sword against no one." Tertullian : " It is no part of religion to compel religion." The same is taught by Cyprian : " The Father has given to the Son what no one can claim to himself — to dash in pieces with a rod of iron the earthen vessels, or become the avenger." Lactantius : " Force and injury are not needful, for religion cannot be compelled. Torture and piety are exceedingly diverse ; nor can either truth be joined w7ith violence or justice with cruelty. For religion is to be defended not by killing, but by dying ; not by severity, but by patience."
Bernard : " Faith comes by persuasion, not by being thrust upon men. Heretics are to be won, not by arms, but by arguments. Attack them with the Word, not with the sword." Gregory of Rome : " To beat in faith with stripes is a new and unheard-of kind of preaching." Indeed, Du Pin, who has collected many like authorities, says, "The ancients taught with unanimous consent the unlawfulness of compulsion and punishment in religion." And Owen says : " The Christians of those days disclaimed all thoughts of such proceedings."
Persecution belongs to paganism, infidelity, superstition and atheism, not to the temple of Jehovah. It was born in malice, superstition and devilish cruelty. It has been used a thousand times against the truth more than against error. When wielded against heretics it has done far more mischief than has ever been said of it.
Again : " For three hundred years the Church had no assistance from any magistrate against heretics ; and yet in all that space there was not one long-lived, far-spreading heresy, in comparison of those that followed."
Besides the arguments already dropped against persecution, Doddridge has at length and successfully maintained these propositions :
1. "Persecution for conscience' sake — i.e., inflicting penalties on men merely for their religious principles or worship — is plainly founded on an absurd supposition that one man has a right to judge for another in matters of religion."
2. " Persecution is most evidently inconsistent with that obvious and fundamental principle of morality that we should do to others as we could reasonably desire they should do to us."
3. " Persecution is evidently absurd, and is by no means calculated to answer the ends which its patrons profess to intend by it."
5. "The Christian religion, which we here suppose to be the cause of truth, must, humanly speaking, be not only obstructed, but destroyed, should persecuting principles universally prevail."
6. " Persecution is so far from being required or encouraged by the gospel, that it is most directly contrary to many of its precepts, and indeed to the whole genius of it."
No man can too deeply abhor both the spirit and practice of persecution. Nor can any one be too much afraid of the guilt of a persecutor. Had Saul of Tarsus known what he was doing when he was persecuting the Church, his damnation would have been as certain as it would have been just. 1 Tim. i. 13. Compare 1 Thess. ii. 15, 16.
THE Greek word from which we get our word martyr occurs more than thirtytimes in the New Testament, and is commonly rendered vntness, in the plural witnesses — twice record and thrice martyr or martyrs. It is applied to judicial witnesses in Matt. xvii. 16 ; to one who testifies to the truth of what he sees hears or knows, Luke xxiv. 48 ; Acts i. 8, 22 ; and to one who not only testifies to the truth, but lays down his life for the truth, Acts xxii. 20 ; Rev. ii. 13 ; xvii. 6. In the Scriptures this is the least common meaning of the word, but for centuries ecclesiastical writers have used it in no other sense. All witnesses are not martyrs, but all martyrs are witnesses of something. A martyr, then, is one who by his death bears witness to the truth
of his principles and belief. In strictness of language, according to South, " To be a martyr signifies only to witness the truth of Christ ; but the witnessing of the truth was then so generally attended with persecution that martyrdom now signifies not only to witness, but to witness by death." Dr. J. W. Alexander says : " A witness is called in Greek a martyr. We have borrowed the word and made it sacred in our tongue." Colton says: "He that dies a martyr proves that he is not a knave." He gives the highest proof of his sincerity.
A martyr differs from a confessor only in this, that the confessor avows the truth, and his love for it, in the face of danger and when he expects to die for his confession, but in some way his life is spared. In the primitive Church were many confessors— " men that had hazarded their lives for the name of our Lord Jesus Christ." Acts xv. 26. Indeed, in many ages of the world it has been worth all a man's earthly
possessions, and life itself, unflinchingly to avow the simple truth as it is in Jesus. The first martyr was Abel. He being dead yet speaketh. Heb. xii. 4. That is, every reference to his sacrifice and death declares the necessity of an atonement for sin; that if sinners would be accepted of God, they must come penitently confessing their transgressions and asking for mercy through the great sacrifice of Calvary; that justifying righteousness is by faith — a faith that obeys as well as relies ; that a believer's inheritance is in a better world ; that we must be willing to forfeit the favour and incur the malice of even our own kindred, if we would please God ; and that the dying testimony of martyrs is not useless. Posthumous usefulness has marked no class of men more than the martyrs. To this day they have been preeminently serviceable in keeping alive a knowledge of the saving truths of Scripture. Testimony sealed with blood God has greatly owned to the salvation of men. " The blood of the martyrs is the seed of the Church."
IS EVERY TRUE CHRISTIAN AT HEART A
martyr? If the meaning of this question be, whether at all times God's real people are in such a frame as that, without warning and special preparation, they would universally yield up their lives rather than deny Christ, we must answer in the negative. Peter, Cranmer and others denied Christ and his truth. They were found off their guard. They were taken by surprise. But if the meaning of the question be whether, upon fail notice and after due consideration, a real child of God will yield his life rather than be false to his profession and treasonable to Christ, the answer must be in the affirmative. So Christ has himself determined. Luke xiv. 26, 27, 33. That man is not to be regarded as an established Christian who, upon the call of God, is not willing to be found in a minority of one against millions. Lot was a good man, and, though he dwelt in Sodom,
he was not a sodomite, but the surrounding wickedness vexed his righteous soul from day to day. Noah stood alone in testifying against the wickedness of his times. Caleb, Joshua and Phinehas wrought righteousness and obtained a good report by intrepidly opposing the unbelief and wickedness of the great mass of their nation. The truly faithful stand firm even among the faithless. They are not governed by popular suffrage, but by the Word of God, which liveth and abideth for ever. " I can do no otherwise," said Martin Luther, "God help me!" The apostles said, " We ought to obey God rather than man."
IT is impossible to answer this question with arithmetical precision. There seems to be no reason for seriously doubting that the whole number in all ages exceeds fifty millions. From the days of Abel there have been many outbursts of the bloody spirit of persecution. What torrents of righteous blood were shed before the deluge we know not. One stroke of the pen of inspiration tells all we know : " The earth was filled with violence." This expression comprehends all kinds of murders as well as of martyrdoms. If in those times the wicked shed each other's blood, it is not credible that the pious escaped their malice. So ft the history of the Jews martyrs abounded. * It was not a rhetorical figure in Stephen to cry out : " As your 3*
fathers did, so do ye. "Which of the prophets have not your fathers persecuted ? and they have slain them which showed before of the coming of the Just One ; of whom ye have been now the betrayers and murderers." Acts vii. 51, 52. Indeed, of the sufferings of the saints, both by Jews and heathen, Paul speaks when he says, " that through faith they stopped the mouths of lions, quenched the violence of fire, escaped the edge of the sword ; out of weakness were made strong, waxed valiant in fight, turned to flight the armies of the aliens. Women received their dead raised to life again ; and others were tortured, not accepting deliverance, that they might obtain a better resurrection ; and others had trial of cruel mockings and scourgings, yea, moreover of bonds and imprisonments : they were stoned, they were sawn asunder, were tempted [some read, were branded; some, were burnt alive ; some, were mutilated; and some, were impaled or transfixed'], were slain with the sword ; they wandered about in sheepskins and goatskins; being deslitute, afflicted, tor-
mented (of whom the world was not worthy) ; they wandered in deserts and in mountains, and in dens and caves of the earth." Heb. xi. 33-37. In some respects we have not a more wonderful history of sufferings for the truth than that we find in the books of Maccabees and in Josephus, relating to the cruelties practiced by Antiochus Epiphanes.
After the death of Christ, the first martyr was Stephen, the history of whose intrepidity, loving disposition and glorious death is given in Acts vi., vii. Many things respecting the close of his earthly existence are worthy of special note, but they are either given in the inspired narrative or are suggested by the practical commentators on the record.
This was but the beginning of the shedding of the blood of saints; for "at that time there was a great persecution against the Church which was at Jerusalem ; and they were all scattered abroad throughout the regions of Judea and Samaria, except the apostles." Acts viii. 1 Stephen's martyrdom is com-
monly supposed to have occurred the same year as our Lord's ascension to heaven. From this time, for near three hundred years, with occasional cessations, the blood of the saints flowed like water. Besides many persecutions confined to villages, cities or provinces, there were ten general persecutions against the Christians in the Roman empire.
tion was under the emperor Claudius Doruitius Xero, the son of an ambitious woman, who said, " Let my son slay me, if he may but be emperor." He put on the imperial purple and grasped the imperial sceptre when young, A. D. 50. At first he seemed mild, humane, and even tender-hearted. When first called to sign a death-warrant, he seemed much moved and expressed the wish that he could not write. But he soon became licentious, cruel, vindictive and extremely malignant. He inhumanly put his own mother to death. He cared for neither justice nor mercy. He was the author of many intolerable oppressions and wrongs to his
people. He cared not how much he degraded any class of Romans. Under him Peter and Paul suffered martyrdom. To him Paul is supposed to refer in 2 Tim. iv. 11, as a lion. His persecutions of the Christians as a class, began A. D. 64, and lasted till his death, which occurred in June, A. D. 68. He caused Rome to be set on fire, that he might have the pleasure of seeing a spectacle like that of the burning of Troy, and then charged the awful crime on the Christians. So fearful was the havoc made in the Church that one might see cities full of the bodies of dead men and women cast out uncovered in the open streets. Such crime and cruelty cannot always proceed. If Christian long-suffering forbears and divine mercy withholds direct thunderbolts of wrath, wicked men themselves will not always be idle. High and low at last conspired to rid the world of the intolerable burden of this one man's crimes and iniquities. Then for a time God's people had less annoyance.
But in A. D. 94 a second general persecution of the Christians in the Roman empire began. It raged with great violence, and gave the crown of martyrdom to multitudes. It was under the authority and instigation of the emperor, Titus Flavius Domitian. Like Xero, his early history promised well. He seemed to have an almost feminine gentleness, an uncommon mildness of disposition. At length his mind took a turn toward cruelty. At first he tortured flies with a bodkin. Soon he became wanton in his inflictions of suffering on men, till in the fortythird year of his age his cruelties burst forth in flaming and indiscriminate wrath against God's people. His pride was insufferable, his arrogance like that of Nebuchadnezzar. He required his own image to be worshipped. His malice was not a little excited against the great men of his empire. He had a special spite
against all the descendants of David, and particularly the near kinsmen of our Lord. In this persecution there was a resort to nearly every conceivable device for inflicting pain and begetting terror. This persecution was also more cunning than that of Nero, inasmuch as all the arts of deception were employed in inventing false charges against the Christians to cover up the foulness of the murders perpetrated under forms of law. It was alleged that Christians held Christ's kingdom was of this world ; that all public calamities were owing to the impiety and atheism of Christians; and that the Christians practiced great wickedness, of which no proof was ever submitted. After two years of persecution of Christians, Domitian was assassinated A. D. 96. Thus ended one of the most cruel and extensive persecutions ever waged against truth and righteousness. Bloody and deceit-
ful men shall not live out half their days. Bat the Church had rest for only a year or two ; for though Domitian was succeeded by the wise and mild Cocceius Nerva, who lived but a short time, yet there soon came the brave and brutal, the popular and persecuting M. Alpinus Crinitus Trajan, whose sensibilities had probably been blunted in the Asiatic campaigns of Vespasian and Titus, and wrho probably confounded Judaism and Christianity. Under him, in A. D. 98, began the third general persecution, which lasted much longer than those under iSero and Domitian. It was exceedingly dreadful, because, though without the capricious and fitful cruelty of some others, it had the awful severity of the worst, and swept multitudes into eternity. Trajan reigned about twenty years. From his death, A. D. 118, there was no general and legal hunting and murdering of God's people till after the death of Antoninus Pius, w7hich occurred in A. D. 161.
who had married Faustina, the daughter of Antoninus Pius, and who reigned nineteen years, with great severity of conduct toward the Christians, although his treatment of his pagan subjects won for him unusual popularity. His son, the feeble, debauched and cruel Commodus, succeeded him and kept up the persecution for twelve years longer, and then perished by poison given him by his concubine, Marcia. One of his last victims was a Roman senator. After the death of Commodus the Church had comparative rest for twelve or thirteen years, till after the middle of the reign of Lucius Septimus Severus, when the fifth general persecution began. This emperor was bold, enterprising, and for more than ten years of his power seemed to consult the good of all his subjects. But at length his Cainish malice was roused, perhaps by false and slanderous accusations against the Christians. About A. D. 205 the number of martyrs slain was immense. On all hands was slaughter. But in Africa the number of victims was frightful. Severus died in A. D. 21 1, but it is not cer-
tain whether in Germany or in Britain — whether by violence or by disease. His end terminated this flow of precious blood for about twenty-four years.
NUS was the next great persecutor. He was the son of a Thracian peasant, then a successful soldier, then emperor. He was in frame and strength a giant; in temper and conduct wanton and cruel ; to good men an object of detestation ; to his country a curse. He was raised to imperial power by the army rather than by the senate. He had hardly put on the diadem of the Caesars until a new Iliad of woes opened on the Church. Under him occurred the sixth general persecution of Christians. While it lasted it was indeed dreadful. The authorities at hand are not agreed as to the exact time of his death. It is well known that his career of crime and cruelty was not very long (some say three
years), and was terminated by the very soldiers whom he had made familiar with scenes of murderous carnage. The triumph of the wicked is short.
The seventh general persecution was begun under Decius, who became emperor A. D. 249. The havoc he made of the Church was truly frightful. His rage knew no bounds. He came into power by killing his master Philip, who had been just and even kind to the Christians, and had confided the public treasure to Fabian, a Roman bishop. Perhaps this very circumstance made Decius the more furious against God's people. Although he was emperor but two years, yet it is probable that more martyrs suffered in those twentyfour months than in any equal portion of time under any other of the Caesars. One sober writer compares the number of martyrs to the sands on the seashore. Decius was victorious in battle against the Persians, but soon after perished with his army in a morass fighting against the Goths. His successor was C. Vibius Gallus, who soon took up the
admire.
For a few subsequent years God's people had considerable quiet under Publius Licinius Valerianus. But ere long, about A. D. 257, began the eighth general persecution. Valerian's mind became poisoned, it is said, through the influence gained over him by an Egyptian. It is probable also that some professed Christians committed indiscretions and showed too great fondness for the world, though there is no evidence that they plotted or perpetrated any crime. The end of this monster was dreadful. He waged war against the Goths, Scythians and Persians. The Persians captured him, carried him through their country as a spectacle, and at last, by the order of Sapor, king of Persia, he was flayed alive and his skin, tanned, was hung up in a Persian temple. This fearful end and the providence of God over the mind of his son and colleague, Gallienus, moderated
self assassinated, A. D. 268.
The ninth general persecution was begun by the emperor Aurelian, the son of an IIlyrian peasant. He has been famous for his conquest of Zenobia, queen of Palmyra, and infamous for his intended cruelties against the Christians and for his crimes against his own blood relations. He had prepared, but never actually signed, a decree of persecution against the Church. While meditating these awful calamities against his best subjects, God let loose the passions of Pagans against him. After reigning four years or less, he was assassinated A. D. 275. But during his reign, and under Tacitus and Florianus, the numbers of Christians who suffered imprisonment and who expected death was very great.
The tenth and last general persecution bears the name of Dioclesian. Caius Valerius Dioclesian was of an humble family in Dalmatia. He became emperor A. D. 284. He ohose as his colleague Galcrius Valerius
Maximian, a Thracian shepherd. These united with them two others, Galerius and Constantius. These four men seemed to be just and mild, and for a considerable time were veryprosperous in public affairs. At length success engendered pride, and pride is impiety. Dioclesian began his fearful course by requiring divine honours to be paid to him. This was soon followed by the sacking and demolishing of churches and by the burning of the Holy Scriptures. These acts were followed by persecuting decrees sent forth in rapid succession, until, in extent, terror and cruelty, there had been nothing in history like the Dioclesian persecution. Serena, the emperor's wife, herself became a victim. In every cruel form, for ten years together, these four men, with others like them, stained every part of the empire with the blood of the saints. Dioclesian lacked neither talent nor force of character, but all this made him the more dangerous enemy to the Church of God.
ZATEB persecutions.
SIXCE these ten general persecutions there have been many horrible slaughters of the saints. It seems to be generally admitted that not less than a million of the Waldenses were put to death in France. Xearly as many orthodox Christians were slain in less than forty years after the establishment of the order of Jesuits. The Duke of Alva boasted that in his short career in the Low Countries he had caused thirty-six thousand to be put to death by the common executioner. And so it has been in all times of persecution. When the wolves have gotten among the flock, they have glutted a mighty raven ere they lay down to rest. Persecutors have no pity. There is no flesh in their heart. Like death and hell, they are never full. The United States of America
and the testimony of Jesus.
There is a general impression in the Christian world that yet other bloody persecutions await the Church. This is probably correct. More than one prophecy of Scripture indicates that before the close of the present dispensation the passions of malignant men will be let loose in the direst manner to afflict the saints. But it is not germane to the object of this work to go at length into the consideration of prophecy.
Some have suggested that probably in the wasting of future persecutions God's people in America may be exempt from the fiery trials that shall come on the churches of the Old World. Perhaps this is rather a kind wish than a judgment founded on any teaching of Scripture. If the people of this country have not shed much of the blood of saints, they are in many cases the descendants of persecutors. The law of retribution is still in force. The causes which disturb the pas-
sions of men and arouse the malignity of mankind have, and will probably continue to have, as full sway and as fell swoop in America as in any other part of the world. Coming across the Atlantic is no cure for the enmity of the human heart against godliness and Christian simplicity. The combinations of the elements of wickedness are easily formed. Where men feel heart to heart the distinctions of birth, sect or nationality are easily set aside; and bad men, moved by a common impulse, are easily fused into a molten mass of spite and wrath, desolating everything in its track and burying whole provinces in indiscriminate ruin.
the nephew of Caius Secundus Pliny, the philosopher, who wrote the Natural History, and lost his life A. D. 79, by making too near an approach to the crater of Vesuvius during an eruption. Csecilius Pliny is commonly called Pliny the Younger. He had the best advantages of education, having Quintilian for his instructor. He was greatly esteemed for his general good character. He was a fine writer and a favourite of the emperor Trajan. He died A. D. 113. During the third general persecution he was governor of Bithynia, and wrote to Trajan the following letter :
wishes health.
" Sire : It is customary with me to consult you on every doubtful occasion ; for where my own judgment hesitates, who is more competent to direct me than yourself or to instruct me where uninformed? I had no occasion to be present at the examination of the Christians before I came into the province ; I am therefore ignorant to what extent it is usual to inflict punishment or urge prosecution. I have also hesitated whether there should not be some distinction between the young and the old, the tender and the robust ; whether pardon should not be offered to repentance, or whether the guilt of an avowed profession of Christianity can be expiated by the most unequivocal retraction ; whether the profession itself is to be regarded as a crime, however innocent in other respects the prisoner may be; or whether the crimes attached to the name must be proved before they are made liable to punishment.
sued with the Christians who have been accused as such has been this. I interrogated them, Are you Christians? If they affirmed, I put the same question a second and a third time, menacing them with the punishment decreed. If they still persisted, I ordered them to be immediately executed ; for I did not doubt, whatever was the nature of their religion, that such stubbornness and obstinacy certainly deserved punishment. Some that were afflicted with this madness, because they were Roman citizens, I reserved to be sent to Rome, to be tried at your tribunal.
" In the discussion of this matter, accusations multiplying, a diversity of cases occurred. A list of names was sent me by an unknown accuser, but when I cited the persons before me, many denied that they were or ever had been Christians ; and they repeated after me an invocation of the gods and of your image, which for this purpose I had ordered to be brought with the statues of the deities. They burned incense and offered libations of wine
to the gods, and blasphemed Christ ; none of which things, I am assured, a real Christian can ever be compelled to do. Others, named by an informer, at first acknowledged themselves, and then denied it, declaring that though they had been Christians, they had renounced their profession some three years ago, others still longer, and some even twenty years ago. All these worshipped your image and the statues of the gods, and execrated Christ.
" And this was the account they gave me of the nature of the religion they once had professed, whether it deserves the name of crime or error : namely, that they were accustomed on a certain day to assemble before day, and to join in singing hymns to Christ as God ; binding themselves as with a solemn oath not to commit any kind of wickedness ; to be guilty neither of theft, robbery nor adultery ; never to break a promise nor to defraud any man. Their worship being ended, it was their custom to separate, and meet together again for a repast, promiscuous indeed, and
without any distinction of rank or sex, but without any act of evil ; and even from this they deserted since the publication of my edict, in which, agreeably to your orders, I forbade any societies of that sort.
"For further information I thought it necessary, in order to come at the truth, to put to the torture two maidens. But I could extort from them nothing but the acknowledgment of an immoderate superstition ; and therefore desisting from further investigation, I determined to consult you ; especially as the number of those who were in danger from your decree was great. Informations are pouring in against multitudes of every age, of all orders and of both sexes ; and more will be accused, for this infection has crept not only into cities but also into villages, and even into farm-houses. Yet I think it may be checked ; for in many places the temples of the gods, once almost desolate, now begin to be frequented, and from every quarter they bring sacrifices to be sold, whereas formerly very few were found willing to buy them.
From this I infer that many might be reclaimed if time and space were given them, and the hope of pardon on their repentance absolutely confirmed."
perfectly right in managing as you have the matters which relate to the impeachment of the Christians. No one general rule can be laid down which will apply to all cases. These people are not to be hunted up by informers, but if accused and convicted, let them be executed ; yet with this restriction, that if any renounce the profession of Christianity, and give proof of it by offering supplications to our gods, however suspicious their conduct may have been, they shall be pardoned. But anonymous accusations should never be heeded, since it would be establishing a precedent of the worst kind, and altogether inconsistent with the maxims of my government."
for a few remarks :
1. The enmity of the human heart against God and his people is exceedingly dreadful. It balks at nothing. It is the same from age to age. It knows no bounds. In the populace it assumes the form of brutal rage ; in the unprincipled it breaks out in clandestine informations; in the philosophic and generally humane it still persecutes even unto death. It is a deadly malice, a mortal hatred, seeking the utter extinction of true religion from the face of the earth. All infidels are in inclination pagans and persecutors. Because the carnal mind is enmity against God, it is enmity against all that is called by his name or shows forth his glory, or preserves alive the memory of his being, wisdom, power, holiness, justice, goodness, truth and mercy. It despises the
9-13; Luke xxi. 16, 17. Good men need trials, and therefore feel no surprise at outbursts of popular rage, nor at the schemes of cruel and cunning politicians for tormenting the saints. The ignorance and fierceness of the ungodly would swallow up all piety in a day if it were possible.
2. While a hypocritical pretence to piety, or a mere form of religion without its power, frequently passes unreproved, it is not possible for true vital godliness to escape the scorn or even bitter resentments of the wicked. A good confession of Christ is, after all, the greatest offence one can offer to a gainsaying world.
" I asked them, Are you Christians ? If they avowed it, I put the same question a second and a third time ; if they persisted, I ordered them to be immediately executed," says Pliny; and Trajan says, " You have done perfectly right." The offence of the cross has not ceased. Pure religion and undefiled is the greatest crime man can commit in the eyes of the ungodly and unsanctified. It was,
3. It is clear, from this letter and from many monuments of antiquity, that in less than a century after the death of Christ his doctrine was extensively embraced and his followers were very numerous. The temples in Bithynia had become " almost desolate." Victims had nearly ceased to be brought thither for the want of purchasers.
While things went thus in one region, in Syria the spread of the truth seems to have been no less rapid. In a letter to Trajan, the governor Tiberianus says : " I am quite wearied with punishing and destroying, according to your order, the Galileans, or those of the sect called Christians. Yet they never cease to profess voluntarily what they are, and to offer themselves to death. Wherefore I have laboured, by extortions and threats, to discourage them from daring to confess to me that they are of that sect. Yet, in spite of all persecution, they continue still to do it." Indeed, from the beginning of the second
century to the time of Constantino, the simple withdrawal of the Christians from the empire would have left a " a hideous gap," an awful desolation, not only in some inconsiderable places, but in many famous cities and provinces. God's word ran very swiftly. Even in Paul's time " their sound went into all the earth, and their words unto the ends of the world." Rom. x. 18.
4. Idolatry and true religion can never be reconciled. Fire and water are not more opposed. Idolatry stops at nothing. It addresses religious homage not only to gods many, supposed to be in heaven, but to bulls and cats and onions on earth. Not only the image of Jupiter, but the image of Trajan, must be worshipped. It multiplies the sorrows of all who hasten after it. It murders not only its enemies, but also its friends. Against such a system pure religion and undefiled must be antagonistic. It denounces all the pomp and pageantry of the most solemn rites of heathenism. It is utterly opposite to its doctrines, its morals and its
worship. The two can never agree. They are contrary the one to the other. Modern idolatry in power does as ancient idolatry practiced. It is as cruel and as devilish in Madagascar in the nineteenth century as in Rome in the first or second century.
5. We should not be surprised at apostasies. They are no novelty. The trials of successive ages vary in their form, sometimes being seductive and sometimes terrific, but poor human nature, if left to itself, can resist none of the assaults of the wicked. Seduction is often more potent than persecution. Demas seems to have withstood the latter, but to have been overcome by the former. False brethren have been found in the church in all ages. An apostle thus explains the whole matter of wilful apostasy : " They went out from us, but they were not of us ; for if they had been of us they would no doubt have continued with us : but they went out, that they might be made manifest that they were not all of us." 1 John ii. 19. In every age apostasies have occurred. There have always been men
who wished to wear the crown, but could not bear the cross. " It is no new thing for men to desert the profession of the truth, to which they have formerly appeared to be attached, through the fear of man or the love of the world."
6. Pliny's letter shows that from the first Christianity was, as it is now, a pure system, and was so understood by those who heartily embraced it. Even torture could produce nothing to the damage of the blameless lives of the early Christians. They never committed theft, fraud or adultery. Their word was sacred. They never denied a trust. Such fruits heathenism had never borne. They are the product of Christian morals. Blessed are those professed followers of Christ who by well-doing put to silence the ignorance of foolish men, and against whom the enemy can say nothing evil unless he say it falsely. Even apostates themselves said nothing worse of the character and doings of Christians than that one could not continue in good standing among them unless he led a holy life.
7. It also appears that the early Christians were of a quiet spirit, and even gave up for a time their public meetings in the day-time when they were by edict forbidden. They wrould not have their good evil spoken of. They quietly met before day, that they might not disturb the peace of neighbourhoods. And although they were so numerous that they could have made successful resistance by the sword, they never once resorted to violence, even in self-protection.
8. From earliest ages the divinity of Christ has been a fundamental doctrine received by all true Christians. The martyrs and confessors sung " hymns to Christ as God." They received him as their Lord, and worshipped him. This was the secret of all their power and intrepidity. Never would they have joyously died for Christ if he had not been to them all in all, the chiefest among ten thousand, the Wonderful, Counsellor, Mighty God, the Everlasting Father, and the Prince of peace. They worshipped him because they knew that as God he was with them,
9. In yielding their civil and social rights Christians may often go far, but they cannot yield their convictions — they cannot surrender their consciences. The governor and his creatures thought they required but little when they called on the Christians to repeat a few words of invocation to an image or to throw a little incense on the fire ; but there was principle involved. Good men could die for Jesus, but they could not sacrifice or pray to idols. The dictates of conscience, enlightened by the word of God, cannot and ought not to be unheeded. We must obey God rather than men.
10. There are many reasons why Christianity is unpopular. One is, that it inflexibly maintains the unity of God, 1 Tim. iv. 10 : "Therefore we both labour and suffer reproach, because we trust in the living God." Another is, that its author was hanged upon a tree, 1 Cor. i. 23. Another is that it spares no sin, no lust, but demands self-denial and
holiness of all, Matt. xvi. 24; xii. 11; 1 Pet. i. 15. Another is that it denies the possibility of salvation by any works or merits of the sinner himself; but points him to the righteousness of Christ as the sole and sufficient ground of acceptance with God, Rom. ill. 20 ; Gal. ii. 16 ; Rom. x. 4. To all these we must add that Christianity has always been exclusive, and has denied fraternity to any and every form of idolatry and of false religion. This is but carrying out in their true import the precepts of the first table of the law. The same objection was made to pure Judaism. Celsus tells the whole story : " If the Jews, on these accounts, adhere to their own law, it is not for that they are to blame ; I rather blame those who forsake the religion of their own country to embrace the Jewish. But if these people give themselves airs of sublimer wisdom than the rest of the world, and on that score refuse all communion with it as not equally pure, I must tell them that it is not to be believed that they are more dear or agreeable to God than other nations."
Had the Christians merely proposed their creed as one of many systems which might be advantageously followed, and their Saviour as one of many whose favour might be supplicated, they would have incurred very little odium. It was the fact that their system claimed an exclusive divine origin, and regulated their conduct accordingly, that made Tacitus, when he wrote of the burning of Rome, call Christians " persons convicted of hatred to all mankind." He and thousands believed that it was a higher proof of love to let your neighbour alone in his sins, and to fraternize with him in his false worship, than it was to tell him the truth, give him faithful warning and refuse to be a partaker of his abominable idolatries.
11. The world has never understood the real principles and motives of God's people. Even Trajan and Pliny, with all their natural good sense and fine talents, misunderstood their whole character and behaviour. Stern and unbending integrity is commonly admitted to be a fine quality. Close adherence
to our enlightened convictions of right ought to command respect and even admiration. But the steadiness of the early Christians in adhering to their Master and his cause was regarded as a crime worthy of death. "I was persuaded," says Pliny, " whatever the nature of their opinions might be, a contumacious and inflexible obstinacy certainly merited correction." And Trajan tells him he judged right. So they wrapped it up. If we may call all zeal, madness ; all principle, absurdity ; all firmness, contumacy ; and all intrepidity, rashness and obstinacy, we can be at no loss for grounds on which to condemn all goodness on earth. The same blindness and perverseness which kept the world from rightly judging respecting Christ himself, perpetuate false judgments respecting his people. Acts iii. 17; 1 John iii. 1. "The world knoweth us not, because it knew him not." This blindness is not the less criminal because it is natural, universal, and by human wit and power invincible. 1 Cor. ii. 14. Carnal men cannot understand spiritual things,
principles.
12. It is common for the wicked to persecute the righteous under false pretences — to find pretexts in something foreign from the Christian life and character. There is as much difference between firmness and obstinacy, between fortitude and contumacy, as there is between light and darkness, between vice and virtue. Because the Christians could not defile their consciences they were said to have the very spirit of rebellion against political authority. Then too they were held answerable for all the public calamities that befel the empire. Tertullian says, " If the city be besieged, if anything happen ill in the fields, in the garrisons, in the lands, immediately they cry out, 'Tis because of the Christians. Our enemies thirst after the blood of the innocent, cloaking their hatred with this silly pretence, that the Christians are the cause of all public calamities. If the Tiber flows up to the walls ; if the Nile does not overflow the field ; if the heavens alter
their course; if there be an earthquake, a famine, a plague, immediately the cry is, Away with the Christians to the lions." The favourite slanderous charge against God's people is, that they are disaffected toward the government, because they announce unwelcome but seasonable truths, because they stand aloof from the fury of the masses, or dissent from the foolish and wicked course of those in power. Thus of Jeremiah it was said, " Thou fallest away to the Chaldeans/' Jer. xxxvii. 13. Thus Amaziah sent to Jeroboam, king of Israel, saying : "Amos hath conspired against thee in the midst of the house of Israel : the land is not able to hear all his words." Amos vii. 10. Thus men accused Christ and his apostles. They know that nothing is more odious than unfaithfulness in the civil relations of life ; and when they lack all true ground of accusation in this behalf, they invent some story, or frame some law, or devise some test which good men abhor, that in some way
they may enrage the populace, prejudice rulers and have their spite on the objects of their murderous malice, their diabolical envy, 13. It would be well, even in Christian countries, if all in authority would so far follow the example of Trajan as to refuse to pay attention to anonymous accusers, frown from their presence malignant and unprincipled slanderers, and, instead of hunting up informers and maligners, would cast the shield of public law over all well-disposed and quiet people who obey all the laws and quietly mind their own business.
A MODERN MARTYR.
MODERN civilization has been sadly disgraced by both the spirit and practice of persecution. At the close of this book will be found a short list of books where may be found full accounts of these awful tragedies. One is here given as a sample of what human and diabolical malice will do, as also of what divine grace can enable its subject to accomplish. The intelligent will not wonder at the selection of
JOHN BRADFORD.
This faithful and eminent servant of Christ fell a victim to the malice and bigotry of Bloody Mary of England. She determined to establish popery in her dominions at any cost.
So powerful a preacher was he, and so desirous was the infamous Bonner, bishop of London, to induce him to return to the Romish Church, that more pains were taken with him and more patience exercised than with any. other professor of the Reformed faith.
But the attempt was vain. Bradford held fast his confidence and the rejoicing of his hope, and in January, 1555, after being in prison eighteen months, he was tried for his refusal to submit to Romanism before Gardiner, Bonner and others, and condemned to the stake. He was kept in prison till July following. It was not intended to give him any notice of the day fixed for his death. " As he was walking in the keeper's chamber with John Leof, who suffered with him, suddenly/' says Fox, " the keeper's wife came up as one amazed, and seeming much troubled, being almost breathless, said, ' Oh, Mr. Bradford, I come to bring you heavy news.' i What is that ?' said he. i To-morrow,' she replied, 'you must be burned.'" This was sudden
indeed, but it did not take him at unawares. Fox adds, "With that, Mr. Bradford put off his cap, and lifting up his eyes to heaven, said, ' I thank God for it. I have looked for the same a long time, and therefore it cometh not to me now suddenly, but as a thing waited for every day and hour ; the Lord make me worthy thereof.' "
Accordingly, next morning, he and young Leof were early led forth, a multitude thronging the way, who sympathized deeply with them ; and some near relatives, who pressed forward to shake hands with and give a parting blessing to Bradford, were brutally used by the sheriff and his assistants.
When they came to the stake in Smithfield, they laid themselves down on the ground, "one on one side of it, the other on the other, praying to themselves the space of a minute;" in this they were interrupted by one of the sheriffs crying to them, " Arise, make an end, for the press of people is great."
then requested that his clothes might be given to his servant, for he had nothing else to give him. He put off his upper garment and went to the stake, saying, " O England, England ! repent thee of thy sins, repent thee of thy sins !" He was stopped by the sheriff threatening to tie his hands if he would not be quiet. Turning to the people, he asked forgiveness of all, as he forgave all, and besought them to pray for him and his fellowsufferer, to whom he said, " Be of good comfort, brother, for we shall have a merry supper w7ith the Lord this night." Embracing the dry rods that were bundled round him, he cried, " Strait is the way and narrow the gate that leadeth to eternal salvation, and few there be that find it." Fire was set to the pile, and two precious lives were taken away. Thus these holy men went up to glory in a chariot of fire.
BY A. B. C.
AX inside view of Romanism is not easily obtained, even at the metropolis of the papal empire. There are so many gates that are kept closed to a Protestant, and so many doors not easily opened to him ; there are so much glare of gold and glitter of tinselry on the outside, and so many charms of music and fascinations of art ; so much stained glass and "dim religious light," that between the dazzle and the darkness I began to fear lest my eyes might be so blinded as to be of small use to me.
But I rubbed them a little and bathed them in the clear water of the Divine "Word, and, aided by my historical glass, I soon be-
as external attractions.
I do not wonder that a superstitious, enthusiastic, voluptuous people should be Roman Catholic there at Rome — that any one, almost, should be with whom a taste for the fine arts transcends a love of the truth as it is in Jesus. Nor yet do I wonder that romantic girls and imaginative, would-be-poetic boys, on whom gospel truth has no firm hold, charmed by the free notions of this earthly enchantress, and the exalted ideas of antiquity, authority and infallibility which she inculcates, should be caught in the sweep of her rustling drapery.
All that art and wealth, all that dress and drapery can do, has been done for the Romish Church. It is vain, as well as sinful, for Protestants to enter the lists with her as rivals in these things. She has the advantage of accumulated treasures and of a thousand years' experience, and they cannot successfully compete with her. Their only hope
ifi in the counter-principles — simplicity, sincerity and truth. Light is more powerful than darkness, sincerity is mightier than ceremony — the Bible than the breviary.
In its principles and pretensions the Romish Church is to-day very much what it was five hundred years ago. It is niediseval still. Its organization is even more complete now than it was then, though relatively much feebler.
chief institutions.
These give the clew to the exclusiveness, intolerance and persecution which for a thousand years have marked the history of Romanism.
Of its principles, that which lies at the foundation is its claim to be the only catholic and apostolic Church, and that salvation is not possible out of its pale. The practical inference from this assumption is, that it is nearly impossible for one to fail of salvation
who is in it. This principle, so sweepingly exclusive, necessarily makes the Romish Church intolerant and persecuting. It places her in direct and positive opposition to every other organization that claims to be a Church. And, the more fully its members accept this fundamental dogma of Romanism, the more likely are they to regard all means as lawful for extending the one and for exterminating the others.
The worth of the soul, and the importance of its salvation, serve only, on this principle, to intensify their zeal as proselyters. The Church of Rome, to them, is the only form of Christianity and the only way of salvation. The hope of the world is here, and there is none for it anywhere else. Nothing is of such moment as the extension of this Church, and the extermination of whatever co-ordinate claimants stand in its way. For men to be deluded by these rival organisms is certain and eternal ruin. Where the Church of Rome is not, there ignorance, error and all vices and crimes abound, and moral death
broods over men. But where its influence is unrestrained all these have gradually disappeared, and the light of science, of truth, and of eternal life have come most benignly to shine.
In this false faith bigotry seizes and incarcerates its victims and confiscates their property. Fanaticism lights its fagots and fans its fires for the glory of God and the diffusion of the gospel.
In an important sense the Church is a vast moral power. This is the truth contained in this Romish error, and is the source of its influence. But the Romish Church is not the Church, either exclusively or par excellence. The assumption of this is its error and the cause of its moral weakness. Falsehood is always weak, and must fail when truth fairly confronts it.
Christ said, " My kingdom is not of this world." The Pope says, " 3Fine is." The Master gave to Peter the "keys," but his
reputed successor in the episcopal chair has taken the sword also. Pope Pius IX., in his last encyclical letter, says that " the apostolic see is based on the temporal power." He classes the idea that " the cessation of the temporal power would contribute to the happiness and liberty of the Church" among the principal errors of the times to be condemned and punished. And the grand council of two hundred and fortyfive bishops, archbishops and patriarchs, which assembled in Rome in 1862, " affirm that the temporal sovereignty of the holy see is a necessity, and that it has been established by the manifest design of Providence." Therefore it must by all means be retained.
This necessity looks beyond the Church as a "pillar and ground of the truth" to a purely political force. As a spiritual organism, she can execute only spiritual pains and penalties. But by her temporal sovereignty, and through the political powers she controls, those who fall under her ban as heretics are executed as criminals. By this double action
of the Church, the State has long played the part of her menial. The pope has raised up kings and princes and cast them down again at his pleasure — has absolved their subjects from fealty and bound them to it, irrespective of the will of either subjects or rulers. Powerful monarchs have bowed at his gate, abjectly begging for the uplifting from them of his oppressive hand. He has fomented wars and declared peace. He has made treaties and violated them, enthroned kings and dethroned them, levied taxes, raised armies, established arsenals, built fortresses and supported navies. But why does this chief feeder of Christ's flock need these temporal powers and this enginery of war? " For the good of the Church and the free government of souls," say the two hundred and forty-five chief papal dignitaries. " We do not hesitate to declare that, in the present state of human affairs, this temporal sovereignty is absolutely requisite for the good of the Church and the free government of souls !" — by fires and fagots, by imprisonment and tortures, by gibbets
But did Christ, or did Peter, claimed as the first pope, possess or feel the need of this temporal power ? Or did any of his successors at Rome for five hundred years possess it ? And how was this power gained ? History answers — her own history. Gradually and through successive popedoms, by chicanery, by simony, by fraudulent deeds of conveyance and false titles, by extortion, by wars and bloodshed.
And how has this triple-crowned monarch used this temporal sovereignty ? In hunting and harassing, for nearly a thousand years, the saints of the Most High who have dissented from his dictum or doubted the dogmas of the cardinals; by persecuting the Cathari, the Lollards, the Begards, the Waldenses, the Albigenses, the Wickliffites and the Bohemians ; by pursuing unto death the Reformers in Holland and Hungary, in France, in Germany and in England, both Lutherans and Calvinists.
Iii 1572, on St. Bartholomew's eve, in the reign of Charles IX., the Protestants were decoyed by the royal oath of safety to a wedding festival in Paris. The queen dowager of Navarre was there perfidiously poisoned, Admiral Coligny treacherously assassinated, and ten thousand Protestants — brave men, delicate women and helpless children — fell victims to the ruthless slaughter of a brutal soldiery. From Paris the furor extended to the chief cities of the kingdom, and from fifty thousand to one hundred thousand of the purest and noblest fell in this relentless massacre. And when the news of this horrible carnage reached Gregory XIII., the cannon of St. Angelo belched out the public joy, and bonfires illumined the papal city. A thanksgiving mass was performed in St. Mark's Church, and a jubilee from this dark centre was proclaimed throughout the Christian world.
But in the reign of Louis XIV. even this merciless butchery was far exceeded in infernal devices — tortures by burning-irons, by slew roasting, hanging by the feet and by
the liair of the head, plunging into deep wells, suffocating with smoke, piercing with pins, starving and shooting down like wild beasts. And Romish priests gloated over these outrages, and chanted the Te Deum in the midst of them, and Gloria in Excelsis !
" And I looked, and behold, a pale horse ; and his name that sat on him was Death, and Hell followed with him. And power was given unto them over the fourth part of the earth, to kill with sword, and with hunger, and with death, and with the beasts of the earth."
" And I saw under the altar the souls of them that were slain for the word of God, and for the testimony which they held."
" And they cried with a loud voice, saying, How long, O Lord, holy and true, dost thou not judge and avenge our blood on them that dwell on the earth ?"
This is the use which the Romish Church makes of her temporal power — to enforce by the sword an external harmony where there is only internal discord. Is that a "free
government" whose chief function is to repress free thought, free speech and free worship? Is it a government "for the good of souls" that closes up from them God's word of life — that compels them to worship in a dead language — that deludes them with " lying wonders," and gives them two mediators where God has given but one — that changes a bit of bread into the body of God, and puts a priestly mass in the place of the divine sacrifice ? Does the good of souls require a sword in the hand of the Church to enforce these dicta upon unwilling subjects ? Yet this is theoretic Romanism and systematic persecution. And this is the philosophy of the whole question of temporal sovereignty.
It changes the great issue between the Church and the world. From one of faith it makes it, as a finality, one of force. Christ falls out of Christianity to make room for Caesar — the Church drops her keys and grasps the sword. She withdraws the evangelists and apostles from the conflict, and relies on bullets and bayonets as the chief propagators
and defenders of the faith. When a Church appeals from the Bible to bulls and bombshells, from arguments to arsenals and armies, it ceases to act in the capacity of a Christian Church and becomes a mere civil power, and, for all purposes of ecclesiastical rule, a persecuting power.
It is a third fundamental principle of the Romish Church, discovered by this inside view, that heresy is a crime punishable with death.
This is abundantly maintained by her writers on criminal law and on Christian ethics and theology. And it is inculcated in all their principal institutions of learning and by all monastic orders.
on the subject, says :
" Heretics can justly be excommunicated, and therefore put to death. Knowing that fools wTill not be wanting who may believe them, and by whom they may be supported, if you confine them in prison or send them into exile, they corrupt the neighbourhood by their speeches and looks ; therefore, the only
" If the forgers of money," says Aquinas, another of these authorities, " or other malefactors, are justly consigned to immediate death by the secular princes, much more do heretics, immediately after they are convicted, deserve, not only to be excommunicated, but also justly to be killed."
In this third principle the two former come to a practical point. It is the keystone in the arch of this spiritual despotism. The pope, as supreme in the one only Church, holds the power of excommunication. But as a temporal sovereign he holds also the power to execute upon the excommunicant whatever penalty is judged best for the safety and aggrandizement of the papacy. This has been decided to be the death-penalty. Heretics ought to be excommunicated by the spiritual power and put to death by the temporal. But what is heresy ? The pope, in his encyclical, answers : It is heresy to affirm that " the best condition of society is that in
which the power of the laity is not compelled to inflict the penalties of law upon the violators of the Catholic religion, unless required by public safety." This is the latest assertion of this obnoxious, persecuting power, and by the highest authority. It is vital still in Romanism, and cannot, " except by annihilation, die."
What is this "power of the laity?" It is the temporal power of the pope. It is the power of kings and all civil authorities and states, that are, or ought to be subject in this, to his rule. Who enacts the " law ?" The pope and the cardinals. Not only at Rome, but throughout Italy, France and Spain, and also in Protestant England and the United States, everywhere and always, the civil powers ought to carry out the decrees of these mitred ecclesiastics, and hang, burn or exile the excommunicants of the Romish Church, not as bad subjects, but as violators of the Catholic religion. This is the arrogance of the triple-crowned prince of the Vatican and his scarlet-clad abettors, and this the humilia-
to him as the vicar of Christ.
The doctrine that "liberty of conscience and of worship is a right of every man," by the same high authority is pronounced a heresy and " a delirium" which the spiritual power punishes with excommunication, and the temporal in all nations ought to punish with death. And in Rome this
despotism complete.
To purchase and read the Bible or any other prohibited book, without a license, is an heretical act, and subjects the offender to excommunication and death. All " biblical societies" are classed in the appendix to his encyclical as "pests," and all who countenance them are held as " violators of the Catholic religion," on whom the "penalties of law" should be inflicted.
since, of Count Guiccardiani and his companions, at Florence, for reading the gospel of John, was a logically defensive necessity of the assumptive infallibility and supremacy of the Romish Church. Julian the Apostate, for the same reason, forbade to the Christians the study of heathen learning. " They wound us/' he says, " by our own weapons ; with our own arts and sciences they overcome us."
Here is the vital point in the present issues of the papacy. She must retain her political character, or lose her power of compelling the faith of men in her sovereignty. She must have executioners of her most exterminating sentence, or her empire and her grandeur are ended. Then would her fulminations have only the force of the truth that is in them. Fire and fagots and £he sword would, in her pale, give place to free thought and free speech. She would be obliged to meet dissent with argument, light with light, and spiritual foes with only spiritual forces.
conditions of my temporal power." But in the year 1866, the great prophetic year for a downfall in Romanism, the emperor of France withdraws his troops from Rome, and the temporal sovereignty of the pope, sustained by falsehood and fraud, vanishes from the page of history.
More than half a century ago wrote Napoleon I. : " The interests of religion, as well as those of the people of France, Germany and Italy, all unite in compelling his majesty to put an end to this temporal power, the feeble remnant of the exaggerations of the Gregories and others, who claimed to rule over kings, to give away crowns, and to have the management of things of the earth as well as those of heaven."
He began the compulsory action, and his astute nephew — knighted as il Defender of the Faith" in Rome, on Christmas, 1850, in one of the grandest displays of the Church — has brought it to an end.
OF the five chief institutions of Romanism, a full inside view can be secured only at Rome. They are all clustered here. This is the grand centre. The heart of the system is here, and these institutions are its arterial organization.
"As St. Peter vanquished the first heresiarchs on no other spot than Rome," said the old Dominican inquisitor Caraffa, " so must the successor of St. Peter overcome all the heresies of the world in Rome." Everywhere else, from the intelligence of the people oo the tolerance of another faith, it meets with hindrances to its full operation.
despotic and infallible head of the Church militant. Pius IX., at first, would have been a reformer had reform been practicable. His accession was hailed by the Italians as the dawn of a brighter day. He introduced some constitutional elements into the government. He granted a chamber of deputies and a lay ministry. But the cardinals saw the tendency, and resisted him. They arrested legitimate measures which arose in the chamber, and overrode the ministry. The crisis gave him an opportunity to relax the oppressive rule of the Romish Church, and to signalize himself in the progress of civil and religious liberty. It was in his heart to do so. But he lacked courage. He was not the man for his time, and he fled from a people that then loved him as intensely as they afterward hated him. He refused their repeated invitations to return and carry on a government of his own projecting; and he employed a foreign soldiery to bombard his way back to a throne on which he has since sat, firmly or feebly, according to the number
rent of Him who said, " My kingdom is not of this world," battling in blood for a temporal dominion ! The assumed representative of the Prince of Peace maintaining his sway at the point of the bayonet and in seas of blood !
2. Here is the college of cardinals, that rearguard of absolutism, that impure junto of misanthropy, tyranny and sensuality. It numbers seventy when full, fifty-six of whom are cardinal priests, twenty-four cardinal deacons and six cardinal bishops. The pope appoints the cardinals, and they in turn elect the pope, and act as his counsellors at home and legates abroad. They assist him in the celebration of mass, and one officiates as his prime minister. Nominally, they are subject to him, but in reality they are his rulers.
Examples of nobleness and philanthropy, doubtless, there are among them. But according to common fame and reliable testi-
rnony, these are the exceptions. The revolution of 1848 brought several of them, for a time, under the protection of our Minister at Rome, and into the familiar interchanges of thought and feeling, disclosing a social and moral debasement the farthest removed from what the Gospel requires in its teachers, and which would blast the fame of any Christian minister in our land.
3. The Propaganda di Fide, founded by Gregory XV. in 1622, and further endowed by Urban VIII., is also at Rome. It is situated at the southern extremity of the Piazza di Spagna. Its annual income at the close of the last century was three hundred thousand Roman crowns. Its printing-office was one of the finest in the world, with type for publishing in twenty-seven languages.
The French Revolution swept over it, and its pupils were scattered, its funds appropriated to other purposes and its founts of type carried to Paris. In 1818 the college was reopened, and it now numbers from seventy to a hundred choice students.
The scholastic dress is a long black cassock, bound with a red girdle, and two broad ribbons hanging from the shoulders behind. The students are entirely supported by the institution, even to the expense of travel to Rome and back to their native country. Each one in return gives a pledge that he will devote his life to the dissemination of the Catholic faith.
At the annual exhibition in 1851 parts were performed in fifty different languages. This institution presents an illustration of some of the comprehensive educational principles of Romanism. It disdains the odious distinctions of color which prevail in some branches of the Protestant Church. The blackest Ethiopian stands here on a level with the fairest of the Anglo-Saxon or the Latin race. It collects the materials upon which it works from every nation, tribe and tongue, and stimulates them to the greatest zeal and energy by the highest admiration and praise.
whole masterly missionary system of the papacy. By the multiform orders of monks and nuns, as through so many arteries and veins, noiselessly it sends out and receives back its vital fluid. The whole world is distinctly mapped out in its halls, and the chief points of influence minutely marked. A kind of telegraphic communication is established with the remotest stations in South Africa and Siberia, and with almost every nook in our own land, to which the myrmidons of papal power look with the most of hope, and also the most of fear. It is through means of this modern galvanic battery, set up in the Vatican, that the Church of Rome has gained its power of ubiquity — has made itself wellnigh omnipotent as well as omnipresent.
The same forestalling, stimulating principle is applied in the training of monastic females. At vespers, one Sunday evening, in the Church Trinita di Monte, I witnessed a service by the " white nuns," illustrating this feature of Romanism.
They were girls, from eight to sixteen, with blue frocks and white veils falling upon the shoulders behind and nearly to the feet. They entered the church from the adjoining convent in a procession of two and two, approached the altar, slowly bending the knees almost to the floor, and bowing in graceful homage to the picture of the Virgin. Then rising they turned, each to the opposite side of the space, knelt again, rose and seated themselves. The service consisted of chantings and responses, genuflections and demonstrations, after which the nuns retired, bowing to the altar as when they entered. In all these ecclesiastical gymnastics they had been trained to the utmost exactness and gracefulness of manner.
But why are these girls, at this tender age, taken out of the family relations, and foredoomed to a life with which they can have no natural affinities? Why this unseemly haste to bind them to this single and repulsive life ? God made man male and female, and in the unity of this dualism is developed
the whole humanity. The Church of Rome, iu respect to the clergy, contravenes this primal order. Not a few of the ills which afflict fair Italy arise from this initial vice of Romanism — the celibacy of the priests. They are the teachers and rulers of the land. But they are not allowed the family ties of husband and father, and consequently lose the humanizing, elevating influences which God has connected with these hallowed relations.
4. Another characteristic institution of the Romish Church, which has its centre at Rome, is the Company of Jesus, or the Jesuits. The general of the order resides at Rome, wielding a sceptre second in power only to that of the pope. To the three vows of poverty, chastity and monastic obedience, common to other orders, Loyola added a fourth, peculiar to the members of his society. It was the vow of obedience to the pope in the service of the Church, without charge for their support. This procured them their institution from Paul III. in 1540. In nine
man control, except that of the pontiff.
The constitution of the society is essentially military and most rigidly despotic, all power being lodged with the general. In his hands all are to be as " a staff/' or " as a dead body." It was the boast of Ignatius that he wished for only one month to secure this conquest. The achievement is accomplished by means of a manual called the " Spiritual Exercises." " These," says Father de Ravignan, " have created the society, maintain it, preserve it and give it life." Hence this book is placed at the threshold of the order.
The victim sits and stands, and sighs and groans, and weeps and reflects, and prays, all by a prescribed rule. In this way he is broken to the will of the ghostly father. The man is then lost in the order. Every power of body and mind wears its chains. His last act of freedom is his choice of this perpetual bondage. Says Loyola, "If the authority declares that which seems to you white is black, affirm that it is black."
From the life of free thoughts and free words, and of an advancing Christianity, men are thus taken into the close atmosphere of the tombs, to be as corpses among the dead. The order is a complete despotism over the mind, conscience, will and estates of its numbers. Espionage and inquisitions reign in all grades and offices of the company, except the highest. All are watched by all ; and all give account to the general of the order, who gives account to none.
5. Finally, the central enginery of the Inquisition still works with a secret though somewhat abated malignancy. This is the main defensive expedient of the papacy, devised by Innocent III. in the twelfth century for the conviction and punishment of heretics, and renewed at the Reformation. Within the enclosures of this il Court of Death/' are kept the "iron shears" of this infallible Church, with which she is wont to pare the faith of men into agreement with her canons
and her catechism. Here is the statue of the blessed Virgin, with her spike bosom and her iron arms, with which this step-mother was wont to receive her wayward children to her fond embrace. Here, too, are the huge " keys" of St. Peter, and the deep dungeons and massive doors within which she locks up poor temptation-tried pilgrims, to keep them unspotted from the world.
For this inhuman work
a laic must not be taken, for he may have some social bands or some "dregs of conscience, some milk o? human kindness," which may make him a coward.
At its reinstitution in 1542, six cardinals constituted the first court, as Inquisitors General ; of whom Caraffa and Toledo were the chief. Its powers were absolute, save the right of pardon reserved to the pope. By its rules no respect was to be shown to " prince
cution.
The fourth rule forbids any sort of tolerance towards heretics, and especially toward Calvinists. Children are compelled to be informers against parents, and parents against children, husbands against wives, and wives against husbands. The Duchess of Ferrara, except for the Salic law heiress to the throne of France, was accused by her own husband, and shut out from all sympathy. " The mountains are between her and her friends," said her keeper; "she mingles her wine with tears."
Thus the most concealed germ of free thought is hunted out of society and of the soul by the disguised or open emissaries of the inquisition. " Dishonour of the reason," says Schiller, "and the murder of the soul constitute its vows. Its instruments are terror and disgrace. Every passion is in its pay, and its snares lie in every joy of life. Even solitude is not secure from its espionage, and the fear 0 •
of its omnipresence holds freedom fettered, even in the depths of the soul. All the instincts of humanity it has trodden down under the feet of credulity, and to it have been made to yield all those bonds which men esteem holiest. All claims upon his race are, for the heretic, disallowed. For, by the least infraction of the law of Mother Church, he has destroyed his humanity. A modest doubt as to the infallibility of the pope is esteemed parricide. Even the lifeless body of the heretic is cursed. No destiny can rescue its victims, and the grave itself is no refuge from its terrible arms."
During the revolution in 1848 the doors of this infernal institution were torn open, and its mysteries of iniquity disclosed to the gaze of an indignant humanity. In the Chamber of Archives were piled up the records of its dark proceedings. Over the door to one apartment was written, "No one enters this room except on pain of excommunication." It was the Judgment Hall, where the fate of thousands has been sealed
by the diabolical inquisitors. In an adjoining room was found a trap-door, through which the condemned passes into eternity. The pit is cylindrical in form and eighty feet deep, within which the terrific engines of death performed their demoniacal work.
The strictest literary censorship, which is a part of the criminal jurisprudence, is extended by the inquisitors to every department of science, archaeology, philosophy, history, political economy and theology. Xo original investigation is tolerated divergent from the prevalent orthodoxy. In 1543, Caraffa ordered that no book, whatever its contents, whether old or new, should be printed without permission from the inquisitors. All booksellers were required to submit a catalogue of their stock, and a few years after an index of forbidden books was published and still continues to be.
In 1851, I copied the following decretum from the door-post of St. Peter's, with an appended list of prohibited books :
our most holy Lord, Pius IX., in which we have condemned and will condemn, have proscribed and will proscribe, the following works."
Letters on the Egyptian Hieroglyphics.
"No one shall dare to publish, read or keep in any place or idiom, any one of these condemned books, under the penalties stated in the ? Index of Vicious Books/ "
" That a book, in worse condition than a peccant soul," said John Milton, " should be made to stand before a jury ere it be born to the world, and undergo, yet in darkness, the judgment of Rhadamanth and his colleagues, ere it can pass the ferry backward into light, was never heard before till that mysterious iniquity, provoked and troubled at the first entrance of reformation, sought out
But there is one object on which these mitred ecclesiastics look with more intense anxiety than upon any other. They fear it more and hate it more. It is the Bible. This they regard as the fomenter of all their difficulties. This occasions agitations and discussions among the people, and kindles in them dangerous desires to think for themselves, and to know what God teaches. Here are the seeds of free schools and free thoughts, a free press and a free government. The Bible has made England and America free. Hence the Romanists proscribe it and burn it, and exile, incarcerate or burn those who read it.
The massive strength of the Romish hierarchy is found in the great institutions of which we have taken a glimpse — the Papal See, the College of Cardinals, the Propaganda di Fide, the Order of Jesus and the Inquisition. It involves the highest constructive skill, and is the fruit of twelve hundred years
of experiments. But just here too, is its weakness; because mere human sagacity is always weak, and must, in the end, prove futile against Divine Providence and the Bible.
In a certain mythology of the ancients, the heavens are supported by the earth, the earth by an elephant, the elephant by a turtle, while the turtle stands on his own feet. By a similar series of supports the Inquisition stands on the Propaganda, the Propaganda on the cardinals, the cardinals on the pope, and the pope on nothing.
As a spiritual despotism it must remain as it is or fall. Reform is impracticable. Luther and Melancthon sought this earnestly, boldly, but ineffectually. They did not break from the Church until, for their efforts at reform, she cut them off as guilty of damnable heresy. They must
protest and fight for the truth, or perish.
The papal anathema roused the Saxon monk. " You will burn me," he says, " for answer to the God's message which I strive
to bring you. I take your bull as a parchment lie, and burn that" And, proceeding with it to to the east gate of Witteraburg, he kindled a fire which illumined the whole Xorth of Europe. " Confute me by proofs of Scripture," said he, " at the Diet of Worms, or else by plain, just argument, otherwise I cannot recant. Here I stand — I can do nothing else, God help me !"
Thus the battle commenced — the great battle of Armageddon, of truth against error, light against darkness, Christ against Antichrist. At this point the papacy closes the breviary, and
To the side of truth and freedom gather the faithful and the free from every clime. They are inspired by the voices of the slain witnesses under the altar, saying, "How long, Lord God Almighty, shall we not be avenged ?" And their final victorious requiem shall be in the language of the Seer of Patmos,
BY MITA LAUDER.
ASEREXE Sabbath in June. The sun looks down calmly from his sapphire throne upon beautiful France, now bleeding with the bitter persecution of God's people — the despised Huguenots. There, in his pleasant light, stands the little village of Mirecourt.
A neat temple nestles in the foliage, and through the quaint old streets, and across the little green squares, and past the rows of freshly-trimmed shade trees, are walking a goodly company in holiday attire. There are old men in small clothes, with shining kneebuckles and three-cornered hate, and young men in gay waistcoats and glittering breast10 109
pins. There are peasant women in black jackets, short scarlet petticoats and tall, clearstarched muslin head-dresses ; and pretty grisettes in coquettish black silk aprons and jaunty lace caps; while children of all sizes are scattered here and there, as buds among the flowers. Only a small number of faces peep out from bonnets, for in this little district there are not many families of wealth.
One of these few bonneted women would instantly have attracted your attention ; she was slightly below the middle age, with a calm, pale face and soft hazel eyes. Before her walks a fine-looking lad of eighteen, leading two little girls, and behind her two round-faced boys, who might have been, the one twelve and the other fourteen years of age. This group constitutes the Montrevel family, one of the most respectable in the place and universally beloved.
church hidden among the trees. When the Montrevel family approached the entrance, Louis drew back the little girls for his parents to precede him, and then following with his brothers, they all passed in and sat down on one of the benches, Louis helping his twin sisters to mount a seat each side of him.
on, our loins girded and our lamps trimmed and burning. Our lot is cast in a comparatively obscure part of the Lord's vineyard. And as yet we have known but little of the terrible sufferings our brethren and sisters have endured since the revocation of King Henry's edict. But when the bitter cup comes to us, as come without doubt it will, may we drink it submissively ! I pray that in the day of adversity not one of my dear flock may be left to deny his Master."
Hardly had he uttered these words when the distant sound of cavalry sent a shudder through the assembly, for the poor Huguenots had good reason to know what this portended.
" I will look unto the hills whence my help cometh," said the good man, lifting up his eyes to heaven. Then extending his arms toward his beloved people, he continued :
More and more distinct grew the tramp of the horsemen, and in spite of Father Legarrne's cheering words the people were greatly agitated. Some fled in terror, while others huddled together at the foot of the altar.
On came the dragoons — dashing with savage yells through the quiet streets, across the green sward — on toward that temple of sincere worshippers. In less time than it has taken to describe the scene the Lord's house is filled and surrounded. Mounting the pulpit, his sword clattering on the stairs, the captain unrolled a parchment with its large seals of state, and read a proclamation, the substance of which was that his royal majesty had appointed dragonnades for the recovery of all heretics to the Most Holy Catholic Church.
" In accordance with this proclamation/' he continued, " you are all hereby summoned to repair to the cathedral, where the priests who accompany the regiment will receive your recantation ; and afterward you will celebrate the mass. If any refuse to obey, upon them will the dragoons be quartered." 10*
Then addressing the soldiers with a shout, " Now, men, to your work \" there followed a scene of indescribable terror and distress. Some fled ; others were dragged through the streets into the cathedral, up to the very altars, while a few, sorely tempted, hastily signed their abjuration, to repent of it ever after.
The houses of the recusants were filled with these emissaries of the Church. All the torments that human or satanic ingenuity could devise were made use of to force back these wanderers to the arms of their cruel mother. The poor victims were hung up by their feet or the hair of their head ; and as if that were not enough, were at the same time nearly suffocated by the burning of damp straw in their cells. They were plunged into water and drawn out with a bare escape from drowning. Strong drink was poured down their throats through a funnel till they were intoxicated, in which condition they were induced to recant. By the ceaseless vigilance of sentinels, for a whole week at a time they were prevented from securing one minute's sleep.
"Women were cruelly disfigured in the face, and dragged through the streets by the hair of their heads, and otherwise shamefully maltreated. Thus in every possible way were they harassed and tortured, while, if they attempted to flee the country, they were pursued, and if caught punished as malefactors. But the refinement of these cruelties was the tearing from the arms of their parents children of the tenderest age, and committing them to the charge of that cold-blooded stepmother — the papacy.
Upon the Montrevel family had been quartered thirty of these remorseless dragoons — an infliction, in comparison with which the Egyptian plagues were a dispensation of mercy. There seemed to be no species of wanton or brutal violence which these holy " booted missionaries" omitted from their means of grace for the conversion of heretics. After various ineffectual efforts with Monsieur Montrevel, one of these fiends exclaimed with an oath, "You shall swallow the host," and i pening his mouth with a bayonet, another
together they forced down his throat.
As Louis, the eldest son, witnessed this atrocious act, he started to rush upon the monsters, but an appealing look from his mother and the recollection of his own impotence arrested his motion. At this moment, a Jesuit father, entering, angrily addressed the heretic.
As they were dragging him from the room, he cast a parting glance at his wife and son, saying, " Remember the promise, 'Be thou faithful unto death, and I will give thee a crown of life/"
To make sure of the lambs, these ravening wolves then proceeded to tear from the brokenhearted wife her two younger sons and the pretty twins, little Agnes and Marie, whose pleas to stay with their dear mamma might have moved a heart of stone.
drunk, had thrown themselves down to sleep, Louis went out to draw water. Hastily following, his mother beckoned him into the granary.
" There is no help for it, Louis. Your father will be murdered, and the little ones are all torn from me. But you may live to serve the dear Master. You will find means to escape to Holland and then to England, where, it may be, you can prepare yourself to be a minister of the blessed gospel. Perhaps some of your friends will go with you ; but there must be no delay. And here is a little money for you."
" For you to remain is torture and death, or, worse still, the dreadful galleys. For you will not forswear your religion."
neck, and without another word set forth on his exile. As he came to a bend in the road, he turned and took a last glimpse of his beloved home. How attractive it looked in the sunset-light, with its pleasant parterre, its nice gravel- walks, its neat rows of trees, and that indescribable air that invests home with such a sacred charm !
went on his way.
Two of his friends, Andrew and Henry Oster, lived with an uncle who was a Catholic, and whose house, consequently, was free from the hated dragoons. Being one of the easy sort, he did not molest his heretical friends, and if he happened to meet either of the boys carrying provisions away, was discreetly silent. They were, in fact, carried to a secret cavern, where a few families, having managed to elude the vigilance of the spies, had hid themselves, taking with them their beloved pastor, Father Legarme.
Leaving the friends on their way to the cavern, we will go back to the home from which Louis had been driven forth, and where Madame Montrevel remained alone with the ruthless invaders. Innumerable cruelties were practiced upon her to make her renounce her religion. But in vain. Having consumed all the provisions that had been stored up, pillaged the premises of everything valuable and demolished the house even to the foundation, the savages dragged the faithful woman before the Duke de la Pontiac.
enraged at her obstinacy.
And ordering pen and paper, one of his zealous servants seized her hand and compelled her to sign her abjuration.
Is it possible, we are constrained to ask, that the most bigoted zealot should have attached any weight to such conversions ? Yet most of the converts reported so triumphantly to the king were of this description. It does not surprise us that the good queen of Sweden, though a devoted adherent of the papacy, should write as she did to the French ambassador at Stockholm :
" I will frankly avow that I am not quite persuaded of the success of this great design ; and that I cannot rejoice at it as an affair very advantageous to our holy religion. Military men are strange apostles. I consider them more likely to kill, to ravish and to plunder than to persuade ; and, in fact, accounts beyond doubt inform us that they fulfil their mission entirely in their own mode. I pity the people abandoned to their discretion. I sympathize with so many ruined families* so many respectable persons reduced
exclaims :
" I am overwhelmed with grief when I think of all the innocent blood which a blind fanaticism causes daily to flow. France exercises without remorse or fear the most barbarous persecution upon the dearest and most
industrious portion of her people
Every time I contemplate the atrocious torments which have been inflicted upon the Protestants, my heart throbs and my eyes are filled with tears."
Even Madame de Maintenon, that zealous renegade from Protestantism, frankly admitted, " I think that all these conversions are not sincere ; but at least the children will be Romanists."
Having exhorted the lads to remain true to their faith, whatever trials they might encounter, the good pastor prayed fervently with them, and then, having received his parting benediction, they set out on their journey.
Louis.
" Well, maybe it's wrong, and yet I don't see how flesh and blood can do any better. It's all sham, the pretended zeal of the dragoons— or dragons, as they ought to be called. I wonder if poor France will ever be free from her oppressors? Oh that we had a father William to fight our battles for us, as those Dutchmen had!"
cheeks.
" My sweet little Agnes and Marie !" was his explanation. The dear boys too — and my noble father and mother. How can I bear 'it?"
" Cheer up," said Henry, " for there's no knowing what may happen. We may have another king who will restore our edict, and then what a flocking in there will be from all quarters ! But, Andrew, suppose we shouldn't get off, after all?"
outskirts of the gay city.
" If you can only escape the notice of the guards," said their host, as his wife was putting up a lunch for the travellers, " and once set your feet in Charleroi, you will be under the protection of the Dutch garrison. There's no knowing how soon the rest of us will have to flee. But keep up, lads, for we shall reach heaven all the sooner for our persecutions, and thank God there'll be no dragoons there !"
unci hostess, the boys once more set forth on their exile. They had not travelled many hours before they caught the sound of distant troops. Leaping the hedges, they had no sooner reached a place of concealment in the Is than a company of dragoons rode furiously by. It was not till long after the last sound of the retreating horsemen had died away that they ventured again into the high road. They also encountered other perils, in which their presence of mind alone saved them.
"So they do to me," responded Louis, " and I suppose it is because we are in circumstances to feel the need of the consolations they breathe. I think we should also find passages of Scripture more precious, for the same reason. Let us make the experiment."
breath.
"I think we had better consult a little about our plans," said Louis. " What do you mean to do, boys, if we get safely out of France ?"
Thus beguiling the way, they travelled on in fancied security. Stopping to lunch, they heard some travellers discussing the dragoons.
Xow the boys knew that La Platte was near the boundary-line, and that it was a town they were to pass through in approaching Charleroi. In a sudden alarm they concluded to deviate from their intended route, and
was through they began to regret.
" I fear we have been very foolish, and only put our heads into the lion's mouth/' said Andrew, after they had walked some time in silence. " Did you observe that ill-favoured man that looked at us so sharply while we were lunching this morning ?"
they concealed their alarm, and called for supper and lodging, meaning to escape in the night. They were just partaking of their frugal meal when the dreaded man, who had stepped out, reappeared, accompanied by four gendarmes, and pointing to the lads, they Were speedily arrested and brought before the governor, who, after a brief examination, committed them to prison. Sending to Paris for
orders, he received a rescript requiring them to be brought to trial, not only for heresy, but also for being found on the frontiers without a passport It contained directions, however, that the cure should labour for their conversion, and, if successful, that they should be pardoned and sent home.
The officer to whose charge they were committed, though a Catholic, did not believe in persecution. Reporting to his prisoners the rescript, he added :
" Xow, boys, your own consciences must be your guide. All I have to say is, that if you recant you will be pardoned ; but if not, you will probably be sent to the galleys."
The following morning the cure commenced his pious labours. But it did not take him long to discover that, whatever arguments he might advance, the b )ys invariably managed to get the better of him. The oftener he was discomfited,
success. For he reasoned within himself:
" These boys have so much pluck that if they were only on the right side, they could argue down multitudes of heretics as I can never do."
them, particularly in Louis.
" It's of no use to discuss any longer, for the rogues have used me up. And they've read all my books; no, they haven't," he exclaimed, as a sudden thought flashed on him, " for there's the very best of them they haven't even looked at."
And a smile dawned on his face as he thought of its fair pages. After pondering a few moments in silence, he broke out :
"Yes, yes, that will do it; and if one yields, all will. She has become greatly interested in their conversion from hearing my reports. And I'll set out the case in the morning so as to move her feelings. I don't see any objection to the scheme. The Montrevel family is very respectable, and Louis
is a handsome fellow, and a good one too, as one can easily see, in spite of his damnable heresy. And for that his parents are more to blame than he."
The next day the officer ushered into their cell a young and pretty girl, bearing a basket of grapes from her uncle, the cur6.
"Sit down and talk with these prisoners a bit," said the officer, " for they are separated from their friends, and know not what is to befal them."
The damsel had a tender heart, and, though a devout Catholic, she pitied these misguided heretics. So in a friendly way she began to ask questions, happening first to address Andrew.
" My brother and I are orphans," the lad replied, " and have no brothers or sisters ; but Louis has left a great many friends, besides two of the sweetest little sisters you ever saw."
"And on our part," exclaimed Louis, warmly, "we will entreat the Lord Jesus Christ to lead you into that truth for which we are ready to die."
" But you must not. I cannot believe the blessed Virgin requires such a sacrifice. How I wish Father La Sallier were here, for he is more learned than my uncle, and I think he could convince you of your errors."
ished.
" I think she is too good to remain a Roman Catholic, and I shall pray for her conversion as earnestly as she does for ours."
For several successive days the maiden continued to visit the prison, bringing fresh offerings of fruits and flowers. Xot only this, but she also brought books which she hoped would convince them of their errors. And after each visit she went home more intent on their conversion.
" That does not prove, silly girl, that he never will have. All I want to know is, what thou wouldst say if he should ask thee to become his wife?"
" That is not to the purpose, my daughter. He may be proof against thy prayers, and yet be unable to resist thyself. If thou canst save him and the others too, wilt thou do it ? that is the question."
The next day the cure went to the prison, and Louise rather reluctantly accompanied him, remaining, however, by his permission, in the keeper's room.
"That she has, and a pretty fortune to boot. And I will tell you what it is, young man: if you will only abjure your heresy, I will give her to you for your wife, dowry and all."
Rapidly did Louis picture the two futures spread out before him. On the one hand, freedom, wealth, position, and, dearer than all, this beautiful, loving maiden for his bride; on the other a convict's fate — igno-
u He is an ingrate," growled the uncle as he strode rapidly home, his niece being scarcely able to keep pace with him. 12*
" He shall have no prayers of mine — the child of Satan ! To think of his flinging back such a gift in my face! I shall denounce him forthwith."
Louise made no reply till they entered the house, when she set upon him with a flood of entreaties to persuade him to connive at the escape of the boys. At length he promised to think it over, and not to decide till the next morning.
His niece retired to her room, but not to her pillow. Taking the little book out of her pocket, she read on its title-page, " The New Testament ."
" It must be a part of the Bible," she said to herself, " for I have heard my uncle speak of the Old and New Testaments. I suppose he would burn it if I told him. But it can do no harm if I hide it under my pillow. Poor Louis ! for his sake I will keep it."
sought the holy Mother to have pity on these poor heretics, and to save them from the dreadful fate that threatened them. Toward morning, wearied out, she threw herself on a couch, and falling into a heavy sleep, did not awake till daylight was streaming into the room and the convent-bells were ringing for matins. She hastened down stairs, but the cur6 had eaten his breakfast and gone out. She was oppressed with dread, and well she might be, for in that system in which she trusted there were no bowels of mercies. Persecution was a high duty, a great mission of the Church. Heretofore she had believed in this duty, though not without a struggle. She was distressed at the doubts which now began to creep over her. So there she sat, looking out of the window with a foreboding heart, which proved only too true a prophet. Her uncle had hastened to the authorities to denounce the three boys as hardened reprobates, under the dominion of the devil.
and being found guilty of the charges brought against thern, received sentence of condemnation. But before this sentence could be executed, it was necessary that it should be confirmed by the Parliament of Tournay. So the prisoners were bound together with cords and marched thither. Here they were committed to a dungeon, their trial being deferred that their conversion might once more be attempted. The arguments employed, however, were somewhat anomalous — the logic of pain, the spiritual efforts of this cur6, in marked contrast with the persuasions of love in the last experiment, consisting in inquiries, from time to time, whether they were not weary of suffering.
If they were not, it certainly was no fault of their jaikrs. Rotten straw, filled writh vermin, was the couch on which they lay starving for days and weeks, the scantiest allowance of miserable bread being thrown to them through the grating. Here the poor boys wasted away without the touch of any loving hand — without a syllable of cheer
Wonderful was the faith that preserved them from uttering that word — that gave them such lofty heroism when so near starvation !
But temptation was to come to them in still another form. Two additional prisoners were one day shut into their dungeon, whom they were surprised to recognize as old schoolmates, who had been arrested, like themselves, for the crime of worshipping God according to the dictates of their conscience. The faith of these comrades, howrever, was not proof against the trials into which it had brought them. They could sacrifice much for their religion, but not everything. In their case the blessed seed had fallen upon stony ground ; and though it had sprung up, yet for want of root it could not resist the burning heat of persecution.
At length came the rescript from the minister of state, conveying the king's decree. The parliament was convoked. The youthful prisoners, pale and emaciated almost to skeletons, were brought forth from their miserable dungeon and placed in the dock. Then the judge put on his black cap and read their sentence :
" You, Louis Montrevel, and Andrew and Henry Oster, convicted of being Huguenots, and of having attempted to leave the kingdom for the purpose of securing freedom in your detestable heiesy, by the order of our most gracious majesty, Louis XIV., I do hereby condemn to the galleys for the remainder of your natural life."
What a blow to fall on those young heads ! Brave as they were, and hard as they had struggled to prepare themselves for the worst, their hearts quailed with dread, while drops of agony stood on their pallid faces.
Observing their emotion, the judge gave them one more opportunity to retrieve their fate. But they instantly repelled the proposition ; they could not deny their Lord.
So the obstinate heretics were removed to another city, where the gang was to be formed. And here they were cast into a filthy hole, where no ray of light ever penetrated, and where were crowded more than thirty miserable ruffians, convicted of every sort of wickedness and crime.
Dreadful companionship was this for the pure-minded boys ! Assailed on every hand with jeers and taunts and gibes, while their ears were filled with obscene ribaldry and jests and horrid profanity, they could only lift up their hearts in silent prayer to Him who was made perfect through suffering.
At length the gang was completed, and being chained two and two, they were marched together to Dunkirk. Language cannot describe the sufferings of this route. We have all shuddered at the appalling accounts of " the middle passage" on board the
African slavers. But this passage could not have exceeded, in horrors, the fearful march of the galley-slaves to their destination. Here were congregated the basest, most profligate characters — a company of hardened convicts, " topfull of direst cruelty" — brutal, blasphemous, fiend-like. Shrieks, groans and dreadful imprecations were freely intermingled with the frequent crack of the bloodbringing lash.
What must this scene have been to those virtuous and high-minded boys ? To add the last drop to their full cup, they were from this time separated from one another. Poor Louis was chained to the very vilest of that vile set — a scoffing miscreant who had been guilty of every species of crime, and who, having twice escaped from the galleys and been retaken, was now on his way there once more. As may be conceived, he was in a man-hating and God-defying mood.
To be thus bound to a mass of loathsome moral corruption, a body of living death, while his blood was chilled with the foul Ian-
guage, and awful blasphemies and curses poured continually into his ear, was indeed a trial under which the boy's spirit quailed and wellnigh sank. Then he cried unto God :
" Deliver me out of the mire, and let me not sink : let me be delivered from them that hate me, and out of the deep waters.
And the Lord heard his supplications and strengthened him out of Zion. There came to his mind consoling promises :
Louis thought of his Saviour's patience under the indignities heaped upon him, of his prayers for his persecutors, of his infinite pity for sinners. And there was kindled in
his heart a tender compassion and an intense yearning for the salvation of this wretched being with whom he was so closely interlinked. This enabled him to bear all his abuse with a divine meekness which at first only exasperated the wretch to greater violence.
Miserably fed by day, at night they were lodged in some dismal outhouse, where — worse off than the beasts — they had not even straw on which to lie down, while their inhuman driver seemed ever on the alert to invent new modes of discomfort and torture.
Under all these trials and provocations, such a wonderful patience and meekness did Louis exhibit, and so kind and gentle was his treatment of his fellow-convict, that at length, as the constant trickling of water will wear away even the granite, so that obdurate nature, seemingly hardar than rock, began to soften.
" I tell you what it is," he broke out one day: "I can stand out against 'most anybody or anything, but" (with a dreadful oath) "I can't, somehow, seem to stand against such an innocent lamb as you. I've been thinking over those days, so long ago, when my mother used to teach me my prayers to the Virgin. Many's the time she's led me to the grand cathedral, and taught me to sign the cross on my forehead writh holy water, the more's the pity. For when I found out
what d d fellows the priests were, with
all their flummeries and falsehoods, and making money by cart-loads out of people's sins, then I gave up attending mass; and finally I broke away from everything good, till I came to believe that God was nothing but a bugbear to scare children with. So now here I am, at the bottom of everything."
There was a touch of feeling in the man's voice, which made Louis' heart beat quicker. And as they travelled on he told him the wonderful story of the Man of Sorrows, and of the dark depths into which he descended
And so the long days passed away, the hoary sinner drinking in blessed teachings from the lips of the earnest boy.
Louis had become so reduced from his long sufferings, with a scarcity of food, that his little remaining strength was rapidly failing.
" I don't believe I shall be able to go on in the morning," he said to Duress one night, when they had stopped for lodging in a crumbling barn; "and they will have to leave me here to die of starvation."
Louis protested, but was finally persuaded to swallow it ; and dry and hard as was the morsel, it somewhat revived him.
" Xow, if you can lay your head on me you may, perhaps, catch a nap or two. I know I'm not fit company for such a lamb, and I'm not over clean, but I shall make a better pillow than the floor."
Touched by his kindness, Louis complied and soon fell into a sound slumber. But when in the morning came the summons to march, he was unable to stand.
Now if you want to get him to the galleys, I'll just take him there in spite of himself. So give us the word, and I'll grab him fast/' with a sprinkling of oaths all along.
The driver and his subalterns, who had gathered round, broke into a hoarse laugh, and with the crack of the whip and a volley of imprecations the marching recommenced.
" I had to sham, or the wretch would have left you there to die. And I had to swear too, or I couldn't have deceived him, though I knew 'twould hurt your feelings. But you'll overlook it."
" Well, I'll try my best to break it off, though it comes as natural as my breath. I dunno as I'm doing you any kindness to take
Most tenderly Duress carried the boy, who, from sheer exhaustion, fell asleep on his shoulder. Whenever the driver or any of his underlings passed by, they would chuckle, as much as to say, " That's a good one."
" I'm afraid I have tired you out, Duress," said Louis, on awakening from his long nap, refreshed and able to bear his own weight once more.
better a load I had than most of the things I've lugged ; a body murdered, for instance." But seeing Louis involuntarily shudder : " I'm a brute from letting on this way to such an innocent lamb."
At length the toilsome march was over, and Louis Montrevel and his new friend were entered as slaves upon one of the six galleys stationed at the port of Dunkirk.
On each side were twenty-five benches, to every one of which was attached a long, heavy oar, which was pulled by six convicts chained by the leg to a bench. There were thus three hundred of these rowers to each galley. About fifty free marines worked the sails and managed the vessel. And in addition were a hundred soldiers, with a number of officers for general command and for the custody of the slaves.
The galley had at her bow five guns ranging from eighteen to thirty-six pounders. Her mode of attack was to bear down heavily with her oars, so as to drive her prow into the enemy's stern, and then, firing her guns, to board him with her soldiers and marines. A part of the guns were always kept charged and pointed at the convicts, in order to prevent their taking part with the enemy, and to suppress mutiny. But as mowing down the rowers would leave the vessel powerless, these galleys were mainly used for coasting and for cutting off stragglers, though occasionally they were employed for conveying official per-
sons to a distant port. Their principal use, however, was as a penal infliction for those convicted of capital crimes, such as murder, burglary and Protestantism.
The overseer, or slave-driver, was called Le Comite, and the two inferiors under him, Les Sous Comites. Their badge of office was the cowhide, to the lavish use of which they were urged by the superior officers when a greater rate of speed was desired. On the naked backs of these poor fellows, labouring at the oar and stripped from the waist upward, thick and fast would fall the dreadful blows, bringing away strips of skin, and followed by the shrieks of the victims, as the blood flowed from their lacerated flesh.
So far as the hated Huguenots were concerned, all this was neither more nor less than the long iron arms of the Inquisition reaching out to crush them, although under the disguise of civil law. Such degrading bondage ! such incessant toil ! such cruel taskmasters ! — separated from all refining as well as religious influences, and subjected to the
vilest companionship, the most loathsome associations ! — what wonder, if under this constant wear of body and soul, the faith of some should at length give away ?
Nurtured by a tender mother in the bosom of a refined and affectionate family, Louis was ill prepared for the dreadful scenes to which he was now introduced. As the future spread out gloomily before him, no wonder that hot tears flowed from his eyes.
" Cheer up, messmate !" said a voice behind him, and turning his head he saw Duress, from whom he had temporarily been separated, but who was now chained to the same bench.
" You'll hardly thank me for bringing you here, my lamb. But since here you are, I hope I shall find some chance of easing your dreadful burden, if ever so little."
" I don't believe it'll be many years, for though you've got a tough spirit, your weak body can never long stand this hard work.
But have you seen that poor old fellow on the bench before us? — no, not the one you are looking at, but that other with white hair, and just such a patient look as you Huguenots all wear. I'll be bound he's one of you."
It was not long before he had a chance to make himself known to his good pastor, who soon told him his sad story. It seems that after being arrested, convicted of heresy and condemned to death, his sentence was commuted. So here he was in chains as a galleyslave.
It was one of the saddest things in Louis' sad life to see this venerable patriarch tugging at the oars by day, and at night cowering for sleep under his rude bench. He felt as if he would gladly have performed his tasks and borne his stripes. Alas! it
his own.
Apart from the liability to those occasional extra labours which involved indescribable suffering, the ordinary condition of these unhappy beings was painful in the extreme. Constantly chained to the bench at which they sat by day, and under which they slept by night, exposed to all the vicissitudes of the elements, covered with vermin, scantily clothed, miserably fed, and degraded almost below the brutes by the treatment they received, they were compelled by sheer force of the whip to render an amount of work at the oar which under no other system could have been extracted from the human muscles.
Such were the toils and such the sufferings in which Father Legarme, Louis Montrevel and Duress were now intimately associated, the two latter being chained to the same bench. The consoling passages from the Divine Word which the boy repeated to his companion in their chance moments of intercourse fell upon his thirsty spirit with a
quickening and comforting power, while the occasional counsels of the aged pastor were eagerly treasured up. And a blessed comfort it was to the two older Christians to see Christ formed more and more distinctly in the life of the late hardened reprobate.
Day after day — month after month — year after year — no outward change in the life of these worn, oppressed, yet trusting convicts ! But He who looks upon the hearts saw that they, each and all, were fast ripening for heaven.
It was wonderful that Father Legarme's strength had held out so many years. Of late, however, Louis and Duress had noticed a failure in his powers of endurance.
It was one of those days of oppressive heat in the month of August when, ordinarily, labour was made light as possible. But as the officers desired to reach a certain port with the utmost despatch, commands were given for a twelve hours' pull without a moment's intermission. In order to accomplish this the comites, from time to time, would
put into the mouths of the rowers pieces of bread dipped in wine, which they did while they were pulling, so as to prevent the necessity of their dropping the oar.
The crack of the whip, the shrieks and yells of the bleeding victims, the awful oaths of the comites and the shouts of the officers urging them on — what a scene of horrors was there presented ! And how did Louis' heart ache for Father Legarme toiling thus in the burning sun !
" The old father won't last over for another such day as this," said Duress in a low voice to Louis, to which he could only answer by a deep sigh.
It was toward the very last of the passage that the good pastor's strength finally gave way, and he was obliged to slacken his efforts. The comite, provoked beyond measure to lose his services at such a juncture, rained on him blows like hail, till the old man dropped in a swoon. There he lay without consciousness or motion till they reached their port. Then the whistle was sounded; and a dose of
opium being administered all round to ensure sound slumber as a preparation for the toils of the coming day, the tired oarsmen dropped under their benches.
The moment their comites were out of the way, both Louis and Duress, exhausted as they were, sprang fqrward to see if any life might be lingering in that poor wreck of a body. When they found that he still breathed, they almost regretted that all was not over.
" Poor old fellow !" said Duress, sorrowfully ; " I thought he'd have got inside the bright gates this time surely, but here he is still, the more's the pity. Since he's alive, though, I'm bound to take care of him. But you must go straight back, my lamb, for the comites, one or the other of them, may pass along here any minute. And if they should nab you, 'twould be a hard case."
" 'Twont do, messmate. Don't you remember the threat they made the last time you helped him out of a swoon? Besides, you
"You let me alone, my lamb, and give heed to my words. You can see and hear everything from your bench, and will be within call if I want you, while now you're only in the way. So, it you don't want to distress me, march!"
All this time both of them had been chafing the old man's limbs, but thus entreated, Louis tenderly laid down his hand and withdrew. When Father Legarme's pulses grew a little stronger, Duress tore pieces from his shirt, and dipping them in water laid them gently on his inflamed wounds, after which he fed him from his own scanty allowance.
" It is of little use, my son," said the good father, trying to smile, "to patch up this poor tenement, which is fast falling to pieces. I am sorry not to bear my dying testimony to my Master's faithfulness before all these poor creatures, but he knows I have the will. Do all you can for my beloved Louis,
At this point Louis came forward, and pressing his lips to the trembling hand of his beloved friend, said, as distinctly as his sobs would allow :
The dying man, having offered up a few broken but fervent petitions, then gave them his parting blessing, when Duress insisted on Louis' leaving them. Thus driven away, he stole back to his station, and leaning against the bench, looked gloomily around him.
It was a sad picture that met his eye. Under the galley-benches were huddled, one over another, the exhausted convicts, buried in the deathlike slumber of opium. Many of them had dropped down in their weariness, without stopping to put on any covering. And there in the bright moonlight he could distinctly see their backs gashed and bleeding from the merciless cowhide, while
he said to himself.
It was indeed a dreary future that stretched away before him. He had often felt that martyrdom would be a blessed exchange for his present existence. In a fearful crisis, such as occurred under the pressure of inquisitorial tortures or in confronting a violent death, the excitement sometimes occasioned a rallying of all the vital forces of body and mind, which sustained and elevated the soul to a pitch of heavenly rapture.
But these days of degrading, bitter, hopeless servitude — slowly revolving, one after another, in what seemed an interminable cycle ; these days of sickening toil and abuse, in which the spirit was fettered with chains dragging it in the dust; days when the physical frame became too weary and worn for the utterance of prayer, while no blessed Sabbath rest ever came to strengthen and refresh ; — oh it was this lingering martyrdom
of the soul, wearing away, little by little, all its vital forces, it was this which Louis felt he had not courage longer to endure.
how to suggest :
" Who knows that there is a God ? If there was, and he was benevolent as had been represented, would he turn a deaf ear to the pleadings of his children ? Would he suffer his chosen ones to be hunted from place to place like wild beasts, and to become the very offscouring of the earth ?"
Thoughts of the tender-hearted Louise also came to him, and of her earnest efforts to save him from this dreadful doom.
bitterness.
These doubts and questionings ran riot in his bewildered mind, ploughing deep furrows in the very centre of his being. In the midst of this conflict, while great drops of anguish stood on his forehead, and such rending sobs broke forth as no bodily torture had been able to force from him, he suddenly catches the clear tones of Father Legarme :
These words of the dying martyr broke the tempter's hold. As at the approach of sunlight the moles and bats and all the monsters of darkness flee to their hiding-places, so, at this single glimpse of the Sun of Righteousness did all his evil thoughts melt and vanish away. What a change had passed over everything !
on them, nor any heat.
" For the Lamb which is in the midst of the throne shall feed them, and shall lead them unto living fountains of waters; and God shall wipe away all tears from their eyes."
Then he thought of his tried friend, Duress, whom he had led to Christ, who for years had borne faithful witness to the truth, and who at this moment stood unflinchingly at the post of danger. Was it not worth all his sufferings to bring to Christ one such soul ?
As he looked round once more on that pitiable sight which had lately harrowed his soul to madness — the sight of wretched convicts, whose degrading bondage and fearful sufferings were uncheered by any light from the great future — there came a voice from the infinite heights :
" What I do thou knowest not now, but thou shalt know hereafter. Trust to infinite love, and one day all these discords shall be harmonized."
An ineffable calm stole over him, while the bitter sorrows of the past and of that future which had seemed interminable, to his now cleared vision appeared only a light affliction, which is but for a moment, working out a far more exceeding and eternal weight of glory.
The long night had dragged through its appointed hours. The rising sun was just tinging the waters with a faint glow. It looked down upon Louis Montrevel leaning quietly against his bench, his pale face illumined with celestial light — a face which at that moment no one would have taken for that of a galley-slave.
One moment more and he had passed into the celestial city. Duress folded those wasted hands, and then wiping his eyes with the back of his bronzed hand, returned to his post, saying to Louis :
closed his eyes in earnest supplication.
Being led forth, the convict was stretched prostrate over a plank, while two stout galleyslaves held his arms pinioned and two more his legs. Then a gigantic Turk approached, and with his utmost vigour applied the cowhide, with every lash bringing away a long strip of skin. Not a groan escaped the sufferer, but after a few blows he broke out in prayer :
Then the comite seized the dreadful instrument, and dealt stroke after stroke till he too was exhausted, when he flung down his whip, saying coolly :
He spoke the truth. The bloody instrument had opened for another saint the gates of paradise. The once hardened reprobate had gone to receive the martyr's crown.
" And I saw under the altar the souls of them that were slain for the Word of God, and for the testimony which they held :
" And they cried with a loud voice, saying, How long, O Lord, holy and true, dost thou not judge and avenge our blood on them that dwell on the earth ?"
" Revered pastor ! beloved Duress !" exclaimed Louis with clasped hands : " your conflict is ended, your victory won ! help me to endure till my turn comes !"
The mangled form found a kind shelter in the blue waters, and Louis Montrevel, with the peace of God in his soul, took up his cross anew and went on his way.
172 APPENDIX.
All these books are issued by the Presbyterian Board of Publication, and may be read with profit by youth. They illustrate the power of sustaining grace ; they show what God can enable old and young to do. As the mind of the reader shall mature, let him read such books as these :
| 30,796 | common-pile/pre_1929_books_filtered | martyrssufferers00plum | public_library | public_library_1929_dolma-0002.json.gz:4418 | https://archive.org/download/martyrssufferers00plum/martyrssufferers00plum_djvu.txt |
N8-rb0pcRZV3PULX | The Ancient and Medieval World | What Muslims Believe
Niall Christie
The Qur’an:
The first source of Muslim belief is the Qur’an, which is regarded by Muslims as the very word of God, transmitted to humanity through His Prophet. It is seen as the final, perfect version of the revelation that was previously made humans, who misunderstood or distorted its teachings on earlier occasions. The book itself is roughly the size of the New Testament, and deals with a number of themes:
- God: We are told about the nature of God. He is omnipotent and omniscient, but also kind and benevolent to humanity. Most importantly, God is one single being, with no partners, associates, or offspring. Idolatry is thus fiercely opposed. Meanwhile Christians and Jews are also criticised for associating other figures with God. In particular, the Christian claim that Jesus is the son of God, and also God, is explicitly refuted; indeed, in the text Jesus himself is described as denying the truth of such a claim.
- Stories of the Prophets: The Qur’an also recounts or alludes to stories of the prophets, most of whom would be recognised by readers of Bible. In the Muslim view, the first prophet was Adam, and then God communicated with many subsequent figures such as Abraham, Moses, and Jesus; the latter was the precursor to Muhammad, the very last and Seal of the Prophets. Of these figures, Abraham, Moses, David, and Jesus were given scriptures to share with humanity, but as noted above, humans misunderstood or distorted these revelations, making the new revelation to Muhammad necessary.
- Legal Teaching: The text describes or at least alludes to a range of legal teachings, making it a social contract as well as a book of religious doctrine. Thus one may consult the Qur’an to establish how to divide up inheritance, how to treat the women in the community, how to look after the poor, the correct manner in which to undertake warfare, and how to deal with non-Muslims. Not all the teachings in the text are clearly stated, however, and as time went on the Muslims periodically encountered situations where Qur’anic teaching could not be applied easily, and so legal scholars used hadith material (see above) and further legal argumentation to develop the Qur’an’s teachings into a full-blown legal code known as the shari‘a.
- The Day of Judgment: The Qur’an tells us that we will all die at the times appointed for us. Then, at time known only to God, we will all be resurrected and judged according to our deeds, finding our way to Paradise or Hell as appropriate. Both these places are described in great detail in the Qur’an; Paradise is a garden, with trees and rivers, where food and drink are plentiful, there are gems and gold, and (depending on the translation) beautiful maidens who will be heavenly wives for the pious.
The “Pillars of Islam”:
To avoid Hell and gain a place in Paradise, Muslims are expected to believe in God and His scripture, and to express that belief through their actions, obeying Islamic legal teaching and seeking to do good. As part of this, Muslim daily life is regulated through five practices commonly known as the “Pillars of Islam”. These are as follows:
- Shahada (profession of faith): Muslims testify to the truth of their faith through two statements: There is no god except God, and Muhammad is the Messenger of God. These statements are made frequently in Muslim ritual practices, such as during salat, below.
- Salat (ritual prayer): Most Muslims conduct ritual prayer five times a day, at dawn, noon, mid-afternoon, sunset and later in the evening. The ritual prayer consists of a set of standard invocations and recitations, accompanied by changes of bodily posture, from standing, to bowing, to kneeling, to prostrating oneself before God; the number of times that one does this depends on the time of prayer. Salat can be performed anywhere, but if possible it should be conducted facing Mecca. A mosque is a place set aside for prayer, and Muslims are particularly encouraged to join their fellows in the mosque for Friday noon prayers, when they will also hear a sermon. Muslims do, of course, also conduct informal personal prayer in addition to the formal salat ritual.
- Zakat (almsgiving): Muslims are expected to donate a portion of their wealth to charity every year.
- Sawm (fasting): During the month of Ramadan, Muslims fast from dawn until dusk, abstaining from food, drink, smoking and sexual activity. Not all are required to fast: pregnant or nursing women, pre-pubescent children, the sick, the infirm, and travellers are either exempted or required to make up the fast later on. This practice is undertaken to commemorate the first revelation to Muhammad, and is seen by many Muslims as an opportunity to refocus their attention on their faith.
- Hajj (greater pilgrimage): Once during their lifetime, if they are able, every Muslim should perform the greater pilgrimage to Mecca. This takes place at a set time of the year, in the Muslim month of Dhu’l-Hijja. The hajj involves a number of rituals, including visiting a number of sites in and around Mecca, and engaging in activities such as walking around the Ka‘ba and throwing stones at pillars representing Satan.
- See A step-by-step guide to the hajj from AlJazeera.
- Watch Seven things you don’t know about the hajj from the BBC.
Jihad:
Jihad is a concept that is often misunderstood in the modern day. In Muslim teaching, the term is associated with any sort of struggle for the faith. In times of war this can be a military struggle, though such activity must be conducted within a number of restrictions, including not harming non-combatants (Muslim or non-Muslim), not engaging in wanton destruction of property, and not deliberately killing oneself on the battlefield. However, Muslims see the military aspect of jihad as but one part of a much wider concept. One can also wage jihad by speaking out for social justice, for example. From the earliest days, the concept was also understood to encompass the inner struggle that one wages against one’s own inner sinfulness, and by about the 12th century Muslim religious scholars, especially those influenced by mystical ideas, had elaborated a theory of jihad that saw this inner struggle as the most important, and a prerequisite for going out to wage the external struggle. Thus the concept of jihad is a rather more complex one than some media outlets or extremists would have us believe.
Interfaith Relations:
Since the earliest days of the faith, Christians and Jews were allowed to live in Muslim communities, provided that they paid poll tax, accepted Muslim authority, and did not cause trouble. Over time this usage became extended to other non-Muslims as the Muslim world expanded. Islamic law does contain certain social restrictions that may be placed on non-Muslims if the ruler chooses, but many rulers kept these to minimum or chose not to impose them, with the result that at times non-Muslims rose to positions of prominence within Muslim states. There were exceptions, of course, of whom one of the most notorious was the Egyptian caliph al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah (r. 996-1021), who persecuted Christians and attained particular notoriety in 1009 when he ordered the destruction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem. However, in both the middle ages and the modern day there were plenty of cases of co-operation and co-existence between Muslims and non-Muslims, even in face of opposition from Muslim authorities; one of the most striking recent examples occurred during the Egyptian revolution of 2011, when Christian and Muslim protestors co-operated closely with each other to advance their shared goal of regime change.
Media Attributions
- Blue Qur’an Page
- 2014 Eid ul-Fitr Praying – Imam Ali Shrine – Najaf 4 © Sonia Sevilla is licensed under a CC0 (Creative Commons Zero) license
- Egyptian Unity © Gigi Ibrahim is licensed under a CC BY (Attribution) license
Arabic masjid, lit. “a place of prostration”
deliberately cruel | 1,739 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://kpu.pressbooks.pub/ancientandmedievalworld/chapter/the-pact-of-umar/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:70175 | https://kpu.pressbooks.pub/ancientandmedievalworld/chapter/the-pact-of-umar/ |
LGfOup0Um6MI76Ld | Studying for Success at LBCC: Student Field Guide | 37
Cannon Piller
I chose this topic because I have found being a student-athlete a challenge. I run track, and I am a secondary education major with an emphasis on math. I have had to resort to many lifestyle changes to keep my body healthy. I must make sure my grades are good so that I can compete.
Being a student-athlete is tough; you must balance practice games homework and especially time for yourself. You will feel overwhelmed by halfway through your first semester. You will feel the pressure from your coach and your teachers to perform well in both parts of your life. I will give a few tips and tricks on how to survive your first semester of the best four years of your life.
Studies have shown that a lot of athletes will not have good grades in school. People scrutinize these students and cause them to feel like they aren’t good enough. The best thing to do in your first year is to make sure your grades are good enough to avoid the trouble from your coach, your teachers, and possibly the public. As a student-athlete, you are responsible for making the school look good by having good grades and performing to the best of your ability.
The best thing to do in order to avoid bad grades is to schedule a time to study and do homework, be organized, and give yourself time to relax. Being organized gives you an advantage in the long run with finals. Giving yourself time to relax will relieve stress from practice and homework and help keep you interested in school. You must also let your professors know when you have a game, so they are able to help you get the work you need. Make sure to be in class on time and always check your email.
If the stress of your first year of college is still getting you down, you could check out a few of these articles to give yourself a better feeling about being a student-athlete:
Sources:
Uribe, Raphael. “A Student-Athlete Life: Balancing Academics and Sports.” Https://Makeachamp.com/Blog/a-Student-Athlete-Life-Balancing-Academics-and-Sports, 25 Jan. 2016,
Dixon, Chelsea L. “Surviving Freshman Year as a Student-Athlete.” CollegeXpress, | 474 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/lbccfys/chapter/being-a-student-athlete/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:30148 | https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/lbccfys/chapter/being-a-student-athlete/ |
x_Gu8lriYHMKqGQm | A Brief History of the World To 1500 | 17 Vedic Indian to the Fall of the Maurya Empire
Few areas of the world are as important to our understanding of the emergence of human civilizations as India. Its unique geography is divided into three distinct zones:
- The Himalayan North: A rugged and mountainous region that forms a natural barrier, separating India from the rest of the Asian mainland.
- The Indo-Gangetic Plains: A densely populated area, nestled between the Himalayas and the Deccan Plateau, where the Indus and Ganges Rivers flow. This fertile region has supported some of the world’s oldest and most influential civilizations.
- The Tropical South: A distinct and isolated zone, characterized by lush forests and mountain ranges, which separates it from the rest of India. This region has developed a unique cultural and ecological identity, shaped by its geographic isolation.
Understanding India’s complex geography and its impact on human settlement and development is essential to uncovering the secrets of our collective past.
The Indus Valley Enigma
A shared culture developed, marked by a rich spiritual life with altars, ceremonial bathing, and symbolic vocabulary. Skilled artisans created exquisite jewelry and fabrics, contributing to a thriving urban society with luxurious homes and public buildings. This emphasis on craftsmanship and trade indicates a robust economy, underpinned by a high level of social complexity and cooperation. Such a society likely relied on collective effort and mutual support to achieve its remarkable prosperity.
The enigmatic nature of Indus Valley society, lacking a powerful centralized authority, remains a topic of debate. Possibly, small republic-like states governed by religious specialists existed, or environmental degradation led to its decline. Notably, the region developed a written script comprising over 400 symbols, facilitating long-distance trade with Mesopotamia and Egypt. This script also enabled the recording of laws, business transactions, and literary works, further solidifying the region’s advanced status. Extensive trade networks spanned the ancient world, with Indus Valley goods found in Mesopotamia, Egypt, and even the Mediterranean.
Indus Valley art and culture exhibited a distinct blend of influences, with recognizable Mesopotamian and Greek elements. Women played significant roles in rituals and specialist capacities, as evidenced by figurines and artwork depicting complex class structures. The famous “Dancing Girl” statue from Mohenjo-Daro exemplifies the region’s cultural and artistic sophistication. Confident and relaxed, the statue’s pose conveys a high level of cultural achievement. The emphasis on female figures and ritual practices also indicates a strong feminine presence in spiritual life.
The decline of the Indus Valley region around 1700 BCE remains shrouded in mystery, with environmental factors and resource depletion likely contributing to its demise. Nevertheless, the region’s legacy endured, shaping the culture and identity of later Indian civilizations. Its impact extends to modern times, inspiring artists and designers worldwide with its distinctive art and architecture. As a testament to its lasting influence, the Indus Valley region remains one of the most fascinating and enigmatic ancient civilizations.
The Aryans and Brahmanism
The Aryans, an ancient Indo-European people, arrived in the Indian subcontinent around 1500 BCE. They brought with them the Vedic religion, centered on the sacred texts known as the Vedas. These texts, composed of hymns and chants, were orally transmitted and formed the foundation of their religious practices. The Aryans venerated various deities, such as Indra, the god of storms and war, and Varuna, the god of cosmic order. These deities were often associated with natural forces and cosmic principles, rather than being worshipped as distinct, individually revered figures in a fixed pantheon. The Vedic religion laid the groundwork for the later development of Hinduism.
Over time, the Vedic religion evolved into what is often referred to as Brahmanism, marked by the increasing influence of the Brahmins and the development of new religious texts and concepts. The Upanishads, composed between 800-400 BCE by the priestly class, introduced profound ideas such as samsara (reincarnation) and karma (the belief that one’s actions influence future rebirths). These texts shifted the focus from ritualistic practices to philosophical contemplation, with the ultimate goal being union with Brahman, the universal reality.
The belief in reincarnation reinforced the idea that one’s social status was a result of past actions, thereby supporting the authority of elites, particularly the Brahmins. This belief system contributed to the development of the varna system, which classified society into four main groups: Brahmins (priests), Kshatriyas (warriors), Vaishyas (merchants and commoners), and Shudras (servants and laborers). While the system did create a social hierarchy, it also provided a framework for social stability, ensuring that everyone had a defined role in the community.
The varna system, in its early form, was more fluid and allowed for some degree of social mobility. It helped to organize society in a way that promoted cooperation and interdependence among different groups. Each varna had specific duties and responsibilities, which contributed to the overall functioning and harmony of society. The system also fostered a sense of identity and community within each group, allowing for the preservation of traditions, skills, and knowledge across generations.
Over time, the varna system became more rigid, evolving into the jati (sub-caste) structure with distinct social stratifications. This increased complexity sometimes led to social divisions, but it also allowed for the development of specialized professions and local customs. The prohibitions on inter-caste marriage and the regulation of social interactions were seen as ways to maintain order and prevent conflict within a diverse society.
While the caste system did reinforce social hierarchies, it also provided a sense of purpose and belonging for individuals. The belief that each person had a specific role to play in life, based on their past karma, was viewed as essential for maintaining cosmic and social harmony. The ultimate spiritual goal of moksha, or liberation from the cycle of rebirth, was central to Brahmanism and later Hinduism. This quest for spiritual liberation reinforced the social order, but also offered a path to transcend it. The arrival of the Aryans and the gradual development of Brahmanism into Hinduism thus created a complex social and religious framework that shaped Indian society for centuries. This system, while having its challenges, also contributed to the cultural richness, continuity, and stability of early Indian civilization.
Link to Learning
Learn more about the Hindu religion by reading Dr. Mack’s chapter on Hinduism in his book, Religions of the World: Introduction.
Buddhism
Around 563 BCE, the life of Siddhartha Gautama, known as Buddha Sakyamuni, profoundly transformed Indian culture, religion, and art. Born into a royal family in the region that is now Nepal, Sakyamuni abandoned a life of luxury to embark on a spiritual quest for understanding and liberation from suffering. His teachings offered an alternative to the dominant Brahmanist traditions, earning him the title “Buddha,” meaning “the enlightened one.”
Buddhism explores human suffering, desire, and death, offering a path to overcome pain and achieve enlightenment. The Four Noble Truths diagnose the human condition, acknowledging the existence of suffering, its causes, and its cessation. The Eightfold Path provides a practical guide for individuals to develop wisdom, ethics, and mental discipline. This path emphasizes the importance of mindfulness, meditation, and self-reflection in achieving spiritual growth. By following the Eightfold Path, individuals can develop a deeper understanding of themselves and the world, leading to greater peace and compassion.
Link to Learning
Learn more about the Buddhist beliefs and practices by reading Dr. Mack’s chapter on Buddhism in his book, Religions of the World: Introduction.
Buddha’s teachings challenged ancient India’s status quo, questioning Brahmanist authority and ritualism, proposing instead a direct and personal approach to spiritual development. This critique resonated with many, including women and lower castes, who found in Buddhism a more accessible and egalitarian path. Buddhism offered women opportunities for enlightenment, but also had limitations and contradictions in its treatment of women. Despite these limitations, Buddhism provided a more inclusive and compassionate alternative to Brahmanism, which had traditionally marginalized certain groups. By challenging social norms and religious authority, Buddhism created a more diverse and dynamic spiritual landscape in ancient India.
Buddhism did not replace Brahmanism but influenced its evolution into what became Hinduism. Over time, the boundaries between the two religions became more fluid, allowing for coexistence and mutual influence. Brahmanism gradually incorporated some Buddhist ideas and practices, such as meditation, while Buddhism adopted certain elements of Brahmanism, leading to a more devotional form of religion that emphasized personal worship and prayer. Over time, Hinduism emerged as a distinct religion, incorporating elements from both Brahmanism and Buddhism, and becoming a dominant force in Indian spirituality.
Both Buddhism and Hinduism diversified into various schools and sects, adapting to different cultural and regional contexts. Institutionalized Buddhism, particularly in its Mahayana form, attracted significant patronage from elites, inspiring monumental architecture, sculpture, and art throughout Asia. Buddhism’s influence spread widely, reaching millions of people across China, Korea, Japan, Thailand, and Southeast Asia, where it remains a major religious tradition to this day.
The Mauryan Empire
The Mauryan Empire, which emerged in 322 BCE, played a crucial role in the spread of Buddhism across Asia. Founded by Chandragupta Maurya, who unified much of north India, the empire was marked by a complex political structure and a strong military presence. However, they lived in constant fear of assassination and relied on a network of spies to monitor officials throughout the empire. Despite these challenges, the Mauryan Empire reached its peak during the reign of Emperor Ashoka, who ascended to the throne in approximately 268 BCE.
Ashoka’s transformation from a ruthless warrior general to a devout man of peace was a gradual process, influenced by his experiences in the Kalinga War. The devastating consequences of the war, including the loss of over 100,000 lives, led Ashoka to question the true cost of his military victories. He eventually converted to Buddhism and dedicated his life to promoting peace, harmony, and compassion throughout India. Ashoka’s reforms aimed to create a more just and equitable society, with protections for vulnerable populations, including the ill, the poor, and travelers. He also supported missionary efforts to spread Buddhism to neighboring countries, including Burma and Sri Lanka.
Ashoka’s leadership exemplifies the power of perspective-taking. By immersing himself in the teachings of Buddhism, Ashoka gained a new perspective on the suffering and humanity of his enemies, leading him to question the true cost of his military victories. He began to see the world from the perspective of his subjects, understanding their struggles and aspirations, and adapted his policies to promote their well-being. Ashoka’s edicts, which addressed the needs and concerns of diverse populations, demonstrate his ability to take the perspectives of various groups and foster a sense of inclusivity and shared humanity. Through his commitment to perspective-taking, Ashoka was able to create a more just and harmonious society, one that valued the dignity and worth of all individuals.
The Mauryan Empire’s legacy is visible in its impressive architectural achievements, including the construction of hospitals, roads, and resthouses. Ashoka’s commitment to Buddhism and his efforts to promote peace and harmony throughout India helped establish the Mauryan Empire as a major center of Buddhist learning and culture. The empire’s influence extended far beyond India’s borders, shaping the development of Buddhism in neighboring countries and leaving a lasting impact on the ancient world. Despite its eventual decline, the Mauryan Empire’s impact on Indian history and culture remains significant, inspiring future generations to strive for peace, compassion, and understanding.
The Gupta Dynasty
The Gupta Dynasty, which ruled northern India from the fourth to the seventh centuries (320-600 CE), marked a golden age of cultural and intellectual flourishing. Founder Chandragupta I (r. 320-335 CE) emulated the Mauryans, promoting learning and the arts through Sanskrit scribes. This era saw the development of classical literature, including the Mahabharata and Ramayana, which glorified ideals of duty, valor, and social role. These texts had a profound impact on Indian society, shaping notions of noble virtues and ideal governance. Additionally, the Guptas patronized scholars and poets, leading to a resurgence in Sanskrit literature and learning.
Learn More
You can read a brief synopsis of the Ramayana and a description of the epic’s major characters (https://openstax.org/l/77RamayanaSyn) at the British Library website.
An animated English-language version of the epic (https://openstax.org/l/77RamayanaVid) is also available.
The Gupta era also saw significant advancements in mathematics, with intellectuals like Brahmagupta (fl. 598-665 CE) pioneering the use of decimals, zero, and negative numbers. The spread of Sanskrit classics to Southeast Asia further solidified India’s cultural influence. In politics, the Guptas innovated by granting land to powerful families and Brahmans, consolidating their control while elevating their own status through rituals honoring Vishnu and Shiva. This led to a complex system of governance, with the Guptas balancing their power with that of local rulers and Brahmanical authorities.
The Gupta era saw the rise of personalized worship, bypassing Brahmans as intermediaries and emphasizing direct relationships between followers and deities. This shift gained popularity in southern India, where Tamil poets like Appar (c. 7th century CE) and Sambandar (c. 7th century CE) wrote foundational texts for the practice of bhakti. Bhakti emphasized devotion and love for a personal deity, often in contrast to the more formal rituals of Brahmanical Hinduism. As a result, the Gupta era marked a significant turning point in the development of Hinduism, with the emergence of new forms of worship and devotion. The Gupta era also marked the heyday of Buddhism in India, with institutions like Nalanda University (founded in the 4th-5th century CE) attracting students and pilgrims from China.
The Gupta period’s opulence and stability eventually dissipated under the threat of northern invaders, the Huns (led by Toramana in the 6th century CE). Northern India fractured into smaller states, while southern India’s ties with South Asia deepened, leading to the formation of notable kingdoms like the Tamil Chola dynasty (c. 300 BCE-1279 CE). The Chola dynasty would go on to play a significant role in Indian history, patronizing art, literature, and architecture. India’s most influential exports – Hinduism, Buddhism, and their inspired art and learning – endured long after these states. The legacy of the Guptas can still be seen in the many temples, sculptures, and texts that survive from this period, a testament to their enduring impact on Indian culture. | 3,061 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://pressbooks.pub/abriefhistory1/chapter/vedic-indian-to-the-fall-of-the-maurya-empire/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:73402 | https://pressbooks.pub/abriefhistory1/chapter/vedic-indian-to-the-fall-of-the-maurya-empire/ |
1PTYRnIWYl_9V8Q8 | English 1101 OER Resources | 5 “Story as Rhetorical: We Can’t Escape Story No Matter How Hard We Try”
We Can’t Escape Story No Matter How Hard We Try
Ron Christiansen
Christiansen argues that stories, just like other forms of writing, are rhetorical, because they must be sensitive to the rhetorical situation and they are powerful ways of making arguments.
Years ago my best friend from high school accused me of being confessional. Decades later the accusation still bothers me. In part, probably, because there is an element of truth to it. But also, and this is why I bring it up, because I think the accusation oversimplifies and discounts the role that story plays in our lives. To confess is to tell a story about ourselves. Confessional stories may include a particular moral framing, but nevertheless, a confessional story is a narration of our lives for a particular purpose, in this case, redemption or catharsis. To narrate our lives is to admit to a point of view and to ground our arguments in the lived experience of who we are. It is to push back on the so-called objective view, which holds that we can carefully reason through a position without our own motives interfering.
Speaking of motives, let’s take a look at the motives of writing teachers—both of teachers who embrace narrative and those who shun it as not sufficiently academically rigorous. Certainly, the role of story in writing classes has been debated vigorously off and on for many years. Did you know that writing teachers disagree about what kinds of writing they should use or teach, even if they (sometimes? often?) act as if there is a consensus? Seems writing teachers may be regular people after all.
A fuller sense of this debate came back to me recently when I attended a CCCC’s panel (a national conference for writing teachers) about teaching narrative in the writing classroom. During the panel, Irene Papoulis confessed how, in her first year of teaching, she lied about her actual beliefs about using stories in her writing classrooms. She bemused, “I find it amazing to think that so many years later I still strive to argue for storytelling as a form of analysis, and I still carry a nagging sense of shame about that, a murmur of ‘you’re touchy-feely, you’re not rigorous enough.’”
Rigor.
This is an important word. Teachers are sometimes engaged in a debate, maybe even a contest, concerning how rigorous their courses are in comparison to other colleagues. I suspect that, in fact, throughout your already lengthy academic careers, a lot of extra work, sometimes busy work, has landed on your lap because a teacher of yours was trying to prove herself a rigorous teacher.
Unfortunately, rigor is often defined, unknowingly at times, as that which students simply do not like: if students like a curriculum too much, we teachers, looking in from the outside, may assume the instructor is just having fun and really not teaching much at all.
I have much anecdotal evidence that students choose to write stories when given a chance. For many years I taught an assignment called the “Open Genre” where at the end of the term students could choose any written genre to study and then produce. By far most students chose fiction. I think this makes sense as we are constantly immersed in stories. Movies, arguably our most prolific art form, are stories. Video games, which make more money than even movies, are stories. Both have a basic plot where there are characters who face some challenge and then come to some sort of resolution.
Maybe stories are talked about less in writing classes because they are too fun.
RHETORICAL STORY
When some argue that writing classes focused on story or narrative are not rigorous, they are in effect arguing that story is not rhetorical. Rhetoric is a code word for rigorous. A rhetorical analysis … now that sounds rigorous and academic. Personal narrative … sounds squishy, personal, even wimpy.
Of course, these characterizations oversimplify. In Minds Made for Stories: How We Really Read and Write Informational and Persuasive Texts, Thomas Newkirk argues that “there is a conflict between the ways we treat narrative in school (as a type of writing, often an easy one) and the central role narrative plays in our consciousness” (5). If this claim has at least some validity (it’s also worth noting that Newkirk is a composition scholar who directs the New Hampshire Literacy Institutes), then it’s odd that many writing teachers are apologetic about their narrative assignments. But regardless of Newkirk’s claim, the discipline of writing has often viewed narrative writing as insufficiently rhetorical, something to be done at the beginning of the semester to connect students with writing and get them started. But just as with any type of writing, creating an effective story requires a deliberate set of decisions that attempt to spark a particular response in readers.
And these decisions are rhetorical.
STORY AS MEANING-MAKING
Not only is storytelling rhetorical, from a broader perspective, story is the method by which we understand the world and our place in it. No amount of emphasis on the so-called academic or the rhetorical or argumentative will ever move us away from story. Newkirk contends that “narrative is a form or mode of discourse that can be used for multiple purposes … —we use it to inform, to persuade, to entertain, to express. It is the ‘mother of all modes,’ a powerful and innate form of understanding” (6). [See Clint Johnson’s chapter “What Is Story?” for more on story as a mode.] Therefore, story is not simply rhetorical because writers make decisions about it.
It is rhetorical because story is embedded in all writing, regardless of form or genre.
ACADEMIC ARGUMENT AS AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL
In arguing that academic writing can be (and already is) narrative based, I’m arguing that academic writing is not nearly as objective as we often like to imagine. It is autobiographical. I’m also arguing that much of the academic writing I’ve done, which explicitly relies on narrative, is just as valid as any other type of academic writing. That is, my writing is revealing the truth of Thomas Newkirk’s argument that “[my] theories are really disguised autobiographies” (3). If we are indeed narrative beings, then surely we do not simply shut off the narrative machine the minute we start writing an academic or argumentative text, even if we may pretend that we do.
To explicitly make connections to one’s life in an argument piece does not make it a less valid or less objective argument. It merely makes explicit what is always functioning in the background.
NARRATIVE AS ARGUMENT: A PERSONAL EXAMPLE
While taking an upper-division literature course with the theme of the Wall (as in THE wall that divided Berlin after World War II) in the ’90s, I made an autobiographical move in my last paper for the class. We had been exploring how we define ourselves through the Other. The first part of my paper was traditional literary analysis applying this idea to the novels we had read. But in the second half of the paper, I reflected on how I define and label my professors. As I was at BYU, a private university owned by the LDS church, professors, for me, generally fit into a few Mormon types: overly didactic older prof; younger, more liberal female prof; testifying churchy professor, etc. Yet this particular class was taught by Gerhard Bach, an American literature professor who generally taught in Germany. He was a visiting professor and … not a member of the LDS church. His identity disturbed my naïve sense of order in the universe. “For two semesters I’ve been fascinated with understanding Dr. Bach’s soul—why is he such a good teacher? What makes him such a good Christian (a person I respect), so understanding and non-judgmental … without the gospel of Christ I hold so dearly?” I wrote.
I cringe as I reread these words now, especially the word “soul.” It sounds too intimate, too familiar for a paper turned into a professor. And yet that’s where my thinking was at the time. I was merely being honest, maybe even confessional. At this moment in my paper, I narrated the happenings of the class. I was using literary devices and theories learned in class to figure out my own position and perspective within the English course and within life as an active Mormon.
By sharing this example in this essay, I’ve admitted to past beliefs I’d rather keep hidden from students. In fact, I’m a bit ashamed that I wrote that sentence, which to me now clearly demonstrates my narrow view of people who are not LDS. But this is part of my story. For many years, I was an active LDS member who served an LDS mission and went to BYU, and who was wrestling to figure out myself as a writer. In fact, before Bach’s class, I’d never received an A grade on a paper. I often say I learned to write in Bach’s class, and I believe a big part of why was Bach’s willingness to make the writing we did meaningful in real and present ways. We shared our writing with the class each week and then discussed the papers. This immediate audience allowed me to make that personal turn in my paper and to invoke my analysis of the class and this particular professor.
I received an A on that paper so it seems my professor still found an argument in my personal story. These lurking autobiographies are, I believe, just below the surface of most of the arguments we make. As I have admitted, the very argument I am making in this essay actually supports how I see myself as an academic—it argues that my confessionary and autobiographical academic work counts as much as traditional-sounding objective academic writing.
All arguments are autobiographical.
RHETORICAL MOVES: THE STORY … OF THIS ESSAY
My colleague, Clint Johnson, and I teach in the Online Plus program together. During the 2016–’17 school year we were thinking about how best to teach narrative writing and how best to persuade our colleagues that narrative writing forms the backbone of all good writing. This is a challenge. While discussing these ideas, Clint and I have written pages and pages of notes. We’ve read many different articles. And we’ve gotten feedback on our OER texts from a number of people. Even after all of this, I was a bit lost as I tried to make the argument I’m making here that narrative is a part of all effective writing. Lost until Allison Fernley, a long-time colleague and friend, mentioned the book from which I’ve quoted above, Minds Made for Stories. I quickly scanned a few pages from the book online and ran across this line: “narrative is the deep structure of all good sustained writing” (19). I immediately ordered the book on Amazon. This was the missing link. We already had a lot of good sources on how important story is in our lives and how they shape our minds, but we did not have any sources directly arguing that even argumentative essays, at least the effective ones, also rely on a narrative structure.
And again, the move I just made in the last paragraph was to tell the story of my research. The progression of our ideas and filling this hole in our research demonstrates the contours of this debate. It is easier to make an argument about how to use narrative in the writing classroom than it is to argue that story or narrative is foundational for all writing. The first claim doesn’t really even need to be made, as we all recognize short vignettes or stories in all types of writing, but the second claim has tension (Newkirk) because other writing teachers could certainly disagree and back up this disagreement with studies and reasoning. However, the story of our research, in this case, is a form of evidence in and of itself.
“ITCH AND SCRATCH”: A PRACTICAL STRATEGY
Ok, so let’s tackle this second claim: narrative is the deep structure of all sustained writing. Newkirk demonstrates how effective, informative, and argumentative essays are necessarily grounded in a good story. For example, Newkirk outlines his ideas in chapter three, aptly named “Itch and Scratch: How Form Really Works.” In one sense the chapter title gives away the entire thrust of the chapter—writers must create an itch that readers want to scratch. Kind of an interesting way to think about the purpose of writing, isn’t it?
He builds off this main claim by citing writing experts like Peter Elbow (grandfather figure for writing teachers), who says that “Narrative is a universal pattern of language that creates sequences of expectation and satisfaction—itch and scratch” (qtd. in Newkirk 38). He also fleshes out why all effective writing is narrative in structure. He explains that instructors can “help students unlock the dramatic structure of ideas and information—and they can exploit this drama in their writing” (39). And that “good arguments feel dramatic, and sometimes, when they speak back to common sense and accepted wisdom, they can be exhilaratingly liberating” (45).
That’s right … writing can be exhilarating and liberating when we see our arguments through the lens of story.
AN ARGUMENT ABOUT END-OF-LIFE CARE: SARA’S STORY
Sara Thomas Monopoli was pregnant with her first child when her doctors learned that she was going to die.
This is Atul Gawande’s first line in “Letting Go,” an essay about end-of-life care. The first four paragraphs outline the basic narrative of Sara’s diagnosis: lung cancer, 34, non-smoker, chemotherapy options but no cure. Not until the fifth paragraph does Gawande offer any analysis and even it is quite subtle: “Words like ‘respond’ and ‘long-term’ provide a reassuring gloss on a dire reality. There is no cure for lung cancer at this stage.”
As a reader, I begin to feel an itch. I’m already caught up in Sara’s story and not only do I want to know how it turns out, I’m already thinking about the ethical issues involved in end-of-life care. Gawande continues to narrate Sara’s story for several paragraphs, detailing the failed attempts at treatment, and then he asks the problematic question—scratching the itch that the reader has already been thinking about even though it has not been stated explicitly.
This is the moment in Sara’s story that poses a fundamental question for everyone living in the era of modern medicine: What do we want Sara and her doctors to do now?
For nine paragraphs, Gawande cites research on cancer treatment, health care costs, and historical examples of how our early founding fathers died. Then there is a brief vignette about one of his own patients (Gawande is a surgeon): he is sitting with the patient when asked by her sister if the patient is dying. He is unsure. This unanswered question again creates an itch: how do we know in this world of technology when we and our loved ones are actually dying? But Gawande does not immediately answer the question. Instead, he launches into a more lengthy vignette about visiting the patients of Sara Creed, a hospice nurse. We get to know several people in hospice care and their various circumstances and the ethical dilemmas raised by their conditions. There’s dialogue with the patients:
“How’s your pain on a scale of one to ten?” Creed asked.
“A six,” he said.
“Did you hit the pump?”
He didn’t answer for a moment. “I’m reluctant,” he admitted.
“Why?” Creed asked.
“It feels like defeat,” he said.
Most of these vignettes contrast with the earlier story of Sara Monopoli because these are much older patients. Yet Gawande uses these stories to help us see the grave difficulty that doctors, nurses, and patients have when trying to decide the best options for end-of-life care.
At this point, Gawande returns to the story of Sara Monopoli, a story which serves as the narrative arc holding together the research and other shorter vignettes. It’s now Thanksgiving five months after the initial lung cancer diagnosis. None of the treatments have worked and at this point, Gawande thinks, Sara’s doctor should have begun a conversation about end-of-life care, but didn’t. As readers, we know that Sara and her family do not want her to die in a hospital, but we are starting to realize that is exactly what will happen. Gawande uses Sara’s story to allow us to inhabit a family negotiating the difficult ethical questions about treatment and quality of life. We rush, as if reading a nail-biting short story, to get to the next bit about Sara, yet we must also read about studies, research, and other short vignettes to get there. We are propelled forward, hoping to itch the scratch.
It’s a fairly long article so Gawande has space to cite more research, discuss a successful medical program that allows patients to stay in hospice while receiving some treatment, and write several other vignettes. And then he makes what seems to be his overall claim:
But our responsibility, in medicine, is to deal with human beings as they are. People die only once. They have no experience to draw upon. They need doctors and nurses who are willing to have the hard discussions and say what they have seen, who will help people prepare for what is to come—and to escape a warehoused oblivion that few really want.
Gawande’s claim comes near the end of his essay. Sara’s story has given us a structural space in which to store the research and analysis offered. The claim retroactively to pulls together the overall ideas. Structurally, the individual stories do not matter as much as the overall narrative arc: Sara’s story. The structural power of the piece comes from the interweaving of story with reasoning, evidence, and vignettes.
ARGUMENT IS A JOURNEY
Gawande’s essay and Newkirk’s claims set up a damning critique of the way much of argumentative writing is taught. Newkirk writes, “We can undermine critical thinking by treating the thesis … as the key to an effective argument” (45). Say what? I thought the thesis was the most important element of an argument, right? The thesis creates tension, as discussed above, and narrows the focus. But … in Gawande’s essay, the focus is communicated through story and subtle analysis. And while Newkirk doesn’t dismiss the thesis, he argues that too often we, as writing teachers and students, get too focused on placing it in the right spot rather than thinking carefully about how we will communicate the journey it took us to uncover that thesis.
Note the word “journey”—a journey is a story, like Frodo’s journey to Mordor in The Lord of the Rings. Someone too focused on the placement of the claim in Gawande’s essay may miss the forest for the trees. They may only see argumentative writing as a claim followed by three points, counter-arguments, and a conclusion. They would miss a beautifully painful narrative arc that begins and relies on Sara Monopoli’s story until the very last lines:
“It’s O.K. to let go,” he said. “You don’t have to fight anymore. I will see you soon.”
Later that morning, her breathing changed, slowing. At 9:45 a.m., Rich said, “Sara just kind of startled. She let a long breath out. Then she just stopped.”
THE FINAL MOVEMENT
I am arguing, along with Newkirk, that when we write we are asking our readers to come along with us on a journey. Even if this movement is not mentioned explicitly and even if it is not accomplished with literal plots, there is movement: a movement from one insight to another, the movement of inquiry. When we do not engage our readers in this movement, we lose an opportunity to allow them a window into our meaning-making process.
Midway through “Letting Go,” Gawande recounts how Sara Monopoli came to him about a secondary thyroid cancer which was, unlike the lung cancer, operable. Even though Gawande knew the lung cancer would kill Sara long before the thyroid cancer, he confides that he was unable to follow his own advice:
After one of her chemo therapies seemed to shrink the thyroid cancer slightly, I even raised with her the possibility that an experimental therapy could work against both her cancers, which was sheer fantasy.
This event could have been hidden within the layers of traditional argumentation. Yet, because Gawande makes visible the movement of his inquiry, we not only recognize him as a surgeon and an expert in end-of-life care, but as a flawed human being trying to make sense of difficult problems.
While we can try to escape our own stories when we make arguments, we most certainly don’t have to, nor should we.
Works Cited
Gawande, Atul. “Letting Go.” The New Yorker. 2 Aug. 2010, https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2010/08/02/letting-go-2. Accessed Oct 2016.
Newkirk, Thomas. Mind Made For Stories: How We Really Read and Write Informational and Persuasive Texts. Portsmouth: Heinemann, 2014. Text.
Papoulis, Irene. “You’re a belles-lettrist, and that’s no good!” How creative nonfiction has shaped and reshaped my composition pedagogy. CCCC, 8 April 2016, San Antonio. | 4,585 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://cod.pressbooks.pub/english1101/chapter/story-as-rhetorical-we-cant-escape-story-no-matter-how-hard-we-try/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:35415 | https://cod.pressbooks.pub/english1101/chapter/story-as-rhetorical-we-cant-escape-story-no-matter-how-hard-we-try/ |
Rx92tuDSZTN2JTPS | A Student Guide to Learning With Technology @UNBC | Moodle Mobile App
To connect to Moodle using your mobile phone, you will need to download the ‘app’ from either the Apple App Store or Google Play .
You can connect to https://moodle.unbc.ca with a free app offering the following features:
- Easily access course content – browse the content of your courses, even when offline
- Connect with course participants – quickly find and contact other people in your courses
- Keep up to date – track notifications of messages and other events, such as assignment submissions
- Submit assignments – Upload images, audio, videos and other files from your mobile device
- Track your progress – View your grades, check completion progress in courses and browse your learning plans
- Complete activities anywhere, anytime – attempt quizzes, post in forums, access media, edit wiki pages and more – both on and offline.
Once you have downloaded the appropriate app for your mobile phone, use the following steps to connect your app to https://moodle.unbc.ca:
Step 1. Open the app and enter the URL: https://moodle.unbc.ca .. then select Connect to your site. | 236 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://pressbooks.bccampus.ca/unbcstudents/chapter/moodle-mobile-app/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:17005 | https://pressbooks.bccampus.ca/unbcstudents/chapter/moodle-mobile-app/ |
fYFqrAsPzcLWSkih | Physical Assessment Essentials for Health Sciences | Cardiovascular and Peripheral Vascular System
Summary – Cardiovascular and Peripheral Vascular System
- The heart resides within the pericardial sac and is in the mediastinal space within the thoracic cavity.
- The heart’s walls comprise an outer epicardium, a thick myocardium, and an inner lining layer of the endocardium.
- The heart’s internal conduction system establishes the heart rate and transmits this information to the myocardium. The normal path of transmission for the conductive cells is the sinoatrial (SA) node, internodal pathways, atrioventricular (AV) node, atrioventricular (AV) bundle of His, bundle branches, and Purkinje fibres.
- The contractile cells (cardiac myocytes) contract and propel blood. Contractile cells have an action potential with an extended plateau phase that results in an extended refractory period to allow complete contraction for the heart to pump blood effectively.
- The cardiac cycle comprises a complete relaxation and contraction of the atria and ventricles and lasts approximately 0.8 seconds.
- Many factors affect heart rate and stroke volume, and together, they contribute to cardiac function. HR is determined and regulated by autonomic stimulation and hormones.
- Common conditions encountered within the cardiovascular and peripheral vascular systems include myocardial infarction, congestive heart failure, hypertension, and atrial and ventricular arrhythmias such as atrial fibrillation and heart blocks.
-
- The symptoms patients present with can be broad and may include shortness of breath, chest pain, cough, fatigue, heart rate change (slow, fast, irregular), skin colour and temperature changes, lower leg edema, bulging or discoloured veins in the legs, and ulcerations of the lower limbs. | 334 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://pressbooks.saskpolytech.ca/hsphysicalassessment/chapter/summary-and-resources/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:18360 | https://pressbooks.saskpolytech.ca/hsphysicalassessment/chapter/summary-and-resources/ |
Lp782wlhFAZmGG56 | 7.8: Activity-Based Costing | 7.8: Activity-Based Costing
Learning Outcomes
- Describe situations in which activity-based absorption costing is used
Activity-based absorption costing assigns all manufacturing overhead costs to products based on the activities performed to make those products.
In this method, we look only at non-direct costs. Direct costs are easily traced to an activity, so we don’t need to do anything further with those costs. Non-direct costs are the overhead costs, such as rent, property taxes, accounting and administrative costs and all other costs not directly related to the production of our product.
Activity-based absorption costing (ABC) is much more complicated that traditional costing, but can give you a much better allocation picture. Let’s look at an example where ABC may produce a better picture for a company.
Example
You are a manager at a company that makes two kinds of kayaks: the basic model and the deluxe. Currently, you are using a traditional costing method and assigning manufacturing overhead based on direct labor hours. So all of the direct labor and materials are being charged to each of the models, and then the overhead is allocated. But what if the deluxe kayak is consuming three times as much machine time due to more frequent setups? Or what if there are more parts in the deluxe model requiring a great deal more time in the purchasing department? These activities could cause traditional costing to be “off” compared to costing based on each activity.
This is a situation, where ABC may be more reflective of the actual cost allocation. It is necessary to determine if the benefits of implementing the ABC method outweigh the costs. After doing an evaluation of your situation, then the decision can be made regarding which method to utilize.
Practice Questions | 378 | common-pile/libretexts_filtered | https://biz.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Accounting/Accounting_for_Managers_(Lumen)/07%3A_Costing_Methods/7.08%3A_Activity-Based_Costing | libretexts | libretexts-0000.json.gz:31640 | https://biz.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Accounting/Accounting_for_Managers_(Lumen)/07%3A_Costing_Methods/7.08%3A_Activity-Based_Costing |
O3zpIVEcZrDQT8S- | Mt Hood Community College Biology 101 | 16 Comparing Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
Cells fall into one of two broad categories: prokaryotic and eukaryotic. The predominantly single-celled organisms of the domains Bacteria and Archaea are classified as prokaryotes (pro– = before; –karyon– = nucleus). Animal cells, plant cells, fungi, and protists are eukaryotes (eu– = true).
Components of Prokaryotic Cells
All cells share four common components: 1) a plasma membrane, an outer covering that separates the cell’s interior from its surrounding environment; 2) cytoplasm, consisting of a gel-like region within the cell in which other cellular components are found; 3) DNA, the genetic material of the cell; and 4) ribosomes, particles that synthesize proteins.
Prokaryotes differ from eukaryotic cells in several important ways, but they are basically smaller, simpler cells. A prokaryotic cell is a simple, single-celled (unicellular) organism that lacks a nucleus, or any other membrane-bound organelle. Bacteria are prokaryotes. Prokaryotic DNA is found in the central part of the cell: a darkened region called the nucleoid (Figure 1). Prokaryotic cells are much smaller than eukaryotic cells.
Unlike Archaea and eukaryotes, bacteria have a cell wall made of peptidoglycan, comprised of sugars and amino acids, and many have a polysaccharide capsule (Figure 4). The cell wall acts as an extra layer of protection, helps the cell maintain its shape, and prevents dehydration. The capsule enables the cell to attach to surfaces in its environment. Some prokaryotes have flagella, pili, or fimbriae. Flagella are used for locomotion, while most pili are used to exchange genetic material during a type of reproduction called conjugation.
Components of Eukaryotic Cells
A eukaryotic cell is a cell that has a membrane-bound nucleus and other membrane-bound compartments or sacs, called organelles, which have specialized functions. Animals, plants, and fungi are all eukaryotes. The word eukaryotic means “true kernel” or “true nucleus,” alluding to the presence of the membrane-bound nucleus in these cells. The word “organelle” means “little organ,” and, as already mentioned, organelles have specialized cellular functions, just as the organs of your body have specialized functions. Eukaryotic cells are larger and more complex than prokaryotic cells. Additionally, eukaryotic organisms can be multicellular, while all prokaryotes are unicellular.
Cell Size
At 0.1–5.0 μm in diameter, prokaryotic cells are significantly smaller than eukaryotic cells, which have diameters ranging from 10–100 μm (Figure 2). The small size of prokaryotes allows ions and organic molecules that enter them to quickly spread to other parts of the cell. Similarly, any wastes produced within a prokaryotic cell can quickly move out. However, larger eukaryotic cells have evolved different structural adaptations to enhance cellular transport. Indeed, the large size of these cells would not be possible without these adaptations. In general, cell size is limited because volume increases much more quickly than does cell surface area. As a cell becomes larger, it becomes more and more difficult for the cell to acquire sufficient materials to support the processes inside the cell, because the relative size of the surface area across which materials must be transported declines.
References
Unless otherwise noted, images on this page are licensed under CC-BY 4.0 by OpenStax.
Text adapted from: OpenStax, Concepts of Biology. OpenStax CNX. May 18, 2016 http://cnx.org/contents/b3c1e1d2-839c-42b0-a314-e119a8aafbdd@9.10 | 683 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/mhccbiology101/chapter/comparing-prokaryotic-and-eukaryotic-cells/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:19918 | https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/mhccbiology101/chapter/comparing-prokaryotic-and-eukaryotic-cells/ |
QjlEzv_K2lYPcZVR | Fitness for Paramedics: A Guide for Students at Cambrian College, 2nd Edition | Chapter 4 – Fitness Principles
Individual Differences
While the principles of adaptation to stress can be applied to everyone, not everyone responds to stress in the same way. In the HERITAGE Family study, families of 5 (father, mother, and 3 children) participated in a training program for 20 weeks. They exercised 3 times per week, at 75% of their VO2max, increasing their time to 50 minutes by the end of week 14. By the end of the study, a wide variation in responses to the same exercise regimen was seen by individuals and families. Those who saw the most improvements saw similar percentage improvements across the family and vice versa. Along with other studies, this has led researchers to believe individual differences in exercise response are genetic. Some experts estimate genes to contribute as much as 47% to the outcome of training.
In addition to genes, other factors can affect the degree of adaptation, such as a person’s age, gender, and training status at the start of a program. As one might expect, rapid improvement is experienced by those with a background that includes less training, whereas those who are well trained improve at a slower rate.
Physical Activity Guidelines
Below are links to the physical activity guidelines provided by the US National Institute of Health (NIH) and the Canadian Society for Exercise Physiology (CSEP). As you review these recommendations, notice how closely they follow the FITT pattern described earlier in the chapter.
Fitness Guidelines
The recommendations linked above pertain to physical activity only. While they can be applied to fitness, more specific guidelines have been set to develop fitness. As stated previously, physical activity is aimed at improving health; exercise is aimed at improving health and fitness. These guidelines will be referenced often as each health-related component of fitness is discussed. | 392 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/paramedicfitnessv2/chapter/individual-differences/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:33426 | https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/paramedicfitnessv2/chapter/individual-differences/ |
v7-d23JDfeV3tW_0 | Lifespan Development | Cognitive Development in Early Adulthood
Learning Outcomes
- Distinguish between formal and postformal thought
- Describe cognitive development and dialectical thought during early adulthood
Beyond Formal Operational Thought: Postformal Thought
In the adolescence module, we discussed Piaget’s formal operational thought. The hallmark of this type of thinking is the ability to think abstractly or to consider possibilities and ideas about circumstances never directly experienced. Thinking abstractly is only one characteristic of adult thought, however. If you compare a 14-year-old with someone in their late 30s, you would probably find that the later considers not only what is possible, but also what is likely. Why the change? The young adult has gained experience and understands why possibilities do not always become realities. This difference in adult and adolescent thought can spark arguments between the generations.
Here is an example. A student in her late 30s relayed such an argument she was having with her 14-year-old son. The son had saved a considerable amount of money and wanted to buy an old car and store it in the garage until he was old enough to drive. He could sit in it, pretend he was driving, clean it up, and show it to his friends. The mother, however, had practical objections. The car would just sit for several years while deteriorating. The son would probably change his mind about the type of car he wanted by the time he was old enough to drive and they would be stuck with a car that would not run. She was also concerned that having a car nearby would be too much temptation and the son might decide to sneak it out for a quick ride before he had a permit or license.
Piaget’s theory of cognitive development ended with formal operations, but it is possible that other ways of thinking may develop after (or “post”) formal operations in adulthood (even if this thinking does not constitute a separate “stage” of development). Postformal thought is practical, realistic and more individualistic, but also characterized by understanding the complexities of various perspectives. As a person approaches the late 30s, chances are they make decisions out of necessity or because of prior experience and are less influenced by what others think. Of course, this is particularly true in individualistic cultures such as the United States. Postformal thought is often described as more flexible, logical, willing to accept moral and intellectual complexities, and dialectical than previous stages in development.
Try It
https://assess.lumenlearning.com/practice/8dba84b6-8c87-41b0-ab1a-f8d9a1a945f8
Perry’s Scheme
One of the first theories of cognitive development in early adulthood originated with William Perry (1970)[1], who studied undergraduate students at Harvard University. Perry noted that over the course of students’ college years, cognition tended to shift from dualism (absolute, black and white, right and wrong type of thinking) to multiplicity (recognizing that some problems are solvable and some answers are not yet known) to relativism (understanding the importance of the specific context of knowledge—it’s all relative to other factors). Similar to Piaget’s formal operational thinking in adolescence, this change in thinking in early adulthood is affected by educational experiences.
| Summary of Position in Perry’s Scheme | Basic Example | |
|---|---|---|
| Dualism | The authorities know | “the tutor knows what is right and wrong” |
| The true authorities are right, the others are frauds | “my tutor doesn’t know what is right and wrong but others do” | |
| Multiplicity | There are some uncertainties and the authorities are working on them to find the truth | “my tutors don’t know, but somebody out there is trying to find out” |
| (a) Everyone has the right to their own opinion (b) The authorities don’t want the right answers. They want us to think in a certain way |
“different tutors think different things” “there is an answer that the tutors want and we have to find it” |
|
| Relativism | Everything is relative but not equally valid | “there are no right and wrong answers, it depends on the situation, but some answers might be better than others” |
| You have to make your own decisions | “what is important is not what the tutor thinks but what I think” | |
| First commitment | “for this particular topic I think that….” | |
| Several Commitments | “for these topics I think that….” | |
| Believe own values, respect others, be ready to learn | “I know what I believe in and what I think is valid, others may think differently and I’m prepared to reconsider my views” |
WAtch It
Please watch this brief lecture by Dr. Eric Landrum to better understand the way that thinking can shift during college, according to Perry’s scheme. Notice the overall shifts in beliefs over time. Do you recognize your own thinking or the thinking of others you know in this clip?
You can view the transcript for “Perry’s Scheme of Intellectual Development” here (opens in new window).
Dialectical Thought
In addition to moving toward more practical considerations, thinking in early adulthood may also become more flexible and balanced. Abstract ideas that the adolescent believes in firmly may become standards by which the individual evaluates reality. As Perry’s research pointed out, adolescents tend to think in dichotomies or absolute terms; ideas are true or false; good or bad; right or wrong and there is no middle ground. However, with education and experience, the young adult comes to recognize that there is some right and some wrong in each position. Such thinking is more realistic because very few positions, ideas, situations, or people are completely right or wrong.
Some adults may move even beyond the relativistic or contextual thinking described by Perry; they may be able to bring together important aspects of two opposing viewpoints or positions, synthesize them, and come up with new ideas. This is referred to as dialectical thought and is considered one of the most advanced aspects of postformal thinking (Basseches, 1984[2]). There isn’t just one theory of postformal thought; there are variations, with emphasis on adults’ ability to tolerate ambiguity or to accept contradictions or find new problems, rather than solve problems, etc. (as well as relativism and dialecticism that we just learned about). What they all have in common is the proposition that the way we think may change during adulthood with education and experience.
Try It
https://assess.lumenlearning.com/practice/41dd274c-1504-4d41-9529-9df53dec0a21
GLOSSARY
[glossary-page]
[glossary-term]dialectical thought:[/glossary-term]
[glossary-definition]the ability to reason from multiple perspectives and synthesize various viewpoints in order to come up with new ideas[/glossary-definition]
[glossary-term]dualism:[/glossary-term]
[glossary-definition]absolute, black and white, right and wrong type of thinking[/glossary-definition]
[glossary-term]multiplicity:[/glossary-term]
[glossary-definition]recognizing that some problems are solvable and some answers are not yet known[/glossary-definition]
[glossary-term]postformal thought:[/glossary-term]
[glossary-definition]a more individualistic and realistic type of thinking that occurs after Piaget’s last stage of formal operations[/glossary-definition]
[glossary-term]relativism:[/glossary-term]
[glossary-definition]understanding the importance of the specific context of knowledge—it’s all relative to other factors[/glossary-definition]
[/glossary-page] | 1,495 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://harpercollege.pressbooks.pub/lifespandevelopmentlumen/chapter/cognitive-development-in-early-adulthood/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:67392 | https://harpercollege.pressbooks.pub/lifespandevelopmentlumen/chapter/cognitive-development-in-early-adulthood/ |
OSrG5fVNB2n17zbn | US History II | 177 Primary Source Images: The 1960s
Perhaps no decade is so immortalized in American memory as the 1960s. Couched in the colorful rhetoric of peace and love, complemented by stirring images of the civil rights movement, and fondly remembered for its music, art, and activism, for many the decade brought hopes for a more inclusive, forward-thinking nation. But the decade was also plagued by strife, tragedy, and chaos. It was the decade of the Vietnam War, of inner-city riots, and assassinations that seemed to symbolize the crushing of a new generation’s idealism. A decade of struggle and disillusionment rocked by social, cultural, and political upheaval, the 1960s are remembered because so much changed, and because so much did not. The following sources offer insight into the decade’s impactful history.
Selma March (1965)
Civil rights activists protested against the injustice of segregation in a variety of ways. Here, in 1965, marchers, some carrying American flags, march from Selma to Montgomery, Alabama, to champion African American voting rights.
LBJ and Civil Rights Leaders (1964)
As civil rights demonstrations rocked the American South, civil rights legislation made its way through Washington D.C. Here, President Lyndon B. Johnson sits with civil rights leaders in the White House.
Women’s Liberation March 1970
<!– .entry-attachment –> | 273 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://library.achievingthedream.org/pimaushistory2/chapter/primary-source-images-the-1960s/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:57541 | https://library.achievingthedream.org/pimaushistory2/chapter/primary-source-images-the-1960s/ |
pBAAAhEp--Nc16Gq | Vital Sign Measurement Across the Lifespan - 1st Canadian edition | The stethoscope is used to listen to the blood pressure sounds, which are called Korotkoff sounds.
Stethoscope Usage and Korotkoff Sounds
The stethoscope is used on bare skin so that a client’s clothing does not affect the sounds. The stethoscope does not make sounds louder; it simply blocks out extraneous noises so you can better hear the Korotkoff sounds. These sounds are heard through a stethoscope applied over the brachial artery when the blood pressure cuff is deflating. You will not hear anything when you first place the stethoscope over the brachial artery, because unobstructed blood flow is silent. The Korotkoff sounds appear after you inflate the cuff (which compresses the artery/blood flow) and then begin to deflate the cuff. The Korotkoff sounds are the result of the turbulent blood caused by the inflated cuff compressing the artery and oscillations of the arterial wall when the heart beats during cuff deflation.
Here are a few tips:
- Use a high quality stethoscope with durable, thick tubing. Avoid stethoscopes with long tubing because this can distort sounds.
- Ensure quiet surroundings so that you can better hear the Korotkoff sounds.
- Make sure that the slope of the stethoscope earpieces point forward or toward your nose.
- Use a stethoscope that has both bell and diaphragm capacity. See Figure 5.4 for bell and diaphragm.
Figure 5.4: Stethoscope with bell and diaphragm (Illustration credit: Hilary Tang)
- Cleanse the stethoscope prior to use including the ear pieces and the bell and diaphragm.
- The bell of the stethoscope is suggested because it is used for low-pitched sounds like blood pressure. However, some healthcare providers use the diaphragm for several reasons: that is how they learned to take blood pressure; they believe this helps them hear the Korotkoff sounds better; and the diaphragm covers a larger surface area than the bell.
- Hold the bell lightly against the skin with a complete seal or hold the diaphragm firmly against the skin with a complete seal.
- You must ensure that the bell or diaphragm is open before using. See Film Clip 5.2 on how to open and close the bell and diaphragm.
Film clip 5.2: Opening and closing the bell and diaphragm
Alternatively, if viewing textbook as a pdf, use this link: https://www.youtube.com/embed/rp_4h-tCmvs?rel=0
Determining Maximum Inflation Pressure
Healthcare providers determine the maximum inflation pressure before they take blood pressure. The maximum inflation pressure is the number on the sphygmomanometer that the cuff is inflated to when measuring blood pressure. If you do not determine the maximum pressure inflation, an auscultatory gap could go unrecognized, and as a result the blood pressure could be underestimated (lower than the actual value).
An auscultatory gap is a silent interval when the Korotkoff sounds go absent and then reappear while you are deflating the cuff during blood pressure measurement. This gap is an abnormal finding and can occur due to arterial stiffness and arteriosclerotic disease. It is typically observed in people with a history of hypertension who have been treated with prolonged antihypertensive medication.
To determine the maximum inflation pressure, start by palpating the brachial or radial pulse while inflating the cuff. Inflate the cuff 30 mm Hg past the point when you obliterate the pulse (ie., you no longer feel the pulse). If you still cannot feel the pulse, use that value to start auscultating – that value is the maximum inflation pressure number.
When taking blood pressure, if an auscultatory gap is observed, document the first systolic sound and diastolic sound only. Report the presence of an auscultatory gap in narrative notes.
Points to Consider
Generally, auscultatory gaps do not interfere with automatic blood pressure measurements (Fech, et al., 2012). However, if a client’s blood pressure reading is suspiciously high or low, the healthcare provider takes blood pressure manually.
Blood Pressure Measurement Techniques
For novices, it is a good idea to start with the two-step technique and then move onto the one-step technique as you develop your skills.
Two-step technique
First step: Determining maximum pressure inflation
Palpate the radial or brachial artery, inflate the blood pressure cuff until the pulse is obliterated, and then continue to inflate 20–30 mm Hg more (OER #1). Note this number – it is considered the maximum pressure inflation. Next, deflate the cuff quickly.
Second step: Measure blood pressure
Now, you can start to measure blood pressure. Place the bell of the cleansed stethoscope over the brachial artery (OER #1) using a light touch and complete seal. Inflate the cuff to the maximum pressure inflation number (OER #1). Open the valve slightly. Deflate the cuff slowly and evenly (OER #1) at about 2 mm Hg per second. See Film Clip 5.3 which focuses on the speed of the needle when deflating the blood pressure cuff.
Note the points at which you hear the first appearance of Korotkoff sounds (systolic blood pressure) (OER #1) and the last Korotkoff sound before it goes silent (diastolic blood pressure). These sounds are called Korotkoff sounds and vary in quality from tapping, swooshing, muffled sounds, and silence. The pressure at which the first Korotkoff sound is noted signifies the systolic pressure, while the pressure at which the last Korotkoff sound is heard before it goes silent marks the diastolic pressure. See Audio Clip 5.1 to listen to Korotkoff sounds and noting systolic and diastolic blood pressure. Alternatively, if viewing textbook as a pdf, use this link: https://www.youtube.com/embed/lPlYNt8cVnI?rel=0
Film clip 5.3: Deflation rate of sphygmomanometer
Alternatively, if viewing textbook as a pdf, use this link: https://www.youtube.com/embed/QbGPzUluT5c?rel=0
One-step technique: Determining maximum pressure inflation and taking blood pressure
Palpate the radial or brachial artery, inflate the blood pressure cuff until the pulse is obliterated, and then continue to inflate 20 to 30 mm Hg more (OER #1). Place the bell of the cleansed stethoscope over the brachial artery (OER #1) using a light touch with a complete seal. Open the valve slightly. Deflate the cuff slowly and evenly (OER #1) at about 2 mm Hg per second. Note the points at which you hear the first Korotkoff sound (systolic blood pressure) (OER #1) and the last Korotkoff sound (diastolic blood pressure) before it goes silent. These sounds are called Korotkoff sounds and vary in quality from tapping, swooshing, muffled sounds, and silence. The first Korotkoff sound is the systolic pressure, and the diastolic pressure is the last Korokoff sound before the sounds go silent.
Audio clip 5.1: Korotkoff sounds with blood pressure of 122/76 mm Hg
Alternatively, if viewing textbook as a pdf, use this link: https://www.youtube.com/embed/MTYfYnX6FH0?rel=0
_________________________________________________________________________
Part of this content was adapted from OER #1 (as noted in brackets above):
© 2015 British Columbia Institute of Technology (BCIT). Clinical Procedures for Safer Patient Care by Glynda Rees Doyle and Jodie Anita McCutcheon, British Columbia Institute of Technology. Licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted. Download this book for free at http://open.bccampus.ca | 1,496 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/vitalsign/chapter/manual-blood-pressure-measurement/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:13853 | https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/vitalsign/chapter/manual-blood-pressure-measurement/ |
JCNGsUtey0_x9KeZ | Significant Statistics: An Introduction to Statistics | 5.3 Introduction to Confidence Intervals
We use inferential statistics to make generalizations about an unknown population. The simplest way of doing this is to use the sample data in making a point estimate of a population parameter. We realize that due to sampling variability, the point estimate is most likely not the exact value of the population parameter, though it should be close. After calculating point estimates, we can build off of them to construct interval estimates called confidence intervals.
Confidence Intervals
A confidence interval is another type of estimate, but, instead of being just one number, it is a range of reasonable values in which we expect the population parameter to fall. Since a point estimate may not be perfect due to variability, the idea is to build an interval based on a point estimate to hopefully capture the parameter of interest in the interval. There is no guarantee that a given confidence interval does capture the parameter, but there is a predictable probability of success. It is important to keep in mind that the confidence interval itself is a random variable, while the population parameter is fixed.
If you worked in the marketing department of an entertainment company, you might be interested in the mean number of songs a consumer downloads a month from iTunes. If so, you could conduct a survey and calculate the sample mean, . You would use to estimate the population mean. The sample mean, , is the point estimate for the population mean, μ.
Continuing the iTunes example, suppose we do not know the population mean, μ, but we do know that the population standard deviation is σ = 1 and that our sample size is 100. Then, by the central limit theorem, the standard deviation for the sample mean is:
= .
The empirical rule, which applies to bell-shaped distributions, says that the sample mean, , will be within two standard deviations of the population mean, μ, in approximately 95% of the samples. For our iTunes example, two standard deviations is (2)(0.1) = 0.2. The sample mean is likely to be within 0.2 units of μ.
Because is within 0.2 units of μ, which is unknown, then μ is likely to be within 0.2 units of in 95% of the samples. The population mean, μ, is contained in an interval whose lower number is calculated by taking the sample mean and subtracting two standard deviations (2)(0.1) and whose upper number is calculated by taking the sample mean and adding two standard deviations. In other words, μ is between – 0.2 and + 0.2 in 95% of all the samples.
For the iTunes example, suppose that a sample produced a sample mean = 2. Therefore, the unknown population mean μ is between – 0.2 = 2 – 0.2 = 1.8 and + 0.2 = 2 + 0.2 = 2.2.
We can say that we are about 95% confident that the unknown population mean number of songs downloaded from iTunes per month is between 1.8 and 2.2. The approximate 95% confidence interval is (1.8, 2.2).
This approximate 95% confidence interval implies two possibilities. Either the interval (1.8, 2.2) contains the true mean μ, or our sample produced an that is not within 0.2 units of the true mean μ. The second possibility happens for only 5% of all the samples (95–100%).
Remember that confidence intervals are created for an unknown population parameter. Confidence intervals for most parameters have the form:
(Point Estimate ± Margin of Error) = (Point Estimate – Margin of Error, Point Estimate + Margin of Error)
The margin of error (MoE) depends on the confidence level or percentage of confidence and the standard error of the mean.
When you read newspapers and journals, some reports will use the phrase “margin of error.” Other reports will not use that phrase, but include a confidence interval as the point estimate plus or minus the margin of error. These are two ways of expressing the same concept.
A confidence interval for a population mean with a known standard deviation is based on the fact that the sample means follow an approximately normal distribution. If our sample has a mean of = 10, we can construct the 90% confidence interval (5, 15) where MoE = 5.
Calculating the Confidence Interval
To construct a confidence interval for a single unknown population mean, μ, where the population standard deviation is known, we need as an estimate for μ and we need the margin of error. The sample mean, , is the point estimate of the unknown population mean, μ.
A confidence interval estimate will have the following form:
PE-MoE, PE+MoE
As a result, a confidence interval for the unknown population mean μ in symbols would look like:
– MoE, + MoE
Remember, the margin of error depends mainly on the confidence level (CL). The confidence level is often considered the probability that the calculated confidence interval estimate will contain the true population parameter. However, it is more accurate to state that the confidence level is the percent of confidence intervals that contain the true population parameter when repeated samples are taken. Most often, it is up to the person constructing the confidence interval to choose a confidence level of 90% or higher because that person wants to be reasonably certain of their conclusions.
There is another probability called alpha (α), which is related to the confidence level and represents the chance that the interval does not contain the unknown population parameter. Mathematically, this looks like:
α + CL = 1
To construct a confidence interval estimate for an unknown population mean, we need data from a random sample. The steps to construct and interpret the confidence interval are:
- Calculate the sample mean, , from the sample data. Remember, in this section, we already know the population standard deviation, σ.
- Find the z-score (critical value) that corresponds to the confidence level.
- Calculate the margin of error.
- Construct the confidence interval.
- Write a sentence that interprets the estimate in the context of the situation in the problem. (Use the words of the problem to explain what the confidence interval means.)
We will first examine each step in more detail and then illustrate the process with some examples.
Example
Suppose we have collected data from a sample. We know the sample mean, but we do not know the mean for the entire population. The sample mean is 7, and the margin of error for the mean is 2.5. Find the confidence interval and interpret.
Solution
= 7
Margin of error = 2.5
The confidence interval is (7 – 2.5, 7 + 2.5), and calculating the values gives (4.5, 9.5).
If the confidence level is 95%, then we say that, “We estimate with 95% confidence that the true value of the population mean is between 4.5 and 9.5.”
Your Turn!
Suppose we have data from a sample. The sample mean is 15, and the margin of error for the mean is 3.2. What is the confidence interval estimate for the population mean?
Changing the Confidence Level
A confidence interval for a population mean with a known standard deviation is based on the fact that the sample means follow an approximately normal distribution. Suppose that our sample has a mean of = 10, and we have constructed the 90% confidence interval (5, 15) where the MoE = 5.
To get a 90% confidence interval, we must include the central 90% of the probability of the normal distribution. If we include the central 90%, we leave out a total of α = 10% in both tails, or 5% in each tail, of the normal distribution.
To capture the central 90%, we must go out 1.645 standard deviations on either side of the calculated sample mean. The value 1.645 is the z-score from a standard normal probability distribution that results in an area of 0.90 in the center, an area of 0.05 in the far left tail, and an area of 0.05 in the far right tail.
It is important that the standard deviation used must be appropriate for the parameter we are estimating, so in this section, we need to use the standard deviation that applies to sample means, which is . The fraction , is commonly called the “standard error of the mean” in order to distinguish clearly the standard deviation for a mean from the population standard deviation, σ.
In summary, as a result of the central limit theorem:
- is normally distributed; that is, ~ N(μX, .
- When the population standard deviation, σ, is known, we use a normal distribution to calculate the margin of error.
Finding the Critical Value
When we know the population standard deviation, we use a standard normal distribution to calculate the margin of error and construct the confidence interval. We need to find the value of z that puts an area equal to the confidence level (in decimal form) in the middle of the standard normal distribution Z ~ N(0, 1). This z-score is also called a critical value.
The confidence level is the area in the middle of the standard normal distribution. Since CL = 1 – α, α is the area that is split equally between the two tails. Each of the tails contains an area equal to .
The z-score that has an area to the right of is denoted by .
NOTE: Remember to use the area to the LEFT of .
Example
Find the critical value for a 95% confidence interval.
Solution
CL = 0.95, α = 0.05, and α/2 = 0.025; we write zα/2 = z0.025
The area to the right of z0.025 is 0.025 and the area to the left of z0.025 is 1 – 0.025 = 0.975.
zα/2 = z0.025 = 1.96, using technology or a standard normal probability table.
Your Turn!
Find the critical value for a 90% confidence interval.
Calculating the Margin of Error
The margin of error formula for an unknown population mean and a known population standard deviation is as follows:
MoE =
Constructing the Confidence Interval
A confidence interval estimate has the format – MoE, + MoE.
The graph gives a picture of the entire situation.
Writing the Interpretation
The interpretation should clearly state the confidence level, explain what population parameter is being estimated (here, the population mean), and state the confidence interval (both endpoints). “We can be % confident that the interval we created, to , captures the true population mean.” It should include the context of the problem and appropriate units.
Be careful that you do not associate the confidence level with the parameter itself. Your parameter is a fixed value; what is changing is the sample you take and the interval you calculate. We always want to associate the CL% with the sampling process and the interval.
Example
Suppose scores on exams in statistics are normally distributed with an unknown population mean and a population standard deviation of three points. A random sample of 36 scores is taken and gives a sample mean score of 68. Find a confidence interval estimate for the population mean exam score (i.e., the mean score on all exams).
Find a 90% confidence interval for the true (population) mean of statistics exam scores.
The step-by-step solution is shown below. If you are comfortable using software, you can use it to calculate the confidence interval directly.
Solution
To find the confidence interval, you need the sample mean, , and the margin of error.
= 68
Margin of error = (zα/2)()
σ = 3; n = 36; The confidence level is 90% (CL = 0.90)
CL = 0.90 so α = 1 – CL = 1 – 0.90 = 0.10
α/2 = 0.05 zα/2 = z0.05
The area to the right of z0.05 is 0.05 and the area to the left of z0.05 is 1 – 0.05 = 0.95.
zα/2 = z0.05 = 1.645
Margin of error = (1.645)() = 0.8225
– margin of error = 68 – 0.8225 = 67.1775
+ margin of error = 68 + 0.8225 = 68.8225
The 90% confidence interval is (67.1775, 68.8225).
Interpretation: We estimate with 90% confidence that the true population mean exam score for all statistics students is between 67.18 and 68.82.
Your Turn!
Suppose average pizza delivery times are normally distributed with an unknown population mean and a population standard deviation of six minutes. A random sample of 28 pizza delivery restaurants is taken and has a sample mean delivery time of 36 minutes.
Find a 90% confidence interval estimate for the population mean delivery time and interpret.
Solution
(34.1347, 37.8653)
Additional Resources
If you are using an offline version of this text, access the resources for this section via the QR code, or by visiting https://doi.org/10.7294/26207456.
Figure References
Figure 5.7: Sebastian Gomez (2020). yellow green and red candies on white ceramic round plate. Unsplash license. https://unsplash.com/photos/w9pT3v9z1CM
Figure 5.8: Kindred Grey (2024). 90% confidence level. CC BY-SA 4.0.
Figure 5.9: Kindred Grey (2024). Constructing the confidence interval. CC BY-SA 4.0.
Figure Descriptions
Figure 5.7: White bowl with lots of M&Ms sits on a white table.
Figure 5.8: Population is larger than the sample. Population mean is slightly above the sample mean. The sample mean is 10 and the margin of error is 10+5 and 10-5. 90% confidence interval: To 90%, the mean value of the population is in the range 5, 15.
Figure 5.9: Population is larger than the sample. Population mean is slightly above the sample mean. 95% confidence interval: To 95%, the mean value of the population is in this range (x bar + MOE, x bar – MOE).
The facet of statistics dealing with using a sample to generalize (or infer) about the population
The idea that samples from the same population can yield different results
An interval built around a point estimate for an unknown population parameter
Roughly 68% of values are within one standard deviation of the mean, roughly 95% of values are within two standard deviations of the mean, and 99.7% of values are within three standard deviations of the mean
How much a point estimate can be expected to differ from the true population value; made up of the standard error multiplied by the critical value
Point on a distribution that acts as a cut-off value for accepting or rejecting the null hypothesis | 3,105 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://pressbooks.lib.vt.edu/significantstatistics/chapter/introduction-to-confidence-intervals/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:56042 | https://pressbooks.lib.vt.edu/significantstatistics/chapter/introduction-to-confidence-intervals/ |
wlppd0Vot4JAwG8- | Adult Literacy Fundamental English - Reader 2 | Chapter 5
Langston went to live with his dad when he was 17. His dad lived in Mexico. This was a sad time in his life. Langston and his dad did not get along. His dad did not want Langston to write poems. His dad had a lot of shame about being black. But Langston was proud. He wrote poems to tell other black people to feel proud, too. One example is a poem called “My People.”
The night is beautiful,
So the faces of my people.
The stars are beautiful,
So the eyes of my people.
Beautiful, also, is the sun.
Beautiful, also, are the souls of my people.
– from “My People” in The Crisis (October 1923)
After high school, Langston went to university to study science. His wish was to study English. But his dad would not let him. A lot of people at university treated him badly because he was black. So Langston dropped out after two years. Then he went to work. He was a cook. He washed clothes. He worked on a ship. He also worked as a busboy at a hotel. He cleaned tables and dishes.
Attributions
Langston Hughes at university
Langston Hughes at university by Yale Collection of American Literature is in the public domain.
Langston Hughes at high school
Langston Hughes at high school by Yale Collection of American Literature is in the public domain. | 304 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/adultlitfundreader2/chapter/chapter-5/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:4208 | https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/adultlitfundreader2/chapter/chapter-5/ |
eyuqMQLNPWrKCvMg | 9.1: Cubics | 9.1: Cubics
How does one find the roots of a cubic polynomial? The Babylonians knew the quadratic formula in the second millennium BC, but a formula for the cubic was only found in the \(16^{\text {th }}\) century. The history of the discovery is complicated, but most of the credit should go to Nicolo Tartaglia. The solution was published in 1545 in Girolomo Cardano’s very influential book Artis magnae sive de regulis algebraicis liber unus. Formula \(9.2\) is known today as the Tartaglia-Cardano formula. For a historical account, see e.g. [6].
Consider a cubic polynomial in \(\mathbb{R}[x]\) \[p(x)=a_{3} x^{3}+a_{2} x^{2}+a_{1} x+a_{0} .\] If we want to find the roots, there is no loss of generality in assuming that \(a_{3}=1\) , since the zeroes of \(p\) are the same as the zeroes of \(\frac{1}{a_{3}} p\) .
The second simplification is that we can assume \(a_{2}=0\) . Indeed, make the change of variable \[x=y-\beta,\] for some \(\beta\) to be chosen later. Then \[\begin{aligned} p(x) &=x^{3}+a_{2} x^{2}+a_{1} x+a_{0} \\ &=(y-\beta)^{3}+a_{2}(y-\beta)^{2}+a_{1}(y-\beta)+a_{0} \\ &=y^{3}+\left[a_{2}-3 \beta\right] y^{2}+\left[a_{1}-2 a_{2} \beta+3 \beta^{2}\right] y+\left[a_{0}-a_{1} \beta+a_{2} \beta^{2}-\beta^{3}\right] \\ &=: \quad q(y) . \end{aligned}\] Choose \(\beta=a_{2} / 3\) . Then the coefficient of \(y^{2}\) in \(q(y)\) vanishes. Suppose you can find the roots of \(q\) , call them \(\alpha_{1}, \alpha_{2}, \alpha_{3}\) . Then the roots of the original polynomial \(p\) are \(\alpha_{1}-\beta, \alpha_{2}-\beta, \alpha_{3}-\beta\) .
Therefore it is sufficient to find a formula for the roots of a cubic in which the quadratic term vanishes. This is called a reduced cubic. As there are now only two coefficients left, we shall drop the subscripts and write our reduced cubic as \[q(x)=x^{3}+a x+b .\] The key idea is to make another, more ingenious, substitution. Let us introduce a new variable \(w\) , related to \(x\) by \[x=w+\frac{c}{w},\] where \(c\) is a constant we shall choose later. Then \[\begin{aligned} q(x) &=\left(w+\frac{c}{w}\right)^{3}+a\left(w+\frac{c}{w}\right)+b \\ &=w^{3}+[3 c+a] w+\left[3 c^{2}+a c\right] \frac{1}{w}+c^{3} \frac{1}{w^{3}}+b . \end{aligned}\] Choose \[c=-\frac{a}{3},\] so both the coefficient of \(w\) and \(1 / w\) in (9.4) vanish. Then finding \(x\) so that \(q(x)=0\) is the same as finding \(w\) so that \[\begin{aligned} w^{3}+\frac{c^{3}}{w^{3}}+b &=0 \\ \Longleftrightarrow w^{6}+b w^{3}+c^{3} &=0 . \end{aligned}\] Equation (9.5) is of degree 6, which seems worse than the original cubic; but so many terms vanish that it is actually a quadratic equation in \(w^{3}\) . Therefore it can solved by the quadratic formula: \[w^{3}=\frac{-b \pm \sqrt{b^{2}-4 c^{3}}}{2} .\] Knowing \(w\) , we can recover \(x\) by \[x=w+\frac{c}{w}=w-\frac{a}{3 w} .\] So we arrive at the Tartaglia-Cardano formula for the roots of the reduced cubic (9.2): \[x=\left[\frac{-b \pm \sqrt{b^{2}+\frac{4 a^{3}}{27}}}{2}\right]^{1 / 3}-\frac{a}{3\left[\frac{-b \pm \sqrt{b^{2}+\frac{4 a^{3}}{27}}}{2}\right]^{1 / 3}} .\] How does the formula work in practice?
EXAMPLE 9.8. Let \(p(x)=x^{3}-3 x+2\) . Then \(c=1\) , and (9.6) says \(w^{3}=-1\) . Therefore \(w=-1\) , and so \(x=-2\) is a root. Therefore, by Lemma \(4.13,(x+2)\) is a factor of \(p\) . Factoring, we get \[x^{3}-3 x+2=(x+2)\left(x^{2}-2 x+1\right) .\] The last term factors as \((x-1)^{2}\) , so we conclude that the roots are \(-2,1,1\) .
In Example 9.8, the formula worked, but only gave us one of the roots. Consider the next example:
EXAMPLE 9.9. Let \[p(x)=x^{3}-3 x+1 .\] Then \(c=1\) , and \[w^{3}=\frac{-1 \pm \sqrt{-3}}{2} .\] Now we have a worse problem: \(w^{3}\) involves the square root of a negative number, and even if we make sense of that, we then have to extract a cube root. Is this analagous to trying to solve the quadratic equation \[q(x):=x^{2}+x+1=0 ?\] The quadratic formula again gives the right-hand side of \((9.11)\) , and we explain this by saying that in fact \(q\) has no real roots. Indeed, graphing shows that \(q\) looks like Figure 9.12.
But this cannot be the case for \(p\) . Indeed, \[\begin{aligned} p(-2) &=-1<0 \\ p(0) &=1>0 \\ p(1) &=-1<0 \\ p(2) &=3>0 \end{aligned}\] Therefore, by the Intermediate Value Theorem \(8.10, p\) must have a root in each of the intervals \((-2,0),(0,1)\) and \((1,2)\) . As \(p\) can have at most 3 roots by Theorem \(4.10\) , it must therefore have exactly three roots. A graph of \(p\) looks like Figure 9.13.
It turns out that one can find the roots of \(p\) in Example \(9.9\) by correctly interpreting the Tartaglia-Cardano formula. We shall come back to this example in Section 9.3, after we develop the necessary ideas. The big idea is to introduce the notion of a complex number. | 945 | common-pile/libretexts_filtered | https://math.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Mathematical_Logic_and_Proof/Transition_to_Higher_Mathematics_(Dumas_and_McCarthy)/09%3A_New_Page/9.01%3A_New_Page | libretexts | libretexts-0000.json.gz:24129 | https://math.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Mathematical_Logic_and_Proof/Transition_to_Higher_Mathematics_(Dumas_and_McCarthy)/09%3A_New_Page/9.01%3A_New_Page |
39TO5YU7nlyjP9Ix | Transcultural Communications | General Principles of Transcultural Workshop Facilitation
- Emotional safety of participants is imperative
- Cultural humility
- Awareness of power dynamics in the room
In addition to the sections of this guide that refer to best practices in workshop facilitation, we would like to offer the three principles mentioned above to guide the essence of the workshop’s facilitation. We recommend that you consider each of these principles as you prepare to create a safe environment for all participants.
If possible, we encourage you to inquire about participants’ backgrounds before the training (e.g., demographics, area of study, roles/relationships in the group). This information will provide you with the opportunity to prepare and adjust the content, materials, and resources to be shared with participants. This will also give you the opportunity to examine your role in relation to the participants.
As a facilitator, it is imperative to model honesty, openness/lack of judgment, and humility when delivering a Transcultural Communications workshop, that will examine personal and societal values. We encourage you to see this as an opportunity to facilitate a space that welcomes vulnerability and supports diverse experiences. During the workshop, we encourage you to name the challenges present in some discussions or information and to celebrate this as a learning opportunity and make yourself available for direct check-ins with participants.
Resources for facilitators to learn about Transcultural Communication workshop facilitation:
See Open Educational Resources – Section 1 | 305 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://pressbooks.openeducationalberta.ca/transcultural/chapter/general-principles-of-transcultural-workshop-facilitation/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:7775 | https://pressbooks.openeducationalberta.ca/transcultural/chapter/general-principles-of-transcultural-workshop-facilitation/ |
crat9ksf03JNybae | History of Western Civilization II | 179 American Isolationism
31.2.4: American Isolationism
As Europe moved closer to war in the late 1930s, the United States Congress continued to demand American neutrality, but President Roosevelt and the American public began to support war with Nazi Germany by 1941.
Learning Objective
Describe why the United States initially stayed out of the war
Key Points
- In the wake of the First World War, non-interventionist tendencies of U.S. foreign policy and resistance to the League of Nations gained ascendancy, led by Republicans in the Senate such as William Borah and Henry Cabot Lodge.
- Although the U.S. was unwilling to commit to the League of Nations, they continued to engage in international negotiations and treaties that sought international peace.
- The economic depression that ensued after the Crash of 1929 further committed the United States to doctrine of isolationism, the nation focusing instead on economic recovery.
- Between 1936 and 1937, much to the dismay of President Roosevelt, Congress passed the Neutrality Acts, which included an act forbidding Americans from sailing on ships flying the flag of a belligerent nation or trading arms with warring nations.
- When the war broke out in Europe after Hitler invaded Poland in 1939, the American people split into two camps: non-interventionists and interventionists.
- As 1940 became 1941, the actions of the Roosevelt administration made it more and more clear that the U.S. was on a course to war.
- By late 1941, 72% of Americans agreed that “the biggest job facing this country today is to help defeat the Nazi Government,” and 70% thought that defeating Germany was more important than staying out of the war.
Key Terms
- Lend-Lease Act
- A program under which the United States supplied Free France, the United Kingdom, the Republic of China, and later the USSR and other Allied nations with food, oil, and materiel between 1941 and August 1945.
- Kellogg–Briand Pact
- A 1928 international agreement in which signatory states promised not to use war to resolve “disputes or conflicts of whatever nature or of whatever origin they may be, which may arise among them.”
Interwar Period
In the wake of the First World War, non-interventionist tendencies of U.S. foreign policy gained ascendancy. The Treaty of Versailles and thus U.S. participation in the League of Nations, even with reservations, was rejected by the Republican-dominated Senate in the final months of Wilson’s presidency. A group of senators known as the Irreconcilables, identifying with both William Borah and Henry Cabot Lodge, had great objections regarding the clauses of the treaty which compelled America to come to the defense of other nations. Lodge, echoing Wilson, issued 14 Reservations regarding the treaty; among them, the second argued that America would sign only with the understanding that:
Nothing compels the United States to ensure border contiguity or political independence of any nation, to interfere in foreign domestic disputes regardless of their status in the League, or to command troops or ships without Congressional declaration of war.
While some of the sentiment was grounded in adherence to Constitutional principles, some bore a reassertion of nativist and inward-looking policy.
Although the U.S. was unwilling to commit to the League of Nations, they continued to engage in international negotiations and treaties. In August 1928, 15 nations signed the Kellogg-Briand Pact, brainchild of American Secretary of State Frank Kellogg and French Foreign Minister Aristide Briand. This pact, said to outlaw war and show the U.S. commitment to international peace, had its semantic flaws. For example, it did not hold the U.S. to the conditions of any existing treaties, still allowed European nations the right to self-defense, and stated that if one nation broke the Pact, it would be up to the other signatories to enforce it. The Kellogg–Briand Pact was more of a sign of good intentions on the part of the U.S. than a legitimate step towards the sustenance of world peace.
The economic depression that ensued after the Crash of 1929 also encouraged non-intervention. The country focused mostly on addressing the problems of the national economy while the rise of aggressive expansionism policies by Fascist Italy and the Empire of Japan led to conflicts such as the Italian conquest of Ethiopia and the Japanese invasion of Manchuria. These events led to ineffectual condemnations by the League of Nations, while official American response was muted. America also did not take sides in the brutal Spanish Civil War.
Non-Intervention Before Entering WWII
As Europe moved closer to war in the late 1930s, the U.S. Congress continued to demand American neutrality. Between 1936 and 1937, much to the dismay of President Roosevelt, Congress passed the Neutrality Acts. For example, in the final Neutrality Act, Americans could not sail on ships flying the flag of a belligerent nation or trade arms with warring nations. Such activities played a role in American entrance into World War I.
On September 1, 1939, Germany invaded Poland and Britain and France subsequently declared war on Germany, marking the start of World War II. In an address to the American people two days later, President Roosevelt assured the nation that he would do all he could to keep them out of war. However, his words showed his true goals. “When peace has been broken anywhere, the peace of all countries everywhere is in danger,” Roosevelt said. Even though he was intent on neutrality as the official policy of the U.S., he still echoed the dangers of staying out of the war. He also cautioned the American people to not let their wish to avoid war at all costs supersede the security of the nation.
The war in Europe split the American people into two camps: non-interventionists and interventionists. The sides argued over America’s involvement in this Second World War. The basic principle of the interventionist argument was fear of German invasion. By the summer of 1940, France suffered a stunning defeat by Germans, and Britain was the only democratic enemy of Germany. In a 1940 speech, Roosevelt argued, “Some, indeed, still hold to the now somewhat obvious delusion that we … can safely permit the United States to become a lone island … in a world dominated by the philosophy of force.” A national survey found that in the summer of 1940, 67% of Americans believed that a German-Italian victory would endanger the United States, that if such an event occurred 88% supported “arm[ing] to the teeth at any expense to be prepared for any trouble”, and that 71% favored “the immediate adoption of compulsory military training for all young men.”
Ultimately, the ideological rift between the ideals of the U.S. and the goals of the fascist powers empowered the interventionist argument. Writer Archibald MacLeish asked, “How could we sit back as spectators of a war against ourselves?” In an address to the American people on December 29, 1940, President Roosevelt said, “the Axis not merely admits but proclaims that there can be no ultimate peace between their philosophy of government and our philosophy of government.”
However, there were many who held on to non-interventionism. Although a minority, they were well-organized and had a powerful presence in Congress. Non-interventionists rooted a significant portion of their arguments in historical precedent, citing events such as Washington’s farewell address and the failure of World War I. “If we have strong defenses and understand and believe in what we are defending, we need fear nobody in this world,” Robert Maynard Hutchins, President of the University of Chicago, wrote in a 1940 essay. Isolationists believed that the safety of the nation was more important than any foreign war.
As 1940 became 1941, the actions of the Roosevelt administration made it more and more clear that the U.S. was on a course to war. This policy shift, driven by the President, came in two phases. The first came in 1939 with the passage of the Fourth Neutrality Act, which permitted the U.S. to trade arms with belligerent nations as long as these nations came to America to retrieve the arms and paid for them in cash. This policy was quickly dubbed “Cash and Carry. The second phase was the Lend-Lease Act of early 1941, which allowed the President “to lend, lease, sell, or barter arms, ammunition, food, or any ‘defense article’ or any ‘defense information’ to ‘the government of any country whose defense the President deems vital to the defense of the United States.'” American public opinion supported Roosevelt’s actions. As U.S. involvement in the Battle of the Atlantic grew with incidents such as the sinking of the USS Reuben James (DD-245), by late 1941 72% of Americans agreed that “the biggest job facing this country today is to help defeat the Nazi Government,” and 70% thought that defeating Germany was more important than staying out of the war.
Attributions
- American Isolationism
-
“History of the United States.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_United_States. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.
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“United States non-interventionism.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_non-interventionism. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.
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“Noentanglements.jpg.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_non-interventionism#/media/File:Noentanglements.jpg. Wikipedia CC BY-SA 3.0.
- | 1,946 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://library.achievingthedream.org/herkimerworldhistory2/chapter/american-isolationism/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:78825 | https://library.achievingthedream.org/herkimerworldhistory2/chapter/american-isolationism/ |
WUAYcIOWjVeCPkzK | Communication from the Secretary of the Treasury transmitting in compliance with a resolution of the Senate of March 8, 1851, the report of Israel D. Andrews, Consul of the United States for Canada and New Brunswick, on the trade and commerce of the British North American colonies, and upon the trade of the Great Lakes and rivers; also notices of the internal improvements in each state, of the Gulf of Mexico and Straits of Florida and a paper on the cotton crop of the United States. | The Institute has attempted to obtain the best original copy available for filming. Features of this copy which may be bibliographically unique, which may alter any of the images in the reproduction, or which may significantly change the usual method of filming, are checked below.
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the Secretary of the Treasury, and 500 additional for Israel D. Andrews, be printed.
August 4, 1854. — Resolved, That there bo printed, for the use of the Senate, five thousand additional copies of tho Report of Israel D. Andrews, Senate Ex. Doc.'No. 112, First Session Thirty-second Congress.
Treasury Department, August 25, 1852.
Sir : The resolution of the Senate of the 8th March, 1851, requests the Secretary of the Treasury to "communicate to the Senate, as early as possible at the next session, full and complete statements of the trade and commerce of the British North American colonies with the United States and other parts of the world, inland and by sea, for the years 1850 and 1851, witii such information as he can procure of the trade of the great lakes." In compliance therewith, I have the honor to transmit a report, by Israel D. Andrews, accompanied by numerous statistical tables, carefully compiled from official sources, with maps prepared for, and illustrative of, said report. I am, respectfully,
(n tho prugrcsH of tlio prcpariition of Uio report, it wati found ncccBsary to cliungo Part III to an appendix, whicli containn notineM of tho trade and rommorco of Cincinnati, Louisville, St. LouiB, Pittsburg, New Orlcann, the Hlcam-inarinc of the interior, of tlie inland waterroutes, tho increase and vahio of tho foroi^rn and domestic trade, navigation, &.c,, &c. ; aa also tables showinjj tho exports and imports of tho principal Athintic States for a series of years, and statements of the increase in tho tonnage of tiio several States from 183G, witli tho per cent, increase of tlic total tonnage, and that of the several States.
It was conceived very desirable to iiuhlish a particular account of tlio inland, coasting, and forcif^n trade of tho principal Atlantic cities, and a ]iortion of tho materials worn collected for thai purpose ; but, for tho want of correct statistical data, it was found to be impo88il)lo to have them of a character suited to this report.
It is pi ncr to state in this place my thanks to Mr. N. Davidson, late of tho UutValo Advertiser, for his very valuable and intelligent services in tho preparation of the report, particularly in those portions relating to tho trade of tho lakes and the importance and value of the internal trade.
The importance of tho Mississippi trade, througli tho Gulf of Mexico, to every portion of the Union, it is presumed, will be regarded by all as a full justification for the copious notices, in the appendix, of tho Gulf of Mexico and the Straits of Florida ; and the value of tho cotton crop to the whole coimtry called for the extended and complete exposition in regard to it there inserted. Similar reasons — and to exonerate the report from the imputation of being sectional — demanded tho notices of the commerce, railroads, &c., of tho southern States and southern citic). It is believed no one will object that they were not within the strict literal terms of the resolution under which tho report was prepared. The annexed map of the Gulf of Mexico and Straits of Florida, and Isthmus of Tehuantepec, furnished, as before stated, by the Coast Survey, is the first one of the kind ever published from authentic sources. It will be found interesting in illustration of the views taken Ir. the paper contained in this report respecting this American sea, and generally with roi '. jco to other considerations. The labors of the Coast Survey are progressing in that quarter, i.nd ere long their results will be published. This map is but an index of what they will bo. Thorough and exact as the severest labor and the highest oidor of scientific skill can render them, their usefulness to our commerce will be unapprcciable, and their benefits will extend through ages.
sources, intercolonial trade, foreign eonunerre, transit trade, internal tradic, ami public works; accompanied and illustrated hy a map of the Hasiii of the St. Lawrence, prepared specially for this report. f.Ji 5
observations on tho free navigation of the river of St. John.
VII. The I'rovince of Aoru Scotia, with a description of its geographical position, its most striking featurcR and various resources ; as also returns in relation to its trade, coiunierce, flahories and coal mines; as also specinl notices of Cnpc Breton jind Sable Island.
VIII. The Inland Colonij of .Veufoundland, witli a iliscription of its position between tlie Atlantic oc«!aii and Gulf of St. (..awrence, its physical features and abunilant fisheries, accompanied by returns of its trade and commerce ; aH also descriptions of the Labrador coast, itiul ot" ;he harbor of St. .lohn, in connexion with the proixised establishment of a line of stcanislii])s from tliat port to Ireland, and connected by electric telegraph from thenco to the United States.
by tabular statements and returns.
XL The Trade of some of the ..Itlantic ports of the I'nitid Stal(s vith tlir ,\orth .Imerican Cvlonics hij sea ; illustrated by tables and rt!turns, accoiniJiuiicd by a map of the Lower (\)loiiies ; prepared expressly for this report.
Coiiliiinirijf notirpB of tlio iiitorrmi ntiil tlotiH'Mtic coininnrcc— Tciiilniicy (»f Ohio inniiHorro, ('iiiciiiruli, ritUbur^, {•oiiiHvillo, Hi. liOuiH— HUmiiii iiiurlno of tlio iiitnnor, Xcw Orlcuim, Mobile, (Julf of Moxifi), niul HtiiiilH of FlDridii— (-'cilltin irop of thit Hiiili-il Htiitoii— (Joriiini rco (if lb« Atlantic HtitoH and citinH, uiiiJ liibloit of Ibn tdniiagd uf iiuili Slutu iluriii^ u xurii't of yuan.
Sensilc ofthc United Stales:
•• That the Secretary of the Treasury bo rctjuestod to cotntnunicate to tlio Si'uate, as (>arly as possiljle, at the next session, lull and complete statements of the trach; and conunerce of the British North Aincricun colonies with the United States, and other parts ol" the world, on land and by sea, in the years 1850 and 1851, with such itifbrmntion as he can procure of the trade of the great lakes."
You directed his attention to the general importance of all the subjects embraced in the resolution, their intimate relation to many branches of national interest, and the necessity of having such report submitted to you in the most correct t()rm, and us lull and detailed, as the shortness of time would permit.
You were [)leased, also, at a sul)se(|uent ptiriod, to <lirect the attention of the undersigned to that part of the resolution relating to the commercial interests of the great lakes, and to desire that it should receive prompt and careful attention ; and that all the information obtained should be presented in tabular statemetus.
The undersigned was likewise informed by you, that if any subjects not specified in his instructions, of national or great local interest, germane to the sr)irit of the resolution of (he Senate, should full under his notice, it would not be. inappropriate to submit the same fi)r the consideration of the government.
These instructions, and the great interest now generally manifested as to the colonial and lak(! trade of the United States, have induced the undersigned to give careful attention to each distinctive feature of the various important subjects involved in your instructions and the resolution of the Senate.
The undersigned is fully aware that it is his duty (as it most certainly is his wish) to notice the questions under consideration in the briefest manner consistent with their proper elucidation. In justification of any notice that may be considered loo much extended, it must be remembered that the weighty matters involved are not confined to any particular locality ; thai they aflect not only the British colonies, but various and important domestic interests of the United States ; that they are interwoven with all the elements of our national strength; that they b(uir, in an especial manner, upon the navigation and the foreign and coasting trade of this country, upon its various manufactures, and upon its commerce with distant nations.
ANDUEWS UEPORT ON
In directing your Jittentioii to tlio first p;nl of this r.cport, tho most iinportynt, so fiir :i.s homo interests :irf! conoertied, it is proper to remark, lh:it althougli the statements as to th(! internal trade of the United States art; I'liller than any hel()re presented to the government in this form, and such as conicl only bo obtained 1)V groat labor and expense, they may be relied upon as being generally correct. They have been collected fiom various sources, oflicial and unofHclal j and it is duo to the public to state, that it is principally owing to tlu! different modes of conducting the inland trade of the country, that statistical returns of an official character are not made as to much of that trade.
T^he returns tVorn several of the custom-lionse districts on the lakes are very creditable to the collectors by whom they were prepared ; while the returns fit)m others were in many respects incorrect uiui incomplete, ("ausing loss of lime and gniat trouble in rectitying and perfecting them.
The necessity fijr a well organized system, in order to obtain "a correct account" of the lake trade, must be; obvious. The want of a law to enforci^ even the present im])erle'ct system, the great increase of business, anil its diversilied character in nearly all the districts, and the limited clerical force allowed in some of them, an; all causes (»f difficulty in obtaining and arranging in a creditable and satisfactory manner, lull, ardirate, and (nitiridy intelligible statistics of the lake trade, and of the general internal connnerce of the country.
It is |)roper also to state that the cmbarrassnients now existing, will increase in a corresponding d(>gree with tli(^ c(,'rtain and almost incalculable annual increasti of this iratle and connnerce.
This ill- arranged and imperfect system of managing the lake trade and internal commerc*.^ of the couutr}' is presiinled to the notices of the government, and offered as an apology why the report on this trade and comuK^rce is not more worthy the high importance of the interests involved. If iiatiourd considerations should induce a desire ou the part of the. government to possess other reports on the internal trade of the country, it will be m'cessary to provide f()r a more jn'rli'ct system of statistical returns and to (.-arry it out by legal re(}uirenients.
It is not intended to suggest that any no\t'l coercive huvs should be udo[)ted, interfering with tlur free and unrestricted exchange of goods and productions of all kinds between diflerent sections of the cfauitry. Free connnerce, especially internal canmeree, unli'ttered by restraints originating in s(.'ctioiial or local partialities, or prompted by like selfish interests, is no boon from any govenunent to the i)eoj)le ; it is iniijuestionably their natural right. There can be no doubt that a system might be easily d<ivised, under the authority of the Treasury Department, which would meet every r( (juiremenl and promote the interests of this trade.
In the style, character, and complet<;ness of our .--tatistical I'eports, we are far l)ehind other countries, and no authority I.>ul that of Congress can supply this deficiency.
The public eye has ever been steadily fixt.-d (tu the liireign commerce of the country as the right arm of national strength. This cnmnierce has increased so rapidly, and the tradt; as well as the tariffs
COLONIAL AND LAKE TRADK. O
have boen so grcally cliangecl, that now anaiigctnents of the old returns aro (lemandefl to cnablr the (l('[)artniental condensations to be perfect and roadil}'^ inlolligiblc. The reports on commerce and navigation now give the total tonnage of the [Jnited States, but do not state the character or class of vessels composing the mercantile marine of a country scarcely second to any in the world. It is also necessary that more complete statements of the trad(j and commerce of the great cities of the Atlantic seaboard and on the (inlf should belaid before Congress annually, and these; improvements in th<-'ir arrangement could be made, and they might be; fuller in detail than those hitherto submitted, with comprtihensive statisticrd accounts of the coasting trade and navigation, and distinguishing between steamers and other vessels.
It is proper to remark that the present arrangement of returns of the internal and coasting trade is mostly govcnned by the law of 1799, when the trade was in its inliuiey, and commerce received rather than created law.
In the dis'Missions which have taken plae<' in Congress of late Yf'«rs, in relation to great public questions, such as the public lands, or the improvement of rivers and harbors, tin; most meagre statistical statements have been adduced in many cases, and loose hypotheses assumed in others. This is attribu'ible to tlu; absences of authentic olHcial returns, and is conceived to ^k; a justification li»r presuming to bring this subject to the attention of C(Ki<fress in this report.
In the absence ol" statistical sliitcments, published by national authority, the value of works containing statistical returns uj)on which reliance can be placed is greatly enhanced ; and this opportunity is embraced of comnK.'iiding, as oin' source of valuable iniijrmation in making this report, th(^ pul)lieatious called "Hunt's Merchants' Magazine," " De Bow's Review," tlu; " Bankers' Magazine," and the " Amerienn Railroad .bturnal," as the most valuable in this c:ountry.
The undersigned is fully aware of its having been asserted by those who have limited means ol"lbrming a correct opinion, that tli(^ value of the lake trade has been everywhere overstated. It is true that in some cases approximations, from the want of otli(;ial data, are, of necessity, resorted to; but that is not the fault of tliose who have the matter in charge.
The basin of the great lakes, and of the river 8t. Lawrence, is fuU}'^ delineated on the map attached to the report on Canada. Its physical features, and the inlluence it must exiucise on futun- moral developments, are without parallel and historical precedent. It is an American treasure; its value to bi; estimated less by what it has ahi'ady accomplished, than by what it must achieve in its progress.
The attention of the civilized world has been directed with grt;at int(Mvst to ih(^ constant and progressive emigration fn»m the Old World to the New. In tbrmer times, hordes of nun changed their country l)y means of long and toilsome journeys by land; but never until the prepent ag(; Uiivv. multitudes, and, in some instances, communities, been transferred from continent to continent, and from one hemisphere to th(; other, by such means as are now atK)rded in the New York packets, clipper ships, and ocean steamers. These vehich.'s but represent the
That portion of the "Great West" at the western extreme of the basin of" the St. L;i\vre;u-e has received a hnger share than any other porti«)n of our country oC the vahiahle addition to our national riches arising from the inchistry, ititelhgence, and weahh, of the hundreds of thousands of Uncigners who, williin a comparatively lirief period, have landed upon our sfiores. ll is, therefore, imjyossible to estimate the enormous and continuous accumuhition of weahli, having ils basis on the ample resources and natural riches of that great western region, over which the star of American emjiire seems now to rest.
In connexion with an nneciualled increase ol" population in the Great West, the growth of the lak'' trade has been so extraordinary and so rapid, that but few persons are cognizant of its present extent and value.
In ]841 the aro.ss amount of the lake trade was sixtv-tive millions of dollars. In 184G it had increased to one hundred and twenty-five millions. In 1848, according to the (>stimate of Colonel Abort, of the topographical engineers, the value of die commerce of the lakes was one hundred and eighty-six millions. Owing to various causes, but particularly to the great influx of ibreiguers, and the. opening of new and extensivi! liuf s of intercommunication, it has recently increased still more largely, until, in 1851, it amounted to more than three hundred millions. And these estimates do not includt; the value of tlie property (•onstantly changing hands, nor has any notice been taken of the cost of vessels, or the profits of the passenger trade.
It is not within the scope of this report, nor is it practicable therein, to attempt a/wW exposition of die trade and commerce of the Mississippi, the Missouri, or the Ohio, ilowing through that great valley, unsurpassed in all the elements of wealth by any region in this or the Old World. This trade and commerce is worthy of the particular and earnest attentioii of American statesmen. And it is here proper to state, that one gr(!at caust; of the growth of the lake trade is the tiict that a cheap and expeditious route from the Atlantic to the Great W(\>Jt is aflbrded by th(! internal conmiunications, by railroads and canals, opening the way through the great lakes and through the Aileghanies, instead of being restricted to the rivers Ilowing southward.
The following facts in relation to the trade of the Erie canal are presented as confirming the abovi,-, and justifying fiirther and full official investigation as to the entire internal trade of the West:*
In 1835 there lefi the lakes by the Erie canal lor tide-water, 30,823 ions of wheat anrl ilour. In 1851 therc^ left tiie same points, on tho sanK! canal, 401,187 tons of similar articles.
* Tlie farts licreimiftor Ktiilod will-. r('K|inut to tlio trade and cuiuincrco of tlic MisiBRippi and its tril)iitariP9, and of tliy States and cities on tliuir shores, and on tlie Gulf of Mexico, and coinineti'd witli tlioni, are important not only in reirard to tlial specific trade and commerce, i)ut ii>r their relation to tiuit of tin- l.iltes, and, inland, by canal and railroad to tho Atlantiu seaboard. It has been found in some defrrce necessary to refer to tho t'ornier in full elucidation of the latter, Tho (^reat interests ot the southwestern and southern StateB demand, however, a fuller and more perfect notice than the resolution calling for this report, and limiting it to other sections, will allow to ho now made.
water by th(3 New York cnnals, was 457,624 tons ; showing thiit while betv/cen the lakes and tide-water the State of New York furnislicd 97,729 ton> over 75 per eent. of the; whole quantity delivered, in 1851 it onl^ nnished 50,437 tons, or about 11 per cent, of the whole quantity, t'le remaining 89 per cent, having been received from the West, and from the territory of Canada on th(! lakes.
The total tonnage ascending and descending on all the New York canals in 183G was ], 310, 807 tons, valued at $67,634,343, and paying tolls amounting to $1,614,342 ; while in 1851 it amounted to 3,582,733 tons, valued, ascending and descending, at $159,981,801, paying tolls amounting tn $3,329,727.
The tralfic on the Erie canal, and the principal routes from the interior to the Atlantic, has sucli an important relation with the whole trade of the nation, that it was conceived that this part of the report would be incomplete without a proper reterence to the trade of such routes ; which will be found attached to part IV, with a reierence to the commerce of some of the principal Atlantic and interior ports and comparative statements.
The great lakes are not a straight lin(!of water, but present a zigzag course. Their surplus waters all find their way to tlu; ocean by one great outlet, the noble St. Lawrence. Notwithstanding the opinions that may be entertained adverse to that mighty river as a channel of communication between the West and the Atlantic, it is nevertheless certain to be more used, and to increase in importance, in proportion to every material stride in the prosperity and advancement of the country bordering on the lakes.
Stretching down into New York, as if lor the especial accommodation of a comparatively southern region, is Ijak(.' Erie; while extending fiir into tlie regions of th<; northwest, to meet the requirements of that region. Lake Superior spreads his ample waters. An examination of the map prepan^d by Mr. Keefcr, and attached to this report, under the head of Canada, will prove that nature has provided the great lakes for all the different and distant portions of this continent, and that the St. Lawrence is their natural outlet to the sea.
There are those who maintain that the improvement of the navigation of tilt! St. Lawrence, and the widening and deepening of the Welland and St. Lawrence canals, so as to allow vessels of a larger class than at present ingress and egress, with their cargoes to the ocean, and the extension by the British government, to the United States, of the free use of both, would cause a commercial city to grow up on the banks of that river which would successfully rival New York in European trade ; but important as the results doubtless would be to the interests of the Canadas, and especiall}' of Lower Canada, and greatly as those interests would be promoted by such measures, there is little cause for believing that such anticipations of injury to New York or to any of our Atlantic cities would be realized. Their trade would not be decreased, whilst that flowing down the new outlet would be increased. New resources would be created bj' the new stimulants thus given.
farther tiolicc. While ihecoiiiinerciMl connexion between the East and the West by canals, steamboats, and raih'oads, is increasing with such rapidity under the combined infhience of enterprise and necessity, it is quite evident that provision must soon be made Jbr adequate harbor* accommodation on the hikes, to meet the necessities of their commerce, already rivalling th.it on the Atlantic.
It is a remarkable iiict that there are but few natural harbors on the lakes, the shores diflering in that respect from the seacoasts of the United States, and of the northern colonies, which are amply provided with the finest harbors.
While the frommerce of Chicago, Budido, Oswego, and other lake ports, is of more value than the commerce of any ol' the ports on thi; Atlantic, except New Orleans, Boston, and New York, the harbors of the lake ports, even whilst their commerce is yet in its infancy, are wholly inade(]uate to the nund)er of vessels jdready on the lakes. The numerous disasters in conse(]uence of the insecurity of these harbors, call loudly lor the improvement of such havens as can be made secure and convenient by arlificifil means.
The commercial and navigating interests in that section have from the outset been sensible of the drawbacks arising Irom the absence of security to lite and proj)erty, and have unceasingly presented their claims for the artificial improvement of their harbors to the consideration of the State and Federal governments.
At a public meeting held at Milwaukie, in 1837, with ref(*rence to the improvement of harbors, it was " Itesolml, Tiiat we will not desist from memorializing and petitioning Congress, and ])resenting our just rights and claims, until we have finally accomplished our object." The spirit of this n^solution, it cannot be doubted, is the prevailing sentiment throughout the entire West, connected by its trade with the lakes.
It is not presumed, in any part of this report, to argue the question of the constitutionality of such improvements by the federal government; but it is unquestionably due to that great interest, and to the preservation of life and properly, to slate that a great and ])ressing necessity exists for the construction of harbors on the lakes by some authority. Stale or Fetleral and by some means ; and whether these should be
Eublic or private, enlightened statesmen must decide. The work should e done. If the government of the United States, sustained by the patriotic afreclion of the people, is restrained by the constitutional compact from doing things undeniably nettded for the promotion of important national interests and the security of its citizens and their property, some other means of relief should be devised. If it does j)0ssess adequate constitutional power, it should be exercised.
The past action on this subject has paralyzed, rather than aided, many improvements. Harbors and havens, tlie construction of which* was commenced by government, hiixc. not been completed, and are in a state of dilapidation ; and w'hile the ])ubllc have waited for farther aid, many valuable lives and great amounts of property have been lost. It is extremely doubtful (even if there were sufficient local wealth, and if we could allow the ex])e(;tation of that unity of action in the vicinity of ijie lake const necessary to secure the construction of any one of the many harbors and havens their lake commerce now so
The undersigned begs leave to call the attention of the honorable Secretary oi' the Treasury to the necessity of having marine hospitals in the large commercial ports upon the Udces. The casualties of that navigation are little difierent from those of the sea ; and while the " freshwater sailor" contributes, Irom his monthly wages, to the same " hospital money," as he who "goes down upon the gre.-it deep," equal justice demands ccjunl expenditure l(:)r the benefit of both.
It is not enougli to say that these hospitals would bo beneficial ; they are imperatively demanded by the mariners and the ship-owners of these " itdand seas." There is every year much suffering, especially at tiie large towns ol' Buffalo, Oswego, Clev(;land, Sandusky, Toledo, Detroit, Chicago, and Milwaukie, all of which have a large Ht<;am and sailing marine, and are rapidly taking rank among our leading commercial cities. At these ports a large number of sailing vessels and steamers pass the winter ; the number of sailors needing relief from suffering is thus increased. Some of tliese sailors are now often let out on hire, by the collectors of customs, to those wanting labor. No censure is intended of those officers ; such course is forced upon them by the necessities of tiie case, but such a state of things ought not to continue. That these seamen could be comfortably provided for at a trifling cost to the government, by the expenditure of no more than ihe monthly contributions received from those engaged in the lake trade, if proper hospitals were erected, cannot be doubted.
One link in the chain of communication tiirough the great lakes is yet to be supplied. This will be effected by the construction of a ship canal around the Falls of St. Mary, which will open to the lower lakes a navigation of fully a thousand miles. Our shipping will have an uninterrupted sweep over waters, which drain more than three hundred thousand scpiare miles of a region abounding in mineral and agricultural resources. They may be water-borne nearly halfway across the continent. The inexhaustible elements of wealth on the shores of Lake Superior will then become avail;d)le. These, as yet, have hardly been touched, much less appreciated. Its fisheries are exhaustless. Nature has developed its mineral treasures upon a scale as grand as its waters. Its copper mines, the most extensive and productive in the world, furnishing single masses of the unparalleled weight of sixty tons, suppl}' half of our consumption, from localities where, ten yeai's since, the existence of a single vein was unknown. The iron mines near the shores of this lake surpass those of Sweden or Russia in extent, and ecjual them in the excellence of dieir materiel. It is predicted by acute metallurgists that its silver mines, though as yet undeveloped, will one day vie with those of Mexico.
While we behokl with wonder the munificence of the gifts which Providence has showered upon this extensive; region, thousands of miles in the interior from the ocean, we maj' also look forward with hopeful pride to achievcnncnts in art, and to commercial enterprise, commensurate in grandeur to those gifts, for their distribution throughout our country and the world. Reflection upon these bounteous gifts leads us to the conception of the means necessary to be adopted for their ade-
quate use and en joymenl. When the Caughnawaga canal shall have been fanished by the Canadian government, uniting the St. Lawrence and Lake Chiimplain by a ship canal, thus completing the judicious and successful improvements on the St. Lawrence, so creditable to the enterprise and national views of that government ; and when a siiip canal shall be constructed from Champlain, by way of Wliitehall, to the Hudson river — and commercial necessities will not be satisfied with less — when the waters of Superior thus flow into the Hudson, and the shipping of New York can touch upon the plain in which, with their branches interlocking, the Mississippi and the St. Lawrence both have their origin, it will be a stride equivalent to centuries for the nation. A boundless field of commerce, and a vast expansion of transportation, will thereby be opened, and a development of wealth, such as the world has never witnessed, afforded.
The commercial results anticipated will not alone belong to those whose labor and enterprise may primarily effect them. Commerce, external and internal, by steamships on the oceans or on the lakes, by railroads over, or canals through, the land, is the advance guard of civilization. Whenever true commerce receives any new impulse, its beneficial effects accrue not only to the country from which it springs, but to the world. Its advancement is theretbre one of the highest duties not only of enlightened statesmanship, but of philanthropy.
Although this report may have been elaborated more than might seem to have been designed by the resolutions or instructions under which it has been prepared, it is believed that no apology is necessary for thus devoting a few pages to the evidences of the rising wealth of this broad empire. So complete is the dependence of one section of the country upon another — so varied arc the productions furnished in the different degrees of latitude embraced within the present bounds of the confederacy, and yet so admirably are the channels for transportation supplied by nature and art, that the prosperity of each section overflows into the other. This diffusion of prosperity, produced by community of interests and sympathies, freedom of trade and mutual dependence, is a sure pledge that our political union can never be broken.
The undersigned is not without hop(! that the facts presented in this report may tend to promote the struggling railroad interests of the West. That section needs capital, and greater facilities for transportation ;.the former creating the latter. The magnificent systems of railroads in course of construction, or projected. Tor the transportation of various productions from the country bordering on the Mississippi, so far south as St. Louis, must become important channels of trade. The political and moral benefit of railroads as bands of union and harmony between the different sections of tliis broad empire, can only be measured by our posterity.
The securities issued the United States and on account of many of the railroads projected and in process of construction in the West, are seeking a market among the capitalists throughout the world. Ignorance of the resources of the country which will support the roads, and of the progress of the regions through which they pass, causes the depression of these stocks far below their value. The large amount of
money required to complete the works silreacly contemplated, rnnkes it a matter of high importance, which has not been lost sight of in this report* that such information should be given to the financial world as may remove some of" the obstacles encountered by the great interests of the West, owing to ignorance of their true condition and resources which prevails in the money markets of Europe.
This ignorance is not confined to foreigners, but exists among a portion of our countrymen. The former cannot understand how railroads can be built, and made to pay, in comparatively new countries ; the latter, living near the banks of great rivers, and ou the Atlantic coast, where alone surplus capital, as yet, abounds, cannot appreciate the necessity existing for the constant creation of these iron lines. Commerce depends for its existence and extension upon channels afforded as its outlets. Primarily it follows what may be termed the natural routes, which are often not convenient ones.
Modern commerce has sought, and is constantly creating, at great expense, artificial channels ; and this is so true of the United States, that such channels have, in a great degree, superseded the natural routes ; for the reason that the direction of the American internal commerce is between the agricultural and (he commercial and manufacturing districts, which are not connected by the two great outlets, the Mississippi and the St. Lawrence rivers. Produce leaving Burlington, Iowa, following its natural outlet, is landed at New Orleans ; or, leaving Detroit, and following its natural course, at Quebec. By the changing influence of artificial channels, it is now easily borne to New York, Philadelphia, Boston, or Baltimore.*
These are the facts which give so great consequence to the leading artificial lines of communication, such as the Erie canal, Erie railroad, Western rmlroad, the Pennsylvania railroad, the Baltimore and Ohio railroad, the Mobile and Ohio railroad, the Virginia works in progress for connecting the seaboard of that State with the western States ; the South Carolina railroad ; the several works in Georgia, and other roads and canals alluded to in the report.
Many portions of the country are without even natural outlets, by which to forward their products to the great leading or national routes of commerce. Their products are comparatively valueless, on account of the cost of transportation to market. The wheat and corn grown in the central portions of Kentucky, Illinois, and Missouri, will not, on the spot, command one quarter their value in New York or the other markets on the Atlantic coast.
This difference in value, between the points of production and consumption, is owing to the cost of transportation. Hence the necessity of local as well as national channels to the development of our re-
sources, iind to the further creation and wider extension of inland commerce. Efforts to construct channels of commerce suited to its wants are now engrossing tho energies and capital of the wliole cmintry. Wc have already constructed thirtec.n thousand miles of railroads, and have at least thirteen thousand more in progress. Our roads completed have cost four hundred millif)ns ; those in j)rogress will cost at least two hundred and sixty millions more — making an aggregate of six hundnxl and sixty millions. These roads are indispensable to keep alive and develop the industry of the country.
m progress.
The capital of the country is not equal to this demand, without creating embarrassment in the ordinary channels of business ; and unless we can avail ourselves of lijreign capital, a portion of our works wdl be retarded, or we shall be involved in liuancial trouble.
We could borrow from England, Holland, and France, at comparatively low rates, the money needed ibr our works ; and it is believed by statesmen that by a judicious extension of our commerce with other parts of Europe to which hitiierlo less attention has been paid than it deserves, inducements could be created lor the investment of a portion of their large surplus capital in profitable works of internal improvement in this country, yielding high rates of interest, provided the foreign capitalists could be made to fully understand our condition, the necessity that exists (or these works, and the prospect of their yielding a remunerating traffic. As it is, our works are mainly carried on by aid of Ibreign capital ; but we have to pay, at times, exorbitant rates for the use of money, simply because so little is known of the objects, value, and productiveness of our works.
One course adopted by many of those who are constructing the roads in progress is to raise money upon what are called road borids. These bonds are based upon the whole cost of the road, and are consequently perfectly safe investments. They are, notwithstanding, sold, on an average, as low as 85 or 87 cents on the dollar, and the capitalist is alone benefited by the advance.
One object which the undersigned has had in view in the preparation of this report, is to diffuse information that will secure an active demand for our sound securities at the best rates, so that the publicspirited companies who are struggliiig under heavy burdens may receive what their securities arc actually worth, and may not be compelled to heavy sacrifices. Our companies during the present year will be borrowers in the market for fifty millions, to be raised, in a great degree, on these railroad bonds. This amount will be borrowed mostly firom European capitalists, at a discount of 12 to 15 per cent., making an aggregate loss of six to seven millions.
cent, per annum.
These bonds are sold at the above rates, because so little is known of the projects, or of tlie real strength of the country. The purchasers demand a premium in the nature of insurance, and as soon as it is
perfect security.
It in no |);irt of this report to advocate, in any way whatever, any particular raih'oad, or any particular route of commerce ; but in view of ili(! unquestionabI(! necessity that exists for more knowledge on these points, both at homti and abroad — in view of the somewhat surprising fact that we have no published documents which contain any information in relerence to our public works, ealcuhited to throw light upon ihe subject, the undersigned has Iclt it his duty to meet, as far as possible, the wants of that great interest, although the shortness of time allowed, and the dilHculty of obtaining materials, has rendered the work much less perfect than he could liavc wished. The accompanying report on tiie railroads and canals of the United States, prepared with the assistance of Mr. Henry V. Poor, the editor of the American Ilailroad Journal, New York, with his map annexed, to which reference has been made, may, it is hoped, prove to be of value not only to the railroad interest, but to ihe countr}' gener.dly, and important at this period to American and European capitalists.
The unilersigned conceives that the ))osition of our internal commerce, as illustrated in this it-port, may well be a subject of national pride. For the last fl.'W cc^nturies, the attention of the world has been given to maritime commerce, created by the discovery of America and the ocean path to the East Indies. The world entered u])on a new epocb when the great maritime powers struggled lijr dominion on the high seas. As ancTo(juent American writer* has said : "Ancient navigation kept near the coasts, or was but a passage from isle to isle ; commerce now selects, of choie<', the boundless deep.
" The three ancient continents were divided by no wide seas, and their J'" iutercoursf! w;is chiefly by land. Their voyages were like ours on Lake Erie — a continuance of internal trade. The vastness of their transactions was measured not by tonnage, but by counting caravans and camels. But now, f()r the wilderness, commerce substitutes the sea; for camels, merchantmen ; l()r caravans, llcets and convoys."
Our time presents another epoch in eonnnercial histor3\ Internal trade resumes in this country its ancient dominion. Commerce now avails itself of lakes and rivers, as well as of the sea, and often substi- . tutes the former for the latter. For merchantmen, it now substitutes steamboats; for fleets and convoys, canal boats and freight trains on railroads. Upon this commerce that of thtr fum ilepends. Its prosperity is the surest foundation of national power. As has been said by a philosophical historian,f "An extensive and lively commerce would most easily, and theret()re the soonest, be found on the banks of large rivers running through countries rich in natural productions. Such streams facilitate the int(>rcourse of the inhabitants ; and a lively trade at home, which promotes national industry, is .always the surest foundation of national wealth, and consequently of foreign trade. The course of the latter depends in a great measurt; upon exterior circumstances and relations, which caiuiot always be controlled ; but internal commerce, being the sole work of the uiUion, only declines with the nation itself."
AMKRICAN COLONIKS.
In conformity with your personjil directions, iind pnrsuunt to your written instructioiH, tin; uiKl(Tsi<2[ned liiis diligently prosccutod certain inquiries with referenci? to the J3ritis[i North Americiin colonies, more especially as regards their foreign, internal, and intcrciolonial trade, their commerce and navigation, and their fisheries. Having procured some new and special information on these several points, of much interest ti citizens of the United States, he submits the same without delay, in the briefest possible ff)rm, to the consideration of tlui government.
Since his appointment as consul at St. John, New nrunswick, in 1843, the undersigned has had the honor, on several occasion.^, of calling the attention of government to the extent, value, and importance of the trade and navigation of the British North American colonies, and of pointing out the necessity of action on the part of the general goverinnent, to meet the important commercial changes which have taken place within the last few years. He has also had the honor of suggesting the necessity of wise and liberal legislation in relation to this important and valuable trade, with the; view of securing its profits and advantages to citizens of the United States, in whose immediate neighborhood it exists, and to whom, under a fair and equal systinn of commercial intercourse, it may be said to appertain.
In the beginning of this report, the undersigned has replied to one part of the resolution of the Senate in relation to the trade and commerce of the great lakes ; and in the latter portion he has the honor to submit a number of documents and statistical returns in n.'lution to the British North American colonies, made up to the latest possible moment. He most respectfully, but earnestly, solicits the attention of the government, and of the whole commercial community, to the documents and returns hennvith submitted, and re(|uests a particular examination of the separate reports on each colony, respectively, and of the special reports on the British colonial and Freucn fisheries of North America; which, at this time, will be found to possess much interest.
The undersigned also invites particular attention to the sketch of tho early history, and present state of our knowledge of the geology, mineralogy, and topography, of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, prepared expressly for this report, by one of our most distinguished geologists, Dr. Charles T. Jackson, who, in conjunction with Mr. Alger, of Boston, first brought to public notice the important mineral resources of" these provinces.
That full confidence may be placed in the statements relating to trade and commerce of the colonies embraced in this report, it may be proper to state that each colony has been visited — the three following : Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick — several times in person by the undersigned, and that the returns have been carefully compiled not only from official documents, but from trustworthy private resources; and in this connexion the undersigned gratefully expresses his obligations
resources, trndo, nnd coinmcrco of Canndii.
The possessions of Cire.'it liriLiiin in North America, cxehisivo of the West India Jshnid.^, are, the iniited provinces of Canada Eusl and Cana(hi West, lh»; province of New lirnnswick, the province of Nova Scotia, wfiich inchides the island of Cape IJrcton, tho island colonies of Ne\vfi)undlan(I uud Vr'uwo Edward Island, Lnhrndor, and the wide-«[)read rei^ion (inelndini^ Vancouver's Island, iIk; tnost iniportant position on the I'aciiic ocean) undtT the control of the Hudson 8 Buy ('ompany, (.'Xtenditip; fnjiu Labrador to the Pacific, and from lh«! northern bounds of Canada to the Arctic ocean, except the districts claimed by llussia.
These possessions, vi(!wed nien^ly with reference to their vustsuperlices, which (sxeeeds li)ur' millions of geographical s(i[uare miles, (;omprise a territory of great im{)ortance, mon; es|)eeially when the raanil()ld advantages of their geographical position are taken into consideration. But their importance should be estimated less by their territorial ext(;nt than by the numerous resources they contain; their great capabilities for improvement ; tlu; increase of which their commerce is susceptible ; and the (sxtensive field they present for colonization and settlem(;iit.
The British North American provinces, to which these reports and documents are more especially confined, occupy comparatively but a small portion of the aggregate superfices of the whole of the British possessions on this continent; yet they cover a wide extent of country; as will be perceived by the following statement of their area :
Total area British North American provinces. . . . 218,339,415
In 1830 the population of all these provinces was slated at 1,375,000 souls. The census returns at the close of the y(!ar 1851, give the following as their present population :
Tuking th«3 uveruijic ratio ol' iiicrca.so of lliesc colonics rollccfivfly, it has been found that they doubhi their population every sixteen or eighteen years; yet, various can'f\s have eontribiited to render the increase smaller in the la.st tweniy-one yeius, thiui atliiriner periods.
But the comtnereial fre(!(l(ini whi'li (Jreat Britain has reeeiitly conceded to her dominions, both at liome and abroad, has eauscul these North American colonies to take a new start in th«.' racf; of nations, and in all probability their population will incr(?a.s(! more rapidly heri^after than at any previous period.
The swelling tide ol' population in these valuable poss(!Ssions of the crown of England, great as has been its constant and wonderful inc. *ase, will scarcely excite .so much surpri.s(! as a consideration of the astonishing growth of their trade, commerce, luid navigation within a comparatively brief antl rec(;nt prsriod.
In the twenty years which have elapsed since 1831, the e-xports un\c not merely doubled, but have reached an increase of 116 per cent. L»i"ing tt^e year 1851 the exports of the British North AmerieatJ colon'cs i rr, i.tL'i to no 1^ ;s than $35,720,000.
So hirgi! an iricn'ase as thi.M eouhl not heM'xpcctcd to be inaintnin'-d ; yet th<! iiicnN'isc! which ''?>s taken pbi'e during the iwenly yenrs since ehipsed has been nearly ^s icmarkabK. Iti 18.01, the tonnage out ward* by sea, from the Norlli Anicricnii olonies nnionntod to l,/jH3,|04 tt<«i^ or nearly doubh; what n wna in the year 1831.
At an early period after their (irsi settlemeni \ho inhai)itani.- ot' the North Am(;rieaii colonies direeti d their attention to ship bnildin-,'. The eounlriert they oceu[)y furnish timber of great excellence t(>r this i)urpose, and ar(j possessed of unrivalled faeilities |(»r the constructinn ;*iid launchirig of ships. This branch of business has steadily inceast-d, until it Ici8 attainetl a prominent position as priiu'ipally employing colonial ii.atcrials wrought up by colonial industry. At first die colonists only constructed such vessefs as tlu^y re(|uired l()r their own coasting and f()reign trade, and for tla; prosecution of their unequalh'd fisheries; but of late years they have been somewhat extensively engaged in the construction of ships of large siz(!, liir sale in tla^ l.'nited Kaigdoiiis. New ships may therefiirc b(> classed among tli(* exports o( the iiritisli North American (colonies to tin* paniit State.
The new ships built in these colonies in 1832 nm< aited, in thr; aggregate, to 33,778 tons. In 1841, tin; nc^w vessels wei ■ nnmt than three times as many as in 1832, and numbered 104,087 tons. In 1849, tho tonnag«! of new ships increased to 108,038 tons. In LS.OO, there was a still further increase, the nt;w ships built in that ^ ''ar numbering 112,787 tons.
That the <;olonies have great capacity for the profitabl< employmenl of shipping is demonstrated by tla^ steady increase of tli' ir mercantile niurinc;. Krom those periods in their early history, when i ach colony owned but one coaster, their vessels, year by year, without a decrease at any peiiod, and without a single pause «•• check, ha e regularly swelled in numbers and in tonnage, up to the ])resent uk uient, when their aggregate! exceeds half a million of tons, now owiu-d and registered in the cohaiies, and fully employed in their trade and I'usiness.
The rate of this steady and continual increase of the tonnige of the colonies may be gathered from the following statemenl of tli tonnage owned I'v' tli(! colonies at various periods sinc;e the conimei: ^'nienl of the present century.
The commerce of the colonies may be said to have had its beginning within the past century. Without entering upon details of its rise and extraordinary progress, which can be clearly traced in the documents
amounted to 1,583,304 tons.
Commensurate with this large amount of tonnage, employed in a •commerce which may be said to iiave had its beginning since 1783, has been the extent of colonial trade during the year just past.
whicli follow.
The total exports of Canada lor 1851, made up from United States and Canadian returns l()r this report, give a different but a more correct result, as will be seen by the following statements :
As nearly as can be ascertained, the {bllowing statement^^ exhibit the natiu"al j)r()thiel,s, domestic manufactures, and foreign goods imported into the colonies from the Tnited States l()r 1851.
inland t3,259,888
Add for value of new ships built at Quebec, and sent to England for sale, $1,000,000 ; imd a farther large sum for under-valuation of exports — making in the whole
70,200,000
Although it Jippears by this stntoment, that, as in most now countries, the amount of imports greatly cxccnls the estimated value of the exports, yet it must be taken into account that the apparent balance of trade against the colonies is fully overcome by the low price at which their exports are valued at the places of shipment, as compared with the prices obtained abroad; the value of new ships sold in Iwigland; the freights earned by thest; ships while on their way to a market; and the large freights earned by colonial ships in transporting the bulky products of the colonies to foreign c-ountries ; all of which profits, sales, and earnings, accrue to the colonial merchant, and render the trade of the colonics, at the present time, healthy and prosperous.
After presenting the preceding statements the undersigned docs not deem it necessary to discuss in an elaborate manner the many interesting questions wliich they will, on examination, unquestionably present to the statesmen of England .and America ; more; especially as the question of reciprocal li-ee trade between th(^ United States and the British North American Colonies is now bcifore Congress, and received especial attention in a previous report of the undersigned submitted to yourself, and printed as Executive Document No. 23, 31st Congress, 2d session.
From 1794 to 1830 the trade of the colonies was a subject of iimch negotiation between the two governineiits, and was always cf)nsidered by John Quincy Aiiams as one of great conseciuenee to the United States. This protracted and almost us(4ess negotiation produced no other results tlian a contraction of the trade of the eolonifs, and an estrangement between the people of both countries.
Tt is well known to tli(^ Department of the Treasury that Mr. McLane's arrangements with Engliuul, in 1830, in relation to this trade, were most unsatisl'actory to the i:omniercial community, and called forth, ti'om that interest, urgent remonstrances against their partial character. Time has, however, proved their beneficial operation upon the general interests of the American and cf)loniid tra(l(>, thus furnishing another proof that profitable commerce can only exist in perfi'Ct freedom.
Although the convention of 1830, u[)on the whole, ji;id a l)eneficial influence, yet it still left the IrijdeoftJK! United Stales wilii the colonies subject to many onerous and uiniecessiny restrictions, wliic:li hav(; had a very injurious efii-ct u])on it. Until near the year 1840, that trade did not r.ipidly increase; but tiH>n it suddenly expanded. From that oeriod to the pres(.'nt time then; has been a constant increase, but by no
natural course.
It is somewhat singular, thai, notwithstanding the geographical position of these colonics with reterenco to the United States, and the national importance of the various rehilions with them, no change has talten place in the policy of this country toward them for nearly a quarter of a century, (while so much that is wise and great has been accompUshed during the same period lor the benelit of commerce in this and other countries,) except the drawback law of 184(5, which has increased the export of forciign goods from $1,3(53,767, in 1846, to $2,9.54,536, in 1851. For many years alter the Ilevolution, under a wise and sagacious policy, the colonial trade reci.'ived a very considerable share of attention, and efliMts were made to place it on an equitable, if not a liberal basis; but it unlbrtunatcly became; involved widi (lueslions embracing tlu! whole l()reign policy of the country, which prevented the J adoption of permanent measures of a liberal character.
Soon alier the imperial act of 1846, which had such atUsastrous effect upon colonial trade, delegates were sent from Canada to this country to arrange the terms of a reciprocal free trade in certain specified articles. The proposition was lavorably received by Mr. Polk's administration, and was ably supported in Congress by leading gentlemen of both parties. A bill w^as introduced in 1848 for reciprocal free trade with Canada in certain articles, which passed the House of Representatives, and would probably have passed the Senate, but l()r the great pressure of other im[)orlant matters.
This bill of 1848 was considered by a portion of the people of the United Slates as strictly a colonial measure, for the benefit of the colonists only ; especially, it was supposed that it might prove prejudicial to the agricultural interests of this country, as Canada for a few years has been an exporter of wheat to a small extent; but the subject having since been discussed, it has (whibiled itself in a new light, and is now considered by many as one of ecjual interest to the United States and to the colonies.
The agricullun^ of a country is well considtTcd as its most valuable interest. It was natural llierelbre, thai the lirsL question raised as to the policy of nciprocal trade, should have relat(>d to the effects of free Canadian consunq)lion upon our agiicullural interests. The accompanying tables, showing the total production of wheat, rye, and corn, in the' United Slates, i'or the year 1850, with the (luantity of agricultural produce in Canada, show that nothing is to be teared from Canadian consuuqition.
Total 14,456,236
It is gratifying to notiec that the agricuUural interests of the United States arc increasing in a ratio proportionate to its other material interests, and that we are now exporters and not importers of agricultural produce. It is affirmed that the prices of grain m Mark Lane control the prices of grain in our exporting markets. The following table is thereli)re subjoined to show the (juantity of grain imported into England, our principal market in Europe, from the United States and other foreign countries.
An account for the years 1849 and 1850, respectively, of the number of quarters of wheat, barley, and onts, and of the number of sacks and barrels of flour, imported into Engla.rid, Ireland, and Scotland, severally, from the United ikates of America, from Canada, from France, a,, '-om alt other parts of Euroyc, distinguishing the quantity of those articles i>cntfrom each country, respectively ; also staling the number (f quarters of wheat to which the entire number of sacks and barrels of flour from each country are all equivalent.
1,677,629
It will be easily seen by these tables that the whole of the Canadian wh(!at, &e., irnjjorted in bond, is ri'-exported to Kngland and the colonies; antl also, in addition, that the export to (!ana(l;i and the eoloniea, fi)r their e()nsuin[)ti()n, is nearly two millions ol' breadstuHs the produce of the United IStates
The upper province, generally known as (!ariada West, has a greater interest in a fre(.' intercourse with tlic I'niled Stales lliati Lower (/anada t)r Canada East. The oriLjin, language, imd oiIkt (listiNetiv(! li'atures of the inhabitants of Lower Canada, make their alliuilies with the United Slates much less than those ol" the lJj)per (y'aiiadians. Moro over, the geographical position of Upper (^Janada makes N(!W York a more convcni(.'nl, while it is at the same tiint; a laigi!r and more secure market lor her produce, than Montreal or (Quebec. The various lines
of railwny, Icjidiiig Worn ihc A'.lunlic to tlio Ifikrs, give to tho inhabitants of tlir upper provirice facilities of cotTirminication with N(!vv York, during u pari utilio year wlicii acx'ca.s to (iuclMc is extremely dilHeult. • TIk) canal lolls levied by the Slate of New York on Canadian produce passing through her canals toward tidii-water, nniounted, in two years, 1850 and 1851, as near as <;onld be ascertained, to over six hundred thousand dollars ; and property passing through the sanu; elianncls fiorn tide-water, ti)r the same period, probably ))ai(l half as much more; making about t()ur hundred and fifty thousand dollars annually contributed by ihc Canadian trade to New York canals.
The total amount imported from Canada into the United States for the three years ending June, 1851, is, by commerce and navigation report, $11,156,342 — on which the following amount of duty has been collected, as will herewith appear :
Tli(! first proposition lor reciprocnl free trade was confined to Canada alone, and limited to certain natural products of either country; but the ([uestion li;is since taken a wider range. It is now believed that an arrangement can be effected and carried out tor the free interchange between the United States and the colonies, of all the products of either whethcM- of agriculture, of minces, of tiie l()rest, or t)f the sea, in connexion with an agreement lor the lii-e navigation of the rivers St. fiawreni-e and St. John, the concession of a concurrent right with Britisii subjects to the sea fisheries near the shores of the colonics, and the remission of the export duty levieil in New Brunswick on timber
the river St. John, lor shipment to American ports.
The free navigation of the St. Lawrence was a prominent subject of discussion during the administration of John Quincy Adams. At this time it is greatly desired by all tiiose western States bordering on the great lakes, as their natural outlet to the sea.
The free navigation of the St. John has been rendered absolutely necessary by the provisions of the treaty of Washington, and it would be a great advantage to the extensive lumber interest in the northeastern portion of the Union. The repeal of the export duty on American lumber floated down the St. John to the sea would be but an act of justice to the lumbermen of that quarter, upon whom it now presses severely, and who have strong claims to the consideration of the government.
At present tiiere are no products of the colonial mines exported to the United States, except a small quantitj^ of coals from New Brunswick, and a larger quantity from the coal fields of Nova Scotia and Cape Breton. A notice of tiiese coal fields, and a statement of the quantity of coals exported Irom them to the United States, will be found under the head of No via Scotia.
A free participation in the sea fisheries near the shores of the colonies is regarded as the just prescriptive privilege of our fishermen. Without such participation, our deep-sea fisheries in that region will become valueless.
With reference to this important subject, the undersigned feels that he would be wanting in his duty to the government if he did not earnestly call its attention to the critical state of the colonial fishery question, which, owing to a recent demonstration of imperial and colonial policy, has assumed a very threatening aspect.
Since the Fishery Convention of 1818, by which this government, on behalf of American citizens, renounced forever their right to fish within three marine miles of the seacoast of New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island, many of the hardy and industrious fishermen of our country have been compelled to pursue their adventurous calling (the importance of which cannot be over-estimated) near the shores of these colonies, in a manner by no means creditable to the standing or character of the people of the United States.
The files of the State Department furnish abundant evidence of the losses sustained by our citizens in consequence of their vessels having been seized and confiscated for alleged violationsof the fishery convention, to which the necessities arising from the nature of their pursuit compelled them.
For several years past, the colonists have constantly urged the imperial gov(!rnment to station an armed lt)rce on their shores, " to protect the fisheries from the unjustifiable and illegal encroachments of American fisljermv.'U." The force hitherto provided has not been such as the colonists desired, having usually been limited to three or four vessels, under the command herctofijre of discreet officers of the Royal Navy, who have generally exercised the powers with which they were invested with liberal discretion.
tures have lately renewe ' their appeals to the imperial government for aid to drive American fibuermen I'rom their shores, and compel them to follow their calling in places where fish are not so plentiful or so easily caught. And in order to show their own determination, the provinces of Canada, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia have entered into an agreement to provide a certain number of small cruisers, at their own expense, to be stationed at various places agreed upon, to assist in efiecting the object they desire.
The last appeal of the colonial authorities has been viewed favorably by the new administration of Earl Derby. A change has taken place in the British policy with reference to this fishery question ; and a circular letter has been sent to the governors of the several colonies, announcing that her Majesty's government has resolved to send a small force of armed vessels and steamers to North America, to protect the fisheries against foreign aggression. The colonial governments have fitted out six cruisers, fully manned and armed, which have sailed for the best fishing grounds, and there is imminent danger of a coUision. The colonial cruisers threaten to make prize of every vessel " fishing or preparing to fish," within certain limits, which the colonial authorities contend are within three marine miles beyond a line drawn from headland to headland, and not three miles from the shores of the coast, which our citizens contend is the true reading of the convention. T Our fishermen generally entertain the conviction that the threatened exclusion by the British and colonial governments is a violation of rights, accruing to them under the laws of nations applicable to this suDJect and to that region, fortified by former use, tilf it has well nigh created a right by prescription ; and many regard such threatened exclusion as an illiberal and uncalled for measure at this period, doing the British or the colonies no good, while it injures them seriously. In such a state of feeling it is next to impossible to prevent difficulties and collisions between them and the British authorities, and wrongs may be done on both sides. Every dictate of prudence and of wise policy, and just protection to our citizens against an uncalled for interference by imprudent subordinates, therefore, imperiously demands that the Federal government should, as soon as practicable, dispatch to those waters, and maintain there, a respectable naval force, under command of discreet officers. It may be here not inappropriately observed, that ships-of-war bearing the American flag is a rare spectacle in the waters of Maine, while British armed vessels often visit our coast and harbors.
lo conclusion, the undersigned would respectfully state, that, although the returns and statements herewith submitted furnish gratifying evidences of the commercial intercourse between the United States and the British North American colonies, and although those returns may be deemed perfectly correct, having been derived from official sourc es, yet it is proper for him to remark, that they do not represent the whole value of the trade.
It is well known that in many instances colonial produce is entered at prices much below its real value ; and on the northeastern and north western frontiers of the United States there is ever an active barter trade carried on with the neighboring colonies, of which no account can be taken by the public officers on either side. It is therefore perfectly
of dollars annually.
It is universally admitted that it would be much better to place this border trade on a different basis, and under the influence of a higher principle. This would enable us to mature and perfect a complete system of mutual exchanges between the different sections of this vast continent ; an achievement not only wise and advantageous, but worthy of our high civiUzation.
It has been remarked by a learned writer, (Lord Lauderdale, on Public Wealth,) that " Those trades may be esteemed good which consume our products and manufactures, upon which the vjilue of our land and the employment of our poor depend; that increase our seamen and navigation, upon which our strength depends ; that supply us with such commodities as we absolutely want for carrying on our trade, or for our safety, or carry out more than they bring in, upon which our riches depend."
The trade with the colonies fulfils all these considerations. It takes from us largely of those products and manufactures which enhance the value of our soil, and give profitable employment to the labor of our people. It greatly increases our ships and the numbers of our seamen, giving us the means of maintaming our nav}', and adding materially to our strength as a nation. It supplies us cheaply with those commodities we absolutely require for condncling our foreign trade, and supplying the necessities of home consumption. And lastly, it carries out mfinitely more than it brings in, and so adds vastly to our individual and national riches.
of Nevfoundland, and ivithin the Gulf of Si. Lawrence.
In connexion with the pending question of commercial reciprocity between our country and the British North American provinces, and as concerning the interests of a large and valuable class of citizens in the fishing towns of New England, the fisheries on the Atlantic coast of Nova Scotia, as also those within the Gulf of St. Lawrence, near the shores of Cape Breton, Prince Edward Island, New Brunswick, and that part of Canada known as GaspcS, occupy a prominent position.
It is sufficient at this moment to state that, except near certain portions of the coasts of Newfoundland and Labrador, and around the Magdalen islands, our citizens are not permitted to fish, save at the distance of three marine miles from the land.
It has been contended by the provincial autliorities, acting under the opinion of the law-officers of the Crown in England, that these three miles are to be measured from headland to headland, and not from the bays or indents of the coast. Under this construction of the convention of 1818, our vessels have been sometimes seized and confiscated; but the imperial government has inclined to the opinion that this construction of the convention was too strict, and that our vessels might enter bays, straits, or estuaries, the entrances to which were more than six miles wide.
to show.
The fishing grounds to which our vessels principally resort are in the bay of Fundy ; along the Atlantic coast ot' Nova Scotia ; around Sable island; on the (5rand Bank of Newfoundland; and everywhere within thcGulf of St. Lawrence, as far north as the entrance to Davis's Straits, beyond the straits of Belleisle.
Our vessels principally iish for cod and mackerel, although they also take herrings at the Magdalen islands, or on the coast of Labrador. It is true that they have a concurrent right of fishing on the west coast of Newfoundland with the fishermen of England and France, and a joint right of fishing, with British subjects, on the coast of Labrador and at the Magdalen islands; as also the right of landing at such places on those coasts as aie uninhabited, for the purpose of curing and drying
of no practical value to our fishermen.
Those portions of the eonsts of Nova Scoti.j, Cape Breton, Prince Edward Island, and New Brunswick, on wliich it would be advantageous for our fishermen to land f()r purposes connected with the fishery, are prohibited by rcnson of their settlement and actual occupation, while they are shut out from the best fishing grounds by reason of the convention of 1818, which excludes tliem from taking fish within three marine miles of the coast, within which distance the best fish are often f{)und in greatest abundance.
The limits claimed by the British authorities under that convention, if strictly enforced, would exclude our fishing vessels from the bay of Chaleur, the bay of Miramichi, the straits of Northumberland, and George's bay, within which the greatest quantities of the best mackerel care now taken annually.
If an arrangement could be made by which our fishermen would have the right to fish within three miles of tlie land, wheresoever they pleased, on the shores of the provinces, and also the right to land on those shores anywhere — first agreeing with the owner or occupant of the soil for the use of the necessary ground for fishing stations — it would lend greatly to increase the quantity of fish taken, would furnish the market with a well-cured article, enhance the profits of fishing voyages, and lead to a considerable extension of the number of vessels and men now employed.
The codfish caught in the Gulf of iSt. Lawrence, by our fishermen, are pickle-salted in bulk, on board the vessels, as they are caught, and are thus brought home to be afterwards dried and cured. A liberal supply of salt is used, in which the fish first caugnt lie four months, and the last caught, one month. The citaUty, so to speak, of the meat — its strength and flavor — is (juite destroyed. When unladen from the vessel, the fish arc found to be of a dead, ashy color, instead of the bright, wholesome hue which good fish should have ; and so brittle as scarcely to bear handling — with hardly any smell ur taste, except that imparled by salt. The home consumption of such an unpalatable article is gradually diminishing, while the inforiority of the cure deprives us of" the advantages of foreign markets, for which these fish are wholly unsuitcd.
The mackerel taken in the gulf b}' our fishermen are split, sailed, and dressed while the vessel is under way ; and it often happens that a full fare is made in four or five days, when tliese fish are plentiful. In such case the vessel, being full, must leave the fishing when at its best, and make a long voyage to her port of return, in the northern Slates, in order to discharge ; and before she can again reac;h the ground the chances are that the fish have disappeared, or that the season is over.
If our mackerel fishers could remain upon the fishing ground during the whole season — touching at some convenient station occasionally, to land the fish on board, and thus keep their vessels in good sailing trim — • five or six fares could be made in each season, instead of the two fares, which they rarely exceed at present. The right of fishing within three marine miles of the land is very important, as regards the mack-
largest schulls, in close proximity to the shore.
To the cod-fisher the right to dry and cure his fish on shore would also be important. The vessel could be kept in better trim, and fresh bait could be more readily procured ; the fish would be more perfectly cured and fitter for food than under the present mode of salting and curing. A suj)erior quality of this description of fish would open to us not only the market of California, but also several foreign markets from which our fish are now excluded, by reason of their imperfect cure.
Immediately after the disappearance of the ice in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, every spring, vast quantities of herrings draw near the shores, in order to deposite their spawn. Our fishermen cannot participate in this fishery, because they are unable to enter the gulf so early. The quantity of ice passing out by Cape Breton prevents their doing so until the season t()r this prolific fishery has passed. If our fishermen could land and set up fisiiing stations on the coasts within the Gulf of St. Lawrence, they might send home the season's catch by freighting vessels, and winter their boats and part of their vessels there. In such case they would be ready to participate in the early herring fishery the moment the ice left the shores ; and, having procured a sufficient quantity f()r curing, they would also be furnished with an ample supply of bait for the early cod-fishing, which is excellcMit. As the herrings approach the shores they are naturally followed by the cod, which feed upon them. In the early part of May liie cod arc found in great abundance within half a mile or a mile of the land, in very shoal water; of course, they may he taken with perfect ease, and therefore with much profit.
Instead of returning to their port of ownership with the fines of herring and cod which miglit thus be taken befiire our vessels are now able to enter the gulf, these cod would be dried and cured in the best manner by shore crews, and rendered fit ihr any market. The vessels and their fishing crews might at the same time be constantly and profitably occupied in pursuing closely the several fisheries, as they succeed each other, throughout the (Milire season, securing the best fish of every d(;scription In tlu; largest quantities. By leaving some of the boats and vessels on the coast, the fisheries, especially that for mackerel, might 1)0 prosecuted until some time after the period when our vessels are now obliged to leave the gulf on their homeward voyage, at which late period the finest fall mackerel are always taken.
Permanent fishing stations within the gulf, with boats and vessels always there, would render the fisi.Mig season considerably longer for our fi3hermen. Th(;y would then share in the early spring and late fall fisheries, from both which they are now excluded by the existing arrangements.
It is only necessary to advert to the frightful loss of life and property which occurred in the Gulf of St- Lawrence last October, to show how advantageous it would be to our citizens if", instead of remaining at sea tlirough the heavy gales which frequently occur in the gulf, their fishing vessels had each some convenient fishing station, well sheltered, to
much importance.
The fish caught by our fishermen in the gulf, instead of being sent by the long and dangerous voyage around Nova Scotia, in order to reach some port in the Union from whence to be sent into the intt rior, might, when ready for market, be siiipped in our own vessels from the fishing stations on the coast, and these vessels, proceeding up the St. Lawrence, might reach any or all of the ports or places on the great lakes, where a supply of sea-fish is highly prized.
The numerous and constantly increasing body of consumers in the great West, even to its remotest extremity, would thus be furnished with good fish at reasonable rat(!3, caught and cured by our own hardy fishermen, and transported in our own vessels.
FRENCH FISHERIES AT NEWFOUNDLAND.
The recent movements in France with regard to bounties on fish caught at Newfoundland, and exported to foreign countries, are singularly interesting at the present time, because it will be found, from what follows, that the changes which take place during the present year in the allowance of those bounties are calculated to exercise a powerful effect on the deep-sea fisheries of the United States.*
Hereafter we are to have fish caught and cured by citizens of France, entering our markets under the stimulus of an extravagant bounty, to compete with the fish caught and cured by our own citizens.
This altogether new and unexpected movement on the part of France has already attracted attention, and excited much interest and uneasiness among the fishermen of the eastern States. Tlie matter at present stands thus:
The law of France which grantful bounties to the sea fisheries being about to expire, the project of a new law was submitted to the National Assembly on the 20th December, 1850, by the government. An able report on these fisheries was at the same time submitted, which, among other things, sets forth that the bounties paid by France during the nine years from 1841 to 1850, inclusive, for the cod-fisliery only, had amounted to the mean annual average of 3,900,000 francs ; the number of men employed annually in this fishery amounting to 11,500 on the average. The annual expense to the nation was therefore 338 francs per annum for each man. France, it is said, thus trains up able and nardy seamen for her navy, who would cost the nation much more if they were trained to the sea on board vessels of war.
'Translations of recent legislative documents of tlie National Assembly of France are appended to this report, and to these reference is made for full particulars. For these and other Taluablo documents the undersigned is indebted to Hon. Abbott I^wrence, minister at the court of St. James, to whom his best acknowledgments are Justly due, and are respectfully tendered.
A cotnmitteo of the National Assembly reported at length upon the proposed law, and the state of the deep-sea fisheries. From this report, it appears that these fisheries, aUliough enjoying large bounties and privileges, were languishing, owing to the great distanee at wliieh they arc eondueted, and u farther inerease of bounties on exportation was recommended, in order to stimulate their drooping energies. Unon this elaborate report, the National Assembly passed the j)roposed law on the 22d July, 1851. It provides that, from the first day of January, 1852, until the 30th ' ne, 18G1, the bounties for the encouragement of the cod fishery shall bo as follows :
BOUNTIES ON THE PRODUCTS OF THE FISHERIES.
1. Dried cod of French catch, exported tlirectly from the place where the same is caught, or from the warehouse in France, to French colonies in America or India, or to the French establishments on the west coast of Africa, or to transatlantic comUrus, provided the same are landed at a port ivherc there is a French consul, per quintal metriipie, (equal to 220J pounds avoirdupois,) 20 francs.
2. Dried cod of French catch, exported either direct from the place where caught, or from ports in France, to European countries or foreign States within the Mediterranean, except Sardinia and Algeria, per quintal metrique, 16 francs.
3. Dried cod of French catch, exported either to French colonies in AmericH or India, or to transatlantic countries, from ports in France, without being warehoused, per (juintal metri(iue, 16 francs.
From the foregoing scale of bounties, it will be seen that there are Bome grounds for the fears entertained by the fishermen of New England, that the dried cod caught and curecl by the French at Newfoundland, will be introduced into the principal markets of the United States,
with the advantngo of a bounty very ncaily o(|ual to two dollars for each Amrric-aii (]uintal — a sum almost equal to whnt our fishermen obtain for their dried fish when brought to mark(^t. It must not be overlooked, either, that, besides this excessive bounty on fish exported to transatlantic countries, the FnMich fishermen will enjoy also the bounty of fifty francs (almost ten dollars) per man i()r each of the crew, a farther bounty ot twenty Ir.'uies per (juintal metriquc on the cod-oil which he lands in France; and farther, an almost entire remission of the duties on salt used at Newfiumdland.
With competition at hand so encouraged anrl stimulated, it will soon be necessary to give our fishermen every facility and advantage (or pursuing their business which by anj'' possibility can bo procured for them.
By the treaty of Paris of 1824, the Frr^nch were restored to tho fisheries at Newfoundland. They in a short lime took possession of the west coast and the northeast coast, and under the high stimulus afforded by their heavy bounties, they nearly drove the British fishermen «)fr of those coasts, and competed successfully with them in the foreign markets they had previously supplied.
THE TRADE OF THE LAKES.
In obodionco to your instructions, tlic following dotailcd report is submitted on tlio condition, history, and prospects of the trade and commerce of tlie great hikes of America ; tlie character, nature, quahty, and value, of their imports, exports, and coastwise shipments; tno places where originated, and whether on the increase or decrease ; the present enumeration of their entrances, clearances, tonnage, and crews, whether progressive or retrogrr ssive; with comparative statements of the present and past j'cars; the iiicilities and obstructions to their free navigation and the transportation of goods; the internal improvements completed, under way. projected, or imperatively required; the chanictcr for ])roductivcness, wh«Hher of agricultural or mineral wenlth, or of that arising from fisheries or the forest of the circumjacent districts; the; growth, prospects, anrl present condition of the harbors, light-houses, beacons, piers, and other works indispensable to secu: 1 navigation; and, lastly, the; farther works of construction, removal of obstacles, nnd general improvements of navigation, requisite for the develojjinent and (exploration to the liillest extent of the inestimable resources of these noble waters, and the vast territories surrounding theni.
It has been dilHcult to obtain much inlbrmation and full detailed statements on some of these points, owing, it is believed, to the abs(!nce of proper legal retiuirements and authoritative departmental instructions in that respect, and tlu^ want of means (except at the private expense of th(> officers and others) of furnishing such statistical data. Most ot" the ollicers of the customs on the lake frontier are attentive, and are desirous of furnishing all the statistical raid general int()rmation in their power, and many of the citiz(!ns engaged in trade and commerce,'{md in the shipment and trans|)ortation of produce and merchandise, and especially incorpoiated companies or associations, have frequently furnished the pubhc with useful inliirmation on the lake trade and commerce.
The interests of those engaged in such business arc ordinarily advanced by expositions of such data. But full and authentic data, in proper f()rm for ready compilation and condensation into intelligiblo tabular statements, especially those ii)r comparison, cannot be obtained without legal provision to such end, and particular departmental instructions presenting uniform abstracts. Funds are also necessary, to coinpensat(! the time and labor devoted to such important service. Several of the most valuable revenue officers on the lake and inland frontier now recc^ive inadequate compensation for their faithful and
onerous services. And willi respeci lo fcdcriil oflicrrs, i)unctualu\j should 1)(! cnrorced hy lcu;;il ('iKictrncntH. TIk; or^iiniziilion of a slutistieul otHce, tlu; duties ol' which should iiicluch; the decetuiitd e(>u8us, as II perioanent hurcjiu !ittiieh('d to llie proper (le[)jnliM(iit lit Wiishingtoti, lo which full inlorinntioii find (hitii. iVoiii idl tht; dcpiu'ltueuts luid offices lit the s(!iit of goverinn( nt und throughout the llui*iu, ntid Irotii all oiu" ofHcera .'ihroad, should he rendered, luid which could ohtiiin like iulornmtion troni the SSlate governineuts and other trustwt)rthy sources, and Ironi l()reigngovernnienttt likewis*', might provi; <Mniucntly usoi'ul.
Properly cstahlished, and condu(;ted hy intelligent, at-eurale, industrious persons, it might easily collect (piarterly all the nniuisite data of our trade and commerce with foreign countries, of our uiternal trade and commerce, of our internal imjirovements and internal transportation, of our growing resources in (^very (juarler, and of oiu* coastwise trade. And all statistical data that might he wanted, could be advantageously published in advance of every session of Congress. That such inl()rmation would be invaluable to the statesmen of this country who seek lo legislate upon national principles, no one can deny. That vigilant detector, the public press, would then hv enabled lo expose errors or fallacies in lime to prevent their causing inconvenience.
Other govcrnmenls, less libernl ll an ours, seek such iid()rmalion to enable them to find new objects l(>r taxation. It would be especially important lo ours as enabling it lo abolish indirect or direct restrictions and burdens upon the advancement of every branch oi' industry, as it might then do without danger of mistake as to the fiicts. The paramount duty of this gcvernmenl is to relieve the peoph; Iroin all unnecessary taxation, ami this measure wouhl tend to further such object. Congress would not then, as is now too often tlu? case, be compelled to legislate on such subjects in the dark, by conjecture, or, what is infinitely worse, upon ihe false data and incorrect and deceptive statistics furnished by interested persons.
NoiNvithstanding the diHicullifts now existing, it is believed that an approximation, sufficiently near the n'alitics of the case to convey an ade(iuate understanding of ihi- subject, has been attained in the following pages; and that tht; results, as sliown, will be alike gratifying to the enlightened and patriotic statesman, as displaying the immense development and incalculable prospects of the resources of his country, and astonishing to the casual observer, who has, it is p»obable, never regarded the lake trade of the West a> the right arm of the nation's commerce, or its area as the cradle «Jt national wealth, prosperity, and progress.
For the convenience of reference and comparison, i»s well as from regard to historical and geographical propriety, llu; matter collected on this subject has been thus divided and arranged.
A review, general and detailed, of each of the lake districts of collection, seventeen ia number, commencing from the Vermont district to the eastward as the first, and among the first constituted, and thence proceeding westward to the head of Lake; Superior.
point; ulso, a grnoral synopsis of the lakna, scvrnilly, with tlirir trjulc und hack countries ; and, added to tlirsi>, detailed Htatistical tables in roforonce to the whole ofilif; great St. l^awrence basin.
To enter in this place on a discnission to prove what is so generally ndnnitted as the advantages accruing to u country Irom a various and extensive i^orrunerce, would i)e superfluous ; but, nevertheless, so little appears to be known, and such liinitJ.'d interests to he fell, in relation to our own internal commerce, and to its bearing on th<! trade atul
f)ro8p(!rily of tlu; country at large, that a few words on its natur<!, past listory, present recjuirenaMits, and bearing on our commercial, social, and polilual condition, will not, it is presumed, appear entirely impertinent.
In the first j^lace, the general sclf-gratulation of the people and their legislators at the liict that within scarcely a century's lapse our fbr«>ign commerce has grown up to be second only to that of Great JJritain, and to threaten it also with rivalry, appears to have blinded them to a perception (»f the dillorence of the circumstaru;es attending maritime and inland navigation ; of tlui reasons why the latter re(iuires aid from the public to effect what in th(! t()rmer is safely lelt to the means and enterprise of individual communities ; and, lastly, ol' the preponderating inffuence of the latter on the t()rmer branch of national prosperity. It app(!ars, moreover, to have led casual observers to the opinion that, because our maritime commerce has experien(*eil so wonderiul an increase under circumstances somewhat untoward, it could have made no greater or further progress if liberally f()stercd by the hand of government; and, secondly, that becaust; one branch of commerce has so succeeded, all other branches can so succeed.
To these propositions it may be replied brielly :
First. That the maritime commerce mendy exports to foreign markets the suiplus productions of our country, whereby to purchase imports from tljc same or similar mark(!ts.
That this ni.i' 'I'le t )rnmerce is sustained fljr th(> most part by opulent eommer^ ml connnunitios, on whom no burdens rest, at farthest, but the const! uciNm of their own harbors and their maintenance.
That without a supply of produce lor exportation, the tiireign commerce woukl U- carried on under such an adverse balance of trade as would be mjurious rather than profitcable.
the fisheries, and the field.
That even when this ceases to be the cas*', and our articles of export shall hi', more largely nianufa<;lures and articles of luxury, in lieu of raw produce, the necessity of raw produce to the seaboard and the large commercial cities will still exist and increase, from the necessity of supplying material and subsistence for the commercial or manufacturing population.
That of those articles of raw material which arc neither shipped as foreign nor used as domestic provision, such as minerals and metals, every ton native, brought into the domestic market and manufactured at home for home use, supplants so much of foreign raw material or
in our favor.
It is contended by some political economists, that of nations engaged in commercial pursuits, the largest exporters and the smallest importers must be the gainers, since a large excess of importation must cause a drain of the precious metals to pay for such excess. It does not follow that if this be true as to foreign or maritime commerce, it is equally so as to inland or interior trade.
the best and the cheapest.
Xhis, then, is the position of our inland and maritime navigation and commerce; the former is the feeder of the latter, the source of its greatness ; for at such a vast distance do our granaries and storehouses of agricultural and mineral wealth lie from our marls and workshops, that but for the network of lakes, rivers, and artificial improvements with which our country is so wonderfully intersected, they could never be rendered available tor exportation or home consumption on the seaboard, and in the old and thickly settled districts.
These considerations show the interest which the external or maritime commerce has in the advancement of the lake trade and navigation ; and establish that the maritime commercial communities, and the commonwealth, should, as a matter of justice and (kity, as well as of expediency, aid liberally -ill improvements which mav facilitate the prosecution of business, the cultivation and exploitation, and yet more the transportation, of that produce which is necessary to the existence of the one, and the well-being of the other. The lake trail' is obliged to ef?ect much more by its own means than the foi'eign, and it has infinitely less means whereby to effect it.
It is well known that this inland or lake trade is in the hands of new States, peopled, for the most part, by emigrants, whose chir'f possession is their industry, swelling the coffers of the older and wealthier communities. The latter now virtually demand that these infant Stales shall not only produce, but transport })roduce, and clear the way fi)r that transportation, (()r their benefit, at their own expense. Hence the expedienc}' and justice of lending, under these circumstances, federal aid to the new Stales, so fin- as removing or surmounting such obstacles in free channels of trade o{)en to all or any Slates, as are ofTered by ihe flats of the Lake St. Clair, the rocks and shoals of Lake George, or the Sault St. Marie, is, it is considered, incontestable.
The details of the districts, and th(^ general synopsis of thc^ lakes and lake countr3^ will undoubtedly suffice to establish the facts and show the realities of the vast extent of the existing trade, its past growth, and its gigantic lulur(\ liul a brief" glauce at its general features may be useful fi»r the concentration of ideas and n^ady perception of results.
The coast line embraced in this report include both shores of Lake Champlain, with which it commences (discharging its waters into the St. Lawrence bytheSorel or Richeli(ni river,) the southern bank of the river
St. Lawrence, Lake Ontario, the Niagara river, and Lake Erie, to the dividing line between New York and Pennsylvania; thence the southern coast of Lake Erie to the Pennsylvania and Oiiio line ; thence the southwestern coast of the same lake to the Michigan line ; and thence the whole southern banks of the Detroit river, St. Clair lake and river, the western coast of Lake Huron, along the southern peninsula of Michigan, the whole coasts of Lake Michigan, including the shores of Illinois, Ohio, Wisconsin, and Michigan, and all the southern and southwestern coast line of Lake St. George, the river St. Mary's, and Lake Superior, including the shores of northern Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota, to the frontier of the British possessions at the outlet of Rainy lake and Lake of the Woods into the waters of Lake Superior. The extent of the whole line exceeds three thousand miles in length, and embraces portions of the following States, several of them the wealthiest of the entire TJnion : Vermont, New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Michigan, Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, and the Minnesota Territory, on the one side ; while the lakes open to our commerce on the other a coast line of nearly equal extent, and in some parts of hardly inferior fertility, on the Canadian shore. The lakes themselves, with their statistics of measurement, are as follows:
90,000
These lakes are estimated to drain ati entire area of 335,516 square miles, and discharge their waters into the ocean through the river St. Lawrence, which is rendered navigable from Lake Erie downward to all vessels not exceeding 130 feet keel, 2G beam, and 10 feet draught, and the free? navigation of which tor American bottoms may, it is anticipated, bc^ acquired by the concession of reciprocity of trade to the Canadian government.
The whole traffic of these great waters may be now unhesitatingly stated at $326,000,000, employing 74,000 tons of .steam, and 138,000 tons of sail, for the year 1851 ; whereas, previous to 1800 there was scarcely a <Tai't above the size of an Indian (ranoe, to stand against an aggregate marine, built up within half a century, in what was then almost a pathless wilderness, of 215,000 tons burden. It may be interesting to state that the first American schooner on Lake Erie was built at Erie, Pennsylvania, in 1797, but she was lost soon al'terward, and the example; was not l()llowed.
Another point should be here mentioned in regard to this vast augmentation of maritime i()rce and tonnage, which is, that the increase of business is most inadequately represented by the increase of tonnage ;
since, by the increased capacities of the vessels, their speed while under way, their dispatch in loading and unloading, and the substitution of steam as a motive power, both for sail on the waters and for human labor at the dock, the amount of traffic actually performed by the same amount of tons in 1851, as compared with that performed in 1841, is greater by ten-told.
To illustrate this position, it is worthy of notice that, in 1839, the twenty-five largest steamers on these lakes had an average of 449 tons burden, the largest being of 800 tons. In 185] the average of the twenty-five largest fell little short of 1,000 tons, and the average of the whole steam fleet, consisting of 157 steamers and propellers, was 437 tons. Ten years since, from a week to ten days was allowed to a firstrate steamer for a voyage from Buffalo to Detroit and back. In 1851, three days only were required by first-rate steamers, and four to five by propellers.
These facts show that four times as much business is transacted in 1851 by ten steamers as was effected by the same number in 1841. The substitution of steam for sail in the same period has, it is evident, effected a yet greater increase in the speed of transit and celerity of transhipment ; and this substitution is nourly on the increase ; in proof of which, of 7,000 tons of shipping now on the stocks at Buffalo, 250 only— one brig — are sail ; all tiie remainder steam or propellers.
Of this latter species of vessels the increase is so great and so regular, and so rapidly arc they growing into favor, that there can be but little doubt that they are destined ultimately to supersede vessels propelled by sail only, especially for voyages of moderate length, and in localities where fuel is abundant and easily to be procured. In no region of the globe are these two conditions, on which rests the availability of screw-steamers, more perfectly complied with than on the lakes, where the longest voyages do not exceed three weeks, at an extreme calculation, and where bituminous coal of a very fine quality can be procured at an average price of three dollars and a half per ton, and at many points at two and a half on the docks.
The foUoxving table, tajsen from a very valuable report by Me ^srs. Mansfield and Gallagher, of the statistics and steam marine of the Ijnited States for ] 851, will show the comparative force of the steamers employed in the oceanic and the lake trade, and will exhibit a result sufficiently surprising to readers unacquainted with the business of the interior :
The entire number of vcssek and crews of the interior t^^e amounts to 140 bottoms, and 5,837 men, in excess of the whole ocean and coa«j[ navy, though the tonnage employed in the former is smaller by 7,775 tons.
It is for this wealthy commerce of the interior that all the Atlantic cities are now striving, in earnest competition, by the creation of new outlets and avenues, lor its transaction ; and this very competition is good evidence that ail the eastern or New England and middle States are, in some sort, more or less affected by it. • -^
The grp "■- system of exchange between the cities of the ocean seaboard and .ae entire West is transacted through the lakes, and the channels connected with them ; and it is not uninteresting to observe that the increase of the population in the Atlantic States, and that of the tonnage of the West, have kept even pace with each other.
915,787
In this scheme it must be observed that the six New England States, Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Rhode Island, Massachusetts, and Connecticut, possess an area of 63,326 square miles, with a population of 2,728,106, being 43.09 persons to the square mile.
The Middle States, New York^ New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, possess an area of 100,320 square miles, with a population of 5,898,735, or 58.80 persons to the square mile ; while the northwestern States, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Iowa, Wisconsin, and the Minnesota Territory, have an area of 373,259 square miles, with a population of 4,721,430, or 12.70 persons to the square mile. ijjk.^
When this last division shall have become as densely populated*as the Middle States now are, it will contain a population, directly tributary to the trade of the lakes, of 22,000,000 of souls ; and there is every reason to believe that the increase of population will be as rapid, until that result shall be fully attained, as it has boen since 1800. How wonderful and grand a spectacle will it then be to many, doubtless, ot those now born, when, at the commencement of the twentieth century, this lake country shall be seen supporting a population of so many millions! And what will then be the amount and value of that trade, and the aggregate tonnage of that marine, which has sprung up, in les»
It is stated that the entire amount of,appropriations made by government, for the benefit of all rivers and harbors, since its first organization, has been $17,199,233, of which only $2,790,999 were devoted to the lakes, the balance being all for the Atlantic coast and rivers; and that, too, in tacc of the tacts, that in consequence of several unavoidable disadvantages, in the present condition of the lake coasts and harbors, tiiere i^' a greater proportional loss of lite on these waters than on the ocean itself and all its tributary seas.
It may be well to note here the loss of property and lite by marine disasters on the lakes, which are not only in lliemselves most lamentable, but which become tar more deplorable when it is considered that at a small outlay the navigation could be rendered as sate, at the least, as liiat of any other waters.
The disadvantages alluded to above are to be ftund in the facts, that while the lakes are exposed to squalls, gales, md tempests, as violent as those of the ocean, they have not sufficient sea room to allow of a vessel scudding before the weather, since, if the gale were of any duration, she would soon run from one end to the other of the lake, on which she might be cnught, and so incur fresh and perhaps greater danger. In like manner, the breadth of these basins is so comparatively diminutive, and so much beset with dangerous reefs and rocky islands, that a vessel cannot long lie to, in consecjuence of the terrible and insidious drift which is ever liable to drive her to unforeseen destruction.
The following table will exhibit the loss of life and property incurred during the lour last succeeding years, which are surely disastrous enough to plead trumpct-tongued with government tor the extending some means of security and {protection to the navigators of those perilous seas of the interior.
Lives.
The excess of lives lost in 1850 was occasioned by the explosion of the boilers on board two steamers, and the burning of the third, which had on board a large number of emigrants; this may be, theref()re, in some degree deemed accidental and extraordinary, as such catastrophes are of rare occurrence on the lakes. The great prepondernncc, however, of the year 1851 over those of 1848 and 1849, has no such palliation, since they were the effect of heavy gales, the absence of harbors necessary for the protection of mariners, and the obstruction of the mouths of such as do exist, by bars, on which a terrible surf breaks, and which entirely preclude the possibility of entering the place to which
they have in vain fled for refuge. It is of little benefit to the mariner that the government has expended comparatively inconsiderable amounts in the ercclion of piers and light-houses at the entrance of a few bar-mouthed rivers and harbors.
The total of the losses on the Atlantic, Gulf of Mexico, and Pacific coasts, in the year 1851, amounted to 328 vessels, and many hundred lives, out of a total marine measuring 3,556,464 tons, being a loss of one vessel to every 10,844 tons of shipping.
The lake losses of the same year were 42 vessels and 79 lives, out of a marine measuring 215,975 tons, being a loss of one vessel to every 5,142 tons of shipping. The proportion of vessels lost on the lakes is therefore w Ii n excess of the losses on the ocean coasts, jmd that of lives still r,' so.
In this point of consideration it is worthy of remark that a single povvcrtul government steam-dredge could be kept conlinunlly in commission, and employed during seven months of the year, which could, with perfect ease, remove the obstructions on the flats of Lake St. Clair and Lake St. George, open the bars, and deepen the beds of all the harbors, from one extremity of the lakes to the other, in the course of a very tew years, and keep them unobstructed thenceforth to the end of time, by an annual .-ippropriation of one-tburth the amount ot" the augmented compensation recently granted to the Collins line of steamers, and, of course, two such vussels, materially lessening the duration of the work, ibr one-half that appropriation.
Nor does it appear that the opening an area so vast to the enterprise and efficiency of our inland commerce, giving perleet protection to so important a branch of the national marine as that employed in lh(> navigation of the lakes, is an end less worthy than the furthering and encouraging any system of post office transportation, and ocean steammarine, liowtivcr incomparable its deserts; and this without regarding the preservation of what is generally held invaluable among earthly things — the lilt; of human beings.
The expediency and justice are thus shown of extending some meed of protection and encouragement to the regions, with their ports, harbors, and marine ef)inmunieations, which arc tfic theatreof a ("ommerce so valuable as that ft)r which all the Atlantic cities are contending ; and to pertect the internal and inland conununications of which, by canal* and railroads, the young State.-, in which that tliealre is placed, are making so great efforts.
The jjolicy of doing so cannot but be seen on considering the eflt'ct which the construction of railways, the opening of canals, and the facilitation by all means of transportation and intercomnuuiication, has upon the growth of cities, the population, cultivation, wealth, and prosperity of districts, which actually seem to grow and (!xpand in arithmetical progression to the ratio of their improved accessibility, and the number of their outlets and avenues Ihv commerce and immigration.
It may not, thereliae, be now impertinent to examine the operation of these influences on the unparalleled increase of the West, which can, in fact, be traced directly to these causes.
cd, arc
waters, anything like practical navigation of them tor commercial pm*poses was unattempted until after the commencement of this century. In 1679 a French craft indeed was launched at Erie, Pennsylvania, for the expedilion'of the celebrated and unfortunate La Salle ; but this, which was an experiment for a special purpose, wholly unconnected with trade, was not followed up. In 1797, as has been before stated, the first American vessel was launched on the lakes. In 1816 the first steamer was built on the waters of Lake Ontario, and the first on Lake Erie in 1818. For some considerable time the first vessels put in commission on Lake Erie, were used merely for facilitating the movements and operations of the Indian traders, carrying westward supplies and trinkets f()r the trade, and returning with cargoes of furs and peltries. In 1825 the Erie canal was completed, and its influence began at once to be felt through the western country. The western portion of the State of New York immediately began to assume an air of civilization and to advance in commercial growth. This influence continued still to increase until the Welland canal and the Ohio canals were completed. The tonnage, which had then increased to about 20,000 tons, found nt this time full employmentin carrying emigrants and their supplies westward, which continued to be their principal trade till 1835, when Ohio began to export breadstuff's and provisions to a small extent. In 1800 Ohio had 45,000 inhabitants ; in 1810, 230,760; in 1820, 581,434 ; in 1830, 937,903.
During this year a portion of the canals was opened, and during the ten years next ensuing after 1830 some five hundred miles of canals had been cf)mpleted, fe" lecting the lakes by two lines with the Ohio. Under the influence of ...ese improvements llie population of the State augmented to 1,519,467 individuals. In 1835 she exported by the lakes the equivalent of 543,815 bushels of wheat. In 1840 her exports of the same article over the same waters were equivalent to 0,800,000 bushels of wheat, being an increase, in tiie space of five years, in thc%rticles of wheat and flour, of what is equal to 3,300,000 bushels of wheal, or nearly six hundred per centum. These articles are selected, as being the most bulky, in order to illustrate the effect of canals upon lake commerce. At tliis period, 1840, there were not completed over two hundred miles of railway in the State, and this distance was composed of broken portions of roads, no entire route existing as yet across the length or breadth of the State. In 1850, there were in operation something over f()ur hundred miles of railroad, and rather a greater length of canals, while the population had increased to 1,908,408, and her exports, by hike, of wheat and flour, were equivalent to 5,754,075 bushels of wheat, and that, too, in spite of the fiict that the crop of 1849 was almost an absolute failure throughout the West.
In 1851 the exports of wheat and flour, by lake, were equivalent to no less than 12,193,202 bushels of wheat ; and the cost of freight and shipping charges on this amount of produce falls little, if any, short of $510,000 ; nearly the whole amount having reached the lakes via the canals and railways of Ohio.
Similar sketches of the other northwestern States, during their rise and advancement to their present condition of prosperity, and influence on the confederation, might be adduced in this place, all equally flat-
tering to the energy and enterprise of the western people, and to the influence of internal improvement on commerce ; but this narrative of the eldest State of the group will suffice to illustrate the subject, and give some idea of the unexampled progress of the whole.
Westward of Ohio, the Walxish canal brings the vast productions of Indiana to the lakes, passing through a small portion of Ohio, from the port of Toledo to the junction, tiience to Evansville, on the Ohio river, and traversing the entire length of the Wabash valley, one of the finest wheat and corn cf)untries in all the West. This canal is four hundred and sixty-lour miles in length, and is one of the most important of recent improvements.
It is worthy of note hero that, in addition to its vast commercial business by the great lakes, Ohio, and more particularly its commercial capital, Cincinnati, the largest, wealthiest, and finest city of the West, and the great emporium of that region, has an immense commerce, both in exports and imports, by the rivers Ohio and Mississippi; and it appears 'that a laiger portion o(" groceries are imported lor the use of the interior, into Cincinnati, by the river, than to the lake-board, via the lakes; and farther, that while a much larger portion of the trade in cereal produce goes by the lakes, a majority of the live sto(;k and animal provisions is sent by the rivers or otherwise. No ill efleet is produced, however, on either commercial route, by this competition, but rather the reveri^e, there being times when either route .'done is closed to navigation — the lakes during the winter by the ice, and the Ohio by the failure of its waters during the summer droughts. There is, moreover, commerce enough amply to sustain both channels ; and while the State, its beautiful capital in particular, is a great gainer, no port or place of business is a loser by this two-told avenue and outlet lor commercial transportation.
The southern Michigan and northern Indiana railway terminates both at Toledo, Ohio, and at Monroe, Michigan, on the hdces, and runs westward, through the southern counties of Michigan and the northerly counties of Indiana, to Chicago, at the head of Lake Michigan, on the eastern border of Illinois. This road passes through some of the most fertile portions >m these States, and, being recently completed through its entire length, may be confidently looked to as sure to add greatly to the commerce of the lakes at its termini.
Farther to the northward, on the Detroit river, the central Michigan railway communicates across the peninsula, from the city of Detroit, with new Buffalo and the lake ; and, having been open some years, has done more to develop the matchless resources of this State, and to urge it forward to its present commanding position, than any one other route. Cities, villages, and large flouring mills are springing into existence everywhere along the line of this road, depending upon it as the avenue of their business to the lakes.
Following the line of the lakes westward. Lake Huron may be passed over, as presenting no internal improvements worthy of note. One of the principal of those which are already projected is the exlen-
sion of the Pontiac rnilrond to Saginaw, touching at a point on tlie St. Clair river, opposite to Sarnia, Canada West, where it is destined to communicate witli a branch of the great western railway from Hamilton, on Lake Ontario, to Lake Huron. Another road is also projected in Canada, from Toronto, across the peninsula, by Lake Simcoe, to Penetanguishine, on the great Georgian bay, which will shorten the route to the Sault Stc. Marie by many hundred miles, and, should the much demanded and long proposed ship canal around the Sault be now at last effected, will tend more largely than any other improvement to develop and bring to a market the incalculable mineral resources of Lake Superior.
Southward of Lake Superior, and bordering on the western shore of Lake Michigan, lies the upper or northern peninsula of Michigan, and the northern portion of Wisconsin, little known as yet, except to lumber-men, trappers, traders, and voyageurs, and naturally hitherto the theatre of no internal improvements tributary to the commerce of the lakes.
Passing southward, however, to Green bay, and its sources in the interior of Wisconsin, there are lately completed some improvements in the internal navigation of that State, which are, perhaps, of more imj)ortance to the luture growth of the lake commerce than any yet perfected in any part of the State. These are the works on the Fox river, and the canal connecting the waters of that stream with the Wisconsin, which opens the steam navigation of the lakes to river craft, and vice vcrsd, although it is scarcely probable that the same vessels which navigate the lakes will pass through the rivers. This, in fact, is by no means necessary to the success of the project, the importance of which is found in the fact, that by it the steam route from the Atlantic to the upper valley of the Mississippi is incredibly shortened ; and thereby the whole trade, s[)ringing into (jxistence throughout that vast upper country, is, in a great degree, rendered tributary to the lakes.
The junction of the Wisconsin and Mississippi rivers is, in fact, by this njule brought nearer to the lak(\s than to St. Louis ; and the transportation of goods being by an uninterrupted line of steamboat navigation throughout the whole chain of lakes and across the State of Wisconsin, the trade \o be one day transacted by this route will be enormous.
The richness of the soil of Wisconsin in the valleys of the rivers, and on the borders of the Lake Winnebago, is rarely surpassed or equalled, and towns containing from one to three thousand inhabitants are everywhere springing into existence lluough her territories, which are probably destined lo become, in a few years, great commercial cities.
Southward ot' this route there are no very important channels of communication tributary to the lakes until we reac-li Chicago, where Lake Michigan is connected with the Illinois river by a canal of 100 miles in length, opening to that lake the vast wealth and traltic of the riehest corn valley in the known world.
Railroads are also projected from Mllwaukie, one of which is completed some forty miles to the westward, which is destined to extend to the Mississippi. There are also plank roads from many points, more seful as avenues of commerce to the lakes ; at present, h.w-
ever, the only eommunication between the northern and soutliern routes is by the lUinois and Miehigan canal. This was originally intended to be a ship canal, cotniecting Chicago with INtu, on the Illinois river, but was only constructed equal to the admission of ordinary canal boats, which can, on reaching the latter point, be towed by steam down the river to St. Louis, and return thence laden with sugar, hemp, tobacco, flour or grain, and thence by horse power to Chicago.
Whether the original plan of this canal will ever be carried out, is at best very problematical, since there are obstacles in the periodical shallowness ot the waters of the Illinois which would frustrate the only object of the improvement, to wil, ihc through-navigation of the works by lake craft.
This canal was opened in May, 1848, and the first section of the Chicago and Galena railroad in March, 1849. In 1847, the year previous to the opening of the canal, the real estate and personal property inCookcounty, of Nvliich Chicago is the capital, was valued at $6,189,385, and the State tax was $18,1(52. In the year following, when the canal had been one season in operation, ihe valuation rose to $0,986,000, and the State tax to $25,848. In 1851 this valuation had risen yet fiirthcr to the sum of $9,4-31,826, and the State tax to $56,937. In 1840 the population of Chicago was 4,479, and the valuation of property not far from $250,000 ; while in 1851 the p()})ulation was about 36,000 and the assessed valuation of real and personal property was $8,562,717. In 1847 the population, according to the city census, was 16,859 ; in 1848 it was 20,023 ; in 1849, 23,047 ; and in 1850, according to the United States census, 29,963: having increased twice more rapidly than betore, since the completion of the canal. The population of Chicago at this time — August, 1852 — is nearly, if not (piite, 40,000.
In regard to this train of argument, and to this view of the cHect of internal imj)rovements on the growth of the West, and on the commercial condition of that jwrtion of the country, it will be well to t()llow up the sam(^ train of examination in relation to the growth of certain, points to the east of the great lakes, such as Buffido, New York, Oswego, Boston, and other cities directly affected by the same commerce, through the internal channels of communication in New York and Massachusetts.
77,860
Hence it ap[)cars, that between the years 1800 and 1850 the population of New York and its suburbs doubled itself once in every 10 years; Boston, once in every 25J ; Philadelphia, in every 20; Cincinnati, in every 6J ; Albany, in every 15 ; St. Louis, in every 9^ years.
period of tbrty years, tlic pnnulntioii of Now York doubled itself f)nee in every 15 ycirs; Philadelpliin, in 18^; Boston, in 18J ; Albany, in 16; Cincinnati, in 7 ; St. Jjouis, in !M; Buffiilo, in 8^ ; and Detroit, in 8i.
From 1820 to 1850, a period of tliirty years, the population of New York doubled once in 13 years ; I'liiladelpliia, in 16 ; Boston, 15 ; Albany, 15^ ; Cincinnati, 7J ; St. Louis, 7 ; Buffalo, 6^ ; Detroit, 8.
From 1830 to 1850, a period of twenty years — the term of duplication— this being the first census taken alter the opening of the Erie canal, but belbre its influence had been much felt on the seaboard, owing to the non-completion of tbc Ohio and lateral canals — was, in New York, 15 years; Philadelphia, 17^ ; Boston, 20; Albany, 20; Cincinnati, 8^; St. Louis, 5^ ; Buffalo, 8^ ; Detroit, 6; Cleveland, 5; and Sandusky 5. And from 1840 to 1850 — a period of ten years, during which nearly llie whole western population had become exporters by mciins of the Ohio, New York, and Philadelphia canals, and the various lin-^s of railway — the efli-cl of these influences on the period of duplication in tiie citi( s f)f Boslon, Philadelphia, and New York, has been truly astonishing; but the same inlluence, reacting and reflected from the East upon the western cities, is yet more wonderful.
According to the rati(j ol' their iner(;ase during these ten years, New York would doubh; her population in 12 years; Boston, in 12; Philadelphia, in 12il ; Baltimore, in 13A ; Albany, in 16^; Cincinnati, in 6; St. Louis, in 4; Bulflilo, in 8^ ; Detroit, in 9; Cleveland, 6^ ; Sandusky, 5A; Chicago, 4 ; Milwaukie, 3;^ ; 'J'oledo, 6; Oswego, 8.
Hen(!e it appears, that every new improvement is bound by inevitable laws to j)ay its tribute to some great channel of internal commerce. The (;xistence of such a channel has indirectly created the necessity for the im[)rovement ; and the sanu- law which called it into existence as necessarily rcciuircs it, by a reactionary impulse, to indemnify its creator.
Before the present century shall have passed away, the United States will undoubtedly y)rescnl to the world a spectacle uiie(iualled in past history. More than fifty millions of re[)ublican Ireemen, all eciual citizens of a contiHleracy of independent Slates, united by congenial sympathies and hopes; by a devotion to the principles of political and religious freedom, and of sell-gov(>nnnent ; bound together by a common language and harmcmious laws, and by !i sacred compact of union, will also be firmly cemented with one another by indissoluble bonds of mutual dependence and common interests. The remote sections of the confederacy will be made near neighbors by means of canals. Railroads will chain all the several parts each to eacb ; tlie whole people from the Pacific to the North Atlantic ocean, from the great lakes to the Gulf of Mexico, cultivating the arts of peace and science, and incited by a genuine rivalry for the accomplishment of the real mission of the American pi'ople.
'IMiis, wiiicli is the cjistcrtiniost of nil the lake districts, compriscvs tlio wholf! eastern shore of I^iike Chmnpliiin, from its southern extrcnnity uL Whitehall to its northern t(>rniinalion, exe«'ptin,u;only a tew miles at the head of Missisquoi bay, which lidl within the ('anachan lin(> ; and embraces idl those portions of the State of N'ermotit which are subject to custom-house regulations.
Lake (Ihamplain is about one; hundred and five miles in length, and varies in breadth from one to fifteen miles; it contains sevi-ral islands, principally toward tlit; upper <'nd, of which the largest are North and South Hero, and La Motfe island ; and, in addition to all the waters of Lake (leorge, its principal tilHuent, the outlet of which enters it at Ticonderoga, Receives nine considerable streams:, the Otter creek, the Onion rivtir, the Lamoile, and the Missistjuoi, from Vermont to tlit! north and eastward ; the Chazy, the Saranac, the Sable, and liotiuet rivers on the west, and Wood creek on the south, from the Stale of New York. It discharges its own waters into the St. Lawrence by ihe Sorel or Uichelieu river, in a northeasterly course ; the navigati»)n of which has been improved by the works of the C/hambly (Canadian) canal, so as to afl()rd an easy communication l(>r large vessels to the St. Lawrence, and thereby to th(i gn>at lakes. From its southern <'Xtremity it is connected by the (Miamplain ciuial with the Mt)liawk river and the Krie canal, at the village of Waterl()rd, where the united works enter the Hudson, and thus li)rin a. perfect i-hain ol' iidand navigation Iroin the lakes of the tiir northwest to the Atlantic seaboard. The whole length of the Chani[)lain canal, including al)out scvent(M'n miles of improved natural navigation on Wood cr(!ek and the Hudson river, is about sixty-t()ur miles. It is Uirty leet wide on the surface, twenty-eight at the bottom, and f()ur deci). The amount of lockage is eighty-tour feet. On account of this ;ntificial Wur of interconununication, Lake Champhiin is included, not improperly, in the great chain of American lakes; although, to sp(3ak strictly, it is not one of them, having no natural outlet directly into tlu-m, and so liir from being the recipient of any of their waters, serving, like them, itself" as a fleder to the St. Lawrence.
district, with a coast line of considerably more than a hundred miles including its many deej), irregular bays and inlets, of great productiveness and fl-rlility, especially adapted to grazing and dairy linnis, and to the cultivation of the northern fruits, its western shores are, fi)r the
most part, high, wild, mid hiirreii, soon rising into t)i(* vast and ahiiost inacccssihh? ridges ot tlio Aihroiuhick mountains, lying within tho counties of Hamilton, Herkimer, and Esseix, in New York, a region the wil{l(,'.st and mosi rugg(;(l, the least adapted to cultivation or the residence of man, of any to the eastward of the great American desert; and still the liaimt of the deer, the moose, tlu; cariboo, the otter, and the hciiver, th( wolf, the panther, and the loup-eervier, which still nliound in this liistness of rock, river, lake, and lorest, almost within sound of great and populous cities.
liy its means of communication with the St. Lawrence, and its outlet to the Hudson, this lake has become the chainiel ola large and irn|iortant trad<! with (Canada, especially in lumber, employing nearly two hundred thousand tiMis of (;raft and shipi)ing, counting the aggregate fit' entries and clearances, and giving occupation, to speak in • muI numbers, to twelve? thousand men.
The opening of the ()gdi;nsburg and Vermont railroads, connecting New York and Hoslon more directly with the lakes, has, it is j)i-obable, in some degree allix'ted this trade; at U-ast, tli< returns of 1851 exhibit u liUling oil' in the ('anadian tradi; of Lake (Jliamplain. It does not, however, appear that the opening of new chaiaiels J)I" trade is wont usually to allect the interests of those ahc-ady exi.>ting, but, on the contrary, l)v increasing facilities and consequenlly augmei.iiiig diTi ids, adds to the liveliness and vigor of business, and is ullim:itely ben Tcial to all. Hence, there appears no just ciust! IJ)r iipprehending \:i\ permanent decrease or deterioration of the ship[>ing inter st-!, connectetl with L;\]\v. (Jhainplain.
Burlington, the port ol" entry of this (hstricl, is the largest town in the Suite of Vermont, containing about ten thousand inliabitants. It is beautitully situated on a long, rey[ular slo|)e of the eastern shore, ascending gradually from the head of Ihirlington bay, on the southern side of the debouchure of the Onion river into the lake, and is the capital of Chittenden county, and by liu" the most considerable commercial place of the State. It has, i^oreover, a fine agricultural back country, of wljich it is the mart and outlet. lUirlington is distant from New York, by railway, about three hundred miles; from IJoslon two hundred and thirty-live; and from Montreal one hundred. By its possession of* a ccntrid position, with the advantages of both land itnd water steam facilities, alike l()r travel and transport;.! i.-:- to the grand cmporia of Canada, New England, and New York, u '•>■■. making rapid advances in Wealth and j)opulation; anil now, with railroad communications open on either side of the lake, can scaix'ely fail to improve and increase, in a ratio conuneusurate witii that of the improvements in its vicinity.
The oidy method, within our reach, ot arriving at the aggregate amount of the lake commerce and tralHe, is by taking the accounts ot' the eiinal olfice at Whitehall, which exhibit the amount and value of merchandise delivered at the lake, and the (juantity and value ol" pro duce received from the lake; and then by estimating the coasting trade of tht< lake above Whitehall, which does not reach the canal. By deducting from the aggregates of thesi', the Canadian trade of the districts of Vermont and Champlaiu, we arrive at the gross amount of the
aggregate coasting trade of the whole lake, as comprising both the collection districts ; but owing to this compulsory mode of procedure, no definite understanding of the proportion of commerce attaching to each separately, of the two districts, can be reached.
36 13,390
The aggregate shipping of Lake Champlain, both foreign and coastwise, is represented to have numbered 3,950 enfrances, measuring 197,500 tons, and employing 11,850 men, with a corresponding number of clearances of the same measurement and crews.
This district, which is situate on the western side of Lake Champlain, over against that last described, including the peninsula at th(! lower end ])etween the waters of tiiat lake and lake George, with the thriving town ol' Whitehall and the outlet by the Chiunplain canal, has a coast-line of ecjual extent, though less indented by bays, than tiic opposite district of Vermont.
It has two principal harbors — Whitehall, situate on both sides of Wood creek, at its enlrance into the lake, in a beautiful and romantic site, with considerable water power, through which passes the very great majority of the whole export and import trade lor Canada, and which is a singidarly flourishing and improving village ; and Plattsburgli, near to the upper extremity of the lake, lit the head of a fine and spacious bay at tne debouchure of the Saranac river, by which it is connected with the mineral and lumbering regions of the interior, and with the recesses of the Adirondack chain. The village is well laid out, and contains the United States barracks, and several prosperous manutiictories on tlie river. This district has httle or no back country, the mountains rising abrupt and precipitous from the very verge of the lake in many places, and leaving a narrow strip of shore only, with a few villages scattered along th(^ road to Plattsburgh, beyond which all is howling wilderness as far as to the valley of the Black river. Little
dependence can, therefore, be placed on these regions for agricultural produce, although their forest and mineral wealth compensates, in some measure, for the sterility and ruggedness of their soil.
Plattsburgh is the port of entry of this district, although Whitehall is the larger commercial depot. The only railroad which toucnes it is that of Ogdensburg, crossing Missisquoi bay and the narrows of the lake at Rouse's Point, and opening, at the town of Ogdensburg, a perfect inland intercommunication between the great lakes and the Atlantic ocean at Boston. It is on the water communications, therefore, afforded by the lake, that the population of this district for the most part rely lor the prosecution of their commercial enterprises and the transportation of their produce.
There are five daily steamers running during the season from Whitehall, touching at Burlington and Plattsburgh, lor St. John, Canada East, and for St. Alban's, Vermont.
The decrease of the year 1851, it will be observed, aflectsthe number of entries and clearances only, the compmative tonnage being an increa.se on the preceeding twelve months.
This district extends along the southern shore of the St. Lawrence, firom the point where tlu; boimdary line of New York and Canada strike.^ tlu; great river — 43°, 73*^ 20' — to Alexandria, nearly opposite to Ganano(|ue, on the Canada side, and tlie thousand isles of the St. Lawrence. The extent of this coast line is about eighty miles, trending in a southwesterly direction ; it includes the considerable commercial depot and improving townof Ogdensburgh, besides the smaller ports of Massena, Louisville, Waddington, Morristown, and Hammond, and it has become the liieatre of a very large and increasing trade with Canada, and coastwise, particularly since the opening of the Ogdensburg railroad.
This important line was opened from Ogdensburg to Rouse's Point, where it combines with the eastern and soutiieastern routes, in the autumn of" 1850 ; and from this point passengers and freight crossing Lake Champlain have ea.sy expedition, either to the New England States by railroad, or to New York, via Lake Champlain and the Hudson river, or by the new lines of railroad down the valley of the latter great thoroughfare. There being no line of transportation whatever through this district fiom the Canadas, except the above-inentioned road, and previous to the opening of that way none of any kind — the
district itself being, moreover, a mere strip of ten miles' width between the river shore and the Adirondack highlands — the effect of this road has been very great on the general commercial prosperity, and particularly on that of Ogdensburg, which monopolizes the Canadian transportation business, for the other ports mentioned are merely river harbors, doing a small coasting business, and driving some small traffic with their neighbors across the water. In consequence of these advantages large quantities of freight find their way into this port from all parts of the upper lakes and of Canada, for transmission to various marts on the Atlantic seaboard ; and large amounts of merchandise, both Ibreign and domestic, pre thence distributed through the difierent lake ports, both of Canada, and the United States, from New York and Boston.
The following statistics w' li show the comparative coasting trade of Ogdensburg in some of thj principal articles during the past five years, the results ibr 1849 being made up only to the 1st of October of that vear.
The above statistics clearly demonstrate that the opening of the railway lifts created a complete revolution in the trade of Ogdensburg, :i large demand having suddenly sprung up lor coastwise imports of produce, to be exported seaward by railroad, while the call for foreign merchandise, formerly imported coastwise for home consumption, has been entirely superseded, goods of that description being now largely introduced by railway from the seaboard, for distribution through Canada and all the lake regions.
B}"- this change, the mercantile prosperity and activity of this town and district has, it will appear, been increased fifty-fold, and the trade matured from a mere home-consumption business to an immense forwarding, f()reign importing, and domestic exporting traffic ; nor, in view of the incalculable hourly increase of western product iveness and consumption, can any one pretend to assign any limits to the future improvement of this branch of commerce.
From the above figuios it will be readily perceived, independent of" the general increase of commerce in the district consecjucnt on the opening of tlie railroads, that tiie returns for tiie years previous to 1850 are in round numl)ers, and are probably very far from accurate, whilst those tor 1850 and 1851 are in detail, and the merchandise is valued at a very low rate; so much so, that if the valuation of assorted merchandise were made according to the rates adopted in othc^r districts, it would raise the gross amount to a sum higher, l)y at least a million of" dollars, •than tliat exhibited above.
Abstract of the number of vesstu^, tonnage, and men employed upon the same, which entered and, cleared fiom the poi't of Ogdenshirg, district of OsU)egatchie, N<'w York, distinguishing American from British, during the years 1850 and 1851.
This district, commencing at Alexandria, on the soulhwcstern horder of Oswegatchie, extends ab( ut eleven mih's southwesterly up the St. Lawrence, to the outlet ofLake Ontario, and Black river bay, on which Sackett's Harbor is siluatetl. Cape Vincent, owing to the sinuosities and irregularities of its shore?, has a coast line of nearly thirty-eight miles, and embraces the shipping ports of Cape Vincent, Clayton, and Alexandria, whieii arc l()r the most part men; stopping places lin- the lake steamers plying between IMontreal, Ogdensburg, and the ports of Lake Ontario, wliicli touch at these landing-places to procure wood, vegetables, milk, and other necessaries. To this fact is owing the very considerable amount of tonnage entering and clearing tVom these little ports, thougli it is at once evident that no indication is thereby allbrded of the actiiiil bu?ini;ss Iransacted in the district. It has some small trade with Cimada, carried on [)r:ncipally in skills across tin; Hi. Lawrence and among the thousand islands; but, if there; be any coasting traffic at all, it is so slendur that no returns of it appear to have been, at any time, regularly kept.
CajK> Vincent, the port of entry, is some twelve to thirteen miles Irom Kingston, C. W.; the distance beting about four miles over the main channel of tin- vSt. Lawrence liom Kingston to Long Island, then between seven and eight miles across the island, and then a mile over the channel on tlu; American side to Cape Vincent.
riiis district Is eonipo>i'(l of that [)()rliou of the eoa.-l ot" J^ake Ontario which runs ahnosl in a iluf southerly din^-tion lioui 'J'ibhit's I'oint, roinid Chiurnciit hay, IJIaek river, and IleiHhMson's [jay, ferniinatintj at Stony I'oiiil, and enihracing a coast lim (v-liniat( il at one hiaidicd miles, li)Howin^f llie sinuosities oi'its very iiregular a?id deeply indenled shores, it iiichides the slii[)])inu' piac! s ot" 'rhree-Mile hay, Chamnent hay, Toinl I'eiiiusuhi, Dexter, Sack( ll's II uhor, and IltMiderson.
Saekett's II uhor, the principal connucn-iid place and [)iirt ol" entry ot" the dislricl, is silujiticl on th<" southwt . I side of a deep inlet known as Jllaek River Uay, al altniil einjil niilc,-; di~Iaiirc (Idni the lake. hs bay and harbor are we!! .-iluated liir sin Iter and detiiice. 'I'lie harbor is by liu' the besi on iiuke Onlaiio (()r sliip-bnildinus and as a navrd and eoniinercial dejx'ji. A crrseeiit ol'land slictches oil' lioni the lowei part otllie vil!a<ji(% Ibrniing an inner and ont<r harbor.. TIn' latter has a depth of v.alcr suiru'ient liir the larg' s! ships-cd-war widiiii I wo fathoms ot llic shore, 'riie same dej)lli ol' water e.\t( nds lo Mlaek river, where tlitre is anotlu-r excellent |)()silion lor sliip-bnildiiiLT.
Tlie iiisi si'ltlcnienl ol" this place; was made in 18(.)l; it advanced little until the commencem(>nl ol" the last Kiiglisli war, when it became a considerable naval and military depot ; but, since llie |)romulgation of peace in 181-1, it li.i made ]ittl(> comparati\(' ini[irovement, other points iiossessing su|)eriiu- advantages of" position as regards artificial rout(>s, l)y railroads and canals, having diverted f"roin it a portion of its business, although it still maintains its eonnnercial character, 'i'lie adjacent country is a fine agricultural rtgiori, and its abundant waterpower r( uders it well ada[)ted to lIu- growth of mauufacluring ( nlerprise, while Watcrtown, a iJ>\\ miles inland, is a llonrishing town, well situated on th<> lllailv rivt r. Still, in sjiif' of iIhsi' ;alvantag(^s, the (;ommer((' of Saekett's llaioor has been on tin decline l()r some years; whether on accoinit of the c-xhaustion of lumbei' risomccs, or the diversion of supplies t()r the inland h(tine consumption, and ol' agricultinal produce Ibr ex])ort, f'romthe coast trade to canal and lailroad transpcjrtation, (loi^s not snliicicnllv appear. At all events, the declared value of the eoniaierce of the district has materially d( dined, as will be seen from lh(> ibllowing table, since liSlt!.
as lundin^'-pliices for imported iiuTcliiindisc, and for Fliiprncnt of produce, by iIk; surrouniliii- iiiliaMtMiits, to tli*' cxtrnt of tlicir own wntils and convenicnccti, but not in such ;inionrits us to render tliom worthy of" any notice as commercial depots.
Some j)ortion of'the !il)ov(' deterioration may l>e, perhaps, ascribed to a discrepancy in the vahintion of articles; but it is hardly probable that the result, as a whole, can hv altribuled to such a cause;; nor is it necessary to seek far lljr reasons, since the experience of every day teaches us that the places which poss(\ss the greatest I'acillticis of Iransmission and transportation o|" j)roduce and men-handise, and the most numerous inlets and outlets for articles of commerce! in the shape of internal iiii[iroveinents and intercoinmuiiicatioiis, will necessarily attack and take; at disadvantat^'c tliost; which rely solely on fixternal traile.
It is not to be doubted, therefore, that Ogdeusburg and Oswegf) have attacked Saekett's Harbor, and diverted fiom il a jjortion of its coastwise tratlic ; while it is as certain that some of the agricultural produce; which ti)rme>rly sought a market, via the lakes, ne)w seeks the same idtimate elestination inlanel, via canal and railroad.
Sae'h are the reve>Iutions, in some sort, of ceanmerce, and such the j)rogre'ss of the times; the' result Ix-ing, that the)S(^ place's which arc content to l)e stationary, and elo not (auleave)r to keep up w iih the inovement, e'uterprise, and energy of the; times, must ne'e'els retrograele ; nor can any natural aelvantage'S insure to them a long monopoly of prospei'^ty and success.
P03,358
For the siiiiic y( ;ir.s llic iinporlations ol" .scnic lew :irticl(>s of coastwise trarlo were as follow.-^ ; and l)eyi)U(l this tliert; is no more to be slated conctrnins: this distriet, unle.-^s it be to point out that in 1847 the exports to Canada consisted ot" barley, oats, eorn, ve,G;efable.s, chees(% machinery, and nianut'acttnes; while iti 1850 and 1851, flour wheat, and vegetables were importtul Irnni that country, together with animals. The Canadian trade has augmented somewhat, while tlus coasting trad(> has deer(.'ased.
Tlu; district ot" Oswego lias eighty miles of eoasl-lirie, I'rorn Stony Point lo tli(^ western slior(! of Sodiis bay, and enihraees llie ports of Texas, Salmon rivor, or Port Ontario; Sandy Creek, Oswego, Little Sodiis, and Sodns Point. i\on(! cf these |)orts, with the exeeption of Oswego, althongh they are all-important to th(> a^ .(nnniodation of their own immedialent-ighborhoods, lijr the sjiipment ol preddeeand thointro<liiclion of ini rehandise of all kinds, can be said to \n valuable in regard to the facilitation of trade and tlu^ eenlraliz.ition of eominerce, as (•onnected with distant portions of the country.
Possessing advantages, both lltr coa-'twise and Canadian commerce, rarely c(]ualled and never surpassed, this port of entry has by rapid strides, within the last few years, attained an importance among the great business marts of the lak(;s, which guaranties an indefinite increase of its commercial and maritime power, until the whole t(Mritories of the British and American northwest shall have become densely populated ; their lertile soil advanced lo the highest state ol" cultivation ;
lli(i fisliiTirs of their liikcs [)r()S('(iit('(l to ihoir ulrTU)ar rnpacitv ; nnd llu^ir utiliitlioiiiiihli' rniiKMiil rotniiccs jK'Mctr.'itcd ntid dcvt'loffd, so frir lis s(;i('iu-(i iiiid riil(M|)ris<' iniiy rdicl.
'I'lirsc ii(lvarilii<>;cs iiic of a lliirclidd iiiiliin'. First, rm ciisy iiiid nipid (Miiiiimiiiiciitioii, i)()lli hycjinid aiid railwiiy, with New York ;md lloslor:, via Allciny, and hy hd<c, i;iiii;d, ami railway with ()<,'d('nshurg; secondly, ri harlxtr which conhl iil .'i «innll nxprnsi- lie rcndcMcd ^mtf(H;lly sccMU'o and acci'ssihic, at the nearest point on ihe lakes to tidewater; and, lliirdiv, a direct eotnnmnication hy lake with ihe most thickly tHlllfMl portions ofCJanada, and hy lake and tli(< VVelland canal with the whole western and northwcsUrn lake-country.
The c'ily nl' ()sw(,y:ii, poii of entry, and capital of ()s\ve^(» county, New York, lies 1()() miles WNVV. of Alhany, M'i froin Washitij^lon ; was incorj)oralrd in 18*28; and is situate on hoth sides of the Oswego river, connected hy u bridge 700 li'ct long. ]l rxtends to the lake shore;.
The harbor, n(^\t to that oi'Sackett's ll.nhor, is the hest on the southern side of Lake Ontario. It is formed hy a pic r or mole of wood, (illcid with stone, .l,!L'-'j() l("el long on the west side of the harbor, and 200 feet on the east side, with an entrance between them. The water within the pier has a depth olfroni V2 lo '20 feet. The; cost of this work was S!)3,000. It is among the earliest improvemenls of lake harbors untlertaken by (he goverinnent, having bci'U coiiuneneed in 1827.
The protection anticipated from these works has not fallen short of what was expi cled ; but the piers, being built of cribs f)f timber, liUed with stone, began to decay so early as 18t"J3. Some sl<'[)s were taken in the year 1837 to replace the old work with permanent structures of masonry, but these were soon disconiiniied, ;nid what remains is rapidly going to ruin, with the exception of /jOO li'ct of lh(> west pier, which is well built of stone and is in good condition.
ll is calculated that H)r ihe moderate sum of !!il207,.371 these works tran be sceuri'd antl improved in the Ibllowing manner, s(t as to render the harbor jKMiictly secure and of easy access to the largest class of vessels in use on the lakes :
fi. By removing llie gravel and (le|)osites within the piers, which have become a barrit r to the entrance of the nnier and outer harbors. It is an original deposit(; by the lUtoral currents of the lake, not m/zW or increased by the [)iers. Once removed, it can never return while the piers stand.
The principal harbor-light is on the pier-head on the west side of the entrance. The tonnages of the port in 1840 was 8,340 tf)ns ; by comparing which with tlu> present tonnage, as given behtw, the general mcrease of the port will be readily six-n.
The population of the town is about 13,000 pcirsons.
The Osw(>go canal, ibrrned principally by improvement of the i»atural course of the river, passes through the great salt districts of the State at Salina and Liverpool, to Syracuse, where it connects with the Erie canal liom Albany to Bufiido. Oswego is, therelbre, the great outlet for the western exportation of domestic salt. 'I'he Syracuse and O3-
wrjTo railway coiiiierla thr city witli Synii-iisc, and tlirtic<! wilh Albany, liuliiilo, New \'(irl\, and liostoii. ll is dinitaiiL rroiii Koclic.'^tci, liy lakts 5/3 miles, and \'wiu Sackclt's Hiiibor 40 miles. Tlic rapid incrcatK; <»!' the ('(iinmcrcr ol" Oswcnjo js apt-ly illnslratcd hv the liilhtwinji; tal)l«.', exliihitinj^ tlie iraHic- in some ol" the leathiiL' articles (tt" importation Uy lake during ihrec; years :
Of the above amount of 4,231,899 buslu-ls of wiieat, oidy l,(i7(j,!213 were forwarded by canal; and, while there were received by lake only 389,929 barrels of Hour, tlu're wire forwarded by canal 888,131 barrels, showing that of the remaining 2,555,()8() bushels of wheat tluMV were manuliictured by the Oswego inill«!, ami sent ti)rward by canal, 498,200 barrels of flour, while prol)al)ly b3,000 barr<>ls of (lour in addition wero iibsorbcd by local consumption.
According to this calculation, the capacit}- of the Oswego llouring mills cannot fall short of . 'ill, 000 barrels of Hour per annum. The value of the Canadian commerce of this district is estimated, tin- 1851, as Ibllows :
This, it sliould bo observed, amounts to very nearly one-lialf the entire Canadian eommoree with tiie United States. Owing to the large proportion of Canadian produee entered in bond, the amount of duties collected is comparatively small, when contrasted with that received in other districts; but tliis fact renders the trade none the less valuable to Oswego.
The whole amount of unties collected in Oswego, in 1851, was $89,760, while th(ve was assessed and sccuhmI on the properly entered in bond the further sum of §22(5,937, making a total of S35G,0"97 duties assessed on property I'iered at 'h(^ ])ort of Oswego during the year.
The Gonrsee district has a very limited commerce except with Canada ; with eighty miles of coast it lias but one shipping place, which i.s situated at the mouth of the Genesee river, at a distance of about three miles from Rochester city. The; passage (jf the Erie canal
and a par;illel line of railroad through the entire length of the district, but a lew miles distant from the coast, offering better facilities for the transportation of passengers and merchandise, whether eastward or westward, than the lake can alKn'd, confines the commerce of the port entirely to Canadian trade. Rochester is well situated on the falls of the Genesee, which are three in number, with an aggregate descent of 268 i'eet williin the city limits, aflbrding almost unbounded resources in the shape of water-power, applicable to most manufacturing purposes, and applied largely to the flouring business ; the greater part of the wheat sliipped by canal Irom Buffido being Uourcd and reshipped by canal to its ulterior destination.
It occupies both sides of the river, and had a population, in 1820, of 1,502 individuals. In .1830 it had increased to 9,209: in 1840 to 20,191, and in 1850 to 36,403. In 1812 it was laid out as a village, and incorporated in 1817. It was chartered as a city in 1834, and tlu; city limits now occupy an area of 4,324 acres, well laid out with a good regard to regularity. Rochester has three bridges across the Cenesee river, besides a fine a{|ueduct over which the canal passes, traversing the lieart of the city, and adding mueh to its prosperity, as well as to the ra})idity of its growth.
This district embraces all the lake coast of Ontario, from the Oak Orchard creek to the mouth of the Niagara, and thence up that river to the falls on the American side, and includes the ports of Oak Orchard Creek, Olcott, and Wilson, on the lake shore, Levviston and Youngstown on the river, and an office of customs at the suspension bridge which crosses the Niagara, at three miles distance below the falls.
There is a very considerable trade from Buffalo passing through this district to Canada, across the suspension bridge ; especially in the winter season, at which time it is by far the better route, on account of the railroad comniunicalion tiom the fiills, which were, in i<)rmer j'ears, generally considered as the head o(" navigation.
At that time the trade of the Niagara district was of the greatest im portanee ; but since arts and scienee have opened new channels of couimunication on either side- of that great natural ^ibstMcle, the field of its couimercial operations has been narrowed down to the supply of the local wants ot the eirrumjaceut country.
Jicwiston. the port of entry antl principal j)la.ce of business, as well jis the largest U)wn ot'tlie district, is situati'e ou tlii' east side of the Niagara river, seven miles ai)ove its niuulh, opposite to Queenstown, Canada, wiih \\ iiieh it is connected by a tt'rr}'. It has a population of about 3,000 persons, and eonnnunicales with Builalo and Lockport l\y railways, and with Hamihou, Toronto, Oswego, and Ogdensburgh, during the sununer season hy daily steamers. It carries on some valuable traffic with Canada.
The district is, as yet, rather barren of internal improvements, having for their oljjeet the connecting iIk; circumjacent regions with the lake and river; t()r there is but one railway passing through it, which has Builiilo and Lockport l()r its respective irrmiin. One or two other roads, however, are in process (jf construction, designed to connect Rochester and Canandaigua with tlu^ great western railway through (yanada, as it is intended, hy means of a second suspension bridge across the Niagara, near Ijcwiston.
It is, however, a (juestion with many minds whether it will be possible to construct a bridge' upon this principle sufficiently steady and firm to admit of the passage of u locomotive with a heavy train. But, be this as it ina}^ tliert; will he no dilliculty, it is j)robable, in making the transit in single cars, by horse-power. It seems somewhat remarkable that, while the success of railroiul communication by means of suspension is so entirely problematical, no attempt should have been made,
or even proposed, to throw a j)ermaiient arched bridge across the river near the mouth of the Chippewa creek, which could bo effected, one would imagine, by means t>l stone piers and iron spans, without great risk or difiiculty. Should the suspension plan, however, prove unfeasible, it is probable that the iron tubular bridge system, so triumphantly established in Great Britain on the Conway and Menai straits, will be adopted. So that it may be almost confidently predicted that the Niagara district will very shortly be brought iuto the line of a great direct eastern and wesiern thoroughfare, which will add greatly to its Canadian commerce overland, and materiall}' incn.-ase llie size and progress of BuHido.
In tormc^r days, all fieiglit coming up Lake Ontario, destined f()r consumption, was transported by land from Lewiston across the portage around tlie falls of the Niag' ra. The noble river itself affords an excellent hfirbor at Lewiston, being iiir below th(> rapids and broken water, which (^xiend to some distance downward from the whirlpool. Youngstown, a few miles lower down the strerun, is also a good landing place tor steamers.
A line of fine mail-steamers plies regularly between these places and Ogdensburg and Montreal daily. The otluM- norts abov(^ mentioned ure mere local places for shipm( nl of" donu-stic country produc(^ and tlie receipt of merchandise. No definite returns have b<i< ii made of their business, so that it is not pnssibli- to enter upon this branch of the object in detail.
Tbis distric:t lias a eoast-line oik; hundred milt .s in extent, eoniinencing at the great lalls on tlie Niagara river, anil thence extends southward and \v«^st\vard, embracing the ports ot" Schlosser, Tonawanda, and Black KocU, on the river; liuli'alo, on Biilildo Creek, at the l()ot of Lake Erie; and Cattaraugus Creek, Silver Creek, Dunkirk, ^'an 15uren harbor, and liareeloua, on the southern shoie ot" Lrdve Erie; being all the ports between the Falls of Niagara and the eastern State liiu- of Pennsylvania.
"Buflido Creek" has a commerce larger than thai of any other lake district in the I'liited States, amounting to nearly onc-lhird ot" th(> whole declared value ot"tlie lake trade, and showing the astonishing increase, in the single year 1851, of $19,087,832. This increase may partly be attributed to the ojiening, in May, 1851, ot' a new av<iiue ot" trade to one point ol"the district, in that noble work, the New York and Erie railroad. The <'ommenctMneni ot" operations on this route necessarily increased the <'ompetiti(.'n li)r the "trade of the lakes;" and, while an excellent share of business has llillen to the lot of the new enterprise, it would up[)ear that the old-( stabli.- lied lines have been gainers rather tJMn losers by its opening.
"Within the boundaries of this district, and, in some sort, all serving as the ti-etlers and receivers otils lake commerce, are tlu; terminations of tlw {r)llowing great avenues to the seaboard: the Albany and HulHdo railway, the New York City and Butlidtj railway, the New York City, Corning, and Buffalo railway, the Bullido, (lanai'idaigaa, and New York City railway, the Bulliilo and Niagara Falls railway, the Builido and
State Line railwiiy, extending to Erie, Pa., through Dunkirk; the New York and Erie ruilwav, extending from the port of New York to Lake Erie at Dunkirk; and last, not least, the Erie canal, intercommunicating between the lakes and the Atlantic tide-water.
The three BuffUlo and New York roads, and the State Line road, have been put into operation since the commencement of the present year — 1852 — and cannot, of course, be taken into account as operating upon the commerce of this district previous to that date.
Of the ports above named, as being embraced in this district, the city of Buffalo is by far the most important; of tli(? others, Dunkirk and Tonawanda, only, have any actual claims to consideration. Schlosser, being situated three miles only above the falls, where the current is already so rapid as to be almost dangerous, enjoys few commercial advantages, and is remarkable only as a landing-place for pleasure parties, and the seat of a small Canailian trade, carried on by means of skiffs across the river.
The Niagara, to this point, is navigable for steamers -ind other vessels of the largest lake-class ; but, the channel being difKcult and the current perilously strong, vessels of any magnitude rarely venture themselves so near the falls. The Canadian port of Chippewa is nearl}-^ opposite this point; and, during the summer season, a small steamer plies regularly twice a day between Cliipj)ewa and Buffalo, entering the Niagara from the Chippewa creek, by means of a cut, and thence j)roceeding up the river to the Buffalo harbor.
Tonawanda is more eligibly situated for trade, on the Tonawanda creek — a tine navigable stream — the Niagara, and the Erie canal; the river and creek fi)rming an excellent harbor. It is twelve miles north from Buffido, on the canal; and, owing to its facilities for the transhipment of produce saving twelve miles' tolls, its business has increased rapidly during the last three years. This business is princip;dly transacted bv Buffalo houses, and the commercial transactions of Tonawanda are, ti)r the most part, made in the Buffalo markets, to which easy access is had by means of the Buffido and Niagara Falls railway.
The' ronuTKMce of this port in 18!'A) was valued at S1.',?U5,494, and in 1851 at no less than S3, 782, l)8(), consisting of SI, (592, 423 exports by lake, and S2,()8!K()()3 imports ; showing an aggregate increase, over the value of th(> business of 1850, of S2,57().5()2.
miles distant from Buffido.
Tlu; returns •>f the trade and commerce of the lakes at this jwint are usually included, bv the eollectur, with tl'ose of Buffido. In 1.850 and 1851, tliev were, however, made distiiici, and arc as lijllows : in 1850, SI,!M7.()i)3; in 1851, S2,349,334; showing an increase on the y ..r of SlOI,()4l. The priueipiil eoiiunerce ot' Bl ick Koi'k consists in a traffic carried on with Canada, by means of a ferry, which plies constantly between tlw^ o[)p()siti' banks of the river, and in the manuliicturc of
aro, each of ihem, convenient lundiii:; places tor su|)i)li<'s, and li)r the shipping of the produce of the neighborhood ; bnt iIk; vahie of their conuncrce has not hern tnadc! up or returned, as the sniall-chiss ve.sscds, wliich ply in the tr;i 'c IhIwi-cu Uullido and these porl.s, rarely extend their trips heyond th^ limits of the district, in which c; .' they are not required to report their cargoes at the custom-house. '( heir imj)orts Cvinsist of all kinds of merchandise, and tlu ir exports t»t l)utter, chcf^se, pork, wool, lumber, and vegetables, the (ounlry beliin;! and adja(;ent to them being one of the richest and most li;rlile portions of the whole State of New York.
Durdvirk is situati; on Lala; Erie, about '15 miles west of JUillido, with whicli it is coiUKicted i)y railway, ft has a luie harbor, with an easy access for vessels of light draught ol" water, and communicates with New York by the Erie railroad, ■-104 miles in k-ngth. TIkmx! are some slight obstructions at tin; harbor month, as is the case with most of the lake port.-^ which il" remove d, would make navigation perli;ctly free l()r vessels ui light draught ; but the bottom being of rock, it cannot readily be d(H'pened.
The eoimuerce of Dunkirk, which previously was merely nominal, amountiHl in 1851, afti:r the opening of tlu; Erie railway. l'> llie sum of $9,394,781). being of exports ?>4,0Ub,()()t), of injports *5,a94,78(). The Ijudiilo antl iStati; Liiu; railway, which eoiuieels that city with Dunkirk, also connects it with Erie, i'a.
The citv of liullido, the j)ort of entry of this district, had a population in 1810, of 1,508 persons ; in J 8:20, of 2,095 ; in .1830, of 8,0(.)8 ; in 1840, of 18,213; and in 1850, of42,2(jl; showing an increase of 113 per cent, from 16'-)') lo 1840, and of 132 per cent, liom 1840 to 1850. This would h :;,'! to Uie conclusion, on tlu' average ral(M*f increase on the last leii }•;.;-, tiiat on the 1st of .January, 1852, its population did not fall tin- .sli<,n of 50,478 persons.
Bulliilo occup.vi- a commanding business situation at the western terminus of the Erie cinial and tlu; eastern t<.'rminii.s of Lake Erie, constituting, as it were, the great natural gateway between the marts of the East and the prnchacing regions of liu; West, l()r the pa.?sagi' of the; lake, commerce. It is distant from Albany, on a straight line, 288 miles — by canal 303, and by railroad 325. From Rochester, 73 mihs; Irom Niagara Falls 22, SSE.; Irom Ch^veland 203, ENF..; Irom Detroit 290, E. by N.; from Mackinaw 027, SK,.; ii-om (.Jreen Day 807, E>SE ; liom Montreal, Canada East, 427, S\V.; and from Washington, D. C, 381, NW.
The harbor of Bullldo is constituted by the mouth of Butfalo creek, which has twelve lo Itjurteen il-et of \v;iter |()r thi* dislanci! of a mile from its mouth, with an averai:e width of two hundred li-et ; and is protected by a fine, substantial stone pier and sea-wall jutting out into the lake, at the end of which there is a handsome light-house twenty teet in diameter, by ti)rty-six liict in height ; there, is, how<;ver, a bar at die mouth preventing the access of any vessels dra.vving above ten lt;et of water. A ship-canal seven huiidred y.uds long, eighty teet wide, and thirteen deep, has been constructed into the |)lac(! as a further accommodation ti)r vessels and ti)r their security wiien the ice is running; yet the harbor, which is perteclly easy of access in all weathers, is very
far from hoing ii(lo(iiiiil(! to the cotniiu'rcc oi' tlin placn, iind is often so much ohsttiiclcd hy ■'^iii;!!! cnili. iind ciiniil-hD.its, ('S|H'cially when IokciI in su(ldL'nl> l)y stress oi' wcMtlier, tli;it ingress or egress is ii inniier not easily or rii[>i(lly efll'cted. TIk! extension of the Erie c!Ui;il :i mile to tlie esistwaicl of its originid tertninns, :nid lh(( eonslruction of .si(h'-euls into it tor the refuge of ho:its, will do something to relievr; this prc.'ssnre ; and much lins he(>n efli'cted by the enterprise of the city uuthoritios, who havo .'ilreiidy expended l;ng(! snms in the cxcnvMlion of ship-cniiiis inside the sea-widl, on which Wiuehonses lor the storing f)f goods iuul facilitating tlie transhipnienl of merchai ilisi^ are in progre.-s of erertitni. Two very large canal hasins are also in progress, nnder the auspices
of the ^>tate, (i)r the hette, and This will tend to attract them fro increas(; its (tapacity l()r lake; ship| is being constructed near the moui thing more than a mile distant, east
More than this, however, is rcf|nired, to meet the demands of tin; larg(! and daily increasing commerce of the place, and it is contemplated to open u new channel from the lake? to the creek, at above a mde's (listanc(Hrom its month, ■ across the isthmus, which is n(>t above two hundred and fifty yartls in wiillli ; and this improvement, with the erection of a. new Invakwater, would nauler it sullicienlly capacious l()r tlie computed int.'reast- of sliipj)ing i()r many years to come.
Bulliilo is a handsome and well built ciiy, with streets, i»)r tin.' most part, rectangular and lectilinear, and many handsome i)uildings. It is the terminus of that stupendous State work, the' Krie eanal ; ot' three lines of railway coiuiecling it directly with New York; and of one eominunicuting, through Albany, with both iIk; cities of New York and Boston. Jt is also the eastern terminus of the liullido and State Line railway, whicli is destined lo extend westward, by means of the sonth shore railways, to '1'o1(m1o, Detroit, and (,'hicago. A railioad is also projected hence to Brantl!)rd, in Canada Wi'St, which will o})en to th(! city the whole trade; of the rich agricultural valley of the Grand river, with the atljaci.'nt lumbeiing districts, and is destined to connect with the gr(\it westf-rn road, and tliencH', via Detroit, \\ ith all [he West, and by Lake Huron with the mineral regions of Jjake Superior. It has a dry-dock of suflicient ea|)aeity to admit a stc^amer of sixteen hundred tons burden, and thnu; hundn.-d and twenty tl'et length, with a marine railway to liicililatc; the hauling out and icpairing of vessels. There is also near the same ship-yard in which these are to be l()und, a large derrick lor the himdling ot' boilers and he;ivy machinery. In short, it appears that this city is resolved to k(>ep fully abreast with the progress of tin; tinjcs, and not to lose the start which she took by Ibrce of her natural advantages through any want of energy or exertion.
As being the oldest port on Lake Erie, and hiiving taken, aivl thus far held, the lead in the amount and value of her lake conmu rce, the commercial returns of Buffalo are fuller than those of most other j)orts ; and as the history of her commercial progress is little less than the
history of the rise and advancement of all the commerce west of it, no apology will be necessary for entering somewhat fully into the history of the lake commerce of Buffalo, and its details, at this time.
This commerce dates its actual commencement from the year 1825, the year in which the canal was finished and opened, so as to connect the waters of Lake Erie with the Atlantic; though the first craft which navigated those inland waves was built manj years anterior to that date. The first American vessel which navigated the waters of Lake Erie was the schooner Washington, built near Erie, in Pennsylvania, in 1797. The first steamer on this lake was constructed at Black Rock, in 1818. In 1825, however, the whole licensed tonnage of all the lakes above the Falls of Niagara consisted of three steamers of 772 tons, and 54 sailing craft of 1,677 tons, making an aggregate of steam and sail tonnage entering the port of Buffalo of only 2,449.
1846 to 1851,
Astonishing and unprecedented as is this increase, it yet gives no adequate idea of the increase of business transacted by it ; for the changes which the last quarter of a century has wrought in the construction and models of vessels — adapting them to greater speed and capacity for burden, together with the improvement in the modes oi' shipping and discharging cargoes — have increased the availability of the same amount ot tonnage more than tenfold. In order to ascertain the real augmentation of the commerce of Buffalo, during the period above mentioned, recourse must be had to the quantities of the articles transported. In 1825, and for many subsequent years, all the grain cargoes were handled in buckets, and from three days to a week were consumed in discharging a single cargo, during which lime the vessel would, on an average, lose one or two fair winds ; whereas the larg(!St cargoes are now readily discharged by steam, in fewer hours, than in days at that time.
which three days were then, at the least, necessary.
Up to the year 1835 the trade consisted principally of exports of merchandise to the West. During that year, however, Ohio commenced exporting breadstufls, ashes, and wool, to some extent. The following table exhibits the (juantities of several leading articles oi" western produce, during the various periods iiom 1835 to 1851 :
The figures above are taken from the canal returns for the several years, and of course do not embrace the whole imports of the lakes, but are given as the best attainable standards of the increase of lake commerce, up to the date when the statistics of that commerce began to be kept in a manner on wliich reliance might be reposed.
The table next ensuing will give a fuller and more satisfactory idea of the actual increase of the trade, as well as of the various kinds of articles received at Buffiilo, during a series of consecutive years. In this table all packages of the same article are reduced to a uniform size ; and for this reason, probably, some articles wiU be found to vary in quantity, tiir the year 1851, from the figures contained in the report made up at the collector's office, and furnished by Mr. Wm. Ketchum, the collector, showing the receipts at Buffalo, Dunkirk, and Tonawanda, by lake, together with their tonnage, their value at each point, and their aggregate lor all the points combined.
The following table was made up from day to day, during the several seasons, and will be Ibund substantially correct. By reference to the official tables, following this report, some details will be found very curious and interesting at this juncture, for reasons which will be adduced herealter :
10,519,000
At the present moment the official (locume>nts, alluded to above as following this report, merit something more than ordinary attention, as they display the character, quantity, and estimated value of each article passing over the lakes eastward, in pursuit of a market, and the places of shipment on the lake indicating, with sufficient accuracy, the regions wiicre produced. Thus it will be observed that the small amount of cotton received came via Toledo, which may be held to signify that it reached that point by canal from Cincinnati, to which place it had been brought from the .southward by tiu *^hio river. The same remarks will apply to tobacco, and in som- t to flax and hemp. The latter, however, arrive in nearly equal »;i. .<itities by this route, and by the Illinois river, the Illinois and Michigan canal, and by lake from Missouri.
Nothing can be more interesting or instructive, as connected with the lake trade, than statistics like there, .showing whence come these vast supplies, and what superficies of country is made; tributary t«) this immense commerce.
It is, perhaps, proper here to observe that much of the property purchased in Buffalo for the Canadian market passes over the Niagara Falls railway to the suspension bridge, where it is reported as passing into Canada from the Niagara district, and is as such reported as the trade of that district.
AMOBBWS RBFORT ON
propellers, and 607 sailing vessels, varying in size from steamers of 310 feet length and 1,600 tons burden, to the smallest class of both steam and sailing vessels. It is a significant fact, that out of nearly 7,000 tons of vessels building at Buffalo on the Ist of January, 1862, there was but one sailing vessel — of 230 tons — the remainder consisting of Steamer's and propellers; showing conclusively that steam is daily growing more rapidly into favor in a trade so admirably adapted to its successful application as that of the western lakes.
The present population of Buffalo, as stated above, is estimated at 60,000 persons ; the principal part of the inhabitants being employed in occupations more or less closely connected with the commerce of the lakes and canals.
this place, more especially in leather, iron, and wood.
In the above calculation of the commerce of Buffalo, no estimate has been made of the enormous passenger trade, or of the value of the many tons of valuable goods and specie transported by express over the railways and on board the steamers. But were it possible to arrive at the value of such commerce, it cannot be doubted that it would swell the aggregate amount of the trjide, bv many millions ol' dollars.
Statement showing the rstimnfrd value of each aggtrfrale of the serrral articles riccikcd at each of' the several ports in the (lis/riet <>/' liiijluto Creek coaxttelsr ami from Canada, and total values of all, for the ijcar ending the '61si December, 1851.
Recapituladon showing the total value and quantity of all property received from and shipped to the westward, in the district of Buffalo Creek, during the year ending December 31, 1851.
An account of the princijml articles o/jbreiffn i/roducc, growth, and manufacture, exported, to the British North American colonics, in British and American vessels, /rum the district of Buffalo Creek, fur the year ending December 31, 1851.
An account of the minci'pal articles of the growth, produce, and manvfacture of the Unitca States, exported from the district of Buffalo Creek, New York, to the British North American colonies, in British and American vessels, fur the year ending December 31, 1851.
An account of the principal articles of foreign produce and manufacture, with the values and amounts of duty, entitled to drawback, exported to the British North American colonics, in British and American vessels, during the year ending December 31, 1851.
Statcmrnt of Canadian produce imported into the district of Buffalo Creek, New York, for warehouse and for transportation in bond to the port of New York, for exportation to foreign countrici, during the year ending December 31, 1851.
A statement of the vessels and tonnase which entered into, and cleared from, the British North American colonics, at the district of Buffalo Creek, New York, for the year ending December 31, 1851, distinguishing British from American, and steam from sailing vessels.
This district embraces the whole coast line oC the State of Pennsylvania on Lake Erie ; it contains about forty miles of shore, and has three shipping points — Erie, the port of entry, North East, and Elk Creek ; the two latter being principally engaged in the .shipment of staves and lumber. Erie is a beautiful town oi' three thousand inhabitants or upward, finely situated on Presque Isle bay, on the southern shore of Lake Erie. It is distant from EBifialo 80 miles SSW. ; from Cleaveland ]00, E. ; from Harrisburg 270, NW. ; from Washington, D. C, 343 NW. The town stimds on a bluff' commanding the harbor, Ibrmed by the projection of the peninsula of Presque Isle, the mouth of which was formerly closed by a difficult sand-bar. This has been, however, partially removed, and piers constructed by the United States government, by which means the channel has been so far deepened that most of the larger steamboats and vessels which navigate the lake now readily enter it.
island, the wash of the lake currents having severed the isthmus ; and, the harbor having two entrances, it is expected that it will be permanently deepened, and the bar at its mouth by degrees swept away. Th(! depth of water on it, at present, is from eight to ten feet, and within the harbor much more.
It was in this harbor that Perry's fleet was built, within seventy days from the time when the trees, of which it was constructed, were yet standing in the forest. Thence he sitiled to give battle, and thither he brought back the prizes of Lake Erie, the relics of which may be yet seen rotting and half submerged, near the navy yard.
The naval depot is still kept up at tills plnee, and here the one or two small vessels which represent that nrm of our service on the lakes are accustomed to go into winter quarters. But the commerce of the port is very limited.
A canal from Erie to Beaver connects it with one of the finest coal regions of the State, Pennsylvania, and this coal, being bituminous and of fnie f[uality, is used by nearly all the lake steamers. This causes innny of them to put in ller<^ when they would otherwise continue on the flireet route ; for Erie is ninety-seven miles, more or less, fi-om Buflido, and, l\ing at the southern end of Presque Isle bay, is from liftcen to twenty miles oil" the direct course from Buffido to Cleveland. The agrieulturid resources of the country cireumJMcent and inland are not yet fully (hneloped, ;ind of (ronsequence contribute but little to the conuncrce of the plsiee. It will be seen th;it last year the supplies of Hour l()r consumption lune were received from other lake districts ; but it is certain that this stnte of things cannot long continue in such form, inasmuch ;is the mineral and manufacturing resourcesof the district arc in rapid progress of development ; and the agricultural productions must rapidly miiUire under such stimulus as that given by liberal prices and a constant home dtunand. It carmot be doubted that, before long — the demand ti)r agrieulturrd produce in the mining and manufacturing districts already being considerably in advance of the production of many articles — attention will be so sirongly attracti^d to the resources of the soil as to insure not only an adecjuate supply for home use, but an ample surplus (()r exportation.
Total importulion 1,983,368
The exj)orts consist of wool, lumber, wood, bark, glass, stoves, bariron, <'oal, smd merchandise received by canal, with a small quantity or grairi — the whole amounting to the following aggregate :
The entire commeree of the port amounts to a total value of $4,206,483. The character and quantity of some of the chief articles of export, and their comparative increase and decrease are exhibited in the annexed tables for the series of years as named :
The Eric extension canal has been in operation since 1845, and iht; effect is seen in the increase of business. It is worthy of note, that during some seasons produce goes southward, and at others northward.
This is a most important district, second in the value of its commerce to none west of Buffalo. It embraces all that portion of the south coast of Lake Erie which lies between the western State line of Pennsylvania and the Black river, a distance of one hundred miles.
Harbor, Madison Dock, Fairport, and Black River.
This district has for its back country one of the finest and most varied agricultural districts of the whole lake-shore region. The face of the land is soft and rolling, the soil in great part warm and fertile, and especially adapted to the cultivation of fruits and vegetables, and to the growth of all the cereal crops.
Among its most important and valuable exports are wheat, corn, and Hour ; large quantities of fruit, both green and dry, are sent off" annually, together with pork, beef, butter, cheese, and vegetables, in all directions, but chiefly eastward by the lake, with the exception of butter and cheese, large quantities of which go southward by the Ohio canal, destined for Cincinnati, and thence for New Orleans and other southern cities.
A railway passing through the entire length of the district on the lake shore is nearly completed, which is destined eventually to become a portion of the continuous chain from Buffalo to Chicago. One railway, connecting Cleveland with Columbus and Cincinnati, and another forming a communication with Pittsburg, are already completed ; and many branches of importance, scarcely second to the main lines, are far advanced already in construction.
Of canals, Cleveland has two of great value, one connecting her with Portsmouth, on the Ohio, and another uniting the line at Akron with Beaver, on the Ohio — virtually a canal Irom Cleveland to Pittsburg, inasmuch as loaded canal boats are continually towed by small steamers from the mouth of Beaver river to the latter city.
With three different lines of internal communication direct to the harbors on the coast, most of them among the best on the lakes, and these from the centre of the richest of the western States, it will readily be perceived that the district of Cuyahoga must be the theatre of commercial transactions which have no small influence upon exchanges of produce and merchandise in the great marts of the seaboard. Conneaut, the easternmost port of the district, is about twenty miles west from Erie, situated upon a river c^f tht same name, which afl^)rds a good harbor. No returns exhibiting the commerce of this port, separately, have been received ; but it is very considerable, as Conneaut is the entrepot lor the landing of supplies and tlie shipping of produce for a large and fertile agricultural region, not only of the adjacent country in Ohio, but of an important section of Pennsylvania.
The next port to the westward is Ashtabula, similarly situated on a small stream bearing its own name, forming a good harbor, with facilities equal to the requirements of the place. The town stands back some two or three miles from the port, upon a rise of ground, forming a singularly eligible site.
The tonnage owned at Ashtabula consists of two brigs, of 280 tons each, several schooners and one scow, making an aggregate of 1,741 tons, employing seventy- six men in their navigation.
for the shipment of staves and lumber.
Madison Dock is a, pier built out into the lake, in front of the town of Madison, about eighteen miles west irom Ashtabula, and twelve east from Fairport, for the accommodation of the neighborhood in shipping staves, lumber, and produce. No separate estimates of its commerce have been kept for the past yeur.
Fairport stands on the Grand river, which furnishes one of the most eligible harbors in the West, and is quite sufficiently capacious for the traffic of rmy western port. It is thirty miles west from Ashtabula, and thirty east from Cleveland, and is merely a shipping and receiving port — Painesville, on the ridge, three miles inland from the lake, being the principal mart and place of business, as well as the county seat of Lako county. It is to be regretted that no particular returns have been received from this place, indicating the amount of its commerce, tonnage, &c., as it is a port of no little consideration, and holds the key to a fertile agricultural district, inhabited by an industrious and enterprising population.
Black River, the only remaining minor port of this district, lies about twenty-eight miles west of Cleveland, on the river from which it takes its name. Its commerce is of no great importance at present. It enjoys good harbor facilities f()r the shipment of staves and lumber, which are its principal exports, imd for tht receipt of such supplies as are in demand.
The city of Cleveland, port of entry of this district, and capital of Cuyahoga county, is situated 130 miles NW. from Pittsburg; 146 NNE. from Columbus ; 200 b}"^ water from Bufiulo ; 130 from Detroit ; and 359 iiom Washington.
vellous age and region.
Its population in 1799 consisted of a single family. In 1825, it had risen to 500; in 1830, to 1,000; in 1834, to 3,400; in 1840, to 6,071; and at this moment there are 25,000 souls in the city proper, and at least 7,000 more in Ohio City, across the harbor — virtually one city with itself, though under a diflerent corporate government.
It is at this day one of the most beautiful cities, not in the West only, but in the United States ; built, for the most part, on an elevated plain, above the Cuyahoga, commanding a fine view of the lake and river ; planted with groves of forest trees, and interspersed with fine squares and public places.
As a place of business it is of high importance, and its future growth can scarce fail to be commensurate to its unparalleled rise ; nor are its inducements as a residence inferior to its commercial advantages.
Its harbor is one of the best on Lake Erie, spacious and safe when once entered, but, like all the lake harbors, liable to the formation of obstacles by the accumulation of sand at the mouth of the river which forms it. This bar can be kept down only by continual dredging, and hence the constant demand on Congress for appropriations to this end.
The harbor has depih, for a considerable distance, sufficient to accommodate the largest vessels which navigate the lake ; it is formed by the projection of two piers, one on cacfi side of the river, fJ)r twelve hundred feet into the lake, which are two hundred feet apart, faced with substantial masonry. There is u light-house on the high bank on the shore of Lake Erie, and a lower one near the end of one of the picra at the harbor's mouth.
The commerce of Cleveland, apart fiom the rest of the district, is not shown by the returns received ; and in such returns as have been sent in — showing the business of the district — the valuation of the very same articles is set at a rate so nmch lower than in the other districts, as greatly to undervalue the real commerce of Cuyahogn, and to exhibt it at the greatest possible disadvantage.
It has co'iscquently been Judged best to raise the valuation of articles to the same rate adopted in the other districts, so as to produce and exhibit a unilbrniity of values in all the districts; since, wliichevcr be the correct valuation, the higher rate is fiivored and adopted by the majority ; and it cun prejudice no one district or port of entry to the wrongful advancement of another, if a uniform rate be adopted.
to former years, of live hogs, 80,000.
It will be remembered that 1847 was the memorable year of unprecedented demand Tor produce, arising out ol* the ilimine in Europe, which cuu.sed the exportation of nearly all the produce held in the country, so
It should be remarked, however, thut this increase is more than overbalanced by the (juantity of railroad iron imported Irom Encland by the St. Lawrance via Canada. So that, in fact, as regards direct trade with Canada, in lieu of an increase, there is actually a considerable decreast!, more especially in the exports of domestic produce.
Till! district of Sandusky cxtcndH from Black river westward, ir>cludin^ the ports of Vermillion, Huron, Milan, Sandusky, Venice, Fremont, I'ortago Plaster Bed, and I'ort CMinton, l)(;ing a distance of filly inilc8 lake coast, and some fli'ty more of hay and river. In natural advantages lor eonmiercial progress, j)rol)ably this district is surpassed by no oilier t)n Lake Erie west of Buffalo Creek. Within its borders are several navigable rivers and oiu^ of the finest bays in the west, capable of furnishing anchorage to any number of vessels, at which they may safely ride during the most severe gales, and to which they gain access during the prevah'nco of almost any wind. The whole of the buck country on which it rests is fertile and rich in agricultural resources, and sends f()rth annually large (|uantities of surplus produce over the diflerent railways and canals by which it is penetrated.
Vermillion, the easternmost of all the ports in this district, is situatcul on the lake; shore at the mouth of th(! Vermillion river, about ten miles distant from Black river, and as many more from Huron. It has no remarkable features which reijuire particular notice, but is simply a place for exchange of produce against merchandise, f<)r its shipments to other markets. This statement exhibits the commerce of the port as fi)llows :
Huron, the next port in course to the W(;stward, is situated on Huron river. abt»ut ten miles east from Sandusky, and has a good harbor, with this cxct'piion — that in some seasons there are accumulations on the bur at its mouth, which require removal in order to make access lo it easy.
A ship-canal has been constructed from this point to Milan, u distance of eight miles, by which vessels ascend, and load at the latter ])oint. A railway was projected from this point to intersect with the Sandusky and Mansfield railroad ; but is nc»t yet in progress. The commerce of Huron is valued us f()llows :
returns of its business are supposed to be taken by the collector at Huron, through which port all vessels pass in going up and returning from Milan. This commerce, according to the canal-collector, amounted last year to —
1847, it is probable that they were included with those of Huron.
Sandusky, the port of entry, lies on the south shore of a most beautiful bay of the same name, about five miles from its moutii, and contains about 8,000 inhabitants. This bay is about twenty miles in length and five in width, forming a shelter large enough to give anchorage to the whole lake marine, with an average depth of twelve feet water. The bar at the mouth of the bay is sometimes enlarged, or its shape changed, by the spring-currents. A straight channel has, however, been dredged through it, at the expense of the city, in which there is about eleven feet of water.
Sandusky city is the capital of Erie county, Ohio, and lies 60 miles west from Cleveland, 110 miles north from Columbus, 414 from Washington — directly facing the outlet of the bay into Lake Erie, at three miles distance, of which it commands a fine view. The city is situated en an inexhaustible quarry of fine-building stone, of which many of the best buildings are erected.
The Mad river and Lake Erie railroad connects this city with Cincinnati and the Ohio, the passage from city to city occupying about ten hours. This road runs through one of the most beautiful and opulent agricultural regions in all the West, literally overflowing with the cereal produce of a young and productive soil. The Sandusky, Mansfield, and Newark railway connects it with Newark, passing likewis(! through a rich portion of the State, and crossing the Cleveland and Columbus road, by means of which it has communication with boih those cities. Tno advantageous relations of this city in regard to the central portions of the State, together with its superior liarbor facilities give it an active commercial aspect.
Fr(!mont, formerly called Lower Sandusky, is situated on Sandusky riv<>r, about thirty miles from Sandusky city, and is accessible to vessels of light draught. Its commerce is gradually on the increase, as will be seen by the accompanying statements furnished by the deputy collector :
Increase 456,106
Venice, at the mouth of Cold creek, on Sandusky bay, three miles above the city, is the place of shipment lor the products of two large flouring mills ; the shipments in 1851 were 34,771 barrels, valued at $121,698.
Another shipping point on the opposite side of the bay is .it the plaster quarry, known as the Portage Plaster Bed, and its business consists tor the most part of shipments of piaster, both ground and crude. In 1851 there were shipped of the ground article from this port
Total 18,507
Port Clinton, the only port in this district not already noticed, is situated on the lake about ten miles west from Sandusky, and having but a narrow peninsula of land back of it, is not a place of extensive trade. The statement of the deputy collector fixes the value of
Total 126,284
Besides the above-mentioned regular ports, there are numerous islands included within the limits of this district, among which are Kelly's, Cunningham's, Put-in Bay, and others, some of them affording the best shelter to disabled vessels, in severe gales, to be found anywhere on the lakes. It was in the immediate vicinity of this group, and in fact in the midst of it, that Perry's engagement was fought, and the killed Ibund a burying place on the island last named.
The commerce of these islands is not large. Wood, fish, with some vegetable food, are exported and supplied to vessels, and supplies for the inhabitants are imported ; but no definite returns on which to estimate the value of their trade have been received.
[♦ Tn this is included 2,286 tons of railroad iron imported via Quebec duty paid on 758 tons, $5,076 ; balance, 1,528 tons, in bond. There was imported into the district of Sackett's Harbor, in British vessels, not included in the returns, 2,045 tons 6 cwt. 1 (jr. 19 lbs. railroad iron ; value $49,476 31 ; duty $14,842 90.]
Tliis district li;is a shore-line ollii'iy miles in extent, comprising that portion of th(! hike ;nid river const lying hetween Port Clinton juhI the dividing line hetween Michigiin and Ohio, ;nid includes the ports of Manhaltiui, 'I'oledo, Mauniee, ;md Perryshurgh. The li)rrncr is a port of but little importance, turnishing no returns. Maumee city and Perryshurgh are hoth situated on the Maumee rivt>r, within a few miles of Toledo, and might, perluips, be considered with more propriety suburbs of that pl;ic(^ thiUi indefxiulont j)orts of entry. The commerc(! of Perryshurgh is returned by the collector as ti)llo\vs :
tensive lake commerce tlian perhaps nny other westoni port, from thfi fact that it has two canals, both connecting it with tlie Ohio, terminating in its port: one the Miami and Erie canal to Cincinnati, and the other the Eric and Wabash canal, intercommunicating with Evansville, Indiana, and traversing the entire Wabash valley, which thereby renders the richest portion of the entire State of Indiana tributary to its traffic. This circumstance, when taken in connexion with tiie fact that railway transportation has hitherto been unable to compete on ecjual terms with water for the inland carriage of heavy freight, such as agricultural |)roduc(>, renders it absolutely certain that, at no very distant date, Toledo must become llu; grand depot for the lake trade of the valleys of the Miami ami Wabash ; and, inasmuch ns the course of trade for productions of that sort is annually lending mort; and more to the northward, this is almost tantamount to saying that it must needs be ultimately the great meeting-place and mait for the immense products of all northwestern Ohio and of all northeastern Indiana, these valleys being beyond all doubt the very richest and most fertile portions of the respective States, which cannot be surpassed, if ecjualled, by any in the Union for tlunr agricultural wealth.
Toledo is well situated on the west side of thv Mauiiici' river, at u short distance^ from the head of Maum(M:' bay, in Lucas county, Ohio, 134 miles NNW. from Columbus and 4G4 from Washington. Its present population is estimated at about 5,000 individuals, and is constantly on the increase.
One line of railroad is alr(\'idy completed, connecting Toledo with Chicago, known as the Southern Michigan ; and another — the lake shore road, which will f()rm an intrreommunication with Buflalo, Cleveland, Sandusky, and the other eastern marts and harbors on I Ik; lak(^ — is in rapid progress ; and will, it may b(» confidently expected, be finished within a tW(>lve-month, or a little over, which will ot" course add a new stimulus to the business of Toledo. A third road is also j)rojceted through the Miami valley, in the direitlon of Cincinnati.
Thesi dvantages, together with the possession of an excellent harbor and good arrangements for freighting on the lakes, have already so liir developed the commerce of this port, as to give the most gratifying assurances in regard to its t'uture ])rogross and prosperity.
The commerce of Toh.'do, so far as can be ascf;rlai ned from the scanty returns which have been sent in by the collector, are as ti)llow8 for the years 1851 and 1847; no comparative statement concerning other years being attainable, from the absence <)f reports :
'I'Ik' district of Detroit li;is tlic most cxtcn.sivc coast-line of finy lake district not bordering on J^;ike Superior, ;nid embraces all that jjortioa oi" Micliig.'in known as tiic Soullieiii i'eninsiila. (Jonuncnciny at the western lino of Ohio, it extends thence northerly along Lake Erie, np the Detroit river, Lake tSt. (^laJr and .St. Clair river, to Lake Huron, up that lak(> northwestwardly to the island and straits of Mackinaw, and goutiiwurdly, wiih a little westing, to the Indiana line, not far Ironi the
ll lia.s lil'h'cii |)ortd, iioiK^ ot'wiiicli have any |ncrtciil im|)orlaii('i', with thu exception of Dcltoil and Monroe; allliou^'li ills more than proliahlu that within a fi-w years .several of ihein may rival the mo.-*l promising harhets and ports in the West. There is, proliahly, no Slate in lh(j Union which sinpasses Mieliigan in its commercial a(lvanlai,'es, or which, if properly l()stered and developed lo tlu^ extent of its vast internal resources, it will n«)t nllimately e(|nal or exceed in all the aelnal realities of pro^Mcss and |»rosperily. She has more natural hiuhors, involving hut little expense or lahor to render them availahle iti all seasniis to all classes of slii|»piMg, ihaii any other Slate bordering on the lake.i. The fxtent oi country enclosed within her extensive coast m-c comprises 3[),iii'')(i scpiare miles, some of it the hest and most ll-r ii. land of the West, watered hy nuiinTous lake.s and streams — many of the latter navig.ahle, and very extensively used il)r lumhering purposes, which in the j)rincipal occupation and intert^st f the inhabitanl.i of the northern section (»f the Slate.
Atnonir the.se rivers are \hv. Kaisin, Huron, Ifouge, Clintoa, lilack, Saginaw, Thunder Hay, iManislee, While, iMask(p»n, (Jrand, JValamazoo, aiul Si. .Joseph's — the six last named tiow.ng into f,, !:c Michigan, and th(! re.st into Lake Erie, St. Chiir, and Huron, and •, • Detroit and St. (.'lair rivers.
Although .scaicely one third ot the ahove an . 'sunder succe.' lul cultivation, yet Michigan is already known, ihreiij^i; lut the eouutiy, na a large exporter of the choicest wheat and flout, ll may indeed be said, without tl-ar of contradiction, that li)r two seasons past the (|unlity of Michigan wheat and Hour has been, on the avcrajic, < (jual if no! superior to tliatof any other State; her exports of Hour amounluig to .ODO.UUO btirrejs, and of wheat to 1,()<K),()0() hustiels, in round numlxrs.
Monroe, the easiermnost of her ports, is a termimi> of the .southern Michigan r.iilwav on Lake Krie, about 10 miles south of Detroit, and is situated at the lower lidlsof the river Uaisin, with a population of about 6,()(K) souls. There is a daily line <»f steamers connecling it with Buffalo, and the harbor is accessible tor vessels of the largest class.
Unfi)rtuualcly, no ,<;peeial returns, showing the commerci^ of Moiuoe, are at hand. It is, however, a \hnt< rapidly increasing in importance, and must Ix; evenluallv the (le|)< for a \rr\ large amount of trade. Tin; returns from the district of" Detroit, which have been recei\fd, show the coastwise business oidvoftiiat port; .so that CJibraltar and 'I'renton, on the Detroit river; Mount C'lemcus, on the (jlimon river; Algouac, Newport, Si. Clair, an I l*(»rt Huron, on the river Si. Clair; Saginaw, on Saginaw bay; Thunder liay islands, in Lake Huron; (iraiul Haven, St. Jo.^ej)h"s, and New linflido, on Lake Michigan, are all of them unrepresented.
This is a circumstance dee|)ly to be regretted on several accounts. Tlii'se are the outlets of the principal lumbi-r regions of" the wesl<'rn States, and sup|)ly the prairies ctt" Illinois, as also St. Louis, and other southern cities, with nearly all their lumber anil shingles, besidt s sending vast ([uantities to Detroit, Sandusky, atul Buflido. The St. Clair, Sandusky, and Maskegon lumber is as extensively known in the West
as being of superior quality, ns is the pine of Cnnndn to the eastwnrd. Agiiin, these portions of the district are so very riij)i(lly increasing in importance tliat their influ(Mice will ere long cause itself to he most sensibly ielt in the commercial cities of the West. Lastly, lh<'re is still a very large tract oi' public land in various parts of this district, in the hands of the government, f()r the most part well watered and well timbered, which sooner or later will become of immense value.
In p; «t years these government lands have been trespassed on, by persons engaged in the lumber trade, to a very great extent ; but the confiscation of several vessels, with their cargoes, has, it is to be hoped, effectually put an end to these deprrd;itions.
Then> is a very valuable^ business also carried on in the ports of Gibraltar and 'J'renton, in the sliiinnent of staves ; and at Port Huron, Newport, and St. Clair, on the St. Clair river, ship-bnilding is prosecuted to a ccMisiderable extent and to very decided advantage ; on(! otthe largest steamers whic.-h navigate s the l;dies, of l.GOO tons burden), with an engine of 1,000 horse power, having lu^en constructed on these waters. In this district are sitnattHl the St. Clair (lats, tlu^ greati-st natural obstacles to the free navigation of the great lakes, with the exception of the rapids on iIk^ 1ow(M' St. Lawrence, tlu^ Falls of Niagara, and the Sault Ste. Marie. These shallows lie nearly at the head ol Ijake St. Clair, about twenty-five nnles above the eitv of Detroit. The bottom is of soft mud, bearing a loi'ty and dense growth of wild rice, widi a very intricate, tortuous, and difbcnlt channel winding over them, in many places so n,u row that two vessels caiuiot pass them al)reast ; nor is it possible to navigate I hem at night.
There would be no dilheulty whate.'er, and but a most trivial expense, as comparetl with the a(l\ anlag(v^^ which would accrue liom removino; this barrier, in dredi'ini>: out a straiirht channel of sullicienl depth to admit vessels of the largest diaught. Nor is there any work more urgently and reasonably solicitetl from Congress by the men of the West, nor any more entirely juslilied by every consideration of sound economv and jjolilieal wisdom, or more certain to produce n turns incalculable, than the opening the llats of the St. Clair, and carrying a canal around the Sanll Ste. Maiie. These improvements would at once perft'cf the most splendid and longest cliaiii of internal navigation in the world, extenc'ing above two tlKtiisaiid miles ifi length from Fond du Jiac, at the head of Lake Superior, N. lalilud<' -Ki^ 50', W. longitude 92'' 20', to tlie mouth oftlie St. l/iwrenee riv.r, in 'K!^ 20' N. latitude, i'}')" ?}f)' \X. longitude.
It is not, in fact, too much to sav — so iinpi latiNcly are these improvements demanded bv the incK ase ot' eonimeice, and the almost incalculable mineral resouiees ot iiorlhern .MiehiL' hi — that within a li-w years they niusl and will be carried into elii'ct, at whatever cost and eXjXMise of label'.
Above St. Clair river the first port is Saginaw, situated at the outh^t of a river of the saini- name into the great bav of Saginaw, larger itself than a large European lake, settIrii,Mip into tin- land southwesterly from Lake Huretn. 'I'his ba\, with the exception of Oreen bay, is the largi St in all the West, but is rarely visited by any vessels except lh(;se trading directly thither, unless driven in bv stress ol' w<'ather,
The port, however, imports nil the supplies necessary for the lumbering population, and exports what may be stated, on a rough calculation, at 10,000,000 feet of lumber annually.
At the Thunder Bay islands little business is done beyond the shipment of the produce of tlie fisheries; and to what extent these arc carried on in that locality, owing to the total absence of all returns, it is impossilile even to hazard a conjecture.
On Lake Michigan, the ports of Grand Haven, St. Joseph's, and New BuHido, are places of shij)ment of produce, and importation of supplies to a reasonable extent; whiles (irand Haven, Masiiegon, and Manistee, are all great exporters of lumber. The commerce of the district, independent of Detroit, which is the principal depot for the commerce of Michigan, cannot fall short of" $8,000,000, and may exceed it, though it is not possible to state it with precision, for want of the needful returns.
Detroit, the j)ort ol" entry of this district, and capital of the county, is a finel}-^ built and beautiful town, laid out with stnx'ts and buildings which would be consideied wortliv of note in any city, partly on an ascending slope tVom the river Detroit, partly on tli(> level plateau some eighty leet above it. The city now contains about 27,000 inhabitants who lack no luxury, conv(>ni(Mice, (•omli)it, or even display, which can be atl.'uned in the oldest ol'tiie seaboard cities, though itsell" the growth but of yesterday. It is situate 302 miles west ol Bullido, 322 eastnorth(\'ist of Mackinaw, (J87 west, by land, of New York, and 524 noithwest of Washington.
The river Detroit is, at this point, about three (piarters of a mile in width, dotted with btMiiliful ishuids, and of depth snllicient for vessels of a huge draught of water. The shores on both sides are in a state ol' garden-like euhivation ; and, from the outlet of the river into Lake Erie, t(» its origin at Lake llinon, resemble a eontiiuious villag<', with line farms, |)leasant villas, groves, and gardens, and excellent loads, as in the oldest settlements. The soil is rich and tertil(>; the air salubrious, and the climate far more (([iiahle and j)leasaut at all seasons than on the seaboard. The renions around are particularly suited lor llie etdlivation of grain, vegetables, and all kinds of fruit; many varieties of the latter, which can be raised oidy with gnat care to the eastward, as the apricot liir example, and sonii: of the liuesl plums, growing here almost spoulaneonslv. The waters tc-em with fish, and the woods and wastes with game, which ha\e recently become an arlicle oi" trallie to the eastern eilies in sueh enormous numbers as to tincaten the extinction of the rat'c, and to call lltr the alteiuion of the citizens to the due regulation of the trade, as regards lime and season.
IJein;; not oidv the oldest but the large>t town in the Slate, occupying a conimandinLr situation, eiijoving all the advantages which arise ironi a central po.>ition, a magnificent riviM", and a harhor ol' unsurpassed eapaeily and seciu'ity, Detroit h;is arrived at a stand of commercial eminence from which it can now never be dislodsj^ed. „ . i
and Michigan city, a distance of 258 miles; and tht Pontiac Railroad some 20 nriilos to Pontiac. There are also about 120 miles of plank roads running iiom the city to several flourishing towns, in various rich portions of the State, as Ypsilanti, Utica, and other thriving [)lac(!S.
The comm(M-cial returns from Detroit are of the most contlicting character; hut the following results are believed to approxiniiite as nearly to a true estimate of the actual commerce of the port as can be attained :
6,991,827
Another groat advantngi.' will .shortly accrue to Detroit from tlie opening of the Great Western railway, about to be constructed through Canada, which will brhig it into direct communication wilh the New York and otlier eastern njutes; as well as from the completion of the Lake Shore road. The.';(; will l)ting the city within twenty-four hours' journey of New York and thi; Atlantic ocean.
Tliiri, vvhicli is ilio most norllii'rly of the liikc; districts, lis well iis llie most (;xt(Misivo of tlicm mII, cinbiaccs tluit [)oili(»ii of the Amciiciin coiist on th(! wcslcni .shore ot" litikc iMiehigiiii, Iroiri iSh( hoyiiim, Wisconsin, 4<'i3 41' north hitiUulc, 88^ (U' west loiiuitiidc, northwnrf I, ini.'idding Miinitowoc, Two Rivers, Cireen liay, Jiiike \Viini('i)a^n), wilhall its ports, in Wisconsin — cnihracrs Utile IJay N{)(|ii(t, Jiig Bay Noipiet ; the Fox, Alanilon, and H(;av(;r isliuids; the eoa?^! on the straits of Mackinaw ; the St. Miry's river to the Sinh. ; thence W(>st aloiif^ the sontli shore; of Lake kSnjjerior to Montreal river — ail in the Stale of Michigan — and continues thence alonii the Wisconsin ^liore to the western extremily of the lake at Fond d\i Lac; whence it pnxHM'ds northeasterly aloii;^ the shore of the Minnesota Territory to l*ort Charlotte, on the dividiii/j; liiu* between the I'liited Stales and the Lrilish possessions. 'I'lie entire lengtii of this coast-line eonsiderahly exceeds l,iUM) inili s, (iillowing the sinnositicri of the shore;; and from the isolated sitnationoi many portions of the district, it has heen t()nnd im[)ossil)le toohlain lull or satisfactory returns.
The country bordering upon the great lengtii of coast in this district was partially explored, and even mapped, with suliicient accmacy, more than two centuries ago, by the French .lesuils — those indefiligable discoveri'rs and civili/ers, and pioneer colonists of the mighty West : and from that period it has been at all times more or less lre(|uently visited by missionaries, traders, trappers and hunters, until the pro sent day, when a systematic and steady colonization may br said to
of its prodiiclive laads, jfie
])rose{aition of its lisheries, and the exploitation of its litresls and ils mines. Notwilhstanding all this, there is much ground jlir tla; belief that till! inlluence which it is oiu; day destined to exercise on tin; commercial afl'iirs of this continent, though it may I; j a[)[)recialed by a liw tiir-rea(.'hing i.ands, is liltl(3 l!)rse(Mi or understood by the people at,
district :
First, the unecjualled facilities which it possesses i\>r navigation, aflbrch-'d by its numerous lakes, bays and rivers, through whicli, and their artificial improvements, it has ready access t<» both the St. Lawren(;e and Mississip|)i, from which, by the various internal chains of (;anal and railroad, it has easy communications to almost every important market along the vast seaboard stretching from the; Jlalize to the straits of Belleisle.'
Superior.
These li>ur inlluences — apart from any agricultural resources, which, under the stimulus of demand arising from the development of ihe former, arc constantly and steadily on the increase — are already felt surely to a degree which has commanded the attention of thoi^e engaged in coMimercial pursuits, and in fait ol' the goveriunent itself.
Every suecei'ding year fresh ports are springing into existence at different j)t)ints — all imperatively demanding aid t()r the construction of light-houses, and jMcrs, and other ilieilities for navigation; and all as imperatively demaniled by the reijuirements of" a commerce growing spontaneously — not forced into life by any fictitious stimulants of speculation— witii a rapidity and steadiness hitherto unknown in the commercial history ol" the world.
At the southern extremity of this district is Manitowoc, about thirtyfive miles north from Sheboygan, on the Michigan shore — a port which, almost unknr)wn three years ago, has now, including the country in which it stanils, a population of 5,000 inhabitants, antl a trade, though hitlieito .ilmost entirely overlooked, already exceeding that of Chicago for 1831), as regards exports, although the imports are necessarily f5()mething inferior, owing to the smaller extent of country at present looking in Manitowoc li)r its sui)plies. The exports arc principally lumber, laths, pickets, ashes,
piers.
The country adjacent to Two Itivers is finely timbered, and furnishe.< large (juantities of" lumber l()r export, as also shingles, ashes, furs, &c. : but, whenever the land shall be cleared, its exports will consist of grain, wool, animals, and other agricultural produce, such as is furnished by the land of Wisconsin generally. So that, in a tew years, the conunerct ol" these two jx)rts may be (wpected to undergo an entire revolution — becoming, from exporters of" lumber and importers of agricultural supphes, exporters of" the produce of the soil, and importers of assorted merchandise and luxuries.
The business of" Two Rivers will be confined to the peninsula east of Green liay, and Lake Winnebago, and Fox river ; since that route, being more direct, and affbiding exlraordiujiry facilities f()r water transportation, will undoubtedly prevent any trade west of it from passing to the lake shore eastward. The local business, however, necessarily
during the season.
The next port claiming the atl(nition of the conmiercial classes is in tact the most im|)ortanl in the district — (ircen IJay — situated at the southwestern extremity or head of the great basin of tlu; same? name, and the outlet of tin; Fox river.
This port, indeed, bids liiir to rival Chicago, as the lake dejiot li»r all that most important branch of llie lake trade, which has its origin on the borders of thi- upper Mississippi. The work known .as tin; Fox river improvement is now nearly completed, connec'.jng tiie Mississippi with the great lakes, by steam navigation. This work has so greatly improved the navigation of the Fox river, (lowing liom Lake VV^inm b.igo into (Jreen Bay, as to adniii the ascent of small steameis to the li)rrner ; whence, by a iurthei improvement of the Fox river, and a canal connecting it with tiie Wisconsin river, the ])assag(! is free to the Mississippi, entranci' to which is had about two miles below Fort Crjiwfbrd. From this point st(;amcrs can navigate the Mississippi upward or downward, at ojjtion, as occasions may re(|uire.
This is the lirst water route which has been opened connecting the lake, with the Mississipj)!, navigable by steam power; and what the practical result of its i)j>cralinii may be, is yet in the bosom of the future.
Fort Crawli)rd is situated 487 miles above St. Louis ; 257 above iJurlington, Iowa; bi- al)ove (laleiia, Illinois; 60 above Dubu(jue, Iowa ; 5 below Prairie du Chien ; 243 Ixdow St. Paul's, Miimesota Territory ; and 255 below the Falls of St. Anthony.
Tlii.s is certainly icative ot" a iww era in llu; practia; of inland .steam navigation ; as it will opcm at once an easy and direct comnmnication l)(!tween New York and the n(?w States of Wisconsin, Iowa, and the Minnesota Territory, rendering any of the ahovonamrd j)oints on the Mississippi easier ot" access by way of the Inkes than St. Louis itself. This is a fact which ( aiaiot he overlooked by immigtants, and will, theri'litre, bring the ])nl)lie lands of thos<! new States and Terriloricis advantageously into the market at no distant day. This line of coniniunieation also brings the lead mines of (Jalena nearer by a hundred miles to tlie lidves, than to St. Louis; and to it ultimately all the hidden wealth ollhe upper Mississippi valley, ineak iilable in its amount and apparently inc^xhaustibk*, nmst become tributary — inasmuch as t()r the transmission of heavy freight and produce this is tlu; easiest and most direct, ;md thcr(>tl)re, of course, the cheapest channel. Along the eastern [)orliou of this route across the State ot' Wisconsin, there- have already sj)rung up several promising ports on Lake Wiimebago and Fox river; among them Oshkosli, Necnah, Menasha, Du I'ere, anil Fond du Lac, all well siiuatctl, with irood harbor facilities, and rich ;io;ri(-•ultural H'gions circumjacent. The j>ublic lands are in rapid progress of selection and settlement, whether l)V warrant^ or regular entry in the Ian<l oliices, while plank road- int." traversing tin country in all directions.
(ireen Bay, which has li)r several years been a great depot ti)r tish and luntl>er, is now rapidiv becoming lla; great commtM'cial depot t()r lh(! internnl trade of Wisconsin, and during tiie season ol I80I there was a line ol" steamers regularly plying between this point and liutfalo. No details of the business at (Jreen liay t()r th(> season of 1851 havi> be(Mi received, but it is notorious that the commerce of this place has a<lv:mced incah ulably within the year ; and in the absence ot'a(jcurale iiit()rmation, it may be lairlv assumed as tollows :
Total 3,000,000
This estimate of imports may, at tirs( vi<'\v, aj)pear too large; but, when it is remembered that the country, in the rear and around, is comparatively new, and unable, as yet, to export anything very material, and that tlu; tiile of emigration, constantly and regularly pouring in, demands a great (juantity ol" supplies of all kinds tc)r subsistence, t(>r which it nmst be temporarily in arrear until the land sh:ill be cleared, cultivated, and brought up to the staiulard which shall constitute it an exporting in lieu otan importing region, this opinion will be reversed.
In consideration of the gre;it and still growing importance ot" (Ireen Bay, and the remoteness of its situation trom Michilimackinac, it might properly be math' a port ot" entry, witii the shores of Winn(^bago,
Dclxnicliiiiu into (iiccn Bay, How frotn liic no ii\' inl tlic rivers Oconto, Pcslitcgo, anil iMcnonionct — llic latter a larffc stn-jiin, ami lorinorly, tor Hotnc; distance, tla- Iroiilier line Ix'tween the States (.1 Mielugan and WiHconsin. On it are situated several saw-nnlls iJir the cuinnp ol luniher fi»r the (^hiean(» niarl\(>t. The source of this river is hiii n (l-w mih s distant Ironi tlu- shore; of Lake Superior, on the st)utlieiii watershed of the northern peninsula of Michijafan. Its cours(! is ahoin two liniidred miles in lenij;th to its outlet, in which space it has a descent of 1,049 ll'et, and is ctnphatically a river of ciitaracts and rapids, hriiijuing down a vast vonnne of water, and occasionally spreading to a width of ()00 l('(t. it can, therel(»rc, he made availai)le to any cxtenl for water-jjower ; though its navigation will he, in all limes, limited |n canoeing.
The lower course of the Menomonee, toward its m(»ulh, is honlcred by tracts of heavilv timbered pine-lands, the produce of which is now growing into hrisk demand in the neighboring Imnhei markets.
lielow the lMenomone(<, to the northeast, tlie White Kish, Kscanaba. and l''ori rivers, discharge their waters into tlu' fiittle hay de No(juet. They are also !i-iiiged idong their skirts by extensive pine li)rests, li'om which nmcli lumher is ainmally mainifactured.
The M<'iiisti(iue f;dls into Kli/abeth bay, farther to the north. The principal business carried on upon the islands of Lake Michigan, helonging to this district, i> fishing and wood-chopping: steamers and propellers fre{|uently stopping at them to wood, and obtain supplies ot fish, ti)r the latter of which groceries, fruit, *:<•., are given in direct barter. 'J'he climate is genial ;md the soil productive; but the present inhabitants — being principally Indians and halt-bncds, or iishcrmen. who have flnv tastes except ti»r fishing and hunting — contrive to .«ubsisl themselves principally by those employments, and the cultivation ot small patches otCorn and potatoes.
Tin; North and South Manitous have good harbors |()r the shelter ol vessels, as well ns the Foxes and j$eavers. On the latti-r group there is a settlement of Mormons ; but s(t far as civiliz;ition. refinement, and the tilling ol the soil are concerned, they are in no wise superior to tin neighboring tribes of savages.
M.'ickinac island, in the straits of Mackinac, whicli c(Hinect Lakes Huron and Michigan, is an old missionary settlement and military post, first establislKMJ above two centuries ago hy the French .Jesuits, with that admirable f()recast and j)olitical wistloin which they (lis|)layed in the selection of all their posts. It is, in fiict, as to natural niilitarv strength, the Gibraltar of tlie lakes, and might easily be rendered Jiiinost impregriMble. 'J'he present ti)rt, however, is a blunder, and could not be deli'iided for hall" an hour, being commanded by an alm<tst unassailable height within hall" a mile in its rear, liom which, in elfl-ct, at the comtneneenient of the war ol"1812, it was threatened with two ortliree light guns, diagged up the reverse duiing the night, by a handliit ol Indians and IJritisfi, and, being unable to offi-r any resistance, was reduced to an immediate surrender.
|»inVt and i.^ still lu.'iintaiiifd iis ii inilitiiiy stiitiDii hyllic Uiiilrd Stsiti-s* .111(1 used M.s till' rciulr/voiM (»t tlic v.'irioiis liidiiiii liilx's, wliifli resort iliitlicr luimiidly to rci-civc tlu-ir ^'ovcrimii'iit pnyninits.
MiickiiiiM; is now it pliurc of considcraUl*' traffic, llu' |)riiKi|t;il cx|)ortH liciiiu 'i^^li and linH, the latter hccoininii; iiiimially iiiorr ;iiid ninro •^iNirrc; 1111(1 ili(! imports, hl.iiikcts, rcady-niadc clolliing, lisliciiiicn'a supplies, iiiid trinlvcls \hr the Indians, who rjirely carry away luncli of their receipts in iiiiniey.
Increase on 1851 155
Sank Ste. Marie is situated on St. Mary's river, the outlet of Lake Superior, at ahout 1'2() miles from Mackinac, 40.> iioiii Dilroil, and !)2l i'rom \V'asliin,!j;ton. It is pleasantly situated on the west side of the straits, and at the li)ot ol the rapids, whence its name. Tliese rapids are ahout three ipiarlers of" a mile loiiu;, at alioiit twenty miles IxdoW Lake Superior, with a tall ol" about twenty-one ii'ct. 'J'he ri^cr St. Mary's is, in all, ri(un Lake Supeiif* lo Huron, about sixty miles iu leni,'tli, llowinu first a fi'W dei,M-ees north of east, then hendiii",' al)rii|)tly and llowiiiu; a ll-w dciirees east of south. " Throimh its \\li(»le eoiirse it occupies the liiif ot juiietioii between the ii,fueous and detrital rocks, ({)rcil)ly illustrating' to what extent the physical il'alures ol" a country are influenced by its yeolo^ieal sfiucture." lictweeii Mackinac and the Sault Ste. Marie there are innumerable iir(»ups ot small isUuids, principally near the northern shore of Lake Huron and the mouth ot' the St. Mary's, their number haviiii,' been estimated at thirty thousand.
When it is considered that the distance to be overcome does not exceed one mile, with a lilt 22 leet, and that the banks otlhe river nowhere vm' to above twenty feet abovt the water line, and are couipos( d of soft, friable rock, imbedded in easy soil, it is astoiiishinii; that a ship canal has not been opened loiiu; a<>;o across this trivial portagt; — trivial in rcf^ard to the labor and expense of rendering it passable; the cost not being estimated as likely to go beyond a lew luiudred thousand dollars — which would open to the American lake marine the navigation of tin; finest laUt- in tlu' world, I'urnishing and re(iiiirinu all articles necessary to build up and maintain a large and prosperous trade.
everything required lor the facilitation of the vast, numerous and wealthy iron and copper mines of Superior, including machinery of enormous weight, and supplies and forage i()r the men and live-stock employed — nor this only, hut the huge blocks of native copper and heavy ore returning^ down this route — must ail be transported overland at extraordinary difficulty and expense. Even large vessels, several in number annually, are transported over this portage by means of ways and horsepower ; nor is it in the least extravagant to say, that the aggregate amount ol" money thus unnecessarily expended year after year, witliout .'uiy permanent result, would, if collected for a tew seasons, defray not only the interest, but the prime cost of this most necessary work.
" Efi(>rts hiivc been made, and will doubtless be renewed," says the report of Messrs. Foster and Whitney, on the copper regions of Lake Superior, "to induce the government to construct a canal around these rapids, aiul -i us connect the conuiierce of Lake Superior with those ol the lower 1. kes. The mere construction of jocks is not, however, all that is re(|uir(xl. It will be necessary to extend a pier into the river above the rapids, to })roi(.'(t the work and insure an (>ntranee to the locks. This pier \\ ill be exposed to liiav}' currents, and at tiuK^s to large accumulations ol" ice, and must be constructed of the lirmest materials and strongly prot(X'lcd.''
Materials of the best (piality can be easily obtained, as the report ^oes to show, from ScfAill's Point, on the Isle Royale, or the Huron islands, l()r the completion of the works, which would not, it is believ(!(l, at any rate exceed half" a million of dollars.
The efl(>ct of the removal of" this untoward obstacle — which deters a large, useful, and healthy j)opulation from settling in this region — keeps the jninei;il lands out of the market, and in a very great measure debars liie influx of mineral wealth, which could not hv otlu'rwise shut out — would be to give a general stimulus to trade, and an infusion of vigor, activity and spirit to the whole movement of" the country, with a geneial increase to the national wealth, entirely beyond the reach (»f calculation.
It were, tlKref{)re, undoubtedly a wise and {)ru(lent policy, founds vi on the experience ot";dl ages, and in nowise savoring of rash or sp(>cnlative legislation, to disburse the small comparative amount nec-essary at once to render this vast addition to the ualional wealth, commerce, and niarin'e, available.
It is clearly impossible that young and necessariiv poor States — as all new States unavoidably must l)e, until tla^ir lands are rendered caj)abK> of producing, ami their mines ready li)r exploitation — eati construct such works at their own expense ; and they must necessarily be raised by aid I'roni go\ernnient, or be left undone, from want of aid, t(» the great detriment of the conununity.
Another tliouuli inli-rioi' consideration is this — that in case nothing is done by the L'niled Slates gov<'rnmenl, a canal will undoubtedly be cut, even with the (lisadvautage of n len-l()ld expense, through the hard igneous rocks on the Hritisli sliore, by the Canadian government, w^hich never lacks energy (»r enterprise wlier channels *of commercial advantage are to be opent d or secured to itself Aiai the result of this would be the diversion fiom the citi/cens of the United States of tlii^
Imports, 100,000 barrels bulk ; in which are included 2,000 bundles pressed hay ; 20,000 bushels of oats and other kinds of grain ; provisions, dry goods, groceries, general supplies, and five mining engines ; forming an aggregate estimated value of $1,000,000.
The imports are about 40,000 barrcils bulk in excess of tlie imports of 1850. The cost of transportation on the above one hundred thousand barrels bulk was an average of abi.iit nine shillings a barrel from Dftroit, or a gross sum of $112,000 tor the transportation of 100,000 barrels lor a distance of 500 miles, all by water, with the exception of one mile. The opening of a ship canal at this point would undoubtedly reduce this cost by two-thirds within three; years ; anil within six x-ears the actual savings would defray the wlioie cost of construction.
Above the Sault is the wiiole coast of Lake Superior, awaiting only free conununication with the lakes below to send li)rth the ricli mineral treasures of that region in exciiange lt)r liie m;uiutactures and merchandise of tin; east.
The lake is 355 miles in Iciigtii, iiaving an American i;oast to the exleiil. of not miicii les>; than iiOO miles. The area of the lake is 32,000 s(|uiire niih-s ; its greatest breadth from Crand Island to Neepigon b;iy is JGO miles, and its mean deptii ■^A' water 900 ti^et, with an eUniiiion of (127 ll'et ahove the level of th(! sea, and 4i) te(i above the waters of Huron and Mic^iiigan. The water is beautifully clear and transparent, and abounds with the most (l(>licious fresh-water iish, the Havor and richness of wiiieh infinitely exceed tlios(! of the lower lakes, so that tliey will always eonunand a higher [)riee in th(; market. One species, till' siskawit, has only to he known in the New York and eastern UKirkets in order to supersede all varieties ot sea-lisli, iijr uiKjuestionably noni' apj)roiieh it in succulence and llavor.
'I'liis l;il<<' is ted by about eiglitv streams, none oi' them navigable, except tor canoes, owing to the falls and ra[)ids with which they abound. The more j)n)miiienl oi these rivers, ilowing ihrougli American territory, are the Montreal, Black, l'res(|U(^ Isle, Ontonagon, Kagle, Little Montreal, Sturgeon, Ilunm, l)e;id, ('arp, Chocolate, Ln J'rairie, Two-hearted, anti Tccjuameuen. Tli Ontonagon and Sturgeon are the largest and most important rivers, which, by the removal of some obstructions at their mouths and the construction of piers to prevent the ti)rm;ilioii of bars, might Ix' converted into excelleiU and spacious harimmediale vicinity of some of tl>e most valna!)lc mines.
The mouth of the Ontonagon is ah-eady a place of some growing business, as is La Pointe, at the Apostle islands, where is a good harbor. Eagle and Copper liarbors are also places of commerce for the importation ofsupphes and the shipment of mineral produce. Ance, at the head of Keweenaw bay, Marquette, Isle Royale, wliere thei-e is a good harbor, are all places rapidly growing into importance. It would seem that the whole lake coast, from the Sault Stc. Mario to the Isle Royale, is rich in iron and copper ore, and it is scarcely possible to conceive the results which may be expected, when the present mines shall have been develo])ed to their highest standard of productiveness, and others, as unqu( ticjuably there will be, discovered and prepared tor exploitation.
There are at ])resent two steamers, l()ur propellers, and a considerable number (jf smaller sailing cralt, all of which have been dragged overland, by man and horse, across the portage, in constant employment carrying up supplies and bringing back returns of ore and metal. All these articles have necessarily to be transhipped and earned over the isthmus ; and 3'et, under all these disadvantages and drawbacks, the traffic is pinfitahle find progressive. This consideration only is sufficient to establish the possiti\' certainty of success which would ii)ll(nv the construction otan adequate and well-prolt^eted ship canal.
Indee(l it may be asserted, without hesitation, that a well-concerted s^'stem ot' j)ul)lic works, river, h\ko, and harbor improvcmenls, are only wanted to r-iidcr the great lak(^ regions, and this district not the least, the uiosl vahiable and most important, as they are now the most beautiful and most interesting portion of the Unitetl tStates.
The enrolled tonnage i()r the Maekinac district, according to the ollicial r< ports of June 3U, 1851, is slated at 1,4U9 tons, all sail. This is evidently inaccurate, as there were several steamers and propellers plying, at that very date, on the lak(; above the Sault, and several small steamers rutining regularly f)n the wat(>rs of (ireen bay, Lake Winnebago, and the Fox river.
Tlie extreme inaccuracy, looseness, and brevity of the returns kept, and reports made from most of the lak(^ j)()ris of entrv, can hardly be too much deprecated or (le()lore(l, remleiing it, as they do, impossible to compile a complete report ot the lake eonnnerc(! sutiicienlly explicit, and with details sufficiently full, to the perti;ct understanding oi a subject at oiKJC so intricate and so inij)ortaiit.
'J'his district, which ti)rmerly was attached to that of Chicago, w erected in 1850, and the reiurns embraced in this report, being th(> lir. that have been mad(! (^f its lake connnerce, give little opporiunity l«)r comparison.
The coast extends from Sheboygan, Wisconsin, southward to the northern line of the State of Ilhnois, a distance of about a hundred miles, embracing the ports of Shel)oygan, Port Washington, Kenosha, or Southport, Racine, and Milwaukie. These ports are all situated in the State of Wisconsin, on the western shore of Lake Michigan. Sheboygan is immediately adjoining the district of Mackinac ; has a good situation for business, though the harbor needs some improvement. The State legislature has authorized a loan for this purpose of S10,000. There is an excellent farming country in the rear of Shcboygnn, the soil of which ordinarily produces good returns of the first quality of grain ; in the last two years, however, the wheat crop has been almost a total liiilure.
Entrances, 730.
Port Washington, twenty-five miles norlli of Milwaukie, is a port of a growing and itni)ortant trade, its iiarbor being lormed by tiie projection ola pier into the lake. TluUown is situated on a liigii bluff, wiiich shields the pier from westerly winds. The ccjuniry circumjacent is well atliipted fi)r agriculture, grazing, and wool-growing. The trade of this port is steadily on the incrense.
Southport, the name of which has been recently changed, with good taste, to llie old Indian appellation of Kenoshn, is a flourishing place situated on tlio bluffs, 35 miles se-u h of Milwaukie, and sixty norlli of Chieiigo. I'nder the prol. etion <i! the blufls upon which the town stands, j)iers have l)een extended iilo the lake, alongside which vessels may lie and load or discharge^ cnrgoes, except during the prevalcnc(> of strong easterly gales, iluring the height of which the sea;-< sometimes are hea|)edon ihv. piers, and iJiCidv with such violence as to compel the shipping to stand of!' into the lake for sea-room. Like the rest of this portion of the St;ite of Wisconsin, tli(> soil about Southport is of" a nnlure to encour;ige ;igricultural pursuits; and in coii?;e(|uence the biick country is increasing very rapiilly in population, and the prairies beginning to export their rich and varietl produce, the result of which is a growth otthe commerc(^ of the port beyond the aniici{)ations of the most sanguine.
Racine lies ten miles north from Kenosha, on a beautiful stream ol" the same name, which forms a harbor in all respects excellent, except for the wonted drawback of an awkward bar at its mouth. The population of Racine in 1840 was about 1,500 ; in 1850 it was 5,111. The principal business, however, is done on piers, which project from its mouth, as at Kenosha. The city is on a height, and is, without doubt, the most beautiful site for a lake city west of Cleveland. The back country, depending on the city for supplies and a market, is very similar to that already described in other parts of the district.
Milwaukie, the port of entry and principal port in the district, is situated on Milwaukie river, which fi)rms a good harbor t()r vessels and steamers of light ch aught, but it needs some imi)rovement to make it easy of access to larger crai't. Tlie harbor of Milwaukie is in one respect very favorably situated, as there is a sort of ba}', or bayou, running in behind the north point, making a fair shelter against all but easterly winds.
The city stands partly on the river, and partly on the bluffs, which arc \cry high and overlook the lak*,' for many miles. It is ninety miles north fioni Chicago, and contains 25,000 inhabitants. It is the terminus of the Milwaukie and Mississip[)i railway, which is finished some hfty miles west, and is inteiuled evcnlually to eommunieatf^ with the Mississippi at Dul)U(|ue, or J'rairie du Cliien. This road runs through one of the most fertile districts of" Wisconsin, and will bring immense tratlic to this pott. Of late, owing mainly to the j)artial failure of the wheat crop during the two successive years of 1849 and 1850, the commerces of this district has not augmented so rapid!y as f()r several years previously, or as it probably would have done in the event of" good or average crops.
The city of" Milwaukie increased in population from 1,712 inhabitants in 1840, to 20,001 in 1850, being a ratio of 1,072 per cent, greater than ih;it of" any other city during the same period. It is situated 805 miles northwest from Washington.
The enrolled and licensed tonnage, on the 30tli June, 1851, was set down in the official report at 2,946 tons, of which 287 tons were steam, and 2,659 tons sail. The official report of the collector, however, published at the end of the season, makes the tonnage of the district amount to 6,526 tons, giving employment to 325 men. Therefbi-e there must be an error somewhere, as it is not possible that the tonnage of the district should have more than doubled itself within a. few months. Such inconsistencies, however, seem to be the rule, not the exceptiojj, in the reports of the lake districts.
The iollowing table will show the busiiiess in a lew prominent articles of trade, in this district, for export from the several ports ; and the comparative trade of the port of entry lor the years 1850 and 1851, according to th(! returns.
lie imports eoiKsist principally ot lor the coiisiimplion ot" ;i new country — suit, anil tlit; household properly of (nnigrant.<. This district reports no trad(> with Canad.t.
This district is about eighty miles in extent of const-line Irom Michigan City, in Indiana, to Waukegan, Illinois, embracing that portion of the coast of Lake JNIichigan bordering on the States of Incliana and Illinois. Michigan City, Waukegan, and Chicago are the only ports. Th(! commerce of Michigan City is comparatively small; but having no detinite returns from that point, it may be roughly estimated at $600,000. It is the onlj'lake port of Indiana, and is about torty miles east from Chicago, and on tht; o])p()site side of the lake; to that city. The Michigan Central railway passes through this place en route lor Chicago, and most of the sup])lies of nK^rciiandise are received by it. Tile exports of Hour, wiicat, corn, and oats from this place are worthy of SOUK! consideration.
Waukegan is situated t()rty miles north from Chicago, on the western shore of Lake Michigan, and is a thriving place ol" business, though its harbor consists only of pirrs, extentling into the lake, similar to those at Racine, Sheboygan, and other [)laces in the district of Milwaukie. The country circumjacent to it is becoming rapidly populous, and the land is (t-rtile, and adapted amply and abundantly to re[)ay all the expenses of loii and time anmiaiiy bestowed upon it.
Tho city of Chic.-igo .stands at tli(! inoutli ol thf Cliicigo river, wiili a population of about 40, (XH), and, as tht; river deboucln .■^ into the head of Lake Miehigan, is therefore the inmost port of the hike, and the Ihrthe.st advanced into the country, wliieh supphes il.s export and consumes its import trade. It i.^, on this account, ino.st liivorably situated l()r a commercial depol. The river witl'ii a mile of its niontli being niad( up into two aHluonts, the nr)rthern and >onth('rn, the city lies on both banks of the main river, and to the west oi' both the tributaries, with floating bridges whereby to tiicilitatc easy communication t()r th(! citizens. Four mil(^•^ south of the cMty, the Illinois and Michigan canal falls into tlit^ south branch at a plact- called Driilgej)ort, and up to this point this stream is navigable ll)r th(^ largest lake crali. The first level of the canal is fed from this stream by means of huge sti-am-pumps, which are constantly employed in fi)rcing water to the height of about eight leet. Qn entering the canal, therefore, the boats first ascend a lock of about eight-feet lift, and thence, on their way to the Illinois, continually lock downward till they reach the lower level of that valley. This canal is ninet^'-eight miles in length from Bridgeport to Peru, on \Uv Illinois, and by means of it the waters oltlie Mississii)pi and the lakes are united, . .-;o that canal boats can readily pass from Chicago to iSt. Louis, and ncc rirsa, as indi <■(! to any point of the Illinois river, without deti'ntion or transhipment of cargo.
The (ialena and Chicago Union railway is open from Chicago to Itochfbrd, a distance; of eighty miles, ;nid will soon be finished to Freeport, where if will effl'ct a junction with the Calena branch of the llhnois Central railway. The Chicago and Iiock Island road is comph^ted to Juliet, f(>rty miles' distance from Chicago, which is eventually to connect Chicago with Hock island, and which is expected to be completed and op(Mied, within the space of one year, to the Mississippi.
It is proposful to intersect Illinois with a net- work of railways, by which Chicago shall be coimected with every portion olthe State; and beside these lines, two or three others are projected with the intent of coimecting that city with Green Bay, Milwauki*', Beloit, and Janes-
will be wrought to a successful termination.
It is owing, doubtless, to the advantiigeous situation above described, that Chicngo owes her rapid growth during the past tt!W years, her enviable conmiercial position f()r the present, anil her brilliant prospects l()r the futuH!.
In 1840 Chicago had a population of less dian 5,000; in 1850 it numbered u[)ward of 28,000, having incK-ased in on(! year, as shown by the returns of the city c(M1sus of 1849, over 5,200; and the lowest estimate put upon the populatt)» in January, 1852, is 35,000 souls, while more generally it is rated at nearly 40,000 individuals. No parallel l()r so
The following tables will give some idea of the details of the commerce of Chicago, which will be found interesting as showing the progressive business of tin; city, during a long s«Ties of successivt> ViJnrs, as well as th(! alteration ol" the character of that business, as afii-cted by the continual progression of the country, from ;iu earlier and more imperii'ct to a fuller and belter developed system of cultivation.
'riie progrt'ssive value of the iujports and exports of Chicago i*; exhibited during a series of l()urteen years, which will be t()und to give tin; best idea of the actual progression of the place.
cxportalions ; and the vnluation ol' 1848 is deemed* so utterly iiieorrcct as to he valueless and unvvortliy of cilalion; tor the valuation for (hot year ineludrd, inider the haul of exports, every small 1)111 oi ^;rile, whether sent into the eireuuijaeent country l()r domestie eonsur.!!4ion. or shipped, 'oastvvise or ti)reign, by the lake, for actual exportation. It is tlu-refb set aside.
60,338,250
The table below exhibits some of the leading articles of export from Chicago during th( .same scries of years, and shows the nature and increase or decrease of the trade in various articles:
The country round the city Ibr miles is a level prairie, the soil of which is v(Ty llrlile ; which has giv(>n Chieafj[o its ^Meut agricultural Stan, and laid I he |M'rnianent liumdalion l<)r its increase.
Tiie Uliiinis and Miehi<i[aii canal, which comes into the southern stream nt Jlridgepnrt, passes tlirou<<;h one of the finest agricultural distri(;ls in the Stale, <"ml)ra(!ing the valley of the An Plaine, de iMaine, Kox, Kaiikalu'e, and Illinois rivers, and finally, hy means of the latter, opens u[) to a tiorlhern market the great corn valley of the West. This canal was first ojtened tor business irj May, 1848, and has, iherelore, l)C(,'ti but l(>ii scisoiis in operation.
According to Judge Thomas's re[)orl, made in compliance with a resolution of ihe liver and harbor conv<'ti(ion, in 1847, the first shipment ot beef was made from Chicago in 183-'3; but that shipment must have been very trifliiii,', since, in 1830, the; whole exports liom the port were valued at Sl,()()i); in 1837 they ros(Mo SI 1,()()5; in 1838 to $1(!,U44; in 1831) t(. over .1i;3:J,0()0; and in JSIO to ;S;.'28,t)3.'>. In 1840 the impcats were valued at )|?5()!2, 1()(J. Siiic«.' that year the increase! in every ujtiele ol" export has bi( n rapid, exce[)t wjjcal, which, f()r the three years last past, exhibits a decrease.
The eomtueree of the port of ('hicago in 1(S,j1 amounts to iIk; sum of $2i),805,871, consisting of $5,395,471 exp.rls, and S!24,4 10,400 imports. A' first view there ap[)ears in this statement a fiir greater diserepaney between tin- value of the imports and exports than is usual r\c.i\ in new countries. The dilh'renee may, however, bt; accounted f(*r oti this consideration: that, beside large ([uantities of rich and costly goods, all sorts of ready-made clothing, hats, caps, boots, and shoes, for the St. Louis market, are imported through Chicago, and by canal and river to their destination, all goin^' to swell the in)j)ortation returns for the extensive and growing trade of this places ; whereas, the gooils ore, from St. I^ouis, distributed to all sections of the country, as yet tCK) poor and iww to ri'init article-^ of produce for exportation by the ftiime rout<;. To this it must be added that c;usual fluctuations in the market pric(>s at Chicago or St. Louis frecjuently determine the course by wliicli iidand domestic produce is shipped to the seaboard, whether by the lakes or tla^ Mississippi, so that there may he an apparent balance of" trade against Chicago, when there is none such in reality.
In 1851, Chicago received — mostly from the Illinois — and exported, no less than 3,221,317 bushels of corn; also received by lake, mostly from the lumber districts of Michigan and Wisconsin, 125,000,000 feet
of lumber, 60,000,000 of shingles, and 27,000,000 pieces of lath, of which, according to the Chicago Tribune — esteemed the commercial journal of that place most worthy of confidence — 54,000,000 feet of lumber were shipped by canal, and 44,000,000 of these reached the Illinois river ; 51,000,000 of shingles were shipped by canal, and 47,000,000 of these reached the Illinois ; while of lath 12,000,000 left Chicago for the south, of which 11,000,000 passed beyond the terminus of the canal.
The continued failure of the wheat crop in northern Illinois has turned the attention of farmers to grazing and wool growing, for which the prairie lands are admirably adapted, and of this the results are partially seen in the returns.
In 1851 there were slaughtered and packed, for American and English markets, in Chicago, 21,806 head of cattle. The shipments of beef during the same year were 52,856 barrels; and it is hardly necessary to say that this beef is of the finest quality, lor Chicago beef is at this day as well known, both in the American and English markets, for its succulence and tenderness, as if it had been an estabhshed article in the provision trade for centuries, instead of years.
The growth of wool in Illinois is not yet, by any means, developed, the trade in this article not having been ten years in existence, at the utmost, yet the exports of 1851 amounted to 1,086,944 pounds.
Over and above these shipments, increased by the addition of 20,000 barrels of pork, there were exported during the year great numbers of cattle, hogs, and sheep, driven, or transported by railway and steamer, from the prairies of Illinois to the markets of Buffalo, Albany, and New York, alive. If these be taken as the results of the first few years of the grazing business, what may not be expected of the great resources of these prairie States, when they shall be fully developed and brought nearer to market by the railway facilities which are already contemplated, and perfected by the complete stocking of the grazing lands ?
Hemp and tobacco are also large products of this State.
The arrivals at Chicago for 3851 are as follows : steamers, 662; propellers, 183; schooners, 1,182; brigs, 239; barques, 13; total, 2,279. Tonnage of the season, inward, 958,600.
Castings, car wheels and axles .
Heretofore the various districts of collection have been presented separately, with such statistics as were attainable and deemed necessary, in regard to their respective trade, tonnage, local resources, avenues and outlets for external communication, and for the facilities of exporting and importing produce, merchandise, &c.
In many cases, however, the establishment of tlie districts being arbitrary, to suit the conveniences of the custom-house, and i'ouuded neither on geographical position, nor territorial limits of States — so that at one lime characteristics tlic most different are presented in one and the same district, and nt another many adjacent districts possess identically the same qualities and facilities — il hns been judged best, with a view to presenting a gener;d and com{)rehcnsible synopsis of the various regions, with their several interests, trades, improvements, and reciuirements of fiirther improvement, to give a cursory sketch of this most interesting region, lake by lake; and thereafter to collect the whole lake country, with its interests, and influence on the cities of the Atlantic coast, and on the increase, wealth, and well-being of the confederacy at large, into one brief summary.
LAKE CHAMPLAIN.
This lake lies between the States of Vermont and New York, on the east and west, and tor a small distance, at the northern end, within the British province of C;niada East. Il is about 110 miles in length ti-om north to south, and varies in width from half a mile to 14 miles, with a depth of water varying from 54 to 282 feet. Its priu' ' U'eders are the outlet of Lake George, at Ticonderoga, the rivf ;iranac, Chazy, Au Sable, Missisipioi, Winooski, and Wood and otiici creeks. Its outlet is by the Sorel, Richelieu, or St. Jolin's river, into the St. Lawrence, some 45 miles below Montreal.
The New York and Vermont shores of this l;:ke are of a character the most opj)osite imaginable, that to the eastward being f<)r the most part highly cultivated, li^-rtile, and well settled, with graziijg and dairy farms, furnishing supplies for a thriving business in produce; while the counties of" New York to the westward, wild, rocky, barren, and rising into vast mountains intersected by lakes, with littlle or no bottom lands and intervales, sends down lumber and iron in vast quantities; above ten thousand tons of iron ore, nine thousand of bloom and bar, an»l nearly three thousand of pig-iron, having passed down the lake and entered the Champlain canal in 1851.
twenty-six millions of dollars. Its licensed tonnage for the same year was 8,130. The avenues and outlets of this lake trade are the Chatnbly canal, and Sorel river improvements, to the St. Lawrence river, affbiding a free navigation up or down the lakes from the Sault Ste. Marie to the Gulf of St. Lawrence; and the Champlain canal, uniting at Waterfbrd with the Erie canal and Hudson river, and thence giving access to the port of New York and the Atlantic ocean ; the Ogdensburg railroad, Irom a fine port on the St. Lawrence, crossing the upper end of the lake, to Burlington, where it makes a junction with the Rutl.'ind and Vermont Central railroads, and so proceeds to Boston and the eastern harbors of the Atlantic; and the Whitetiall railroad by Ballstou to Troy, whence it has communication, via the Harlem and Hudson River railroads, with the city of New York — vast facilities for transportation, to which may be added all the advantages for vessels ascending the lakes, and coasting, possessed individually by each of the regions lying above it, on the St. Lawrence basin.
LAKE ONTARIO.
This lake is 180 miles in length by 40 miles in average width ; its mean depth is 500 feet, hs height above the sea 232, and its area 6,300 square miles; its principal alHuent is the outlet of the superfluous waters of all the great upper lakes, by the Niagara Falls and river.
Its only tributaries of any consequence are, I'rom the Canadian side the Trent and Credit, and from the State of New York the Black river, tlie Oswego, and the Genesee. Its natural outlet is by the channel of the St. Lawrence, through the thousand isles, and down a steep descent, broken by many rapids and chutes, to Montreal; and thence witliout further difficulty to the ocean.
The shores of this lak* on both sides, but more especially on the soutiiern or New York coast, combine perhaps the most populous, thickly-settled, and productive agricultural regions of the United States, interspersed at every few miles of length by fine and flourishing towns, and beautiful villages, resting upon a wheat country — thatof G(>uesee — inferior to few in tiie world ti)r the productiveness of its soil, and the quality of its grain, and a fruit or orchard country not easily surpassed. It hiis also, bordering on its southern shore, the most valuable and largely exploited salt district of the United States; while all the regions adjoining it possess rare advantages in their admirable system of internal communieation, and especially in the Erie canal, running nearly parallel to the lake, through then" whole length for a distance of three hundred and sixty-three miles from Buffalo, on Lake Eric, to Albany, on tlie Hudson river. 1'he abundant water-power aflinded by the rivers falling into this side of the lake is turned to mueli profit f()r the flouring both of domestic and in^ported grain, for transhipment by canal l()r New York and the Atlantic harbors.
The avenues and outlets of the lake are as follows:
It is united with Lake Eri(; by the Welland canal, round the Falls of Niagara, capable of admitting vessels of twenty-six feet beam, one hundred and thirty fi^et over all, and nine feet draught — the heaviest that can be carried across the flats of Lakes St. Clair above, and St.
With the Gulf of St. Lawrence it has communication by the Lachine, Boauharnois, Cornwall, and Williamsburg canals, of superior capacity even to those on the Wclland, constructed to admit the large lake steamboats plying between Montreal, Kingston, and Ogdensburg. Besides these, it has the Oswego canal, falling into the Erie canal at Syracuse ; and the Ogdensburg and the Oswego and Syracuse railways, uniting with the Albany and Buffalo, Great Western, Hudson river, and Vermont system of railways, having ramifications through all the New England States, and opening up to it free access to all the more important harbors on the Atlantic.
all those opening from Lake Champlain.
The value of the commerce of this lake for 1851 amounted to about thirty millions, and its hcensed tonnage to thirty-eight thousand tons. The first steamer was launched on this lake in 1816.
This lake, which lies between 41° 22' and 42° 52* N. latitude, and 78° 55' and 83° 23' W. longitude, is elliptical in shape ; about 265 miles in lengtii, 50 average breadth, 120 teet mean depth, and 565 feet above tide-wnter ; 322 above the level of Lake Ontario, 52 below that of Lakes Huron and Michigan ; being the shallowest, and, of consequence, most easily frozen, of all the great lakes.
Lake Erie is singularly well situated with regard to the soil, character, and commercial advantages of the countries circumjacent to its waters ; having at its eastern and southeastern extremity the fertile and populous plains of western New York ; west of this, on the southern shore, a portion f)f Pennsylvania, and thence to the river Maumee, at the western extremity of the lake, the whole coast — productive almost beyond comparison — of Ohio, containing the beautiful and wealthy cities of Cleveland, Sandusky, and Toledo. On the west it is bounded by a portion of the State of Michigan, and on the north by the southern shore of the rich and highly cultivated peninsula of Canada West — undoubtedly the wealtliiest and best farmed district of the Canadian province, and settled by an energetic, industrious, and intelligrnt population, mostly of North of England extraction and habit, and diflering as widely as can be conceived from the French and Irish agriculturists of the lower colony.
The whole of the country around Lake Erie is, to speak in general terms, level, or very slightly rolling, with a deep, rich, alluvial soil, covered in its natural state with superb lorests of oak, maple, hickory, black walnut, and in certain regions pine, and producing under cultivation magnificent crops of wh(;at, corn, barley, and oats, besides feeding annually vast multitudes of swine and l)eet-cattle ibr the eastern, pnnincial, and transatlantic marts. No equal amount of land, perhaps, on the face of the globe, contains fewer sterile or marshy tracts, or more soil capable of high cultivation and great productiveness, than this region — as is already evidenced by its large agricultural exports ; and
when it is considered that the portions under cultivation are as yet comparatively a small part of the whole, while none has probably been yet brought to the utmost limit of profitable culture, what it may one day become, is as yet wholly incalculable.
This lake has few islands, and these principally toward the western end ; but on tlie northern shores it has three considerable promontories— Long Point, Landguard Point, and Point au Pele — which do not, however, afford much shelter to shipping.
The tributaries of this lake are : From Canada the Grand river, a stream of considerable volume, with fine water-power, having at its mouth the harbor of Port Maitland, probably the best on the whole lake, and the only one worthy of note on the Canada side. From New York it receives the Cattaraugus creek, and the Buffalo creek, at the outlet of which is the nourishing city and fine harbor of Buffalo. From Ohio it is increased by the waters of the Maumee, Portage, Sandusky, Vermillion, Black, Cuyahoga, Grand, Ashtabula, and Conneaut rivers, and by those of the Elk and some other small streams from Pennsylvania. Infinitely its largest and most important affluent is, however, the wide and deep river of Detroit, which, flowing down — with a rapid stream and mighty volume of water — a descent of 62 leet in some 60 mih^s, pours into it the accumulated surplus of the three mighty lake* above it, and all their tributary waters.
Its natural outh't is the Niagara river, which, with an average width of throe (luarter.s of a mile and a drplh of t()rly feet, descends, in about 35 miles, 322 feet over the foaming rapids and incomparable cataract of Ni;ig!ira, which of course prevents the possibility of navigation or flotulioii down the stream, tliougli it is crossed at several points by ferries of various kinds.
Lake Eric, however, is coimectcd with Ontario by the Wdland canal, a noble work on the Canadian side, having a descent of 334 feet efieclfd by means of 37 locks, and j)assable fiom lake to lake by vessels of 134 feet over all, 26 feet beam, and 9 feet draught, stowing 3,000 barrels under deck.
By means of tliis fine improvement, it has free egress to Lake Ontario, ;ui(l thence to the St. Lawrence ; and by the various improvements of that river, and communications from Ontario and Champlain, to many points, as herel(jt()re enumerated, on the Atlantic seaboard.
The artificial outlets of this lake are very numerous, and no less important ; many of them already of considerable age, and reflecting much credit on the early energy and enterprise of the State of New York, by which they were principally constructed, in order to secure a precedence in the trade? of the great West.
Thi'sc are, ♦he Wclland canal, as described ; the Erie canal, connecting the waters of Lake Erie with the Hudson river, and thus by direct navig;uion with the Atlantic ; the Erie and Beaver canal, from Erie, Pennsylvania, to Beaver, on the Ohio, aflording access to Pittsburg and Cincinnati ; the Ohio canal, connecting it with the Ohio river at Portsmouth, one hundred miles above Cincinnatti, and again (by a branch to Beaver) with the same river about f()rty miles below Pittsburg; the Erie and Miami canal, from Toledo to Cincinnati; and the Wabash canal, connecting the Miami and Erie with the Ohio at Evans-
in the same State.
For land steam transportation it has the New York Central railway to Albany, wiiere it communieatrs with the Great Western, Hudson river, Harlem, Hoasatonie, and all the eastern railroads ; the Btiflldo and Corninii; and New York railroad, eonnceting at Hornelsville and Corning witli the Erie railroad, direet from Dunkirk to New York city, and the projected BuHiilo anti IJrantlbrd railway to Branlliml, Canada West. It has, again, through the State of Ohio, the Cleveland and Columbus railwa}', the Cohmibus and Xenia railway, and the Little Miami railway, to Cincinnati ; the Sandusky and Mansfield railway, connecting with the Cleveland and Columbus road at Shelby ; the Madison and Lake Erie railroad, from Sandusky city to Springfiekl. and theneo by the Little Miami railroad, in one connexion, and by the Creat Miami railroad (the Ciaeinnafi, Hamilton and Dayton road) in .inother, to Cincinnati ; and the Lake Shore railway, destined to be (■•.ir.'icd to Toledo, where it will connect with the Michigan Southern lailroad to the head of Lake Miejiigan and to Detroit, whene( it will ' ivr ;iccess to New Builido and (Chicago, and ultimately to (Jai n;i an.l ilic ^Jississippi, and Fond du Lac, Winnebago, and (Iri'cn Bay, on Lake Michigan.
LAKE ST. CLAIR.
This small lake, which forms the connecting link, by means of the St. Clair and Detroit rivers, between Lakes Huron, Michigan, and Erie, is but an inconsiderable sheet of water if coni|)ared with the vast inland seas above and below it, not exceeding twenty miles in length by thirty in width. It has an average depth of twenty li'et of water, although its mud flats between Aluonac and the embou'iiure of the Tham<'s river are extremely shoal, covered with luxuriant crops of wild rice, and navigable only Iw a shallow and tortuous channel, never capable of admitting above nin(^ and in dry s<'asons not more th;u» seven or eight feet burden. It receives fiom the Canadian shore the ThairM's river, with some smaller streams, the principal of which is the Clienail Ecarte; and from Michigan the riv(.'r Clinton, at the mouth of which is Mt. CMenients, which with Algonac, at the outlet of the St. Clair, its principal atlluent, are the only siiipj)ing places on its waters.
At the upper end. Lake St. Clair is filled with many large, low islands, some of them bearing such trees as love the waters ; those being (capable of some degree of cultivation, and others mere flats, covered with wild meadows, affording rank grass as their sole pnxluclion. From the principal cliannel, looking toward the Canadian coast, the whole exj)anse of the lake, ihr many miles' distance, resembles a vast morass of the waving wild rice, intersected by small winding bayous ; close to the Can.adian
lakcwjird.
This hike has httle commerce proper to itself beyond the sah^ of wood, Ihiit, vegetabU's, and supphes for passing steamers and sailing craft, although some ship building is done on its waters, and the largest steainboiit running on the lakes launched upon ihem.
No sepnrate returns of the small shipping ])laees in the district of Detroit having b(!en made since 1847, it is impossible even to ap[)r()ximato th(! trade of Lake St. Clair; but when it is considered that the whole business of the upper lakes, including the prosperous towns and imnicasunihly w(?althy back countries on bolii sides of Lake Michigan, and all )hi; mineral regions of Lakes Huron and Superior, pass through this outlet, it cannot but appear at a glance how vitally necessary is the action of (Congress f()r the removal of the obstiuctions in Lake Si. Clair nnd Lake St. (Jeorge, and the construction of a ship canal around the Saull Ste. INIiirie; nor can it fail to strike every one who compares the apathy of the Ameri(;an government, in opening the navigation of the upper hikes and the St. Lawrenc(N with the energy and earnestness display<'d by the British and Provincial authorities in coiuiuering the far superior obstacles presented to navigation on its lower waters, and in
Kertl'cting a liee ingress and egress from the ports of Lakes Huron and lichigiui to the tide- waters of the Atlantic ocean. The connnerce of all the lakes to the northward and westward of L.'ike Erie has an estimated value of above sixty millions of dollars, with a licensed toiuiage of nearly thirty thousand tons of steam and sail — a wonderful amount, when the brief period of the existence; of this trade, and of the States themselves which lurnish it, is taken into consideration.
LAKE HURON.
This su[)erb sheet of water lies between Lake Superior on the northwest. Lade Michigan on the southwest and west, and Lakes Erie and Ontario on the south and southeast. It is two hundred and sixty miles in length, and one hundred and sixty in breadth in its widest part, inclusive ol'the (Jeorgian bay, a vast expanse — almost a sep;, -■■; lake — divided from it by the nearly continuous chain of promoi. ory and islands l!>rmed by the great peninsula of Cabot's Head, the Manitoulin, Coekburn, and Drummond groups, up to Point de Tour, the easternmost cape of northern Michigan. It is said to contain thirty-two thousand islands, principally along the northern shore and at the northwestern end, varying in size from mere rocky reefs and pinnacles to large and cultivable isles. The surface of Lake Huron is elevated five hun<hed and ninety-six feet above the surfiiee of the Atlantic, and depressed fiirty-five below that of Lake Superior, and four below that of Michigan. Its greatest depth is one thousand feet, near the west shore. Its mean depth is nine hundred feet.
It is bounded on the north and east by the Canadian shore, which, above (loderieh, is bold and rocky, carrying a great depth of water to the base of the iron-bound coast, with an interior country which may be generally described as a desolate and barren wilderness.
At thn southern extremity of the Great Georgian bay, whence; tliero is a portage via Lake Siiieoe to Toronto, not exciHuHng a hundred inih;d in length — the future hue of a projected railway — is the small naval and military station of Penetanguishine, with some unimportant Canadian settlements on the river Wye, Nottavvasanga hay, Owen's sound, &c., and on the islands wtistward of it some consi(leral)le reserves of Chippewa and I'ottawatomie Indians. Far up the northern shore are tlie Bruce mines, under the Lacloche mountains, and oppfisite to them the settlement on the fertile and partially cultivated island of St. Joseph. These are all the signs of cultivation or improvement on the British side, below the river St. Mary's, on which there is a long, straggling village, with a lort or station of the Hudson Bay Comjjany, over against the American village at the Sault. On the west it has the eastern coast of Michigan, with the deep indentation of Saginaw bay, as yet tiiinly settled and only cultivated to a Ihniled degree, though the lands of the interior are of unsurpassed excellence and tcrlility as a grain country, and at the present time extremely valuable lor their fine lund)er.
Lake Huron is ill-provided with natural harbors, having none on the eastern shore, except that aHorded by the tMitrance of a small river at Goderich, between the St. Clair river and Cape Hurd, on Cabot's Head. The western shore has — though somewhat better j)rovided — only two or three sali^ places of shelter in heavy weather, the principal nnd best of which are Thunder bay and Siiginaw bay, the latter ot which contains several secure and conunodious havens. This lake has no outlets of any kind t()r its commerce, except the natural channel lA' its waters, by the river, and across the ilats of St. Clair to the edslward — no canal or railroad as yet opening on its shores; though it will certiiiniy not be many years — perha[)s not many months — bcliirc the great Western railroad through Canada will oj)en to it, via IVnetanguishine, Hamilton, and the Niagara Falls and Buflido railways, a direct niid very short communication with the Atlantic seaboaril — making a saving of above six hundred miles of distance from the Saidt Ste. M;nie. Jiy the straits of Mackinaw it has an outlet to the southward, into Lake Michigan, and enjoys through it communication, via Green bay and [jiike Winnebago, the Fox and VVisconsin rivers, with the Mississipi)i and tlio Gulf of Mexico.
LAKE MICHIGAN.
This, which is second of the gre;it hikes in size — inferior oidy to Lake Superior — is, in situation, soil, and climate, in many respects, prelljrable to them all. Its southern extremity ruimiug southward, into fertile agricultural regions, nearly two degrees to ila; south of Allmy, and the whole of its irreat southern peninsula being embosomed in fresh water.;, its climate \ 'he southward is mild and equable, as its soil is rich and productive. t lies between 41° ,08' and 40'' north latitude, and 84^ 40' and 87^ 8 west longitude ; is 300 miles in length, and 00 in average breadth ; contains 10,981 squiure miles, and has a mean depth of 900 feet. On its western shore it has the great indentation of Green bay, itself equal to the largest European lakes, being a hundrexl
miles in length, by thirty in breadth, well shehercd at its mouth, by the Tniverse islands, and having t()r its principal afllucntthc ijutht of Lake Wiimihngo and the Fox river.
f)eiuiisula of Michigan ; the Des Plaines, 0'1'laines, andChiciigo riverg roni Indiana and Illinois ; and from the northern iK-ninsulaof Mi(;higan, the Menomonie, Escanaba, Noquet, Whitu-fish, and Manistee rivers.
The lake is bounded to the eastward by the rich and fertile lands of the southern peninsula of Michigan — sending out vast supplies of all the cereal grains — wheat and maize especially — equal if not superior in quality to any raised in the United States ; on the south and southwest by Indiana and Illinois — supplying corn and beef of the finest auality, in superabundance, l()r exnortation ; on the west by the prouelive grain and grazing lands and lumbering districts of Wisconsin ; and on the northwest and north by the invaluable and not yet halfcxphaed mineral districts of northern Michigan.
The natural outlet of its commere(>, as of its waters, is by the straits of Mackinac into Lake Huron, and thence by the St. Clair river down the St. Lawrence, or any of internal improvements of the lower lakes, and the States hcreinbetijre described.
Of internal communications it already possesses many, both by canal and railroad, ecjual to those of almost any of the older States, in length and avuilabihty, and interior to none in importance.
First, it has the Green bay, Lake Winnebago, and Fox river improvement, connecting it with the Wisconsin river, by which it has access to the Mississippi river, and thereby enjoys the commerce of its u|)per valleys, and its rich lower lands and prosperous southern cities ; and second, the Illinois and Michigan canal, rendering the great corn valley of the Illinois tributary to its commerce. By railways, again,
})erreet(>d or |)rojecled, it has, or will shortly have, connexion with the ^lississippi, in its upper waters and lead regions, via the Milwaukie and Mississippi and the Chicago and GaU'na hues. To the eastward, by the Michigan Central and Southern railntads, it communicates with the Lak(! Shore road, and thence with all the eastern lines from Buffalo to Boston; and to the southward it will speedily be united, by the great system of projected railroads through Illinois and Indiana, to th(> Mississippi and (>l)io river.
It is impossible not to be convinced, on surveying the magnificent system of internal improvements so energetically carried out by these still young, and, as it were, embryo Stat(;s, that if they were, in a degree, anticipatory of their immediate means and resources, they were not really in advance of the requirements of the age and country. This is sufficiently proved by their triumphant success, and by the high position of population, civilization, agricultural and commercial rank to which they and they alone have raised, as if by magic, the so lately unexplored and untrodden wildernesses of the west.
By the strong, deep, and rapid river of St. Mary's, with its broad and tbaming Sault, Lakes Michigan and Huron are connected with what may be called the headmost of the great lakes, though itself the recipient of the waters of a line of lakes extending hundreds of miles further
LAKE SUPEIIIOR.
Ii!ik(< Superior is houuiled on the south hy the northern peninsula of Miehii'an and j)art of VViseonsin, on the; west and northwest hy a portion ol the A[iiniesola Territory, and on the north and northeast hy the British possessions. The huids iinnieihatcly adjoining it are, tiir thn most |)art, sterile, harren, and rugged heyond dt'seription, eonsistiug, (()r the most part, on th(> southern shore, ot detrilal, and on the northern, of igneous roeks, covered with a sparse and stunted growth of pines nnd other evergrer'us, mixed with the; feehh- northern vegetation of hireh, aspen, and other dec.-ithious trees of th(»se regions. Litth' of ih<' shores, it IS l»eiieved, arc susceptible of cultivation ; and it is likely, when these wild districts heeome — as they one day will, beyond doubt — tho aval of ii l,-u'g(< laborious po|)ulalion, thiit its inhabitants will depend mainly tiir then* supplies of lixtd and necessaries, as (»f luxuries, on the more genial regions to the south atid eastward. The tributary rivers of this lake are tnimerous, and, bringing down a large volume of water, alflird superabundant water-power li)r matuifactories the nxtst extensive in the world, though, from their precipitous descent and numerous liills ;md chutes, they can never be rendered n.-ivigable li»r more than a ti'w mill's ubove their mouths ex(!(>pt llir canoes; and even for these, owing to the munber and dilliculty of the portJiges, the ascent is laborious in the extreme.
That these regions will, at no very distant future period, be largely, if never densely, peopled, niay be held certain, since, fntni the east t(» the west the whole southern shore aboutids with copper — not, as it is generally fiuind, in ore yielding a flnv per cent., but in vast veins of almost virgin metal, the extent of which is yet unexplored, as it is probably unsuspected and incalculable. So long ago as wherj tho French Jesuits discovered these remote and desolate regions, early in the seventeenth century, these mines were known and worked by the Itidians, who, at that time, possessed implements and ornaments of copj)er. 'J'hey concealed, how(!ver, the situation of these mines with ii superstilif)us mystery; and as instruments and weaj)ons of iron and steel w(!re introduced among them by the white man, the use ofcopiu-r It'll into ;d)eyance, and the existence of the mines themselves was lost in oblivion.
Within a fi'w years there have been rediscovered several minessome of which, and those by no means the least productive, have been discovered within a year or two of this date — which are now in the full current of successful exploitation. Many more are doubtless yet to be discovered, as the whoh^ region is evideiillv one vast bed of sJibterraneous treasure. The isles Itoyale and JMichipicoton are also, beyond (juestion, full of copper, as are portions of the British coast to the nf)rthward, wlicre two or three mining stations have been already established, with mon; or less prospects of success. The grounds of these prospects, and the cliaracter of the country and its mineral deposites, are very ably and graphically described in the interesting memoir, by Dr. Jackson, on the geology, mineralogy, and topography of Lake
Ah ycti Ix-yoiid the* iniiiiti^ statioiiH and tlu; village nt tlir Rault, Lriko Superior lias no towns or places of business «'xeept tlu; points liir Hliip|)ini( tne mineral ()ro(lu(.'ts of lier 8oil, and receiving the supplies necessary to the 8ul)sistenc(! of the men and animals employed in I he exploitation of her treasures. Nor beyond this has she any trade, unh'ss it l)c the <'xporlaiion of lii-r while-lish and lak(j trout, vvhieli arc une(|nalled liy any fish in the world for exceUenee of flavor and nutritious ([iialilies.
The only inlet l()r merchandise, or outlet for tli(^ produce of this vast lake, and the wide regions dependent on it, is the portage around the Sault, across which every article has to \n' transportcti at prodigious labor and expense; ; whertNis, by a little less exclusive devotion to what are deemed th(>ir own immediate interest, on tlu; part of the individual States of the Union, and a little more activity and enlerpris(! on that of the general govermiKait, an easy channel might bo constructed at an expense; so trivial as to be merely nominal, the results of which would be advantages wholly incalciilabh; to the coiiuneriM; of all the several States, to tin; general wealth and well-being of iho nation, and to the almost immediate nMnuneration of the; outlay to the; general government by the; increased price of, und douumd lor, the public lauds in those regions.
Cicofnrry, Minrrn/ogij, and Topn>rrapfnj of the Inndiarovnd LaJcc Siijurior; ^(/OiiAKi.KH 'l'. .Iackson, M. i)., liiti' I f/i'ifrd Sltifen (icolngist and Chrmis(, Assaijrr In tfir Sfiitr. of Afassar/iusitfs, and late. (ii:o/oirist to l/ir Statrt of' Mainr, New Ilamiishirc, Jt/iodc Island, and for the yuhlic lands of Mas-Mich usctts.
Lake Superior is the largest sheet of fresh water on the face of tho globe, and is the most remarkable of tin; great American lakes, not «)nly from its magnitude, but also from the picturescjue scenery of its borders, and the interest and value attaching to its geological featur*-;. As a mining region it is one of the most important in this country, and is rich in veins of metallic copper and silver, as well as in the ores of those metals. At the present moment it may be regiirdeil as tlu; most valuable mining district in North America, with the exception only of the gold dcposites of (yalif()rnia.
This great lake is comprised l)etw(;cn the 4Gth and 49lli degrees of north latitude, and the 84th and 92d degrees of longitude, west of Oreenwich. Its greatest Kiigth is 400 miles; its width in the middle is 100 miles, and its mean depth has been estimated at 900 feet. Its surface is about 600 feet above the level of the Atlantic ocean, and its bottom is 300 feet below the level of the sea. The ancient French .Jesuit Fathers, who first explored and described this great lake, and published im account of it in Paris in 1636, describe the form of its shores as similar to that of a bended bow, the northern shore being tlu^ arc, and the southern the cord, while Keweenaw Point, projecting from the
southern shore to the middle of the lake, is the arrow. This graphic description is illustrated by a map, prepared by them, which display's the geographical position of the shores of tiiis great lake with as much fidelity as most of the common maps of our own day, and proves that those early explorers were perfectly familiar with its shores, and knew how to make geographical surveys with considerable exactness. Reference to a former report to the government of the United States by myself, (31st Congress, ]st session, Ex. Doc. No. 5, part 3d, Washington, 1849,) fullj'^ demonstrat(^s how much was known to the early French explorers of the geography and mineral resources of Lake Superior and the regions circumadjacent ; and that report will be found, notwithstanding some omissions and interpolations, for which I do not hold myself responsible, to contain much that will tend to throw light on the mineral resources of the public lands lying along the southern shores of the lake.
The coast of Lake Su[K'rior is formed of rocks of various kinds and of different geological groups. The whole coast of the lake is roekbound, and in some places mountain masses of considerable elevati(jn rear themselves from the immediate shore, while mural precipices and beetling crags oppose themselves to the surges of this mighty lake, and threaten the unfortunate mariner, who may be caught in a storm upon a lee shore, with almost inevitable destruction. Small coves, or bo;it harbors, are abundantly af lorded by the myriads of indentations u})on the rock}' coast; and there are a few good snug harbors for vessels of moderate capacity, such as steamboats, schooners, and the like. Isle Itiiyale, though rarely visited by the passing vessels, affi)r(ls the best harbors. Keweenaw Point has two bays in which vessels find shelter, viz.. Copper harbor and Eagle harbor. Ade(|uate protection may be found from th«^ surf under tiie lee of the Apostle islands, at LaPointe; and there is tolerable anchorage at the Sault de Ste. Marie, the port of embareation upon St. Mary's river, at the outlet of the lake.
There are but few islands in Lake Superior ; and in this resptM-t it differs most remarkably from l^ake Huron, which is thickly dotted with isles and islets, especially on its northern shore.
Owing to the lofty crags which surround Lake Superior, the winds sweeping over the lake impinge upon its surface so abruptly as to raise a peculiarly deep and combing sea, which is extremely dangerous to boats and small craft. It is not sate, on this account, to venture far out into the lake in batt<>aux ; and hence voyag(>urs generally hug the shore, in order to he able to take land in case of sudden storms. During the months of June, Juh', and August, the navigation of th(> hike is ordinarily safe ; but after the middle of September great caution is required in navigating its waters, and boatmen of" experience never venture far from land, i>r attempt long (rarerscs across bays. 'J'heir boats are always drawn fiir up on tiie land at every camping-place f()r the night, lest they should be staved to pieces by the surf, which is liable at any moment to ris(3 and beat with great fury upon the beaches.
The northern or Canadi.-m shore of tiu; lake is most preei{)itous, and consc({uently most dangerous to the navigator. On tne south shore, again, the sandstone cliffs, which rise in mural or ovc^rhanging precipices directly from the water's edge f()r many miles, afford no landing-
voyagrurs.
On the coast of Isle Royale there are beautiful boat harbors scattered along its whole extent on both sides of the island ; and at its easterly extremity the long spits of rocks, which project like fingers far into the lake, afford abundant shelter fi)r boats or small vessels, while at the western end of the island tlicre is a large and well-sheltered bay, called Washington harbor.
Near Siskawit bay the navigator must beware of the gently-siiclving red sandstone strata which run for many miles out into the lake, with a few feet only of water covering them. Rock harbor, on the south side of the island, is a large and perfectly sate harbor f()r any vessels, and has good holding ground for anchorage, with a very bold shore ; while the numerous islands, which stand like so many castles at its entrance, protect it from the heavy surges of the lake. The whole aspect of this bay is not unlike that of tlie bay of Naples, though there is no modern volcano in the back ground to complete the scene.
None of" the American lakes can compare with Lake Superior in healthtulness of climate durir)g the summer months, and there is no place so well calculated to restore the health of an invalid wiio has suffered fiom the depressing miasmf of the fever-breeding soil of" the southwestern States. In winter the chniate is severe, and at the Sault Ste. Marie mercury not unfrequently freezes ; but on Keweenaw Point, where th(> waters of the lake temper the chillness of the air, the cold is not excessive, and those who have resided there during the winter say that the cold is not more difficult of endurance than in the New England States. Heavy snows fall in mid-winter on this promontory, owing to its almost insular situation ; but the inhabitants are well skilled in the use of snow-shoes, so that the snow is not regarded as an obstacle to the pedestrian, while on the newly-made roads the sleds and sleighs soon beat a track, on which gay winter parties ride and frolic during the long winter evenings of ti)is high northern latitude. From researches which 1 have made, it appears that the mean annual t( mperature at Copper Harbor, on Keweenaw Point, is 42° ; and fiom my experiments on the temperature of" the lake, at different seasons of the year, the waters of this great lake are shown to preserve a constant temperature of" about 39^° or 40° F., which is that of" water at its niaxinmm density.
It is known that Lake Superior never freezes in the midtlle, nor anywhere except near its shores, from which the ice very rarely extends to more than ten or fifteen miles distance. 0<'casionally, in severe winters, the ice does extend from the Canada shore to Isle Royale, which is from fifteen to twenty miles distant ; s(> that the caribou and moose cross over on it to the island, whither the Indian hunters sometimes follow them over the same treacherous bridge, liable, althoiigh it is, to be suddenly broken into fragments by the surges of" the lake.
By the action of drifting ice, not only have Ixiulders of rocks and of native copper l)een transported far from their native beds, and deposited upon the shore at distant places, but even animals, such as sipiirrels, rabbits, deer, moose, caribou, and bears, have thus navigated
the waters of Lake Superior, and been landed on islands to which they could not otherwise have gained access. Tiie mouth of every river on the hike shore reveals, by the dcljris brought down by ice in the spring freshets, the nature of the rocks and minerals which occur in its inimediate banks or bed ; and thus indicates to the ex])lorer the proper places where to search lor ores or metals.
The early French explonns noticed the fact of the transportation of masses of native copper and rock by drift ice, but they made no use of these facts to discover th(! native deposites of metals in the rocks which border on the rivers. It was by following the hint drawn from these traces tliat my assistant and myself were enabled, in 1844 and 1845, to discover and make knovin to the country those valuable mines, which have so astonished the world by their metallic conlcMils, and which siihseciucnlly induced the governuKUit of the United f^l;ites to undtMtake a g(>ological survey of that teritory, with the conduct of which 1 was charged by tiie Hon. Robert J. Walker, late Secretary of the Treasury, and which I ellected, so lin* as it was p()ssil)l(' to do so, before my labors were brought to an abrupt conclusion, by circumstances over which 1 had no control.
To the construction of a canal around the falls of the Sault St(\ Marie, one of the principal obstacles will be f()und in the winter's ice, against which th(! locks at the (;ntrance to the canal must be guarded, or the work, however strong, w'ill be overturned and destroyed. Vessels of any considerable burden cainiot aj)proacii the shore nearer than about half a mile. Tlie canal must, therefi)re, be carried out into the water to that distance, and the form of the ice-breakers, guards, or mole, must be such as to allow the ice to rise over them, and not to press against perjx'tulicular walls. This is to be donc^ by giving a proper slo{)e, or bevel, to the walls, so that the ice will ride up them and break into pieces. By this meth(»d the harbor and entrance locks may be snilicienlly protected against the driving and expanding ice of the lake and St. Mary's river.
The (jpening of a ship canal between Lake Superior and tlu! lower lakes is one of the most important enterprises of the day, and it is only to be regretted that Congress has thought it best t(» appropriiile land instead of" applying money directly to the execution of this great work, which m;iy now be delayed f()r some time, to the great disadvantage of the country at large. So soon as the canal above; mentioned shall be completed, the sununer tour of" travellers will be extended to a cruise anjund Lake Superior, and from J^a I'ointe many will cross over to th(; Falls ofSt. A.idiony, on the Mississippi river ; and thus explorers will find it easy to gain access to remote regions, now seldom visited by white men. The importance of this enter[)rise can hardly be overestimated, and its conseijuence will be the vast fiicilitation and increase of the commerc<? of Jjake Supcaior, and the incalculable enhancement of the value of tfie public lands, while a tide of immigration may be looked lor from Norway, Sweden, and the north of Europe, as well as from the Nciw England States, pouring into the northwestern wilderness, and subduing the forests, and extending ."ar and wide the area of freedom and civilization.
to the Falls of St. Anthony ; and possibly we may see the trade of Hudson's bay flowing into the United Slates, through Lake Superior and our other great lakes ai/l rivers. For that great bay is but fitteen days' canoe voyage from T* Superior, and the portages are few and not long, so that the Britib ^ludsou's Bay Fur Company carry on constant communication with then factories upon the bay from their posts upon Lake Superior ; and their agents at the British posts in Oregon travel from their stations on the borders of the Pacific ocean, by way of Hudson's bay and Lake Superior, on their route to Great Britain. This northern region has unf()rtunately been always, hitherto, undervalued. It is now known to be one of the most important mineral regions in America ; and it should be borne in mind that lliere are deposites of native copper on Copper Mine and McKenzie's rivers, in the same kinds of rock that contain the stupendous lodes of this metal on Keweenaw Point and the Ontonagon rivers. Every means that tend to carry our population farther northward will tend to bring to light and to practical utility the mineral treasures of those regions ; while trade in furs and seal-skins will be brought nearer to us by enterprising men, it matters not whether of the British provinces or of the United States of America. The time is now come when the public faith is setthxl on the value of mineral productions ; and it is understood that good working mines are sure to command and reward the energies of capilalists-and miners, sinc(! it is proved that mining is liable to no greater risks of failure than ordinary mercantile enterprises, provided due precaution be exercised by the adventurers in the selection of their mines and in working them to advantage.
ROCKS OK LAKE SUPERIOR LAND DISTRICT.
On approaching the Sault Ste. Marie by the St. Mary's river the geologist has ait opportunity f)f discovering th(^ age of the sandstone strata, by obstnving that the limestones of Saint Joseph's island, and of the other mimerons isles in that river, are locks of the Devonian group, and contain the charficteristic f()ssil3 by which that rock is determined to be the ecpiivalent of those of Eifel, as has been fully proved by Mons. Jules Marcou, the geologist sent to the United States by the government of France, to make collections t()r the Museum of Geology in the Jardin des Plantcs of Paris. These Devonian rocks, like those of Mackinac, havt^ been mistaken by two geologists who have reported upon this district f()r Siberian limestones ; by whom the geological position of the sandstone of the Sault Ste. Marie has also been mistaken, in their suj)posing that it passed beneath these Devonian locks, when it in reality is above them, as it is seen to rest horizontally around Silurian limestone, near Sturgeon river, on Keweenaw Point, beneath which it cannot pass, considering the fact that the limestone in question has a dip of thirty degrees froin the horizon, while the sandstone at that place is quite horizontal.
we sec these red and gray snndstones dipping at a gentle angle into the lake, showing that they do in fact dip directly opposite to the direction that would be required to make them dip beneath the limestone on St. Mar3''s river.
This question is one of some importance ; since, if the sandstones of Lake Superior were, as lias been erroneously alleged, of the Potsdam group, tht^y would be out of all accordance with the ascertained facts of geological scienci^ and would break into the S3'stem of the best known laws of elevation of strata jmd of order of super-position. In point of fact tiie sandstones of Lake Superior are the exact equivalents of those of Nova Scolin, where trap-rocks of the same age as those on Lnke Superior pass through it and produce precisely the same results as I h.ive already described in my reports on the geology and mines of Lake Superior, bearing in the same way more or less native copper, with occasional particles of silver. Now, Potsdam sandstone never presents any such results in any part of America ; and to call that of Lake Superior its ecjuivalent, is but to lead people astray, and to nourish iidse iiopes of finding eo})per ;ui(l silver where it docs not occur, while a great error introduced into science cannot lail to produce the most inischievous results. On this account, I have thought proj)er to notit(! an error wiiich would not otherwise be worthy of refutation.
Leaving the Sault and cruising along the southern shore of the lake, with an occasional trip inland, we ccjuie to cliffs of sandstone, and then to rocks called metamorphic, which extend from Chocolate to Carp and Dead livers, and flntl slate rocks, granite rocks, sienite, hornblend jock, and chlorite slate, in this group of" primary rocks we find mountain masses of exevllent specular iron ore and magnetic iron ore mixed. These mountains of iron ore were originally explored under my directions, by Mr. Joseph Stacy, of Maine, wlio first called public attention to them in 1845. They were subsequently examined by Dr. John Locke, and Dr. Wm. F. Channing, while serving as my assistants in the geological survey of this region in J 8^17.
There is an immense supply of the richest kind of iron ore in these liills, and the .Jackson Iron Company of Michigan has erected forges fi)r making blooms f()r bar-iron — the quality of which is excellent. This region may be called one of the important iron-tlistricts of" Jjake Superior, and will become of great value at some future day, when there shall be fiicilities for transportation of the ore to th(^ coal districts of Ohio.
Tlu; granitic and sienit(! ror'ks occupy a con.'^iderable tract of land wliich has not yet been explored, and has only been run over by the linear surveyors, who have l)rought out fragments indicating the country to the westward of the sandstone, on the cf)ast, to be crystalline; but the geological relations of the two rocks have never been ascertained, nor have their mineral contents been st;en by any one.
FollMuiiig the coast to I'Anse, or Keweenaw bay, we find on the south side ol'ihat biiy larg(! beds of slate rocks, some of which are good novaculite or whetstone slate. On the northern side of the bay we find a long seri(.'S of clifls of red sandstone perfectly horizontal, or at most wavv, extending all the wav to Bete (iris. This sandstone, as before
observed at Sturgeon river, surrounds a mass of Silurian limestone containing shells, known as the Pcnt.amr.rus oblongns, one of which I discovered in a piece of the limestone brought to me by one of my assistants in 1848.
At Lac la Belle and at Mt. Houghton the trap-rocks occur, and ride over the sandstone strata after passing between their layers ; and at Mt. Houghton the igneous agency of this trap-rock has changed the fine sandstone into a kind of jasper.
At Lac la Belle, on Bohemian mountain, we have regular veins of the gray sulphuret of copper, containing a certain proportion of sulphuret of silver. Mines have been opened on this hill, l)ut have not thus far proved successful, since the ore recjuires preparation by machinery not yet to be procured in that region.
Lac la Belle is a most beautiful sheet of water, bordered by mountains or steep hills, such as Mt. Houghton and Bohemian mountain, while on the south the horizontal plains of sandstone stretch away in the distance and are covered with a growtii of t(:)r(>st trees. Leaving Lac la Belle, we pass down a serpentine stream which enters the great lake. Then following tlie coast, we pass beneatii frowning crags and visit the falls of the Little Montreal stream. All this coast consists of trap-roeks, and of a kind of porphyry or compact red feldspar. No copper veins of any value occur on the coast this side of the point, though many companies iiave wasted their money in attempts to work calcareous spar veins that aie perlictly d(;ad lodes, or free from copper. At the extremity of the point, agates are found in amygdaloidal tra[)-rocks, and on the shore hi the form of rolled pebbles.
Doubling the cape, we soon pass Horseshoe cove and reach Copper harbor, the site of Fort Wilkius, and oiu; of the first places where copper ore was lujticed by the French Jesuits ; since whose time it has ever bcun known to the voyageurs on the lake under the name of the giToi rock.
While constructing the fort at Copper Harbor, numerous boulders of black oxide of copper, a very rare ore of that metal, were discovered ; and beti)re long a vein of this valuable ore was discovered in the conglomerate rocks, near the pickets which enclose the parade ground. This was i()und to hv a continuation of the vein called the green rock at Hayes's Point, and was immediately opened by the Boston and I'iltsburg Mining Company. Uiitortunately, however, the vein was soon cut oil", as 1 had ventured to predict it would be, by a heavy stratum of fine-grained red sandstone, which is not cupriferous. There the vein was found to consist wholly of calcareous spar, and (jf earthy minerals of no economical value.
The muiers w<!re then transferred to the cliflnear Eagle river, where I had surveyed a valual)le vein ot native copper, mixe<l with silver. This vein has since been fully proved, and is one of the wonders of the world ; then; being solid masses of pure copper in the vein, of more than J 00 tons weight each, besides masses of smaller size in other {)aris of the vein. This miiu; has produced about 1)00 tons of copper per annum, anil is one of the most valuable copper mines in tlic country. It is a regular metallic vein, in amygdaloidal trap-rock, which underlies the compact trap-rock that caps the hill. The spot is one of
tho finest locations for mininf]i; purposes tlint I have seen, the vein being exposed in the face of a clitt'300 fl'et above the level of th(> southwest branch of Eagle river. This vein, when first discovered, was lin* from disclosing its real value. A perpendicular vein of prehnite, six inches wide at the top of the cliff", was observed to contain a few particles of copper and silver, not amounting to mon; than two per cent, of the mass. About halfway down the clifT this vein of prehnite was fi)und to be a f()ot and a half wide, aud contained fivt; and a half per cent, ot copper and some silver. It was thought worth wliih^ to drive a level into the lower part of the cliff", where, according to the rate of widening of the vein, it ought to be from two to three icet wide. This was done at my suggestion, and a magnificent lode of copper was disclosed; many lumps of solid copper of sevt^ral hundred weight being found mixed with the vein-stone. On sinking a shaft at this point the solid metallic copper was soon found to occupy nearly the wliolc width of the chasm, and immense blocks of copper are now taken from this vein by the miners, who are working levels 300 or more fi-et below the mouth of the shaf"t. Large ([uantities of lumps of copper called l)arrel ore, and rock rich in smaller pieces of copper, mixed with silver, are now raised, this last being called stamp ore, and worked by stamping and washing the ore. From this stamp work about five thousand dollars' worth of pure silver is picked out by hand, and nmch is still left among the finer j)articl(^s of metal and goes into the melted copper.
Suitable cupelling furnaces will ultimately be erected for the separation of" all the silver from this rich argentiferous stamp work, lead being the appropriate metal f()r its extraction by eli(juation and cup* llation.
There are other valuable copper mines on Eagle river. The North American Company, which has one end of the cliff" vein, called the South Cliff" mine, and another on which their mining operations commenced some years ago, is at present in successful oj)eration, and will add nmch to the exports f)f copper from the lake.
The Lake Superior Copper Company, which was the first that engaged in those mining operations that gave valui; to this district, opened its first mines on Eagle river in J 844. Under the very unfavorable state of things which then existed in the savage and uncivilized state of the country, jind af"ter two or three years' labor, they very unfortunately sold their mines, at the pn'cise moment when they were upon the vein that now has been j)roved to be so verv rich in copj)er and silver. The Phfjeriix Copper Company, formed of the remains of the Lake Superior Company, opened these mines anew; and now these give ample encouragement to the new adventurers, who will doubtless reap their reward in valuable returns for their labor and enterj)rise.
The Copper Falls tnine, another bran<'h <»f the Lake Superior Company, is also engaged in working valuable veins of" native copper and silver, and has sent some of" their metals to market.
The Northwest Company has a valuable mitu! a fisw miles from Eagle Harbor, and the metal raised therefrom is very rich and abundant, some of it being mixed with sprigs and particles of metallic silver. This mine, if opened with (lu(; skill, and in as bold a manner as that of"
There is also a mine, owned by the Northwestern Company, near the Copper Falls mine, in the rear of Eagle Harbor, which is also rich in native copper, but I do not know its present condition.
A mine was also opcuied at Eagle Harbor, wiiicii gave a larg<; yield of copper mixed with Inumonite ; but the mine was opcuied like a quarry, rmd was close to the waters of the lake. It Wcis, therctbre, soon iloodctl, and was consecjuently abandoned by the miners.
Tiiere is also a mine called the Forsyth, which is probably a valuable one, but it was not opened at th(; lime I made my surveys. I obtained ilnc specimens of copper and silver tiom this vein, and sent thc'm to Washington, with the large collccti(in 1 made lor the United States govern tuent, and they are now to be seen with my collection in the Smithsonian Institute.
A full an(? minute descriptive catalogue of the collection I made for the United States government was sent by me, as a part of my report, to the late Secretary of the Interior ; but it has not been printed, though it was the most valuable part of my report, and is absolutely necessary for the full und(!rstanding thereof, and for learning the nature, locality, and value of each specimen in the collection made by me.
Tiio rocks which contain native copper, on Keweenaw Point, are of that kind called amygdaloidal trap, which is ;i vesicular rock, formed by the interfusion of sandstone and trap-rock, an»l is llu; product of the combination of the two gaseous bubbles, or aqueous vapors, which liavc blown it into a sort of scoria at the time of its t()rmalion. It is in this rock that we find the copper-bearing prehnite and other veinsU)nes [H'culiar to the copper lodes. In Nova Scotia the same facts were observ(>d by Mr. Alger and myself, oidy that there the copper is more abundant in the brecciated trap, or a trap tutf, which lies below the amygdaloid. Prehnite d»)cs not occur in Nova Scotia trap, but in its stead we find analcime, laumonite, and stilbite, as the '.ninertols accompanying the native copper.
On Isle Itoyale we have phenomena similar to those observed on K(!w<'enaw I'oint : long belts of trap-rock, with bands of a conglomerate of coarse water-worn pebbles, and strata of fine red sandstone.
The trap-roeks rest on tlu' strata of sandstone, after passing between thin strata ; and at the line of contact, and t()r a considerable distance, we have an amygdaloidal structure developed. It is jirobable that the trap-rock was poured over tlu; sandstone strata while the whole w;is submerged, and thnt other beds of sandstone we're deposited upon it; so that if this was the casi', we should have a succession of dcposites ; but in some places it ap[)ears as if the triip hatl elevated the strata, and pusheil itself through the sandstone by main li)rce. Whatever may be the theory of this, it is certain that the strike of the strata and the direction of the included tra[)-rock are the same. On Ke'Weeiiaw Point w'v have veins cutting across the general direction of the strata, and, ot' course, of the trap range, or, as the miners call it,
On Isle Royale, as near the Ontonagon river, on the south shore of the lake, massive epidolo is the most common " vein-slone" that hears native copper — the metal being intersj)erse(l with it in its mass, or spread in thin sheets in the niitural joints of the rock, with occasional masses or lumps of considerable magnitude. Near Hock Harbor, on Isle Royale, at a place called Kpidote, and at ancHher called after the most abundant mineral l()und in the veins, granular and compact epidote are the prevalent rocks accompanying the native copper. So, also, at Scovill's l*oint the samt' associations prevail in the cnprifennis veins.
The most im|x»rtant and productive mines of native copper on Isle Royale have been ojx'iied on the north side of the island ; but still the explorations have been too limited to allow of our judging of tin; value ot" the numerous veins upon that remarkable island. At Washington Harbor, upon Pheli)s's island, several promising veins of native copper, associated with pr(-hnite, occur; but ihey have not been opened to a de|)th sulHcient to (-stablish their value. At Siskawit bay we find a huge body of line red sandstone bordering the trap-rocks, and' shelving down into the lake at a very moderate angle. No valuable copper veins have been found at this place; but the b;iy is one of the favorite stations fJ)r fishermen, who pack aimually great numbers of sikawit, [snhno shkanit,'] the liittest and finest species of the lake trfml family, and large lake trout, namayt-ush, [s(tlmo amcthi/ttiis,'] and whitefish, attihawmeg, [corvgotius albus,! iJir the western market — from 9CM) to l.OOO barrels of these fine fisli being salted and packed ti)r sale each year.
The siskawit miiy be said to Im^ peculiar to the shores of this island, lew being caught on the shores of Keweenaw I'oin!, and their migrations being extremely limited. They are caught readily by the hook, but are more (;ominonly taken by means of gill-nets, which are set a yard or two from the bottom, in water of aliout 200 teet depth — the lower edge of the net being anchored by m<'ans of small stones attached to cords, while the upper edge is sustained vjMtically by means of thin laths or spindles ot" light wood. Thes(> nets are set at night, and are drawn in the morning.
Of all the fish caught upon the lake the siskawit is mf)st prized by the natives on account of its fitness. White-fish are, however, much more delicate, and are i»ret('rred to all others by the white inhaliitants and travellers.
TIh; fisheries of Lake Snperior are of great value to the people living upon the shores of the lake, and of some importance to the States bordtaing on the other and lower lakes, and the inland towns near their borders. To the poor Indian tli(> bounties of the great lakes are of vital importance, t()r, without the fish, the native; tribes would soon perish. Came has become exceedingly scarce in these thickly wooded regions, t)nly a lew bears, rabbits, and porcupines, and some
upon the w , n.
AgrieultuK. has scarcely begun to tame th«' wilderness in the vicinity of the copper mines, ami the only crops raised are potatoes and u few hardy northern esculents. Small cereal grains — such as oats, barley and rye — will do w(;ll hero as in Canada ; and Indian corn of the northern varieties, in ])laces not too muc.-li exjjosed to the chill breezes of the lake, thrives and ripens. English grasses have not yet been cultivated, but they will undoubtedly thrive as well on the south shore of Jjake (Superior as in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. The native grasses are abundant and good, but an; limited to small natural prairies or dri(,'d-up ponds. Judging from the luxuriant growth of Ibrcst trees — such as tlu; maple, yellow l)ir(^li, and other trees common to Maine and New Brunswick — we should judge that the soil was as good on the shores of Lake Superior as in that State and province;.
Those who have only viewed the inunediate coast of" the lake, especially that now (k-nsely covered with a tangled growth of small, stunted, spruce and fir trees, would he likely to undervalue iIk; agricultural resources of that region. They shoultl remember that the cold air from the lak(! aflects the vegetation only near its shores, and tliat farther inland thi^ temperature more resembles that of Canada and the northern parts of New Ilanipshirt; and N(!W Y«)rk. This is not only shown by the native ti)rest trees and the llowiring plants, but also, when; clearings have; been made to a sufficient extent, by the agricultural produce raised upon the soil.
The forests also art; filled with (wcellent timber t()r building purposes ; and, where the growth is of mixed trees, such as sugar-maple» y<'Uow birelj, and pines, the whit(.' and yellow pines are of large dimensions, and finiiish good lumber t()r sawing into boards, planks, and deals. Though ihen^ is little prospect at present of sending sawed boards iiom Lake Supc^rior to tlu^ lower laki; country, the time will coint! when this valuabh; limber will bei-ome of commercial importimc(! ; and that time will arrive the sooner if the ship canal now proposed at the Sault de Sainte Marie shall be construct«'d within any reasonable time.
The northern or British shore of Lake Superior has as yet been but little explored, either geologically or f(>r minerals. One mine of blende, or sulphuret of zinc, richly mixed with spangles of native silver, and a vein of sul[)huret of" copper, have been discovert-d at Prince's bay, on the north shore, not far from Isle Royale. 1 know not what j)rogress has been ma(h; in developing the ores of this mine, but at the time when I examined it, in 1847, it gav(; promise of" rich returns. As a general thing the copper on tlu; northern shores is mineralized by stdphur, and occurs as yellow cop[)er pyrites, or as gray or black sulphurets of" copper, while the copper on the south shore and on Isle Royale is mostly in tht; metallic slate, and all the valuable working-mines are tlusre opened t()r the native metal. This is a remarkable, reversion of the usual laws of mineral veins, and was first discovered and pointed out by myself, and the first mines f()r native copper were opt ned by my adviie an<l in accordance with my surveys, in 1844, as before stated. This remarkable region has certainly surprised both geologists
and miners by its wonderful lodes of native copper, nnd by the lumps of pur(! silver wliich have been opened and brought to light by enterprising companies and skilful miners.
One of the m«)st remarkable associations of mctnls is here observed in the intermixture of pure silver with j)urc cooper, the two metals being perfectly united without any alloying ot one with tli(! other. Tliis singuhir condition of these two metals has puzzled chemists and mineralogists ; !md the solution of the problem of their mode of deposition in the veins is still undiscovered. It is obvious, fiom experiment, and iiom all we know of the affinities of metals lor each other, that the native copper was not injecteil in a molten stale into the veins. Although 1 have discovered the manner in which the copper veins were probably t()rtned, 1 am far from having learned that of the silver, for we know of no volatile salt, or combination of that metal. This subject, which has occupied much of my time f()r several years, will be explained more fully at a future time, in a paper addressed to scientific men, as it does not f()rm a suitable subject for a mere })opular essay like the present communication ; and, as before observed, is still an uncompleted study.
The rocks known to belong to the cupriferous formation of Lake Superior are all of igneous fc)rmation, or have been thrown up from the unknown interior of the globe in a molten state, and in long rents, having a somewhat crescentic shape, with the curve toward the north and west ; the radius of the arc not being far from thirty miles in length on Keweenaw Point. The average width of this belt is not more than five miles, while its length is not less than two hundred miles. The Keweenaw belt of trap runs by the Ontonagon river, narrowing to only a mile in width in some j)art3 of its course, and then widening rapidly as it extends into Wisconsin.
On the Ontonagon river it is about four miles wide ; and it is there highly cupriferous, several important veins, now wrought by mining companies, having been discovered by the miners in their employ, on this river and in its vicinity. The Minnesota mine has been, thus far, the most successful of those opened upon this part of the trap range. It is remaiked by all the geologists and miners who liave examined these rocks, that the copper ore lies in the amygdaloidal variety of them ; and that the veins of native copper are pinched out into narrow sheets in the harder trap-rock which overlies the amygdaloid. This fact was first noticed by Mr. Alger and myself in the geological survey of Nova Scotia, made by us in 1827 ; and the private geological surveys which I made on Keweenaw Point, in 1844 and 1845, proved it to be true also in that region ; so that it is a law now well known to the miners upon the Lake Superior land district. It was discovered, also, that the copper dies out in the veins when they cut through sandstone rocks. The reason for this I hare discovered, and proved by experiment and observation, and shall farther verify when ordered to complete my government survey of the mineral lands of the United States in Michigan.
Much may be expected from the explorations now going on upon the northern shore of the lake, under the authority of the Canadian government, since the wisdom of that province has perceived the im|)ortance
of rendering lier researches und invrstigatioiisiuloihj' ininoral treasures of her soil the most eHe(;tual and complete, atid has consctiuently intrusted them to men the most thorougiily e(»mpetent to tlu; task.
Experienced miners are often good observers, and to them we owe much valuable observation ; but they arc not often suHiciently ac(juainted with geology and mineralogy to enable th(>m to judge of the valu(! of a min<i in a country with which they are not liuniliar ; and they cannot describe what they discover so as to make their observ.'itions intelligible or valuable to others. Miners are good assistants, but poor principals, in any geological survey. Hence the British government empl«)ys her most learned and practical geologists in her surveys in Canada, and allows them time and means to accomplish in a proper manner their important work.
On the northern shores of the lake, as betbre observed, we find most commonly the ores of copper ; while in tla; trap-rocks, on the south side, the metal occurs in its pure metallic state. The on^s which have been t()und on Lake Huron alreaily j)n)miso to give ample profits to the ownt>rs of the mine ; and other localities are known, where there is a reasonable prospect of successful mining, on the northern borders of Lake Superior.
Trade will spring up between us and our Canadian neighbors as soon as their shore becomes inhabited, and, it is to be hoped, will prove ,of reciprocal advantage to the two countries.
This is Ji brief and rapid outline of a eoiintry, and a system of waters, strangely adapted by the hand of Providence to become the channel of an inUuul navigation, unequalled and incomparable the world over ; through regions the richest of th«.' whole earth in productions of all kinds — productions ot" the field, productions of the tbrest, productions of the waters, productions of the bowels of the earth — regions overflowing with cereal and animal wealih, abounding in the most truly valuable, if not most precious, metals and minerals — lead, iron, copper, coal — beyond the most llivored countries of the globe ; regions which would, but Ibr these waters, have been as inaccessible as the stc]q)€s of Tartary or Siberia, and the value of the productions whereof must have been swallowed up in the expense of then* transportation.
And this country, these waters, hitherto so little regarded, so singularly neglected, the importjuice of which does not appear to bo so much as suspected by one man in ten thousand of the citizens of this great republic, is certainly destined to excel in absolute and actual wealth, agricultural, mineral, and commercial, tla; aggregate of the other portions of the United States, how thrifty, how thriving, how energetical and industrious soever they may be.
Of tliese lakes and rivers, during the year 185], the commerce, foreign and coastwise, was estimated at three hundred and twenty-six million five hundred and ninety-three thousand three hundred and thirty-live dollars ; transacted by means of an enrolled tonnage of
Rovi!nty-S(!Vrn lliousnrul jiiid sixty-oiii- tons of sti-nm, and one liundmd luid tliirty-ci^lit llioiisjiiid iiiiu^ liuiidrcd iiiid ti)iirltrti tons of sail, or tm ii/,'i,M('<,'al<' licf'Mscd lomia^(^ «»l' two liutidii'd and litltt'n lliousaiul luiiu liundrcd and si'vcnty-fivc Ions.
In the prosecution ol" this cointntrcc, it would apponr, as nrarly as can bo ascorlaincd, that, there was entered an a^'gre^ale u\ all the lake ports tog<!ther, of !),4()!),.'i()(i t(»ns during the season ; and cleared at the 8ain(! ports B/i^O./MG tons — showing an rivcrngn of nearly lialyIbur entrancM's of the whole lake tonnage during the season.
Tlie returns of tlu; coasting trad*- are, it is true, very iinperfeel nud unsatisfactory, as are also the estimates lliunded upoti them ; but, as approximations only can be arrived at under the; cir(!umstances, the best use has been made of the returns n.'ceived; and the results arrived at cannot but appear stranger to tliosi; not immediately conversant with the character ol the lake trade.
According to these estimates the coasting trade is divided into exports, S132,()17,47(); and imports, Sl82,4.'i5,})88; showing a dilferencc of $.00,438,518, when there should have been a perti-ct balance. This discrej)ancv arises from a higher rat«! of valuation at the place of importation than at that of exportation, or virc rrrsd. I'roducts of agriculture, the f()rests, and the mines, an^ easily valued at a correct rate ; whereas one great division of articles of importation, classed as merchaiidise, including ev(M'ytliing horn the (in(\-<t jewelry and choicest silks to the most bulky and cheapest articles ot' grocery, can scarcely bi! reduced to a correct money value.
The discrepancy, then, arises from the valuation of tlu" articles per ton being fixed at too high a figure ,it one port, or too low at another. Which valuation is the more correct, it i.-; impossible to ascertain under the present system of regulations.
Taking the lowt\st estimat(\ the actual money value; of the ("oastwise exports of these lakes is $132,000,000, in round numbers, being the mere value of the property passing over the lakes, without including passage money, passengers carried, cost of vessels, expenses oi crews, or anything in the least d»'gree extraneous.
The am<. nt of grain alone which was transported during the season ofl851, amounted to 1,902,729 barrels of flour, and 8,119,1(59 bushels of wheat — amounting to what e(|uals an aggregate of 17,932,807 bushels of wheat ; 7,498,264 bushels of corn ; 1,591,758 bushels of o.Ms; nnd 360,172 bushels of barley ; in all 27,382,80.1 i)ushels of cereal p»-o.bier. This btancli of traffic, it is evident, must continually incrcaa ■ .iS }v increasing influx of immigration, and the; bringing into cultivation of the almost unbounded tracts of the very richest soil, on which the f()rest is now growing, which .surround the lakes on almost every side. And the like may be pi"dicated of the expl(»itation of the mines, tlu; prosecution of the fisli'^rie-. ,,.!<! the; bringing to light of all natural resources — facilities of trauspo'jon < ^iusing mmigration, immigration improving cultivation and J. rodi.iti'jn, and I'ose two originating commerce, and multiplying a theusaiul 'old the wealth, the rank, and the happiness of the confederacy.
-^ "-I 51 QC ■«»■ ffj ?0 ifS ■^ -- (30 O "M i-'5 I— I T»- C> lO -* — • 1.1 — » ^ ;0 PS IT f >f5 Ol CJ I- « 'TO I- ■» rt 1- I- ITS X ■^ TO
KAIMIOADS AND CANALS OK TIIK UNITKD STATKS.
As u report ujum ilic itilarid comtncrcc ot' tin- United SinU's, or of nny iiuportimt nortion of it, would l)e iniperH'cl without ret'erenee to IIk; various works coiislilutiii;^ its eliiiiiiicis, to which in some decree it owes its direction, the lidlowini^ notice of the riiihoiids and canals of the United Slates has heen pr«'pared.
The jx'ciiliar cliaracterislics of this country, in regard to its <,'(M)grapliical and topographical feattnes and to tiu^ industrial condition and relations of the people of the <fii!i'rent ret,'ions render works of internal iinprovcineni necessary to the development of the resources and pro^rrcss of every jxtrfion. Willi us such works are cliieny coininercial enterprises, their principal object being to cheapen and liicilitat(^ the movement of persons and property, (jcncrally, the means li)r their construction have; been furnished by incorporateil assoi-iations, and cf)nse(piently die construction and management of them hav(! been intrusUMi to such (;ompanies.
The opposition by many of the prominent and inllueiitial statesmen of the United Slates to ihe interti'rence ol'the ti-deral governmr'tit in aid of such works, on the alleged ground of absence of constitutional power, lias hitherto prevented tli'' rendering of such assistance, e\i-ept in the case of the ('unil" ' md n-ad, and one or two other instances. Many intelligent nii'ii d(M<l)i if this opposition has not been .ul\ aiitageous. Wherever the n si h* live States have aided such works, they have fbrtutiattdy, in n»osi uiisiances, committed the control of them to private hands and p'lviie interests. (loiisiderations a[)art from conunercial objects have lia«l but little inlluence in th<'ir conslrui'tion or management. These works, therei<)re, constitute the best expression of the commercial wants of our people, and their immense i ost the b( si illustration of i\u) magnitude and value of this commerc<'.
The early settlements in this country liavi- ^^ bi en iiiadi- upon the seaboard, maiiuliicturing and connii<reial coinmunities at first grew up at favorable points near tiie coast. The extension of the settlements into the interior ncccssarilv involved the c'listruetion (»f i)utlcts for them to markets Jipoii the seaboard. So long as this population was confined to the Atlantic slope, public highways were notofgrtat magnitude nor importance. WIkmi, however, settlers had crossed the Alh'ghany mountains and peopled the regions beyond them, the public mind was turned to the subject ol" constructing channels of commercial intercommunication adeipiate to their wants.
outlets. Tlio Hrsl ptTson to proscnt ;i (lofuiilc project i'or an nrtificial work, on an extensive scale, was (Icneral \Vasliinp;lon. That great and wise man foresaw the t'uiun^ imporlain-c ofthe country beyonil the Alleghanies, and the magnitude oTits prosjxctive commerce, which \m proposeil to secure to iiis own colony. Bel()re he reached tli(> age of twenty-one years he had crossed the mountains, and die subject of a canal from the tide-waters ol"th(5 Chesapeake to the waters of the Ohio received his careliil altcMition. At suljsecpient periods he visited the Ohio valley, and presented the n^suhs of his examination and observation to the House of Burgesses of Virginia, tiom which body he received a vote of ihaidvs. Tiie plan ol" a can;d pro})osed by him was (>iigerly embraced, and has now so lf)ng remained a liivoritc; object that its importance and ultimate ci)nsummati<»n have become traditional ideas with the people of \'irginia.
The merits ol'a general [)l;in li»r a (tonmiercial channel, by which to connect the East ami West, suited to the wants ol' tlu^, two diftlnent sections of the country, were not involved in the (juestion ol" route. Virginia, prior to the Hevolulion, was the richest, most populous, aiul most central of the colonies, anil her tide-waters most nearly approached the navigable waters of tlu; Ohio, it was lak( n ibr granted that the appropriate luute t()r such a wt)rk lay through li<r territory; but at that time our ])eopK' h;id neither the engineering skill nor tin- experience, nor were th(;y sufli« irntly ac(in;iiiited with the topography of the mountain ridge sej)arating the great western valley iiom the Atlantic slope, to decide upon the ([ueslion ol' route. As they bicanu' bettei ac([uainted with the country, it w;.s as<'ertained that the best route lor <i ranulcAninecting the navigab!-' water-courses separatetl by the Alleghanijs lay farther north; and it w.is reserved Ibr New York first to realixe itie idea of (jeneral Washington, and therebv secure t(» itself tin' vast btiielits the result of which he Ibresaw, and which, betbre the Revolution, he sought to secure to Virginia. For years after (ii'iieriil Washington proposed his j)I;ni, oia- wrst( rn settlements did not extend beyond the. Ohio; an<l, in Uci, all tli( eountry wist of the Mississij)[)i was elaimed by a tl)i<'ign powci. The vasi regions now lill<'d with a numerous and thriving j)opnlation, comprising tin; Slates of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Missouri, bjwa, and Wisconsin, we-ie not only a wilderness, but the idea that they would ever be denselv occuj)ied by civilized man was ri'garded as eliinj( rical. The principal sfttlements beyond the mountains were itiosr most eidiliunous to N'irgiiiia, and what is now Kentucky was then a j»;ul of the '-Old Dominion.'' The r.ipid settlement of Ohio and tin' adjacent Stiiies, aiier the w:ir of 1812, changed the aspect of afiairs in till' West. The prepond(M:iting intt'rest and inllnenec exieiuk^d norlhwa,rd of the lir.-l si lllements, and the Sliile of Ni'W York was the first to open an improvt d line (»!' eommerei.d eonunnnicalion between the Atlantic ami the (ireat West. A canal w.is discovered to be |)racticable through her tenitory, and iln- genius and public spirit ol" her statesmen stimulated her legislators to niak( use of this advantage, securing to lar the chief interi(»r trade.
Jt was not until after the eomphtion of the Krie canal, in bS'^.O, that the adaptability of riiilroads to thi' uses of commerei' was established. These woiks are tleslined to compett' with canals, and
even natural waler-courses, as media ot" commercial intercourse. Their construction and profitable operation may be regarded as practicable upon all tli(! routes of commerce; ant! all tlie Atlantic cities have either (lompleted, or hav(^ in progress, lines of railroads having the same general o!)jects and direction with the great New York work, by which they propose to secure similar results. These works are regarded as of greater benefit to the; interior portions of the country than to ihe cities which are their termini upon our navigable watercourses. Their construction is now the absorbing topic. They will one day become the ordinary highways of transit tor property as well as persons. A satisfactory view of the commerce of the country, then>lbrf, necessarily involves a description of them, as its ftiture channels.
It is also important that the uses, objetMs, and influences of public works in developing the resources, in stinndating and in giving new din;ctions to the commerce of the (country, should Ik; thoroughly understood, both as lending to correct h\gislation in conmiereial aflairs and as securing to these enterjjrises that degree ol' public confidence to which they are entitled. As herelotbre stated, at least $80,000,000 are now annually re(iuired to carry f()rward works in progress, and to me«'t the demand of new ones as they may arise. Of this sum, $50,000,000 are borrowed tilher of the eapitalisls of this country or of Eurc^pe, at rates ot interest averaging troin 0 to 10 percent, per animm f()r M seiies ol years. A large sum is in this luainier added to the cost of these works, which might be saved were the public mind j)roperly eidighltiHd as to lh(>ir productiveness, as iinesttnents of capital, and as to their inlliK'iiee in in(.'reasiiig national wealth and pr<!Sj)erilv.
This re\ iew of railroads and canals will commence with a notice of those ot Niw Yolk, till- piiineer Stale in successful achievements fin a large stale, in noticing the works of other States, a geographical rather than ehronoionical order will be obsiaved. Only the leading lines — such as are in some measure idtnlilied with the conmierce of the country — will be particularly described ; and where works are still in pr.)gress the icsults predicated ottheiu will be stated.
Following the notice is a bri( t consideration of raihoads in their I'Conomictil aspects and results, a matter esteemed of eipial if not greater importance than a detailed de.;.'ription ot the works themselves.
Krit iiiiuil. — Although it was known ai an early period llial a iiivorable route liir a canal iiom tide-water to the lakes exisl<'(l in the valh^y of the Mohawk river, it was not until J8l(l that the project received particular attention iiom the authorities of the State of New York. In that \ear, the governor ol the Slate, the Hon. D. 1). Tompkins, in his annual message to the legislature, recommended tlu' construction of a
canal from the Hudson river, at Albany, to Lake Erie. This recommendation was favorably received, and after a protracted discussion as to the plan which should be ])ursued, the work was Ibrmally commenced on the 4th of July, 1817 ; and on tiie 26lh day of Octoijer, 1825, the canal was completed.
Previous to the construction of the canal the cost of transportation from Lake Erie to tide-water was such as nearly to prevent all movement of merchandise. A report of the committee of the legislature, to whom was referred the whole subject of the proposed work, consisting of the most intelligent members of that b(Klj% dated March 17, 1817, states that at that time tiie cost of transportation J'rom Bulfalo to Montreal WHS S30 per ton, and the returning transportation irom $60 to $75. The expense of transportation from Buflalo to New York was stated at $10{) per ton, and the ordinary length of passage twenty days; so that, upon the very route through which the heaviest and cheapest products of tiie West are now sent to market, the cost of transportation equaUcHJ nearly thrc times the market value of wheat in New York; six times the value of corn; tudvc times the value of oats; and i'ar exceeded the value of most kinds of cured provisions. These f;icts afford a striking illustration of the value of internnl improvements to a country like the United States. It m.iy be here stated, as an interesting f;ict, that prior to the construction of the Erie canal the wheat of wesU^i n New York was sent down the Husijuehanna to Baltimore, as the cheapest and best route to niiuket.
Although the rates of transportation over the Erie canal, at its o{)ening, were nearly double the present charges — which r.iiige from $3 to $7 per ton, according to the character of the Ireight — it immediately became the convenient and favorite route f()r a large portion of the produce of the northwestern .Stiites, iind secured to the city of N( w York th(! position which she now hokls as the emj)()rium of the cont('dera(;y. Previous to the oprning of the ciinal \\h) trader ol" the West was chielly carried on through the cities ot IJaltimorj" and Philadelphia, particularly the hitter, which was ;it thrit time the lirst city in the I'liited Stutes in popul.ition and weidth, ;ind in the amount of its intt>rn;d commerc(i.
As soon as the hikes were reached, the line of na\ igable water was extended through them n(\'irly one thousand miles fiirthcr into the interior. The w( stern St;it''s immediatelv connnenced the construction of similar works, l(>r the purpose of opening a commuiiie.ilion irom the more renio'.' portions of their territories with this great water-line. All these woiks took their direction and ehiiraclrr liom the Erie canal, which in this niMimcr bcciinie the outlet l(»r nlniost the greater part of the West.
It is diliieult to estimate the influence which this canal lins exerted upon the commer<'e, growth, .-ind prosj)erity of the whole country, tor it is impossible to iniagiiu^ what would have been the stale ot things without it. lint l()r this work the West would have held out tew inducements to til*' settler, who woidd have li.ive been without a market f()r bis most im[)ort;Mit j)roducts, and consei|uentlv without the means of supplying many f>f his most <'ssentiMl wants. Thiit portion of the countiy would have remained comparatively «uisettled up to the present time; imkI, where now exist rich and populous connnunities, we
should find an uncultivated wilderness. The East would have beca equally without the elements of growth. The canal has supplied it with cheap food, and has opened an outlet and created a market for the products of its manufactures and commerce. The increase of commerce and the growth of the country have been very accurately measured by the growth of the business of the canal. It has been one great bond of strength, infusing life and vigor into the whole. Commercially and politically, it has secured and maintained to the United States the characteristics of a liomogeneous people.
It will be seen, by the following tabular stntement, that the growth of the city of New York in population, wealth, and commerce, has nearly kept pace with the increase of the business of the Erie canal antl the progress of the western States. The tables show the intimate relation of this great work to the commerce and prosperity of the country, and that to maintnin a large foreign commerce it is necessary that a city should have a large domestic trade.
They also indicate the annual tonnage of the canal ; the value of produce and merchandise passing tf) and trom tide-water ; the tonnage and value of produce received at HufUdo and Oswego from the western States; the number of annual locknges on the canal; the foreign arrivals at, and tonnnge of, tlie ports of Boston, Nc^w York, Philadelpliia, and Baltimore; the value of exports and imports of each of these cities, their inci in wealth and population, and also the increase of the popula-
years, jjroNUig most coni-hisivf-ly tluii a lnviiv Jhnigii comuietrc ean only be uiaintjiiiied by a city th;it is able to make liersclt'the depot of the domestic prodiii-ts oi'the eonnliy.
Th(! Erit! (Miiid seemed to the city of New York llie trade of the interior, bee.'iusc it oeeupied the only route pr.'ietieable li)r siieh a work. So lonij, theret()re, as canals continued tiie most npproved of known modes of" tr;insp(»rtalion, the superior position of tliat city in rclerenee to the inlern.d trade oi* the country remiiined unciucstioncMl. Such is now no lonu;er the case. For travel, nnd li)r the transportation of certain kinds of merchimdisc, the supriioiity of r;iilro;ids is admitted. It is also clnimed tlint th(>y i-an succes;-(ully compete with the canal in he;ivy frciulils. Jlo\sevcr this niiiy be, th(; correctness of the assumjjtion is admitted by the construction ol' railroiids parallel to all the caiic'ils, l()r the purpose of (ompr liiiu; fr the business of the latter. The conviction is now almost uiiivirsal, lh;il commerciiil supiemaey is to be secured nnd maintiiined by this new agency, which neutralizes, to a great extent, tlx- advantages nrising from the accidents of position; and that the cohuik rt-e ot' the country is >tiil a prize tor the competition of all cities whii-h may (;hoose to enter the lists. Influenced l)y these views, all the great commercial towns have either comphncd. or are constructing, stupendous lines of railroad, with the i;onlid(Mit expectation ol" securing to nuli a portion ot' the trade which. up to the present tii/ie. has been almost entirely monoj>olized by mu.
It is proper to .-talc, that tin- people of New Voik. in view ot' the competition and rivalry with which they are threatened, have (let(Tmined to eoniplett; the enlargeinenl oi'the Erie canal within the shortest practicable period. Jt i> cakailated that this enlingement can be completed within //ovf years after it shall be undertaken. The enlarged
abuntlanlly suj)plicd with water, the only limit lo its capacity is the time retphred li)r pasning boats through the locks. It is calculated that an average of :J(), 1)00 boats can be locked each wav during the business seas(tn. Allowing each bout to be fullv loadtd, the total loiniag(; capacit" of the enlarg<'d canal would e(|ual I l,()-h"^,000 tons. Hut as the |)roi)f)rtion of down to ui) tl«'i''lils is as linn" to one, the avc ra<j;t; ti'U-
ige of the boats is eslimatt'd, in the reports of" the State engineer !(>r bS-Ol, at .1-10 tons tin- each boat, which, titr r>2,000 boats, would gi\e innual movement ol' 7, '2-50, 000 tons as the total eapaeitv of the
canal, or .O.iS'J-J.OOO ton,- down, and l,40fi, 000 tons up freight. It is estimated that upon the enlaiged canal the cost <tf transportation, embracing tolls, will be reilueed to live mills pi r ton per mile upfMi ordinary merchandise, or to ?5 1 S'i per ton fitr the entire distance from Albany to HiiHiilo.
bids fair to Ijconmo an important avcnuo for the trade of the St. Lawrence basin. This lake is now connected with the St. Lawrence river at 0<r(iensburfj;, above the rapids, by the Ogdcnsbur/;^ or Northern railroad ; at Motilrcid, by the Chamj)hiin and St. Lawrence railroad ; and will sooti have a fartluT connexion at Lachinc, by mcuins of the Plattaburj? and Montreal railroad, now in progress of construction. It is also connected with the St. Lawrence river, at the month of the; Sorel, by means of the Cliambly canal. Through this last channel the State of New York now r(;ceiveg a large and annually increasing amf)unt of lumber. The Ogdensburg railroad was built expressly t(>r the purpose of diverting a portion of the trade of the St. Lawrence at that point, and it is reasonable to suppose that all the roads named will, in time, be{;ome, in conn(!xion with the lakes and canal, important outlets l()r western traih'. They promise to open not only clu^ap, but expeditious routes, which, in a press of business, must be well patronized. It may be staled here, that the proposed ship-canal from Caughnawaga to Lak(^ (!)haiiiplain will open a |)ra(;ticable route li)r the largest class oi" vessels from the upi)er laki-s to Whiti'hall, within seventy-live milei of tide- water.
As the route of the proposed canal is remarkably favorabh% and aa it cati b'' ti'd froi'n the St. Lavvreiu^e, and built at a moderate expense, it is believed that it must be constructed at no distant day.
Ilailronds of New York.
Hdilroadu from AVmvy to Biiffulo. — The first continuous line of railroad lo coiuicet lh(! lakes and tide-water was that from Albany to Bullido, fbllnwing very nearly the route otllu^ canal. As it was a private ent(!i prise, and catrK! into tlirect competition with the Slate works, tlie canal tolls were imposed upon the carriage of all freight, in addition to the cost of transportation. From this source the State has dt>rived a large revenue. This tax has had a tendency to confine the business of the road to the less bulky and mor(! valuable articles of freight, and to those of a perishable nature. Th(> tax was removed on the lirst of D(;ceml)er, bSOl, by an act of the legislature ; hence the road is novr brought into tree comjtetition with the canal, and has, during the present season, carried Hour i'rom liuHiilo to Albany for sixty eeiUs per barrel, which is nearly fifty cents bcilow the average price by canal f()r nearly twenty years subseciuent to its opening. The (piaiuily of freight is still restricted fi)r the want of sufficient equipments and suitable accommodations f()r receiving and storing it, particularly at Albany. This fact operated as a serious drawback on the past winter's operations. Till! necessary facilities f()r business will soon be' supplied, and th(!re can be no doubt that the railroad will (>ngage in a Luge carrying business in direct competition with the canal.
Tlie abov(! road will soon have practically a double track l()r iti whole line. It already has such from Albany to Syracuse. From the latter place a new road is nearly compU;ted to the Niagara river, couv-
theref()ro, be unlimited. It connects with Lake Erie nt Buflalo; and with Lake Ontario, tluniigii brMuclies already in operation, at Saekett's IL-irbor. Cape Vincent, (Iswego, and Levviston; and, by lines in progress, at Great and Little kSodus bays, and at Rochester. By presenting numerous points of contact with western trade, it will eseapf; all tlu; inconv('ni(>nce3 of too great a concentration of business at anyone point, and will be en.uhlcd to ofI(.'r great facilities tijr the ch<;ap and easy transport of freight.
At Albany, it will connect with the Hudson river and Harlem roads, the t!)rmer of which will be a doable track road. In eonnrxion with these a d;>uble track will bn fluiiKHl from Xcw York to Bnlliilo, and to various points upon Lake Ontario. At lki(};ilo this line is carried l()rward to the roatls of Ohio by the Lake Shore road. Tlie gnat western roads of Canada, now in progress, will llirin a {(uniexion widi Detroit, by way of the north shore of LMk(^ Kii{ . From Detroit, the Michigan Central railroad is eomplcti'd to Cliicai^o; ns is the Michigan Southern from Monroe; so that by January, 1851, Nv.w York will have two parallel lines of railroad to Chicago, each <»f which will be about one thousiuid miles long. From Chicago to the Mississippi river two important roads are in progress — ihc (Jaleiia and (Miicago, and the lloek Island and Chicago, both of which will be conn>lcted in the course of 18.>3. The length of these lines will be about one hundred and eighty miles each.
Although the earriag(> of liciglit has been denied to the above line, except on payiuent of canal tolls, wliicli ainounls to a virtual proliibilion oi' many artieirs, it has exerted an iiilliience on tlx- growth and prosperity ol New York second only to that exerted, by the Krie canal. In connexion with the great lakes and the western lines ol in)pro\ement, it commanded, as soon as opened, the travel between the Atlantic States and the West and S(»uthwest, and concentrated this travel uj)on that cit}', which in this manner became a necessary point in tlx; route of every western or southwestern merchant, visiting the eastern States. The resvdt was, the introduction to merchants of that city of a larg(; class ofcountr}' traders, who would (Otherwise have continued to purchase at j)oints where they had been })reviously accustomed to trade. By passing through New York, the whole business jtopulation of the country established business relations more or less iutimati; in that city.
Eric raihoml atid i(s branches:. — The Krie ri.ilroad, unlike the Central line, was planned and has been executed with special reli'reiiee to the acconnnodatif in C)f the trade between New York and tlai West. It is the gr(^atest work ever altemj)ted in this country, and its construction is the greatest achievement of the kind yet realized. The road .and all its structures are on the most couiprehensive scale, and its facilities lor business are fully ecjual to the magnitude and object of the work.
As the lake, on the one hand, and the Hudson river on the other, are approached, the road spreads out into a number of indej)endent lines, t()rming at each terminus a sort oi' delta, to accommodate its immense business. Its outlets to tidi'-watc^r are at Newburgh, I'iermont, and Jersey City. At the two Ibrmer places the company
coinpfiny
have extensive grounds for the rrerption, storing, and forwarding of inorcliandise. With only one terminus, it would ho impossible to uccornmodatc its immense business without great confusion and delay, and greatly increased cost.
On the western portion of the line, as soon as the Susquehanna valley is reached, important lines radiaU; from the m.iin trunk, striking the lakes at all the pomfs above niuned, and at Dunkirk in addition. The more im[)ortant of tlies(? branches nre the Syracuse and Ijinghampton, in coiniexion with the Syriicnse and Oswego road ; the Cnyuga and Susquehaiuia, in connexion with the L:ikc Ontiirio, Auburn, and Ncsv York road; tlu^ Can;indaigua and Corning, in eoniuixion with the Canandaigua iuid Niagara Falls road; the liidlido. Corning and New York, and ihe IkilJido and New York City rjiilroads.
By mea, s of all these f'cders, the trade of the West will be interce[)ted at iilm(»st every important [)oint on Lake Erie and Ontario, arul collected and l()r\varded to the; great truidi line. iSIcaiures are nlso in progress to connect the Erie road widi Erie, Pennsylvania, by a line running direct from liittle Yalley; and with Pittsburg by means of the Allegheny Valley railroad. It is haidly possible to conceive a road with more liivorable directioi and comiexions, possessing capacities f<)r a more extensivcr business, or one tli;it is di'stnied to bear a more important relation to the commerce of the whole country.
This road was o[)ened l(»r business only on tiie lirsl of June, 1851. It has not, therelbre, been in o{)eration a sullicient length of time lo supj)ly any salisfictory statistics as to ils ()robal)le inllnence upon western connnerce. So far as its business and revenues are concerned, it has exceeded the most sanguine expectations.
In this comu'xion it may be stated that another v(>ry important outlet from the Erie road to tide-waler, the AUkhdj aiul Si;s(ju(hn>iii(i railroad, is about to be conniictu'cd ; the nu aiis to construct which have tdready been secured. The distance from Binghampton to Albany by this route will be l\'i miles, again>t 2'2i to New York by the Erie road. From Binghampton, going east, i-onunence the most (lillicult antl exjiensivc portions of the Erie road, involving high grad<'s, short curvatures, and a much greater cost of o{)era ing the road per mile than the portion oft he line west of that point. I'rom Binghampton to Albany the route is very direcl, and the grades tavor.able ; and there can hr no doubt that a considerable portion of western frt'ighls, thrown upon the Eric road, will iind its way to tide-water over the Albany and Susciueharma road. Such, particularly, will be the (;ase with treighl which is designed tor an eastern market. The large number of railroads converging upon the Susiinehanna valley renders the Albany and Sus(juehanna road highly necessary, to relieve the lower portions of tlu; i()rmer from the inmiens(! volume ot' business that will be collected u})on the main trunk from all its tributaries.
Th(! best commentary on the importance of the last named project is to be t()und in the action of the city of Albany, which very recently, in her corporate ca[)acity, made a subscription to its stock to the amount of $l,000,()()t), in addition to large private subscripti(»ns.
Note. — The cosf of the Sodus bay and Southern, and lli(> Lake Ontfirio, Auburn and New York railroad.-), cannot, in the present stage ol" their alliiirs, hr estiniaf<(l with sulli.-liail aeeuiacy to give iIk in a place in the above tabk-. The cost of the Itoeliester and Syracuse road is estimated.
Railroads f/om the citij of New York to MnvtrciiU Caniida. — The roads that make u|) tin; lint" iiom the city of New York to Montreal constitute a very important route of commerce and trav(4. Tlu' city ot Montreal is \.\iv commercial emporium of the Canadas, and is a large ;iii(l flourishing lowti. It lies very nciarly north, and at a distance ot about lijur luindicd miles from New York. Tlu; roads which (MHineci thes(? (tilies li(; in th(! gorge; which divides in two the great mountain raiigc! extending, unbroken, except in N(!W York, neaily from tlu; (iulf of Mexico lo the (julf of St. Lawrence. This basin, or gorge, is occupied by the Hudson river, Lake Champlain, and tlu; outlet of the latter lo the St. Lawrence — the river Sorel. The route, as will be seen, is remarkably direct and liivorable, as far as its j)hysical characteristics are concerned ; and as it coimects the comuiercial metropolis of this continent with the great city oi'the St. Lawrcince, and traverses a constant succession ol" large and (iourishing towns, its importance will be readily appreciated.
This great route is made up, l()r a large portion of the distance, of two distinct lines. The first link, froui New York to Albany, is composed of the Hudson river and Harlem roads; the second, from Albany to Itutland, Vermont, is made up of the Troy and Boston, and Western Vermont roads, and the Albany and Northern, and Rutland and Washington roads. From Rutland only one line is in operation, composed
cf ilio Tfiitlfind nnd Biirlinpton, Vormnnt nnd Ciinndii, nnd Clinmnlnln find St. I,;i\vr('li('<! rojids. A niiid is also inojcctcd iipdii ihr west Ixiiik of L;iU(' Cli!irii[)laiii, which, when cfJiiiplcK'd, will give iwo distinct lines llir ihc whole disliincc^ l)etw(!en New York nnd ^^)lltrl•(ll. From Alhiiny !ind Troy ii. railroad is in operation to Whitehall, the soulliern tertninns of the lake. A road is also in operation iVoni Montreal to lMatlshnr<i;, a distane<> of about sixty miles, and a comparatively short link only if< wantiiii; to eonstitnle a new and independent route between New York and the St. liawniiee river; which there is every reason to believe will soon be suj)pli('d.
The ab tvo lini; of road, thoni,'h recMMilly opened, already comnvi^ds nn anioiuit of travel fully etpial lo tln^ iin[)ortan<"e of the conncx '■n\\ it sustains. Its through-freight business is not so larg(! as its passenger travel, fiir the; reason that a large portion of the; line I'oUows the imtnediate bank of an excellent iiav igable wa T-line, which, in tlu* ftunnnir season, conunands tlu; heavy freight. In the winter it will l»ecome the <'hann(d of trade ns well as of travel. As a pleasure route it presents nnconiinon attractions, which will seciu'c t * it a largo lousiness in the dull season l()r Ireight. 'I'he inli..id line in Verr mt n.'d New NOik, however, traverse sections of country capable of pplying a very large local tratlic both from th(;ir agricultural iw^ ) nncral resources.
Among the most remarkable topograj)liical i'eatiu'es -:' ^^is eountry is the severance of the great Alleghany range by tin Jludson and Mohawk rivers, on the one hand, and Lake (Jhamplain on the other. Ho deep are these indentations that the "A*//o- A(v7" of seventy miles on the canal, occupying th(^ sunnnit of the ridge which divides the waters running into jjake Ontario from those flowing into the Hudson river, and which coresponds to the crest of the A llegliiinics, is nearly one hundred ii-et below the surl'ace of Lake Krie, and might, witli some additional expense, have been ll'd from that source
Lake C'iiamplain is only eighty-seven ft:et above the oc(>an, and the sunnnit between it and the Hudson is only otie hundred and liTtys<'ven feet above tide-water, and oidy twenty-three tt'ct above" the latter where the ('hamplain canal intersect. :' In approaching New York liom the interior, which is in the dn-.-'hon of the heavy trade, the above mutes are the most favorable to economical transit, nothing being lost in overcoming adverse grades. It is these fai'ts that constituti! thesi" routes keys to an imporlaut |)()rtion of the commeree of the country, and have rendered New York the connnercial metropolis.
They are as well adaj)te(l to railroads aslo canals; and as these depressions are bounded by high ranges of hills, the basin at the head of navigation on the Hudson must be regarded as one of the most imporant interior points iti the railroad system of the country. All)any and Troy are the cities of the eastern States, lying upon tide-water, the mo.st accessible from the interior, and are con.s<><piently the radiating {)oints of sonw of our most important lines of improvem(>nt. The tni/iks of these to tide-water are the Hudson river and Harlem n)a(ls, which bear the same relation to the roads occupying the routes above described, as does the Hudson river to the Erie and Cliamplain canals. These facts
Hudson river and Harlem roads to the raihoad system of the country.
Railroads from LuJce C/iampta'm to the Si. Lawrence. — The Champlaiu and St. Lawrence, and the Plaltsburg and Montreal railroads nave already been briefly described. The; third and most important line of road uniting the above wati^rs is tlie Northern, connecting the lake with the river St. Lawrence, at Ogdensburg, a point above the falls on tiiat river. This road, though in the State of New York, is properly a Boaton work, as it was planned and the means liirnishcd li)r its construction by that city. It is regnrded as the key which opens to the roada terminating there the navigable waters of the lakes.
An important extension of 'lis road is under contract from its southern angle, near Potsdam, to Sackett's Harbor, on Lake Ontario. The completion of this link will form a complete chain of railroads through the northern portions of New \brk, connecting Lake Chaniplain with all the important ports on the eastern shore of Lake Ontario.
Tiie three leading lines already described constitute, with their branches, the great routes of railway travel and commerce in the State of New York. In addition to the through business, tiiey all traverse routes capable of supplying a lucrative local traflic ; particularly the lines in western New ^'ork. The description of the trunk lines will convey a sufficiently accurate idea of the objects and characteristics of their respective branches without a special notice of tlic latter.
The most considerable line of road, not particularl}' alluded to, is the Long Llniul road. This was one of the earliest works of the kind in the Slate, and was constructed chit lly tt) acconmodate the travel between the cities of New York and Boston. It is a somewhat remarkable liiet that the pioneer work slujuld be now entirely abandoned as a route of travel between the above cities. It is now only used to accommodate the local business ujxh. its line, and consequently cannot be regarded as a work of much importance.
Iklamirc and Hudson canal. — This work was constructed for the purpose of opening an outlet t()r the northern Pennsylvania coal-field. It extends from lloundout to Ilonesdale, in Pennsylvania, a di.staiict! of 108 miles, and is ctamected at that j)laee with the coalfields by a railroad. It is a well-constructed work, of large caj)a(ily, and has proved a very useful one, not only on account of" its coal trade, whence its chief revenue, but from its local traffic.
Measures are also in progress l()r the construction of two eonsid(;rable Hnc.'s in the western portion of the State — one from the city of Rocheste-r, li)llo\ving the valley of the Oenesei! river, toOlean; and the other lioin Bulliilo, f»robably to the same point. The (jbjects inducing the construction of these roads, independent of local considerations, are tlu; connnunieations which they promise to open through the Alleghany valley road with Pittsburg and the coal-fields of iioitlu;rn IVnnsylvania. Both routes traverse districts of great fi;rtility, vvhi'^h cannot fiiil to afflml a good business. The value of a railroad connexion between BuflFido and Rochester, tlie two most important cities of western New York, and Pittsburg, which is at the head of navigation on the Ohio, will be readily appreciated.
is the system of public works in New York, constructed with a view of commnnding the trade of the interior of the country. As previously stated, a large portion of this trade naturally falls upon the great lakes, from the liicilitics they offer tor reaching a market. The importance of this great water-line is still farther increased from the fact that most of the leading works of the West, designed to be routes of commerce, rely on it as a base. The commercial or business outlet for the lakes, as well as of the works connected with them, has been tiie Erie canal. That work comes in contact with the lakes at only two points, Buffalo and Oswego. The railroad, on the other hand, by the greater facility of its construction, opens as many outlets from the lakes to tide-water as there are harbors upon the former accessible to its commercial marine. New York is now profiting to the utmost by lier advantages in retiirfnce to western trade. Nearly every good harbor, as well oa Lak(? Erie as on Ontario, either is or soon will be connected with tidewater by railroads, actually constructed or in progress. Already such conn(^xions are li)rmed with the harbors of Cape Vincent, Sackctt's Hfirbor, and Lewislon, on Lake Ontario ; and roads are in progress from (Jroat and Little Sodus bays and Charlotte, with similar objects. On Lake Eric, roads already ext( iid Ironi Tonawanda, Black Rock, Bulfilo, Dunkirk, and Erie, Pennsylvania, to tide- water; so that instead of only luo outlets tor the trade of the West, at Buffalo and Oswego, there are to be at h.-ast six times that number in New York alone. The tacilities given to tin; commerce of the country by all these lines must prove not only of utility to this coumieree, but to the trade and prosperity of the Stat(! and city of New York. The additional avenues lo marki't, already opened and in progress, will, by a healthy competitioa, reduce th(^ cost of transportation to the lowest possible point, and stimulate the niovenient of property and merchandise to an extraordinary deure<\ While every region of the United kStates is making extraordinary exertions to turn to theiusi'lves the interior trade of the country, New York is preparing ii)r the most t()rmidable competitiort with her rivals, and makes the most of the m(^ans within her reach to maintain her prest^nt j)re-eminence.
Under this head will bo embraced a notice of the rfiilronds of ther States ofMassiichusetts, New Hampshire, and Vermont, lis the lines of these States constitute one general system, and have been constructed by means furnished chiefly by the city oi' Boston.
Western railroad, — No sooner had the people of this country Ix^come acquainted with the part tliat railroads are cajiable of ])('rti)rming in commercial affiiirs, than the city of Boston conceived the bold idea of securing to ilself the trade of the inUTior, fi-om which it iiad pr(;viously been cut off by the impossibihty of opening any suitable eomnuinication by water. It was this idea that gave l)irtli to the JVesUrn railroad project, the most important which has yet been consunniviled in New England, and one of ihe most so in the United States. Tliis work h:i3 probabh' exerteil a wider influence, as the b(\st illustra \oi! of what railroads accomplish f()r the advancement and welfare oi' :■. jx nplc, than atjy similar work in the eoiuitry. Fron\ the largelle^•s oftlf- ( nlcrpriset the early period of our railroad history in which it was iai.icrl:ik(Mi. and the diffuMiltics in \hv way of its conslruelion, it is j)':')pcr', •/ rcfi'itcd to as a tilting monument of the sagacity, skill, and j)('rsiv( ';mi(h; of the merchants of liostoii. The eomplotioM of this ro.ul may h- eonsidt red as eslahlishitjg the raih'oad interest of this country upon .: ti)in basis. It showed what could \h; accomplislied, and the iiillnfiiee such W(»rkswere calcuhited to exert uj)on thi; course of" trade, and in promoting the prosptMity of all classes. It imparted a new impulse lo the iulernalnnprovement tieling of the country, uiuh-r which our railroad enlc^rprises have moved fluward, with increasing ttrength anil vigor, to the present time.
'rill! Western r.-.'ilroad, when its objects, direction, and the olvstacles in th(; way oi ils eonstruetion are considered, is cerlaiulv a remarkable work. Through it the city of" Jiosion projxjsed to draw to herself the trade and produce of the West, from the very harhor of" New York, (ti)r the Albany basin can only he regarded as a portion of her harbor;) and to open in the same direclion an outlet l!>r the product of her manufactures, and of" her f()reign commerce. It is well known that these efl(>rts ha\(' been .mi far siieeessfid as to secure to liosLon a large amount ol' westrt II trade, which* otherwise would have gone to Nt!\v York, and to r( nder thi Western road her channel of couununicaliorj between the f()rnK r eify and the West. Jt was only when menacod by this work, that New York successfullv resumed tlie construction of the Erie railroad; ami it is not too much tosav, that hut for tlifM(>rmer, the Krie road would proftably have been ahandoned, even alter lluj ex[)enditure of" many millions of" dollars, aiid the Hudson Kivcr railroad pn»ject remained uiilouehed up to the j)resent time.
The Western railroad, though constructed at immense ctist, has proved to be one of the most productive works in the United States, paying an annurd dividend of eight per cent., b(>sides accumulatiug a large sinking fund, it has been the chief instrument of" tlu; extraordinary progress of Massachusetts in popjilation, wealth, and conjtiiercial greatness, from 1840 to 1800. It supplies the Slate with a large portion of many of the most important articles of iJjod. It opened au out-
let In thn protliicts of her mfinufncturin;^ estnblishmonts and her foroign comnn^'cc, and stimulated every industrial pursuit to an extraordinary degree, and, fronn the results that have ibllowed its opening, forced all our leading cities to the construction of similar works, with similar objects.
Rail roaih from Boston to Lalce Chnmflain and the St. Lftwrencc. — The Western r.'iilroad, though accomplishing greater results, and exerting a wider inlluence upon the varied interests of the State, than either were or could, with reason, have been anticipated, secured to tlie city of Boston oidy a small portion of the westcun produce reaching Albany. As the canal, which has been the avcniu! l()r this produce, is in operation only during the period of navigation on the Hudson river, it is fiaind that this produce can be iiirvvarded to New York by water much chcafXT than to Boston by railroad. Cost of transportation always detcjrniincs llu; route. At the dullest season of the year l<)r Ireighls, flour is often sent from Albany to Liverpool at a cost not exceeding twentyfive cents per i)arrel, which is only e(]ual to the lowest rate charged from Albany to iioston. 1'lic Western railroad, tliere(i)re, though a convenient ehannt.'l through whu-h the people of lioslon and of Ma»!,sachusetts draw their domestic supplies of t()od, is t()und unable to compete with the Hudson river as a route for pro<luce designed liir /j/iortitti/m to ti)reign countries or to the neighboring States. It I'ailed to secure one of the leading objects of its construction. Its fault, however, was not so much ascribed to the ulra upon which the road was built, as to the route sel(>cled to accomj)lish its object. Jt was li'lt that a route farther reiiiovetl from tlui iulluenc(! of the New York system of public works must he selected, and this conviction led to the project of a direct line otrailroad from JJoston to the navigable waters of Lake Ontario, passing to the north of Lake C'hamplain. 'J'his line, freed from all inuiiediale competition, and iioin the attractive inlluence^ of other great cilies, would, it was believed, secure to Boston the proud preeminence of becoming the (exporting port of W(>stern jiroduce, and, as a necessary coMse(jueuee, the emporium of the country.
This great line has been conipleted ; but it has too recently come into operation to predict, with any certainty, the result. From liosion to Lake ('hamj)lain it is composed of two j)arallel lines: one made; up of the lioston and Lowell, Nashua and Lowell, C'oncord, Norlhern (New Hampshire,) and Vermont Central; the other of lh<> Fitchburg, a part ol the Yerniont and Massachusetts, Cheshire, and Kutland roads. From Ibnlingtoii, on Lake Chamiilain, these roads are carried ti)rward upon a conuiion trunk, (-(jinposed ot" the Vermont and Canada, and Ogdensbnrg (northern New \'ork) roads, to Ogdensburg, on the St. Lawrence, alxtvi; the rapids in that river, thus f()rining an uninterrujited line from the navigable waters of the great basin to the city of Boston.
The low(>r portions of these lines in Massachusetts and New Hampshire were, in the outset, constructed chicUy with local objects in view. It was not until the State of V^ermont was reached, that more comprehensive sheines began to give direction and character to the railroad enterprises in that (juarter. The Vermont CeiUral, the Kutlaml, and the Ogdensburg roads were commenced nearly simultaneously. The
leading object in their construction was that to which we have already adverted. Only with sucii objects to be realized in the future, and not during the progress of the works', could they have been accomplislied. Men were called upon to make — and they contributed under a conviction that they were ranking — great present sacrifice's t()r a future and prospective good. The constancy with which these works have been sustained and carried forward under circumstances the most discouraging, and under an unejc^'.-npled pressure in the money market, reflects high credit upon the people of Boston, by whom the money for them has* been chiefly furnishi d, a^id is the best possible evidence of the value of the prize sought to be gained.
By means of the line above described, a railroad connexion is opened with Montreal, through which that city now receives a large amount of her foreign imports, both from the United States and Gre.it Britain. This trade has already far exceeded expectation; and as the city of Boston is a convenient winter port f()r Montreal, the latter will, undoubtedly, continue to receive a large amount of her winter supphes of merchandise tiirough the fi)rmer, giving rise to a large and profitable traffic, both to the railroads connecting tlie two, and to the cities themselves, and tending to strengdien tiie position of each, as far as its hold upon the trade of the country is concerned.
Should the line otraihoiid connecting Ogdensburg and Boston prove unable to compcLe successfully with the New York works, in the carri.'iiie of W(!stern produce, so far as the ccporl trade is concerned, it will, undoubtedly, supply the demand f()r domestic consumption, and in this way not only secure a profitable traffic, but j)rove of great utility to the manufacturing and conimerciid districts of New England. For the articles of flour, corn, and euretl provisions, the New Enghnid Stales depend |)riiieipally uj)oii the West. To supply thesi; articles in a cheiip, <'X[)editiou^, and convenient iniinner, the above line is well adiipled. It not only traverses many of the most important points of coiisum|)tion, but connects with other roads penetrating every imptjrlant portion of New Engl.-uid.
Were those immediately interestgd in the above roads to derive no other advantnge th;m that of receiving their supplies ofwestern |)roducts, and l()r\vanling over them in return those ot' their own fiietories, they W(juld be fully com])cnsate(l f()r all their outlay. The unexampled progress of New England in pf)j)ulation and wealth, in spite of all her disadvantiiges of soil tuid climate;, proves, most conclusively, the wisdom and li)resiglit of her peoj)le in constructing their numerous lines of railroad, which ally them to the more fertile, and proiluclive portions of the (.'ountry.
The distance from Boston to Ogdensburg is about four hundred and twenty-five miles. The rates charged f!)r the tran.-*portatioii of ;i barrel of flour between the two have ranged from sixty to seventy-five cenits per barrel, which is less than the cost on the Erie canal f()r the same artich; from Buffalo to AlbiUiy, (a distance of three hundred and sixtythree miles,) fi)r many years after its openmg. Upon a considerable portion of the above line the grades are somewhat unfavorable, but not more so than upon otlier lines of road that aspire to a largo throughtraffic.
46,343,951
Althf ugh only a portion of the Vermont and Massachusetts road is used in the above line, the total cost of llu' road is included, as it is proposed to make this road a part of a new line to the West, to be ellected by tunnelling the Iloosac mountains.
In addition to the roads aiming at Lake Champlain, there are two important lines, the Connecticut and I'assumpsic, and the Boston, Concord, and Montreal roads — the l()rmer in Vermont, and the latter in N(>w Hampshire? — having a general northerly direction, whicli are designed to be ultimniely extended to Montreal. The ii)rmer has reached St. Johusl)ury, a distance of two hundred and thirty-eight miles from Boston, and tiiree hundred and thirty-two from New York — a higher point than any yvX attained by any New England road, with the exception of the Atlantic and St. Lawrence and the Vermont and Canada roads. The latter is nearly completed to Wells river, where it will Ibrm a junction with the Connecti(;ut and Passum|)sic road. The former will undoubtedly be soon extended about thirty miles farther north, to Island Point, which is the point of junction of the Atlantic and St. Lawrence and St. Lawrence and Atlantic railroads, through which it will have a railroad connexion both with Montreal and (Quebec. The Boston, Concord, and Montreal railroad is now being extended to Littleton, a distance of twenty miles farther north, and will undoubtedly be continued up the valley of the Connecticut, fi)r the pur[)ose of Ibrming a junction with the Atlantic and St. Lawrence road near Lancaster.
Tiie Boston and Worcester road, next to the Western, is the most important {)roj(>ct in the Slate. With the tt)rmer, it makes a part of the through line to Albany, previously noticed. It is the only channel of communication between the city of Boston and the central portions of the State, and counnands a large local revenue in addition to its throughtraffic. It is one of the m(iSt expensive, and at the same time one of the most profitable works of the kinc! in the country.
roads, have alroady hccn bricily ii< ti(;efl in describing the groat lines ol' wliie'li tlicy severally lorni llie tru'iks. All these possess a very large and lucrative local business, independent of what they derive liom intersecting roads. They deservedly rank among the leading roads of the State, and the former was a pioneem'ork of the kind in tiiis country.
Of the roads radiatirti (iom Boston in a southcsrly direction, the leading line is tlje Boston and Provide ;icc, whieh derives es[)eci:i] inipftrtance from coniuM;Ung the two larj^ st cities in N(!W England- If also forms a part of one of the ti;nst popular routes to New York, .iiid h.oids a cons{)icuons position fronj the necessarily intiinate (elation ii bca'.-" to one of the great routes of commi rce and i;av( !. TI'C n<'Xt most important road ill the southern part of ^fassac'iiu-iUts is iSie Fali iJiver road, which connects Boston with Fill! River, a largo nianufactuiing town, -nid constitutes a portion of aiioioer throiigli-roule to New York.
Thi' other roads in this portion of Massachusetts, thniigh o*' .'onsiderable locji) consecpience, d>» not, (i)r the want of cohiieciing lim .-, possess a.iv (.Dosidcrable interest *()r the public.
Rdihitiiils frmn B"<l')n cnstumd. — Tv.'o imj)orlant works, the i' sfon and Miiiitc and Easi •>" roads, connc' t Jioston with th(> t^tatc of Maiiie, traversing tli(^ norfhcafji-n. portion o!" Massachusetts and \\h' soutiieastern portion (jf New llt'i,/ -hire. Thev t!»rm a junction so(»r) alifr cnt(^ring .Maiii(\ and an- ciirr;,', i liirwiird by the Portland, Saco. and I'ortsuioutii railroad to roiihiiid. Tlic two tormcr run thronu'i an almost continued succession of huge mannliicturing towns, which ;ii!ord a very lucrative tralHc to both lines. These roads are daily becwioing more im|H»rtant tiori the ra[)id extension of railroiids in Maine, and the probable construction of the European and North American railroad, conj.ecting the Maino system of roads with iSl. .lolin and Halifax, in the lowf-r British provinces, which is destined to beeonif a great rout<' of tra\( 1 bet ween the OKI World and the Nvw. The ahove-nanii'd lines have ii ready a very large (hroiiir/i as well as local trallic, and occupy a conspiraious j)osition as a j)art of our great coast-line of railroads.
There are several lines ot'road traversing the State oi' Massachus<nt3 from north to south, of much conseijuence as ^///v/z/irA routes ; among which may be named the Connecticut Jfiver line, and that niiidc up of the JJOrrcstcr and Nashya and th(! AWhvV// and frorosfrr iwu] Providence and ll'diccshr roads. These; lines traverse districts filled with an active manufacturing population, l()r which they open a direct railway communication with New York, the great depot botii of the ii)reign and domestic trad(> of the United States.
The w(!stern portion of the State is also traversed from north to south by a line composed of the Housatonic and a branch of the Western road, extending to the town of North Adams. There are, too, in addition to these, numerous local works in the State, whii-h do not call for particular notice.
Jn the State of New Hampshire then; is but one work having tor its object the concentration within itself of tlu; trad<' of the State — the Purtsinoidh and Concord railroad. The princip;d motive in the construction of this road was to open a communication with the tratle of the interior, and prevent its being drawn off'to Boston on th(3 one hand, and Portland on the other. This work secures to the city of Ports-
mouth nil the advantnges of a connexion with the line already described, by which the city of Boston proposes to (h'aw to herself the trach; of the West, and will undoubtodly contribute much to sustain ihc trade and commercial ini[)ortance of the f()rmer.
The hno of road trav('i.:-itig the Coiaiecticut valley is briefly described under the " llailroad.s (jf Connecticut," and those traversing the western part of Vermont are embraced in the notice of the New York system.
The railroads of Connecticut and Rhode Island, though numerous, and some of llicm important, derive their chief conseciucaice from the rehitions they sustain to the works of other States, in connexion with whicli they eonsliluti; parts of several main routes of travel.
The most prominent of these is the great line connecting Boston and New York. The portion of this line in Connecticut is made up of the New Y'oik and New ILtrcn, and tiit; Ncio ILiven, llartfurd, (Did Springfield roads. These roads, in connexion with the Western and lio.ston and Worei^ster, constitute tlar great travelled land ront(^ ctaineeling New England with New York, wliicli justly raid\s with tlu; most ini])')rtanl pa.sseng(;r roads in the United Slates, as it is one of the most prolilable.
The travel between N(!W York and Boston has also given birth to other projects, claimed to b(^ still better adapted l()r its aeeommodation. The most prominent of these is the Air-Line road, designed to l()llow a nearly straight route betwt^en Nt;w Haven and Boston. Although this scheme has been long before the public, it has not been commi need, but there now a{)j)ears to be a strong probability that it will be .'jueeessfully undertaken. To open this route will only nvjuire the construction of that [)ortion of it lying in Connecticut, as tlu; Massachusetts link is already provided for by the Norl()lk county road.
Another road, construeted j)artly with a view to giving a new route betwe(!n Boston and New York, is the New London and New Haven road, recently opened to the public. This rojxd is to be extended east, both to Stonington and Norwich, to form a connexion at the t()rmer place with the Norwich and Worcester, and at the latter with tlu^ Stonington, roads. By these connexions, two new routes would be tlirmed between Boston and New York, one of which would take the iin{)ortant city of Providence in its course. It is, therefore, probable that at no distant day there will be four independent land rbutes between New York and Boston, in addition to the three lines now in operation, partly by water and partly by railroad.
By far iho grrntor pnrt of the trnvol, jind no inconpidnrnMn portion of the trade, bftwron Boston and New York, is carried ovrr the routes last named, which are known as iht- Fall Uivrr, S(nnh)(rton and Nnrwkh and JVoiccsfrrnmU's ; the lirsl is eotnposcd of the Fa// River road; lh(! second of the Boston and Prondrmw, and Stouiiig/nn ; and the third, of th(^ Boston and fVorccnter, and Nonrich and ff'oircsfrr, and tiieir corresponchnu; hues ol" steamers. All these routes an* jnstly celo brated ii)r t le eoniliirt and el(\u:aii( e of their aeeon)modatioiis ; the ease, sall'ty, and dispnteh with which their trips are pert(»rmcd ; and are coti,-e(|U('iitlv th(> liivorite routes of tin veiling!; by ;i laruc portion of iho business and travelling pui)lic. The distance between Boston and New York, by tliese nnitcs, is about 2'3() miles.
The other leaibnir lines in C'onneclient a'-e the Jlnisitfouir, cNtending from IJridgi'port to the St.ile (»!' Mnssachiisetts, aiul coiniecting with the roads in the western pari of that ^UWc ; the NdUiralud-, exfendinfi; lidm Sliatliii'd lo Wiiisled, a dislance of aboni (10 miles ; and the Cnunl railroad, exleiidinif liom New ll,iv( n and liillowinu; the ronle ol tinOld Farminuton canal to the northern part of the Stiife, whence it is to be carrier! f()rward to Notthiimptun, in Massachusetts. An important lini! of road is alsi* in |)roLnc'ss from Providence, centrally thronuh the Htafes of Wliode Ishind and (^onnectieut, to Fishkill, on the JIndson river, taking the city of II nlliird in its r<Mile. This road is regaided with great tiivor by the cities (tf II;nll!)r{| and Providi-ncc, as a means of connecting iIh inselves with the Hudson, through which both draw a very large amount of some imporl;int articles of consumption, such as brca(l*tuiis, lumber, co;ii, and the like.
The railroads lying princip:illy in Hliode Island arc (he S(<»iiii<rton, which has already been noticed, ;nid which is chiefly important as a piirt of one of the leading routes between Hoslon nnd iNevs \iirk; and the Providence and fVorast.v road. The latter is an important local work, traversing lia' almost its entire dislance a constant suc(;ession of manufacturing villages. It is also an important through-road to the city oi" I'rovidcncc, bringing her in <'onnexion with the West' in lailroad and the central portions of Massachusetts, and with iNew Hampshire and \'ermont, by means of the railroads centering at Worc(>ster.
roads.
Another im[»orlant line of railroads, not particularly noticed, whicli may be embraced in the description ot' the "railroads of Connecticut," is the great line li)llowing the Connecticut valley. This line, though
Johnsbury, Vermont, a distanc(^ (tf nbout '530 miles lrf)m New York, and 254 from N«;w Haven. Measures are now in j)rogress to secure its extension about 30 miles fiirtlier north to Island roint, there to form a junction with the St. Lawrence ;ind Atlantic railroad, in coiniexion with which a new, direct, and conveni(.-nt route will be opened lie-
Willi tilt' exception ot"tli(! Stsitcs of iMiiine jiiul ( 'oiinecticiit, tiio rnilrond svflfJMii of New Kntilnnd rcfits upon Boston ns n coniiiiDM cenli,; ; l)y the cjipitiil of which it h;is \n'vn ni;iiiily constructed. The ro;ids of Miiiiic ImIoiiu; to an indcpciuh'iit system, townrd which the city of I'oilliiiid heiirs the satnc i( lution as docs Boston to tli(^ wori\S ahcady de.scril)ed.
The le.idiiiir road in IVI;iin<' forms a part of the hue connectin^r ^Nlontreal and I'orliand, made up of th(-' Atlantic and St. Lawrence in the Uniled States, and the St. Ijawrenee and Athintic in Canada. This great work was first proposed to ihe j)eopIe of i'ortlaiid as a moans of recoveiinL' flu' jiisilion tliev had lost from the overshadowing inlhience of their great rival, Boston, and of seciiring to themselves a portion ot the trade of ih(( West, which is now exerting such marked intlnenee in the progress of all our great commercial towns.
I'orliand possesses some advanli'ges over any other city east of New York, in heing nearer to ISIontrcal, the ein[)oriuiii of the (Janadas ; and in possessing a much more tiivorahle route l()r a railroad from the Atlantic coasi to the St. I^awrence basin than any oilier, east of the (Jrecn Mniintaiii range. Tin; city of Montreal, heing acccssihle from (dl the great lakes hy the largest craft navigating these waters, is the eniiNcnicnt depot ii)r the produce collected upon them. When onct; on ship-hoard, this produce may he taken to Montreal at slightly increased rates over those charged to Jiulliilo, Oswego, or Ogdenshnrg; but the want of a winter outli-t from Montn^d to lide-wat(M' has seriously retarded the growth and jtrospcrity of that city, and prevented her (rom reaping all the advantages irom her connexion, by her niagniliceiit canals, with tlu; tradi' of the W^'St, which she would have secured by a convenient winter outlet. Formerly large amf)unts of w^estern produce were usually collected there during the autumnal months, and warehoused till spring, and then shipped to England. Shipments by this route involved the necessity of holding produce received late iu the season some l()ur or five months. The inconveniences and losses arising from these causes, aided by the repeal of the English corn laws, were among the prominent rt-asons which led to the conunfMcial arrangements by which colonial produce and merchandise are allowed to pass, in bond, through tiie territories of tlu' United States. This arrangement had a lend(Micy to divert a large trade from Montre:d, and threatened the most disastrous coiiseiiuences to its trade and |)rosperity. in view of this state of things, its citizens <'sj)onsed and prosecMteil the railroad to Portland with great energy and zeal. The whole work is far advanced toward comphnion on botfi sides of the line. 'J'ho portion within the United States will be linished
duriii;^ the present yenr, and the Cinudifui portion by the 1st of July, 1853. It occupies the shortest pnielifable route between the Si. Ljiwrenci! river and tlie Atliinlie coast, its jj^riides are favor.ibh't nowhere exceeding lil'ty ieet to the niih; in the threction of the heavy trallic, or sixty feet on the opposite course. The gauge of th(! whoU; roiid is to be live and a halt !eet. As no transhiptnent will be nccessiiry upon this road, and as its operations can Ix; placed substantially under one tnanngernent, it is believed thiit produce can be transjjorted over it at much lower r;it(;s than tlu; ordinary charges upon railro.ids.
As l)('l()ri' stilted, the plan of a railroad from I'orthind to the St. Lawrence originiited in the idea of the possibility of making that city the Atlantic terminus of a portion of the trade of the St. Lawrence imd the great lakes. The city of New York had so long been in the exclusive possession of this trade, as to create the idea that she held it by a sort of natural and inalienable right. When the idea was proposed ol' turnini; this trade; thronuh anew channel, and of brit)<Mni: it to tla; Atlantic coast at a p;)int some i()ur hundred miles northward, tin; boldness ot such a propisilion was enough to stagger the credulity of every one who did not Ic'cl himself immediately inter(\ste(l in the residt. As soon, however, as the prospect was fully untt)lde(l to the people of Portland, its apparent practii-ability, and the a<lvanlages which it promised to seeurt;, took coinpltHe possession of the publii" mind, and tlu; city resolved, single-handi'd, to undertake the constru(;lionof a work running, for a considerable portion of its distance, through eomj)aratively unexplored f(»resls ; traversing for out; hundred miles, at least, the most moutiliiinous and apparently most (lillieull portion of the eastern Slates for railroad enterprises; and involving a cost, ti)r the American portion aloni;, of over five millions of dollars. Ui-peated atlemj)ls had been made to construct a short road, l()r th(? aceomirioilalion of lt)cal lrafli(;, ujjon the very n)Ute since selected t()r the great lin(>, but without success. The inducements held out W(!re not reg.irded sullicient to warrant the necessary outlay. • It was oidy by assuming that the people of Portland held within their grasj) the tradt; of one of the most important chaniuds of commerce in the whole country, that they could be induced to make the ellbits aiid sacrifices necessary to sucTliesf! elK)rts and sacrifices have biten made. The project is on
the eve of realization, and the wisdom in which the seheriu! was conceived, and the skill and abihty displayed in its execution, giv(! the most satisfactory assurance of (•omplete sucet.'ss.
The length of this line, the construction of which devolved upon the peo[)l<! ')f i'ortland, is about one hundred and sixty miles, costing about $35,000 per mile, or an aggr.'gate of nearly S(),000,000. 'I'll.; first step in the process of construction was a stock subscription of over $1,000,000 by th(; citiz(;ns of I'ortland, aided by some small contributions fioin towns on th(! route — i()r the project was regardcul by all others as a mere chimera. This was exj>ended in construction, and was sulHcicnt to open the first division, which, running through an excellent country, at once entered into a lucrative trallic. The city of Portland then obtained, by two several acts of the legislature, permission to pledge its credit to the road to the amount of $2,000,000. These sums, with some further additions to its stock, furnished a cash capital
of over .f 3,000,000 to the woi The ncccssnry brilnncf; lina been r.'iisrd upon stock sdb.scriptions , coiitrac-tors and company bonds. In this tniiinicr has a ci(y of 20,000 inhabitants sccnrcd ihc constiiuMion of u (irst-clrtss railroad, connecting it with the St. Jiawrcnco by the shortest rotitc practicable f(>r a raihoad from any (»f our seaports. The amoiuH, aciiially paid in to ihe project by th(! people of I'ortland will
exceed ^-W in cash to each individual, m addition to $\()0 to each, represented by iUccrtdifs that have been extended. It is believed that no belter nionuuient exists iti this country of the eneruv and enterprise <»f our pcopl*', afid tiu; succ<\ssful t;o-operalit)n of one community in tlic <'X(!cution of a creat enterprise! by which all an;, relatively speaking, to be eijually benelitted. It is an example which cannot be studied innl imitated without proiil.
I'rior l(» tJie coustiuclio»i of llie Atlantic and St. Lawrence railroad, th(! only railroad of importance in the Stale; was the Portland, Saeo and Portsnjouth roiid, wliiih connected its comuiercial nxtropolis with the railroad system of IMassa<liusetls. This road was constructed by persons interested in the connecting lines, as a necessary extension ot their *)wn. VV^hen tiie city of Portland was roaclird, their objects were regarded as secured. Any I'urther extension of railroads in Maine; wag looked upoii as of doubtful utility to the interests of the cil\ of lioston, the great cnlrc of the New Kngland system. It was li-lt that the eonstruetiofi of railroads north and «'ast from Portland, into the interior, might conceiiirale in ///«/ <'ity the trade of the Slate, which had been almost exclusively enjoyed by the; liiruicr. 'J'his trade -.vas already secured and sulliciciilly acconunodated, as liu" as Boston was concerned, by tli( exteii-ivc coMUUereial marine ol' the two States; and the ^construction of railroads, it was ti-lt, migiit les<en iustea<l ot" sire nut hening the« gra<p by which she' liedd it. While every e)tlie'r petrliem of the country was embarking in railre)aels, the' ce)nvictie)n grewu|> that Maine Viisiiiilthe j)re)pe'r theatre li)i such eaite'rp' i-e-s, e)r, it it were*, the- |)ee)ple felt their mr:uis iuk <|eial to tin ir ce)nstruc tion, anel it was kne)wn tluit no ibie-ign aiel unidd be> hael. All such pre>jee'ls, therele)re', came- to be regarded with c(im[)arative' inelillere-nce'. In this ce)ndition of the' public mind tin* Atlaiitie- anel Si. Lawre'tie-e- selu'iiu' was preipeisenl, aael with it u systean e»f railre)aels inele'pe'nelent of the' re'St e)f the Ne-w England States, which she)uld e'e)nce'ntrate' within her own It rriteny her capital anel eriernie ;, anel which she)ulel ne»t e)nlv plaee' hc< in :i ce)nunaiuling posiliein in retereiice lei the- traele; of the' West, but. at the same; time, place.' her en ruud e»f the gre^at line e)f travel bet wee n the Old anel New Worlds — a pe)sitie)n ceimhining all the advantages of the ine)st faveirable cotnie'xie)ns with the; de)me'sti(; traele of the ce)unlry anel with le)reign conunerce' anel travel. These pre)pe)sitie)ns cenistitute an era in the histe)ry e)f the Slate'. A new lile was infused into the public nu'nd, and objects e)f the- highe.'St value* helel out as the- rewarel of new elJbrts. The ellect npein the; petlicy and public sentiment of the- State has been magical. The; whole people felt and saw that they have rights and interests le) maintain anel vindicate, and that Maine, instead e)f being a re'inevte anel isolated State, removed from parlicip iliem in the- projects and schemes which are ettecting changes so marvellous upein the face of se)cietv, could be brought by her own eflbrls into the ve-ry tiicus
of tlic pjcnt nuxlcrn movomnnt. A nrw destiny wns ofwnrd Scfow her. To this call she lias nobly n'sjiondcd, and the Slal(! is (il;'-^^ v^-ah projects that promise, in a few years, to Heeiire to every portion of it all necessary railroad accommodations, with the results which alwavs
Maine, to H.ililax, Nova Scotia, taking St. John, New Brunswick, in its route. From Hangor west, tla* line is to be made u|) of (he Tenol)flcot and Kennebec road, now in progress; ih(^ Androscoggin and \\v\\nebec rf»ad, with :i portion of the Atlantic and St. Jiawrence, now in operation. When the whole line* shall be ompleted, it is claimed that the transatlantic travel will pass over this road to and from Halifax, and that through Maine will 1h^ the great uvcmie of travel betwtien Europe and America. Widiout expressing any opinion as to the Houndness of such claims, their correctness is at present assumed, and is made the basis of action on the part of the people of the Stale, and, to a certain extent, gives cliaract<T nnd direction to thfir railroad eMler|)rises.
Of this great line, that portion cMending fri>m |'(»itland to Waterville, a distanc<' ot" ciLjhly-two miles, is aheadv provided |i»r by a portion of the Atlantic and St. Ijawrcncc, and the Androscoggin and Kennebec railrojids. The portion from Waterville to fVingor, something over Ht'ty miles, is in progress. From IVingor to the bciundary lin(> ol" New lirunswick, no delinite jtlan has been agreed upon; although the iubjcct is receiving the careful consideration ot" the parties having it in charge, and no doubt is expressed that such measures will be taken as shall secure complete and early success to the measure. The New Brunswick ])orti(»n of it is already provided ii>r by a contract with a company of eminent FiUglish contractors, who, it is Iwlieved, will also uud'rtake the Nova Seotia division. Of the realization of ijiis seheme at the earliest day there can be no doubt. The plan meets with as hearty ajiproval in th(! provira-cs, and in (Ireat Britain, as it does in Maine; and on both sides of tlu; water are the n-sults clainu'd fully conceded. Such l)einLj the liict. jineign capital will be certain to supply, and is, indeed, now supplying, whatever may be lacking in lliis country.
Anf)tlier l(^•lding road in Maine is the Kenn(diec and Portland, extending from Portland to Augusta, upon the Kennebec river, a distance of over sixty mih's. This road it is proposed to extend, to f()rni a juiuMion with the IVnobscot and Kennebec, by which it will become a convenient link from Portland east in the great European and North American line already relerred to.
An im]>ortant line of road is also in progress, toexten<l from Portland to South licrwick, there to ti>rm a junction with the Boston and Maine road — thus f()rming two independent lines of railroad between Portland and Jloston. A portion of this line is in operation, and the whole under contract, to be completed at an early day.
a railroad
following; tlio IVnobacot river un to Fiiiicohi, ii dislnncr, of uhont filly rnilcs. As thc^ route is n'tnarkahly Hivoruhie, iitid easily within the means of the city of Bangor, its speedy cotislruction may he .s( t down
as certain. It is iniieh needed to aeeotnmodate the important himhering interest on that riv«!r. From llangor to Oldlown — a «listanee of twelve niilc'8 — a ruilroad ulreatly exists, which will t()rin a part of the ahove line.
The railroads of New Jersey, as do tliosc of llie Slate of (Joiineeti<"nt, derive their chiet* inip«irtanee from their etuiiiexioii \^ilh tiie routes of commer(;e and travel of otluT kStales.
The most iiriportatit roads in the State air those niiiliiiu; New York and IMiiladrlpliia, tiie i'ltimlni and ^linlinij :iiid the S( ir Ji:ri(i/ railroads, in eonn(^xi(»n with tin* Phitadelphia mid Vnninii road, lyinij; within the State of Pennsylvania. Upon these roads are tlirown not only the travel hi Iween the two largest cities in the I'liiled Slates, hut hetween the two great divisions of the eoinitiy. As might he expi'cted from such relations, they command an immense passenger triilhc, and rank among our m »st successful and productive works of the kind. They tir(! much more important as routes of travel than of commerce, as the Uaritan canal, wliicli has the same general direction and connexions, is a hetter medium li>r heavy lraiis[)ortatiou.
Another impoitant work is the \rir Jasii/ (^rff/>v//, which traverses the 8tat<' from east to west. At Kli/alntlitown it conin>ets with the New Jersey road, thus liirmiiig a direct railroad connexion hetween New York and Iviston, on tlie Delaware river. This roail, though locally important, is still more so liom its prospective connexions with other great lines of road, eitln r in pi(tgress or in operation. It is j)roposed to extend itupthe valley of the Lt^higli, and through the mountain range lying hetween tlie J)elaware and Sus(|nehaiina rivers, to Catawissa, on the latter, from which it will he carried to Williamsport, to t()rm a coiniexion with the tSinifjunj und Erir roail, which is ahout to l)C commenced. Upon the completion (»t these, the Central would not only form a very important avenue hetween the city of New York and the coal-fields ot" Pennsylvania, from which tliat city draws its sup()Iies of fuel, but would unite the city with Lake Erit-, opening a m-w and direct line tor the trade of the West, and j)lacing New York in very tiivorahle relations to the proposed Sunhury and Erie lin(\ Frtm Easlon to Sunhury a large amount has alrearly been (>xpended ti)r \.\n\ purpose of opening the ahove communication, and no doubt is expressed that this project will be speedily realized.
proposed road from the Lackawanna valley to that place, and of opening an outlet for the latter in the direction of Philadelphia. This road has already been completed to Lambertville, and is in progress beyond that point.
Another important road in this State, possessing similar characteristics with the Central, is the Morris and Essex. This road is now ir» operation to Dover, a dist.'ince of about forty miles irom New York, and is in progress to a point on the Delaware river, opposite tiic Water Gap. JVom the Water Gap a road is proposed extending to the Lackawanna valley, at Scranton, the centre of very extensive deposiles of iron and coal. The imporiiiM'je of a continuous line of railroad from the co:il-(ields of I'en'ijiylvania to New York bus already Ixien adverted to. The extension of the Morris and Essex line into the Liiekawanna vnlley is of the first c'O'.biMpience, from the connexion it would there tbrm. Till- viuley is a. eady connected with western New York and the great lakes, and will be the li)cal point of a large number of ro.ids, constructed ibr ih(> purpose ol' becoming outlets for its coal in a noitherly direction, lly the opening of a railroad from ihis valley to New York, a new and important route would be formed between th;il city and the lakes, which could not fail to l)eeome a valuable one, lK)th li)r commerce and travel.
Through the northern piirt of the Stale, the Erie railrond is now brought to Jersey City by m(!ans of what is now called the Union railroad, composed of" two short roads, previously known as the Valersun and the Fatcrson and llama pn ; \\\v track of this will be relaid, ■^^^ ;is to correspond to the Erie giiiige. Through this road the Erie is brought directly to tlie Hudson, opj)osite New York — a mailer of great importance so far as its j)iisseng<r traffa; is concerned. The tt)rmer is leased to, aiul is run as a part of", the Erie road.
A railroad is nlso in progress from Camd(!n, opposite! I*hil;alelj)hia, to Absecum lieaeli, on tlie Atlantic coast. Tiiis road will traverse tho Stiite centrally, from northwest to soullieast, and will prove a great beni'fit to the country traversed.
Dcliiivnrr and llaritmi, and the Morris and Essex.
The Ihlamtre and llarilan canal, the most considerable work of the two, commences at New Brunswick and extends to Bordentown, a diatnnce oi' 43 miles. It is 75 feet wide at the surface, and 47 at the bottom, nnd 7 ii-et deep. TIhtc are seven locks at eacli end, 110 W.vX long, and 24 lin-l wide, having eight fi-et lilt each. Tliese locks piiss boats of 228 tf)n3 burden. The canal is supplied from th(« Delaware river, by a feeder tnken out 22 miles above Trenton. This canal connecls with the Delaware division of the J*ennsylvania canals, and is the principal chanii; 1 through which New York is supplied willi coal. It also commands a large amount of freight between New York and IMiiladelphla, and is navigated by regular lines of propellers, running between the two cities. This work is of very great importijuce to the city of" New York, us a means of supplying that city with coal, and
as affording a convenient channel of communication with Philadelphia. It is also an important work in a national point of view ; as, in connexion with the Chesapeake and Delaware and the Dismal Swamp canals, it forms an internal navigable water-line, commencing with Long Island sound, and extending south, and by way of the cities of New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Norfolk, to the south part of North Carolina. This fact was regarded of great consequence to the commerce of the country, prior to the construction of railroads, as it would have enabled our people to maintain an uninterrupted communi(!alion between the different portions of the country in the event of a war with a fi)reign power.
Morria ami Essex canal. — This work extends by a circuitous route from Jersey City to the Delaware river, at Easton. Its length is about one hundred miles. Its revenues are principally derived fiom the local traffic of tjje country traversed, and the transportation of coal, which is brought to Easton hy the Lehigh canal. Its relations to the commerce of the country are not such as to call tor particular notice.
The attention of the people of Pennsylvania was, at an early period in our history, turned to the subject of internal improvements, with a view to the local wants of th(' vState, and for the purpose of opening a water communication between the Delaware river and the navigable waters of the Ohio. It was not. however, till stimulated by tiie example of Ni!W York, and the results which her great work, th Erie canal, was achieving in devf-loping and secuning to the former tlie trade of the West, that th(! State of Pennsylvania commenced the eonstrucaion of various works which make up the elaborate system of that State.
The great Vniiisijtvonia line of improvement, ext<'U(ling from Philadelphia to J'ittsburg, was commenced on the 4th of July, 182G, and was linally eoniph^led in March, 1834. It is made up partly of railroad and partly of canal, the works that conip()S(> it being the Columbia railroad, extending from Philadelphia to Colambia, a distance of 82 miles ; the cast( rn and Juniata divisions of th(^ I'eiuisylvania canal, extending from (/oUunbia, on the Susquehanna river, to Hollidaysburg, at the liMse of the Alleghiuiy mountains, a distance of 172 miles ; llie Portage railroad, extenthng from Hollidaysburg to Johnston, a distance of 3(5 miles, and by which the mountains are surmounted ; and the wciern division of the Peruisylvania canal, extending from .Tohnston :o Pittsburg, a distance r»f 104 miles; making the entire distance irom Phila{lel|)hia to Pittsburg by this line 394 miles. The canals are 4 tint dej^p, 28 fi-et wide at the bottom, and 40 at the water-line. Its locks are 90 leet long, and from 15 to 17 li'et wide. The AUegliar.y mountains arc passed by a summit of 2,491 feet, and the eastern division of the canal attains a height of 1,092 tJ'ct above tide-water. The Portage road consists of u Bcries of inclined planes, which are worked hy stationary engines.
The eastern division of the canal has an additional outlet, by means of the Tide-water canal, (a private enterprise,) which extends from Columbia to Havre de Grace, on the Chesapeake bay, in Maryland. It forms an important avenue between both Philadelphia and Baltimore and the interior of the State, as the boats that navigate it are, after reaching tide-water, conveniently taken to either city, as the case may re(iuirc.
The line of improvement we have described was constructed with similar objects, and bears the same relation to the city of Philadelphia as docs the Erie canal to the city of New York. It has not, iiowever, achieved e{\iui\ results, partly from the want of convenient western coiHK'xioiis, from the unfavorable cliaracter of tl)e route, and partly tVom the fact that the line is made up of railroad and canal, involving greater cost of ir.insporlalion than upon the New York work. It has, Iiowever, proved of vast utility to the city of Philadelphia and to the k'^tatr, and lits enabled ihc ll)rmer to maintain -i very large trade which she Would li.ivc lost but ii)r the above line. The comparatively heavy cost of transportation over this route has not enabled it to compete with the New York improvements, as an outlet for the ehe;ip and bulky products ot" the West; but so fiir as the return movement is coDccrned, It enjoys some advantages over the liamer, the most important of which is the longer period during which it is in operation. At th(> connnenceniont of the season it op»'ns fi)r business alxiut a month earlier than the Erie canal — a fact wiiirij secures to it and to the city of lMiila(lelj)hia a very large trade long beli)re its rival comes into o{)eration; so that, although it may not have realized the expectations ti)rmed from 'c as an outlet ilir western trade, it has been the great suj){)orl (»f Philadelphia, without which her trade must have succumbed lo the superior advantages of , New York. - •,
It would be a matter of nnieh interest could the movement of property, u[)on the two lines ol improv( incnl from tide-water to the navigahle waters of tht- West, be compared, l)oth in toi»nagt> and value. The r( turns of the Pennsylvania works, however, do not furnish the neci ss;n V diifa t()r such a comparison. There are no melhoils ol distinguishing accurately the local iioui the through-toiaiiige, nor the (juantity or value of properly received Iroin other St.'ites, as is shown upon the New York works. The returns of the business on the l()rmer, however, show only a small movement east over the l'oit;ige road, which must indicate pictly correctly the tlnoinjfh movement. In the opposite direction the amount, both in value and toiniage, is nuicli larger. A better idea, prot)ably) can he l()rmed of the value and amount of this trallie Iroin the »'Xtent of the jobbing trade of I'hiladelphia, a very consider;d)le portion of which nnist piiss over the above route. I'l)il;id«'lphia, though it docs not possess a huge lt)reign commerces if, one of the great distributing points of merchandise in the L'nion ; and the large jntpulation and the very rapid growth of that city, in the absence of the j'ortign trade enjoyed by New York, proves conclusively the immense ilunnstir. commerce of iIk^ l()rmer.
posed of the Susquehanna division of the Pennsylvania canal, extending liom the mouth of the Juniata to Northumberland, a distance of 39 miles, and the North Branch canal, extending from Northumberland to the State line of New York, a distance of 162 miles, where it will connect with the New York State works and tlie numerous proposed lines of railroad centring at Elmira. Of this last-named canal, 112 miles, extending from the mouth of the Juniata to Lackawannock, have been completed, at a cost of nearly $3,000,000, and the remainder of the line is in rapid progress. As the lower part of this canal will connect with the Pennsylvania, and through this with the Tidewater canal, a great navigable water-line will be constructed, extt^nding through the central portions of the State from north to south. This line will, lor a considerable portion of its distance, traverse the anthracite coal-fields of the State, from which a large traffic is anticipated. A large trade is also expected from the New York works in such articles as Philadelphia and Baltimore are better adapted to supply than New York.
Another important work, so far as the coal trade of the country is concern(>d, is the Ddairnrc (livision of the Poausijlvania canal, ext<Miding from Bristol to Easlon, a distance of sixty miles. This work l()rms the outlet to the great Lehigh c(jal-fields. Its cost has been about S? 1,500,000.
In the western portion of the State several important works were projected, as a jiart of the great system originally projiosed, although only ati iiu.-onsitlfrable portion of llieiu has been compli'Led by the Stale. Oi these are, first, the livavvr dinxhtn of the J\/insylt'(inia, canal, commencing at Beaver, on the Ohio, at the mouth of Betiver river, and extending to NcweaslK', about twenty-five miles. This canal t()rm3 the trunk of tlu' Mahoning canal, extiJidiiig from the State line of Pemisylvania t<i the Ohio canal, at Aki(»n, a distance of about seventysix miles; and also of the Krie extension of" i ;' Pennsylvania canal, coaiineihing near Newiastle and extending to Lrie, a distance of about one hundred and six miles.
This la.-l-descrilKd work has passed into privile hands. Ii is at the present time chieflv eiuploved in the trau^poilalion oi coal, and is the prineip.d avenue lor the supplv of this aril.le to Lake Erie. Connected with the Erie extension is a Stale work called the French creek li^-eder and Franklin bianch, extending liom Franklin, on the Allt ghany river, to ('oiiui aut lake, by wav of Meadville, a distance of abi)nl fitly miles. These iinpKivenients in the western pari of the State are chiefly important as local works ; they have not proveil productive as investuieiits, (hough hii^hly bent ficial to the cotintry traversed.
Tl»' Wi St Branch canal, extending from iS'orihumberland to Lockhavea, a ih>ianee of s' venly-two miles, is a work of much local importance, UH it traverses a region very rich both in soil aJid mini>rals.
The above constilnte the leading work^ which belong to the Slate syst( ui, as it may be t rmed. There are a liu other works of minor im[)orlaace, which do not call f(>r particular notice.
So fin- as their income is concerned, the various works undertaken and executed by lh<; Stale have not proved productive, though llu^y iiavc been of vajsl utility, aad have exerted a great iniluence in dcvel-
oping the resources of the State. The usefulness of the great Central line has been seriously impaired b}"^ the compound and irtconvenient character of the work, n)ad(! up partly of railroad and partly of canal. The mountains are overcome by inclined planes, which are now regarded as inconjpatible with the profitable operation of a railroad, mid which are to he avoided on the route by works now in progress. The other works described, not having been carried out according to the original plan, have failed to make the connexions conienipiated, and conse(]uently have not realized the results predicted. Th(j State of Pennsylvania, however, possesses within herself elements which, properly developed, are fitted to render her, probably, the first State in the Uiiion in pn])ulati(>n and wealth. This has, to a gn>at extent, been aln^ady fffeeted by tlii> works dcvscrilH'd, which have in this way added to the various iiilcresls of the State a value tenibld gr( iter than the cf;.-:: ; and her prople e;in much betler afford to pay iIm; ii-ini.n.H^ sums which these works have cost, than renmiu unprovidtid \^idi .uich imp'ovemciits, ev(Mi with cnliic ii-eedom from debt.
intorlnr — nno more in hnrmony with the works in prnirross^ind onoratioii in olhor States than the great line aheady d("scribed. The latter is not only poorly adapted to its objccis, bnt is closed a considerable jortioa of the year by frost. The mercantile classes of Philadelphia jav(! long ielt the necessity of a work better adapted to their wants, and fitted to become a great route of travel as well as commerc(^ tiom the intimate relation that the one bcuirs to the other. It is by this interest that the above work was proposed, and by which the means have been furnished for its construction. The convietiojp of which we have spoken has been instrumental in procuring the money for this
Erojeet as fast as it could be economically expended. The work has een pushed forward with extraordinary energy from its commencement. Aheady a great portion of the line lias been brought into operation, and the whole will soon be completed.
Thr IV-nnsylvania railroad commences at Harrisburg and extends to Piilsburg, a distance of two hundred and fifty miles. The general route of the road is fiivorable, with the exception of the mountain division. The summit is crossed at about 2,200 fi-et above tidowater, involving gradients of ninety-five feet to the mile, which are less than those resorted to on the Bahimore and Ohio railroad, and not much exceeding llios(! profital)ly work(Ml on the Western railroad of Massachusetts. The rout(^ is grjided, and the structures are prepared li)r a double track, whic^h will be laid as soon as possible* al'u-r the first shall be opened 'i'lu^ cost of the road, f!)r a single track, is estimated at $12,r;()(),()(J0, of which $i),750,0()0 have be(>n alrea<ly providetl by stock subscriptions. The balance is 1o l)e raised by an issu(; of iionds. The road is to be a first-class work in eM>ry resjiect, and is constructed in .a manner fitting the great avenue between IMiiladelphia and the western States.
As a t/inwfrfi route, [)oth f()r trade and travel, th(M-e is hardly a work of the kind in the United States [)oss(>ssing greater advantagi^s or a stronger position. Its western terminus (Pitlshurg) is already a cil} of nearly 100,000 inhabitants, and is rapidly incn^ising. That city is tli(! seat of a large manufacturing interest, and the c<'ntre of a considerable trade; and a road (ronneeting it with the commercial metropolis of the State cannot tiiil to command an immensi; and lucrative trallie.
The western connt^xions which this road will make at Pittsburg arc of the most favorabh; charai-ter. It.alreiidy has an outlet to Iiaki> Krie through the Oliitt and Pennsylvania and tht> Clevi land and Wellsville roads. The fiirmer of these is regarded as the appntpriate extension of the Pennsylvania line to the central and western portions of Ohio. Through the Pittsburg and Steubenville road (a work now in progress) a connexion will be optnied with the Steubenville and Indiana railroad, which is in jirogress from Steub(>nville to Columbus. These; lines, in conii(>xion with the Pennsylvania road, w'ill constitute one of the shortest iiracticable routes between Phihidelphia and C(Mitral Ohio. At Greenburg, 25 miles east of I'ittsburg, the Hempfield railroad will form a direcJt and convenient connexion with VVh(>eling, which has already become an important point in the railroad system of the country. At that city, by means of the Hempfield line, the l*cnnsylvania
road will he connoctcd with the central Ohio and with the northern extension of the Cincinnati and Marietta roads ; and through all the ahovc-named linos the former will be brought into intimate and convenient relations with every portion of the western States.
The Pennsylvania road must also become a route for a considerable portion of the travel between the western States and the more northern Atlantic cities. J^om New York it will constitute a shorter line to central Ohio than any offered by her own works. It will, lor such travel, take Philadelphia in its course — a matter of much importance to the business community.
The route occupied by tlie rof d is one of the best in the country for local traffic, possessing a fertile soil and vast mineral wealth in its coal and iron deposites. From each of these sources a large business in;.y he anticipated. The whole road cannot fail, in time, to become the seat of- a great manufacturing interest, lor which th(^ coal and iron upon the route will (lirnish abundant materials.
The Pennsylvania road, though only partially oj'.ened for bus^inesa, has demonstrated its immense^ importance tf) the trade of Philadelphia. i( was the means of securing to that city during tli« prescni. year a very large spring trade, wliieh otherwise would have gone to New York. Tl? ,: Ivanlages already secured are but an earnest, it is claimed, of what the above work will achieve when fully competed. Il is eonlidently expected by its jjrojectors th Jt tlie work will be lollowed by the same results in J'hiladt'lpliia that the Erie canal secured to the cnty of New York. However this may be, then; can be no doubt of iL6 becf)ming tlie channel of an extensive commerce, and e:?e calculated to promote, in an e/ninent degree, the prosp<'rity of the city of Philadelphia, as well as that of the whole Slate.
Tli«' next most itiiportant work in the State, and one of great(M- local inip<trlaiice, is the r/iKoddp/iia and limidinv railroad. This work is the great outlet of the Schuylkill cfial-li(>lds to tide-water. On this account it hears a most intimate relation to most of the great intere.-ls ot the eoinitrv. Its length is about ninety miles, and its total cost about S17.()(MI, ()()(), It is one ol the most ex[»ensive and l)est-built roa<!s in the L'nited States. All its grades are in favor ol' the heavy tradic. Nearly 1?,0(I(),()()(J tons of coal have been transported over this road the past year. Tiiere can be no doidit that the enormous coal liailic which this road secures to J'hiladelphia is one of the causes of the extraordinary increase of that city froni l^S-l*' '(» IH/jO. This work has not, till a eoniparafiv(^ly n cent (>eriod, proved a profitable one to tla^ stockholders; but it is coniidenlly expected that li»r the I'ulun il will yield a lucrative income.
r/il/ddi/jt/iiii, Wilmliiirton, and litihimorc mi/road. — This woik lies partly in tli(> three States of PemisylvaPiJi, Defiwaie, and Ma: viand, but may be approj)riali ly described with the iViuisylvania roads. Its income is chielly derived liom its passenger tralhe. It is one of the most irnjxirtant trunks In the gn-at coast-line of ri.iho.ids between the North and the South, and would hr supposed to be one of the best routes in th(! country li)r a lucrative irallic. its liMigth is ninety-eight nnh'S, and it has cost something over $G, 000,000. It has been an expensive vork to construct and maintain, and has not, conse(juenlly, proved very
profitable to stockholders, though its value in this respect is rapidly increasing. Its position is such as to monopolize the travel between its termini and between the northern and southern States.
Among the other railroads in operation in the State may be named, 1st, the Philadelphia and Trenlon, one of the links of the principal line of road connecting Philadelphia with New York, and for this reason an important work. This is one of the leading routes of travel in the country, and commands a very profitable traffic. 2d, the Horrisfmrg and Lancaster road, which forms a part of the great line through the State. 3tl, the York and Cumberland road, which is to form a j)art of the line through central Pennsylvania, of which the Susfjuchanna road is to be an important link. 4th, the Cvmhcrland Valley road, extending from Harrisburg to Chambersburg. 5th, the Laclnwanva avd Wratern road, conncx'ting the northern coal mines of Pennsylvania with thf^ New York improvements. 6tli, the Fhiladclphia, GirmanUmin., and Norrislown road, of which it is proposed to t<)rm the base of a line extending from Norristown to the Delaware river. 7lh, the Franklin railroad, extending from Cliambersburg to Hagerstown, Maryland. 8tli, the Northeast. 9lh, the Franklin Canal road, extending tioni Erie to the Ohio State line. Thes(! two last t()rin the onlv existins; link between thf railroads of the Mississippi valley and of the easlt^rn States, and will. Iron) their favorable relations, coniniand an immense business. Tlu- Lackawanna and Western will soon become a part of another throurrh route from western New York to the city. Already are roads eillitr in progress or in operation fiom New York to the Watt r Gap. The completion of these will have only about Ibrty-live miles of new line, to open a new and shorter rout(! from Great Bend, on tht; Erie road, to the city of New York than i)y that line.
There are also in the eastern part of llie State numerous coal roads, the most important of which is the Pennsylvania Coal Company's road, extMidiug Irom the Lackawanna valley, n distance ol" something over Ibrtv miles, to the Delaware and Hudson canal. With the above exception, the coal roads are short lines; as they are purely local works, a description of them is not aj)propriate to this report.
There are several very impoitant works, proposed and in progress, in the State. Those in the eastern part of it are: the road iVoni Norristcnvn to till Di'laware river, which is to be extended to the Water Gap, tor the purpose of tl)rming a connexion with the proposed road to the Lackawanna valley ; the Cafaii-issa, fVillidmsiiort, and Erie road, which is the viitual extension of the Reading road into the Susciuehannu vallev ; and a road extending from Easton, lollowliig up the valley ol the Lehigh, to a junction with the road last named. The first o{' tlicse is m progri'ss. The Calawissa road was partially gradeil son)' years since, and ctlbrts are now making to securi' its completion. The road up tl'.c vaUey of the Lehigh is regartied as the virtual extension of the New Jersey Ct^ntral road into the valley of the Susquehanna, where a coinxxion will be ti)rmed with the Sunl)ury aad Erie road, thus opening a din ct communication between the latter and Niw York, and placing that city in as favorable connexions with the proposed fine to I^ake Erie !)s Philadelphia.
Hfirri^!?nir<jf up fho vnllry of (fir Pusfjiiphnnna to 'RTmlrri, in the. State of New York. This work ;nay he rcg.irdcd Jis ;i P>;i!tiinoic project, iind is sudicictitly dcscrilx'd in corinrxi(HJ with llic iJallitiiore uiid Sus<juelian(i;i railro.-KJ.
In till- western part of the vState the leadinu; work in fjrogrrss in the Allcg/iiDiji I'lilli ij i(y,\i\, exteruhnir from INltslMiru; in a generally norlheaslorn dirretion to Oloan, on the New York and Erin roail, whieii ig the pro!):d)le lerinirnis of the (Jenesee VaUey and iho Jiiiflido and Olean roads. The leiiu;lh of the Alle,tfhany Valley road will he alxuit one hunth'ed and ciu^hty /nile.«. Its gau^e will prohahly correspond to that of th(^ N«'W York and Kiie roatl. In cotniexion with this, it will form 51 very direct and convenient route heiween the i;ities of New York and Pittshing, and also heiween llu; latter and the cities of Alhany arid Boston, through the Alhany and f^iiscjuehanna road. liy tho ahove lines the Alleghany Vidley r(»ad will connect I'ittshnrg with T^akes Erie and Ontario, and with the Hudson liver. The road will traverse one of the hest portions of I'cnnsylvania, possessing a firlilc soil, and ahonnding in extensive deposites u\' coal and iron. TIk; jjroject has the warm support of Pittshnrg, and when the imlncenients to its constrnction are considered, and the means (hat < a i he made applicahlo to this end, its (!arly c()rn[)letion cannot he doith,' d.
Allot h(M- road in progress in western l'eniisvlvai;ia is tla^ ILmji/ir/d, extending from ^Jreenshurg, on the I'ennsvlvania road, tf) Wheeling, a distance of seventy-eight miles. One olthe leading e!)|e(:ts of this road is to connect the great Pennsylvania line with the roads centring at Wheeling. It derives its chief piihlic consideration I'rom this tiict, although its line traverses an excellent section of country, which would yield a large local trafiic. This project is regard<*(l with much favor by the people of Philadelphia, from the suj)[)osed favorahU^ connexions it will make w'th the Ohio Central and the northern extension of the CiiK.'iiniaii and Marietta roads. When completed, it will undonhledly become an important avenue of trade anil travel.
Tlie Pi/fs/)i(isr mid SfiiihcnrUh: road resemhles the llinjifir/d, both in its ohjects and its dire(;lion. It was proposed as a more direi't route to central Ohio than that supplied hv the Ohio and l*i nnsi/fvu/iia rnWroad. One of the leading motives tov its eonstniction was to counteract any inlluenee that the llmpfi'ld road tnighl exert pnjudical to the interests i>t i'ittshurg, hy placing th;it cily on one (»t the shortest nnih's between tbe East and W«'st. At Steuhenville it will connect with the Stcuhriinllf: and liidinnn road, now in progress iroin that cily to Columbus, the i ipital (»f ( )hio.
Tim- fwoposed Sn/ihunj ntid Kiic railroad is intended to bear the same relation to Pfiiiadelphia, in reference to the trade of Lake Erie and the W(!st, as does the Erie railroad to New York. Its length will he about two hurijrdred and l()rty miles. Active m<'asures are in j)rogress to secure tfie necessarv means ll)r this work, which promise to he successful. The whole distance by lliis route, from IMiiladelphia to liake Erie, will h(! about four hundred and twenty miles, somewhat less than that from New Y'ork.
nnls, wlii(!li havn been constructed for tlu; purpose of affi)r(ling oulI(;t.s for the anthracite coal-fields of that Stale. They derivj; (heir chief consecjuenco from their connexion with the coal tradt^ allhonu;li tlicy have a large traffic in addition, 'i'hese works, though of great ulihty and importance, fiom the relations they susli»iii to the varied inleresls of th(! country, in supplying them with I'uel, are of a local character, and do not form portions of any extended routfis of commer(;(>.
The Tidowater canal lias becMi hriefiy alluded to in the notice of the •^Stati! works," to whirli it supplies a communication with ('hes'ipeake bay, and with the; cities of liallimore and Pliiladelj)hia, by u contiimons water-line. It is a valuable? imj)rovement, and lorms the oullct ll)r a large and important section of the Slate, and iijr a portion of the commerce [jassing over the Slate works. It is a work of larg«; capacity, and is in possession ol" an extensive trade. It is also a cliannel through which a large (luanlity of coal is sent to market.
TlKM)iily road lying entirely in this State \^l\n) Nnvcustle tniil Frenchtown, connecting the Delaware; witli ('hesapeake bay, by a line of 16 miles. This road was once of" considerable importance, as it l()riiie(l a part of the route ol' travel belWiMMi ihe East and West, wliieli has since been su])erseded by tlu! IMiilad-'lphia, Wilminulon, and IJaltimore railroad. It mav now be n^uarthH
ClivMipciikc and Dvlmvarr. atnnl. — 'IMie oidy improvement ol any considerable importance! in Delavare is the Cliesa{)eake and Dtdaware canal, connecting the above-named bays. This work is VM miles long, (50 ti'cl wide, 10 feet deep, with two lift and two ti(ii;-loeks. It cost nearly S3, 000, 000. A very considerable; p(irtie)n e)f its ee)st was furnished by tlie> general gove'rnment, in elonalie)ns e)f lanel. This work be;ars a similar r(latie)n te) the' ce)nnne're'e> e)f the; country with ihe Itiuitan canal, and makes u]) a part e)l' the' same syste-m e)f intt rnal wate-r navigatie)n. It is also the channe'l of a large trade be;twee>n Chesapeake- bay and IMiiladelpliia anel Ne-w York.
The Ph'dtiddphia, WilnHngton, and JiaUimnrc railroad lie's partly withm the; Slate of Delaware-, and has bo'Ui suUiciently described under the head of "Pennsylvania."
expenditures for works tli.U facilitate transportation, tho people of Marvliind, at an early period, eomtncnced two very itnportatit works, the ChrstifKdkc and Ohio cnnal ind the lialtimorc and Ohio railroad, for the purpose of attracting 1 1 Irade of the interior, and of placing themselves on the routes of eomuKTce hetween the two grand di^ !<ions of the counlry. By the d(!ep indentation made by the Chesat'ciKkc buy, the navigabh? tide-waters are brought into n(>arest [iroximity to the Mis3i.ssip[)i Vall(!y in the {States of Mary hind and Virginia, 'lo this is to be ascribed the fact, that beli)re the use of railroads, the principal routes (tf travel between the East and the West wen; from the waters of that ba}' to the Ohio river. The great National road, established and constructed by the general government, commenced at the Potomac river, in Maryland, and its direction was made to conlbrtn to the convrnicnt route of travel jit f/iat time.
No sooner had experience demonstrited (he superiority of railroads to ordinary roads, than the people of Baltimore assumed the a{la[>tation of them to their routes of eommunicalion, and innnediateiy <"ominenced the construelion of th;it great work, thi; Ihdliinorc and Ohio railroad, which, after a struggle of fwcnfij-Jirr. years, is now on the t!Ve of completion.
This road was commenced in 18'2S, and was one of the first ro;ids brought into use in the United Slates. At the early period in which it was connnenced, the dilliculties in th(^ way of construction were not uppreciated. These obstructions, now h.ippily overci>me, for a long time proved too li)rmidjiMe to Ik; surmounted by the; engineering skill and ability, the ex|!' rii.Ko in railrond construction, and the; limited amount ot capital <!';•'. then existed in the country. Tliougli li)r a long time l()'led, ii '(ior-ds were by no means disheartened, but rose with renewed vigor :rtu\ resolution from every di-li'at, uiuil the expo ricnce of successive ettorts pointed out the true pathway to success.
The liaitimore and Ohio railroad extends t"r(»m Baltimore to Wheeling, on the Ohio river, a distance of 37i> mih'S. Its estimateil cost is Ji?l 7, iSf)3, !()(>. It cross(>s the Alleghany mountains at an elevation of 2,()t2() ieet above tide-water, and 2,0:28 feet above low water in the Ohio riser, at Wh(;eling. In ascending the mountains from tla; east, grades ol" IJG fi-et to the mile are i;ncountered on one plane, li)r ab.)ut lifteeii miles, and t(»r about nine miles in an opposite direction. (Jrades of over 100 feet to the mile, fijr over ten mil(>s, are met with on other portions oi"ilie line. These grades, which only a fi-w y«\-irs since were regarded as entirely beyond tla; abilit}' of the locomotivt; engine to ascend, are now worked at nearlv the ordinary speed of trains, and are f()und to oiler no serious obstat le to a j)rofitable traffic. Occurring near to each (Jllier, they are arranged in the most convenient manner for their economical working, by assistant power. With thi; above exception, the grades on this road will not compare unfavorably with those on similar works.
and will be completed on or befijre the first of January next.
Whatever doubt may have existed among the engineering profession, or the public, as lo the ability of this road, with such physical dilliculties in the way, to oarry on a profitable traflic, they havo been
ntid upon the people of lialtimore.
As l)e(()re stated, ifie first route of travel between tli<" Kast and the West was between the waters of the Chesapeake and tlu; Ohio. The o[)enin,i,' of the Erie canal, and, subseipienlly, of tlx; railroads Ix'lween the Hudson river and Lake Eri'", diverted this travel t(» this more northern and ('ireuitous, but mon^ eonvenicrr route. This diversion seriously nffeeted \\iv. business of Haltinior(^ arit^ mr'^erinlly lessened the revenues of the Baltimore and Ohio railroad, s opcnioL,' to (number land.
lo be measured by tlniof distance, IJaltiinwr. rrtainly occupies ii very fiivorable position in reterence to western inide. To ('inciniiati, the great city of tli(! West, and the commercial dej)ot of southern Ohio, the shortest route from all the great northern cities will probably Ix; by way of IJallimore, and over the Baltimore and Ohio railroad. To strengthen her j)osition still farther, the j)eople of this city have already commenced the construction of the Sortliivcslnn railroad, extending from the southwestern angle of the liallimitre and Ohio railroad to Paikersburg, on the Ohio river, in a direct line towards Cinciiuiati. The distance from Baltimore to I'arkersbutg, by this route, will be about 395 miles, and about 680 to Cincinnati, by the railroads in progress through southern Ohio.
From Wheeling the main trunk will be carried to the lakes by the Chvelin.diind fVcllsrille r.nWinui, now comi)leted to lf'i//sil/lr, 100 Ujiles, and in jnogress from VVellsville to Wheeling, '!>G miles ; and through central Ohio to Columbus, by tin; Central Ohio railroail, now in operalion from that place to Zanesville, a distance of about (it) miles, and in progress east to Wheeling, about 82 miles. When the Ohio, thereti)re, IS reached, Baltimort? will be brought into immediate conn(>xion with all the avenues of trade and travel in the West and will be in a strong position to contend l()r the great [)rize — the interior commerce ol" the country.
Th(! local trafKc of this road assum(;s a gr(\it importance from the immense coal trade which nmst pass over it from the (>xtensivc mines situated near Cumberland. The superior iiuality of this coal will always secure l()r it a ready tnarket, and there can be no doubt that the demand will always be ecjuai to the capacity of the road. Already has this trade been a source of lucrative tratlie, and contributed not a little to tlu; success of the road bet()re the western connexions, upon which complete success was predicaltnl, could be l()rme(l. But for tliis traliic the credit of the company could have iiardly l)e(>n maintained, at a point necessary to secure the re(iuisite means ii)r its prosecution to the Ohio river.
Susquehanna railroftd, by which that city secures a communication with the country lying to the northwest, and with the public woiks of the State of Pennsylvania, as she will ultimately with those of New York. As Hir as distance is concerned, the city of Baltimore occupies as favorable a position in reference to the public works of Pennsylvania, and the various hnes of improvement connecting with them, as does the city of Philadelphia; the former being only 82 miles from Harrisburg, while the latter is 107 miles. Such being the fact, Baltimore is making the most vigorous efforts to perfect and extend the works by which these important communications are maintained. She is esj)ecially occupied in pushing a line up the Susquehanna river, with a view to its extension to Elmira, the most considerable town on the Erie railroad between Lake Erie and the Hudson. This town is also connected with all the railroads running through central New York, with Lakes Erie and Ontario at various points, and by a water-line with the Erie canal. By reaching this point, the Baltimore lines of improvement will be brought into direct connexion with the New York system of public works, which have thus far monopolized the interior trade of the country. To divert this trade frou) its accustomed channels, and to turn a portion of it at least to Baltimore, is one great object that induces her to lend her aid to the Susquehanna road in Pennsylvania, through which this object is to be effected.
The trunk of this great line is the Baltimore and SusquehannaraWroacif which extends from Baltimore to York, Pennsylvania, a distan(;e of 56 miles. In its original construction it received important aid from the State. It has not been a successful work, in a pecuniary point of view, owing to a fiiully mode of construction and to tlie want of suitable connexions on the north. But these drawbacks to its success have been removed, and its business prospects are now rapidly improving. From York it is carried forward to Harrisburg, by means of the York and Cumberland road. Beyond this point no railroad has been constructed up the Susquehanna valley. It is the construction of this link that is occupying the especial attention of the city of Baltimore, an;l toward which, in addition to private subscriptions, she has extended aid in her corporate capacity to the amount of $500,000. The distance from Harrisburg to Sunbury, the route occupied by the Suscjuehanna company, is about 50 miles. From Williamsport to Elmira tlie distance is about 75 miles. A portion of this last-named link is in operation ; and should the road from Williamsport to Ralston be adopted, as a part of the through route, it will require only the construct ion of" some 20 miles to complete the last-named link. Vigorous measures are in progress for the commencement of operations upon the unfinislied portion of the above line, and the whole will be completed, as soon as this can be done, by a prudent outlay of the means that can be made applicable to the work.
When the works in which the city of Baltimore is now engaged shall be completed, she will occupy a favorable position, as far as her jfroxitnity to the great interior centres of commerce is concerned. She will probably be on the shortest route between the great northern cities and Cincinnati — she will be nearer to Buffalo than even New York or Boston. She expects to realize in results the strength of her position in the
osiiion in the
abstract. Assuming cost of transportation to be measured by lineal distance, how far the result will justify her expectations remains to be seen ; at all events, she is certain to be amply repaid for all her efforts, by the local traffic of the country traversed by her lines of railroads, which will increase largely her present trade, by developing the resources of the section of country legitimately belonging to her.
The next most important line of road in Maryland is the Washington branch of the Baltimore and Ohio railroad. -This forms a part of the great coast line, extending from the eastern boundary of Maine to Wilmington, North Carolina. Its traffic is chiefly derived from passengers. It is, besides, situated too near the navigable waters of the Chesapeake to command much more than local freight. As a connecting link m the great national line referred to, it occupies a position that must always secure to it a profitable traffic.
Chesapeake and Ohio canal. — This gi'eat work was projected with a view to its extension to the Ohio river at Pittsburg. The original route extended from Alexandria, up the Potomac river, to the mouth of Wills cieek, thence by the Youghiogeny and Monongahela rivers to Pittsburg. Its proposed length was 341 miles. It was commenced in 1828, but it was only in the past year that it was opened for business to Cumberland, 191 miles. Towards the original stock $1,000,000 was subscribed by the United States, $1,000,000 by the city of Washington, $250,000 by Georgetown, $250,000 by Alexandria, and $5,000,000 by the State of Maryland.
From the difficulties in the way of construction, the idea of extending the canal beyond Cumberland has long since been abandoned ; and though when originally projected, it was regarded as a work of national importance, it must now be ranked as a local work, save so far as it may be used in connexion with the Baltimore and Ohio railroad, as a portion of a through route to the Ohio. In this manner it bids fair to become a route of much general importance. As a very large coal trade must always pass through this canal, the boats will take return freights at very lov/ rates, in preference to returning light. It is proposed to form a line of steam propellers from New York to Baltimore, for the transportatioh of. coal; and it is claimed that the very low rates at which freights between New York and Cumberland can be placed by such a combiniition, wilt cause the canal, in connexion with the Baltimore and Ohio railroad, to become a leading route between New York and the West.
The canal is a work of great capacity, having six feet draught of water, and allowing the passage of boats of 150 tons burden. As it commands the whole water of the Potomac river, it will always be abundantly supplied with water.
This canal has encountered so many discouraging revcses as to cause a general distrust as to its ultimate success. It is believed, however, that it will not only become very important as a carrier of the celebrated Cumberland coal, but that it will, in time, work itself, in connexion with the railroad, into a large through-business between the eastern and the western States, in the manner stated.
The State of Virginia is the birth-place of the idea of constructing an artificial line f()r the accommodntion of commerce and travel between the navigable rivers of the interior and tide-water. It is now nearly one hundred years since a definite plan tor a canal from the tide-waters of Virginia to the Ohio was presented by Washington to the House of Burgesses of Virginia, and ever since tliat time the realization of this project has been the cherished idea of the State.
The central position of Virginia, her unsur[)asscd commercial advantages, afforded by the deep indentations of her numerous bays and rivers, and the near approach toward each other, in her own territory, of the Ohio and the navigable waters of the Chesapeake, all pointed out this State as the appropriate ground tor a connection between the two. To the apparent facihty with which this could bo formed, and to the advantages anticipated from it, is to hr, attributed the hold which this project has always maintained upon the public mind of the State.
James River and Kanmvha Canal. — The great work by wliich this connexion has been sought to be accom[)lished is the James river and Kanawha canal, to extend liom Richmond to the navigable watns of the Great Kanawha, at the mouth of the Greenbrier river, a di; lance of about 310 miles. This work is now c(mipleted to Buchanan, in the valley of Virginia, a (hstance of 196 miles, and is in progress to Covington, a town situated at the base of the great Alleghany ridge, about thirty miles iarther. It was commenced in 1834, and has cost, up to the present lime, the sum of $10,714,306. Tiie extension of this water line to the Ohio is still considered a problem by man}', though its friends cherish the original plan with unfaltering zeal. The work thus far has scarcely realized public expect *-')n, from the difficulties encountered, which have proved far grca han were anticipated in the outset, and have materially delayed ti (. progress of tfie work. The canal t()llows immediately on the bank of the river, \vhich has a rapid descent, and after entering the Allegiiany ranges, assumes many of the characteristics of a mountain stream. This tiict has compelled the construction of numerous und costly works, such as dams, culverts, and bridges, and subjects the canal to nil the dangers of sudden and high Hoods, from which it has at several times suffered severe losses. But, so fiir as the canal has been carried, all obstacles have been surmounted. The various works upon it have now acquired a solidity that promises to resist all the trials to which they may hereafter be subjected. The crossing of the crest of ih(^ Alleghanies, the most difficult portion of the whole line, has not iHien commenced. The summit at the most fiivorablt; point of crossing is 1,916 teet above tide-water, or 1,352 (eel iil)ove the highest point upon the Erie cmfd, which is at the lake at Buffalo. Elaborate surveys and calculations have been mad(! lor the purpose of determining whether a sufficient ijuantity of water can be obtained \'or a supply at the summit, and the result seems to favor an affirmativ(^ opinion.
ih a suiUcicnt
supply of water there can be no doubt it would become a route of an immense commerce. It would strike the Ohio at a very favorable point lor through business. It would have this great advantage over the more northern works of a similar kind, that it would be navigable during the winter as well as the summen The route, after crossing the Alleghany mountains, is vastly rich in coal and iron, as well as in a very productive soil. Nothing seems to be wanting to the triumphant success of the work but a continuous water line to the Ohio. Until this is accomplished, the canal must depend entirely upon its local business tor support. Its eventual success as a paying enterprise was predicated upon such accomplishment. Though of great benefit to the contiguous country and to the city of Richmond, it does not promise in its present condition to be profitable to the stockholders.
Railroads in Virgivia.
Central Railroad. — The object which led to the conception of the James river and Kanawha canal is now the ruling motive in the construction of the two leading railroad projects of this State, viz : the Vtrgi7ua Central and the Virginia and Tennessee railroads. While the canal is still the favorite project with an influential portion of her citizens, it cannot be denied that, sympathizing with the popular feeling in favor of railroads, which have in many cases superseded canals as means of transportation, and which are adapted to more varied uses and better reflect the character and spirit of the times, a large majority of the people of the State deem it more advisable to open the proposed western connexions by means of railroads than by a farther extension of the canal.
The I ne of the Central road, after making a somewhat extended detour to the north upon leaving Richmond, takes a generally western course, passing through the towns of Gordonsville and Charlottesville, imd enters the valley of Virginia near Staunton. At Gordonsville it connects with the Orange and Alexandria railroad, thus giving the former an outlet lo the Potomac. This road is now nearly completed to Staunton, with the exception of the Blue Ridge tunnel, which is a Ibrmidable work, about one mile in length, and is ui process of construction by funds furnished by the State. From Staunton the line has been placed under contract to Buffalo Gap, a distance of thirty-five miles. For the whole line up to this point ample means are provided.
The whole length of the road, from Richmond to the navigable waters of the Kanawha, will be about two hundred and eighty -six miles. The means for its construction Imve thus far been furnished by stock subscriptions on the part of the State and individuals, in the proportion of three-fifths by the former, to two-filths by the latter. No doubt is entertained of its extension over the mountauis, at a comparatively early period. The State is committed lo ihe work, and has too much involved, both in the amount already expended and in the results at stake, to allow it to pause at this late hour. The opinion is now confidently expressed by well-intbrmed persons that some definite plan will be adopted for the immediate construction of the remaining link of this great line.
By extending iliis line to Guynndotte a junction will be formed with the roads now in progress in Kentucky, and aiming at that point for an eastern outlet. It is also proposed to carry a branch down the Kanawha to its mouth, nearly opposite to Gallipolis, to connect with a road proposed from that point to intersect with the Hilhbord' and Cincinnati and the Cincinnati and Marietta railroads.
Virginia and Tennessee railroad. — The leading object in the construction of the above road is to form a part of a great route connecting the North and the South, by a road running diagonally through the United States. This line, commencing in the eastern part of the State of Maine, follows the general inclination of the coast, and passes through our most important eastern cities, as far south as Washington. After reaching this point, it still pursues the same general direction, and passing through Charlottesville and Lynchburg, in central Virginia, and soon after leaving the latter place, enters 'the lofty ranges of -the Alleghany mountains, which it traverses for hundreds of miles, till t*iey subside into the plains circling the Gulf of Mexico. The northern portion of this great hne is in operation from Waterville, Maine, to Charlottesville, Virginia, a distance of nearly 800 miles. Parts of the southern division aie completed, and the whole, with the exception otthe short link frdm Charlottesville to Lynchburg, is in active progress. Of the central links, the Virginia, and Tennessee is the longest, and in this point of view the most important. It extends from Lynchburg to the State line of Tennessee, a distance of 205 miles. About 60 miles of this road are completed, and the whole line is under contract tor completion durnigthe year 1854. The means for its construction are furnished jointly by the State and individual subscriptions, in the proportion of three parts by the former to two by the latter. When completed, this road will form a conspicuous link in one of the most magnificent lines of railroad in the world, both as regards its length and importance.
The prospects of the local business of the above road are favorable. It traverses a fertile portion of Virginia, abounding, moreover, in most f)f the valuable minerals, such as iron, coal, lead, salt, etc. At present, there is no more secluded portion of the eiistern or middle States than the country to be traversed by the above road; all its great resources remain undeveloped, from the cost of transpoitation to a market. When this road .«hall be opened, no section will display more progress, nor furnish, according to its population, a larger traffic.
The friends of this project propose also to make a portion of its line the trunk of a new route, from the navigable waters of the Ohio to those of" the Chesapeake. At a distance of about 75 miles from Lynchburg, the Virginia and Tennessee road strikes the great Kanawha near Christiansburg. From this point to the navigable waters of the river the distance is only 86 miles. As the Virginia and Tennessee road is to be connected by railroad with both Richmond and Petersburg, the short link described will alone be wanting to constitute a new outlet for western produce to tide-water. That this link must be- supplied at no distant dav can hardlv admit of a doubt. Should the State extend aid to It, as well as to the Central line, botli may be opened simultaneously.
c State from
north to south, made up of the Richmond, Fredericksburg and Potomac, Richmond and Petersburg, and Petersburg and WeUlon roads ; the South Side, the Richmond ami Dantille, the Seaboard and RoanoJce, the Orange and Alexandria, and the Manasses Gap railronds.
The first-named line forms the great route of travel through the State from north to south. Its revenues are chiefly derived from passenger traffic ; its direction not being favorable to a large freight business. The whole line is well managed and productive, and is daily improving in value, from the extension of both extremes of the great system of which this is the connecting link.
The So^iih Side and the Richmond and Danville roads are works o||mportance, from the extent of their lines, the connexions they form, and their ])rosp(!ctive business. Starting from two, the most considerable, towns in eastern Virginia, situated at the head of navigation on two important rivers, they cross each other diagonally about midway betWfX'n their respective termini, thus giving a choice of markets to tlie country traversed by either. Tlie fijimer constitutes the extension eastward of the Virginia and Tennessee lino, and opens an outlet for that work to Richmond and Petersburg. Tlie latter will also secure to the same cities the trade of important portions of southern Viiginia and North Carolina, and will undoubtedly be extended eventually into the latter State, and form a junction with the North Carolina railroad, at or near Greensboro', forming, in connexion with the North Carolina and Charlotte and South Carolina railroads a. new and independent interior route between Richmond and Petersburg and the soutiiern States.
The Seaboard and Roanoke railroad is also a line of much consequence, and may eventually become a work of great importance, depending, however, upon the future progress of Norf()lk, its eastern terminus. The excellence of the harbor of Norfolk has led to great expectations in reference to the future growth of that city. Its position has been compared with that of New York, and it bears a relation to the Chesapeake bay, and the rivers entering it, similar to that of the former to the Hudson river and Long Island Sound. No portion of the country possesses greater commercial capabilities than eastern Virginia, and It would seem that the numerous rivers by which it is watered would develop a trade sufficient to build up a large commercial town. Such has not been the result, however inexplicable the cause.
The great seats of commerce lie farther north, and the seaports of Virginia, instead of bein" depots from which are distributed to the consumers the products of the State, are merely points en route to the great northern markets. Her people being devoted chiefly to agriculture, no large towns have grown up within her territory. Should, in time, a greater diversity of pursuits secure the consumption, by her own people, of the surplus products of her soil, Norfolk could not fail to become an important commercial town. The Seaboard and Roanoke road would be her great arm of inland cc^mmunication, combining, as it does, with the roads penetrating the interior of the State, and of North Carolina. As it is, it is a road ol" much consequence, and essential to the symmetry of the railroad system of the Stale, and will
present condition of things in the Slate.
The other leading roads in Virginia are th(^ Orange and Alcxandriti and the Manasscs Gap railroads. The lormer extends from Alexandria to Gordonsville, on the Central road, a distance of about 90 miles. It is an important line, in that it connects the central portions of the State with the Potomac and the cities of Alexandria and Washington. It will form a portion of the line already described, traversing central and western Virginia and eastern Tennessee. To complete such a connexion, only a short link, extending from the central road near Charlottesville, is necessary. There cannot he a doubt that the legislature of Virginia will allow the construction of this link, and aid it witlif^ic liberality extended toward similar works.
The Manasscs Gap road branches oil" from the Orange and Alexandria road about 25 miles after leaving Alexandria, and is to be extended into the valley of Virginia through the gap in the Blue ridg(5 above named. A portion of the line is already in operation. It \s iiitonded to carry this road u}) the valley to Staunton ; there to Ibrm a junction with the Central line. The Winchester and Potomac road, at present a short though productive local work, will also probably be extended so as to connect with the above road — thus ii)rming a lin(! through the whole extent of the valley of Virginia, and connecting with the Baltimore and Ohio road at Harper's Ferry, and with the I'otomac at Alexandria.
Railroads in North Carolina.
The State of North Carolina has, on the whole, accomplished less than any eastern Stale in railroad enterprises, when we take into consideration the extent of her territory, and the great necessity for such works to the proper development of jier resourc<'s. Her inaction has been owing in part to the want within iicr own territory of a large commercial town, which in other States not only becomes the centre of a well-digested system of railroads, but, by concentrating the capital, renders it available to the construction of such works.
Of the roads in operation the most important is the Wilmington and JVeldou road, extending from Wilmington to Weldon, and traversing nearly the whole breadth of the State I'rom north to south. This is a work of the greatest convenience and utility to the travelling public, and must, from its direction and connexion, always occupy an important j)osition in our railroad system. It is a road of comparatively low cost, upon a very favorable route, and is beginning to enjoy a lucrative traffic. It has been an unproductive work tiom the faulty character of its construction — it being one of the pioneer works of the South, and
with our best works.
The only other road in operation in the State is the Raleigh (ind Gaston, which coiuiects the above places by a line of 87 miles. It is strictly a local werk, and, from the faulty character of its construction, has been unsuccessful. It bids fair, howev«!r, to become a much more important road from its prospective conriexion with the Narth Carolina, Central road, now in progress. When the last-named road shall be opened, and the Ihilcigh and Gaston shall have received an improved superstructure, it cannot fail, it is believed, to become a proauctive work, and one that will sustain an important relation to the travel and business of the country. Through the Central, it will be brought into communication with the Charlotte and South Carolina road, and form, tor both, their trunk lines north.
The only considerable work in progress, lying wholly within the State, is tlie North Carolina Central railroad. It eonnnences on the Neuse river, near Goldsboro', taking a northwesterly direction, running through the towns of Raleigh, Hillsboro', Greensboro', and Lexington, to Charlotte. For the greater part of its line it traverses a fertile territory, and will secure railroad acconnuodations to a large and rich section of the State. It will prove of great utility, and is much wanted to develop the resources of the Statfc, and demonstrate its capacity to supply railroads with a profitable trafRc. Its entire length is 223 miles. At Charlotte it will unite with the Charlotte and South Carolina railroad, which will insure to it the character and ad* vantages of a through route. The estimated cost of the road is about ^3,000,000; of which sum the State furnishes $2,000,000. The whole line is under contract, to b(> completed at the earliest practicable moment.
This State furnishes a good illustration of the correctness of the previous retnarks, in reference to the influence of a commercial capital in promoting and giving character to works of internal improvement for the country dependent upon it. Large cities collect together the surplus capital of the surrounding country, and a mercantile life trains men up for the management of enterprises calling for administrative talent, and involving large moneyed operations.
No sooner had the people of this country commenced the construction of railroads, than the city of Charleston entered upon the great work of that State — the South Carolina railroad. This was one of the first projects of the kind undertaken in this country, having
been commonccd in 1830. Its ninin tiiiiik cxtciids from Charleston to Hamburg, on the Snvantifih river, opposite Augusta, (Jeorgia. It has two branches; one extending to Cohnnbia, the pohtieal i-apital of the State, and the other to Camden. The entire length of the roa<l nnd its branches is 242 miles. Its cost has been a litlh) less tlian $7,000,000.
This road not only bears ai^ important relation to all the interests of the State, but has given birth to other extensive lines of road, and li)rms very important coiniexions with them.
At Augusta a junction is fi)rmed with the Genrfi'm raihojul, by means of which a communication is opened with the railroads of that State, which are soon to be extended to rdl the neighb'.ring States. Alreaily have the Georgia lines reac-luul the Teiniessee riv(!r; and by the first of May next they will bo carried liirward to Nashville, the capital of the State of Tennessee, whence railroads are in ])rogress toward Louisville and Cincinnati. From Atlanta, the western terminus of the Georgia railroad, a line of railroad is nearly (.ompleted to IVU)nlgoniery. Alabama, which will soon be pushed l()rward to the Gulf of Mexico on the one hand, and to the Mississippi on the other.
By means of the Tennessee and Kentucky roads alluded to, Charleston is now about to realize the celebrated ()rojeet ol' the Charleston and Cincinnati railroad. The history of this selieme is well known. It originated in the bold idea of making that city the eonnnercial emporium of the great interior basin of the country, particularly the lower portion of it. To effect this object, a continuous line of railroad, under one organization, was pro|x»sed, in as direct a line as possible, to the city of Cincinnati. This project attracted, (or a time, much interest in the Stales of South Carolina, Tennessee, Kentucky, and southern Ohio. It was believed to be entirely practicable, and large sums were expended in reconnaissances and surveys of the routes. We now see the accomplishment of the scheme, upon the original plan, to have been, at the period when it was commenced, impracticable. As far as the means and the engineering skill of the country were concerned, the project was premature. Its magnitude was beyond the ability ot all tlie interests that could be brought to bear upon it. The termini being given, the route assumed Avas the shortest possible line between them. The route selected, ihwefore, could not connuand the means of the country, applicable to a road between the cities named; and, as might have been expected, the original project tell through. The ditferent sections, ho- vcver, upon the most practicable line, as far as means were concerned, commenced the construction of detached links, having in view local objects alone. These are now so far advanced that the formation of the whole line may be regarded as secured.
By the more circuitous route by way of Nashville and Louisville, I " means for a railroad from Charleston to Cincinnati are now proV ed, and the whole route is either in operation or in progress. From Charleston to Nashville, a distance of about 600 miles, tiie line will be completed by the first day of May next. Upon the line liom Nashville to Louisville, a distance of 180 miles, working survej's are now in progress, preparatory to placing this entire link under eonlraet. Louisville and Cincinnati are soon to be united by means of the Louhvilh
he Louisvilk
ami Lr.rtngtnn nnd the Omn^tnu and Lctinfftnn railroads. The l!»rnier is in operation; the latter will be completed next year; and the <'ily of Charleston, without any expenditure other than that recjuisite Kir the construction of roads within her territory — excepting a small loan to the Nas/iviUe and C/tattavniiga- road — sees the great project, l!)r which she so zealously labored, on the eve of aceomplishinent.
A more direct, and ap[)arently appropriate, line, llian that ubrtve deScribed, is one traversing the entire* length of the State of South Carolina, in a northwesterly direction, crossing the northeastern corner of Georgia and the western portion of North Carolina, running down the Litth' and up the Great Tennessee rivers, to Knoxville; thence by the Cumberland (Jap, or some practicable pass in its vicinity, through Danville and Lexington, Kentucky, to Cincinnati. The only portions of this line for which the means ar<' certainly provided, are those extending from Charleston to Anderson, in South Carolina, a distance of 248 niil(;s, and from Cinciruiati to Danville, a distance of 128 miles, making in all 371 miles, and leaving about 3fA) miles to be nrovided l()r. That this direct line will be accomplished cannot be doubted. A considerable portion of the country traversed can provide sutficienl means for its construction, and the "necessary balances will be supplied by comiecting lines and by private interests. For that portion of the link, unprovided l!)r, between Anderson and Knoxville, it is believed that the legislature of the State of South Carolina will extenil liberal aid. The Soiifh Carolina and the Gnaivillc and Cohmbia roads, f()rmiiig the lower portions of this great chain, are also expected to render efhcient support. That portion of it through the State of Tennessee will undoubtedly receive the benefit of the recent internal improvement act of that State, which appropriates $8,000 per mile to certain leading lines — a sum suHicient, with what private means can l)e obtained, to secure its construction. The link from Danville, Kentucky, to the boundary line of Tennessee, traverses a region of" vast mnioral resources. It is believed the amount lacking to complete this link, beyond the means of the people upon it, will eventually be liirnished by parties interested in the tcholc as a timntgh route. Active measures are in {)rogress upon the entire route to secure the necessary surveys, to provide the means of construction, and to awaken the minds of the people to tho i'-iportance of the work.
The other important projects in South Carolina are the Gncnvillcand Cohmbia, the Charlotte and South Carolina, the Wilmington and Manchester, and the Northeastern road, extending from Charleston to a junction with the Wilmington and Manchester road. The Charlotte and South Carolina and the Wilmington and Manchester roads lie partly in North Carolina, but they are appropriately described as a portion of the South Carolina system.
The Greenville and Columbia road extends liom Columbia, the terminus of the Columbia branch of the South Carolina railroad, to Greenville, a distance of about one hundred and twenty-three miles. It has two branches — one extending to Pendleton, and the other to Anderson court-house. The leading objects in its construction are of a local character; though, as before stated, it is intended to make it a portion of a through hue to the Mississippi Valley. The road traverses one of the
boAt p()rtif)ni« of llic Stiito. Ft Iifis Imtii Ixiilt nl ii low coHt, owiii^ to tlic liivoriiblc iiatiiro oltlic comilry tiiiv« rscd, mid ilu* (iiU'rpriMc promises to hr liiglily rcmiiiirrativ*'. A cinisidcrahlc portion of this lino is in operation, and tlut whole will bo (•onjpl('t«'<l at an early dny.
Thrt Charlotte nnti Soi/th Ctiroliiia railroad has heen brie'lly alluded to. Its line extends frotn Charlotte, the tnost important town in western North C'arolina, to (Jolumhia, the eapital of Sotith ("arolina, and is nixxit otie hundred and teti mil(>s long. It is an important link iMtwec^n tin; other roads of the States, and, with them, between those of the northern, southern, and southwest<'rn States. Its local business will bo lucrative, as it traverses ii rich country without suitable avenues to market. Like most of the southern roads, it has been constructed nt a low cost. It is nearly completed, and will be shortly opened.
Coiuiected with this road, at ('hester, is a branch road, called "the AVw^'a Mountain railroad, in operation and extendin^u to Yorkville, u distance of about twenty-five miles.
IFi/mlngtnn and Manchrstvr llalhoad. — The chief object of this line is to supply the link l()r the connexion of th(^ roads of the Slates of South Carolina and Georgia with thosi of tlu; north. It is this object which gives it general importatice, though its principal revemies will undoubtedly bo derived from local traffic, which th(> country traversed will I)rol)al)ly supply. The road is about one hundred and sixty-two miles f»ng. its construction is essential to the convenience of the travelling public, and will add largely to the traffic of all the connecting lines. A glance at the accompanying map will well illustrate its relations to other roads. Although a first-class road, it is constructed at the minimum cost of southern roads. The whole line is under contract and well advanced; some portions of it are opened, and the whole is in progress to completion with all practicabh* dispatch.
The only project of any considerable public importance, not already noticed, is the Northeastern road, extending from Charleston to the Wilmington and Manchester road, at a point between Marion and Darlington. The object of this road is to secnr(; to Charleston a more direct outlet, and to place her in a line of travel between the North and the South. Without such ii work, the tendency of the Wilmington and Manchester road would b(> to div(Tt the through travel from that city, and would conse(|uently threaten her with the loss of a portion of her business and public considerjiUon. To f()rtify her position, this city also proposes to construct a railroad dired to Savannah, liy these works she will place herself on the convenient line of travel between the extremes of th(^ country.
The length of this lirst-named line will be about one hundred miles. Its cost will be between $1,500,000 and $2,000,000. The work is light, the only diflicult point being the crossing of the Santcc river. The route is now under survey, and will be commenced as soon as practicable. The road may be regarded as a Charleston project, and that city will contribute largely to its construction.
The State of (Jeorgia has distinguished herself fi)r the extiMit, exccdUriiee and succ(!S3fiil management of her railroads. In these respects she ranks first among tin; southern States. Her success is mainly owing to the fact, that her gr(;at lines of railroad W(M-e completed 'withiti a comparatively brief p(^riod after they were nndertakiMi. From the sparse po])nlation in the South, and the absence ot" l.irge towns in the inttsrior, the com|)letion of a road is necessary to success. Until the c()nii(!xions proposed are formed, the work is gen(>rally unprofitable. Sue(!essiv'e links, as they are opened, do not yield a large revenue, as is the case with many northern liiuvs, which find between two neighboring villages a renmnerating traffic. To this fiict is, in some degree, to be attributed the failure in the South of many of the projects of 183G and 1837. Portions only <>f the lines of railroad commenced at that period wvvv eoinijleled. The commercial revulsions which li>llowed checked their lurlher prosecution. The several links brought into use were lujt of sufHeienf length or importance to develop and command a remunerative business; and, in some instances, projects wen* abandoned even after a i)ortion of their lines h ' been opened l()r l)usiiu!ss. The reverses which have been alluded to, were chiefly confined to the projects of the newly-settled southern and western States. These States were then a wilderness as compared with their present condition. At that period success was impossible, not only from the lack of capital ade<|uale to the enterprises, but of those (piahties necessary to sujx'rintend and carry out these enterprises, and which can only result from experience. The efli'ct of the reverses sustained, was to discourage for a lime all attempts to construct railroads. But the long j)eriod which has since elapsed has brought with it greater means; a wider experieiiec ; tin; sucei\«*sful examples of other States; more distinct and better- defined objects; and a more intimate act|uaintance, and hearty co-operation among people interested in such. works. The operation of time has settled our commercial depots, and established the convenient channels of commerce and travel. At .'Hi earlier period these were assumed in the projects undertaken, and the results fre(juenlly proved these assumptions to be wide of the truth. New lights have arisen as guides to renewed efforts. The southern peoj le are again inspired with confidence and hope; and the movement now going on throughout the southern Stiites, finmded upon a pi()[)er knowledge of" their wants and abilities, and guided by wider experience and more comnetent hands, is* destined to achieve the most satisfactory results.
The success of the Georgia roads, as already stated, was owing to the ftict that, after a severe struggle, her leading lines were coAipleted without great delay. As soon as they were brought into use they at once commenced a lucrative business, yif^lding a handsome return upon the cost, and have proved of inestimable benefit to the people of the State. Their roads have not only enabled them to turn tlieir resources to the best account, but have done much to develop that spirit of enter-
tinguished.
The leading roads in operation in Georgia constitute two great lines,, representing, apparently, two different interests. The first extends from Savannah, the commercial capital of the State, to the Tennessee river, a distance of 434 miles, and is made up of the Georgia Central, Macon and Western, and Western and Atlantic roads. The latter, hy which the railroad system of the State is carried into the Tennessee valley, is a State work. The second line traverses the State from east to west, crossing the other nearly at right-angles, and is made up oi" the Georgia and the Atlanta and La Grange railroads. This line may be considered as an extension, in a similar direction, of the South Carolina railroad, and rests on Charleston as its commercial depot, as does the former on Savannah. To a certain extent the Western and Atlantic link may be said to be common to both lines. The first described line, however, has important branches, which connect it with a much larger portion of the State than the latter. At Macon it receives the SoutJnccstcrn railroad, an important line, alrcadj' constructed to Oglethorpe, which will be continued to Fort Gaines, on the Chattahoochee. A branch of this line is in progi-css to Columbus, an important town on that river, and the principle depot of trade tt)r western Georgia and eastern Alabama. Upon the completion of these roads the Central line will extend to the northern and western boundaries of the State, and will receive an important accession to its already flourishing traffic.
The tiiree great roads of the State, which have been in operation for a comparatively long period — tiie Central, the Georgia, and tlie Macon and Western — havt^ tor many years past, been unil()rmly successful, and take high rank among our best managed and best paying roads, averaging, lor a series of years, eight per cent, dividends. Notwithstanding their imperfect mode of construction, which has required repairs equal to an entirely new superstructure, their cost per mile is less than the average of roads throughout the country. This is owing in part to the favorable character of the country fi)r sucli enterprises, and the prudent and skilful manner in which they have been constructed and managed. All these have proved profitable works, chiefly from liieir local traffic. Tiie rapid extension of connecting links, which must use the above as their trunk lines to market, must, in tiie ordinary course of busi^ss, add very largely to tiieir present considerable revenues.
and La Grange.
The .object of the Wayncshord' road is to effect a communication, by railroaS, between Savannah and Augusta, tlie latter the terminus of the South Carolina and Georgia railroads, and situated at th<,' head of naviQ:ation on the Sav.innah river. A portion of this line is aheadv in operation, and the whole is nearly completed. It is an important connecting link between other roads, and will greatly atld to the liieilities of business anfl travel in the southeiisteni portionof the State.
ich planting
district of southwestern Georgia, one of the best cotton-growing regions in the South. This road has already reached Oglethorpe, and is to be extended to the Chattahoochee. It will then have an outlet in each direction of trade. The proposed extension of the road is regarded as the appropriate line to supply railroad accommodation to the southwestern portion of the State. The Southtvcstcrn is already in possession of a large revenue irom local traffic alone. This will be materially increased by the farther extension of its own line, and of connecting roads.
The Miiscogec road extends from the city of Columbus, eastward, to its junction with the SouthivesfcrJi, a distance of 7.1 miles, striking the latter about Fort Valley, 28 miles Irom JNIacon. It traverses a rich planting country, and is an important work, both as a through and local road. At Columbus it will ultimately form a connexion with the roads now in progress and operation in Alabama. Its through traffic, derived from the business centring at Columbus alone, will gonstitute a valuable source of revenue. It is nearly completed, and its opening is regarded as an event of considerable importance to other roads in the State.
The Atlanta and La Grange bears pretty much the same relation to the Georgia as does ilie Mmcngee to the Central line. It extends liom Atlanta, the terminus of the Georgia and Western and Atlantic roads, to West Point, the eastern termnius of the Mantgomcry and West Point road, a distance of 86 miles. A portion of this road is already in operation, and the whole is well advanced. Its completion will extend the Georgia system of roads to Montgomery, Alabama. As a connecting link, it is justly regarded as a work of much public utility. It traverses a very beautitiil and highly cultivated portion of the State, and cannot tail to have, with all the roads of the State, a lucrative local traffic.
The only important road in Georgia already in operation, and not particularly noticed, is the Western and Atlantic, extending from Atlanta to the Tennessee river. To th(^ State of Georgia must be awarded the honor of first surmounting the Great Alleghany or Appalachian range, and of carrj-^ing a continuous line of railroad from the seacoast into the Mississipjn valley, t'roin the difficulties in the way of such an achievement, it must always be regarded as a crt)wning work. Wherever accomplished, the most important results are certain to follow. The construction of the Western and Atlantic road was the signal t()r a new movement throughout all the southern and southwestern States. By opening an outfet to the seaboard for a vjist section of country, it at once gave birth to numerous important projects, which arc now making rapid prqgrcss, and which, when completed, will open to the wiiole southern country the advantages of railroad transportation. Among the more imi)ortant of these may be named tlie Memphis a7id Charleston, the East Tennessee and Georgia, and the Sashville and Chattanooga, roads, already referred to. The former will open a direct line of railroad from Memphis, an important town on the Tennessee river, to the southern Atlantic ports of Charleston and Savannah, and will become the trunk for a great number of important radial branches. The Nashville and Chattanooga, traversing
the State of" Tennessee in a northwesterly direction, has given a new impulse to the numerous raihoads which are springing into life, both in Tennessee and Kentucky. These railroads will soon form connexions with those of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, and thus all the northern and western States will be brought into intimate business relations with the southern cities of Charleston and Savannah. Through the East Tennessee and Georgia road a connexion will be formed with the line traversing the United States from north to south. The influence of sucii a connexion upon the growth and prosperity of these cities, as well as of the country brought into communication with them, can hardly be estimated.
A r.'iilroad is also proposed from St. Simon's sound, on the Atlantic— said to be a good harbor — to Pensacola, in Florida. One object in the construction of this road is to build up the town of Brunswick upon that sound. As this road would connect two good harbors, one upon the Atlaryiic coast and the f)lher upon the gulf, it will prove an important work. It would also open an extensive territory at present but slightly develoj)cd, lor the want of a suitable outlet.
A railroad is contemplated from Savannah to Pensacola. Its object is to open a communication between that city and the southern portion of the State, and to attract the trade of a large section now threatened to be drawn off" by rival works. The project has its origin in the supposed benefit it would confer upon the city of Savannah, which is expected to aid largely in its construction.
In another part of this report full notice is given to this State, embracing tfie works of internal improvement therein, whether constructed, in progress, or contemplated to be made, and also those heretofore made and now abandoned. It would be su|)erfluous to repeat that notice here. Reference is made, lhere{()re, to th(! communications of citizens of this State, contained in the Appctidlx at the end of this report, to the documents accompanying the same, and to comments of the undersigned, prefixed thereto, for full inf()rmalion on these and other subjects respecting this State. A paper respecting the " Gulf of Mexico" and the " Straits of Florida," prepared from notes fiirnished by a distinguished and intelligent engineer olfieer of the United States, is likewise inserted in the Apimndix, and contains important matter relating to this Slate.
ing between many of their important hues. As already stated, the greal ' c^s are tlie radial points of the internal improvement system of this c try. In conformity with this fact we find, that onreachingthe Gulf <),' Mexico the general direction of the grent lines extending into the interior gradually changes, m harmony with this fact, and that those arising from the Gulf of Mexico are at right angles both to this and our great northern lake boundary.
\n examining the cliaracter and prospective business of roads running at right angles to the parallels of latitude, compared with those following the same parallels, some marked points of difference are found. In the latter case, where there is no variety of pursuits, and where the whole population is engaged in agriculture, there can be little or no local traffic. The products being identical, all the surplus is the samein kind. But upon a route following a meridian of latitude, an entirely different rule prevails. Such routes traverse regions abounding in a diversity of {)roducti()ns, all of which are regarded as essential to the wants of every individual in the community. Such lines may be said to coincide with the natural routes of commerce, over which a large traffic nuist always pass, although the territory traversed may be entirely dt^'oted to agriculture. The grains, provisions, and animals of the north are wanted by the so-jthern States engaged in the culture of cotton, rice, sugar find tobacco ; and these last-named products are received by the pt^ople of the north in exchange lor what they have to sell. In this country, therel«)re, the routes running cast and west may be t(;rnu>d the artljicial, those running north and south the natural routes of commerce. It is this fact that gives particular importance to the great line of communication which it is proposed to extend from the Gulf of Mexico to the lakes, thus uniting a country the extremes of which abound in the fruits of the tropics, and in the products of high northern latitudes.
A railroad extending from the Gulf of Mexico constitutes a great national route of t;oininerce, and furnishes a channel of distribution over llu^ wliol(j country, li)r the vast variety' of products of the regions traversed, and at the same time constitutes an outlet for such surplus as may not be recjuired f()r domestic consumption. Such are the extent and range of human wants, that they require the whole aggregate production of every variety of soil and climate f()r their supply. Owing to the variety of climatr, this country is capable of producing nearly livery article used in ordinary consumption, and an abundance of all that are of primary im|)ortance. Upon tlu; completion of a railroad from the (julf of Mexico to Lake Michigan, a pei^on living midway between the two will be enabled to have his table daily supplied with the luxuries of b:)th (!Xtremes — the delicious fruits of the tropics, and the more tem[)ere(l but etjually valuable products of northern latitudes. The differences of climate will then, practically, cease to exist. The speed of" the railway train will scatter over the whole countr}', firshly plucked, the liuils of every latitude^ and one climate will practically exist fi)r all, in the possession of an abundance of the products oi' each.
Extended lines of railroads are ecpially important in another point of •view. It aUvays happens that while in the aggregate there is an .abundance of production for the wants of all, there will be failures of
crops in different portions of the country. Such must be the case in a country of so vast an area as our own. With ordinary roads only, it is found impossible so to distribute the surplus produced as to secure abundance at points where production has tailed. The hmit to economical transportation over the ordinary roads is measured by a lew miles. The greatest extremes of want and abundance, therefore, may exist in adjoining States. All these evils are remediable by railroads, so that they will not only secure to us a practical uniformity of cHmate, but of seasons also, giving to us the greatest variety, and at the same time the greatest certainty, of uniform supply.
Mobile and Ohio railroad. — The first of the great works of the character we have described is the Mobile and Ohio railroad, extending from Mobile, on the Gulf of Mexico, to the mouth of the Ohio river, a distance of 594 miles. From Mobile it will be extended down Mobile bay to a point where a depth of 20f feet of water is reached at low tide, making the whole length of line 609 miles. The route traversed is remarkably favorable. There are no grades in the direction of the heavy traffic exceeding 30 feet to the mile. The highest point of elevation above the gulf is only 505 feet. No bridges are required above 130 feet long. The estimated cost of the road, with a liberal outfit, is $10,000,000. Of the whole line, 33 miles are already in operation ; but the work is in progress upon 279 more, and the balance will be immediately placed under contract. It is intended to have the whole line completed within three years from the present time. The company are fast securing ample means for its construction, which are materially strengthened by a recent liberal donation of land by the general government. That portion of the line through the State of Tennessee is provided for by the recent internal improvement act of that State. The work is under the most efficient management, and its completion within the shortest practicable period is unquestioned.
The importance of this work, both to the city of Mobile and the whole soulh(>rn country, can hardly be over-estimated. By means of it the produce of the^outli may, with the greatest expedition, be brought alongside of ships drawing 20J feet water. The route traversed is nearly equidistant from the navigable waters of the Tombigbee river on the one hand, and the Mississippi on tlie other. It traverses a region deficient in any suitable means of transportation — one of the richest portions of the United States. Flanking, as it will, a very large portion of the •best cotton lands in the country, it must secure to Mobile a large supply of this article, ordjnarily sent to New Orleans. From the ease and cheapness witii which the planter will be enabled to forward his staple to market, the road will stimulate the production of cotton to an extraordinary extent. It will also develop numerous other
resources now lying dormant, and will give rise to a greater variety of pursuits, so essential to the best interests of the South. This work cannot fail to give extraordinary impulse to the growth of Mobile, and to secure to it a prominent rank among the principal commercial cities.
Another great line of railroads commencing in Alabama, though at present resting upon the Alabama river at Selma, to be eventually carried to Mobile, is the Alabama and Tennessee River railroad. The line of this road extends from Selma to the Tennessee river at Gunter's Landing, a distance of 210 miles. The more immediate object of its construction is to accommodate the local traffic of the route traversed, although a large business is anticipated from the connexions hereafter to be formed.
It is proposed to extend this road from Jacksonville to Dalton, Georgia, to connect with the great line already described, traversing the entire country, and passing through northern Georgia, eastern Tennessee, and central and western Virginia, and to which the above road will Ibrm the soutlicrn trunk, and connect this great line with the Gulf of Mexico.
The Alabama and Tennessee railroad will also form a link in another important chain of roads, extending from the gulf to the great lakes. From Gunter's Landing, its northern terminus, it will be carried forward to the Nashville and Chattanooga road at Winchester, by the Winchester and Alabama road, now in progress. From Winchester to Nashville the Nashville and C/iat.tanooga road is now in operation. From Winchester two routes are proposed— one by way of Nashville and Louisville, a portion of which is in operation, and the balance amply provided for ; and the other by way of McMinnville and Sparta, Tennessee, and Danville and Lexington, Kentucky. From Winchester to McMinnville a road is in progress, as is one from Cincinnati to Danville, on the northern portion of the line. The link unprovided tor is about 250 miles long. The Tennessee portion of this is embraced in the internal improvement act of that State, and vigorous measures are in progress to secure the means requisite to the work, both in Tennessee and Kentucky. When these connecting lines shall be completed, the Alabama and Tennessee road will sustain the relation of a common trunk to all.
The Alabama Central railroad, commencing in the State of Mississippi, and extending to Selma, is the appropriate extension, east, of the Mississippi Southern railroad, designed to traverse the State of Mississippi centrally from west to east. This line has been placed under contract from the State Une to Selma. It is proposed to extend it still farther eastward, so as to form a connexion at Montgomery with the Montgomery and West Point road. By the completion of the above work and its connecting lines, a direct and continuous railroad would be formed, extending from the Atlantic ports of Charleston and Savannah to the Mississippi river at Vicksburgh, and traversing, for a greater portion of the distance, a region of extraordinary productiveness. Its importance as a through line of travel will be readily appreciated from an examination of the accompanying map. The whole of this great line, with the exception of the link from Selma to Montgomery, which will, for the present, be supj)lied by the Alabama river, is in progress.
from Girard, a town upon the Chattahoochee river, opposite ColumbuSt to Mobile, under the title of the Girard railroad. A portion of the eastern division of this road is under contract. Its whole length is about 210 miles. It traverses, for a considerable part of its length, a rich planting region, only sparsely settled, for the want of suitable avenues. This line would form a very important extension of the Muscogee and the Georgia system of roads. Of its eventual construction there can be no doubt, though the means applicable to the work may not secure this result immediately. The line occupies a very important through route, and the project will be likely to receive the attention of other parties interested in its extension, so soon as they shall be released Irom their present duties, by the completion of the works upon which they are now occupied.
The Memphis and Charleston railroad, the line of which traverses the great Tennessee valley in Alabama from east to west, has already been briefly noticed. It commences at Memphis, the most important town upon the Mississippi between New Orleans and St. Louis, and
!)assing through portions of Tennessee, Mississippi, and Alabama, brms a junction with the Nashville and Chattanooga road in the nortiieastern portion of the last named State. Its length is 281 miles ; the whole line is under contract. Its estimated cost is about $3,000,000. Nearly the whole cost of the road is subscribed in stock; and, as ample means for construction arc already provided, the work will be urged forward toward completion with all practicable dispatch.
The above line includes two of the old railroad projects of 1837, the Lagrange and the Ttiscumbia and Decatur. The former of these was abandoned after its line was nearly graded ; the latter was completed with a jlal rail, and has for late years been worked by horses as the motive-power. The original object of the last nan.jd road was to serve as a portage around the *' Muscle Shoals," which in low water are a complete obstruction to the navigation of the Tennessee river. Both of the above roads have been merged in the Memphis and Charleston road, and are now portions of it. and their direction coincides with that of the great line. Their adoption will diminish largely the cost of the latter.
The Memphis and Charleston road, as part of a great line connecting, by a very direct and favorable route, the leading southern Atlantic cities, Charleston and Savannah, with the Mississsippi river, may be urged as of national importance, and must become the channel of a large trade and travel. Its western division will form a convenient outlet to the Mississippi river, for that portion of the Tennessee valley ; and will save the long circuit at present made by way of the Tennessee, Ohio, and Mississippi rivers. For the eastern part of this great valley, it will afford a convenient outlet to the Atlantic ports. It will, when completed, form a part of the shortest practicable line of railroad between the Mississippi and the Atlantic — a fact in itself suflficient to establish its claims to public consideration. For the greater part of its length it traverses the "Tennessee valley," one of the most fertile districts in the United States. This road will add largely to the commercial importance of Charleston and Savannah, by securing to
want of an eastern outlet.
The only considerable work in operation in Alabama is the Montgomery and WeM Point railroad. This being one of the early projects of the South, was unfortunate in its original mode of construction, and has conLcquently been unproductive till within a few years. Under its present efficient management the road has been completely renovated; and now properly talces rank among the leading southern projects. It traverses a fertile and productive region, and has a large local business. It occupies an important position to the great through line of travel between the North and the South. Travellers from Mobile and New Orleans can reach Montgomery by steamboat, at nearly all seasons of the year. From that point the line of travel is carried forward to the Boundary line of Georgia, by the above railroad. From West Point to the Georgia roads the distance is less than 100 miles ; and this link will shortly be supplied by the Atlanta and Lagrange railroad. The route of the Montgomery and West Point railroad is identical with that of a great line of travel, and is already in possession of a large through business, which will be much increased by the progress of southern railroads. It may be here staled, that it is proposed to connect the last portion of this road with Columbus, so as to Ibrm a junction with the Muscogee railrorwl. Such an improvement would constitute the Montgomery and West Point road the trunk of two great eastern lines. It is also propositi to extend a line of railroad liom Montgomery to Mobile. Altlujugh there can be no doubt of the ultimate realization of this last project, it is not j^ct sufficiently matured to demand further notice.
The only important work in operation in Mississippi is the Southern railroad, extending from Vicksburg to Brandon, a distance of about sixty miles. This, like the Montgomery and West Point railroad, was one of the early projects of ih(; South, and has experienced a similar history. By the original pl.in it was proposed to make this part of a line extending through the States of Mississippi and Alabama to Georgia, and, ig connexion with the roads of that State, to the Atlantic. As was the case with so many southern roads, the scheme proved a failure. It is, however, reviving under circumstances tliat promise full success. As already seen, a greater part of the Alabama portion is either completed or in progress; and operations are about to be commenced upon the unfinished Mississippi section. When completed, this line will prove a work of great public utility. There is none in the country tiir which there is greater apparent necessity. The whole route traverses one of the richest planting districts in the south ; and as the people on its line can readily furnish the necessary means, its early construction is not to be doubted.
Of the proposed linos in this State the most important is the Nno Orleans, Jackson, and Northern, by menus of which the city of New Orleans aims at opening a communication with the roads in progress in the southern and western States. The proposed northern terminus of this great work is Nashville, the capital of the State of Tennessee. The lengili of the road will be about five hundred miles. It is regarded with especial favor by the people of New Orleans, and is one of the great works by whicli that city proposes to restore to lierself a trade which has in a measure been lost ; to turn again the tide of western commerce in her favor; and to develop the immense resources of an extensive region of country, to the commerce of which she may justly lay claim. The magnitude of this project is well suited to the greatness of the objects sought to be accomplish<xl. After a long [)eriod of supineness, the city of New Orleans is at last fully awakened ; and as an evidence of the interest already excited, and an earnest of future efforts, she has subscribed $2,000,000 to the stock of the al)ove road, and is adopting the most vigorous and effective njeasures to secure its early construction. With the assistance offered by New Orleans, the people on the line of the road can readily furnish the balance necessary l()r tlie work. It traverses a region oi" great wealth aiul productiveness, the inhabitants of which are alive to the importance ot the work, and stand ready to contribute lieely whatever may Ix) required of them. When the great interest that the city of New Orleans has at stake in the success of the above work, and tlu; local means that can be brought to Ix^ar upon it, are considered, its early construction cannot be doubted. The route is remarkably lavorable, and the road can be built, t()r a greater part of the distance, at the minimum cost of southern roads. The line of this road has not been definitely located, but will probably pursue a pretty direct course; by way of Jackson and Aberdeen, Mississippi, and Florence, Alabama.
The next great line in the State is the Mississippi Central, extending from Canton in a northerly direction, and passing through Holly Springjf to the State line of Tennessee. Thence it is propos<Ml to extend it to Jackson, in the latter State, there to form a junction with iIm; Mobile and Ohio road, and the proposed line from Ijouisville, Kentucky, to Memphis. At Canton it wdl unite with a road now in progress to Jackson, and, in connexion with this short link, will constitute the legitimate extension, northward, of the New Orleans and Jackson line. Although the work of construction has iK)t yet commenced, ample means have already been provided by the counties, and the wealthy planters upon its line. The object of the road is to open an outlet for the rich cotton lands traverst^d by it, which are now deprived of all suitable means of sending their products to a market. Wlienever railroads are constructed in the south, they diminish so largely the cost of transportation, and consequently increase the profits of the planter, that a necessity is imposed upon other districts to engage in their construction, as the means of competing successfully with those in possession of su(.'h works.
l the northern
Another road of considerable importance is proposed through the northern part of the State, commencing at Memphis, Tennessee, and passing through Holly Springs and the northern tier of counties to the xetmesscie river. One of its leading objects is the accommodation of a V(>ry rich and productive planting district. The line of the Memphis find C'ha.rlestm road will also traverse a small portion of the northeastern corner of the ^ate.
Tlie Stati! of Louisiana, having in the Missis.-^ippi river a convenient ■fiianncl not only ti)r the trade and travel of its own people, but tor opening to tlu-m tlie interior eonnneree of tiie country, "iis neither attempted nor aecomplishe'd much in works of artificial improvement. Bel(M-e railroads were brought into use, the river atl()rded the best known mode of transportation, both for persons and property, and long habit had produced a conviction that it couhl not be superseded by any other channels or routes of commerce. No representations could awaken the people of New Orleans to a sense of the importance of following the example of other cities, and of strengthening their natural position, by artificial works, till a tliminished trade — the result of the works of rival connnunities — rendered the necessity of undertaking similar improvements too apparent to be h>nger delayed. Although tlie projects of the northern and eastern States, by whicli they sought to reach the trade of the Mississippi basin, had been only partially accomplished, yd the influence which they exerted, even in their infancy, in diverting the commerce of that great valley tiom its luitural and accustomed channels, has been so marked and decided, that, lor a few years past, the trade between New (^rleiuis and the distant portions of "the great valley has diminished — at least has not incre;ised — notwithstanding the rapid increase of the W(!3t in population and production. Such a fact was too startling not to arouse the whole community to a sense of the necessity of taking the proper steps to avert a calamity threatening the h)ss of their trade and commercial importance ; and the people of New Orleans are now taking the most efheient measures to repair the cons(M[uences of their neglect, and are busily engaged in the prosecution of two ^rcat works, by means of which they propose to reestablish and retaui the hold they once had upon the trade of the Mississippi valley.
The leading pnyect now engaging the attention of the people of Louisiana, and particularly those of New Orlemis, is the AVw Orkans and NashviUe railroad, by constructing which they propose to connect themselves not only directly with a region of country capable of supplying the largest amount of trade, but with the numerous railroads now in progress in the south and west. The length of this road will not be iiir from 500 miles. It will traverse, as is well known, a very fertile
and productive region, and at its northern terminus will be brought into comniunicntion by railroad with every portion of the country. It is believed that this road will exert a strong counteracting inlluence to the efforts now made to draw off the trade ol' the Mississippi valley toward other cities. The whole line is now under survey, and will be placed under contract as soon as practicable, when the work of construction will be urged forward with the greatest possible dispatch.
Tiie other leading project, dividing the attention of the State with that described, is the jVtw Orleans and Opclousas railroad. The object of this road is to accommodate the trade and travel of the country traversed, and eventually to fi>rm the trunk of two other great lines ; one extending into Texas, with the expectation that it will eventually bo carried across the continent to the Pacific ; and the other in a northerly direction, through Arkansas, to St. Louis. These extensionsr however, form no part of the present project, which is limited to the territorj' of the State.
Tiic route of this road traverses the groat sugar-producing district of Louisiana, from which transportation to a market, on account of the impossibility of tnmstructing gocKl earlli-roads, involves a heavy expense and great delay. For the immense products of this portion of the Stale, the road will constitute a suitable outlet in the convenient direction of trade. The work of construction will be commenced immediately, as ample means are prepared tor this purpose.
The above are the two leading works of the Slate, and alone require particular description. Most of the projects that will be constructed within the vStatc, l()r some years to come, will probably be based upon the above lines.
The influence which railroads are calculated to exert upon the commerce, and in this manner upon the public sentiment of a community, has be(!n remarkably illustrated in the present condition of the trade of New Orleans ; and in the extraordinary revolution which a conviction of the necessity of these works, as a means of n).'iintaining their prosperity and commerce, has effected in the politcal organization of that city and the State. So long as commerce was confined entirely to natural channels. New Orleans occupied a position jxjsscssing greater advantages than any other city on this continent. She held the key to the commerce of its hirgest and most productive Ixisin, watered by rivers which aff)rd 50,001) miles of inland navigation. This basin is now the principal producing region of those articles which fijrm the basis of our foreign and donrtestic commerce.
Tiie ability, therefore, to monopolize this trade, will Ik; the test of commercial supremacy among numerous competitors. Before the construction of artificial cnannels, NewOrh^ans enjoyed anaiural monopoly of the trade of the Mississippi valley. But it has already been demonstrated that in the United States natur<il channels of commerce Jire insufliciently matched against those of an artificial character. The progress of the latter has already madi; serious inroads upon a trade, to which the merchants of New Orleans f()rmerly supposi'd they had a prescriptive right. There can be no doubt that this trade is to bo turned toward the eastern cities, unless it can be restored to its old routes by the construction of channels better suited to its wants ihau
is wants thaa
the Mississippi river and its tributaries. As already stated, the people neither of New Orleans, nor of the State, could b(! induced to act till the danger to be averted became innninent. But us, in the southern States, works of the miignitude proposed cannot be executed by private enterprise, it was found, so liir as Louisiana was cfmcerned, that neither the credit of the State, nor that of the city of New Orleans, could be made availid)le to the works proposed; that of the State from a constitution-d inhibition, and that ol the city because it had already been dishonored. Under these circumstances, it was felt that the lirst step to be taken was to remove the disability on the part of the State, and to restore; the credit of the city to a ])oint at which it could be made available l()r the carrying out of plans designated to promote its growth and prosperity. Both objects have already been accomplished. The constitution of the State has been remodelled, so as to permit extension of aid to railroad projects. A much great»'r change has been ettected, as far as N(!W ()rli;an.s itself is concerned. Up to a recent period that city was divided into three municiiHtUtlcn, each having a distinct political organization. Each of these municipalities luul contracted large (lel)ls, the [)ayment of which had Inien dishonored. Their credits, of course, could not be made available f()r any works of improvement. It was seen that tlu; proper and only course l()r the accomplishment of the results aimed at, was to consojidate the diilerent organizations into one body, and pay olF old liabilities by new lo;ms resting upon the credit of the irhuli- city. All this has been eflected. The result has been magical. The credit of the city has been completely restored. The new loan, to pay off outstanding liabilities, conmiiuuled a handsome premium, and tlu; city is now in a position to extend elKcient aid to her pro|X)se(l works. As the loss of her business and her cre<lit could be directly traced to the indifK;rence with which she regarded all works of internal improvement, slu; proposes to restore both by calling to her assistance all the ageneii's supplied by modern science in aid of human cflorts and iti the creation ol' wealth.
Ill addition to the recent loan of $2,000,000 referred to, the city has voted !$2,0(l(),000 in aid of the New Orleans and Nashville, and $1,500,000 to the New Orleans and Opelousas roads. These sums will probably be increasetl, should it be tc)und necessary to tiie accomplishment of their (objects. Both works are to be pushed forward with all the dispate-h called l()r by the exigiMicies demanding their construction.
There are two or three short roads in operation in this State, of a local character, and other lines ar(^ jjrojecled ; but they are not sufficiently ruatmed to call for particular notice in this report.
habitants to square mile, 0.89.
The State of Texas has lx>en too recently settled to allow time for the construction of extensive lines of railroc'id. It must, however, soon become an active theatre for the progress of these works, which are
not only very much nrrdrd, hut fr)r which the fopo^Tiiphicnl (I'aturr* of the Stfitc arc fiivorahh". The surface of llie ^'leatcr part of it consists of level, ()j>eti prairies, which eati he prepared |I»r ihe sii|M'r«truclure of railroads at a sli^dit expense. The soil isof ^Mcat li-rtilify, capable of produein;Lr lar^'c (|i.aniities of sugar and cotton, which must ultiinnlely he forwarded over railroads to market, from tin* alweoce of navigahle rivers.
The most prominent projec^ts, at the present time, occupying the attention «)ftlie people of this f^tate, are the propose<l road liom (lalvestonto the Rvd river, anrl the exti'iision westward of the New Oiirtimtnul (fjHi' lousas railroad. The line of the |I)rmer of these extends liom (iaivesloil in a generally northern direct ion, JM'twecn the lirazos and Trinity rivers, to the Red river, which fi>rms tla; northern honndary of the Slate. It V II he about f()ur hundri'd iTiiles long. Through its whole length i. tr;iverses a li'rlile region, well adapted U) tlu; culture of cr)tl(in. Till* lorlion of Texas is entirely wanting in any natiu'al ontlet tor its p? .«hicu. It already contains a large and thriving population, capab.e of :!i|'plying a lucrative irallic to a road. 'I'owards this prnje(\ i^k i-i hO ha» made a grant of lands ecpial lo -OjOOO aeres per mile ol nxid, and will, if necessary, extend farther aid. These lands nr( a gratuity Ut the company coiistruetiiig the road. Measures are now in progress which will probably result in placing llu; wlM)le oi" this impoii;mt work luider contract. When conijjleted it will prov<' of great benefit to the jx.'oplo upon its route, and to northern Texas; will aild a large area to the ovdilahlc cotlon-prodiieing district «)f the South, and will grnitly iiHTcase the commercial importance of Galveston, the juincipal stN'iport of the Slate.
The other work rtlerrr-d to traverses tin' State from east lo west, connei'ting at its cistern lerminus with the }svw Orlrans and Oini<>usa» road. The above is projK)se{l, not only as an outlet l!»r tin; trjide and commerce of the central portion of the State, but as part of a great line of railroad connecting the (julf of Mexico with the I'acific. It is claimed that through Texas is to be l()und the appropriate line t()r such a work. Shonld such prove to be the fact, the proposed line; will coincide with the mate of the mttional road, as far as tln' lerritorA- of 'i'exas is concerned, .\part, howev(»r, from all considerations of its becoming a portion of lh(.' Pacific project, the ncce- -ity li)r a railroad traversing the State from east t" west is so urgei. , \\v ilr speedy construction may Ih; considered certain.
No State in the (Inion is making mr:- ■ ^ id |>rogrPss man Texas, and the lapse of time will surely bring with it all the imi)rovementswe find in older States. The value of such works is fully aj)j)reciated, and tljcre is every disposition to encourage their construction by liberal ^:" Us r.f land, (/f which the State holds vast bodies. The oidy re.•-iaiuir.' work ' \ progress in the State is the Bujjalo, Bdijou, Brazos, oftd Colorado .'oad, extending from Ilarrisburg, on Buflido bayou, lo the Br i cos river, .\ distance of thirty-two miles. The object of this road is to divert the trade of that river lo Galveston bay. This trade has already become important, and the above work will open lor it an outlet in a convenient direction to the principal seaport of the State.
pie in varioilM portions of tlie Stiite; bnt tlirre lire none, exerpf those (ieserihed, of wL > h llu^ direclidn find objects are .snfheietiily defined, to fiill within the aeopc! of this notice. When tlir; ^rent area of Tex.-is, llie DivoniMe clrir;ieter of its territory l(»r the eoii-<tnicti.>n «)f railroads, its resoii s nnrl iln ^'one fxipnhition it will -;oon eMiti.jiu, are tiiken into coiis^iderjilion, tliere (an oe no donl)t tli.it it will, t're lonjr, become iin '-live iIk aur of riiilroiid ent(>rjMise and snctvii*.
This State has heretoli)rc been regarded as too r- mote, and too ijjiuly settled, to become! the theatre of railroad ent(>rj)rises. A mimber of important pnjjects, however, are now attracting i,'r(vit attention and interest am(»ng her people. The leading of thcM' an* the proposed road from Litih^ Rock to the Mississippi river, opp'-^ite Memphis, with a branch to II(>l(<na; a road from Little Rock to Shreveport, on Red river ; and the line running from St. Lonis to New < »rle;ms. The proj,eets are rapidly assuming a definite shape. Tin want of a dense population, and conseriuently of means l()r the execetion of enterprises of magnitude, may, f()r the present, delay the const action of roads in this Slate ; but, as in other western Slates, they will tidlow close upon Uie wants and the abihty of the people of Arkansas m construct them.
The remarks by which the notice of the Kentucky improvements is pretiieed are appropriate to those of Tennessee. The early projects of this State were equally unfortunate ; they shared a similar fate,
and produced th( same results, so far as the public mind was concerned. It required the same efforts to restore to the people of the State confidence in their ability to execute these works, and arouse ihc public mind to a sense of their value. Tiiis object has been fully accomphshed. An elaborate system has been devised, adapted to the wants of every portion of its territory, and toward the construction of it the State guaranties a credit to the amount of $8,000 per mile, for the purchase of iron and equipment, upon the condition that the companies prepare the road-beds, and defray all otlier ciiarges of construction. The State retains a lien upon the whole pro[)erty, as security liu- the amount advanced. The companies embraced in the internal improvement act are the following: The Chattanooga and Charleston, the Nashville and Northwestern, the Louisville and Nashville, the Southwestern, the McMinnville and Manchester, the Memphis and Charleston, the Nashville and Southern, the Mobile and Ohio, the Nasiiville and Memphis, the Nashville and Cincinnati, the East Tennessee and Virginia, the Memphis, Claikriville, and Louisville, and the Winchester and Alabama railroads — making, in the aggregate, about 1,000 miles of line. This act is believed to be judicious on the part of the State, as it will secure the construction of most of the projects coming within its provisions, without the* risk of loss. By tlui use of the credit of the State, railroad companies will be enabled to save a large sutn in discounts and commissions, which other roads are compelled to pay, upon the sale oftluir own securities.
The most prominent road in the State, at the present time, is the Nashville and Chattanooga railroad, conne(;ting the above ])liices by a line of 151 miles. Chattanooga is already conn(X'ted hy railroad with the cities (jf Charleston and Savannah. About 100 miles ol'the above road ore completed, and it is (expected that by the first of January next the Tennessee river will be reached, and that the whole line will be completed in a few months after that event.
Tlie above road is tiie ajipropriate extension of the Georgia and South Carohna lines into the Mississippi valley, to which it opens an outlet on tlic southern Atlantic coast. For tiie want of other lines of coinmunieation, the Mississippi river and its branches have been the outlet of the trad(! of Tennessee. Tlie completion of the roads now in progress will liberate this trade from the long circuit it has been compelled to t;ike, by way of the Cumberland and Tennessee rivers, to market, and bring it in din^ct communication with its best customers, the e(jllon producing portions of the southern States.
The road is important, not only lijr the reasons stated, but as a connecting link between two great systems of railroad occupying the northern and southern States. At Chntt.'uiooga and Winchester this road will connect with the railroads of Charleston, (Jeorgia, and Alabama. Its norihern terminus, Nashville, is the radiating point oi' a number of important roads, nil of wl)icli will soon b(! in j)rogress, extending towards Cincinnati, Louisville, Evunsville, and the Mississij
munication with other roads, and supplies them with necessary outlets and connexions ; without wliich there would be no sufficient inducement to warrant their construction. It has been prosecuted with vigor and energy, and its affairs have been managed with an ability that lias contributed not a little to raise the confidence of the southern people in their capacity to undertake and prosecute successfully railroad enterprises.
Railroads in East Tennessee. — The eastern portion of the State of Tennessee has no geographical connexion witn the rest of the State, and its railroad projects make up no part of the general system. The most important of these projects arc the East Tennessee and Georgia, and East Tennessee and Virginia roads. Together they traverse the entire State from north to south, by a line of about 240 miles, of which 15 miles lie within the State of Georgia.
East Tennessee and Georgia llailroad. — This road commences at Dalton, and is completed to Loudon, on the Tennessee river, a distance of 80 miles. It is in progress to Knoxville, its northern terminus, a farliier distance of 30 miles, making the whole length of its line 110 miles. This was one of the early projects of tlie South, under the title of tiie Hiwasscc railroad, wiiicii broke down after the expenditure upon it of a large sum. A few years since it was recommenced under new auspices, and lias been carried Itjrward successfully to its present termination.
East Tennessee and Virginia llailroad. — The line of this project commences at Knoxville, where it will form a junction with ilie road above described, and extend in a northeasterly course to the Virginia State line, a distance of 130 miles. Here it will meet the Virginia and Tennessee railroad. The entire line of the former is under contract, to be ready ior the iron as soon as the connecting roads shall be opened. The line of the East Tennessee and Virginia road could not be brought into profitable use, and would, in iiict, hardly be accessible without the opening of the connecting roads above referred to. In addition to the general provisions of the State, in aid of railroads, tlie sum of S300,000 was granted to this road fijr tiie purpose of building several expensive bridg(?s. It is believed that the work will be completed within three years iiom the present date.
The above roads traverse a very fertile, but (comparatively secluded portion of the country. In addition to its agricultural resources, it is rich in the most valuabk; minerals. Its great distance from market has proved a serious obstacle to its prosperity; but, with the avenues which the above; roads will supply, it must soon IxH'ome one of the Hourishing portions of the country, and the seat of a large manufacturing, as well as an agricultural interest.
'JMie above roads derive their chief public consideration from their connexion with the great national line which has been already described, and of which they ff)rm an important link. This great line will tbrra the shortest and most direct route between Mobile and New Orleans, anil the North ; and must consequently become one of the most important routes of travel in the whole country. The lower pmt of this line will undoubtedly be connected with Chattanooga by a short branch, giving connexion with tlie roads intersecting at that point.
The Tennessee find Alabama road is a work of much consequence, as it will be connected with the Nashville and Chattanooga road at Winchester, with the Memphis and Charleston at Huntsvillo, and with the Alabama and Tennessee at Gunter's Landing. From Winchester to Huntsville the distance is about 46 miles. For this distance the whole line is under contract, and well advanced towards completion.
From Winchester a road is also in progress to McMinnville, a distance of about 35 miles. From this point it is proposed to extend a railroad northerly, through Central Tennessee, by wa}"^ of Sparta, lor the purpose of forming a junction with the southern extension of the Lexington and Danville railroad by way of Burkesvillo, Kentucky. This is a project entitled to State aid. It will be seen that, with its connexions, It would form a direct route for a railroad bdween the northern and southern States.
Another proposed line, radiating from Nashville, is the Nashville and Northwestern railroad, extending from that city to the Mississippi river, near the northwestern angle ot', the State. This project also is entitled to State aid, and is regnrded as essential to the system whicii Tc niiessee has proposed for herself. Its line traverses an excellent region of country, and would furnish an outlet for it in the direction either of Nashville or of the Mississippi river. The portion of this line towards Nashville is an expensive one ; and this fact may, ior the present, delay the commencement of the work.
The internal improvement act of the State contemplates the construction of (hrce roads extending Irom Nashville in southern and southwestern directions — the Nashville and Southern, the Nashville and Southwestern, and the Nashville and Memphis roads. Of these the first-named has made the most progress, its route being under survey prej)aratory to placing it under contract. It is intended to make this road a portion of the New Orleans and Nashville line. Its line traverses one of the best portions of the State, able to supply abundant means for the work, and its construction may be regarded as beyond any reasonable doubt.
The Niishville and Southwesteiu road will probably extend from Nashville to the bend of the Teiniessee river. P^or a portion of" the distance, this and the Nashville and Southern may be united in one trunk line. At the Tennessee river the above road will form a junction with the Mobile rind Ohio road, and, through this, with the Memphis and Charleston roiid. By means of these conn(^xions continuous lines of railroad will be formed, uniting Nashville with Memphis, New Orleans, and Mobile.
The Nashville and Memphis road will tnke a more westerly direction than either of the two last named. Its obj.'ct, in addition, to the accommodation of the local traffic upon its route, is to open the shortest practicable communication between the capital of the State and its principal commercial town. The construction of this road is believed to be demanded on the considerations ahove stated. Its proposed line traverses a very excellent section, capahle of affording a large trade ; and the city of Memphis must always remain the entrepot of a large portion of the merchandise imported into the State, and the point to
signed for exportation.
The Nashville and Louisville road is a very important work, and will be more particularly described with the roads of the State of Kentucky, a comparatively small portion only of the line of this road being in Tennessee. For this project sufficient means for construction have been provided, and the work is to be immediately placed under contract.
The line of the Mobile and Ohio railroad traverses Western Tennessee from north to south, and will supply valuable accommodations to that portion of the State. This road may be regarded as an Alabama project, and has been particularly described in the notice of the roads of that State. The Tennessee division is immediately to be placed under contract, and as it runs through a rich planting district, abundant means can be readily raised for its construction, in addition to the State appropriation.
The proposed Memphis, Clarksville, and Louisville railroad is another important project in West Tennessee. It will probably intersect the Louisville and Nashville road at Bowling Green, Kentucky. In connexion with the latter, a very direct line of road will be formed between Memphis and Louisville, which will constitute a convenient avenue from the former city, in a northeasterly direction, and which will become a leading route of travel in the southwestern States. It traverses a fertile section of country, capable of supplying a lucrative traffic. It is probable that this road may be constructed as a branch of the Louisville and Nashville road.
This State commenced, some years since, a system of improvement founded principally upon the plan of rendering navigable her principal rivers — the Green, Licking, and Kentucky. Although large sums were expended upon these works, they have, with the exception of the improvements on the Green river, proved of little value. They are almost entirely unremunerative, as far as their tolls are concerned ; although the Green river improvements have been of great advantage to tiie country traversed by it, in the outlet they have opened to a market. As a system tliey have proved a lailure, and all idea of the prosecution of works of a similar kind has long since been abandoned.
Railroads of Kentucky.
Louisville and Lexington railroad. — The only railroad in operation in the State is the line from Louisville to Lexington — made up of the Louisville and Frankfort and Frankfort and Lexington roads. These roads were commenced at an early period in the railroad history of the country : and it has been only after repeated efforts and failures that
they have been recently completed. The projects shared the fate of all the pioneer western roads, having been abandoned, and their completion postponed for many years alter they were commenced. The length of these roads is 93 miles, and the cost about ?^2,500,000. The disastrous results which attended the enterprises referred to exerted a most injurious effect upon the public mind of the State. Discouraged by the failures wiiich had been sustained, the people became almost indifferent to the subject of internal improvements, except so far as the construction of Macadamized roads was concerned, for the number and excellence of which the State is justly celebrated. When the public mind of the West was again turned to the subject of railroad construction, it was with the utmost difficulty that the people of Kentucky could be convinced of the importance of these works, or induced to take any steps toward their construction. The losses suffered on account of the Louisville and Frankfort, and Frankfort and Lexington railroads, were fresli in mind ; and the people distrusted the success of the ncic pr()jects from experience of the o/d. Tiie example of the neighboring States, whose success in their recent efforts demonstrated the capacity of the West not only to build railroads, but to- supply a lucrative traffic to them, nnd the rapid progress of those regions of country enjoying the advantages of these works, gradually inspired confidence, and aroused the pc.'ople to action ; and the State of Kentucky is now one theatre of the most active efforts to secure the construction of railroads. Every part of the State is fully alive to the subject, and its surface will soon be as thickly checkered with lines as are the States of Ohio and Indiana.
1. The Louisville and Nashville railroad. — The line of lliis road will be about 180 miles long. Its rout<! has been determined, and will pass through a very fertile portion of the State, capable of supplying an immense traffic to a railroad, and entirely wanting in suitable outlets to markets, excepting that portion of the route near Bowhng Green. Tlie connexions it will form will be of sufficient inipf)rtanee to give the work a national character, as it will probably be the most cons[>icuous connecting link l)etween the roads of the two extremes of the confederacy. The road is to be placed immediately under contract ; and as ample means arc already provided for this purpose, its construction, at the earlic^st practicable period, may be set down as certain.
A ver}"^ important branch from the above road — exceeding in length even the main trunk — is the proposed Memphis, Clarksvillc, and Louisville road, which has already been described under the head of " Tennessee." This road will probably leave the Nashville and Jiouisville road at Bowling (ireen. It will be seen that the two would form a very direct line between Louisville aud Memphis. The Memphis extension is regarded with great favor by the people of Louisville, and by the friends of the Louisville and Nashville projects. As a large portion o the proposed extension is embraced in the State of Tennessee, it will come in for the State aid; and as it traverses a rich section of country, and will receive the efficient support of Louisville, there can be no doubt of its speedy construction.
cinnati with Nashville, and attracting much attention in central and southern Kentucky, is composed of the Covington and Lexington line, through the towns of Bowhng Green, Kentucky, and Gallatin, Tennessee. A reference to the annexed map will at once show the important relation it bears to the railroad system of the whole country. The city of Nashville is to be the centre of a great southern system of railroads radiating in every direction toward all the leading southern cities situated on the Atlantic coast and the gulf. In a few months this city will be in direct communication, by railroad, with the cities of Savannah and Charleston. Roads arc also in progress to Mobile and New Orleans, to various points on the Mississippi, and to other portions of the State. The city of Louisville will be no less favorably situated, with reference to the railroads of the northern and eastern States. On the north and west, the New Albany, and Salem and Jeffersonville roads, will open a communication witli the roads of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, and with the leading cities of all these States. On the east, the line of railroad to Lexington will connect with all the railroads radiating from that point, some of which will open outlets to the eastern States, and to the great Atlantic markets.
The cost of this road will amount to about $5,000,000. Sufficient means have been already provided to warrant its construction. The city of Louisville has subscribed to its stock to the amount of $1,000,000, and the counties on its line have taken stock with equal liberality. The route traversed bv this road runs throuyh one of the most iertile and densely settled portions of the State.
The, Covlnrrfnn and Lexington, and Danville and Na,9hvilh. — The two first links, having an aggregate length of 13G miles, are already in progress. Active measuies are in progress to secure the necessary means t(>r the last. This route will pass through Glasgow, an important town in southern Kentucky. The upper portion of this line may be made the trunk of two important branches, one extending nearly direct in a southerly course through the State of Tennessee, (taking the towns of Sparta and Winchester in its route,) to Hnntsville, Alabama, where it will U)rm a junction with the Memphis and Charleston road; thence it will be extended to Gunter's Landing, in order to connect with the Alabama and Tennessee river road. The portion of this line from Winchester, south, is already in progress. The Tennessee division is embraced in the general facility bill. At Winchester, this line will have a southeasterly outlet, by means of the Nashville and Chattanooga railroad.
The other branch referred to is the proposed road to be constructed through southeastern Kentucky and eastern Tennessee, to Knoxville, there to connect with the lines of railroad centring at that point. The importance of this route, lor a railroad, has always been recognised, and that section now under discussion formed a part of the; old Cincinnati and Charleston project, which attracted so much attention through the southern and weste-n States many years since, and which has l)een referred to in another part f)f this report. Measures are in progress to secure the means t()r this line. The great obstacle in the way of its immediate construction is the scanty population and want of means on the line of the route. The importance of this link, how-
cure to it such foreign aid as shall be necessary to its success.
The next line in order is the Maysville and Lexington railroad. This, though started as a local project, is now proposed as a part of a great through line, connecting the most remote portions of the country. At Lexington it will form a junction with all the lines centring at that point. From its eastern terminus, Maysville, the Maysville and Big Sandy railroad will carry it forward to Portsmouth, on the Ohio river. From the latter place the Scioto and Hocking Valley railroad is in pi ogress, which pursues, l{)r some fifty miles, the same general direction with the connecting Kentucky line, till it forms a junction witli the Hillsboro' and Cincinnati, and Cincinnati and Marietta roads, the former of which is to constitute the extension, westerly, of the Baltimore and Ohio, and the latter oi the Pennsylvania Central road. To the mouth of the Big Sandy river, the Maysville and Big Sandy railroad will connect the former with the Virginia Central road, which it is proposed to carry across the mountains, terminating on tlie Ohio, at this point. These combinations will secure to the Maysville and Lexington road an important place in a great line of railroad, traversing the country from one extremity to the other, in the convenient direction of business and travel. With the exception of the Maysville and Big Sandy road, all the links necessary to this great line are in progress. The Maysville and Lexington railroad will probably be opened lor business during the year 1853.
Lexington arid Big Sandy railroad. — This proposed road is attracting much attention in Kentucky, particularly that portion of the State to be traversed by it. By reference to the accompanying map, it will be seen that it would form a convenient portion of the great line of road just referred to. Measures are in progress to raise the means necessary for its construction, with good promise of success. As a local work, it will prove to be of great benefit to the country traversed, deprived as it is of suitable and convenient avenues to market.
Henderson and Nashville railroad. — This line is the legitimate extension, southward, of the Wabash Valley railroad. As a connecting link between other roads, a reference to the annexed map will give a better idea of its importance than any description. The southern shore of Lake Miciiigan will attract to itself all the lines of railroad running from the Gulf of Mexicj) in a northerly direction. Between this lake and the cities of New Orleans and Mobile, the great route of travel will probably always be by way of Nashville. The route will, apparently, be the shortest, and most convenient and agreeable to the traveller, whether for business or pleasure. It coincides with the great route through the Wabash valley, and has the advantage of taking in its course the leading commercial towns in the interior of the country. These facts must always attach particular importance to the Henderson and Nashville railroad as a through route, and in this respect it can hardly be exceeded by any road of equal length in the United States. In a local point of view the road is important, and its prospects flattering, as it traverses a region of great fertility, and already distinguished tor the extent and value of its productions.
eventually be extended to Frankfoit. A road is also proposed from Harrodsburg to Fraiikfort. Another is projected from Paris, on the Maysville and Lexington road, via Georgetown, to connect with the Louisville and Frankfort railroad, for the purpose of cutting off the detour by way of Lexington.
The only project remaining to be noted is the Louisville and Cincinnati road, which is now beginning to attract much attention, not only in the State, but in the above cities. The necessity of the road is daily becoming more and more apparent. Cincinnati and Louisville are soon to become central points m widely extended and distinct systems of roads, extending to the great lakes on the one hand, and to the Gulf of Mexico on the other. The public convenience and the wants of commerce require that this connecting link should be supplied. The travel between the above cities is already great, and is cairied almost entirely upon steamboats. The time now occupied by a trip is about twelve hours. The distance by river is 150 miles. By the proposed road it would be reduced to ninety-five miles, and the' time to four hours. Active measures are now in progress to provide the necessary means for this work, and to place it under contract.
In considering the works of improvement projected in the interior, for the purpose of opening outlets lor products, a marked difference is found between such and works constructed by our Atlantic cities for the pur|K)se of sccurinff to themselves the interior trade of the country. Although these mst were designed to reach and accommodate this trade, they took their character and direction rather from the supposed advantage they were to secure to the cities which mainly furnished the means l()r their construction, than from that to the country traversed. As far as practicable, they aimed at a monopoly of all the trade within their reach ; but, with roads projected in the interior for the purpose of opening outlets to a market a diflferent principle prevails. The ruling motive in such a case is, so to shape the project as to secure the cheapest acas^ to the best market, or to a choice of markets, and to escape the monopoly which the markets themselves sought to impose. The leading improvements projected in the interior, therefore, often have a mon? national character, and are constructed with more refer-ence to the wants of the whole community, than those of the East.
The value of works facilitating and cheapening transportation can be fully estimated only when they are considered in reference to that portion of our population residing in the interior. As already stated, we have few markets,and those far removed from the great producing regions. The early settler in the western States of necessity engaged in agriculture, and so long as he was without means of fi)r warding his surplus to a market, the gratification of his wants was limited to what his own hands could supply. The time had not arrived for a diversity
of pursuits in his own neighborhood, and he was too remote to avail himself of those of the older States. The cost of transportation placed it beyond his means to purchase from abroad, and his surplus was, iherelbre, comparatively worthless after the supply of his own immediate wants. Thirty years ago, the West offered but few inducements to the settler, as he was compelled to sacrifice all the social and many of the physical comforts afforded in the less fertile, but better settled and richer States of the East. Without variety of industrial pursuits, and without commerce, no amount of surplus could add much to his wealth or his means of enjoyment. This portion of the country therefore advanced very slowly, until the construction of the Erie canal, by which a market was thrown open, and its vast productive capacity rendered available. An instantaneous and mighty impulse was imparted to it, under the influence of which all its interests have moved forward with constantly accelerating pace up to the present time.
The completion of the Erie canal, in connexion with the great lakes, gave a navigable water line from New York to Chicago, a distance of 1,500 miles, and opened a market to the whole country within reach of this great water line. In order to profit by this outlet, the western States lying upon the lakes immediately commenced the construction of similar works to connect with it the more remote portions of their territory. At that period, canals were regarded as the most approved mode of transportation. Hence the system of internal imjjrovement in the West almost exclusively embraced the construction of canals. The early projects of the States oi" Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, were, with a very lew exceptions, of this character, though their i'urther progress haa since been entirely superseded by railroads.
In reviewing the public works of the West, the State of Ohio, in some respects, constitutes an appropriate starting point, as she was the first to enter upon, and the orlv one to execute, what she originally proposed. After a severe strn e, her great system of canals was completed, and the result 1_ .en to place her immeasurably in advance of all her sister States in wealth, in population, and in general prosperity. The rapidity of her progress has been the marvel of the country. In a very few years she rose from obscurity to the first rank among her sister States in population, in wealth, in credit, and in consideration both at home and abroad.
Canals of Ohio.
Ohio canal. — This work was commenced in 1825, and was completed in 1832. It extends from Portsmouth, on the Ohio river, to Cleveland, on Lake Erie, a distance of 307 miles. It ascends the valley of the Scioto nearly to Columbus, when it takes an eastern direction, striking into the valley of the Muskingum, passing through the towns of Hebron, Newark, Coshocton, New Philadelphia, and Massillon, in this valley. Crossing the summit of Akron, it falls into the valley of the Cuyahoga river, which it pursues to Cleveland. The highest point in the canal at Akron is 499 leet .above the Ohio r'ver at Portsmouth, 405 above Lake Erie, and 973 above the Atlantic ocean.
the canal leaves the Ohio valley to Columbus, a distance of 10 miles.
The Lancaster branch. — This is a lateral branch, extending from the main trunk southerly to the town of Lancaster, the capital of Fairfield t!ounty, a distance of 9 miles.
The Alliens extension or Hocking canal is a prolongation of the Lancaster branch. It has a southeastorly course through the counties of Fairfield, Hocking, and Athens, to the town of Athens, a distance of about 56 miles.
The Zancsrille branch, extending from the main canal to the town of Zancsville, on the Muskingum river, a distance of 14 miles, connects it with the Muskingum improvement, by means of which another channel is opened to the Ohio river at Marietta.
ton, upon the WaThonding river, a distance of 25 miles.
The Miami canal. — This work extends from Cincinnati to Lake Erie, at Manhattan, a distance of 270 miles. The principal towns through which it passes are Hamilton, Dayton, Troy, Sidney, Defiance, and Toledo. This last town is generally considered as the northern terminus of the canal, although it is carried to Manhattan, 4 miles below it. This canal was commenced in 1825, and completed in 1832. It has a width of 40 and a depth of 4 leet; its summit-level is 510 feet above Cincinnati, and 411 feet above Lake Erie, and the number of its locks is 102. This canal, from Lake Erie to the Indiana State line, forms the lower trunk of the Wabash and Erie canal, extending to Evansvill(>, on the Ohio river. There are also connected with this canal in Ohio branch lines measuring 45 miles in length.
following private works :
The Sandy and Beaver canal. — ^This work corrimences at BoUvar, on the Ohio canal, and extends to the Ohio river, at the mouth of the Beaver river, a distance of about 76 miles. The cost of this work was about $2,000,000. A portion of it is in the State of Pennsylvania.
The Mahoning canal. — This canal commences at Akron, pursues the left bank of the Cuyahoga river, running through the town of Ravenna, thence into and along the valley of the Mahoning to its confluence with
the Beaver canni, in Pennsylvania, a short distance from the State line. The length of this canal is ahout 77 miles, and its cost sametliing like $2,000,000. It was, In^forc the construction of railroads in Ohio, and still is, an important channel of communication between Pittsburg and Cleveland and the interior of Ohio, and supplies the latter city with the important article of coal, which is found in the greatest abundance and of the best quality in the Mahoning valley.
In the vast number of railroad projects which have sprung up in Ohio within a few years, and which are absorbing public attention, the canals of the State have sunk into comparative insignificance. The former have, however, been the great cause of its unexampled prosjierity, as they supplied the demand of its people for a cheap and com|):iratively expeditious route to market, and enabled them to turn to immediate account their large resources. It is probable that they miiy still continue to be the carriers of the more bulky and less valuabh; kinds of property, and in this manner prove of utility, though of smaller com)aralive importance. Although railroads may take from the canals a arge portion of their traffic, the l()rmer will probably develop a still larger trade in artieh's of merchandise, f()r wnich \.\<c canals are the appropriate channels ; so that the interests of the tsvo systems of improvement, instead of clashing, will be f()und to bi; in strict harmony. The canals, un(i)rtunately, are not Jirst-elass works, so far as th<;ir construction and capacity are concerned, and during periods of great drought occasionally fall short of water.
The railroads of Ohio may be said to S -long to two distinct and well defined periods in the history of the internal improvements of tlie Slate. The first class includes those commenced during the grctat speculative movcmtuit of 183G and 1837, which were, l()r a considerable lapso of time, the only projects of the kind attempted in the State. These were —
1. The Li I fie Miami railroad, commenced in 1837 and eom{)l<'ted in 1846, was originally laid out with a Hat rail, which has since been replaced by the heavy H or T rail. It extends from Cincinnati tf) Springfield, a distance of 84 miles, and has cost, u{) to the present time, about $2,500,000.
2. The Mad Uivrr arid Lake Erie, commenced in 1836 and completed in the latter part of 1846, extends from Sandusky, on Lake Erie, to Springfield, a distance of 134 miles, where it f()rm3 a junction with the Litth; Miami road, constituting a continuous line of railroad from Lake Erie to the Ohio, which was the first to connect these water-courses. A [)ortion of this road was opened in 1838. It was originally l.iid with a flat rail, which has since been replaced by one better adipicd to a heavy traffic.
3. The Mansfield and Sandusky railroad was commenced in 1836, and a portion of it opened in 1838. It was completed to Mansfield in 1847. Like all the early Ohio railroads, it wtte first laid with the flat bar, which has since given place to the hea^y rail.
Erie, to Adrian, where it forms a junction wiili Michig; i Southrrn railro.'ul, to which it forms an outlet to tiu! roads ul Ohio. I'hr len . of this road is about 33 miles. It wns commenced in 1836, iiiid coui-
place to a heavy bar.
These arc the only roads commenced, under the stimulus of the jljreat movement already referred to, the original plans for which were hnally accomplished. All other projects fell to the ground in the commercial revulsions which followed. These failures, and the long delay in completing the roads already described, were in part owing to the financial embarrassments which suececided, but yet more to the limited amount of cfipital, and to the want of engineering skill and experience brought to bear upon them. Notwithstanding all the embarrassments and losses to which they were subjected, it is believed that they are all now yielding a prolitabu; return upon their entire cost.
It may not here be out of place to remark, that the numerous failures in the first effijrts of the new States to construct works of internal improvement were not the result of accidait, but a matter of nnassity. The schemes were all premature ; neither the means, nor the engineering and practical talent, essential to success, existed. The country had not been settled a length of time sufficient to designate the sites that were to become the great depots of trade, or the convenient routes ihr travel and business. At tliis distance of lime, it is easy to see that the failure of many of the works undertaken in the West and South, not oidy by the States but by individuals, was unavoidable ; and that with the lights wc now possess, tluur construction would have been postponed until a condition should have arisen more favorable to success. These failures were no just cause of reproach to the States in which they occurred, except so far as the debts created have been repudiated, or no provisions made for the liabilities as they fell due.
These reverses cut short the progress of railroads and canals, with a few exceptions, for a number of years. The people were disheartened, and in many cases disgusted, with their ill success, and became comparatively indifferent to the subject of internal improvements. Years elapsed befiire the western States recovered from the disastrous eflc'cts of the previous r<!verscs, in which nearly every individual in the community had been involved. Indeed, it required years to replace the various losses sustained. When this was accomplished, and the lapse of sixteen years had brought a larger population, mcreased production, and ampler means, the necessity of avenues, suitable to the increasing wants of the country, came to be more and more strongly felt. To meet tliis demand, the works now in progress were commenced. These movements constitute the new era in the history of our internal improvements. Both the old and the new system had its peculiar characteristics. The first proposed in the newly settled States either anticipated the wants of the country, or was in advance of the conditions necessary to success. It was borrowed from the old, and applied to the new States, where an entirely different Slate of things existed ; and was, in fact, an attempt to apply a principle deduced from known data to circumstances wholly uncertain.
AMOR8WS RSPOBT ON
The works mori? recently commenced rest on a very diflferent Toundation. They were constructed, and are adapted, to supply wants which actually exist. An unsound policy has given place to one jxjrfectly healthy and legitimate, following requirements, and controlled by wants, the extent and nature of which are well understood and dcHned.
The railroads in progress and opt^ration in Ohio at the present lime make an aggregate length of line of about 3,000 miles; the face of tlie country favoring their construction in ev<;ry part of it. These projects arc pretty uniformly distributed over the State. Tlierc are no lines oi' pre-eminent importance, because travel and commerce are not, as in some other States, forced into particular channels by the natural configuration of the country. So homogeneous arc the physical characteristics of the diflcrent portions of the westc-i States, tliat a detailed deflcription of one line of road will serve to give a distinct idea of all. In this region, local considerations are a sufficient inducement to the construction of numerous and important lines, and frcijuently a through route is made up by a combination of what were in the outset entirely distinct and separate projects. In noticing the roads of Ohio, therel()re, an effort will be made rather to give a clear idea of the whole system, than to burden the report with similar details of different projects.
In addition to the roads of exclusively local character, there are numerous great lines traversing the entire State from north to south and from east to west. These great lines or routes are composed as follows :
4. Cleveland and Wcllsville railroad.
5. A fifth line will soon be added to the above, formt)d by the Cincinnati, Hamilton and Dayton, and the Dayton and Michigan roads, now in progress from Dayton to Toledo.
o. An additional line will probably be formed without much delay ; the lower portion of it composed of the Cincinnati, Hamilton and Dayton, or the Little Miami, the central portion of the Springfuld, Mount Vernon and Pittsburg, and the northern division of the Cleveland and Pittsburg, and Akron Branch railroads. It is proposed to extend this branch so as to form a junction with the Ohio and Pennsylvania roads» probably at Wooster.
It is also probable that a railroad will be constructed in a short period firom Cleveland to Zanesville, and ihence southward to the Ohio river, either at Marietta or Portsmouth. Measures are also in progress to construct a road from Columbus, down the valley of the Scioto to its mouth. The above roads would form two additional north and south lines. Efforts are also making to construct a road from Dayton to Cior
1. Com[)o.s(!d of the Cleveland, Painemlh ami Anhtahula, nrul tho Juth lion railroads. This line will follow tin; lake slioro l()r its whole distunee. From Cleveland it will be earried westward by another line eompo8('(l of a portion of the C/ci7c///n(Z ««^/ Cat uinh ii s , nwd Toledo, Norwalk and Cleveland. The whole of this last named line will be in operation during the present year.
Indiana.
4. Composed of the Stucbcnvillc, Indiana and Columbus, and the Colum/ms, riqua, and Indiana roads. These will f()rm a continuous line of railroad through Ohio, and also from Philadelphia and Baltimore, Ui the Mississippi river, having a unil()rm guage throughout.
6. Composed of the Ohio Central and Columbus, and Piqiia and Indiana roads. An additional line from Columbus, by the line running through Dayloii, is described above.
7. Cindnnati and Mnrrirtta railroad. It is also contemplated lo extend this road to Wheeling, ilius fiirming a continuous line from Cincinnatli to Wheeling under one charter.
8. Ilillsboro^ and Cincinnati railroad, extending from the Ohio river, opposite Parkersburg, is proposed as the direct continuation of ihe Baltimort! and Ohio railroad to Cincinnati. From the latter place all the roads terminating there will be carried to the Indiana Slate hne, by the Ohio and Mississippi railroad.
The great iint-s which have been thus briefly described embrace the most imi>ortant projects in the State. All of ihem present the same general characteristics. Th<.' results achieved by the lines in operation may be safely predicated of those in progress ; and these so well illustrate the value of such works to the community, and as investments of capital, that a detailed account of their objects, cost, and prospective revenues, is unnecessary. Reference to the annexed mi:ps will, taken in connexion with the history of the roads in operation, convey a sufficiently correct idea of the various projects that compose the system above described.
the above lines, the objects oi wliich require a brief notice, viz :
Ohio and Mississippi railroad ; the leading object of which is the connexion of Cincinnati and St. Louis, the two great cities of the Mississippi v;ill(^y, by tiie shortest practicable line. A glance at the map will sufficiently demonstrate the value of such a work to the commerce and travel of the country. At the present time the communication between these cities is carried on by means of the Ohio and Mississippi rivers, and it is well known that the navigation of these is always seriously obstructed and often totally suspended at certain seasons of the 3'ear. At best, the route is tedious and expensive, and uncomf()rtable at all times, and often very unhealtliy. The distance by water is more than twice as great as l)y land. A direct line of railroad between these great cities is one ranking first in importance among our leading works. It is easy to see that the principal routes of travel must be those connecting great cilies by the siiortest lines, since the travel, whether of business or of pleasure, necessarily tends from one to another of these. Familiar illustrations of ilie fact will readily occur to every read(;r. In going westward, Cincinnati is a necessary point in the route of every traveller. That city, also, is consequently a converging pouit of the great lines of road leading westward from the eastern cities of Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Baltimore. After reaching Cincinnati, another leading point toward which travel is attracted is St. Louis. Hence the necessity of the above road, and the important relations it bears to the railroad system of the country, and to the great routes of travel.
The length of this road will be about three hundred and thirty miles. For the greater part of this distance the route is very favorable to cheap construction. Through its whole length it traverses a fertile and productive region, without any outlet except that f()rmed by the Wabiish river, which the above road crosses at Vincennes. In addition to its through-travel, this road will be the channel of a vast local traffic ; and these, when combined, cannot fail to yield a lucrative income.
The whole road is under contract t()r completion within two years from the first of January, 1853; and the work of construction is in rapid progress. The project has received the hearty co-operation and support of the cilies of Cincinnati and St. Louis, the former having subscribed !$OUl),UOO, and the latter $500,000, to the work, in their corporate capacities, in addition to large private subscriptions.
By the people of Baltimore, the above work is regarded witli hardly less favor than by Cincinnati and St. Louis. By liie llirmer, it is regarded as the direct extension westward of their great line, which is to be carried t()rward to Cincinnati by the Hillsboro' and Marietta roads. It will be seen that these three roads make up one grand and symmetrical line, of about nine hundred miles, extending from tide-water to the Mississippi river.
The Hnmilton and Eaton road, extending from Hamilton to Richmond, Indiana, though a valuable local work, derives its chief importance from the fact that it constitutes the trunk of two extensive lines in progress, the Indiana Central and the Cincinnati and Chicago roads, both of which connect with it at llichmond. This roud has just been
river, to Logansport.
The Greenville and Miami road extends from a point on the Dayton and Western road, about fifteen miles west of Dayton, to Union, the eastern terminus of the Indianapolis and Bellefontaine road. It occupies at present a conspicuous position, from the I'act that il is the first Ohio road to form a connexion with those of Indiana. It is already in operation to Greenville, from which point the work is in rapid progress ; so that the simultaneous completion of this and the Indianpolis and Bellefontaine road, as far as Union, may be expected by the first of December next, giving an outlet by railroad from Jeffersonville, (opposite Louisville, Kentucky,) Terre Haute, Lafayette, Madison, and numerous oilier important points in Indiana, to the railroads of Ohio, and, consequently, to those of the eastern States.
The Iron railroad is a short road, connecting the numerous iron manufacturing establishments of southern Ohio with the river. This road will probably be extended northward, to form a connexion with the Scioto and Hocking valley railroad.
By the Cleveland and Mahoning road, it is proposed to open a new channel of communication between Cleveland and Pittsburg, through the valleys of the Mahoning and Beaver rivers. One of the principal objects in its construction is to open a new outlet for the coal-fields of the Mahoning valley, from which Cleveland is now chiefly supplied with coal. Measures arc in progress to place this work immediately under contract.
A line of road of considerable importance is also proposed, commencing near Mansfield, and extending in a generally northeasterly direction, through Warren to the Ohio State line, to be continued through Pennsylvania to the Erie road at or near Olean, constituting a new line of communication between the railroads of Ohio and those of the East.
The Stjite of Indiana, in emulation of the example of her sister States, commenced, in 1836, the construction of an elaborate system of internal improvement, of which a comparatively small portion only has been accomplished. It consisted partly of canals, and partly of railroads. The canals proposed wfre the Wabash and Erie, the Central, the White Water, the Terre Haute and Eel River, and a canal from Fort Wayne to Michigan City. The railroads proposed to be constructed by the State were the Madison and Indianapolis, and the Lafiiyelto and Michigan.
The Wabash and Erie canal is the most important of the works of public improvement undertaken in the State. It commences at the Ohio State line, and extends to Evansville, on the Ohio river, a distance of three hundred and seventy-nine miles, and four bundled and sixtyseven miles from Toledo, on Lake Erie. When completed, it will
form one of the longest lines of canal in the world. From Toledo to Fort Wayne it has a depth of four feet, and a width of sixty. Below this point, it is only three feet deep and forty-five wide. Its locks admit boats of a capacity of about sixty tons. It is to be opened tor traffic through its whole length in the ensuing spring.
This work was completed by the Stale as far as Lafayette, a distance of two hundred and thirty miles from Toledo, and two hundred and forty-nine from the Ohio. When the State became, from the embarrassment of its affairs, unequal to its farther construction, a conditional agreement was made with the bondholders of the State for its completion ; the latter reserving the right to resume the work, upon the payment of the sum which the bondholders had agreed to receive in addition to the cost of completing it. It is believed that the canal will again pass into the hands of the State, by the ultimate payment of the whole of her debt. Although the construction of the canal was one of the causes of the financial embarrassments of the State, the work has proved one of the efficient means by which she has recovered from them and reached the high position she now holds as a leading State in the confederacy. As far as excellence of soil is concerned, no State possesses superior resources. The canal opened an outlet lor her products, and gave her the use of means, which up to its opening lay dormant, from the difficulty and cost of reaching a market. Tlie rapid increase in the exports of Indian corn will illustrate the value of improvements which facilitate tra?isportation. The exports of this article from the Wabash valley, from insignificance, rose to millions of busliels in a very few years alter the opening of the canal ; and Toledo, its terminus on Lake Erie, is now the chief port of export for this article.
The failure of the State to carry out her proposed system of public improvements, and the financial troubles in which she became involved, put an end for a time to all enterprises of the kind, whether of a public or private character. Some years were re{|uired to make good the losses resulting from the great expansion of 1836-37, and to allow the public mind to recover from the discouraging influence of the reverses sustained. As in Ohio, lapse of time brought greater means, a more enlarged capacity to superintend and execute works of magnitude, better defined objects, and a traffic necessary for the support v>i" extensive lines of improvement. The system proposed by the State was, in fact, in advance of the conditions recjuired to sustain it. It anticij)ated a state of things which did not exist. In commencing the new movement, which has resulted so successfully, her people have followed anrl not anticipated their wants. They have taken up only such enterpris<;s as were sanctioned by the clearest evidence of their necessity, antl which could command sufficient support to insure success. The result has been uniformly favorable ; and the Stale of Indiana, which but two or three years since had hardly a mile of railroad within her limits, now takes rank with our leading railroad Slates, and is soon to be third or fourth in the extent of her works. Her credit and means have ad-
occupies a prominent position in the confederacy.
There is no State in the Union that presents so symmetrical a system of railroads as Indiana. Nearly all her great lines radiate from the geographical centre and capital of the State. By this means they are all brought into intimate business relations with one another, an arrangement which must promote to a great degree the advantages of each. Indianapolis is soon to be the point of intersection of eight important roads, viz: the Jeffersonville, Madison and Indianapolis, Lawrenceburg and Indianapolis, Central, Bellefontaine, Peru, Lafayette, Terre Haute, and the New Albany and Salem roads. All these roads will be carried, in their respective directions, to the boundary lines of the Slate. Their focus is in the great lines of railroad running Irom the eastern States to the Mississippi river, and from the Ohio to the great lakes. It is impossible to conceive a system better devised for the promotion of the interests of the people of the State, or of the railroad companies.
All of these great lines, while they have their appropriate and ample belts of fertile, productive, and well-settled territory for local traffic, occupy important routes for througli business and travel. The Jeffersonvdle opens a communication between the central portions of the State with Louisville, the second city of the Ohio valley ; the Madison and Indianapolis forms a similar connexion with Madison, an important town, favorably situated on the Ohio river for commanding the trade of the interior ; the Lawrenceburg forms the connecting line between Indianapolis and Cincinnati ; the Central is the direct extension, westward, of the leading lines running through central Ohio ; the IndianapoUs and Bellefontaine opens the outlet to the great lakes and the lines of road traversing northern Ohio ; the Peru connects the capital and central portions of the State with the Wabash canal, which is now the great couimeroial avenue for the State ; the Lafayette connects the most important town in the northwestern part of the State with the central portions, and will soon constitute a link of the great line extending to Chicago ; the Terre Haute is the connecting line between the railroad system of the State and St. Louis and the railroads of Illinois; the New Albany and Salem will connect the cities of Louisville and New Albany, and the lower portions of the State, with the interior, by a line lying to west of the Jeflersonville road, and will also constitute an unbroken line of some two hundred and eighty-five miles between Lake Michigan and the Ohio river.
With the exception of the New Albany and Salem, all the above roads having the same general direction may be said to be complements of each other. The Central and the Terre Haute roads constitute, in a business and commercial point of view, one line ; so with the Lawrenceburg and Lafayette, and the Jeflersonville and Peru. In this manner, a system of railroads will be found adapted to promote the highest good of all the members to it, and to develop to the utmost the wealth and resources of the State, and at the same time fitted to become a portion of a still wider system embracing the whole country.
The system we have described occupies an area in the central portions of the State about one hundred and fifty miles square. In length of line and relative importance, there is great uniformity in the various
roads that compose it. They nil occupy favorable routes ; are all calculiited to benefit each other ; and will be rivals lor the same trade in a sligiit degree only. The northern and southern portions of the State will also be well supplied with railroad accommodations. In the southern portion, tlie most important road in progress is the Ohio and Mississippi, which traverses it from east to west. This work has already been sulHciently noticed under "the railroads of Ohio." The southwestern corner of the State is traversed by the Evansville and Illinois road, which is already completed to Princeton, and is in progress to Terre Haute. When this last point is reached, a connexion will be formed with the Central system, whicii will bo brought into communication with Evansville, the most important and flourishing town upon the lower Ohio, and also with a railroad now in progress leading fioin Henderson, upon the opposite bank of the river, in Kentucky, to Nashville, Tennessee, in order to connect with the roads terminating in that city.
The New Albany and Salem road is an important work for southern Indiana. At or near Orleans it will form a connexion with the Ohio and Mississippi railroad, and will thus constitute a convenient and direct route between the cities of New Albany, Louisville, and St. Louis. This road will also supply railroad accomodations to an extensive and important, but comparatively isolated portion of western Indiana. In the northern part of the State, it will perform a still more important office in opening, and that shortly, a communication between the central and northern portions of Indiana and the city of Chicago. The line of this road extends from New Albany to Michigan City, (with a branch to Indianapolis) and thence to Chicago, making its entire length about three hundred and fifteen miles. A part of this line will be composed of the Cra\vf()rdsville and Wabash road, which has been merged m the former. Three distinct portions of it are in operation, viz: fiom New Albany to Orleans ; from Crawf()rdsville to Ijafayctte ; and from Michigan City to Chicago. The unfinished portion is well advanced, and much of it will be finished before 1853, when the whole will be completed.
An important work in the northern part of the State is the Indiana Northern road, and which will be noticed with the Michigan Southern road, of which it forms a part. Tliese two roads constitute a leading line, as they unite the most southerly portions of Lakes Erie and Michigan, two important points in the geography and commerce of the country. The great lakes occupy a basin extending 500 miles from north to south, and oppose an insuperable barrier to the direct extension westward of the lines from the northern States. All these arc deflected southwardly, to avoid Lake Michigan. Such is the fact with a large number of roads in reference to Lake Erie ; consequently, a line connecting the southern shores of these lakes cannot fiiilto be a work of the first importance, not only to the travel and commerce of the country, but to its business and revenues. The great favor with whicli this project is regarded by the public is undoubtedly due in part to the above considerations. The Northern Indiana road traverses a portion of the State celebrated for its fertility, which will secure to it a large local, as well as through traffic.
Illinois
Among the proposed roads, probably the most important is thr^ Wabash Valley line, which is to extend to Toledo, Ohio, to the bounditry line of Illinois. A glance at the accompanj'ing map will convey a better idea of the value ot" such a work, and the intimate relation it will bear to the commerce and travel of the country, than any attempted description. It will be seen that Toledo is the most salient point on Lake Erie for all the country lying to the west and southwest of it. It has already become a place of great commerce, by means of the Wabash canal, and must always be a leading point in the routes both of business and travel. A line of railroad connecting Toledo and 8t. Louis would coincide for a loi;g distance with the course of the Wabash river. The valley of this river is celebrated f()r its fertility, and is filled with large and flourishing towns, which owe their existence and traflic to the canal, and are the depots of trade ff)r the surrounding country. In this manner an ample business has been already developed tor the support of a first-class railroad.
Another important project is the projected road from Fort Wayne to Chicago. This is proposed as the legitimate extension of the Ohio and Indiana railroad, which has already been noticed under the roads of Ohio. These roads would constitute a direct line between the great city of the Northwest and the railroads of central Ohio. The importanct^ of such an avimue must be apparent upon the slightest examination of the probable routes of trav{>l and trade in the West. The great tide of emigration which is flowing thither from the middle States and Ohio is directed upon Chicago, which is the great point of its distribution over the unoccupied lands of the new States. This city must also become an iinoortant business and conunercial point f()r all the western Slates. The above line is also regarded as the appropriate extension to Cliicago of the great Philadel[)hia and Balliuiore lines, which will be extended to the eastern terminus of the f()rmer, in central Ohio.
An important road is in progress, commencing at Richmond, the western terminus of the Dayton and Western, and Hamilton and Katon roads, and extending to the Wabash river, at Logansport, which it is intended ultimately to carry li)rward to Chicago. As a through-route, its object is to connect Cincinnati anti Chicago. Locally, it may be regartled as a Cincinnati road, penetrating a very rich and productive section of the State. It is under contract from Richmond to the Wabash, by way of Newcastle. It will be seen that, for the country traversed, it will constitute a very direct and convenient outlet to its great market, Cincinnati ; and it is so situated as to command, to a great extent, the tralhc of the territory lying to the north of its line. 'JMie route C reposed by this road, it is believed, will constitute the shortest route etwecn Cincinnati and Chicago.
It is also proposed to construct a branch from the Jeffersonville road, commencing at or near Columbus, and extending as flu north as Union, the eastern terminus of the Indianapolis and Bellef()ntaine road, and probably to Fort Wayne. This extension is favored by the city of Louisville, Kentucky, as affording means of connecting herself with the roads running east and west through Ohio, and of securing a portion of their trade and travel, which otherwise would be drawn to Cinciimati.
The branch to Fort Wayne would probably run through Muncie, on the Bcllefontaine road, and in this manner a connexion would be formed between Fort Wayne and Indianapolis. The route for such a road has been surveyed and found favorable, and active measures are in progress to raise the necessary means for its construction.
The above are the leading projects of tlie State. There are several others of minor consequence, among which may be named the Shelbyville, Knightstown, and Rushville branches. There are others proposed, but not sufficiently advanced to call for particular notice.
mile, 7.07.
The StiUe of Michigan, so early as 1836, while in her very infancy, matured and commonced an elaborate system of internal improvements, by means of railroads and canals. Of the latter none have been constructed : in fact, they were hardly commenced. Of the great lines of railroads, two, the most important, have been completed, with some deviation from the original plans.
1. The Michigan Central railroad commences at Detroit, and runs generally in a western direction, to Lak^ Michigan. It is then deflected southward and carried around the southern shore of Lake Michigan to Chicago, the whole length of line being 282 miles. It was completed to Lake Michigan, at New Buffalo, two or three years since, but was extended to Chicago within a few months only. This work is in every point of view most important, saving the necessity ot a long and expensive detour by way of Mackinaw, in travelling from east to west, and having proved of great convenience to the travelling and. business public. This road was commenced by the State of Michigan, under whose auspices about 125 miles of the eastern portion of it were constructed. The State becoming embarrassed in consequence of the injudicious management of her affairs, the road was sold to a private company in the latter part of 1846, by whom the work of construction was immediately resumed, and prosecuted with great vigor to its termination, at Chicago. Since its completion it has proved very productive. Its importance as a great through-link between the East and the West will be greatly increased by the consti uction of the great Western railroad ot" Canada, which will be completed during the coming year. When that road shall be opened, a direct route, in connexion with the above roads, will be afforded to the travel from the eastern States to Chicago, the great central point of the northwestern trade and travel.
2. Michigan Southern Railroad. — Like the Central road, the Michigan Southern was tormerly a State work, and as such was opened to Adrian, 36 miles from Monroe, its eastern terminus. On the failure of the State, its farther progress was abandoned ; but alter a lapse of some years it was sold to a private company, by whom it has, in connexion with the
Indiana Northern road, been recently extended to Chicago. The distance between the termini is 243 miles. It was originally intended to carry this road through the southern tier of counties to New Bufliilo; but this plan was abandoned by the present company, and, alter running about 130 miles in Michigan, the line was deflected into Indiana, and on this portion constructed under a charter granted by that State. This road is also connected with Toledo, on Lake Erie, und will be shortly connected with the railroads otOhio; and it may be confidently expected that by the first of January next a continuous line of railrond will exist from New York to Chicago, a distance of nearly 1,000 miles. The Michigan Southern and Indiana Northern may both be regarded as belonging to one interest, and as forming in fact one line. Though recently o[)ened lor business, its prospects are very ihvorable. In the hands of its p/esent managers, it has been prosecuted with energy and success; and, as the general direction of its line coincides with the southern shores of Lakes Erie and Michigan, it is difficult to find a more important line of road. Its success since its opening fully justifies the sagacity and foresight of the parties by whom its extension was planned and executed.
The local trade both of the Central and Southern roads is supplied by an ample belt of fertile, well-settled and highly productive country, which alone would yield sufficient support, entirely independent of through traffic. Both are intended to l()rm important parts of independcsnt through-routes from Boston and New York to Chicago — one on the north, the other on the south shore of Lake Erie — and must become intimately identified with important routes of commerce and travel.
A railroad from Green Bay to Lake Superior is an important project, and will prove of great convenience to the riiining districts on the southern shores of the latter, which for a considerable portion of the year are inaccessible. This work is indispensable to the proper development of the vast mineral resources of that great region. Its route is the best that could be adopted for immediate exigencies. The line of the road is under survey; and it is believed that its construction will be "mmediately commenced, an amount of business being already developed on its northern terminus sufficient to furnish a considerable traffic.
A road is also proposed, and will, undoubtedly, in a lev/ years be constructed, extending from Detroit to Toledo, with a view to enable the Great Western railroau ol Canada to form a connexion with the lines of the United States.
There is a remarkable similarity between the histories of the Slates of Indiana and Illinois, so far as their respective systems of internal improvements are corcorned. Both systems were conmienced about
the same period ; both States hccnmo involved in similar financial embarrassments ; and both abandoned the prosecution of their respective works — most of which have been either discontinued entircd}', or have passcid into private hands. While this parallel exists between the two, Illinois labored under the disadvantage of being a much newer State, possessing smaller means, and consequently requiring a longer time to recover from her embarrassments. As in her first efforts she imitated the examples of Ohio and Indiana, so she is again following closely in their footsteps, in the new career upon which she has just entered.
The lUinoix and Michigan Canal. — This canal is almost the only improvement which Illinois has to show flir the vast debt she has incurred for her public works. It has passed into the hands of her bond-holders, and lias been completed by them in a manner very similar to its kindred work, th(^ Wabash and Erie canal. It extends from Chicago to Peru, at the head of navigation on the Illinois river. It was commerced in 1836, and completed in 1848. It is 60 feet wide, and 0 feet deep. The locks have a capacity for boats of 150 tons. Its length is 100 miles, and its summit-level is 8 feet only above Lake Michigan. The original plan was to feed it directly from the lake; but as this involved a very largo expenditure, it was abandoned.
The canal was opened in the fall of 1848, since which time it has done a successful business. Like the Wabash canal, its direction coincides with the usual route of commerce and travel. It is hardly possible to conceive a more favorable route for such a work. It connects the lakes with the navigable waters of the Mississippi at their nearest approach to each other. Between these great water-courses an immense trade must always exist. The former penetrates high northern regions, and the latter traverses a country abounding in many tropical productions. With the canal they constitute a natural route of commerce ; and as the eastern are the great markets for the products of the western States, this work must form one of the leading channels of commerce between these two divisions of the country. All that was wanting to secure a large portion of the products of the Nortlnvest to the lake and Erie canal routes was an outlet for them. This the Illinois canal first supplied. The effect of its opening has been, in fact, to turn an immense tide of business from its old channel, by the Mississippi rivfr, to the new one by the lakes.
The inffuenceof this work is already seen in the impulse it has given to the growth and trade of Chicago; in the change it has eflJjcted in the direction of the products of Illinois^ and other western States, to market, and of merchandise imported into the same sections of country.
Were its capacity equal to the business which will soon be thrown upon it, and were the Illinois and Mississippi navigable at all seasons of the year, there can be no doubt that the canal Would be able to engross a large portion of the trade of the country west and southwest of Lake Michigan, and north of the Ohio and Missouri rivers. As it is, it is preparing the way for a great diversion of that trade to the lakes and the northern route. The railroads now in progress in Illinois will soon come to its aid, and supply the want of an uninterrupted navigation in the western rivers.
The system of Improvcmonts first proposed by tlic State in ei,uiit(;en hundred iind tliirty-six contenij)l;ited a very lur^e number of railroads, traversiiiir every portion of the Stale. The more important of these were th<i Ilhnois Central, the Edwardsville and Sliavvneetown, tlie Quinvj and Danville, the Alton and Terrc Haute;, the Mount Carniel and Alton, and the Peoria and Warsaw roads. After the expenditure of large sums upon these lines they were all ultimately abandoned, and the improvements made have mostly faUen into the hands of private companies. No portion of any of the lines eonnnenced has been opened, with the exception of the link in the Quincy and Danville railroad, extending from Springfield to the Illinois river. With a few exceptions, the work done upon the various proposed lines is of little value to the companies which have resumed their construction.
The recent railroad movement in Illinois dates only two or three years prior to the present time. It has the same general character as those aln^ady noted in Ohio and Indiana. The construction of roads in this State yo//oM".s' instead lA' nnliripafing the wants of the community, and proceeds in a legitimate and business-like manner, wliich promises . llie most satisfactory results.
The State of Illinois is one of the largest States of the confederation in area, and probably is unsurpassed by any in the extent of lier resources. Over her whole surface she has a soil of inexhaustible lertilit3S a large portion of which covers vast beds of coal, in connexion with an abundant supply of iron ore. The richness of her lead mines is well known. Her commercial advantages are ecpial to those of any western State. The northern part of tlx; State is washed by Lake Michig.'ui, which, is accessible by ships of three hundred tons burden from the ocean. Iler central portions are penetrated by the Illinois river, one of the most favorable in the West for the purposes of navigation. All these water-courses ailbrd convenient outlets tor the products of li(;r soil, and contribute incalculably to her prosperity.
The city of Chicago has now become, and must always remain, the emporium of the State. It is the great ])ivot upon which the railroad system of the State turns. Most of the lines in progress are constructed with express reference to this point. All running in a northerly and southerly direction look to that city as the northern terminus. The same may be said of those traversing the northern portion of the State; in an easterly and westerly direction. The principal exceptions to this rule arc the Ohio and Mississippi railroad, running firom Cincinnati to St. Louis, the Terre Haute and Alton railroad, and the proposed roads from Peoria and Springfield to Lafayette, in Indiana. There will undoubtedly bo other roads constructed in different portions of the State, having no direct reference to Chicago ; but such only are referred to as are already in progress.
The great line, traversing the State from north to south, will be the Illinois Central railroad. This road was commenced by the State in 1837, but was soon abandoned, with all other projects of a similai"
character. It commences at Cairo, at the junction of the Ohio and Mississij)pi rivcTs ; and, after running in nearly a direct northerly course for about 120 miles, divides into two branches, om; branch running to the (ixlremc northwest corner of the State, by way of Peru, on tho Illinois riv»;r; ami tho other in a very direct course to Chicago. Its whole length will be 700 miles — a greater extent of line than any other chartered line in the United States. The construction of this road is secured by recent munificent grants of lands by the general government, which amount to 2,500,000 acres, most of which lie upon the immediate line of the road. The road will be com[)leted in about four years from the present time ; and, when constructed, will constitute a grand central avenue through the State, from north to south, which must in the end become the trunk of many connecting and dependent roads.
The progress made by the Central road, and the certainty of its early completion, has given a great impulse to the public sentiment of tlin State in favor of similar projects. Numerous lines are in progress or projected in every portion of it. The line itself will supply a vast amount of railroad accommodation to the people of Illinois. As a State work it is a magnificent project. It is equally conspicuous as a part of a great national line. In connexion with the Mobile and Ohio railroad it forms a direct and uniform line of railroad, extending north and south tor a distance of more than 900 miles, traversing, in this distance, great varieties of climate and production. By taking the above route a traveller may pass from latitude 29'^ to 42"^ north in a little more than 24 hours. A road possessing such advantages cannot fail to command an immense traflic and travel, in addition to its local resources.
With the exception of the Central railroad, most of the great routes of travel and commerce through the State must run liom cast to west. The more important of these are the following :
Gal' mi (ind Chicago. — This is the longest line of railroad in operation in '^'o State. It is now completed to Rockford, a distance of 95 miles. At Freeport, 124 miles from Chicago, it will form a junction with the Illinois Central road, by which it will be carried fljrward to Galena, 180 miles from its eastern terminus. Tliis road has been one of the most successful and productive works of the kind in the United States. It was not embraced in the original system marked out by the State ; and affords a striking illustration of the wisdom of adapting railroad projects to the known wants of business, rather than of attempting to anticipate such wants by the construction of a system founded on doubtful contingencies.
The easterly portion of the above line forms the trunk in tWO other roads, one of which, the St. Charles branch, extends f.-om its junction with the Galena and Chicago road, in a very direct course, to the Mississippi river, at Albany; and the otlier, the Aurora br;inch, which is under contract, to Galesburg, (the northerly point on the Peoria and Oijuavvka railroad,) a distance of about 125 miles. 'I'his road will be carried still furllier, in a sonlliwesKM-ly direelioii to (iuincy, b}' iiic;ins of the Central Milil:irv Triicl ;ind tlu! Noitiiern Cross roads, also in progress of construction. The distance lioui Quincy to
Grilrsburg, by the nbovc rood, is about 120 miles, m!ikin«T tbc entire dist.'inco between Chicago and (^uiney about 280 miles. It is understood that the Miehigan Central railroad will extend eflieicnt aid to the last named line.
Tlie (lalcna and Cliieago railroad lins exerted a very deeided influenee in j)romoting tiu; growth of the; city of Chicago, which advanced in population troin 4,470 to 40,000 from 1840 to 1852.
Itock Island nnd Chicago railroad. — This road l()llows the valley of the Illinois and its branches, Irom Chicago to Peru, a distance of 100 miles ; from which place it takes a more westerly direction, to Rock island, a distance of eighty miles, making the whole length of line 180 miles. The tirst division to Peru will be completed by the first of January next, and the whole in season for the winter business of 1853. It is, in many respects, an important line. It will connect Chicago with the head of navigation on tbc Illinois riv(!r, between whicli points an immense travel and trade must always exist. It has the great advantage of striking the Mississippi river upon the same parallel of latitude with the southern shores of Lakes Erie and Micliigan, and at thf; best point l()r bridging that river below St. Anthony's Falls. Uock island is very nearly in the same parallel with Council BluH's, the proposed point lJ)r carrying a railn)a(l across the Missouri, running westward toward the Rocky mountains. The grade and curves of this road are favorable, and it will nndtmbtcdly become one of the most important avemies of trade and travel ext(!nding westward from Cliicago. The means lor its construction are lurnished chiefly by eastern capitalists, who took up the project on account of the strenglii of its position.
Peoria and Oquaivla railroad. — The next line of railroad traversing the State, from east to west, is the Peoria and Ociuawka, commencing at the Mississippi river opposite Burlingtf>n, the largest and most commercial town in Iowa, antl ruiuiing to Peoria, on the Illinois river. Th(! distance; between tlu; two points is about 80 miles. From Peoria it is proposed to extend this road easterly, striking the Wabash valley at Lafayette, or at Logansport, or at both these places. The first division only of this great line, extending from the Mississippi to the Illinois, is in progress. But when the importance of the proposed extension is considered, and the relation it will sustain to the railroads of the States lying eastward, no doubt can be entertained of its commencement and construction at no distant day.
Northern Cross railroad. — This name is usually applied to the line of road commencing at Quincy, on the Mississippi river, extending to the Indiana State line near Danville, Illinois, and running through Naples, Springfield, and Decatur. This is one of the projects embraced in the State system of improvements ; and upon it a nnich larger amount of work was done than upon any other line. The work executed by the State has since passed into the hands of private companies, by one of which the portion of the line extending from Springfield, th(; capital of the State, to the Illinois river, and connnonly known as tlie Springfield and Mercdosia railroad, has been (•omi)let((l. The poilion of the alM)\(; lin(! from (^uiney 1i> ihe Illinois is also in proLiri'SS, by aiioilier eompiiiiy. From Spiinglield e;isl\\;iiil, ihe work ol' eoiislnietion is also about to be resunjcd. From Uecalur, two branches will
j)n)l)iil)ly ho cnnstructrd, our extending to Tcrrc Iliiuto, nnd the otiior in a more noillicily direction towards lialiiyette It may he stated, that th(! westerly division of this road, extending from (^niney !•> (Mayton, will torn) thf! h;is(! ot" the liiK^ of railroads now in prognss to Clii(M!fo, nnder the liih; of the Central Military Tract and Aurora Jiraneli railroads, already n-ierred to.
Alton (tiid Siiiiiramon nii/rotnl. — This important line of railroad extends from Alton to »Sj)rin;j[lield, tlu! eapital ol" the Stiite, a distanei; of 72 mill's. It has heen recently opiuied i()r husint.-ss. It lianis an U[»proj)riate outlet from the central portions of the State to the Mississip[)i river. Its local eonsctpicnei^ is greatly increased hy tlie prospect of its hecoming a link in the line of railroad lidm C'liicau;!) t(t Alton and St. Louis. ]ly relerenec; to the annexed map, it will h(? seen tiiat Sprinufield lies very nearly on a direct line helween the ahove cities. 'J'lie division of this line from ^^^jringficld to iUoomington is already under contract, from whence it will he carried direct to (Chicago, or unite with the IJock Ishmd road at Morris. 'I'lii.s connexion would f«»rm a very direct and cr)nvcnient route hetween the termini named. The cities of Chicago and iSl. J^onis will prohahly always reni;iii (with the exception of (Mnciiniaii) tla^ great cities of the West ; and the line that will connect them possesses, to a certain extent, a niitional imj)orlance. The lact that it connects Lak(; Michigan with the Mississippi on a great and t'onvcnient route of travel helween them, cannot lad to give it rank among our leading works.
In the central portion of Illinois are several lini's having a general eastern and western direction. Among iIk; more iniporliint ot' tliest; may he named the Western and Atlantic, the Terre Haute and Alton, and a road liom Terre Haute to Sjiringfield, the capital of the State.
The Atlantic and Mississippi road is now the only link wanting in a great chain ol' railroads extending ir(»ni Si. Louis lo the Atlantic. Its hne is identical with the convenient route hetween that iind all tin; leading caslern cities. It m;iy he reuarded as the }fississiiijii trunk of all the loads in central Otiio and Indiana running east and wi'st. The iniporianc(^ of this road to the general system of the counlry is well shown hy the accomjianying map. Tiie city of St. Louis is one oi the grcMt depots ol" trade in the interior, hetween which and the Athintic^ cities tlieie exists a va>t conimer(;e and travel. As a through-route, there is none in the eoiiiitry oilt'ring hetter prosi)cets of ;i hu;rativ<! trallic. It is n g.-irdi d with gn.^at favor hy the jtuhlic, and ther(> can he no donhl th;it its slock will he eiigeily sought hy e.islcrn capitalists. The whole line will he plac(.'d immediately under contract l()r completion, within the shortest practicahle period.
Tcrrfi Htiutc and Alton roifroad. — This j)roject has tin; same general direction and ohjeit with the one l.'ist dcscrihed. One of the h ading ohjeeis in its construction is to promote the increasi! of the city of Alton, its Mississippi terminus. It traverses a iirlih^ and well cultivated portion of the State, and is suniciently removed Iroin the Mississij)pi and All nilic to command a lari^e local trade. The whole line of this road
'I'lir proposed roiid from I'erre H.nite to Springfield, it will he seen, is iin inipoit.iiit link to eonneet the ronds of Indi.ni.'i with the (^entrnl Illinois :nid wilh the Northern ('ross ro.ids. Mensnres nre in pro<ire.i9 to pliiee this road under contract, which promise its speedy completion.
A railroad is also |)roposed from Mount ('armel, on the Illinois river, to Alton. This is one of the projeets which were included in the State system of 1S.'J7. A portion oi' the eastern end of this line was j^raded hy the State. These improvements have gone into the hands ot'a |)rivate company, hy wiiieh the road will he couipleted from iMnunl Carinel (o Alton, a distance of ahout twenty mil(\><. This road will prohably he extended to l*rineetown, Indiana, in order to iiirm a coimexion with the Kvansville and Illinois road.
N(» ell(»rt was made in this State toward the constrtiction either of railroads or of canals till within a recent period. This was partly <iwinu to the liict of its heinij; a frontier Stati', in which the nc'cessity of railroads is loss fidt, than in those so situated as to heeome tlioroufi;h'"••es tiir their neiiijhhors ; and partly to the sparseness of the population in nearly every portion of the Stale. At the se--;i()u of the Icgislatm-e of 1^.01. ill, Sluie ai>reed to Icc.d its credit (in two yreat lines of railroad: till' Piuijic road, conuuencing at St. Louis, and runninn; to the wc i liiM" f)f the State, on tlii^ south side of the Missouri river; and tlio I[nnnt/f:l and Si. Jtiscph's rtr.id, vWt \H\\i\}i, i'rom the Mississippi to the Missoi*ii, on the north side of the latter, ',\n(\ conueclin^ tlie places n;inie<l. The amount of aid vot( il was -¥2,000,000 to the ti)rmer, and $1,. 000,000 to the latter; the loans not to hccotne available until each <-oinpany should have obtained $1,000,000 of private stock, aiul then only so liisi as e(|ual portions of slock subscrir)tions should be paid up aiul expended. When eitli'r cornr my shall nave expended $!50, 000, they are entitled to call upon the Mate l()r its bonds to an eijual amf)unt, iis security l(>r which the latter lioKls a lien upon the road and all the property of the companies. The State aid will probably l)e increased to nieet one-half the cost of both roads. Although local considerations are the primary motive in the construction of the above roads, the proj(>ctors look to their ultimate extension to the Pacific ocean. Although their eastern termini are somewhat widely separated, th(\v approach each other as they proceed westward, atul would meet beyond the Missouri river, if prolonged in their general directions. As local roads, they are of great importance. They will, when completed, add much to the convcnienc(^ of the emigrant and pioneer, by materially reducing the long and tedious journey on foot from the Mississippi to the western
boundary of our settled territory. In connexion with the great lines of railroad lying to the east, they would form a part of a line across the continent, from one ocean to the other. Every mile we advance westward, is so much gained toward the accomplishment of a work destined to be the crowning achievement of modern energy and science. Private enterprise will soon have accomplished so much, as to leave the portion that must devolve upon the general government a compnratively easy task. If private companies with their unaided means can accomplish more than half of this work, certainly what remains is not of such vast magnitude as to intimidate the collective energies and power of a great nation.
and there can be no doubt of their speedy completion.
In addition to the original object of the Pacific railroad, its eastern portion will probably be made the trunk of a branch extending to the mineral districts of the southwestern portions of the State, which are extremely rich in iron, lead, and copper. These great resources still remain undeveloped, from the want of a suitable outlet, whicli the above road will create ; and measures are now in progress i'or its construction. It is also proposed t(} make this branch a portion of a grc^'it line from St. Louis to New Orleans, upon the west side of the Mississippi. This latter project is attracting much attention, and ilioiigh the means do not now exist for its construction, the eventual realization of this project can hardly be doubted.
The State of Wisconsin, though in 1840 it liunibered only 30,000 inhabitants, is .already in possession of a (iist-class line, a considerable portion of which is in operation — the Milwaukie and Mississippi railroad. This line of road commences at MilwniiUie, the leading town in the State, and extends in a westerly direction, rnnning tlirough the capital to the Mississippi, at Prairie du Cliien, a distance (jf about 200 miles. It is already in operation to Whitewater, a distance ot"50 miles, and will be coni[)l('ted to llock river during tlit^ (•(»niing autumn. It was commenced in 1850, and owes its birth and ])rosecution to the enterprise and capital of the city of Milwaukie. It is the most northerly railroad yet ])roj<,'cted, running from Lake Michigan westward, with the advantage oi'otlliring tiie cheapest outlet li)r all th(! country lying north and west of its teriniiuis on the Mississi|)[)i river. It traverses a most beautiful region of country, and bids iiiir to becotne a successful and lucrative road, as it occupies a favorable rout(^ and will be constructed at low cost. It is distinguished by being constructed at a much earlier period in the history oi" a State than any similar work; and it is certainl}' a wonderful illustration of the ra[)i(l growth of the Western country, that in th(^ short space of t(ni years ii wilderness has been reclaiuK.'d and brought into high cultivation, and been lilled with a thriving and
f)rosperous people, in possession of all those contrivances in aid of abor and in promotion of social and material advantages, the results of modern science and skill, and of which many richer and older communities have not as yet availed themselves. As the tide of emigration moves westward, it carries with it all the distinguishing characteristics of the eastern States ; so that a person may travel to the very verge of western settlement without being conscious of any change, save in the natural features of the country.
Another important line projected in Wisconsin is the Fond du Lac and Rock River Valley railroad, extending from Fond du Lac, on Lake Winnebago, in a southwesterly course to Janesville, whence it takes a southeasterly course to Chicago. The entire length of this road is about 215 miles. It is in course of construction at both ends, and a portion of the line, near Fond du Lac, will soon be in operation. From Fond da Lac, it is in contemplation to extend a branch to the western extremity of Lake Superior, for which a favorable route is said to exist. This extension would even now be of great utility in giving access to the vast extent of fertile country lying west of the great lake, wliich is becoming an attractive field for emigrants ; and should Congress favor this proposed line by a grant, its immediate construction would be the result. Such a road will ultimately be found indispensable to the settlement of a large portion of the Minnesota Territory, and will probably receive encouragement irom the general government, ti)r the [)urpose of promoting this object and openins? to a market an important and valuable portion of its domain.
The whole route of the Fond du Lac and Rock River Valley railroad runs through an extremely fertile country. One of the objects of the road, from which it will derive lucrative emploj'ment, is in the distribution over the State of the lumber which grows upon the rivers flowing into Lake Winnebago. Works are now in progress which will soon allow vessels navigating Lake Erie to reach Lake Winnebago, adding much to the business and prosperity of the above road.
Works arc also in ])rogress tor uniting the Wisconsin and Fox rivers by a canal, wliich shall admit steambo;its of the capacity of those navigating the rivers. By reference to the maps it will l)e seen that tiiese rivers appro ich each other very nearly, the distance between tlicm being less than two miles, and the separation consisting only of a strip of low land, submerged at liigh water, and allowing the passage of small boats from one to the other. This canal is nearly com-
akes to the Mississippi river.
A railrt)ad is also proposed from Dubuque, on tlie Mississippi river, to Lake Michigan, passing through the southern tier of counties in the State. Such a roail would make the town of Janesville a point from which it would be carried l()rward, by roads in progress, to the towns of Chicago and Milwaukie.
No railroad has yet been commenced in Iowa, though several companies have been organized for their construction. It will be recollected that some ten years since tiie State had only about 50,000 people. It has now probal)ly about 300,000, most of whom arc settled in the neighborhooil of navigable rivers; and on this account the necessity of railroads has not been so much felt as it would otlituvvisc have been. As Iowa is one of the most fertile States of the West, ranking among the first in extent and natural resources; and as tlie surface of its soil is well adapted to the cheap and expeditious construction of railroads, and the State is filling up with great rapidity, with an enterj)risiug and vigorous people, we cannot expect that she will long be behind her sister States in the construction of works so important to the prosperity and progress of any people.
The most important of the proposed roads in Iowa are the lines leading from Rock Island to Council Bluffs; from Dubuque to Keokuk; and from Burlington to the Missouri river. The first of tijcsc extends west upon tlie parallel of the southern shore of Lake Michigan. Rock Island is believed to be the best point for the passage of the Mississippi river, and Council Bluffs f()r that t)f the Missouri. These facts show the prospective importance of this line.
struction to navigation.
The project fioni Burlington to the Missouri has the samie general object as the Rock Islanil and Council Blutl's road. i\o one of the above [)rojected improvements has been commenced, though measures f(jr the purpose are in progress.
this report.
A few railroads only have been constructed in the British provinces, for the reason that these works were not particularly refjuired to aid in the improvement of property ; the numerous rivers, lak(\s, and bays supplying cheap and convenient media for this purpose. The principal $«ntlement.s of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia are upon th(! immediiite l)orders of navigable tide-water. The narrow b(>lt of arable land to which the population of Canada is confined is traversed f()r its entire length by the lakes and the St. Lawrenct; river. The various watercourses described will continue to hr the prinei[)al channels and routes of commerce, even after the eonstrnetionot" railroads parallel with them.
to passenger traffic. They are fortunate, however, in the fact that their lines correspond to routes over which already passes a large travel, and which the roads themselves must immensely increase.
Of the roads under consideration, the most important, in some respects, is the St. Lawrence and Atlantic, extending trom Montreal to the boundary line of tiie United States, a distance of about 130 miles, when it connects with the Atlantic and St. Lawrence railroad, extending to Portland. This work was briefly described in the notice of the roads in tlie State of Maine. The original object in its construction, as far as the Canadas were concerned, was to open a winter outlet lor the trade of Montreal, and in this manner to add to the business of the Canadian canals, by which unbroken navigation from the upper lakes is secured to the city. These works have, to a certain extent, iiiilcd to realize their highest usefulness, or to JQstify public expectation, ibr want of an avenue to the Atlantic coast other than through the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The navigation of the St. Lawrence being closed ihr a considerable portion of the year, the late receipts of produce liave to be held till spring before they can be sent to a market. The losses arising from this delay, embracing the charges f()r Warehousing, interest, insurance, &c., and the decline in the j)rice of the staple, wiiich is often ruinous to ttie liolder, have tended to turn this trade into other cliannels, to restrict the business of this route, and to increase that of its great rival, tiie Erie canal. To remedy this evil, by securing an uninterrupted communication at all times with navigable tide-water, is one great object of this proj)osed road. There can be no doubt that this, or a work similar in character and objects, is necessary to secure all the results anticipated from the canals.
The St. LawriMice and Atlantic road is in operation to Sherbrook, a distance ot" 91 miles from Montrcid, and is in a state of such forwardness that no doubt is entertained of its completion by July next.
The (^ui bee and Richmond railroad is a work designed to place the city of Quebec in the same relation that Montreal sustains to the St. Lawrence and Atlantic railroad, and at the same time with the latter, to unite these cities by a continuous railroad line. From the isolated
Position of (Quebec in the winter season, this road will prove a great enefit to her commerce, as well as a great conveni<>nce to th(> travelling and business community. Its entire line is under contract, to be completed early in 1854.
Another proposed work attracting great interest in Canada is the line (txtending from Montreal to Hamilton, l()llowing th(> immediate bank of the St. Lawrence and of Lake Ontario. This road would run parallel with the great route of commerce in the Canadas, is required by the wants of travel, and in the winter season wouhl be the channel of a large trade. It must at all seasons of the year command a lucrative traffic from the numerous cities and villages dirough which it would pass. This work has now come to be considered iiulispensable to the interests of Canada, and is to receive such aid from the government as will secure its speedy construction. It is to be placed under contract without delay.
Niagara Falls, by way of Hamilton, to Windsor, opposite Detroit, a distance of two hundred and twenty-eight miles. It traverses a country the fertility and productiveness of which is not exceeded by any portion of Canada or the United States. Its chief public attractions, however, arc the relations it bears to railroads hi the United States. It will be seen by the accompanying map that f()r the railroads of New England and central New York it cuts off" the long circuit by way of the south" n shore of Lake Eric between the East and the West. On this acco ..t the road has received important aid hom parties in the United States interested in having it opened. Ample means are provided for this work, and it is expected that it will be completed by the first of January, 1854.
The Buffalo and Brantford railroad was projected for the purpose of securing to Buffido the trade of the country traversed by the great Western, and with the additional object of placing that city en route of the great line of travel between the eastern and western States. Buffalo is ilie largest town w.ihin reach of, and affords, probably, the best market lor, the Canadian peninsula, witli which it will be conveniently connected b}^ the above road. This city, too, is a necessary point in the route of nearly every person visiting any portion of the country bordeiing Lake Erie, and it is liighly important that egress should be had iiom it in every direction. The road is in progress, and will be completed simultaneously with the great Western.
The Toronto and Lake Huron road connects Lake Ontario with Lake Huron by the shortest practicable line betvve(Mi the two, and will form for persons g<ting to Lake Superior or Lake Michigan, by way of Mackinaw, a much shorter line tiianby way of Detroit. In this respect it bids fair to occupy an important relation to a leading route of travel and commerce. It traverses, too, a very fertile district, alone capable of suj)plying a lucrative traffic. A portion of tliis lii'o is opened lor business, and the unfinished part will be soon completed.
LOWER PROVINCES.
European and North American railroad. — Under this titl(> is embraced the pn)])osed road extending from Bangor, Maine, and Halifax, Nova Scotia, a distance of about ffve hundri'ti niih s. The jjrincipal object to be effected by its construction is to constitute it a [)art of l\u'. great line of travel between America and Europe. The distance from New York to Halifax is cfjual to one-third of the entire distance from the former to Liverpool; and as the proj)osed road puisues the same general direction with the route of tiie steamers, some of which touch regularly at Halifax, it is believed that this portion of the route to Europe
would be made by railway. Ttwus upon this assumption that the above project was proposed. As far as the provinces are concerned, it has met with great favor, as it is believed it will develop the abundant resources known to exist within them, and secure those social advantages which arc intimately connected with the pi ogress of comparatively isolated districts, in population, commerce, and wealth. Tlie New Brunswick portion of the above road is already under contract to a company of eminent English contractors, and the work in progress. Measures are also in progress to the same end as far as the Nova Scotia division is concerned. The greater part of its line through both provinces traverses a region much more fertile and productive than any considerable portion of our eastern States, from which it is believed a large and profitable business will be secured both to the road and to the cities of Halifax and St. John.
A project for a railroad from Halifax to Quebec, skirting the shores of the gulf and river St. Lawrence, has recently attracted much attention throughout the provinces, as well as in England, but this project may now be regarded as abandoned. A portion of the northern end of tills line may be constructed down the St. Lawrence for a distance of about one hundred miles below Quebec. It is also proposed to extend a i)ranch from the European and North American railroad along the Gulf of St. Lawrence to Bathurst. A road is also in progress from St. Andrews to Woodstock, on the river St. John ; but as its importance is mainly locals a particular description is not required.
ECONOMICAL VIEW OF THE RAILROADS OF THE UNITED STATES.
The first step toward a correct idea of our railroads, as far as their uses, objects, costs, and results, are concerned, is a thorough understanding of the social and industrial cluiracter of our people, the geograpliical and topographical teatures of the country, the uniformity in the pursuits of tlie great mass of our people, and the great distance that separates the consuming from the producing regions.
Assuming the occupied area of that portion of our territory east of the Uocky mountains to be 1,100,000 S(|uare miles, at least ], 050,000 are devoted to agriculture, while not more than 50,000 are occupied by the manufacturing and commercial classes. These compose a narrow belt of territory lying upon the seacoast, extending tiom Baltimore to the (^astern part ol" Miune, and are more widely separated from the great producing n-gions than any other settled portion of tlie country. The great pecuharity that distinguishes our own from older countries is, that we have no interior markets. The greater part of our territory has not been long enough settled ti)r the devc^lopment of a variety of industrial pursuits, whicli constitute them. So entirely are our people devoted to agriculture, and so unif()rnily distributed are they over the whole country, that some of our largest States, Tennessee and Indiana ibr instance, had no towns in 1850 containing a population of over 10,000.
pie, and the wide space tliat separates the producing and consuming classes, as they are popularly termed, necessarily implies the exportation of the siiqdus products oi' each. The western farmer has no home demand for the wheat he raises, as the surplus of all his neighbors is the same in Jclnd. The aggregate surplus of tlie district in which he resides has to he exported to find a consumer; and the producer for a similar reason is obliged to import all the various articles that enter into consumolion which his own industry does not immediately supply; and farthr i' the markets for our agricultural products lie either upon the cxtre verge of the country, or in Europe the greater part of our domestic commerce involves a through movement of nearly all the articles of which it is composed.
In older countries this necessity of distant movement, as will be the case in tiiis, in time, is obviated by the existence of a great variety of occupations in the same district, which supply directly to each class nearly all the leading articles that enter into consumption.
It is well known that upon tlie ordinary highways the economical limit to transportation is confined within a comparatively few miles, depending of course upon the kind of freight and character of the roads. Upon the average of such ways, the cost of transportation i^ not far fiom 15 cents per ton per mile, which may be considered as a sufficiently correct estimate for the whole country. Estimating at the same time the value of wheat at $1 50 per bushel, and corn at 75 cents, and that 33 bushels of each are ecjual to a ton, the value of llic fi)rmer woukl be equal to its cost of transportation for 330 miles, and the latter 165 miles. At these respective distances from market, neither of the above articles would have any commercial value, with only a common earth road as an avenue to market.
But we find that we can move property upon railroads at tiie rate of 1.5 cent per ton per mile, or for one-tenth the cost uj)on the ordinary road. These works theref()re extend the economic limit of tiie cost of transportation of the above articles to 3,300 and 1,G50 miles respectively. At the limit of the economical movement of these articles upon the common highway, by the use of railroads, wheat would be worth $44 50, and corn 822 27 per ton, which sums r(v=!pectively would represent the actual increase of vidue created by the interposition of such a work.
The vahu^ of lands is afTeotcd by railroads in the same ratio as their products. For instance, lands lyinj.; ujxm a navigable water-cour.^^e, or in ihe iminiuhaU; vicinity ota market, may be W(»rth, for the culture of wheat, §100. Let the average crop be estimated at 22 bushels to the acre, valued at $33, and the (-ost ofc\dtivati()n at $15, tliis would leave $18 per acre as the net profit. This (juantity of wlu;at (two-thirds of a ton) could be transported 330 miles at a cost of 10 cents per mile, or $3 30, which woidd leave $14 70 as the net protit ol" land at that distance! from a mark(>t, when connected with it by a railroad. The value of the land, theretbre, admitting the (]uality to be the same in both cases, would bear the same ratio to tlie assumed value of $100, as the value of its products, $ 14 70 does to $18, or $82 per acre ; which is fin
actual creation of value to that nmount, assuming the correctness of the promises. The same calcuhition mny, of course, he aj)nli(;(l with ccjual tbrce to any other kind and species of properly. Th(; illustration given estahlishes a principal entirely correct in itself, hut of course liahle to he modified to meet the facts of each ciise. Vast bodies of the finest land in the United Slntes, and lying within 200 miles of navigal)le water-courses, are unsaleable, and nearly, if not (juite, valueless tor the culture of wheat or corn for exportation, from the cost of transportation, which in many instances far exceeds the estimate; in the above table. Under such circumstances products are often led out to live stock, and converted into higher values which will bear transportation, when the former will not. In this manner, lands are turned into account, where their immedinte products would otherwise b(^ valueless. But in such cases, the profit per acre is often very small ; as, in tlie districts best adapted to the culture of corn, it is considered more profhable tx) sell it for 25 cents per bushel tiian to feed it out to animals. it will be seen that at this price thrice its value is eaten u[) by the cost of transportation of 1G5 miles.
In this mimner, railroads in this country actually add to the immediate nu^ms of our people, by the saving eflc'cted in the ixpcnses of transportiition, to a much greater extent thati cost. We are, tlieretbre, in no (hmger from embarrassment on account of the construi:tion of hnes culled for by the business wants of the community, as these add much more to our active capital than they absorb. Only a very few years arc reepiired to enable a railroad to repay its cost of construction in the manner stated.
Kiiilroadri in the United States exert a much greater infhu iK.-e upon tlie value of proixTty, than in other countries. Take England t()r example. Tlitrc a railrond maybe built without necessarily incrensing the value of property or llu; profits of a particular interest. Every farmer in Eng! id lives in sight of a market. L;irge cities are to be tbuiiil in every part of the island, which (;onsume the products of the; dilllrent portions of it almost on the spot where they are raised. ITailroads aj-e not needed to transport these products hundreds and thousands of miles to market; consequently they nniy be ot" no adviuitagi; to the farmer living upon their lines. So with many branches of mjuuifactures. These establishments may be situated imnu'diately upon tide-water, and as the fabrics are mostly exported, they would not be thrown uj)on railroads in any event. Such works m;iy exist in that country without exerting any perceptible influence in adding to the value of the property of a community. The cases of the two countries would be pMralh'l, were the farmer in the neighborhood of Liverpool eomprlled to send everything he could raise to London for a market, oi wen^ their manuliicturiii": establishments so f"ar from tin; consumers of tiieir "oods, that their vjilue would be sunk l)el()re these could be reached. We have ii! this country wh;it is equivalent to manufiicturing est;il)lislunents in Creiit Britain, in good order and well stocked for i)usiness, a li'rtile soil, tli;il will produce IxMintifiilly llir ye;irs willinut rotiilinn or drcssin'jf. All tli;il the (;ii'mer li;is lo do is to c.i-:! his si ed tin llic sulj ;iii(l
to them.
The actual increase in the value of landf^, due to the construction o^'railroad-s, is controlled by so n)any circumstances, that an accurate estimate can only be ap])ro.\imated, and nmst in most cases (idl liir short ofiJic fad. Not only are cultivated lands, and city and village lots, lying innncdialely upon the route aficcted, but the real estate in cities, hundreds and thousands of miles distant. The railroads of Ohio exert as nmch inlhience in advancinir the prices of real properly in the dty of New York, as do the roads lying within that Slate. This tiict will show how very imperli'ct every estimate must be. But tfdving only the tanning lands of the particular district traversed by n railroad, where tlu' inlhience of such a work can be more directly seen, there is no doubt that in such case the increased value is many times greater tlian tlu! cost of the road. It is estimated by the intelhgent president of the Nashvilh" .and Chattanooga railroad, that the increased value o<" a belt of land ten miles wide, lying upon each side of its line, is equal to at least $7 ,0() per acre, or !$1)C),0()0 l()r ev(>ry mile of road, which will cost oidy about J?20,000 per miU". That work has already created a value in its inllueuce upon real property alone, e(|ual to about five times its cost. What is true of the Nashville and Chattanooga roaii, is e(|ually so, probably, of the average of roads throughout the country. Jt is Ixlieved that the construction of the thre(.> thousand miles of railrciad ol Ohio will add to thc^ value of the landed pntperty in the State at least live tini(\s the cost of the roads, assuming this to be ^GO,U()(),()()0. In addition to the very rapid advance in the j)rice of fiirming lands, the roads of Ohio are stimulating the growth of her cities with extraordinary rapidity, so that tlier(> is much greater probability that the above estimati.' will be exceeded, than not reaclu d, by the actual iitct. \V(> are not left to estimate in this matter. In the case of the State ol" Massachnsetts, what is conjecture in regard to the new Stall's has with her become a matter of historv. 'I'Ik; valuation of that State went up, from 1840 to 1850, lidin 8x>l)0,(")00,000 to $-080,000,000— an immense increase, and by far the greater part of it duv. to the numerous railroads she has constructetl. This increase is in u much greater ratio to the cost of her roads than has been estimated of those oi" Ohio.
Wc have considiMcd the elll-et of railroads in increasing the value of property in relt-rence only to lands devoted to agriculture; but such results do not by anv means irive the most tlircible illustration t)f their use. An acie of farming land can at most be made to yield only n small annual income. An acn^ of coal or iron lands, (.n the other hand, may produce a thousand-liild more in value than tlii> t()rmer. These dej)ositcs may be entirely valueless without a railroad. With one, every ton of ore tlu>y contain is worth one, two, three, or f!)ur dollars, Hs the casi' may be. Take- Ibr example the coal-lields of I'ennsylvania. 'J'he value of the coal sent yearly from them, in all the agencies it is called upon to perform, is beyond all calculation. I'pon this article
it is iinpi).s-sible to conceivo the Hpoclaclo tliut wo should have presented as M people, so entirely dilFercMit would it have been from our present condilidu. Neither our eouiinereial uor our manufacturing, nor, consequently, our iigrieultural interests, could have l)orn(! any relation whatever to their present enormous magnitude. Yet nil this result has been nchieved by a li'w railroat.ls and canals in rennsylvauia, which have not I 'ost over Jjfi.OOjOtXI,! )()(). With these works, coal can be brought into the New York market fJ)r about §3 CA) per ton ; without them, it coidd not have been made available either l()r ordinary fuel or as a motive power. So small, comparativelv, are the agencies by which such iinineu.«r results have been elK'cted, that the Ibriner are completely lost sight of in the n)agnitude of the latter.
What is true of thi^ I'eiuisylvania eoal-lielils, is equally true of all others to agieater or less extent. The coal-fields of Alabama may be made to bear tht; same relation to the (Jiilf of Mexico and to the maruifactures of the southern States, us litive those of Pennsylvania to the North. Tile dull' of Mexico is to become the seat of a greater commerce than l\u' world ever yet saw upon any se;t ; and this coimnerce, and all the vast interests with which it will be connected, will to a very great extent owe its devek)pmcnt and magnitude to the coal-fields that sk)pe toward the gulf".
INCOME OF OUn RAILROADS.
Having shown the influence of our railroads in creating values, •which greatly exceed their aggregate cost, the lu^xt point to be considered is the incomi: of these works.
As both the incouje of our roads and the influence which they exert, in increasing values, must bear a close relation to each other, the flicts that have already been established in reli-renee to the latter necessarily involve the idea of ;i largi,' business upon our roads. The value of lands depends uj)()n their capacity to yield a very large; surplus f()r transportation.
There is no other country in the world where an e(|ual amount of labor produces an erpial bulk of freight f()r railroad transpt)rtation. One reason is, that tlu; great mass of our products is of a coarse, bulky chruacter, of very low comparative value, and consisting chielly of the products of the soil and fl)rest. We manufacture very tiw high-priced goods, labor being more profitably employed upon wliat are at present more ap()ropriale objects of industry. The great bulk of the articles carried upon railroads is grains, cotton, sugar, coal, iron, live stock, and arlicks of a similar character. The difllnMice bilween the value of a |)ound of" raw and manuliiclured cotton is nK.'asurcd ireciuenlly by dollars, yet both may pay the same amount of freight. Wheat, corn, cattle, and lund)er, all pay a very large sum f()r transportation in proportion to their valu( s.
Again, t()r the want of domestic markets, the transportation of many of our important products involves a fhrouirh transportation. Take, fi)r instance, a cotton-producing State like Mississippi. Nearly the whole industry of this State is engaged in the cultivation of this article. Of the immense amount produced no part is consumed or used within the
State. Tlio entire staple goes abroad ; but as tlie aggregjite iiuhislry of the peopI(! is eondned to the {)roduetioii of one slaplc, it f.llows tliiit all artic:h;s entering into eonsuniiJtion must be importeil ; so iluil, over the channels through which the cotton of this StaU^ is sent to market, an e(jual vahie or toiniage musl be imj)orted, as the ease may be. This necessity, both of an inward .'uid outward mov(.'iuenl, ('(pial to tlie whole bulk of the surplus agricultural product, is peculiar to the United States, and is one of the reasons of the large receipts of our roads. Whih; this is the case, it is equiiUy true that newly selthid sections of conntry will often supj)ly a larger amount of tratlic thiui an older (tne. There can 1)0 no doubt that an cipial amount of labor would produce l()ur times as mu(;h corn and wheat in Illinois as in Massachusetts; conse<|ucntly, a man living in the lijrnicr would contribute ti)ur limes as much busi■ lesri to ;i railroad as oik; in tlu; latter. In elenring the; soil, it often h ipjfens that the transportation of lundjcr supplies a larger traliic for two or three years than agricultural products l(»r an e(|ual length of time.
It is, thi'ri^tJ)re, a great mistake to suppose that, because a country is new, it cannot yield a large traHic to a railroad. In the southern and western States oii'v one y(\'ir is fre(pi(Mitly re(|niri'd to prepare the; soil t<)r crops, which luiy be renewed, the same in kind, li)r a long si'riesof years. The amount raised, and eons(>(|uently the surplus, is much larger in the more recent than in the longer settled portions of the country. In the more recent, too — the number of inhabitants being the same in both eases — the amount sent to distant markets is greater from the fact that there is no diversity ot" |)ursuils, wliieh in older commiuiities supply liom a limited i-ircl • nearly all the prime necessaries of lit(! that enter into consumplion. In newly settled districts, all these are often imported Iro.n distant markets at a very heavy cost of trans])ortation.
Th(! gr-neral views above stated, in ret('rriu'(> to tin; earnings of the railroads in the United States, are fully borne out by the result. Investments in these works have probably yielded a belter return, indeprndently of the incidental advantages connected with them, than the ordinary rales of interest prevailing throughout the country. Such is the case with the roads of Massachusetts, the State in which these works have been carried to the greatest extent, and havi- cost the most l)er mil(>, and amongst which are embraced a number of expensive and unproductive lines.
The l()llowing statement, compiled from oilicial returns, shows the cost, «!xpenses, and income of all the railroatis of this State tor t()ur vears previous to January J, 1852:
Tlic nhovf ifililc includrsi scvrriil fxpcrisive work.'* opciu'tl Uhi n'cciilly Inr lln' (kvcloinncnt ot ii liir«^('r business, iiiid ot'cmiiHc [nT.scnts .1 iiiiicli uvivv imtiivoiiihlr view of llu? prodtictivciu'ss ot" flicsr worlu thnn would he sliowu liy iiu avcni^c tin* ii loii<;('r jx-riod.
'I'lic most prodiiclivc r;iilro;ids in Miissiicliiiscttrt :irc those coiiiicctiiiii; tlio iiiiiMuriicliiriii^ iiiid coiiinifici.'d towns, wliilr iIk; most iiiipiodiiclivr tiro those depctuhii^ upon the <t>rrinilturiil inten'sts tor support. The .'i;j;rieullurc of this Stiilr; supplies iioihirm; ti)r r.riiort ; on the eoiitnirv, thi-re is hiirdly :i town that does not depend upon other .-uid (hstani portions of" the eountrv tor many of th(! mort; important artiehs ol" iood. The small sur|)lus raided is wanted l()r eonsumption in the imtnechate neighborhood of pnuhu-lion. Where ther(^ an" no maimtiietur\u<i estal)hshment-< upon a route, the movement of property upon New En,L(lan(l roads is limited, and lieneo the comparative unproductiveness of what may Ix; termed ittrnciillunil. lines. In the eastern tSlates other sources ot" husiness make uj) tl)r the lack ol" a|,Miiultural products l()i transportation, and the a_<,'u;re<x.ite investment is j)roductive. In the southern and western Stales the soil supplies a very lar<j[e .snr{)lus for expoiiatiou, atl()rding otter), per mic, a greater livlh- Wtv transportation than is sup|)lie(l to easlern roads, either liom agraaillure, manutiicture, or commerce. 'I'lie cost of tlie former, however, will not on the average, e(|ual one-half that oi" ih:' latter; and as the rates of charges are pr* tty iniiii)rm upon all, and if anything higher upon the soul/irtn and wrstirii than u[)oii the citMiirn roads, iIk rrNctiues of the fi)rtner must ot comse he very nnich greater thati the latter. Such is the tact. The greater income ol" the one icsults, hoili from a larger tratlic, which the western country in particular is adapnd to supply, and l"r(»in the higher rates ()f(;harges in proportion to the cost of th<' reSjK'clive lines ot" the two dillerent sections ot' the country. iNumerous illustrations ot" this fact might he readily given. The larnings of the Cleveland ami Colmnhus road have heen greater than ihosr ot" the Hudson river >ince the opening ot" tluar respective lines, though tint()rmer is onlv V-V) miles long afid cost $3, (KM), ()()(), while the latter is J -W miles and cost !<; J 0.1)00,001). Jtailroads in the newly settled portions of thr country, as a general ruh , eommiuid a much largi'r tratlic, and ot" course yield a better return upon iheir cost, than those of the older Stales. Assmning the revenues per mile of the roads oi tin' two divisi'ins ot the country to he e<|ual, their ml incoint' will he in the ratio <>i their cost, which may he staled at two to on<.' in favor of western and siaitliern loads.
Bv liu" the greater lujmher of our roads in progress are in the interior of" the ('oiiniry — in our agricultural districts, that do not possess an amount o\' <ta:uinuliUal capital e(|ual to their cost. A business ade(|uale
inord f!)r tlii;lr interest, to borrow :i ixirtioii of tlit> amoimi riMpiirrd, tliaii to iiiVfrtf llic wlioli- liU'aiis dircclly in ilic project. 'I'licy <-;iii lirtter iill()rd lo secure llie co-operation of l(»r« i^ti capilal, liy olli'riiiij; lii^h pri'niiuins I'or its use, than to ciiibarrnss tlicuiselv<'.s by making,' a jierinaiu'nt investment of loo lar^c a propoiiion of flidr own imnietliiitc means. Tliese fuels siilliciently e,\[)lain llie rr'asoiiM wliy llie borrowing ol ji considerable portion of the co.-t of our roaiUlian become so universal a I llie.
It is only by the co-operation of capitalists residiiitj; ata distance, and liiivin^ no interest in the collateral acfvaiita^i s due to railroads, that the great majority of our works could have been construcled. In the outset, money was fuinislicd slowly and cautiously, and i. n only upon the most nii(|uestionc(l security. As the result be<j;a!i . » Icnionstrale the aali'ty and productiveness of these investnieiils, capilal was more freely alliirded, and became less cxa(;ling in its conditions. 'I'lie result has been, that a confidence in the safi ;y of our railroads, as investments of capilal, has become general, not only in this country, but in Kurope ; and conijiatiies whose means and prospective advanta<j;es entitle them to credit, lind no (hlliculty in borr- wing a rejisonable .sum uj)on the security of their roads, with which to coinplete tii^ ..i. The amount usually borrowediiir our ro.ids in |)rogress aveia • s fr(»m !?•'>,')<•() to to JS 10,000 per mile. The general custom recjuir s Jiat a sum ecpial to the one sought to be borrowed shall be \'\i naid in, or sec;. d l()r construction. A road that will cost $'J0,000 pc i miie is con>i(ierc{l as sufficient security liir a loan of S 10,000 per mile; and as the cost of new works will not much exceed the (i)rmer sum, the U\Urv is not, as a general rule, considi red so lartM' ;is to create distrust as to the safety of the investment, on account of the iiiagiiilude ot the loan.
This rule, which estalilishcs the proportions to be supplied by those engaged in the coMstriiction, and capitalists, is well calculated to promote the best advantage of both parties. The liii't that the jx-ople on the line of a contemplated road are willing to tiiriiish one-half of the means re(juisite tor construction, and to pledge this li)r an eijual sum to conij>letc the road, is siillicieiit t videiiee that in the opinion of such j)coplc, the construction of such work is justilied by a prospecti\e business. The int(.-rest they have i:i it also is a suliicient guarantee that its alliiirs will be careliilly and j iudi'iitly managed. The large amount paid in and at stake divests the [H'oject of all s^it.cuhttuc lealiires. Where the advantages and success are merely I'ontingeiit, prudent persons do not usually hazaid large sums. The lender has, therelbre, all the guarantees of sati fy, both from the character of the project and its prospei'fivc income and proper nianagenieiit.
no means could i)e induced to venture tluMr own ca[)Ual in its success. In this manner projects may be set at()ot the consummation of which are not justili(^d by thesi; commercial and pecuniary c-onsiderations, which are the only safe guides of action in suili cases. Railroads are purely commercial enterprises, and their construction should be made to
ships, or the erection of manufacturing establishments.
The safety of the securities offered to the public will be readily seen from a comparison of the earnings of .)ur railroads with tlie sum necessary to meet the interest on the loans. Allowing the sum borrowed to equal $10,000 per mile, it would re([uire from $600 to $700, according to the rates, ac'iually, to meet the accruing interest. But tlie net earnings of our new projects more than treble this amount, leaving i()r dividends on stock a sum equal to double that paid on loans. That such will be the result, as far as our new and less expensive works are concerned, for some years to come, till a greater abundanct! of monej'^ shall have lowered the rau'S of interest, and the competition of new works shall have reduced the rates charged ior persons and property, tiiere cannot be a doubt.
{)anies within the States named are required by law to return to their egislatures the cost of their r(\s|)ective lines. To ascertain the cost of other roads, resort must be had to the published statements of iheir affairs. These statements, though generally to be relied upon, are uniform neither in their character nor in the lime at which they make their appc^arance ; and some of our largest eonipanies make no exhibit of their affiiirs save to their own stockholders.
It may be here stated that it is in liie power of the; general government to supply the lack of inf!)rmatioii wiiieh at present exists in reference to our railroads, by re(|uiring ;dl companies with whom contracts are made for transportation of the mails to return to the Post (>lH(>e Department full and ar;curate statements of their co.>;t, income, debts, expenses, &c., &c. Such returns, made in a jiroper maniuT, would be exceedingly advantageous in many points of view. They would show annually the extent to which these works are carried, their cost, income, expenditures, mod(^ of conducting the various works, &e., &c. The returns of their business operations would afford a great amount
of useful information, in reference to the internal commerce of the country, which could be obtained from no other sources. The great lack of correct statistical knowledge upon this subject is felt and acknowledged by all ; and there seems to be no other mode of obtaining this correctly than by the one pointed out. The returns, loo, by collecting all the existing information upon the subject of railroad management, could not fail to exert the most bojneficial influence, by making public whatever is valuable in the experience of each company.
The cost of our roads depends very much upon the character of the country through which they are built. Those in the New England States are the most expensive, not only from the greater difficulty of construction, but from the greater cost of right of way, land, &c. The general surtiice of the country is unfavorable. It becomes better adapted to these works on g' ing south, though the roads of all the eastern States, as far south as Maryland, cost much higher, per mile, than those of tiie southern or western States. The difference in the cost between the roads of the two sections of the country is confined principally to the items of grading, bridging, and Innils. In the States of Indiana and Illinois, the cost of these items, upon long and important lin(>s, will not often exceed $5,000 per mile; while in tiie eastern States the average fin' the same is H)ur or five times greater. The Mississippi valley consists of an immense plain, presenting but a few obstacles to the ea.«<y construction of a railro;id. The same may be said of the greater j)ortion of the .southern Atlantic and Gulf States. Throughout the country, except in the eastern States, the lands reipiired for right of way, depots, and stations, are eillier given gratuitously, or are had at Very low cost; the owners being sufKeiently remunerated in the incidental advantages resulting from these works.
The average cost of the roads of the States of Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Coinieclicut, Rhode Islanil, New York, New JcMsey, Pennsylvania, and M.nyland, is not far from $40,000 per mile. The cost of those ot' the Slntrs not enumerated is not far from ^20,000 per mile. The average U)r the whole country will not exceed $30,000 per inih', including full e([uii)meMt, and everything necessary f()r their efficient operation. 'I'his wouKl give f()r one road, completed and in [)rogress, the follow ing as the total cost:
It is believed that :ni extent of line e(|ual to the wjiole number of miles now in operation will be completed within three years from the present time, at which ptM'iod the i;ostofour roads will eipial the above sum.
The probable extent to which the eonstrucli()n of railroads will be ultimately increased in this country, is an interesting subject of speculation. At the present tine thev are very une(|ually dislril uteil. In Massachusetts, l()r instane(% we find one mile ot" lailroad to every six square miles of territory. The same ratio ap])lied to ihe area in which
these works arc in progress, would give 183,000 miles of railronds against 2G,000 miles, wiiicli is not fiir from the extent of lino in operation and progress at the present time. It would give to the State of Ohio nenrly 7,000 miles, where there are not one-half of this number either in operation, in progress, or eontemplated. It would give to Illinois 11,000 miles, and nearly the snme iimount to Virginiri. Both of these Slates have not more thcUi 4,000 miles in operrition nnd progress.
There ean be no reason why the State of Ohio sliould not, in time, and in Diet as soon as lliey can be reasonably constructed, have the same number of miles of railroad, in pro])ortion to its area, as Massachusetts; nor wh}' the western States of Michigan, Indiana, IlUnois, Wisconsin, Iowa, and Missouri should not have the same number of miles of railroad, their areas compared, as Ohio. They are e(}ually well adapted to these works, and the same necessity exists f()r their construction in the former as in the latter. The only element wanting to secure a similar result is time, wliieh will supply population, an(l develop their resomces to an equal extent. There is no reason why railroatls should not kee{) pace with the progress of the States in population and wealth, nor why, when they have reat;]ied the present position of Ohio, they should not boast an e(jual number of miles of railroad.
The area of the States above nanjed is e(pial to 400,000 s(iuare miles. To supply these with r;iilroads, to the same extent that we now find in Ohio, including those in progress, would recjuire 20.000 miles of road. The same ratio that W(> find in Massachusetts would recjuirc mon; than 60,000 miles. Now, no one aecpKiinted \vii)i the resources nnd wimts of the southwestern Stales, and the ch:u';icler of their people, ean doubt that, in time, :ui ecjual nrca will call f()r :mi t'([iial extent of lines, and thiit the construction of liiese- ro;ids will proceed with e(jual pace with their popuhition.
The probable rapid expansion of these works is well shown by a comparison of Georgia with other southern St;itcs. In the l()rm<'r there are about one thousand miles of rotid in o])eralion, ;dl of which are lucratively employed. Now, the States of North C;uolin;i, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Tennessee, and Kentucky will all compiuc tavorably v th (Jeorgia in population, in wealth, in extent, and in n;itur;jl resources. Railroads are just as much needed by the former as by the latter. They would cost no more j)er mile. They would pa^'etjually well, and would accomplish as much in improving the condition of their people. But the aggregate length of line oi' ail these St;iti'S is not e(|u;il to tne extent of riiilroad which we find in (Jeorgiii, Here, then, is a field where at least five thousand miles of r.-iilroad are siiown to be needed, li)r no one can doubt that r;iilroads in the States named will be e(|u;dly as useful and productive as those of (Jeorgia.
But even Georgia is very [)oorly supplied with r.'iilroad fai-ilities. Not on(!-half of her territory, and hardly one-half of her population, are within reach of them. A very large j)rf)portion of her ])ro(lucts arc wagoned, or sent down her rivers at great ex|)en,H', to inconvenient markets. Her area is at least eight times gnjfiler th;m that of Massachusetts. The latter State has «)n(; mile of railroad to every six scpiarc
miles of territory. The same ratio would give to Georgia 9,600 rniles of railroad, ecjualling two-thirds the wjiolc extent (jf lines in the United States, ynd to the States named, including Gctjrgia, (embrticing an area of 390,000 S(|uare miles,) more than G5,000 miles of railroad. There can be no doubt that, in the States named, ten thousand miles ot railroad are needed to meet the immediate cf)mmercial w.mtsof the people, and that this extent of roud would find lucrative employment.
Tlui province! of (yjiiiadji, (Hit! ol' \\\r, most, cxunsivc, populous, and wcallhy oilsliools of a colon i/JU(>[ nntion, liii.s Ix-cii jii.slly tcrincd " tlio brigliti'si j(!\vt4 iti tlu; Crown of Knuhiiul." Tlionyli si retching in longitude from tlio centre of the continenl to the hliores of l^ahriidor, atid iu latitude! from the waters which How into the norlhern ocean to the parallel of IV'iHisylvania, it <leriv(!s its importance not so much from great urea, diversity of climate, and jiroductions, as Horn geographical and corinnercial |)o.'<ilioti.
From tide-water upon llio St. Lawrenco to Lake Superior, this j)rovincc adjoins, and even penetrates, so as to divide, one of the most comni(!r(;ial as well as important agricnilmal portions of the United Slates. The shortest l.ind-ronte hetween the heart of New York and Michigan is through tlu! penin.-aila of (>an;i(l;i West, which emhraces one-half llio coast of th(! most commercial hody of licsh water on the gloln-.
Th(! "diversity of produeli(ui" ascribed to (.'anada may at first appear incorrect, inasimich as the name is associated with the rigors of u northern chmate. This mistaken id(.>si originated in the fact that iho eastern or historical portion of ('anada is l()remo.>l in ihi! mind — a part substituted lt)r the! whole; while the we.slern e)r moele-rn se'e;liou e)f tho province is known only te) ae-tual visitors. 'I'he reanaiitic narratives of Jac(|ues Carter anel Champlain, the! early trials and struggle's of tho Jesuit Kalhe-rs, anel of Frontenac, I)c Sales, anel others of the: olel noblesse of Kiance;, with the stirring incielents of the! wars of the Algoii(juins and lre)(|uois, have, to the gre'at majority e)f the jjcople of tho Unit<!d States, bcvn the chief meeJiuin of inlejraiutiou rt;specling this, Englanel's most important eiolony.
It is true that in Eastern (Canada there; are extremes of climate unknown iti the ne)rthwe'stern States. But it will be litunel that the mean tempe'rature varies but little in the two re-gions. The- intense cold of the winter makes a highway to the operatie)ns e)f the liunberman over and upon every lake and stream, while the earth and the germs of vegetation are jeale)usly guardeel from the injurie)us clle-cts of severe frost by a thick mantle of snow. The sudelen transition from winter le) summer, melting tho accumulations of ice aiid snow in eive.'ry mountain elreum, converts them inte) navigable rivers, downicnrJ, ihr bearing, in the cheapest and most expeditious manner, tho iiuits of the lumberman's winter labe)r to its market on tide- water. The rummcticemaU of vegetation is delayed by the duration of the snow, but its maturity is reached about the sumo period as in the western country, because thert?
has been a smaller loss of cjiloric during the winter, less retardation from a lingering spring, and more rapid growth from the constant action of a strong and steady summer heat.
Wliatever exceptions may be taken to the climate of Eastern Canada, it must be remembered that it embraces the greater portion of the whitepine-bearing zone of North America, the invaluable product of which can only be obtainetl by those conditions of climate, (the abundant ice and snow,) which have given it such imaginary terrors. There is scarcely one article or class of articles from any one country in the world which ad()rds more outward freight, or emplo3's more sea tonnage, than the products of the f()rests of British North America.
Whik? t' '>se conditions of climate and production give necessarily a commcrc >i and maiiLifacturing chiu'acter to the eastern province, the mild(T climate and more extensive plains of Western Canada aff()rd a field li)r agriculture, horticulture, and pastoral pursuits unsurpassed in some respects by the most tiivored sections of the United States. The peninsula of Canada West, almost surrounded by many thousand square miles of unfrozen water, enjoys a climate as mild as that of Northern New York. The peach tree, unprotected, matures its fruit south and W(>st of Ontario, while tol)acco has been successfully cultivated for years on the peninsula between Lakes Erie and Huron. During the last two years. Western Canada has exported upwards of two millions of barrels of flour, and over tlnee millions of bushels of wheat, and at the present moin(>nt the surplus stock on hand is greater than at any former period. There is probably no country where there is so much wheat grown, in proportion to the population and the area under cultivation, as in that j)art of Canada west of Kingston.
The commercial position of Canada West as a "portage" or "stepping-stone" between the manufacturing and commercial States on the Atlantic and the agricultural and mineral ones of the northwest, is illustrated b}^ the Welland canal, th(^ Gri'at Western, and the Ontario and Huron railways.
Among the prominent features of Canada, her military position is worthy of notice. She is the most northern power upon this coniinent; and in configuration upon the globe she presents a triangular ti)rm, the apex of whicli f()rms th(^ extreme southing, and pc^ietrates the United Stales frontier; while the base is remote, and rests upon the icy regions of" the north.
Flanked by the inhospitable coast of L;d)ra(lor upon the east, and by the almost inaccessible territories of the Hudson's Bay Conij)any on the west, she can oidy be attacked "in front;" when, retiring into more than Scythian fiistnesses on the Ottawa and Saguena}-, anil kee])ing up communication with the strong ti)rtress of" (Quebec, she can maintain prolonged and powerful resistance against fiweign hostile invaders.
Viewing Canada as a whole, it may ix; tlescribed as a broad belt of country lying diagonally along the frontier of the United States, from northeast to southwest, from Maine to Michigan, and between the 42d and 49lh parallels of north latitude. The great river St. Lawrence presents itself conspicuously as a leading filature in its physical geography, traversing, in a nortlieasterly course, the grand valley which it drains in its mighty career to the ocean.
The very beautiful mnp of the basin of the St. Lawrence hereunto appended, and prepared exprt^ssly for tills report, by Thomas C. Keeier, esq., a civil engineer of high standing and eminent abilities, attached to the Canadian Board ol' Works, may be relied upon lor its accuracy.
An attentive consideration of this new and excellent map is respectfully solicited. It presents many points of interest, exhibiting, as it does, at one view, the mighty St. Lawrence, the chain of "fresh water Mediterraneans," of which it is the outlet, and which are indeed a geographical wonder, as also their position and relation to the States of the West, and the vast and fertih^ valley of the Mississippi, with the various outlets to the sea, of tliis valuable section of North America.
COMMERCE OF CAXADA.
Before the close of the last century the commerce of Canada had reai^hed a respectable position. Th(^ St. Lawrence was then the only outlet of Canada, and also of that portion of th.o Unitcnl States lying upon and between Liikes Ontario and Champlain; and the port of Quebec reec^ived indilliM-ently Anieiican and Canadian produce for exportation to the West Indies and Biitish North American colonies.
Ahliough Tipper ('anada then scarcely produced sufficient food to suppoit her own immigration, th(^ lower j)rovince was alread}' a hu-ge exporter of wheat, and continued so until the ravages of the Hessian Ily reduced her to her present position of an importer from the upper province.
"A wise and hberal policy was adopted with regard to our exports pr(>vious to 1822. The products of eithc bank of the St. Lawrence were indilfl'rently exported to the sister colonies, as if of Canailian origin; and those marktMs received not only our own, but a large share of American breadstulls and [jrovisions. Our timber was not only admilled Ireely into the Biitish markets, but excessive and almost prohibitory duties were impos"d upon imp()itations of this article from the Bahic, t()r th(> purpose of tostering Canadian trade and British ship])iiig. The lirilisli marktn was efosed, by prohibition, ag;iinst our wheat luiti! 1814, which was then only admitted when the price in England rose to about two dollars j>er bushel — a privilege in a great measure nugatory; but the West Indies and le.vcr provinces gave a sulficient demand so long as the fiiH" export of American produce was permitted by this route. As early as 1793, our exports of Hour and wIknU by the Si. Lawrence were as I'.igii as l()(),0(tO bairels, and rose in 1802 "to 230,000 barrels. The lierliu and Milan decrees, and English orders in council thereon, of 1807 ; President Jeflerson's end)argo of 1808, with increased duties levied u])on Baltic timber, gave an impulse to the trade of tlii^ St. Lawrence, so that the tonnage arriving at Quebec in J 810 was more dian ten times greater than in 1800. The ■war of 1812 and 1815 naturally checked a commerce so much dependent upon the Americans; and we theretbre find but little increase otthe tonnage arrivi^d in 1820 over that of 1810. In 1822 the Canada Trade Acts of the imperial parliament, by imposing a duty upon Aracr-
ican agricultural produce entering the British American colonies and the West Indies, destroyed one-half of the export trade of the St. Lawrence ; and the simultaneous abundance of the English harvest Ibrbude our exports thither.
" As a recompense for the damngc done by the Tr^ide Act of 1822, our flour !ind wheat, in 3825, were admitted into the United Kingdom at a fixed duty of five shillings sterling per quarter. The opening of the Erie and Champlain cnnals at this critical juncture gave a permanent direction to those Afierican exports which had l)(;H>re sought Quebec, and an amount of injury was inflicted upon tiic St. Lawrence, which would not have been reached had the British action of J82.3 2>?'cceded that of 1822. The accidental advantages resulting from the differences which arose between the tlnilcul Stales and Britain, on ihe scor(> of reciprocal navigation, (which (hlH-rences led to tiic interdiction of the United States export trade to the West Indies, and redu''(>(l it from a value of $2,000,000, in 3826, to less than S2,000 in 1830) restored li>r a time our ancient commerce. The trade ot" the St. Lawrence was also assisted by ihf reachnission free in 182G (after l()ur years exclusion) of American timber and ashes for the British niaik( t, and by the reduction of the duty uj)on our flour l()r the West India markt 1, and therel()re rapidly recovered, and in 1830 far surpassed its position of 1820.
"In 1831 there was a return to the policy which existed previous to 3822. United States products of the tbrests atid jigrieuhure W(m<! admitted into Canada //-rr, mid couhl be (exported lh( nee as Canadian j)roduce to iill countries, (^xcept the United Kingdom; and an athlitional advantage was conli-rred by the imposition of a diffi-rential (hiiy, in our liivor, upon li)rcign linnber (Milering th(^ West Indian and S )iilh American possessions. Our exports ol' (lour and wheat by sea ni thai year were about 400,000 l)u^hels — chi( (ly to Britain, where a scarcity then existed, and l()r the first tin)e (>xcee(Hng the (lour export of J802. This amnnnt, in coiise(|iience of a dennnid nearer home, and the ravages of the llv in Lower Canada, was not again exceeded until 1814. iJetw( en 1832 and 1839 a scarcity and a great dematul li)r bicadstuffs arose in the United States, iiikI ihe er(>j>s in England being unusually abundant between 1831 and 1836, the order oi' tilings in the Si. Lawrence was reversed, so that in 1833 wlitiat was shipped fiom Britain to Quebec. A lirther sup|)ly eam(» al.so fiom Arehangd. 'i'liese impi)rt» in JiS35 and 1830 amonnled to abiml 800,000 bushels. A similar demand in 1820 had turned (jur ex[)ortation of breadslulls inland to a very large amount; yet, notwithstanding these fluctuations of our exports, the shipping ;nid commerce ol"the St. Lawrence rajfidly increased jii iniporlanee and value, with no continued relaps(>, down to {\v year 1842. The revulsion in 1842 wasgeneial, being on(; of those; periodical crises which aflict conunerce, but was aggravated in Canada by a repetition oi" the measures (»f 1822, not confined this time to die p- '\\ sion-trade only, but attacking the great staple of Quebec — tin f •-' The duties on Baltic; timber, in Britain, were reduced, the free imjjortation of Am(>rican (lour was stopped by the imposition of a duly thereon, and our trade with the West Inthes annihilated by the reduction of the duty upon American flour l)r(aight into those islands. By
imposing a duty of two shillings sterling per barrel upon American flour imported into Canada, and reducing it in the West Indies from five to two shilhngs, an improvement equal to five shillings sterling per barrel was made in the new position of" American flour exported tiom the Mississippi, Baltimore, and New York. The valu"- of our trade with the West Indies in 1830 (during the exclusion of the Americans) amounted to $906,000 ; and in 184G, It was $4,000.
" Our export to the lower provinces (Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Cape Breton, &c.) was at its highest point in 1836, since which time it has fluctuiited, but never reached its position of that year. It will be remembered that nt that time the Americans were importing breadstuffs, and could not, therefore, compete with Quebec in the .supply of these provinces. The act of 1842 was nearly as destructive to our trade witli the gulf provinces as with the West Indies; but since the opening of our cannls, ihcre is a marked increase in this trade. In 1841 (before tfie passing of the Gladstone act) our export trade with the lower provinces was worth $456,000 annually, which amount fell off" to $204,000 in 1844. In 1845 the enlnrged Welland nnd Beauharnois canals were opened, and since that period it has gradually recovered, so that, since the opening of the enlarged Lachine cnnal, it has exceeded its position •of 1841, and is now increasing every year. As the interruption of our trade with the West Indies by the Canada Trade Act in 1822 was followed in 1825 by the permanent admission of our breadstuffs into the British market, and by the concessions in 1826, so its second interruption, or rather destruction, in 1842, was succeeded in 1843 by the inipoitant privilege of exporting American wheat, received, under a compar;itively nominal duty, as Canadian, without proof of origin, in the British market. This measure was a virtual premium of about fiix shillings sterling per qutirter upon American exports to Britain through the St. Lawrence ; but, Minsmuch as it was an indirect blow at the English Corn Laws, it cohi ined — like abombshell — theelements of its owu destruction. This very partial measure rapidly swelled our <^x[)()rts of flour and vvheiit, s<* that in 1846 over half a million of b;irrcls, ;itid as many bushels, of these two staples were shipped fiom Can;ida by sea.
" The injury threntened to the timber trade of the St. Lawn^ice by the act of" 1842 was averted by the subsequent railway demand in England, so that our exports of this article have been greater since that period than l)ef<)re.
" In 1846 steps were taken in the British legislature which led to the withdrawal of that preference which the St. Lawrence had so fitfully enjoyed as the route f<)r American exports to England ; and the n<nv system came into full operation in 1849. The intermediate demand, resulting from the fiiilure of the potaio crop, has thrown much uncertainty upon the final tendency of this important change in our relations with the molh(T coutitry ; and as a necessary cons(^(iuenct\ the ancient system of 'ships, colonies, and commerce' has fallen to the ground. In 1847 the control of our customs was abandoned by the imperial legislature, and the last and most important measure, which has relieved us from the baneful < fl('<;ts of the British navigation laws, came into operation on the 1st of January, 1850.'*
It will thus be seen that previous to 1846 the colonial policy of the British government, althougn vacillating and contradictory, encouraged the sea-trade of Canada by affijrdiug a market ii)r her productions, and discouraged exports inland to the United States. Likewise, by imperial control over the colonial tariff, the mother country established differential duties against importations inland, thus throwing the supply of Western Canada into the ports of Montreal and Quebec and the contraband dealers on the western frontier.
Nearly the whule revenue from customs being collected in Lower Canada, although an equal and even greater consumption was claimed f()r the upper province, a controvers}'^ respecting the division of this revenue became annually more and more severe, with the increased population and demands of Canada West, and was the subject of tiefluent appeal to, and of adjustment by, tiie mother country. The insurrection of the French population, and consequent suspension of the constitution of Lower Canada, was taken advantage of to bring about a legislative union of the two provinces, which accordingl}/- took place in 1841, and put an end to the dispute alx)ut the division of the revenue. Perhaps liie remembrance of this altercation had some influence upon the subsetjuent action of the Canadian legislature upon the subject of differential duties. The imperial govf^rnment l!)rmally abandoned all control over the Canadian tariff' in 1847, and, in their next session, the colonial legislature abolished the diffl-rential and prohibitory duties on imports inland ; thus placing the mother country in the same relative position as f()reigners. The commercial interest of the lower province yielded to this pohcy from sympathy with tlie l\cctrade movements in England ; wliile it is probable that tiu; western pr()vine(> supported the measure as a means of emancipation from the monopoly of their imports by Montreal and (Quebec.
Tho repeal (by the abolition of the lirilish Corn Laws) f)f all privileo;es in tavor of Canadian breadsluffs in the Jiritish markets, the liostile tariff" of the United tSlales, anil the trammelled condition of the St. Lawrence navigation, (yet unlieeil tiom the restrictions of the Dritish Navigation Laws,) ii'U heavily upon the Canadians. The seanty supply of vessels in tht.' St. Fiawrenee, (hitherto a "close borough," lor British ship|)ing only,) and the abuiulaiit supply of outward lieighls afforded by the timber coves of (Quebec, had so enhanced all oilier freifflit outward, that notliiuf' but the rjremiuni offi'red by the British Corn Laws made the route through the St. Lawrence more iavorable than by New York, even with the burden of the Cniled Slates tariff'. When, theref()re, this jniMnium was withdrawn, and the English market was no longer the most profitable, the exports of Canada West (the surplus-producing section of the piovince) turned toward Ni'W York. The j)roximity of this city to the wheat-exporting districts of Canada, and the facilities of exporting and importing in hond, by New York canal and other internal artificial aveiuies, produced such a diversion of Canadian exports of flour and wheat that thei|uantily so sent to New York in 1800 exceeded, largely, that exported by sea thn)ugh the St. Lawrence.
72,847
TIu- following stiitomcnt shows the amount of Canadian flour and wlieat imported, the amount bonded for ex|)ortation, and the amount entered tlir consumplion at eaeh port of entry:
It wi4l 1)(^ seen that there is wdrcreaar in tlu> importation from Canadn in 1S5I, and an inerea.se in hi-r exports by sea, which do not, with respect to wheat at least, counterl)alanee the deficiency of inland exports. As the Canadian wheat eroj) ot" 1851 exceedtul that of any tinnier year, (lie presumption is tl.'at the low prices which ruled durinff
The iiict, however, that, of the flour exporl<'(l tiom Canada, tiic number of l)arr(>ls which were sent to the United k^tate.-* in IcSoC exceeded the total expoits by sea in tiiat year, and that in 1851 this was reversed,
is very significnnf, considoring that the Canadians arc nowlrarllng upon equal terms with tlic United Stales in the markets of the mother country and those of other foreign States. To elucidate this, I must refer to the
The substitution of Canadian fitr American flour in the consumption of the "lov er colonies" has been brought about by the oj)ening of the ship-canals on th(! St. Lawrence, aided by a recij)r()city arrangement between these colonies and Canada ; and because the exclus^ion «)f the latter iioni the American doineslie market has ii)rce(l Canachan flour through the St. Lawrence, to compete in the lijreign markets of the United Statr-s.
The articles of wheat and hour hiive been tak(>n, for the sake of conveiii'-nce, to illustrate tlie export-tnide of" Canada, its direction and distribution. The remarks above, lK)Wt"ver, apply to all other provisions o( which shf,' produces ri surplus.
In tile im[)ort-trade, sugar, one of tin; leading artich^s of consumption, may be taken to illustrate a change us favorable to Canada as that in the export of flour, in 1849 tfie value of sugars imported from the United States was double that from the lower colonies. In 1851 the value trom the Unit<.'d States was S"J58,848, and (roni the coloni(>s 4^269,300. h\ 1849 neirly one-half of the sugar was imported, inland, from and through the United States — the proportion being 5,152,000
pounds, out of the total imporfatinn of 11,013,000 pounds. In 1850 lli(! iinpnrtntion rose to 15,730,000 pounds, of which the United St.;ito3 furnished 5,522,000 pounds, or a litilo moro than onc-tliird. In J851 the number of pounrls imported was 20,175,040, of which 5,040,000
With respect to the route of importation, the inland import in 1849, as we have seen, nearly e(]ualled that hy sea; but in 1851 the value of sugars imported by sea was $712,408, against $278,408 by inland rouleiJ. Canadian vessels load at the lake ports with breadstuff's and provisions, which th(;y carry, without transhipment, to Hahfax or St. Joiui, Newli)uiidlan(!, exchanging there iiir a return cargo of sugars, molasses, fish, and oils. This trade is, of course, confmed to British vessels; and as (ish and other products of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, and the flour, provisions, &c., of Canada, arc exchanged dutyfree, a direct free-trade between the maritime and agricultural districts of IJrilish North America is now in full operation, from which Newfiiuiidland only is (excluded — the necessities of that govt^niment t()rbiddiiig her from taking off the duty on Canada flour. Her fish and oil are tlu'ref!»re treaunl as foreign in the Canadian ports.
1851 07,325 269,300
It appears from the fbr(^going that the comtnerce of Canada is at present in a slati; of transition. No certain j)rediclions can now be ofic-red to show how tiir Ikt efl()rls at commercial independence will be successlui, or what influence she may be enabled to ex<>rt over the general commerce of the western lakes and adjoining districts. A short review of her [)osition and resources will be the best mode of presenting this (juestion.
tion in 1851, 42,052.
Quebec is tfie most ancient, as well as the most important, port of Canada, and embraces the outports of (iaspe, N<'w Carlisle, the Magdalen Islands, and several in the river Ix low Quebec. The province of Canada extends eastward to the Straits of Beile-lile, embracing the
Mii^<liil<ii islmids, tlic Bill) rock.s, nnd Aiiticosti. In tln^ M;i^;(l!ilcn.s a sul>-C()ll»'(lor is ;^t;jli()nt'd, who reported some #220,000 worth of exports in 1848; but no return of ini[)ort3 in Uikvn, and no diitie.-*, ijp|x*.rciilly, iire levied. The other islan(Js arc occupied only i()r H^/ht -houses and rehef stations.
The harbor of (Quebec is nf»t unUkc that of New York — the island of Orleans serving as a barrier from a nortlieast sea, and, like Loiig Island, aflordin^ two channels f>f approach. A ti'onf age of about lilieen miles on both sides of the river not only ailbrds the nccess.'iry whaives, but coves of snllicient niagnilndc to lloat some thirty to l()riy millions of cubic fi'ct of tind)er, about eighty millions of superficial feet of deals, b(\=ides staves, lathwood, &(;. Ajhs/i \vaf(>r tide, rising eighteen feet at "s])rings," oIIits no impediment to lheshij)mcnl of timber, the great business ol' the port, the vessels so engaged being anchored in tlu? stream, (which aflbrds good holding-ground.) where their cargoes arc tloaled to them at every tide. The tide e\l( nds ninety miles ab(<vo Quebec, and the water does not become perli'ctly sail until an ecpjal distance is reached ixlow; thus there is a fresh-water tide of me Innidred and eighty miles be\dnd th<' salt water, and sea navigation to Montreal, ninety milis (inther, la- two hundn'd and seventy mile.- lioni salt water. 'I'lie river navigation may be said to terminate about one hundred rmd lilty miles below (^uel* -c, (where pilots are iirst tak<'n,) but the condtined gulf and river na\igation extends upw;ntls of seven hundred miles beli)re we reach the Atlantic, with which it has no less than thr;-c connexions. The most norlliern ot" these — the stiails ol" Belle-isle — is in navigable order about live months, and aili)rds a passage; to Livcr|M)ol more than two hundred miles shorter than the route by Caj)e Race, making the distance fnan (^ucIxm; m(tre than ii>nr hundred miles shorter than Irom \ew York. By using this passage the naviiiable route between the tJ)ot of Lake Ontario and any |)ort in lirilaiii is as t^hort as that Irom New NOrk harbo; to iIjc same port. The middle channel, by which the Atlantic is reached, is about lilty miles wide, and contains St. Paul's island, whiili, with its two hghthouses. adiirds an excell(>nt point of" departuic. By this channi I (Quebec is brought nearer to any port in Ku!(»pe, Africa, or llie Indian Oiean, than .\e\v York. 'J'he southern passage is known by the name of the dm ol" Canso, and is invaluable to the lishiug, coasting, and \V<st India trade.
T1j(; gulf ot" and river St. Law reiice have been most elaborately surveyed by the accurate and accomjdished Cai)taiu Baylield, Koyal navy, an in-pection of w hos' cha.'ls is indisp(iisable to a correct appi'cciation ot" the eonunercial «jualities of this nasigalion. Tlie e\cUi>ivc monopoly by British shij)s of this rout(.' hitherto, the buoyant character of the cargo— timber, the ignorance ot'tlie masters, anil excesses ot the men, have been more fruitful (pauses of disaster tlian the natmal i-oiitingiiicies of t)i«,' route. ileretol()rc, in many instances, ohl and unserviceable vessels, coumianded by men whose pay was Kss ilian that of a good mechanic, were sent out in Sept<'nd)er lt>r a cargo of tind»er. A month of dissipation in (Quebec sent the crew to sea diminished in numbera by desertion, with weakened ph^'sical powers, and insullicienl
clotliing. Whon, ihoreforo, the cold November blnsts in the gulf were encountered, t()r want ofordiiiiny exertions, strength, and intelhgence, the ves.s(^l went ashore. Notwith.stan(Hng, considering that over iialf a milhon of tons of shi|)[)ing annually enter the St. LawrfUice, it will bo tbuiid that tlie pcr-eeiitage of lossf^s lias been no greater than that of the British iind Irish chann(>lrf, or llic keys of Florida.*
'I'he disasters at Key West, (br the same year, wen^ about fifty in nnnii)('r, and on tlu; upjx'r St. fiawrenee, betw(>en Lake Superior and Montreal, two hundred and sixty-three; where, says the reporter, "live steamers, ihnt; propelk-rs, and thirty-seven sailing vessels W(mt out of existence entirely."
Si\ hundred and eighty-eight sailing vessels, numbering V2h,72(i tons, and l()ur steamers, giving 1,462 tons, tbrm the list of wrecks of vesst'ls belonging to the I'iii;"d Kingdom fi)r ISoO.
Such an extt .it of land-lockfd navigation as the St. LawnMice prt^sents between the pilot-ground (near the Saguenay) ;md the Athiiitic would be, in thick weather, or snow storms, considered hazardous, were it not l(»r the great width ot" beatincj-gn-iind, (now h."rt> less than tweMty-liv(> miles, juid avei.iging over liti\,) the absence ot" all slioals or reels in or near the channel, and the admirable soundings displayed b}' the charts.
The trend ot" the Atlantic coasts of Ncwt!)undlan(l and Cape Breton converge u[)on St. Paul's island, a lofty anti [)iciuies(|ue rock, t()r whii'h a vessel may stand bold in a l()g. Inside of St. Paul's a bank, with sixty fithoms, leaci.'. by a dirt^ct lint* on its outer edge, clearing Anlicosti, into llie chops of the St. Lawrence* northward of this line is deej) water; snnthw,»rd, n^gular soundings ; so that, in thick or foggy weath(>r, the lead is an unerring guide. On entering the river the south shore gives uiiiti)rm soundings all the way to the pili>t-ground, the water shoaling so regularlv that a vessel may at any point determine her distance from the shore within a mile by the lead alone, whil(! at all points she may apj)roach this shore within this distance.
Thn iuIminiMo position of I'mntn drs Monts, (with ii Iip;lit-liou«it ..le liiiiulrcd Ircl iihovo tho wnter.) pnijicliiiu; with ii bold shore e v(;r:il miles I'roin the g(;ri(.'r!il ircind of the north shore, f()rins, with its a .Miora^(! oil hoth lies, a conimoii [)oinl of dcpurtunj (or inward and outward-hound ssels.
Th(! recent opj)li(;ntion of steam to ocean i snmcrcc greatly rnh;inces the value of this navigatic-n ; ])arlieulir !y with reltTerute toconimunieation with Britain, the great centre of European sU'arn navigation uikI commerce. TIk; two great drawhaeUs to ocean steam navigation ure, the ([uantity of fuel which must he carried and the resistiuieo which a lieavy sea ofK;rs to progress whether tfu; wind Ix^ liiir or f()ul. Ou the St. Lawrence route these are reduced to a minimum. The distance; from the coast of Ireland to St. John, Newl()un(llaiid, or to the straits of IJ(dle-lsle, is under J, 700 miles; and coal is lituud in al)und;iuee, and of exeell(>nt steaming (|u;ilities, at several p tints in the (Julf of St. Lawrenc". 'J'ho remainder of the voyage; to (iueh'c will he made in compar;, lively smooth water, as the st(;atner will run under the shelter of either shore, according to the direction of the wind.
This notice of the position of the port of Quebec with reference to steam nnvigation with Europe Ins been deemed essential at this titne, inasmuch as the; governme^nt of Canada are now rc^eeiving |)roj)os:ds l!)r the establishment of a line of serew-sleamers to ply upon this route during tlu; season of navigation, and to communicate with tlu; termiini3 ol'tlie railroads from Canuda, at Portland, fir the present, and II;dii'ax as soon :.s the schemi; of a grand intercolonial railway from (Quebec to Hdifux >hall have; been carried out.
The great staple of Quebec is timber, and hitherto her trade lias been chiefly conlined to this staple, Montreal b'-iug the; point wli(;rG the agricultural exports of the upper province; are exchange'd t()r the supplies of l()reign goods re(|uired l(ir th(> same districts. 'JMie timb(;r is cliielly supplied by the Ottowa riv(M-, (which, with its numerous and important tributaries, drains an area of over ten thousand scpaare miles of the iinest pine-bearing land,) and also iiom the ncjrth shore; of L;d\0 Ontario, which is drained by a remarkiible chain of lakes emptying through the rivers Ottjnabee and Trent, into the Bay of (iuinte, (thus escaping the open water of Ontario,) from which the rafts are floated to (Quebec. Thus, by the simple and inexpensive process of railing, timber is borne by the current, at a cost of three or fi»ur cents per cubic f<)ot, to Quebec, Iiom a distance of six hundred miles — even from the lands (haincd by Hudson's bay and L:ike Huron. The amiual supply varies with the export, but seems ca[)al)le of almost illimitable; e'xte-n6ie)n. In 1846 tho sup[)Iy e)f sepiare; tind)er ex<;ee'de'el thirty-seven millieius of cubic feet; that of sawed deals, sixty millions of le-i't, board measure ; besielcs some fifty tlie)usanel Ions of staves, lath-vve)e)ei, &c. ; the whole (at the usual rate of forty cubic feet to the ton) amounting to
one million six Imndrcd ;iml filly tlioiisand tons, und worlli, nt llit; ruling [)ii(!rs of lliiil yoar, hctwccn live iiiid six millions ol' dolliirs. Ifcdiuin^ tli(! (;ul)if; to supcrliciid inciisiirc, l()r tli(! s;ik(! of foinpiiiisMn wiili All);iny iind B;in;»;or, the 8nj)[)ly of F(|uiin" timber (ind dtjils (rxclusivo of staves, liitii-wood, &(;.) bron^lit to (^iichcc in tlidt y(';ir exceeded liv(; hundred miiiion.s ol" ticl. 'I'he stock wintered over exceeded t\venty-on(; millions of (;nl)ic feet ol liinln r, ;ind iIk; c.\|)<irt lwenly-li)nr nnd n (juinter millions, lojiding sjotnc; thirteen or fourteen hundred vessels, of iin jip;ti;re<;iile tonn.iifc of over half a million.
'.riic l()llo\vin^ shows the numIxT and tonnage of vessels inwaril and outward in (Quebec, with the export of white-pine, limber, (iho leadinj^ article,) (or the last eight years:
'rh(> <rr<'atrst number of s!ii[)-» outward in any year [)revi()us to 1851 was in LS-l-'j, wiien i,4i)i) ( icared out, with a, tuiinagc of .081,') 10. in \H')\ the viimhcr i)\ vessels outward is less, but the tonnage is greater, than thai of any liirmer year. It mini be reinendjercd that, since lb-l;'j, the duty upon IJaltic timber in biitain has i)c;en reduced.
The value of exports I'rom (^uebiM; depends upon the marki t price of timber, which ranges nearly oni; hundred per cent. It was greatest in liS'l''), when iIk; price of titn!)cr was highest, although the toiniago outward, whicii is ihi; iru ' meadurt! of the commerce, was less than iu 1851. 'I'hc {)rogress of the; imports is an index of the prosperity of the port, as the ai tides are general merchandise, which do not lliiclualo as much in valiu! as tin; ("xports.
The im[)orts at Quebec in 1851 greatly exceed those of any t()rmer year, and the whole business of the port, import and export, for the past year, prol);d)ly equalled its best ones when under the protective policy of the niolher country.
In order, however, to present the sea-trade of Canada, it becomes nect\ss;iry to trent Quebec and Montrenl as one port. Tiie value of the exports of (Quebec is generally more than double those of Montreal, while the imports of the latter are double those of (Quebec. This latter diilerence is sensibly lessening in f.ivor of Quebec, as that city is now becoming the point of trnnshipment tor goods in transit to western Stiites, which will relatively greatly increase the vidue of her iinports; while, as she will always be the timber mart, no corresponding decline of her exports is to be anticipnted. Ships of the largest burden are brought up to (Quebec by the tide, but the approach to Montreal is limited by the shallowness of water in Lake »St. Peter, giving at low water onl}'' thirteen feet, and is burdened with a towage against the current of the river. The work of (le(>pening Lake St. Peter is now in progress, with f;iir prospects of success, and in another year or two vessels drawing fift(>en feet water uiiiy come to Montreal.
Vessels loading at Montreal are frequently obliged to lighter a portion of their cargo through the lake, and are, therefore, re-cleared at Quebec. Again, imj)orts in the larg(! ships which stop at Quebec are lightered up to Montre.il; thus rendering it almost impossible to separate the commerce of the two ports.
Again, by means of the ship-canals, the inland lake and river ports of Caniida carry on a direct tradi^ by sea; and, although the regulations rer[uire their exports to be reported at tide-water, their direct imports are not noticed at Montreal or Quebec, but are piissed up under a "frontier bond," and entered at the j)ort of destiniition.
There are in Quebec about twenty-five ship-buihling estnblishtnents, and t;ighl or ten th^aliiig docks, capable of rec(!iving liirgest-chiss v<;ssels. The ehiss of vessels built range from 500 to 1,500 tons and upwards, and lliere has been lately established a resident " Lloyd's surveyor," to inspect and class the ships.
Tlu; exports ird;ind are taken from the imports at United Stales custom liou.ses. This mnkes tlie reported value of tfie sea nearly tlouble tliiit of the inland trade, and makes the gross trade of Cjinada, or the value of h(T exp(»rts and imports fi)r 385], amount to $!3.'3,347,7r;(), of which $24,000,1)00 arc imports, and only $ll,OUO,000 exports. In the exports there should he included the value of ships i)uill li)r sale at Quehec, iit least $1,000,000 more in ]8.'31, and l()r underviilu.ition of exports iiitinid a much larger sum; so that a lull estimate of the gross trade of Ciuiada l()r 1851 will not full short of a value of li)rty millions of dollars.
The pid)lislied Canadian returns for 1850 contain no statem(Uit, either of im[)()rts in lran^itu for the United Slates, or thos(^ which pass up under tionticsr bond. There are, iherefiire, no m(,'ans of comparing the ahove sLatemenl with lormer years. It has been shown heret()li)rc that, in tin; sta[)le of wheat and llonr, there has b(!en a marked gain l)y the sea at the expense of the iidand trade; yet the importation inland has sensibly increased ovef ' U of 1850.
1,437,376
Much of the imports returned as "Irotn other foreign countries" is made through the British North American colonies. The rapid increase of th(! former is, in u great measure, due to the trade with the hitter. Sugars, &c., the growth of the Spanish West Indies, purchased in Hahfax, ar(! reported from "otlier ii)rcign countries," in order to pass the lower invoice.
The abundance of freight in llu! shape of lumber at Quebec, guaranteeing a full cargo outward to every vessel entering the port, must produce its eflect on inward Ircighls. Moie than thrce-tburths of the inward tonnage an' now empty; but in railroad iron, salt, and coal, the imports are rapidly iuc:reasing siiu.'e the completion of the canals has let down lak(! vessels to carry these: arlicles inland. The present regulations pr('V(!iit American vessels from descending below Montreal, and are injurious to lliis commerci!.
57,715.
This city, at the head of sea navigation proper, is the most populous in British North America. Although not accessible (like Quebec) to the hirgesl (;las.s ot' shipping, its position l()r a varied and extensive commerce is more commanding, inasmuch as it is the centre; of a. more l(.'rtil(! area, more numerous approaches, and [)()ssess(^s within itself every requisite liir the support of a large population.
Monlreiil is pictures(iutly situated at the tixit ot" the " Itoyal mountain," from which it takes ils name, upon a large island, at the conlluence of the Ottawa and St. Lawrence, which, both in lertility and cultivation, is jusily considered llu; garden ot'Canada East.
ling, ill CruighnawMga, the two distinct hodios piis;^ over llie Sault 8t. Louis and tiio Nornian rapids — thn daric w. iters oftlK^ Ottawa washing tile (jiKiys of Montreal, while the l)hie t^t. Lawrence occupies tlie other shore; nor do they lose tlieir distinctive cli.ira(,ler unlil tliey are several miles below Montreal.
The (juays of Montreal are unsurpassed hy those of any eity in America : built, of solid hmeslone, and uniting with the locks iind euistone wharves of the Lachine canal, they present, liir several miles, a display of continous masonry which has lew parallels. Jjike the h'vces of the Ohio and Missis-?i])pi, no unsightly wai chouses disfigure^ the river-sid(\ A ln-oad terrace, liiccd with gray liinestoni', liic parapets of which art! surmounted with a sul)stantial iron railing, divides the city from the river throughout its whole extent.
This arrangement, as well as the subsluntial character olllie (|uays, is a virtue of necessity, arising tiom remarkable local plu iiomena. Montreal being the terminus of man}' miles of broken water, embracing the rapids of the f^l. Lawrence, an e.\tra(>r(linary (]uantily of "anchor" and "bondage" ice is brought down on the approach ol" winter, which is lirst arrested at the delta entering I^ake St. I'eter, iinly miles below thi- city. The surface lune, being covered l)y arrested ice, is (piickly solidilied, against Vvhich the ceaseless Hood of coming ice is checked, drawn under, atul iinally arrested, unlil the whole river, li)r a distance of lifty mil(!S, or more, is filltMl with ice, (as logs fill the boom in a millpond,) but packed, and jammed, and tl)ree(l under, so as to (iceupy a consi(ieral)le portion of tlie waier-way ol" the river, which thereupon commences to rise in order to increase its area of discharge. The winter level of water in Montreal harbor remains permanently at a point some ten or litieen li'e; above the summer one, covering the wliarves, which are invisible until tlu; departure of the ice. When the river has become suiKciently elevated to sec-ure a passage l()r its waters, the tioating masses on its surliice are firmly bound together, presenting the rugged aspert of a (juarry ; and, after several convulsive throes, the surfiice attains a state ol' rest. The advent of spring again breaks the calm, when, after some magnilicent displays of hydraulic pressure, the ie(> departs <n masse, and in lweiitv-l()ur hours the navigation is ri--
It is while settling to rest fl)r tiie winter, and when "waking up" on the a{)proach of spriiiii, thatlh(! majestic pla^nomenon ot an "ic:e-shove" is seen. During the elevation of the vast volume of the St. Jjawrence some ten or lilieen il'ct and its return again to its l)eil, momentary arrestations otboth floating and submerged ice take place, when the river abo\'e instantly rises until a " head" ot' watci' is aecaumilated which i> feartully irrt-sistible. Tin; solid crust of ice on the Mirlaee, two or three fi'ct in thickness, is summarilv and suddenlv lilted and iiirced
nearly live months, not a spar is to be seen.
Montreal occupies the centre of an extensive plain, cut in every direction by the St. Lawn-nce and Ottawa, with their tributaries, Ibrming several large and fertile islands contiguous to tin; main one occupied by the city. This plain, although nearly one thousand miles by the river from the Alantic, is scarcely elevated one hundred feet above tide-water, and, in the words oi' tlie provincial geologist, " constitutes the valley pro|(er of the St. Lawrence, occupying a breadth of fJirty miles ; the ntituie of die materials of \vhi(;h it is composed (a deep and highly levigated deposite of argillaceous, arenaceous, and calcareous matter) rendering it impossible to conceive ot a region more fitted for the purposes of agriculture."
The aggregate tonnage at Montreal and (Quebec is greater than the whole tonnage outward by sea, because- vessels partly laden at Montreal are recleared at Quebec. Tiie above return refers only to ves•sels from and to sea.
Tlio mode orkr»'[)iii;i; tlio pioviiiciiil rrtiiriHdnci? not do jiisticp oithor to llic exports or imports of Moiitrciil. Im[)orls liinded licro liir TorDiito, H;imiltoii, and oilier iiiLiiid ports, arc not entered, but pas.s np inider "frontier bond," and ar(! scattered over tin* inland ports. No a,ii<i;rei,'alc accounts ot* these are pul)lisli'(l, and their vahie can oidy l>e asi:urtained at inhuid ports. The nominal vahie passed up under these ♦' frontier bonds," as given at iMontreal lor 1851, was JBI,H0r),140. At Quebec, the value of transit ;,'oods, both llir f()reign and domestic export, is not ascertained.
The exports do not includi! produce lightered over the bar in Jjakc St. Peter, or the cargoes o\' foreign vessels \vhicli tnust clear outward from Quebec. Fifty-three thousand barrels of Hour, shi[)ped at Montreal, are tlierel()re included in the exports from Quebec l()r 1851. The total value thus taken from INIontrcal Ibr 1861 was S37}),132.
The trade between Montreal and the lower colonies is shown by the ({)llowing statement of tin; value of im|)orts and exports, and mjinber ot" barrels ot flour sent in :
The exports lor 1851, being :dl cleared onlwaid, are much greater than in any ti)rmcr year; but the imj)orts oi 1813 and 1844 w<r<' greater, bifaust.- at that time ail impoits l()r Upper ('anada wcic entered inwaid at Montreal, but, sini-e the opening of iIk; St. Lawren(;e canals, a gicat portion of these pass uj)wards, and are cnnlited to the diflirent inland ports.
The ehan;,M' hen' shown in the exports nt St. Jolin was caused chielly hy the movement of" timbiT and himl)er. Ijuriie (juantilies, in 1800, went to the Hudson river market through Lnke Champhiin ; but, in 1801, the (^uehec market was the most pr<»rual)le, and thither a,ll shipments tended.
Tlie trade of th(! inland j)orts is somewhat eomphcated by the manner of m;iking th(> imports. These consist of l()ur classes, viz : Im|)oils purchased in the United Stat(>s. 2. Imports imported in bond through the [Jnited St;ites. 3. Imports by sea, via Montreal and (Quebec, under frontier bond; and lastly, imports, coastwise, ot" ])urchiises in Montreal and (inbcc, of whii-h no account is kept. The vahie of imports, as shown by the custom-iiouse, gives an indication of the direct trade only ; none (»!" the im[)ortanee of the consuieption oCthe port.
There are about sixty-eigiil i. ': .■ d j)orls, ot' which about thirty are wari'housing ones. Of these the rade ot" the greater mimber is exI'lusively with the United States, either in donu.'stic or bonded articles. But the niort! important lake ports are vaj)idly establishing a direct trade by sea with the gull" j)orts and the lower colonies, and very probably will soon engage in the fisheries, fi)r which they can lit out and provision at tiie clu a|)est rates.
As lh(! trade between (Janada and the United States is ahuost wholly conducled through the inland ports, a sununary ot" that trade is here given. The imports, as shown by the custom-houses of" each country, are tak(Mi as the true measures i)|"tlie exports ()t"th(> other.
nianul;ietin-es, hardware, suijars, leather and its iiianuliiclnres, colli'C, salt, India-rubber Lroods, hides, niaeliiiiery, liiiils, and wooden ware. (.)! the imports tiotii Canada, Sl,-01Ki,321 worth were received in
l)(tn(l, so that tlic valiK! of (laiiada ptodiii-fi wliicli paid duly was only al)i>iit S I, (iO(>,( )()(), wliilr that of doincstic export to (Canada, on whifli dilti.'s wcif levied, was !l!!5,4!).'i,<S7.'{. The diily levied on iniporls lioiu ('atiada lor l(Sr)l was !jji.'37'},'l!)(l, while that levied on ex|)oHs to ('anada (inehidinij; honch'd ^oo(ls) anionnled to Sl,li)(),9/i().
The principal inland ports upon Lake Krie are Stanley, Dover, T)tK<':s ille, S.iriiia, and Sandwich; on Ontario. Toronto, Hamilton, Kiiiuslon, IJcUeviile, ("ohom'Ui Hope. O.ikville, and Wliithy ; on tho St.. Lawrence, lirockville, I'icscoti, mid (iananoiiue; and in Lower Canad.a, St. John, IMiillipshiiru, and Stanstead.
The population of Toronto has donhlcd in the last ten years, and is now -jO^OOO. ILimilton, now eontainintr 11, 000, has heen e(nially proirrcssive. The imports show their commercial j)roi,M'ess to have heen ci|iiidly rapid; and there can he little doubt that in Upper C'anada tho exj)orl of produce, and the import and coiisimiplion ot" all the suhstantiid and necessary products of civilization, are ;is hiu;h \h-v head as in the hest a_uriciiltural districts ot" the I'niled Slates.
There yet remains oik; route ol" importation to l)i> notii'cd, 'iz : via Hudson's hay and Lak(! Superior. iXearly one-halt" ot" the imports at Sault Sic. Marie are by this route. It is impossible to say what may yet be done in this ijuarter. The distance trom the shores ot Su[)erior
to tliosc of Hudson's l)!iy is no jirrc.ifcf tli.in tluit brtwrrn ihr Hudson river, ai Alb;iny, iirid Ii;dv(' Kiic .-it Hiillidu; .-nid the sra-roiilc lo Biit;ijn is sliorlor lliis wny tliati by llir laUrs mid Mittiln-al, New York, or IJoslori. All the supplies and cxporlM of llic Hudson's Hiiy Company nre carried l)y sea; and altliouiili llie season of miviyalion is very limited, yet il embraces an important put olllie year.
Tile iilxtvc rcldiii is tioiu Cainuliiiii ciisltiiiis, aiul i'xccc(l.«!, in the gr().><.s value, the .'imouiil of iinporls into llic Uriilid Stairs iVfm) Canada, as shown by tin" IJnitrd Siatt-s customs.
In coiiclndin^ tlic notice of the iidand trade, the ti)llo\vinii[ tal)les — showing' tlie nature and extent of the "bonded" export and import between Cinada ;uid other coinilries, made inland via the United States, under the "drawback law" — are snbniitltd:
Tho grealrr vitluc of \\iv inipoits is miidt tliroutrli Boston ; hul. of tlie exports through New York. Whoiit ;iu(l Hour form the principiil :irticlrs of boiulod export. The t()llo\vinir Hh(.)\v.>; C;ui,'i(liaii wheat and lloiu' r(>ccivr<l and cxpoikd ai New York tiir the last lhr(H> yrar.«i:
The liillowinn; rdiuiis, until |Sli), iiichidc ihr export 1o Canada ; alter whieli ;i separate account w ilh Canada was kept, and ihe last three years relia" only to the lower colonies. Jt willhe observed tjiat sinei; |(Sli) the; *' doineslie" expoii ji.is decreased, while the " l()reign" (that is, Canada lloui' in hond) has increased. 'I'hns it will he seen
ihat. in 1849 ilic United States lunii.slK'd for the consumption of the lower colonics more than three times the quantity of Hour lurnLshed by Canada, and that in two years thereafter Canadian /fowr gained the a.scendenc;}'^ ; but, taking wheat and flour collectively, the supply of bread.'^tufls is about eciually divided between tlu; two countries:
Year ending June 30.
liavinir noticed tli(> sea rmd inland trade .separately, a summary and c()ni|)aralive statement of the trailt> of Canada with all countries tor the last ihree years is submitted. The value of exports tf> the United Slates titr .KSol is here taken from Canadian returns, in order to com])ari> with the like values of 18-lLI and 1850, which were taken from the same source.
In nono of the foregoing imports is tho value of railroad iron, &c;.' brought via Qurbec, in transit lor the United States, included. Neither do the exports include! the valuo of sliips built at Quebec and sold in England.
THE PUBLIC WORKS OF CANADA.
There is no country which possesses canals of the magnitude and importance of \hnsv. in Canada. The elevation from tide-water to Lake Ontario (exceeding two hundred leet) is overcome by seven canals of various lengths, from twelve miles lo one mile, (but in tho aggregate (>nly Ibrty-one miles of" canal,) having locks two hi}ndred feet in length l)etween th'* gates, and forty-live leet in width, with an <!xcavated trinik, from one Imndred to one hundred and i()rty wide on tli(! water-surface and a deptli often leet water.
From Lake Ontario to J^ake Erie, an elevation of threes hundred and thirty ll'ct is surniountenl by a canal twenty-eight miles in length, witli .•d)out thirty cut-stone locks one hundred and lifty feet long, by twentysix iuid a half leet wide, designed l()r propellers and sail craft. These locks will pass a craft of about live hundr(^d tons burden, while those on the St. Lawreiiei^ liav(;a capacity iloiible lliis amount.
The St. Lawrence canal was de-iigned for paddU^-steamers, which are recjuired as tugs, or to ascend against the current ; but from the magnitudi* of tlii^ rapids and their r(\gnlar inclination, the aid of the locks is not re(jnired in descending the river. Large steamers, drawing seven feet water, with passengers and tlu; mails, leave the foot of liake Ontario in the morning, and reach the wharv(\s at Montreal b^' daylight, without passing through a single lock. At some of the rapids there* art; obstacles preventing the descent of deej)lv-laden cralt, but the government are about lo give tli(,> main channel in all the rapids a depth of ten leet water, when the whole descenditig trade by steam will keep the river, l(\'iving the canals to the asceiuling craft.
The time rc(|uire(l l!)r the descent of a ireiglit-steamer from the head of Lak(; Ontario to Montreal is i()rty-eight hours; the rates of freight have rangeil iVom twelve and a half cents (the lowest) j)er barrel, H)r Hour, to twenty-live cents, including tolls. The upward trip recpiires about sixty hours, and the freight per ton ranges from $1 50 to $3 f()r heavy goods. The ruling freight on railrf)ad iron last year from Montreal to (Ueveland was $2 50 \wv gross ton, and l()r the return cargo of Hour thirty cents per barrel, tolls included in both cases.
SO niucli inlhicnccd by tho ainount of up-c<iri?o obtained that they raniiot yet b(; considered settled. It is believed that tho (reii^lit. on flour from Lake Erie to Montreal (ineluding tolls) will be brought down to twenty cents, and on iron up to $"2.
'L'hc construction of a ship-canal from the St. Lawrence to L.ike Chinnplnin, so as to bring the propellers of Cliicngo to Burlington and Wliiteh:dl, is now engaging the consideration of tlie Canadian government. This project originated with the Hon. John Young, chief cotntnissioner of public works in C;nuHl:i : and there, is little doubt, from the f;ivor it Ikis received from iIk; j)ul)lic, tliiit it will be speedily necompli.-^luHl. The cost would (»nly be between $^1,500,0U0 and S:^*,<)()0,(>()0, ;md ils construction is iudispensuble to ])rotect the reveinies of the St. LawriMici^ c;inal.s from lht> competition ot" the Ogdensburg iailro;id. Th(^ conslruetion of such a work must produce a corresponding enlargement of thf i\orth(>rn New York canal, wiiereu[)on there will he a connexion between liake Kri(> anil tide-water on the Hudson, via the St. Lnwrence, which mny be n;ivigiited, without transshipment, dowmi'ttid in four, inul ujucanl in live days.
The i-eturns ol" trade on the Canadiim canals give indication ot" decided and satisliictory progress in the leading articles of up and down freight. The receipts ti)r tolls upon tlu; Wtdhind canal in 18/51 are thirly-fhree per cent, higher than in 185U. On the St. Lawrence, [dihough toniKiifi' hiis increased, the (nils have not — the revenue being Ikm'c reduced bv rebat(Mn(Mit of toll on cargoes which have passed the Welland.
The increase is greater than shown by these figures — the colunni fi»r 18.j() being the whole down trade; while that l()r 1801 shows the entrieg at I'ort Colborne only — the whole down trade not being attainable.
l\\]i ;i uiM.st decided prnof of ilic sii<c( ss of the (l;m;i(li;iii t-;iii;ds is lo be lliiiiid in the Ircfincnt ;ind iinporinnt rcdiiclions wjiii-li li;i\c btm riKidc ill llic lolls of llic Kric (mu.'iI .'-iiicr KS4o, the year in wliicji the rid.'iriicd Welhiiid e;iii;il lir.-l came info .sciious conipctilioii willi ihc route tljj-oiinli iJillKilo. 'I'he policy of the Stiite ol' .\e\v York li;is been not onlv lo obtain the bime.st pi).<sible icvi nue fiotii In r e;iii;ils, bill :!ls() to protect lii'r own niniinfieluies ;iijd products .•ij,';iiii.-t ei)iiip( tilioii Ironi oilier (punters ; and this slu' lias bren eiiablid liiibcilo most elii'ctii illv to aeeoniplish, by levying disc i imiiialinir tolls. Tims liireiirn salt was e.vcludfd lidin the westi in States by a raleoft(tl[ about twice its whole value. Tlie toll upon this ailielein IcSd-O was tlilce cents per l,0()Ulbs. [)er mile, or $21 1^ per ton of 2,(K)0 lbs., (about t/mr dollars per barrel;) while the toll ujion iN'ew N'oik State s.ilt was only one-thirteenth part ol' thai upon the ti)reiLj;!i ailicle, in KS4(1, (tin' lirsi year after th<-
opening of the enlarged Welland canal,) the tolls on foreign salt were reduced one-half, and a still greater amount on New York Slate salt. The next year a further reduction of thirty-three per cent, took place ; and in 1850 the toll was again reduced one-half, so that it is now only one-sixth the rate charged in 1845 ; but it is still subject to a tax five times as great as that paid by New York State salt.
In like manner railroad iron, in 1845, paid a loll of nine mills ; in 1846 this was reduced to five mills ; in 1850, to four mills ; in 1851, to two and a half mills ; and in 1852, to one and a half mill. Almost every other article of heavy goods and merchandise for up-freight has likewise undergone frequent and heavy reductions in toll on tlio Erie canal, since the Welland and St. Lawrence came into competition with it.
Eer cent. ; corn and oats, from four and a half mills to two mills ; pork, aeon, lard, and lard oil, from four and a half mills to one and a half mill ; beef, butter, cheese, tallow, beer, cider, vinegar, from f()ur and a half to three mills. Almost every other article of down-freight has undergone like reductions. Likewise the discrimination in favor of pot and pearl ashes and window glass manufactured in New York Stale has been abandoned ; the State retaining only a discriminating toll against salt and gypsum from other States or countries.
There can be no question but that the whole western country would have been annually taxed, boih upon their exports and imports, a much larger amount than is now paid by them, in order to swell the revenue of the Erie canal, had it not been for the healthful competition of tlie Canadian works. As an example : the reduction in the tolls on railroad iron since 1845 amounts to S5 44 per ton of 2,000 lbs. The amount of this iron which reached Lake Erie in 1851 was —
203,660,747
equal to 101,830 tons of 2,000 lbs.; and the reduced toll on this one article would be $553,955 20. It has been estimated by the late Hon. Robert Uantoul, jr., M. C, thiU the northwest will re(]uire 100,000 tons of railroad irou per annum flir the next five years, upon which they will now pay more inan half a million of dollars less, m tolls alone, than tliey would have paid before the enlarged Welland canal was opened.
Again : over 220,000 tons of wheat and flour, and 150,000 tons of corn, from western States, were shipped eastward from Buflalo in 1851, the reduction on the toHs of which amounts to $512,830 from the rates of 1845 ; besides some 185,000 tons of wheat and flour, and 40,000 tons of corn which passed down through the Welland, to the most of wiiich the reduced toll should be applied.
Thus the eastern States, in their imports of three articles from the West, as well as the western ones, in their import of one article from the East, have each obtained a reduction of transit dues amounting to over half a million of dollars, which is mainly to be ascribed to the construction of the ship-canals of Canada.
Ag'iin : tho tolls on tli(> Erio canal upon lobncoo mr linn- tinirs gro!:> . t if "gniiirr yVom tide-water" than it" "going towanr it, by wliicli |M)licy it is hoped to draw this article from the lower Ohio, Missouri, &c., to the east<'rn States and the seaboard through this canal. This discrimination in direction has been al)andoned in respc-et of oilier articles, and will (bllow with tobacco, because no sin)ilar distinctions are made on the Welland.
the Welland canal :
"The diversion of W(\stern trade from Fjullido to Oswego has also considerably alleeted the revenue. While there has been o(),475 tons less of this tiadc entered the canal at liiiffiilo in J.SoO than in 1849, the western tonnage coming in at Osunro has i/icrcasnl by dl,(i()4 tons."
The State engin(>er of New York, in his report of J''<bruary, 1851, urging the necessity of the eidargement of the Krie canal, says that its full capacity will be; reached in lii!')2, and, atier remarking that the cost of transport is on(> and a half cent per ton per mile, says, "There are lines of eommunic:ation now built, and in progress of construction, which can take freight at fi chctiptr latc;^^ and, alter alluding to the Ogd(Misburg railroad, he says, "lUit there is anotlK-r, and L apj)reheed a still cheaper route, Ay wi/frr to Lake (^ham|)lain, soon to come into competition a/ thr Smlli, which will produce as ch(';i|) oi' elieapiT rates to Doston than the above. The licight by ll)at route alloat on hake Champlain may (ind cheaper trans|)ort to New York than to lioston. It will ni>( pass through the Krie canal, aiul will be diverted irom Albany by cheaper routes." Lastly, he says, "Canada and IJoston have not yel peril 'ted all their works. All will soon have their whoh; macliin( ry in motion. Their j)lans art; not the |)roduet oi blindness or I()lly — they are the n'sults of good judgiii' nt and a ju.-t ajjprix'ialion of the great b(toii sought and the best means of attainment."
Quebec in ballast in (juest of timber will bring in coal, iron, slate, salt, and other heavy articles at about half the rates now charged on these articles to New York. While, tlieretJ)re, oecjm freights inward are so much less than at New York, the abundance of timber enhances all other iieights outward to more than double that from New York. The position of the two |)orts is revers<'d : it is the outward voyage which pays at (Quebec, wliih; at N(-'W York Hour has btnai carried uut l()r six pence sterling per barrel to Liverpool.
When the elKict of the rej)cal of the navigation laws brings more vessels into (Quebec than are re(|uire(l t()r timber, outward ireigiits trom the lakes may pour down the St. Jjawrence, and tin; rates of Ireight come down to a slantlard which will make the whole cost of shipincnt from the lakes to Europe via the St. Lawrence as liivorable as via
THE MAODALEN ISLANDS.
This group of islands occupies a prominent position, almost in the centre of tin; (julf of St. Lawrence, and directly in the track of vessels hoiuul up tlu' gulf fi)r Quehijc. Including the Bird and Brion islands, which evidently l<)rnj part of the grou{), the whole length of the range is about fifty-six miles in an east-northeast direction.
Amherst island, the most soutlu-rn of the chain, is nearly oval, nearly six miles in length, and three and a half in extreme width. Its harhor is tlu! best in the chain, with a narrow hut straight entrance, over a soft oo/e bar, lor vessels drawing eleven to twelve teet water. This island is eighteen leagues northwest of Cape Breton; the same northward of I'riuee Kdward island. It is thirty-six leagues iiom the nearest point of Newtiauidland, seventy-live leagues Irom the French settlements at St. I'ierrt! and Mi([uelon, and one hundred and eighty leagues eastward of (^u( bee.
Th(^ central portions of the Magdalen islands rise into hills, varying from two hinidied t(» five hundred and eighty ll^et above the sea, their tops are round(Ml. On the sides of lliest; hills are l()un(l stratified deposites of sandstones and ochreous clays, with gyj)siun iu the hollows and basins, and also occasionally in veins.
ants, the majority of whom are French Acailians.
Till! fisheries around the Magdalen islands are very excellent, and aflord a prolilable return t(» the industry of those who proseeute them. If arrangements wert! entered into by wiiieh our eiti/ens could have the right of selling up fishing stations on these islamls, and of prosetouting the various jaolilie fisheries in tlie surrounding seas, it would be of very great advantage lo lln;m, and open a wide field fitr their energv and enterprise". They would also gain the early and late fisheries, from which they are now debarred, whose advantages have been already mentioned.
These islands were; fi)rmerly attached to the government of Newfoundland, but at present they are under the jurisdiction of the Canadian government. The whole group was granted by the British government to Admiral Sir Isaac (yoflin, \i. N., fi)r distinguished services; by him they were becpiealhtMl in strict entail lo his ni-pliew, ('aptain John Townsend C'oHin, R. N., the present propriilor, and to his heirs male lt)rever.
The valii(> of the various products of ilu> fisheries exi)orlrd iVom the Magdalen islands iu 1848 was l$J2-l, 000 ; but it is believed that this did not include large (juanlitics of such j)roduct3 curried off iu fishing
vessels not cleared at the custom-house. But even the amount mentioned is quite large as compared with the population, and furnishes K roof of the bountiful abundance of the fisheries in the vicinity of the [agdalens, which need only the preserving industry, energy, and skill of our fishermen to be rendered a mine of wealth.
ITS — ffJo-. ©i--^ai©muidoan^««-^iO© ©o>ote'*j(N'-<«o©-"Oioc5©«at~©mi^ i-<"CO«i(n5«*»SicO(M<-ii3wa6<cr»aba>(7>
826,688
The returns of oxpdrls from inland ports to otlior countrio!* llian tlio United States are very (ioul)tt'ul. None are reported from Tiironto, tiio larnoHt inland ]>orf. Witli respect to the route of sihIi ex|>orts, it in premnued they were made via the St. LawrtMiee : in whirh rase thev should he ineliidt'd in those of Montriial orQnehee. Hut as these; exports were ohtaincd fron\ the liead otlieo, it i.s to he interred that they arn direet exports from inh.nd ports not included elsewhere. It is possihie a portion of them may have Iwen cxpurti d inland, in bond, tlir(jui>h the I nited States, although all such exports are said to be reported as " to tlio Lnited States."
8,788,712 24,006,028
Tlie larijn amount of " nnenumeMtcd" values renders this statement hut approximate, becaiisi' the I'tiumcration of sea imports is much fuller than those inland, where, at some jiorts, no enumeration of articles is made.
f/ 'J -t '-T •* 'J CI '£> -r CI •■£ '£> '-- T ■^ *r ^ *i T « c» f/-. ■^ re fT) -f CD ;i c* *i 5. ^ t- — •.' / Ci n ->? u* -I* r '.c e (?i -M — Ci ?! -^ ^ -r ci ri -t - CI 5k ^ ?i = Ti t* — I- I- *- / '^ r: v: 'X <T. ^ ^ " f 1 1- '.c o>
80,912,816
The exp rl- ■,( iiil.in.l |).irl.s eenipiise mily 111.' vain,- expnileil inlaiiil Id .lie I'nile.l Sl:i(n; ail •■xpnrls from inland imri.- il j.mi Ii,- Si. I.iwr.oee. wliellier to Miiiitc.Ml ami (im liee, oi' lo sea ilii-eel, are tail ri ported, except at llie .seapiiii ■ .'f M.i.it.eal and ()ii. I>; e. TIim r. irola iim li.is, iu a f, w in^lain-,'*, lu -ii inl; iiit.'ed.
Ill Itir al.iiV ■ r ■! 1, 'I III,' v.iliii' of (,'.iad< iiiipiirO' I in tr iii-i' I'.ir llu' I'oit.'d st.ilei vi.i Si. I, iwrenee (valued at t7,"i(i,iiilii ill 1- il 1 i> iait inelol.'d, neillii'i- the v iln.' nl' >.liip-< leiilt at tj'i.li a; lor - ih' in Kii^-'aml, v,ilii,.| .at aPout tl,4ol,' (111 III : -M ; wlii.'li itr'HH will i;ive :iii aildiiiim lo Hie trade of liucbec ol $2,20I.I,(.'UU I r ISjl, and of cuurBC Uie name aildi i..:i i,i tlie wliolu trade of Canada for tliut year.
States imports from Canada.
It will be seen at the bottom that there is a " direct export " from inland ports, which was neither to the United States nor from Montreal and Quebec. It is to be presumed that this was a cnr^ro sent to sea from inland ports and nut reported at Montreal or Queliec, although such report is compulsory on all inland crai\ proc'ieding to sea.
-rt03 C-»c»OC*X'!'0C(X)Oto»-r(r»-r<S CI a-, o J- 'vc r; o uo "Tix c» — CI I - c •-» I- to (t-< CI s .5; CI 'T to CO •» CO " — X CO " "-1 ^ I- (M
O O ■» "J* coo O •^ « CJ O CI CO 'M fX) O C< CI iO TO C 3 — I - 3 O". >0 'Q ^ M •* C» C) 'O "^ »r « 1.^ O t I* CO
c> •* CO -t t TO to s 'ja CI cj CI o CO m X i."5 CO "'■ 3 'O -r '*: C5 1^ i.t co ^r-l r-i -r o = "rt co vo -^ 'O c»s irs -^ ^
No. I(). — (hiirral stdtrmciit Hhomiifr imports into the port of Sni' CutH-fe^ ilistrict of (iaxf><\ for tin: ijntr nidinff Jtiinidrij .0, \Hh'2, ilislininii^hinff lliv <i)Uiitrii'( from irluncv, iiiid thr roi/fr Inj ir/iirh imimrtrd.
No. 17. — Abstract of the trade of the port of Quebec, shoimig the ships aiid tonnitge emidoyed, and the relative value of the. imports, distinguishing foj-eigii goods from goods (f British produce and manufacture, during the year ended January 5, 1852.
2, 741, GOO
•Tl;c value opposite forcii^n places, except tlic I'nited States, is that whirli was entered for homo coiisiiniptiDii. The balance of $')j,;!l-t was placed in Ihf! wareiioiiRii, for \vhich Uo Hcparate dt l.iil was kej)!.
No. 18. — A''Stract (f th'' trade (f thr purl of Quebec, showing the ships and fi'nnagr fmofoi/ed and (hr riht!:re rohir cf thr rxporls. distinguishing foreign grinds finnt gii:ids of British produrr and nianujiic/urt , during the year ruded December 31, 1851.
No. 20. — General slatcineiit showing the mpnrts inlo the port of Quebec for the year ending January 5, 1852, distinguishing the countries from whence and the route by which imported.
'N •f CI O «0 to 'XHO I?! "!C ■«* r-< ;j I- cv CT) I- >— I- riv O (Tl ' 5 (7} * -r Ol to .)0 ir: — 1 CI
CI rr »* 3 T' CI tP O Tf to »l< -r; CI CI to 7: irj -< ;o -r CO O 31 cc irs c; 00 o lO o -1" lO o
O'TOC'rtociCiCfccito-ropo-rs'C-ciQC-'Eooiteao'X) *to^^^Ji^:coo— •»^-•-•ClCl•^-^■^^coStc^^cilOC»;•^•>l• o CO 1 ~ CO '.0 to CO r^ — 1 'O CO — — — cr. -^ '-'j a> --r to to no ifl c»
QCjCIOtOOOOOtOOOC>'*"*'^C»OCMOO 00 f : -"r (^ O w to I- CM CO to CM O CO e» irt 00 If: "I T to (?l ■-• CO 1" O «- O 1— 1 CJ 'T rl o
CM«»>ODOO'»"X"r.cICItOtOtO »r ir>tOOCMO0Dtao-*-«»"Ct.'M0DCJOtOO'«» (T. 'X)00Oat)O!0X)C032i0C0C0 00 QOCO»CJtOOiO-n'-rOO'-''-iSCOCtCOOOO ■- - - O CO -Xr. ».0 to S ir, J3 f- Ol tt C) to O O -* '3' C-l — CM
In nrldition to llio Ibrcf^'oin^', \hv. following goods wore exportrl in Ibrcign .sliii)S IVoni tliis port, wliich vessels proceeded to QucIxm; toclfnr outwiird, under a lic«Mise grunted in virtue of an order of his exeelleney tlie (JoviMuor (Jeneral, in couneil, of the 23(1 F<'!)ru.'iry, 1850, and whose cargoes will consecjuently be included in the exports from that port :
No. 31. — Ahstrnrt of mnrhandisr rccd red from the frontier districts adjfAiiin<r Cunudii, and rc-ivti rehoused in the district if Boston and C/uirlestinnu iliirintr the year 1S')1.
JN'ip 3(!. — Flour find n-hn/r, thr mod tire of Cunodii, exported fnm the port (f y>iie Yorl /o the British oihinits, cj;;., in 1851 ; <ind also tin ndiir of all other Cdudilii produce ixpori'd to the colonies and to iSreat Britain, ^v.
No. 37. — Statement of the value ami (pianlili/ of Canadian four and grain rtceind in bond at the port (f }\\ie York, and the value and ijuanfity exported, during the year J 85].
Nt). 40. — Sfatemcnt shmring the niativr. (imouiU of business dour, in Aim I'lin and Canadimi irssels at the u/idmnciitiovrd. American jmrts, at ii'hich sqiarate slatemtnls ham been oUaiiud, in 18.50.
This province is .situnlo hrtwceii Cuiud.i and Nnvri dentin, iiiid abuts on tlic nortlir.istcni hoiiiidar}' of the United t^Uites, upon tli(! line huely esl;d)lislied under llie Aslil)urt(»n treaty. To the southward it is boiindt-d l)y the Bay of Kundy, and is separated from Nova Scotia by fi l)oundary line across the narrow isthmus which connects Nova Scotia with the continent of America. On tlie northeast New Brunswick is bounded by the dull" of St. Lawrence and the Bay of Chah'ur; it is divided from ('ana<hi l)y a hue which l{)llows tiir some distance the liirty-ninth parallel df north latitude.
'['he area of N(,'w Bnuiswick is estimated at ncariv !wenty-tW(.) millions of acres; its po[)ulafion, by a icnsus taken during the year 1851, is a little oV(T one hundred and nine tv-three thousand souls.
The Lrrcat aj^riculiural capabilities of New Brunswick, and its fittiess ti)r settlement and cultivation, are only now beu;i[uiing to be known. The conunissioners a|)pointe(l by the im|)erial government to survey the line ti)r a proposed railway tiom Halifax to (Quebec, thus speak of New Brunswii'k in tlicii' report:
"Of the clitnate, soil, and capabilities of Nt;w Brunswick, it is impossible to s[)eak too liighlv. There is not a country in the world so iteautifully wooded and watt-red. An inspection of the map will show that there is scareelv a si't-tiuii of it without its streams, from the running brook up to the navigable river. 'I'wo-thirds of its boundary arc washed bv the sea: the reinaiudci- is embraced by the Iru'ge rivers, the St. John and the Kestigouche. The beauty and richness of s(;en(Ty of this latter river, antl its branches, are rarely surpassed by anything on this conlineiu.
''The lakes ot" New Brunswick are numcMous and most beautiful; its surface is undulating — hill and d.ile — varying up to mountain and valley. It is rvcrywherc, except a !-'W peaks of the highest mountains, covered with a dense l()rest iit'the 'inest growth.
"The e(»uutry can every\\ heie be penetrat<-d by its streams. In some [)arts of the interior, by a j)ortage of" three or four miles only, a canoe can Hoat away either to the Bayof Chaleur or the Gulf of St. Lawrence, (»r down to St. John and the Ba^ of Fuudy. The countjy is by them — and most deservedly so — highly praised.
" Tlic rivcr.s, l;iki\«, and sfju'oasl uli. .* ;'! v. .li fish. Along llic May ofClialcur it is so abundant thai llu! luuo sujcJls «»*' it. It is usi d as u niaiuuc; and, while the olliictory senses oftlie ir.'iveller are (iflincN d i)y it oti llie land, lie sees <iul at ;i( a inunense sh( als daiKening the surlaec of the water."
Tliis description of New IJiunswiek is civen in an olliiial report propented hy two very intelliju;ent ollieers of tlie royal eD^'iaeers, wlio were sent out tioii) Knuland lo ,-urvey llie proposed railway route, and exnniine tin i-onnlry through wliieh it would pass. They returned to En;.dand at the closo of llieir labors, the results of which were laid ho l()re Parliament.
The prineipal river (jf New Brunswick is the St. John, which is four hundred and fifiy niilcs in leiiylh from its mouth, at tin* harhor of t?t. John, to its s()urc(\-i, at the iM( tjarmeile portage. It is uavigahle for vessels ot one hundred ions, and steamers of a large class, lot ninety miles from the si.'a, to l''re<lericton, the seat of goveriunent. Above Frederieton small steamers ply to Woodstock, sixty miles liutli( r up the river; and i;ecasionally they make trip.-- to the entrance of the 'robupie, a farther dislaiK.'e ot" liiiy miles. The (Jiand Falls of llie 8l- .lolm ino two hundred and twenty-live uiiN s from the sea. Above these tails the river has been navigated by a steamer liaty miles, t(t the inoutii of the river Madawa^ka, and I'rom that point the river is navigabh; tt)r boats anil canoes almost to its sourci-s. TIk; Madawaska river is also navigable for small steamers thirty miles, to Lake Temiscouata, a sheet of wai'T twenty-seven miles long, troni two to six miles wide, and of great depth llndugliont. From the upper part ot this lake to the river St. Lawrence, at Trois Pistoles, is about eighteen miles only, and propositions hav(; been made i(»r establishing a communication between the St. Lawrence antl the .St. John, either by railway or canal, across this route.
In connexion with the St. John is the (irand lake, the entranci- to which is about fifty miles I'rom the sea. This lake is thirty miles in length and from three to nine miles in width. Around the (irand lake an- several Wi/ikable seams ot" bituminous coal, from which coaJs are raised li)r honic consumption ii\u\ liu' exportation.
|i)r vessels of the largest i-lass. 'J'he rist: and tiill of tide is from tW( niyone to iwenlylive llci, and thire is a liile-tiiU at the head of the harbor which ellectually prevents its being i-ver fro/en over or in the least imp( (led by ice during winler. Few liarbors on the nortlRaslern coast of North America, if any, are so pertt'ctly t"ri'(3 trom ice as .St. John harbor. It is in latitude 4-0"^ Hi' north, longitude (iO^ 4' west.
The l'eii(.-oiliac is a large river lluwing into the iJay ol" Fundy, near its northeastern extremity, ll is navigable liir vessels of any si/.e liir iwi'niy-live miles I'nnn its mouth, and tor schooners of sixty or eighty >ns l(»r twelve miles farther. On tlic lower j)arl of this river a very
ll itT black
nnd brilliant, liii»lily iiillaiimiablc, iiml yields a large (|unntily of a'ls of ^reat, illiiinilialiii;n jJoNver. Tlic se;iiii id worked al tour uii.es from llie bunk of Pelieoiliac river, ^vlu re ii is navigable ll»r e .n-yelng vessels of larqe elas.s.
tain Uaylield, |{. N., marine surveyor in the (julf of St. Lawrence, says llial Sliediac- harbor is the easiest of access and egress on thi> part ot the eoa.>t, and ihe only harbor ol'IS'c w nrunswiik, ( astward of Miraniiclii, which a vcs.^cls in distress eould SMiily run lt)r in lieavv m rtla i iy gales as a harl)or of rel'uge. Two rivers fall into Slicdua; haibur, which is (list becoming a place of impoitruice. Should the pr('pi'.-((l railway Irom St. John to llaliliix be consirucU'd, ii will loiicli llie gul! at Shediac, which will thus command a large trade as one (W itie gn.ai turuing-jioiiiis of ihe railway.
t'lidii^iic /iii/l)'>f is te;i miles by die coast, northwardly, (iom Shcdiat harbor. W'ilhin this harbor, which is al the mouth of a river ol tiu' same name, there is abuiidaiiee anclioiaue in live faihoms water.
Ihiitonchr liarhir is at the mouth of the tlreal and Little Buctomho rivers, nine miles by the coast iiorthw;irdly of Cocagtu". ForuK rly lh( re was only twelve li'cl ot' water on the bar al the entrance lo tins harbor, but, owing to some uuexplaiiuil cause, the water has grailually deepened of lai(^ years, and now vessels drawing thirteen fcit liave gone over the bar. There is nna'li valual)le limber on the banks of this rivi r, and vessels uj) lo llfutii hundred tons burden have been built at Huctouche.
Twenty miles north of' Bnetouelie is linhUiuctn /uu/i'ir, which is extensive, sati', and commodious. The livcr is navigable ti)r V( sscls of large si>,e upwards of liticeii miles from the gulf, the ehanni'l for that distance being from t()ur to six llithoms in depth. The lidc Hows up the rivcj- twenty-live miles. The sliij)mi'nts of limber and deals frcin
The extensive harbor of Minnnlc/ti is formed by ihe estuary ot' the beautJiiil riviM- ol' that name, which is two hundred and twc-nty milt s in leiiirth. At its entrance into ihe gulf this river is nine miles in width.
V miles
of that distance, there being fn>in live to eight tiithoms waler in ihc channel; but sclujoners and small craft can proce«'d nearly lo the head of the tide. Owing to the size and dc])lh of tlu' 3iiraiuichi, ships can
extensive, and will undoubtedly annually increase.
At the northeastern extremity of New Brunswick, just within the entrance of the Bay of Chaleur, is the spacious harbor of Great Shippigan, which comprises three large and commodious harbors. Besides Its facilities for carrying on ship-building and the timber trade, Shippigan harbor offers great advantages for prosecuting the fisheries on the largest scale. The general dryness of the air on this coast, and the absence of fog within the Gulf of St. Lawrence, are peculiarly favorable to the drying and curing of fish, in the best manner, for distant voyages. Owing to the erection of steam saw-mills at Great Shi|<|»igan, and the extensive fishery establishments set up there by Jersey merchants, there is considerable foreign trade. The dry fish are chiefly shipped in bulk to Messina and Naples, for which markets tliey are w«^ll suited.
Litt/c Shippigari harbor lies between the islands of Mescou and Shippignn. It is an exceedingly good harbor, being well sheltered, with safe anchorage in deep water. The main entrance is from the Bay of Chaleur. It is half a mile in width, witii eight fiithoms at low water, which depth is maintained well into the harbor. This is not a place of any trade, but it is greatly resorted to by American fishing vessels which frequent tlie Gulf and the Bay of Chaleur, as it affords them perfect shelter in bad weather. There are great conveniences finfishing establishments in this fine harbor ; and it would afford great facilities and advantages to our fishermen if they were permitted to land and cure their fisli upon its shores.
Bathurst harbor is within the Bay of Chaleur, which in itself may be considered one immense haven ninety miles in U^ngtli, and varying in breadth fW)m fifteen to thirty miles. It is remarkal>le that within the whole length and breadth of the Bay of Chaleur there is neither rock, reef, nor shoal, and no impediment whatever to navigation.
The entrance to Bathurst harbor is narrow; but wiihin, it is a beautiful basin, three miles and a half in length and two miles in breiidth, well sheltered from eveiy wind. In \\\v [)riiieipal channel there is about l()urteen f(;ct at low water. Vessels drawing more than foiirteen feet usually take ip part of their cargoes outsi(I(> the bju-, where there IS a safe roadstead, with deep water, and good holding-ground.
No less than tour rivers fall into Balliurst harbor, each of which lurnisfies much good timber. Ship-building is prosecuted in this iiiubor to some extent; and there is a considerable export of timber and deals to England and Ireland.
The entrance to the lintigonchr, at the head of the Bay of Chaleur, is three tniles in width, with nine tiitlioms wafer — a noble entrance to a noble river. The main branch of the Rf'stigouche is over two hundred miles in length. Its Indian name signifies " the river which divides like the hand," in allusion to its sej)araiion al)ove the tide into five principal streams, or branches. These drain at least f()ur thousand square niiles of fertih; country, abounding in timl)(;r and other valuable natural resources, the whole of which nuisl find their way to the sea through the port of Dalhousic, at the entrance to the llestigouche. A crescent-siiaped cove in front of the town of Dulhounic is well sheltered,
sheltered,
and has good holding-ground for ships in nine fathoms water. There are capital wharves and excellent and safe timber ponds at Dalhousie, affording every convenience for loading ships of the largest class.
From Dalhousie to Campbellton the distance by the river is about eighteen miles. The whole of this distance may be considered one harbor, there being from four to eight fathoms throughout in the main channel, which is of good breadth. At Campbellton the river is about three quarters of a mile in width. Above this place the tide flows six miles, but large vessels do not go farther up than Campbellton.
The country watered by the Restigouche and its branches is yet almost wholly in a wilderness state, and nearly destitute of population ; but its abundant and varied resources, and the size and character of this magnificent river, must hereafter render the northeastern portion of New Brunswick of great consequence.
121,996
The tullowing tables and statements are given with the view of showing the trade of the port of St. John, and of the v.-irious other seaport.>j ot New Brunswick, during the years J 850 and 1851 :
/■art of the trade of the port of St. Joha, showing the. ships and tonnage . ipliiijcd, and the relative value of the imparls, distiiiguisliing forcigti goods from goods of British produce and manufacture, during the year
No. 2.
Abstract of the trade cf the 'port of St. John, showing the ships and tonnage cleared outward, and the relative value of the exports, distinguishing foreign goods from goods of British produce and manyfacture, during the year
Abstract of the trade of the port of St. John, showing the ships and tonnage entered inward, and the reJoliiv value of the imports, dift in guishing foreign goods from goods of British irroduce and manufacture, during the year
Abstract of the trade of the port of St. John, showing the ships and tonnngc cleared outward, aiidthc relative value of the exports, distinguishi7>g foreign goods from goods of British produce and manufacture, during the year ending December 31, 1851.
Total exports 2,185,495 2,570,130 Increase, 384,635
The following is an account of tlie timber and lumber cut on American terrilor}', and lloatt-d tlown the livcr St. John, whicii was exported to the United States under ecriilicate of origin, in the years 1850 and 3851, with their estimated value :
the year
From the foregoing, it will be seen that the export to the United States of American timber and lumber, cut on the upper St. John, and shipped through the port of St. John, has very nearly doubled within the last year, and is understood to be annually increasing.
The following is an account of the principal articles of colonial produce, growth and manufacture, exported to the United States from the port of St. John, N. B., during the year ended 31st December, 1851, with their value :
125,080
The total vnhic of the hkc description of articles exported from the port ol" St. John to tlu' Llnitinl States in 1850, was $157,695; showing a decrease of that class of exportalions to the extent of $32,615 in the
The following is a statement in detail of tlie various articles, the growth, produce, or manufacture of the United States, imported into the port of St. John during the year 1850, with the value of each description of articles :
From the two preceding tables it will be seen that llie value of imorts from the United States at the port of St. John in 1850 was 1,120,582; and in 1851 was $1,422,930; showing an increase in the latter year of $302,348.
An examination of these tables will also show that the imports of coals and limber at St. John from the United Slates, both in 1850 and 1851, fjir exceeded the value of similar articles exported to the United States in those years.
The (|iianlily of coals of colonial produce cxijorled to the United States from St. John in 1850 was only 65 tons, while in that year the quantity of coals imported from the United Slatf-s at the same port was 2,321 toius. The coals exported were of the soft, bituminous description, wliilc tliose importe(l were anihraeiU!, the use of which in this colony li)r steamboats and ffxindries, and also l()r domestic use, to wiiich they have not yet been applied, would be largely increased if they were importetl free of duty. In 1851 tin; coals exported amounted to 105 toii.s, and the import from the Unitt-d St;it(!S to 1,816 tons.
It will also be observed that New Brunswick imj)orts iVom the United Slates large (juantities of pitch-pine and other timber which are in much retpiest l()r ship building and oth(;r ))urposes. In 1851 no less than 4,2'.^S ions of pitch-pine timber, valued vit $20,290, was imported at St. Joini from the United States. The demand t()r pilch-pine, o;d\, locust, hickory, and ])lack walnut, non(^ of which are l()un(l in New Brunswick, would be greatly increased if they were tree of duly; and various oilier descriptions of wood tin* cabinet work would also be sought alter under the like circumstances.
The coals and timber of New Brunswick and the United States, dilK-ring, as they do, so widely in character and uses, may he fairly exchanged with each other, each liavnig its own jXH-uliar advantages for certain purposes.
The iiuiiilxr of vessels belonging to the United Stales which entered at the p(»ii of Si. John during the year 1851 was 02, of the burden of 37,308 Ions. The largest of these vessels took cargoes of timber and deals iVom Si. Joiai direct to ports in the rniled Kingdom, earning fair freight. The nunilxr so employed in 1851 was 41, ot the burden of 29,831 tons. The remaining 51 vessels, of the burden of 7,477 tons, were em[)loyed in voyages between St. .lolin and the United States.
38,960
Of the new ships built at St. John in 1851, tiiurteen, measuring 10,332 tons, wen; for owners in the United Kingdom, and twenty-one others, of the burden of 11,398 tons, were sold and transtiTred toother ports during the ycai". This amounts to 21,730 tons of shipping ex-
A great improvement in the model and finish y i New Brunswick ')uilt ships lias taken j)lace within a tew years, and thfir value has tiiereby been greatly augmented in the English market. Larch timber, better known by its loeal nam* s <({' haekmatac or tamarack, is now chiefly used in the construction fJ' the New lirunswiek ships; nnd this wood has been so greally a|)proved, that in 18/)0 tin; eonaiiiitee of underwriters at Jj1o\ d's deeidcd to admit haekmatac vessels to the red star class ti)r six years. This year tiie same eommittee has further resolved to a(hnit these vessels to the seven-years class- The restilution runs thus:
' Haekmatac, tamarack, juniper, and larch, of good quality, fre<> from sap, arul not grain-cut, will be allowed in the constructien cf ships in the seven-years class, fi)r the ti)llowing parts: Floors; lirst, second, and third tJx'i-hooks and top-timbers; stem and stern post; transoms, knight-head-, hawse-tinilx-rs, apron, and dea.<l-W(K)d."
The nuiiiher of vessels i)elon(fing to the j)ort of St. .John on the 31st day of December, bSoO, was /i.'J.O, of the burden of J)9,4i)0 tons. On the 31st day of December, 18.'j1, the number was filH, of ihe burden of 94,810 tons; the dec-rease is attributed to a number of old vessels being sold during 18.0).
The total arnouni of shipping owned at the ixirt of Mirarnichi on the 31st day of l)<'e(inl)er, 1851, was 93 vessels — 7,4(iG tons. During 1851, the numl)<r of new vessels built on the gulf coast of New Brunswick was tweiitv-oiie, measuring 11,879 tons; of these lour were over 1,000 tons each, and five were over 700 tons each.
Of the imports at Miramichi in 1851, goods and merchandise from the United States, of similar descriptions to those imported at St. John, were received to the extent of $47,435.
23,255
In the year 1850 five American ships, of the burden of 2,273 tons, took cargoes of timber and deals from Miramichi to London ; and in 1851, six American ships, of the burden of 2,954 tons, also took cargoes to the United Kingdom from this port, under the provisions of the British navigation laws.
At the port of Dalhousie the value of imports in 1851 was $128,570; of exports, $152,015. There were 28,202 tons of pine timber exported to the United Kingdom in 1851. The shipping returns at this port are as follows : Inward, 108 vessels — ^21,774 tons ; outward, 102 vessels— 23,666 tons.
The v;ihir of imports into the port of St. Joliu and its outbays from the United States in J 851 was $1,530,900, heiiig an int:rea.se on the prece(hn<ij yar of $3()5,0()0. Fnlly one-third of all the imports into New Btunswielv are drawn trom the United Stales, and the -lount would be greatly increased under more liberal arrangements.
The lltllowiiig statement of the extent and \n\\\v of ili(> New Brunswick lisheri<'s in the liay of Fundy is from an oHi.ial document, compil(>d willi ureal care, in I.SoO, by a gentleman who, in lliat year, was appoinied to visit and inspect the various fishing staiions and establishments in the bay :
Gnniif MdiKiii. — At this island there are twenty-l!)ur fishing vessels, with two liiiudred and ninely-()ne men ; an«l ninety-fi>ur boats, with two hundred and eighty-two men. The precise (juaiitilits of cod, pollock, hake, haddock, and herrings arc not .stated, but the total catch is estimated at $;.J7,500.
Campo liillo. — At this island there are eleven fishing vessels, with fittytwo m<'n; fifty boats, with one hundred men; and Uvenly-one weirs, attended by on(> hundred www. The catch of all these in 1850 is thus stated : 5,340 (|uintals of pollock, 1,750 quintals of cod, 5,100 barrels of herrings, 480 barrels of mackerel, 150 barrels o\^ pickled haddock
West Isles. — At this group of islands (in the immediate vicinity of the boundary, ni'ar Kaslport) there arc twenty-seven fishing vessels, with one hundred and fifty-six men ; two hundred boats, with five liundred men ; and sr'ven weirs, attended by thirty-fiv(; men. The catch of these hi 18.00 is thus stated: 20,800 (juintals of {)ollock and hake, 3,750 ((uinlals of cod, 3,500 barrels of lieniiiys, 800 barrels of pickled cod and liaddock, 450 barrels of oil, and 5,000 boxes of smoked herrings. Total valuf!, $51,000.
Harhnr of St. John. — In this harbor there are about two hundred boats and five hundred men employed in the fisheries. The catch of 1850 is thus stated: 40,000 salmon, (expr)ried to Boston, &c., fresh, in ice,) 14,000 barrels of alewives, and 1,200 barrels of shad. Total value, $100,000.
CumlMiioiid bay. — In the northeastern arm of" the Bay of Fundy, known as Cumberhmd bay, there are two hundred and thirteen fishing boats, with fiv<! hundred and tw(;nty men. 'I'he catch of 1850 is thus stated : 4. 100 barrels of shad. Value, $24,000.
At various smaller stations on the bay shore the fisheries for shad, salmon, herrings, cod, pollock, hake, mid haddock, were, in 1850, estimated at the value of $10,000.
already noticed.
From its mouth, at the harl>()r of St. John, in the Bay of Fundy, to its source, at the Meijarmiitte portage, in the highlands which separate Maine and Canada, its length, us already stated, is f()ur hundred and fifty miles.
From the sea to the Grand Falls, the distance, ms bel()re mentioned, is about two hundnul and twenty-live miles ; up to that point, the river runs exclusively within British territory. Ahout three mih's above the falls, till' (hm north line from the monument at the source! of the St. Croix strikes the river St. Jolin ; from thence the boundary between Maine and New Brunswick is fi)und in the middli' eliaunel or deepest water ot" llu^ river, up to the St. Francis, a (.listauee of seventy-five miles. In this distance the right bank of the St. John is within the Slate of Main(>, and the h ft bank in the province of New Brunswick.
From the mouthofthc St. Francis to a point on the southwest branch of the Si. John, where the line run under the treaty of Washington intersects that branch, the distance is one hundred and twelve niih's ; and tor that entire distance tlie river St. John is wholly within the State of Maine.
From the point just mentioned, to the monument at the source of the river on the Metjarmette portage, the distance is about thirty-eight miles. The right bank of the river only is in Maine, the left bank being within the province of Canada.
It is therefore apparent that nearly one-half of the extensive river St. John is within the [Jnited States, whose citizens thus become greatly interested in its navigation. Besides the main stream of the St. John, there are also largo tributaries, some of them wholly, and others partially, within the State of Maine ; and it has been estimated that there are one thousand three hundred miles of navigable water in the St. John and its tributaries, to be used in common by British subjects and American citizens.
The territory watered by the St. John and its tributaries comprises nine millions of acres in New Brunswick, about two milUons in Canada, and six millions in ihe United States.
most useful and valuable descriptions.
After the settlement of the boundary, by the treaty of Washington, in 1842, it was divided in nearly equal proportions between the States of Maine and Massachusetts, each of which has since sold a number of townships for lumbering purposes, and granted permits for the like object to a large extent.
The whole of the timber and lumber cut within this district (with the exception of a small quantity wliich is floated down the Penobscot) finds its way to the seaport of St. John. On being shipped from thence, it has been subject to an export duty, since the 1st May, 1844, at the Ibllowing rates : on every forty cubic feet of white pine timber, twenty cents ; on every Ibrty cubic feet of spruce timber, fifteen cents ; and the same on every t()rty cubic feet of hackmatac, hard-wo<Kl timber, masts, or spars ; and the sum of twenty cents on every thousand superficial feet of saw-logs, sawed lumber, or scanthng.
This export duty is paid by all timber and lumber alike in New Brunswick, and in every part of the province. It was imposed in consequence of tlie (lilFiculty and expense of collecting stump.ige in New Brunswick ; and in tlie local act which first passed in that colony all timber and lumber cut by American citizens, within the limits ot the United Slates, and floated down the river St. John, was expressly excepted from its operation. But, upon its opinion of thtj law officers of the Crown in England, this act did not receive the royal assent, because it was held that such an exception was contr;>ry to the letter and the spirit of the treaty of Washington, which expressly provides by its 3d article "that aU the produce of the forest, in logs, lumber, timber, boards, staves, or shingles, or of agriculture not being manufactured, grown on any of those parts of the State of Maini^ watered by the river St. John, or by its tributaries— of which fact reasonable evidence shall, if r<M|uired, be produced — shall have free access into and through the said river, and its said tributaries having their source within the State oi' Maine, to and from the seaport at the mouth of the said river St. John, and to and round the falls of said river, either by boats, rafts, or other conveyance;" ^Uhnt when within the province of New Brunswick, the said jmxlucc shall be dciilt with as if it were the produce of said province.''^
The refusal of the Crown to assent to the colonial act was based upon the principle that neither the legislature of New Brunswick nor the imperial government had either the right or the power to make any dis-
tinction between the produce of the United States floated down the river St. John and the produce of New Brunswick. If it were once conceded that a distinction could be drawn, such distinction could be carried out so as to operate very disadvantageously upon American produce. The British government in such case might maintain that such timber and other articles in the United States floated down the St. John were subject to foreign duty on importation into England, while similar articles from New Brunswick were admitted at a nominal duty only.
After this construction of the principle of the treaty, the legislature of New Brunswick passed a second act rendering all timber and lumber exported from the province alike subject to the export duty ; and this act has been in operation since May 1, 1844.
given may be safely slated at two million of dollars.
In any agreement tor the free navigation of the St. John by citizens of the United States, it should be stipulated that their lumber cut within American territory, and floated down the St. John, should not be subject to export duty if shipped from thence to tlie United States. Such a stipulation would only be just and lair, and would relieve our citizens from the payment into the treasury of N(!W Brunswick of the large sums they now contribute annually toward the support of the government of that colony.
All the limber which floats down the Si. John is collected in one boom. Each piece is clearly and distinctly marked, and can be immediately recognized by its owner ; if not so marked, it is forfeited to the Boom Company. Crown officers are appointed to examine the whole of the timber which comes down the St. John, and that which is cut within the limits of the United Stales is readily recognised by them. There could, therefore, be no difficulty in identifying such timber and lumber when shipped, and in relieving it from export duty, if an agreement to that effect should be entered into between the respective governments.
The St. John is navigable by large steamers and by sea-going vessels of 120 tons, up to Fredericton, which is eighty miles from the Bay of Fundy. In 1848 Fredericton was created a port of entry, and in 1851 two vessels entered there from Boston. It is staled that not
and Frinlericton by steamers in 1851.
Above Fredericton the river is navigable lor small steamers to Woodstock, a distance of sixty-five miles, and from ihence to Grand Falls, about seventy-five miles farther up. The river is also occasionally navigated by small steamers during the season.
In 1849 the legislature of New Brunswick granted the sum of $40,000 towards improving the navigation of tlie St. John between Fredericton and the Grand Falls; this amount to be expended at the rate of $8,000 per annum for five years. The expenditure commenced in 1850. The navigation is already greatly improved ; and, in a few years, it is believed the river below the Grand Falls will be (juite freed from obstructions, and rendered navigable from thence to the sea lor light draught steamers.
In taking the census of 1851 it was found that there are in New Brunswick, upon streams flowing into the St. John, 218 saw mills and 147 grist mills. The tributaries of the St. John aff()rd an amount of water power which is incalculable ; a very small portion only has yet been employed.
The country bordering on the St. John is well adapted for settlement and cultivation ; the soil is excellent, and produces large crops. As yet, it is very thinly populated ; still it was lountl, by the recent census, that in the counties bordering on the St. John the following quantities of cattle were owned, and crops raised, in 1850:
Cuttle, 89,657 head; sheep, 96,760; swine, 23,391; hay, 129,000 tons ; oats, 846,445 bushels ; potatoes, 1,060,883 bushels ; wheat (above Fredericton,) 42,500 bushels ; butter, 763,334 cvvt.; and maple sugar, 124,000 pounds.
The larch or hackmatac timber, which abounds in all the territory watered by the St. John and its tributaries, is highly prized lor shipbuilding, and is greatly sought alter by American ship builders. Ships built of' this wood are rated as first-class ll)r seven years, while those built of spruce and pine only stand in that rank f()ur years.
So much of this wood was carried out of New Brunswick into Maine and Massachusett in 1850 for ship building purposes, that the legislature of New Brunswick became alarmed, lest the fehip-yards of that colony should fall short of a supply ; and a special export duly was, thcreli)re, imposed on knees, foot-hooks, and floor limbers, when sent out of the country. This act has been suspended in its operation during the present year ; but the very fact that such a duly has once been imposed, and that it may be demanded in another season, is another ami powerful reason for an amicable and e()uitable .-irrangement which will open the navigation of the St. John to citizens of the United States, and relieve them from the payment of all, or- any export duties upon their products, whether of the forest, of mines, or of agriculture, in their transit to the sea.
As valuable interests arise, and border relations become more complicated, this question will yearly become more difficult of arrangement. The magnitude of lumbering operations upon tne waters of the St. John, and the expense at which those operations are conducted by the enterprising and industrious citizens of Maine, as also the interests
Ihe interests
of a large body of American citizens, who, in constantly increasing numbers, are forming new settlements on the affluents of the St. .lohn, and conducting agricultural operations upon a large scale, demand the fostering care and watchtiil protection of government.
A sketch of the early history and of the present state of our knowledge of the geology, mineralogy, and topngranhy of the British provinces of Nova Scotia and. New lirunswick, contatnivg information concerning the value of the minerals of those provinces. By Charles T. Jackson, M. J>.
Nova Scotia is one of the oldesr of the Europ'^an settlements in America. Little is known of the voyages of the Northmen, but there is reason to believe that those hardy navigators were the first Europeans that visited these shores. They formed, however, no permanent settlements, and hence did nothing towards the civilization of the country. The French navigators, the Jesuit priests, and those adventurous merchants and farmers who accompanied them, did much towards the civilization of this continent, and the marks they made in the wilderness of the great northern and western regions of this country still are extant in every portion of the country between the mouth of the St. Lawrence river and the great lakes of America, and all along the borders of the mighty Mississippi, from the Falls of St. Anthony to the Gulf of Mexico. Without the use of arms the FVench people comiuered the savages of this continent ; the cross of the Saviour prevailed where muskets and bayonets would have been of little avail. The ardent and devoted priest, fired with an irrepressible zeal, pressed boldly into the camps of the red men of the forest and of the prairie, and overpowered the superstitious savages by a more magnificent display of the rogulia of the Catholic church than had ever been seen by the children of the forest.
Overcome by the pomp and show of the ministers of the crosn, the savages bowed before the God of the white men as superior ; *bcir own, in no less degree than the gilded trappings of the French pr osts surpassed the coarse, gingling costumes of their own mystery of modi cine men. It was thus that the French people first were enabled to gain foothold among the Indians of America, and to spread their language and religion among the aboriginal tribes of the North and Wes't. Their settlements certainly loft monuments which date back as far as to 1606 in Nova Scotia, for the. writer of this notice found an ancient tomb-stone on Goat island, in the Anapolis basin, with the inscription " 1606." It was undoubtedly a memento of the grave of one of the soldiers or sailors of De Ments' fleet, which established the colony of French people at Port Royal, now Anapolis, in Acadie — now Nova Scotia.
We refer to the settlements of the French, at this early day, because to them we owe our first knowledge of a few of the minerals of this province. The fleet of De Ments carried back to France many of the minerals of the newly-discovered and newly-settled Acadie. A large amethyst from Cape Split, or Cape Blomidon, in the Basin of Mines,
wns prrscntpcl to tlic Quern of Frnnce by lliis intrepid nnd intplll^ent n!iviij;;ii<)r on Ills rrtnrn from the province! to his native shores. This stone is siiid still to j'xist mnong the crown jewels ot" Frnnce, though the country which it represents passed long snice into the h.-uids of the; liriti,<h, Iniving been concincrcd principiilly through the aid ot" the tli(>n Now Engliind colonies ot Oreat Britain — Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Maine. Native copper was also dis(;oV(Ted along the shores of'CapeD'Or; nnd in other places in the trap hrecciaof" the North mountain range ; and the nain«! Cape D'Or leads us to believe thai the brilliant metallic copper seen beneath the waters which bathe the loot of that promontory was niistak<>n, at first, f()r native gold.
'J'lie early French settlers were very attentive in tli(Mr exploration of the mineral wealth of the country, and they manift'sted more skill and discriu)inalion generally in their estimate of tlnMr value, than is to be fl^und among our own pioneers in the wild and uninhabited regions of this continent.
We shall have occasion to show, in a subsequent communication, how much the French Jesuits did towards the discovery of the hidden treasures of the shon's of the great lakes of this country, and shall prove that they knew more of tlu^m in 1636 than our own juople knew ni 1843. It must be remembered that the Jesuit fiilhers were men of great learning, and possessed a knowledge of all the sciences of their (lay ; hence it is not incredible that they should have dow much towards a correct knowledge of the natural history of the various countries which they explored. It is natural, also, that they should have recorded the discoveries which they made, and transmitted an account of them to France, in order to induce mon^ of their countrymen to llock to th(? shores of the N(!W World. Did time allow us to ransack the; archives of the Jesuit colleges, there is no doid)t that we should be; able to discover records concerning the mineral wealth of Nova Scotia and of New Brunswick, such as we found concerning the minerals ol Lake Siip(Mior while j)reparing a report on the mines of that wonderful region li)r our governm<'nf a lew years since. It seems to be th(> duty ol the liistorian of mineralogicnl science to s(>arch the records made by the first explorers of the country, as much as it is the duty of the histonan of civil and political movements to look back to the origin ot facts and data, and to the actions of his predecessors. Unfortunately, W(; have nor the means at hand to enable us to perf()rin this duty.
Lea^ving the ancient history of our mineralogy to be explored at some future time, we hasten to our task of developing what is now known concerning the geolf)gy and mineralo^;y of these nnportant provinces, remarking, at the outset, that it is only proposed to give a synopsis or brief outline of the liicts, without going mto minute detcails of a. technical nature.
Nova Scotia is most remarkable peninsula, bearing geological evidence of its having, icn formerly an island of the ocean; the low strip of marshy land b( i ween the head of Cumberland bay and Bay Vert appearing to be the silt deposited at the meeting of two counter-currents— one from the present Bay of Fundy, and the other from the St. Lawrence river, and its opposing tidal wave.
consist of the prny, red, and luifi^;olored sandstones of the coal measures, filled with llie stems of the ancient l<)rests that formed the coal beds ; atid containing inmitncrable seams of good bituminous coal, many of which are of sufficient magnitude to prove valuable to the coal miners. Lofty cliff's abutting upon the seaeoast, at the iSouth Joggins, present to the observer the most beautiful sectional profiles of the coal-bearing strata, with their curious and instructive fossils, both of vegetable and animal origin. Large trunks of trees, su(di as arc; at present unknown in a living state, an; seen at various points standing at right-angh's to the sandstone strata, indicating that they were originally {Hirpendieular to the horizon, and have been since tilled with the stratified rocks from their original position, to an angle of about fifteen degrees from the vertical line.
beneath the great masses of coal f()rmed from th(> stems of Sigilhtriit, we find a tliin bed of black shale filled with shells, resembling the genus Dreisscnn, a fresh-water shell ; but they hav<! not been fully iletermined and d<'scribed, having been mistaken probably f()r tin; genus Mijlitm. Above this, the rocks are filled with beautilul stems of" the Stifrmaria, and of munerous species of Cahimilvs. Alternate beds of excellent bituminous coal arc s(u>n cropping out ah)ng the shore ; and the British North American Mining Company has ahiady opened, and is now working, extensive mines in one of these coal beds. This coal is pei'uliarly fitted f<)r forges, and is sought with eagerness by the smiths, both of New Brunswit-k and of Maine.
A visit to these mines will well repay tlu; travelliT vho wishes to see the relies of tla; primeval forests which f()rmetl the coal. We have spent hours beniiath the ponderous piles of rocks which f"orm these massive clills, and have beluild with amazement the huge trunks of trees, mostly of the Si^UUiria grou[), spaiming the vault of rocks over our heads — one, flirty feet l(»ng and fiom two to three feet in dianieter, lying directly across the ceiling of shales which forms the nK)f of one of the chambers of the mine. In other places wu walked beneath the sprea<ling roots of these ancient trees, and nit-asured their expansions in the shale of the roof of the mine. Here and there the scaly stems of the Liindudmdron were seen stretching their tall forms through the rocks, or procumbently reposing, like hugt; serpents, partly encased in the rocks. Now and tjien a bunch of coal bl*ick fern-ironds is setMi, representing the fi)liage ot" ihe ancii'iit tree-tern ; and broad, Hag-like leaves remind us of the spreading palms of the tropical islands of the South Pacific ocean. To the geologist the South Joggins coal mines, in spite of its uncouth name, is like enchanted ground, and is to i\\v pliytologist a classic land. The enterprising miner sees there the never-failing signs of a coal deposite ; and the (luarryman finds excellent materials for buildings and lor grindstones. It is from rocks of this very coal flirmation that the grindstones which are in use over nearly all our Atlantic coast are derived; and the places known as Grindstone island. Cape Merriaguin, and the whole coast of Chigenecto bay, afford abundant strata which yield the very best material fiom which these useful tools of trade are formed. So on the Peticodiac river, both (juarry-stones of superior quality, and excellent grindstones, are ob-
It IS not [x'rhiipfl gcnrrally known tlint our Allnnllc cilics, ns fur south at h-a.Hf as IMiiladcloliia, and p'rliaps also Haltiinorr, rrccivi? Ijir^j;*' <|unntiti('8 of hcautiful nnd compact K^'yi l)n(l-colorcd, and hluo sruhlsloncs from the Hay of Kinidy. The myriads of prindHfon«;» which are brought to our market employ an innnenst? amount of tonnage, and give employment to a great numlxr of merchants in all our towns. Who does not know how much our success in agriculture is «iu«! to gypsum y Y<'t, how few stop to irnpiire whence it is procured. It is nearly all brought from the tjuarries of Nova Hcoiia and N(!W }3riiiiswick, and belongs to the (*oal ibrmat ion of those provinces. It is used to a truly woiuhrful <xtent in the United States, and finds its way, by railroads, canals, rivers, nml lakes, into every part of our country where the hand of the farnjer is employed in raising grasses, wheat, nnd corn. A vast nmount of tonnage is sustained upon the waters by this traffic in gypsum, tak«'n I'rom nature's inexhaustible storehouses in the rocks of the provinces which now occupy our attention.
The coals of Novn Scotia are of various kinds, and are wholly dillerent from those of the United States ; at least they (hflir from all the coals which are found on the eastern side of the Appalachian chain of mountains, so that they do not enter into competition with the coals obtained from mines iti the United Slates, which supply our coast. They are some of them suitabh; li)r the snjith's use, others lt»r sleamboats, others l()r gas-making, &c., and will be always retjuired, what(?ver m;iy Ix; the supply from our own mines of Pennsylvimia, Maryland, and Virginia ; the n)ine near Hichtnond, Virginia, furnishing tlu? oidy bituminous coal that will serve in the place of the coals of Novu Scotia. Hence, we shall not tear that any evil can come to our own coal trade from the competitiori of the British provinces. Coals are {i)nn(l most abundantly in Piclou, at New Caledonia, (ilasgow, on East river, and in various parts of the great coal-basin which Hes on the northern coast of Nova Scotia. The island of Cape Breton also furnishes an abundance of excellent bituminous coal.
In the province of New Brunswick recent explorations have brought to light a most oeautiful, and bel()re unknown, variety t>f highly bituminous coal, containing sixty per cent, of gas-making bitumen and forty per cent, of coke, which yields but half a pound of ashes per hundred weight. This coal is in the true coal l«)rmation, and is found in a highly inclined bed running nearly northeast and southwest, with the trend of the enclosing strata. This coal mine is one of the most remarkabh.' in America ; not only on account of its beautiful, eh^an, glossy, and highly bituminous characters, so admirably atlapttnl li)r gas making, lait also on accoimt of the abundance, beauty, and perfection of its li>-*sils, and especially of its embalmed fishes of the Palaonium genus — fishes of the true coal li>rmation of Amt.'rici, and anah)gous to those of the same iiirmation in Europe. Six or more new species of this geims Pahfoinsrus we havf! tlescribed in a printed memoir on this coal mine. Time and labor doubtless will tidd many more to the list, and the Albert county coal mine will become the Mecca of pilgrims in
80nrch nf finhos of oldon time. Tl>ia conl, ns nlrendy suffprstrd, i<4 a new viiriciy. pnrticuliirly iidiiplcd to the usrs oftlin giis-lioiisc. It liirnishrs n vriy ricrli gas, highly chiirgcd with ciirhon, consisting mostly nl'olcliiinl gMs; nnd lirtiftsisthc very iniitcriid thiit is wntitrd liyg;is ihmhufacturcrs to ctnich the products ot our scnii-biluiniiious coids ot'MiiryInnd and Virginia. It is not used alone in any gas-works, hut is mixed witli other conis in tlw proportions of from one-filth to one-third, and thus gives the best prothict that can he obtained ; and at tiie same tinu*, it gives greater value lo the coke of our more ash-hearing coals. Tlie ini|M>rtaiion of the Albert cojd into the United (States does not, tlnre<J>re, in any way interfJ're with tin; sale of our own coals ; but, on thi^ contrary, enables us to use coals that would not otherwise fmd any market lltr gas-making. It also saves much outlay in apparatus re(|uired for making oil-gas from whale and Hsh oils, used to enrich the pale or bluish flame produced by gas from many of the cr)al3 employed at o«jr gas-works. With the progress «)f geological research more <leposites of tfiis valuable coal will undoubtedly be discovered, and the trade with Uic United States will tend to draw it within our borders, by the exoJiange of commodities with our provincifd brethren.
Thus far wo have called attention mostly to tlufrocks of the coal Ibrmation and to their contents. Jiut Nova Scotia is a country rich in geological resources; all the rocks, from the crystalline granites uj)toth<; new r<'d sandstone series, being, as it were, (Irawn together in this province, OS are still more extended groups in iIh; island of Great Britain. It is obvious that Atuerica has been cast on a most expanded scide, and that our rock li)rmations are so wide and def^p as to se|)arat(! to great distances the various deposites ; and, although V'anuxern has in a most patriotic manner declared, that " in proportion to the magnitude of the geological scah* is the greatness of nations," we caimol conceal the fact that it would be much iriore convenient to have our coal a little nearer to our metallilt'rous deposites, somewhat as they exist in England, Hcotland, atid VVal(>s. In Nova Scotia the coal is verv near to her vast beds and veins of iron ores, and to her (-opper-bearing rocks. The slate hills furnish good rooling slates, and are full of ores of the metals. Her trap-rocks are of the same age, and contain the same minerals as those on the south shore of Lakc^ Superior, at Keweenaw Point, on the Ontoruigon river, and on Isle Uoyale, which are known to be so rich in mines of native copper and silv(T. Native copper and silver are tiunul in the trap breccia, and amygdaloid of the north mountains of Nova Scotia, in numerous plac<'S from Digby Neck to Cape D'Or ; and there is reason to believe, that when there shall be the same amount of scientific labor, and ol" mining skill nnd <Miterprise, expend(>d in searching tlicse rocks in Nova Scotia, that there has been on Lake Superior, there will be exposed many d<'{)osites of value to the country, aH()r(ling to our provincial brethren new means of extending their trallic with our people.
Tliere are beds of sandstone in Nova Scotia which also contain rich ores of copper ; but they have been but little explored, on account of the peculiar condition of mining rights in that province, which are not open to general competition and to private enterprise.
Sandstones suitable for the hearths of iron furnaces arc abundantly obtained upon the borders of Cumberland bay, and ores of manganese are abundant as shore pebbles at Quaco and other parts of the Bay of Fundy, and veins of this ore are liiund in the limestone rocks of the province. Iron ores of the very best quality are abundant near the Basin of Mines, and near Ana polls, at Nictau, and Clements, on Digby Neck, and also near the cold mines of Pictou. These rich iron ores cannot find an American market so long as England furnishes iron to her provinces free of duty, .and no market is otitjred here for Nova Scotia iron except under the same duties as are imposed on that brought from England.
We have not described the beautiful agates, amethysts, chalcedonies, jaspers, cairngorms, and the entire group of zeolite minerals which abound ill the amygdaloidal trap of Nova Scotia, and tempt the mineralogist to wander beneath the frowning crags which overhang his head along the Bay of Fundy, rising in mural precipices of from 100 to COO IL-el in height, and (h'opping, after each winter's frost, large heaps of precious specimens ready for the collector ; Ibr such tilings are not looked upon by every one as mattero of economic value, though they are really such when they induce travel from distant shores into Nova Scotia, and cause the ex])enditure of wealth among the peoj>l(! of the province — the inevitable result of inducing travellers to pass their time among them. They are also valuable beyond what most persons suppose, when they add to human knowledge and to the means of instruction in science, lor all parts of science are in some way connected with each other, so that the advancement of what ap{)ears to be at first a useless branch of learning may open the way to more pr()li)und knowledge of the laws of the universe, and brings about results not at first anticipated. No one knows how useful a stone, at first sight apparently useless, may become by the; hand of science.
What beautiful laws were opened by Sir David Brewster, and others, by the study of the polarization of light by crystals of lh<'se very minerals, so that these discoveries are now reduced to real pecuniary value in every w«'ll conducted sugar plantation of the world. Again, tl»e polarization of light is now turned to account not only in detecting the Ultimate structure of bodies, so as to learn their nature, however masked, but even the light of a wandering comet, or of the flitting aurora borealis, is caught between the polarizing crystals and made to conttjss whether it is intrinsic, or is borrowed from some other source. We
NoTK. — We refer to tlio memoir of Messrs. Jackson and Alger on the mineralo(»y and pcolo!,'y of N(»va Scotia, itiiblished in the Aniprican Journiil of .Scionro and of the Arts, for lbQ>*, republished in tlic Traiismlions of the American Academy of Arts and .S(;ienceH, for lb32, for full des(Ti|itions of the intnroHliiig minerals and Kocks of Nova Scotia. Also, to sundry papers piihlishcd in the ti'iarterly Journal of the Gnolotjical Society of liondon, by James Dawson, csc|., of Pictou. Also, to Sir Charles LyeH's Travels in America, and tn sundry communications published by him iii the Quarterly Journal of the Geulu(fical Society of London, fur rcmurka on the geology of parts of this interosting province.
Scotia, though tiicir uses may not be all at once apparent.
The topographical features of Nova Scotia are not less remarkable than the geology of that province. We have along the Bay of Fundy a long ridge of mural precipices, excavated by the action of the sea, which wears away the softer amygdaloid and trap breccia lying at the line of junction of the trap rock with the new red sandstone, and forms an overlianging mass of columnar trap rocks in numerous places on that const. This trap ridge runs ENE., and WSW., and extends one hundred and thirty miles in length from Briar's island, at the extremity of Digby Neck, to Capes Split and Blomidon. There cannot be a more picturescjue coast than this. These frowning crags, with their crowded forests of fir and spruce trees, first meet the eye as we cross the Bay of Fundy. Their height serves to protect the interior from the driving logs of the bay, which melt into thin air as they pass up the sides of these mountains and disiippear.
Beyond this barrier we come to the rich and beautiful 'valley of the Anapolis river, which takes its rise in the Garden of Acadie, Cornwallis, where the teeming soil b(>ars ahundant prodace.
Passing this valley as we wend our way across the country, we come to the South mountains, the gr^-nl Silurian ridge of slate rocks, contiiining the ricli iron ores of Nictau and Clements, so remarkable for their abundant Silurinn f()ssils, such as the asaphtis criiptun/s, delthysis, and other well known f()ssils of the Silurian rocks. Beyond this, we come to the granite rocks which were elevated subsequently to the deposilion of the strata of Silurian slates, and have filled them at a bold angle with the horizon.
This is a cross section of Nova Scotia. If now we travel to tlie northeastward, we soon change the scene and find ourselves on the Permean sandstones near Windsor, and soon ccktic to the gypsum rocks in the coal series of th(^ province, where we wander over extensive hills of' gypsum, and see \.\\v quarries wrought by the busy miner and quarryman. Riding over a fine road to Halifax, we come to the fiiiity slates of thiit town, so remarkable fi>r their hard sterility. Travelling northward to I'ictou, we traverse extensive beds of Devonian limestone, and soon come to the rich deposites of coal and of iron ore in the district of Pietou, and on the East river, in New Glasgow. This whole region is rich and beautiful, and is settled mostly by Highlanders from Scotland while in other parts of Nova Scotia, as at Hiilifax and in the valley of Anapolis, we have; English and Irish ; and on Digby Neck, Hessians, American refugees, and French. The French population is mostly on tlie other side of St Mary's bay, on Sissaloo river — an old French colQJiy, the remains of the French neutral colony.
Nova Scotia is remarkably temperate, considering its northern latitude, the almost insular position of the province, and the proximity of the gult-stream serving to render the climate more mild than that of Canada. The tides of the Bay of Fundy have always attracted much attention, on account of the great ebb and How, and the manner in which the tide enters the narrow bays and runs up the rivers both in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. It is obvious to the hydrographer, that the great tidal wave enters !he Bay of Fundy at its wide tunnel-
like mouth, and is kept from spreading by its rocky walls, and is forced into a narrow compass as into a tunnel's neck. Hence the impetuous waters, compressed into a narrow space, rise with fearful rapidity, rushing up in what is called a bore, sometimes four or six feet in height at the heads of bays and up the river channels. On the Peticodiac, at the bend of the river, this bore is seen to the greatest advantage. The tides rise, at the highest, to about sixty feet at the head of tlie bay, while the rise is not more than thirty ft3ct at the mouth of the baj'. The fishermen know how to make use of these rapid tides, and always manage to go with the current. Hence the Peticodiac is sometimes called " la;jy-man's river," since rowing is (jiiite unnecessary, the tide bearing the boat whither the boatman wishes, he only having tf) guide her course. Every one knows that the rivers of the Bay of Fundy are full of fine shad and salmon in their season, and the herrings of D'gby are known all the country over for their excellence.
We have alrer.dy given a brief sketch of the valuable mines and quarries on the New Brunswick side of the Bay of Fundy, though much more might have been stated had time been allowed for a minute investigation of that important district.
We shall now extend our observations inland, and point out some of the more prominent features of this province, so fiir as our personal observations will permit. Leaving the township of Hillsboro', we travel towards 8l. John, and find rocks of the coal formation, gray sandstones, snowy-white gypsum, and other rocks of that series, which are here and there found resting upon hills of sienite, hornblende rock, and other crystalline aggregates of hypogene origin. On the borders of these extensive rocks we find novaculit(; of a green color, which appears to be an altercKl slate rock and a conglomerate of its broken fragments consoliilated by an argillaceous cement. Reaching Sussex vale, we come to some of the richest and purest salt springs known in this country, and witness the manufacture of the finest flavored and purest table salt — an article justly prized above any kind of salt made in the country, on account of its Ireedom from deliijuescent salts of lime and magnesia. Now on the borders of the beautiful Kennebckaris river, we l(>llowed its meanderings through one of the most picturesque valleys otthe province, and find on the st('<'p flanks of the hills the continuous oul-eroppiug of red sandstones of the Devtjuian group, whieii su[)port the coal ll)rmation of the more eastern listrict bel()re described. This valley is obviously one (jf denudation, and the deeply scored rocks evince the passage, in olden time, of currents of water and floes of ice loaded with imbedded rocks atid frozen soil.
The broad and beautiful Kennebckaris bay spreads bei()re us, and is bordered by limestone rocks of the Devonian group. We next enter the city of St. John, the great mercantile entripot of tlie province, where ride large numbers of great ships, lading and unlading, and carrying on an extensive commerce with the mother coinitry. Tlie city of St. John is surroundc.-d by excellent limestones ; and some of the gray sandstones are found to contain large fossil trees, indi-
cating that they belong to the rocks not very far below the conl series ; while the slates of the Great Falls, a mile or two from the populous portions of the citv. ^ntain the largest bed of plumbago known in America — a kind aj caching, in some degree, to a metamorphosed coal, but still suffi'-^ iitly pure for the manufacture of lustre, and for the preparation of moulds for iron castings. Masses rtf igneous rocks of the trappean order are seen at Indiantown, a part of St. John citj', and this igneous rock is supposed to underlie the metamorphosed limestones and slates of the town. It is remarkable that no remains of fossils are found in this limestone to denote its geological age. Ascending the river, we find, along its banks, the most curious display of the strata of the country. Red sandstone, slates, and limestone are the common rocks which meet the eye until we reach Fredericton, where the coal formation crosses the river to its southern bank. There is an extensive deposite of the coal-bearing rocks around Grand Lake, on the northern side of the St. John, below Fredericton, and mines have been opened in many places along its borders, from which excellent coals have been obtained. They are especially prized for use in the ft)rge, since they are of the coking variety, useful in making u hollow fire.
No spot thus far examined has furnished such beautiful specimens of fossil plants of the coal tbrmation. They are chieHy of the tribe of ferns and of Lepidodendra ; and the perteclion of these remains of ancient vegetation cannot but (excite the admiration of geologists and botanists; lor the substance of the j)lants is perfectly preserved, and is of a perfectly black color, while the shales in whicli they are found iivv of a light neutral tint of gray, giving great relief ^nd distinctness to the conserved and charred foliage. Even the fructification of the terns is perfectly distinct on their f()liage, and every scale and leaf of the Lcpidodcndron is found entire. The beds of coal thus far opened have not been found of much thickness — most of them not being more than from a foot to eighteen inches thick — but some are of greater magnitude ; and wo are informed that new beds of ample dimensions i()r [Mofitable working have been f()und within this district, and are now opened by mines. There is every reason to believe that important coal mines will be f!)und on the borders of this lake, and the time will come when their fiiel will be reijuired in St. John and along th« borders of the river. It will serve admirably t(>r fuel in the furnaces of" steamboats which ply on the waters of this magnificent river.
Still ascending the St. John by steamboats, we come to Woodstock, on the western side of the river; and here, on the borders of the Meduxnekeag river, a f(!W miles above the town, we come to one of the most extensive deposites of red luemalite iron ore — a perfectly inexhaustible bed.
This, though so highly charged with manganese as to make white and brittle cast-iron, resembling antimony in its fractured surface, furnishes the very tougliest kind of bar-iron, having eminently the properties required !()r making the finest cast-steel, it lias been t()r many years exported to England for that purpose; but owing to the late reduction of price in English iron, caused by the glut of the European market, the furnace-fires have ceased at Woodstock tor the presenti
Still ascending the St. John, we come to the Tobique river, which enters the St. John, on the eastern side, a little below the Aroostook. A few miles from the mouth of the Tobique we find the red sandstone rocks, like those of Nova Scotia, full of excellent gypsum. Springs of salt water are also said to have been tbund therciin. This gypsum will prove valuable to the farmers on both sides of the St. John, and will save the expense of bringing that mineral up the river. A tribe of Indians still dwell on the borders of the Tobicjue, and have their principal camps at the mouth of the river. They still find occupation in the chase, and even to this time take many beaver, otter, and sable, besides hunting bears, moose, and caribou, in the t()rests.
A lew miles more of canoe voyage brings us to the upper falls of the St. John — a magnificent cataract of 70 or 80 feet perpendicular descent. This is one of the most picturesque spots on the river, and will in due lime become a favorite place of resort in the summer season. Here the river is closely confined between lofty crags of slaty limestone, and makes a sudden turn in its course as it bursts through its rocky barriers. Its beauty is not destroyed by the great saw-mills that were built upon the edge of the falls by the late Sir John Caldwell ; but the business created on the spot has brought a sufficient number of settlers to make the place more cheerful. Above the falls the river expands, and is as tranquil as a placid lake. We tbllowed its windings in our canoe l(>r many days, stopping at night among the hospitable and naturally polite French people who live in humble simplicity on the borders of the river, pursuing their quiet mode of life, undisturbed by the tiiirst for gain that torments dwellers in the great mercantile cities of the coast.
The people of Madawaska are descendants of the French neutrals of Acadie, and very much resemble, in their mode of lilis the people of Sissidf>o, on the St. Mary's river. Tney hav(> few wants, and these are easily supplied by means of their own skill in the chase and in aural labor.
For forty miles above the falls of the St. John, the French settlements of Madawaska are scattered along lM)th sides of the river, the principal settlements being on the provincial side of the river.
Some fitty miles farther up, the St. John divides into numerous branches, which extend into Canada on the north and into Maine on the south. The St. Fran9ois is its most important Canadian branch, and the Allagosh, with its numerous lakes, and the Aroostook, extending almost to the northwest angle of Maine, where it nearly reaches the corners of New Ham[)shire and of Canada, are the longest tributaries of this great river. That portion of the river is but little known to this day except to the Indian hunter; and it is not, so far as we can learn, very inviting to the canoe wyagcur. The whole region of country above the falls of the St. John is based upon a blue slaty limestone, probably of the Silurian group of rocks ; but it is not rich in
not rich in
fosisils or in minerals of value. The soil is excellent all over these rocks, and bears good crops of the cereal grains and large burdens of grass when cleared and cultivated.
Having no personal knowledge of the eastern coast of the province, the Bay of Cnaleur, of Miramichi, or of any part of the shores of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, we must leave that portion of the province to be described by others. The province of New Brunswick is known to contain an abundance of the very best kinds of timber for ship building, and tor sawing into boards, plank, and deals. Much of her commercial intercourse with the mother country is sustained by this trade. Ships of the largest class of merchantmen are, therefore, nearly as Ireouent in the harbor of St. John as in the ports of the United States, f()r this class of vessels is adapted more particularly for llie transportation of bulky timber, spars, and masts. Most of the ships which sail from St. John are built and owned in the province.
New Brunswick, as has already been observed, contains some very remarkable deposites of coal, accompanied by a series of most perfect f()ssils. The most remarkable of these deposites is the Albert coalmine, in Hillsboro', near the banks of the Peticodiac river. This coalbed is included in shales, with an underlying massof soft slate, equivalent to the under-clay of most bituminous coal-beds, and the coal is directly overlaid by strata of liighly bituminous shales, filled with scales of ganoid fishes, and with the entire embalmed remains of beautiful spe(;ics oi" the genus Pahronhain fishes of the ganoid order. These fossils were originally discovered by the writer of this article in the spring of 1851, and descriptions of them were read by him before the Boston Society of Natural History at their second meeting in May of that year; and that paper was subsequently incorporated into a report to the Albert Coal Company, from which report we now extract the ibllowing:
at the Albert mine.
"Description: Fish, f<)ur diameters of its body long; head, obtuse or blunt, as if oblicjuely compressed on upper and front part; whole length, 3i\- inches; width in middle of body, voV inch; fins, one dorsal, opposite anal, small triangular, -i\f of an inch at base, jointed, drooping, as if the fish was dead befi)re it was enclosed in th<; mud, (now shale.) Antil, small, triangular, a little larger than dorsal ; ptVon//, small, compressed into mass of scales of body of the fish; (ail, bilurcaled, uneijual, very long, and tapering in upper division, which extends to a tine point. The scales run down on upper division of tail, and become gradually smaller to tip; cavdal rays come exclusively from under side of upper, and from lower division of tail. Scales of body brilliant, rhomboidal, wavy, serrated on post(Mior margins, color light brown. This fish is embalmed and not petrified. No ridge of bone is seen to indicate the vertebral column ; hence the Iwnes must have been cartilaginous and compressible. The gill plates are tcm confusedly compressed to be dissected. I cannot find in any published book any
figure of a fossil fish identical with this. It is evidently a Paleeonlscus, and is probably a young individual, as seems to be indicated by its small size and the delicacy of its scales. We will name it, provisionally, PalfP/miscus Alberti, in commemoration of its being the first fossil fish discovered in Albert county, in New Brunswick.
" PI. I., Fig. 2. This beautiful fish was Ibund by Mr. Brown, the captain of the mine, subsequent to my first visit to Hillsboro'. It is one of the largest, or full grown species. It was unfortunately broken in the operation of extracting it, but it still is a very valuable specimen. This being the first Ibssil fish found by the chief miner, I have named it Piilitoniscus Brownii.
"Descri[)tion: Fish nearly whole. It is one of the largest species yet f<)und, and its length is three times the greatest width of its body; wliol<! length, bi^ inches; breadth, 1t^ inches; head broken off" just in front of pectoral fin ; extremity of tail broken ; abdominal fin missing, it having been broken in getting out .the specimen.
"PI. I., Fig. 3, represents a perfect fish of the genus Pakeoniscus, which was fJiund on the 3d of June last. In its general form and appearance it resembles the Paheonisais Elrgans of Professor t^^edgewiek, (Lond. Geol. Trans., 2d series, Vol. iii, PI. 9, Fig. 1,) and Agnssiz, (Rccherches sur les Poissons Fossiles, Vol. ii. Tab. 10, Fig. 5,) but it difltTS fiom that species in the; striation of the scales, the stria? of the Hillsboro' species being parallel to the anterior and lower margins of the scales, and the shape of the scales diflering essentially from Mr. Sedgewick's species.
•'Description: Fish, long and slender, 4.J diameters of its body long; length of head, a little less than the largest diameter of the body; the head has the shape of an equilateral spherical triangle; tip of nose, or snout, curiously tuberculated and doited; gill-platc^s cannot be dissected, ihcy are so brittle and confused with the head; /««s, pectoral a little behind gill plates, and extend below the fish i^- of an inch — it is a narrow pointed fin, well marked with its rays. Dorsal fin far back towards the tail, a little anterior to anal; it is half an inch long and Yo of an inch high, and is well marked with its rays. Anal Jin sotnewhat larger than dorsal, a little posterior to it. Ahdom'mal fin very small, situated a very little in advance of the middle of the body; tail unequally bifurcated or heterocercal; scales run down on it becoming smaller and more and more acutely rhomboidal or loz(aige-shaped as they recede; caudal rays come exclusively from under side of upper division ol tail. Scales obtusely rhomboidal on anterior and middle of body, and are distinctly striated parallel to anterior and lower margins, while they are smooth and very brilliant towards and upon the tail; dorsal scales large, and in form of obtuse sphericid triangles, pointmg backwards towards the dorsal fin. This species is not described in any book 1 have exammed, and, believing it t«) be new, I shall take the liberty of naming it Valce.oniscus Cuirnsii, after the highly intelligent superintendent of the Albert coal-mine, William Cairns, to whose active and unreniilting labors 1 am indebted f()r so many specimens of these
broken in splitting it out from the rock, only the posterior part of it having been saved in a fit condition for delineation. The whole length of the fish was originally fifteen inches. That portion which remains entire, is 5J inches long ; it was broken off through the posterior edge of the dorsal fin. It was an old fish, as is evident, from the appearance of the scales, which are thick, heavy, and have their striations in part obliterated, while the serrations are extremely sharp and deep. The scales are elongated rhomboids, and have many striae upon their surface, which run parallel with their upper and lower margins. Caudal scales, acute lozenges. They run down on upper division, which is long, and covered with scales. Rays of tail come off very distinctly, exclusively from under side of the upper division, and the tail is unequal or heterocereal. Until we obtain an entire specimen, peihaj)s it will be prudent to abstain from giving a specific name. (See PI. I., Fig. 5, now named F. Allisoni.) It is a species of the genus Pal.-eoniscus.
"iM. II., Fig. I. This species so nearly resembles the Palceoniscm decorus of Sir Philip M. de Egerton as on first view to pass IJir it ; but on examining the lines of striiB, we are forced to regard it as another species. The lour great dorsal scales, anterior to the dorsal fin, exactly resemble in form those represented in 8ir Pliilip M. de Egerton's plate. (See Quarterly Journal Geological Society of London, for 1849.) The scales of one specimen are striated, parallel with the superior and inferior margins, and are deeply and acutely serrated on their posterior edges. The lines of striation are worn away considerably, indicating, perhaps, that it was an old fish. It was, when entire, about eight inches long, and it is two inches in diameter from the anterior rdgcs of the dorsal and anal fins. The lithographic delineation gives a suliiciently lull exhibition oithe characters of this specimen, which appears to be of the same species, or very near the species, last described.
" Fig. 2, 2 iw, are d<;lineations of specimens of shale, representing a fish <ni(l its counter print in the rock, just as it was split open. It is a sm;dl spiH'irs of Paheoniscus, compressed vertically, and is contorted as if the lish had struggled to extricate himself when imprisoned in the mud that now l()rms this rock. The line of dorsal scales, in the middle of this fish, proves its position to be as I have slated, and this opinion is still futihcr confirmed by the shapt^ of the head, and by the open gill covers. This fish nnist have been caught in the mud alive, since it was iti an upright position.
" Fig. 'J, represents a beautiful and perfect fish, found at the new pit of tlu! All)i It coal mine, l)y Mr. Wallace, deputy coUeetor of Hillsboro', who kindly presented it to me. It is compressed vertically, or from the back towards the abdomen, and the head is also vertically compressed l)il\veen the strata. Tlie large dorsal scah^s, so characteristic, are seen al(»ag the middle of ihe fish. There is a coprolite seen projecting from near the middle oi' the fish, and it is not certain wh(;ther it is included [)artially in its body, or was in the mud befi)re the fish was deposited or caught. The body of the fish curves over the coprolite as if it had been a hard substance.
inches long ; head in form of equilateml spherical triangle ; gills open; back of hciid beautifully inark(;tl by tuberculations, or stria; and (lots ; dorsal scales oval-shaped and striated, the most pointed part of the scale being towards the tail ; they run along the entire back to the tail, excepting at.the place where the dorsal Hn is compressed ; scales of body serrated on posterior margins, and striated parallel with their upper and lower edges, and wavy in middle. I am disposed to regard this individual as belonging to the same species as the one before described.
♦' Fig. 2, 2 bis. — Figure 7 represents a lower jaw of a Pala^oniscus from tlie Albert mines. It is interesting as showing the mode of dentition of these ancient fishes ; the teeth are here seen to be in a line fixed in regular sockets in the jaw, like those of salmon ; the jaw is beautifully marked with little raised dots, visibh; under an ordinary lens ; the te{>th agree with those ol)served by Sir Philip M. de Egerton. (See Quarterly Jour. Geol. Soc, Lond., 1849.)
" Fig. 8. — This specimen was discovered by me in the shale of the new sliaft of the Albert mines. It is peculiarly interesting on account of the entire preservation of its abdominal fui, and also on account of its association with a coprolite which seems to have belonged to this individual.
"Description: Fish, entire ; length, 3tV i"t;hes ; width of the body, /;, of an inch ; length of the head, ecjual tot he greatest width of the body ; lish, ii)ur diameters of its body in length ; fins, one dorsal, opposite anal, situated in the posterior, lliird of body ; anal fin little larger tlian dorsal; abdominal fin small, situated a little in advance of the middle of the body of the fish ; pectoral fin a little larger than abdominal; scales, large and brilliant, having a light-brown color striated parallel to anterior margins transversely, and longitudinally in middle, but finer than on anterior margins; tail, more regular than the bel()redescribi'd sj)ecies, but still unccjual; has scales in upper division. This specimen also presents another curious feature ; its tJiil having been amputated by a shift of the strata, and the fracture being polished and recemented a little out of place. Head more acute than any of the bel()re-described species, and very perlix-tly preserved, having the fine markin.Q;s of the gill covers and the stria; and markings distinct, and also what appears to be the im))nvs?ioii of the tongue of the fish. The orbitar ring is also preserved, and is a horn-like circle, or ring, filled with bituminf)us shale or clay. A coprolite under the abdomen of the fish is a cylindrical mass, rounded at each end, to of an inch long, and 1% <ii an inch in diameter. It is of an ash-gray color, and includes what appear to be small blaf;k scales of fishes."
analysis ff the scales.
Owing to the perfect preservation of the body of the fish, and of ganoil fish-scales in the rocks, it is as easy to identify them as if the fish were still living ; fi)r the substance of a genoid fish-scale is of the nature of heme, as will be shown by the following analysis of the scales of Palaonisciis, from the Albert coal mines : 0.G2 gramme of the scales
0.6129
By analysis of another portion of the same fish, it is proved that the fibrinous and albuminous matter composing the fisli is still unchanged in c()m|)osition, so far as its eh^menls arc considered.
The imi)oriiint element proving the presence of animal matter is nitrogen, which is separated by analysis into the state of ammonia. This by two determinations, was found to be in one 15.-56 per cent., and in the other 16.54 nitrogen ; the mean being 16.05 jier cent., which is the amount of nitrogen in fibrine and albumen.
Plate I. A. Portion of shale, with impressions of i'«/f/'(i«?.sc«.t' scales of three varieties, seen enlarged in a, b, c ; a is one of the scales from the middle of the body of i\\v. fish, antl siiuws the articulating process by which it is attached to the lower edge; of the scale next above it on the fish. The striations of the scale, and the serrations of its right extremity are distinctly shown, b represents one of the tulcre or scales near the fins of the fish ; a grouj) of three of them are seen in specimen A. c is II broad scale tVom the lower part of the body near the tail.
B represents iwofu/cre or fin scales from the back, at the dorsal fin. Tlie enlarged vitiws of them give a full explanation of their structure. They have been mistaken not unfrecjuently tiu- teeth, since the larger scales bear some resemblance to the teetli of placoid fishes, and to sauroid fishes' teeth. C represents a specimen of another species of raheoniscns scale. It is, in the original specimen, the most perfect that has been seen at the mine ; above it is a correctly enlarged figure of this scale.
The reader is perhaps aware that geologists have adopted the division of fishes, as proposed by Agassiz, as classified by their scales, which are ol' four orders : 1. Placoid, (broad plate,) of which the sharks' scales are illustrative. 2. Ganoid, (resplendent,) hard, bony scales ; example, the American gar-pike. 3. Ctenoid, (comb-like ;) example, scales of liie perch. 4. Cj'cloid, (circular ;) examples, herring, salmon, cod, pollock scales.
These divisions suffice for most purposes in idenlifving fishes ; and it fortunately happens that most of the fossil fishes — iill of those of an ancient type — belong to the bony-scale group ; and the character ol the scale of one of these fishes remains unaltered in the rock where it was originally imbedded at the time of its deposition.
Plate I., Fig. 5, rcprcsonts iho head and part of the body (A' a very large fish ot" the genus Palao/iincuK. It appears to l)elong to the same species with lig. 4 of same plate, and (ig. 1 of pl.it(! II.
Description : Wi(hii of hody offish, .3 inches ; lengtii, prol)ably from .15 to ]8 inches; iiead, strong, firm, and more bony than usual with fishes of this group ; lenglh, from 2^ to 3 inches ; width, 2 inches ; gillplates distin(;t, but cruslied together, so that they catniot he dissected, since they adhere firmly together ; j)ectoral fui, short, strong, and has a rounded and heavy shoulder of gri>at strength, covered with a long armor, striated oblicjuely backwards and downwards. Other fins were broken from the spccimt.'n before I rectavedit and lost ; but those wanting are seen on tig. 4 of this plate, and fig. 1 of IM. II. I'rinls of five of the great dorsal scales distinct in the rock — sca'cs broken off". Scales of body perfect, serrat<'d, and distinctly striated with wavy lines horizontally? and slightly curving towards the posterior upper angle of scale. A marked swelling in the ])lace of the stomach shows that the organ is filled with the food of the fish. Color of the fisfi light clove brown, or a little more inclined to cinnamon brown.
Tliis fish I propose to name in honor of the enterprising projector of the mine, who presented me with the specimen : VahroithatH AUisnniy in honor of Edward Allison, es(|., of St. John.
List of tin Fossil Plants found in tlin shales of the Albert Coal Mim.
The fossil fishes already described belong to the genera known to characterize the coal formations of Europe ; but, as might be exj)ected from other analogous facts, the American species are not identical with any known in the Old World, though they closely resemble them. They arc of the same genus, but of new and before undesciibed species.
The plants found associated with these fishes concur in proving the formation at the Albert mine to be in the true coal series, and thus set at rest those doubts which were hastily expressed hy other geologists, who made a cursory examination of this mine, who kn(;w not the facts contained in this j)aper.
Plate III, Figs. 1 and 2, represent a specimen ni' Lqndodaidt on, i\ualogous to the L. Gracile of Ad. Brogjjiart, though not identical with that species. Figs. 3 and 3 bis represi'iit the fruit of" the Ijcjudodendron, or Lcpidostrobus, Irmnd in the shale of this mine. Figs. 4, 5, and 8 represent a plant about which some doubt still exists, but which was supposed to be some species of Spheraedra ; but it differs from that plant in several respects, as will be discovered on comparing it with the plate in the work of Lindlev and Hutton. Figs. G and 7 are broad flag-like leaves, supposed to belong to the palm tribe. Fig. 9 is the common calamite of the coal fJirmation, and was f()und in the gray sand-stone below the coal bed at the Albert mine. These plants are similar to those found in the coal mines of Nova Scotia and of other parts u'i New Brunswick, and are like those fiiund in the anthracite mines at Mansfield, Massachusetts, and in the semi-bituminous coal mines of Maryland and of Virginia. Figs. 4, t5, and 8, represent the pn\y plant that 1 have not before diseov(^red in our coal formation.
us Allixoniy
This plant is rvidesntly a siiccuh.'ni nntiual, as evinced by its conlorted nnd (hooping stem, and wm.s prob ibly an amiatie plant, snch as are timnd growing' in niarsliy places or bogs. lis association with fishes indicati's its b(;ing nn acpiatic plant, or one growing on the borders of a lake or river. It is not a Jheoid, as has been alleged, lor it has alternate branches.
And the coke leaves 0.47 per cent, of red ashes. The coal cokes readily, and cements closely, if compressed ; but it does not melt, though it softens if slowly heated to redness in close vessels. It yields 20 per cent, of soluble bituminous matters to benzole, and from 12 to 15 per cent, to oil of turpentine. The solubility of a portion of its bitumen led most persons, at first, to suppose that it was a kind of bitumen ; but the discovery of organic structure in the coal itself removed this error, and chemical researches proved the coal to be a little more bituminous than the cannel coals of commerce. There can be no doubt of the fiiqj. that this coal is in the true coal field of the provinces.
Agricuilurtil Resources of Nav Tiruiusmck and of Nova Scotia.
Viewing the rocks which have, by their decompositiou, produced the mineral matters of the soil of the province s of New Brunswick and of Nova iScotia, we see that every mineral ingredient requisite lor the formation of good soils must be contained in them ; and trie drill agencies, whether of ice or water, in ohien time, have duly commingled the detritus, so as to diffuse the different mineral substances. S'egetable matters— the fidiage whi<;li drops tiom deciduous trees ; tla; peat mosses, which grow in humid places, and decayed trunks of trees — have added the matters which product; humus, or vegetable mould ; and thus we have Ibrmed, by the hand of Nature, the soils which we cultivate.
From geological considerations we should // priori regard the soils of New Brunswick and of Nova 8cotia as capable of bearing any of our usual crops of cultivated plants, as well as the usual l()rest trees of northern climes. .Such we know by observation to be the fact; and
llu' only iiillurnccs wliicfi nn'vriit flir noil of these proviners fiotn Ix-iiriii|>[ atiy iind nil kinds or|))!ii)ts are those ot climate. Tlu; cold ol'long winters limits tlii! giowih of crops to ii ll'w months ; and only those which are hnrdy, and are adapted to the cliiniile, can he raised advantageously. W<' have, tli(;n, to inquire what are the crops which experit.'nce has proved to \)r. tluf best lor the countries in (jiiestion. It is kn<twn that ilu; northern portions of America •' possess an excessive <.'limate,"* viz : one of extreme heal in sunimer, and of gri'at cold in wititer. Su(;li climates [)roduc«' a most rapid jirowlh of veg(!tation ; t()r iho heat of a summer's sun hurries lltrward the processes of vcgetahle growth, and an early autumn hrinujs the ripening to a close. Plants, which ri|)(ii more slowly in temperate climes, have to he gradually acclimated hel'orc they can accommodate themselves to the short seasons ol' the north. Hence the variety of zea maize (Indian corn) which grows in Canada dillers in its hahils of growth from the southern corn, tuitl ripens, where corn of a more southern-raised st-ed would perish^in ihc milk, hy frost. Th«'rc an; many of our usual plants that will Wear this acclimating process above reti-rred to; others we had nolheeii aide to sidxhie to our short seasons. 'I'he potato is much improved liy heing haste ned in its growth in the way ahove alluded to, and the provinces of iNew Hrunswick and Nova Scotia produce the Ijcst potatoes known
'rnrnips ot" every variety grow well, and pease, beans, and other leguminous jilants are known to thrive admirably. In short, we may say. from ()i)servation of the fact, that all the usual culinary vegetables wliich grow in tin- Stales ot" Maine; and New Hampshire, thrive ('(jually in die soil and climate of the two proviiircs we are describing. Fruit trees, also, with the excej)iion of the peach, (which does not bear well lilt! iniense cold ot" winter,) produce good fruit in ihcsi' provinces.
is grass, which, with the least labor, is the most profitable crop ; t«)r good hay is not oidy recpiired f()r keeping of the slock on the taiin, but is also extensively in demand among the timber-cullers of the forest, lor the hiioply of" fi)od to their teams of cattle. Largtr <|uanlities of pressed f y, in bundles, are also exported from the provuices to the citi»!S of the rnited 8lates. Four-lifliis of the land on every large liirm may be advantageously laid down in grass imd be kept fo mrwing land, until it is so old as to rerpjire to be t tken up by the piou^'h ; lud this is done gradually, so as to keep but a limited porlioe . ih: i ' . in tillage, f(>r there aie few farmers in th(> province who caa cultivate more Itian thirty acres of tilled land to advantag*-, and theriilbre (hey hove to keej)the rest of the farm in grass, which it is also advantageous tijr them to do, nu other accounts, as above sptniticd.
biisinrss, nlflioiigli not m hrnoficinl to tlio flmrjiclrr of tlio people ns tlu! tnorc civilized life of liiiiiiiiir. Ikks its tidvatitii^es, not to lie overlooked. It produces u liardy set ./I men, and encouni^'es, t(» some <'Xtent, the estnUlislinient of nianuliieiiuin)? operations, hy liitniliarizing tlie |)eople with tlu^ niMcliiiiery of i/iills, and with the various mechanical operations coimected with the I usi/iess.
Thus I'ar the demand tor fliod in thi' pn^yinces is vastly beyond iho supniy raised on the soil, and uu exports ot grnUh or indeed of any agricultural ])r()duce, snvv of potat<ies ■ind of hay, t;ike«i phtct) from eith«!r of them. Oats of superior (|ualil\ arc raised on Prnu e ?'dward's island, and biought to Boston, where tiiey comninnd a higher [)rice than the kinds raised in the States. 'I'his is [>rol)ably th« only gtaii; th.it wo can expect to receive from t)i(! Lower proviMces. Immf use t)imntiti«?s of flour from the United States find its way to tHuhi .,1 '\ ; iLCs ; but there is now growing up in (Janada West a jK.wt.rlul competilion with us in this trade; tor the soil of ih;it porli'>n "I Canada is of the same (juality as that of the neight)oriiig State of Now York, and will produce wheat eciually well and of ns good quality.
In tla; course of time the j)rovince of Now lirunswick will become more successful in tlu; cultivation of lu-r soil. The imj)rovetnents of science will gradually extend themselves among the I'armers tl re, as they have done, and are still doing, with us ; but still it may b • more advantageous ft)r the people of New Brunswick to obtain their chief snpj)ly of flour and corn from the United States, j)rovided the can furnish, in the course of trade, other products of their own soil, as hey do of their waters and of their liacsts. Mines of coal and of ron they have in abundance; bnilding-stones, grindstones, roofing slates, gypsum, and salt, and manganese, they already export, and can supj)ly in as large tjuaiitities as may he reiiuired ; and tlie tim(! will come wlien ores of lead and of" copper will be added to the exports of tfic provinces of N<'W Brunswick and of Nova Scotia.
one period was under a separate government.
Nova Scotia proper is a, long peninsula, nearly wedge-shaped, connected at its eastern and broadest extremity w'ith the continent of North AiniMica bj^ an isthmus only fifteen miles wide. This narrow slip of land separates the waters of the Bay of Fundy from those of the Gulf of St. Ijawrence. The peninsula stretches fiom southwest 1o northeast, fronting the Atlantic occLin ; its extreme length being about two hundred and eighty miles.
The singular and valuable island of Cape Breton lies to the eastward of Nova Scotia, fiom which it is only separated by the strait of Canso. This strait is in length about twenty miles, and in breadth fibout one mile. Cape Breton is more particularly described under a separate head.
The most remarkal)le feature in the peninsula of Nova Scotia is the numerous indentations along its coasts. A vast and uninterrupted body of water, impelled by the tr.tde-wind fiom ttie const of Africa to the American continent, strikes the Nova Scotia shore between 44° and 45° north latitude with great torire. A barrier of lifteen miles only (the strip of huid already mentioned) between the Atlantic ocean and Gulf of St. Lawrence secerns to hrive esciiped such a catastrophe, w^hile a space of one Innulred miles in length, and upwards of f()rty in breadth, has be«Mi swall(»wed up in tlu' vortex, which rolls its tremendous tides of sixty and seventy f«_'et in height up the liay of Fundy. This bay bounds Nova Scotia on its northwest side, and separates it from the continent.
The combined influence of the same pov.erful agent and of the Atlantic oceini has producc^d, though in a less striking manner, the same efli'ct upon the southeastern shore. Owing to the operation of these causes, the harbors of Nova Scotiii, on its Atlantic coast, f()r lunuber, capacity, and safi'ty, are [)erhiips unpar;dlelcd in any part of the world.
ficient depth for merchantmen.
A broad belt of high and brctken land rnns along the Atlantic shores of Nova Scotia, liom Capi' Canso to CJape Sable. The breadth of this belt or range varies from twenty miles, in its narrowest part, to fifty and sixlv miles in other places. Its average height is about five
covered by the formation above described. The country is undulating throughout, and abounds with lakes ofail shapes and sizes. The scenery is everywhere beautifully picturesque, owing to the great variety of hill and dale, and the numerous rivers and lakes scattered eveiywhere.
The soil of Nova Scotia varies greatly in quality ; some of tlie uplands are sandy and poor, while the tops of the hills are frequently highly productive. On the Atlantic coa.st the country is so rocky as to be difficult of cultivation ; but, when the stones are removed, the soil yields excellent crops.
The portion of Nova Scotia best adapted to agriculturrl pursuits is its northeastern section, which rests upon the sandstones and other rocks of the coal formation. Its most valuable portion is upon the Bay of Fundy, where tiicre mv deep and extensive deposites of rich alluvial matter, thrown down by the action of the extraordinary tides of tliis extensive bay. These deposites have been reclaimed from the sea by means of dikes; and the "diked marshes," as they arc termed, are the richest and most wonderfully prolific portions of British North America. Nothing can exceed their enduring fertility and ii'uitfulness, to which there seems no reasonable limit.
feet above the level of the sea.
The navigation returns of Nova Scotia present the following statement of the ships inward and outward in 1849 and 1850, as the aggregate of all the ports in the collony.
3,356,430
The following return shows the quantity and value of all articles, the growth, produce, or manufacture of the United (States, imported into the colony of Nova Scotia during the year 1850, as also the rate and amount of duty paid thereon :
Articles paying 2^ per cent. . . . Articles paying t!^ per cent.. . . Articles paying 10 per cent.. . . Articles paying 20 per cent. . . .
3,356,430 1 3,542,310
The various articles of the growth, produce, and manufacture of the United vStates imported into Nova Scotia in 1851 were of the estimated value of $886,940, iuid they paid provincial duties amounting in the aggregate to $64,727.
See note, end of Part IX.
During the year 1851, one iiundred and six American vessels, of the aggregate burden of 15,901 tons, entered inward in the various ports of Nova Scotia, of which numht-r 91 vessels, 13,032 tons, eleared again with cargoes for the United States, and the remaining 15 took cargoes l(»r foreign pctrts.
168,392 tons.
The fisheries on the colonial coasts have been prosecuted to a greater extent by the people of Nova Scotia, except Newfoundland, than by those of any other colony. The following tabl(% compiled from offlfcial
United States.
The number of vessels employed in the fisheries of Nova Scotia in 1851 was 812, of the burden of 43,333 tons, manned by 3,681 men. The number of boats engaged was 5,161, manned by 6,713 men. The number of nets and seines employed was 30,154. The catch of the season was as follows :
Smoked herring 15,409 bo::es.
The total value of the above products of the fisheries is stated at $869,080; to which must b^ added 189,250 gallons of fish oil, valued at $71,016. The total valu(^ of the fisheries undoubtedly greatly exceeds a million of dollars.
The census taken in this province during the past year (1851) cives the total population at 276,117 souls. In this total are included 1,056 Indians, and 4,90S colored persons.
Otiier denominations 3,791
The whole number of churciies in the province is 567. The number ofinhai)itcd houses is staled at 41,453; of uninhabited iiouses 2,028; of houses building 2,347; of stores, barns, and t)uthouses, 52,758.
It appears that there are in Nova Scotia no less than 40,012 acres of diked huid. This is chiefiy on the upper j)art of the Bay of Fundy, and is celebrated for its enduring fertility. It is estimated to be worth,
There ar<; 1,153 saw uiills in the province, which emplo}' 1,786 men. There an; also 398 grist-mills, which cn)j)loy 437 mi-n. There are, Ixsides, 10 steam-mills, or failories, 237 tanneries, 9 foundries, yi carding and \V(>;iving estnblishmeiils, 17 breweries iuid distilleries, antl 131 other nianiifactnriug cstJiblishments of vurious kinds.
The whole (|u:uitity of conls r;iised in the province, in 1850, is stated at 114,992 chaldrons". There were 28,603 ensks of lime burned and Ncry nearly three (nillions of bricks manufaclured. The (piantity of gypsum <jii;irri('d was 79,795 tons ; the (luiuitily of ma])le sugar made, 110,441 potmds.
It is alleged that the lairbor of Hidifix has not, jierhaps, a superior in any ])art of th(,' worhL It is situate nc.irly midwMv between the eastern and western exiremities ol" the |)eninsula of Nova Scotia, and, being directly open to the Atlantic, its navigation is but r;irely impeded by ice. From the Atlantic the harbor extends inlaiul t()r iitteen miles, terminating in a beautitul land-h)cked basin, where whoh^ ileets may ri(l(> in good ;mclior;iL!;e.
The entrance to HLilitlix harbor is well lighted, ;uid buoys are pkieed upon all the shoals, A tine, deep channel stretches up behind Halifax called the Northwest Arm, which renders the site ot the city a penin-
sula. The toNvn is built on the declivity of ii hill, which rises gradually from the water's edue ; its length b nvn\) than two miles, ancl breadth nearly a mile, with wide stre(;ts crossing iMch other at right angles.
As the port at which the Cunard luail-steaniers touch, on their voyages to and from Europe, and as th(? proposed terniinus of tlio great railway from (iueb.'c to the Atlantic, hi connexion widi those and other steamers, Halifax bids fair to become a place of very eonsid(M-able commercial importance.
76,861
Tlic following is an exhibit of the various descri|)tii}ns of merchandise imported into Halifax from the United States in the year 1850, with the value of each description :
938,985
The staple exports of the port of Halifax are ilie various products of the sea tisheries, in which a large number of the inhabitants of Nova Scotia are regularly employed. The extent of this business at Halifax is thus stated:
The following return exhibits the number of ships, nnd their Uiiidivgc, whicli entered iuwnrd nt the port of Halifax during the year 1851, as also the value of imports l)y such vessels, distinguishing British from foreign. This return furnishes a good general idea of the import trade of Halifax as at present existing :
minous coal.
A notice of the abundant mineral wealth of this colony is given in my t()rmer report to the Tnvisury Deparltnent, publislH-d by order of tlie Senate ; but some portions of this it may hv necessary to repeat at present, in order to point out clearly the existing state of llie coal trade of Nova Scotia.
Till' mines near I'ictou are about eighty miles by water liom the western extremity of the strait of Canso, which separates Cape Breton from Nova Scotia. Here there are ten strata of coal ; the main coal band is thirty-three feet in thickiK^ss, with twenty-li)ur ii'ct of good eoal. Out otthis only thirteen feet is fit for exportation ; tlu> remaining part is valuable l()r furnaces and t()rges.
In consecjuence of a general subsidence of the ground, to the extent of six fl-et, ovt!r all the old workings, new j)its have recently been opened at the Pietou mines, which are only l.'3() fi-et deep; the main coal band being struck at a higher level than in the old pits.
The average cost of n)ining coals here is thirty cents per chaldron ; the various expenses of the mines, engines, &c., increase the cost of coals at the pit mouth to sixty-two and a half cents per ton. The cost
of screening, Irunsnortiiig to the loaditiflf-ground by rnilvvny — n distnncr of" nine miles — with ollu'r irieidcrilal cliurges, iuUIa seventy-livo cents per ton to the cost of the conls.
Tiie shipping season comrnenres nt Pi(;tou about tin* first of May, and continues until the middle of November, after which the northern harbors of Nova Scotia are lid/(;n np.
At JMelou, coals are deUvered byjhc single cargo at three dollars and thirty cents per chaldron. Purchasers of one thousand chaldrons, or more, obtain a deduction of thirty cents per chaldron. The slack, or fine coal, is delivered on board at one (foliar and a half per chaldron, with a discount of three per cent. f()r cash payment.
One hundred chaldrons of coals, Pictou measure, are eipinl to 120 chaldrons, Boston measure. The usual freight from l*ictou to Boston is $2 70 per chaKlron, Boston measure.
Tlu' Sydney coal field occupies the southeast portion of the island of Cape Breton, and is estimated to contain two hundred and fifty miles of workable coid. The thickness of the coal-bed worked at Sydney is six feet. It is delivered on boird vessels, alter being transported three miles by railway, to the loading-ground, at !?•'] (>() per chaldron, with the same deduction to large purchasers as at Pictou. This coal, as a domestic fuel, is accounted e(jual to the best Newcustlc ; it is soli, close-buriiing, and highly bituminous.
Th(! Bridgeport njines are fifteen miles from Sydney. The coalseam at these mines is nine feet thick, and contains two thin partings of sh:de. The (.-oal is of <'xcellent (piality, of the same description us at Sydney, and not at all inferior.
and fall of the tide G feet.
The Ciunberland coal mines are on the coast of C'hignecto, which forms the northeastern terminalion of tin' IV-iy of Kuiidy. These mines hav<' been but recently opened. Tlu^ seam worked is about f()ur and a half feet iti thickness. The coal is bituminous, but is alleged to contain more sulphur than any other (leseri[)tion in Nova Scotia.
The principal exportation of coals from Nova Si-otia and Cape Breton is to ports in Massachusetts .and ]{|iode Island, with a small quant iiy to New York. Many American vessels in this trade, ('speciallv since the change in the navigation laws, obtain freights fi)r Nova Scotia, Newf()undland, the French islands of St. J'eter, i*rine<' Edward island, and the New Brunswick {)orts on the (JulfOf Si. Lawrence, and load with coals as their return cargo.
The inenn price of Sydney and Pictou coal f()r the chaldron, of 48 bushels, weighing 3,750 (nomitially one ton and a (piarier) is $3 10, which is e(|ual to S2 3'2 per clialilron of ']() bushels. The freight to Boston is §52 7.'j per chaldron ; the duty under the tariff of 1840 (tliirty
per cent, ad mlonm) is seventy cents per chaldron, amounting in all to $.0 77 per ehahhon. To tin's must he added : insinane(>, two per cent., and conniiissioii, two and a half per cent. Tlie price paid ni Uoslon hy actual consumers for this same coal is ahout «'iglit dollars per chahiron.
Anthracite coal does not exist in any of the colonics, and they hid fair to hecorne cousuiikms of Pennsylvania anthracite, the importation of which has alreadv connnenced, to some extent, in New IJrunswick for steainhoats and foundries. Under liheral arrangements on holh sides, the consumption of anthracite coals would greatly increase in tluj colonies, and even in Nova iScotia, it heing ti)r many purposes hetter fitted and more; economical than the hituminous coal of that colony.
Th(^ foregoing return was furnisiied hy the lion. S. Cuiiard, the general agent l<>r all \\u\ mines of Nova Scotia. No return has heen received t()r the year 18')1 ; hut Mr. ('iiiiard slates that the (juanlity fell off ahout twelve thousand chaldrons in that season.
coves and inlets.
Cape lirelon is almost separated into two islands hy the grc^at inlet called the Bras D'Or, which enters on its east side, fiiciiig Newtt)un(lland, hy two pa.^sages hereafter deserihed, and afterwards spreading out into a magnificent sheet of water, ramifies in the most singular manner throughout the island, rendering every part of its interior easily accessihle.
The liras D'Or (or " Arm of Cold") creates two natural divisions in Cape Breton, which are in striking eonlrasi; tlu' northern portion heing high, hold, and steep; while that to the south is low, intersected by water, diversified with moderatt; elevations, and rises gradually from its interior shore until it presents ahrupt clifls toward the Atlantic ocean.
bolder, and more continuous, terminating at North Cape, wliich is l,(SOO fbet in height, and faces Cape Ray on the opposite coast ofNewtbundhmd. Between these two capes, which arc 48 miles apart, is the main entrance to the Gulf of and river St. Lawrence — a pass of great importance.
The Bras D'Or appears to liave been an eruption of the ocean, caused by some earthcjuake or convulsion, which admitted the water within the usual bound.-i'y of the coast. This noble sea-water lake is 50 miles in length, and its greatest breadth about 20 miles. The depth of water varies from 12 to (JO fathoms, and it is everywhere secure and navigable. Sea-fisheries of every kind are carried on within the Bras D'Or to a very considerable extent, as also a salmon fishery. (Quantities of codfish and herrings are t.aken on this lake during winter through holes cut in the ice. The entrance to this great sea-lake is divided into two passages by Boulardrie island ; the south passage is 23 miles long, and from a (piarler of a mile to three miles wide; l)ut it is not navigable tor largt^ vessels, owing to a bar at its mouth. The north passage is 25 miles long, from two to three miles wide, with a free navigation, and above GO lathoms of water. Th(! shores of ihcse entrances are settled by Scotch Highlanders and emigrants from the Hebrides, who prosecute the fisheries in boats with much success. These fisheries are most extensive and valuable, not exceeded in any part of America; but, liom their iidand })osition, are at pr(\s(Mil wholly maccessible to our citizens, who have never yet participated in tiiem in the least degree.
In several of the large bays connected with the Bras D'Or, the large timber ships from England receive their cargoes at 40 and (JO miles distance from the sea. The timber is of good size, luid of excellent (jualily.
The extensive and varitnl fisht>ries; the rich d(>posit(\s of the finest coal, with the best iron ore; the superior (juality of th(; timber, and extraordinary liieilities and conveniences li)r ship-building ; the rar(^ advantage ot' inland navigation, bord(;red by go(jd land lia* .igrieullnral purpose's; the exislruee also of abundant salt springs, lofty cliffs of the fx'tl gypsum, and the finest building stone of all kinds; with the geographical situation ol" the island as the key of the St. Lawrence, and the j)ositi()n which coninjands the (;ntir(! connnerce and fisheries ol" the northeastern jxirlion oi' North America — all eond)ine to i( nder Cape Breton one of the mijsl important and most desirahli! possessions of British IS'ortli America.
Tile possessi(.'. of Cap(; Breton is of th(Mitmost consecjuenee to Creat Britain. 'I'he naval power of France, it is well known and admitted, began to d( dine ii(tni the tinu; that nation was driven out of" the North American fisheries by th(^ eoiKjuest of Louisburg.
It has been said Ijv Mr. .John MacCregor, M. P., late secretary to the I'xiard of Trade, that the possession of (Jape; Breton would be more valuable to our jieoplc, as a nation, than any of the British West India islands ; and that if it were once obtained by them as a fishing station,
coasts, the American navy might safhdy cope with that of all Europe.
By the treaty of Utrecht, in 1713, France ceded to England the country called "L'Acadie," now known as Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, but reserved to itself the "Isle Royale," since called Cape Breton. In order to maintain their posuion in America, the French took formal possession of the harbor of Louisburg soon after this treaty, and in 1720 commenced there the construction of the fortress of that name, so well known and celebrated in history. Upon this fortress the French nation expended thirty millions of livres — a very large sum in those days. It was captured in the most gallant and extraordinary manner by the forces of New England, in 1745, but was restored to France by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1747, in return for Madras. It was recaptured by the British and colonial ii)rces in 1758; and after the treaty of 1763, by which the French gave up all their North American |)ossessions to England, the British govi>rnment demolished the fortifications of Louisburg, at an expense of $50,000, fearing they might fall into the hands of some hostile power. Since then the fiimous liarbor of Louisburg has been deserted; although previously — during its occupation by the French — it exported no less than 500,000 quintals of cod annually, and six hundred vessels, of all sizes, were employed in its trade and lislKM'ies.
Cape Breton was f()rm.dly annexed to Nova Scotia, by royal declaration, in 17G3; but in 1784, a separate constitution was granted to it, and it remained under the managenjent of a lieutenant governor, council, and assendtly, until 1820, when it was re-annexed to Nova Scotia.
Owing to the returns of trade fiir Cape Breton being niixeil up with those l()r Nova Scotia, it is now difhcult to obtain an accurate account of tJM! value of its products annually.
There is reason to believe, however, that the above gives but an imperfect idea of the extent of the fisheries at Cape Breton. It ha» been ascerlained that, from the portion of this island within the strait of Canso, the following quantities of fish were exported in the year
Fall mackerel 7,670
No returns can be procured from the northern and western portions of this island, the fish caught near which being generally carried direct to market from the fishing-grounds by the fishermen themselves, without reference to any custom-house. It has been ascertained, however, on good authority, that the quantity of herrings and mackerel caught and cured at Chcticamp, (the western extremity of Cape Breton,) during the season of 1851, was not less than 100,000 barrels.
It is alleged that the banks in the vicinity of Cape Breton arc thickly covered with shell-fish, and consequently are the best feeding-grounds for cod Ibund anywhere in those seas ; hence, also, the superior quality of the cod caught and cured there.
The total (juanlity of coals raised in Cape Breton, and sold during the year 1849, amounted to 24,960 chaldrons (Newcastle measure) of large coal and 11,787 chaldrons of fine coal; of this quantity, 12,090 chaldrons of the large coal and ],210 chaldrons of fine coal were shipped to the United States in 1849; in 1850 the quantity shipped to the United States was 10,796 chaldrons of large coal and 1,586 chaldrons of fine coal.
339,010
It is helievod that the foregoing statements do not give a correct account of the whole import and export trade of Cap(> Breton, as much is imported and sent away through Halifax, to and iiom wiiich there is at all times an <'Xtensive coasting trade. Jiut suilicient has been stated to show that Cape Jirelon possesses a very considerable trade, which might be very largely increased with our country under a system of free interchanges, inasmucii as Cape Breton greatly needs, and will always conliiuie to purchase, many products of the (Jnited States, the quantity being limited solely by the power of paying t()r them in the
This low, sandy island, the scene of numerous and melancholy shipwrecks, lies directly in the track of vessels bound to or from Europe. It is about eighty-five miles distant from Cape Canso. Its length is about twenty-five miles, by one mile and a quarter in width, shaped like a bow, and diminishing at either end to an accumulation of loose white sand, being little more than a congeries of hard banks of the same. The sum of $4,000 annually is devoted to keeping a superintendent from Nova Scotia, with a party of men, provided with provisions and other nectssaries, for the purpose of relieving shipwrecked mariners, of whatever nation, who may be cast upon its shores.
Of late years it has been found that mackerel of the finest quality can be taken in great abundance, quite close to tlie shores of Sable island, during tlie whole of every fishing season ; and this fishing is ev(ny year becoming of greater importance. Several of our enterprising (ishermen have ibund their way there of late, in schooners of about ninety tons, and have succeeded very well.
By observations of Captain Bayfield, R. N., the well known marine surveyor, made in the autumn of 1851, the eastern extreme of this island has been found to be in latitude 43° fj9' north, and longitude 59° 45' 50" west. Two miles of tlie w(>st end of the island hav(5 been washed away since 1828. This reduction, and consequent addition to the Western bar, is reported to have been in operation since J 811, and seems likely to continue. Tiiere has been no materi;d change in the east end oi tlie island within tlie meniory of any one ac(|uaint(nl with it.
The western bar may be safely approached by the lead, from any direction, with common precaution. The length of tiu' northeast bar, it is said by Captain Bayfield, has been greatly exaggerated ; but still, it is a most formidable d;inger. Its real length is Iburleen miles only, instead of twenty-eight, as heretof()re reported. For thirteen miles from the land it has six iathoins of water, with a line of heavy bn.'akers in bad weatiier ; in the fourteenth mile there is ten fathoms of water, and not far from the extremity of the bar 170 fatiioms, so that a vessel going moderately fast might be on the bar in a few minutes alter in vain trying f()r soundings.
Captain Bayfield has recommended to the government of Nova Scotia to establish a light-house on the east end of this island, and measures are now in progress f()r its erection.
Sable island lies eighty miles to the southward of Nova Scotia, and in the immediate vicinity of the gull-stream. Throughout nearly its whole h.'iigth of twerity-five miles, sabU" island is covered with natural grass and wild pease, sustaining by its spontaneous production, five hundred head of" wild horses, and many cattle.
The Hon. Mr. Howe, prinei[)le secretary of Nova Scotia, visited this island in 1850, and n'ported favorably as to the extent and value of the fishery upon its coast. The superintendent informed Mr. Howe tliat, a lew days before his arrival, the mackerel crowded the coast h» such
er in vain
numbers that they almost pressed each other upon the sands. Mr. Howe himself saw an unbroken shoal, extending from the landing place for a mile, within good seining distance, besides other shoals at various points, indicating the presence, in the surrounding seas, of incalculable wealth.
turbed.
Hitherto the government of Nova Scotia, to which this island belongs, has not permitted any fishing establishments to be set up upon it. It has been feared that discipline would not be maintained at tlie government establishment f()r the relief of shipwrecked mariners, if persons not under the control of the superintendent were allowed to land upon the island, and that the obligations of humanity might be disregarded by mere voluntary settlers, or that the temptation to plunder tin; unfortunate might prove too strong to be resisted by such a population when the hand of authority was withdrawn.
The natives of Nantucket,* if permitted, would soon build havens imd breakwaters at Sable island, and make what is now but a dreaded sand bank amid the solitudes of the ocean, a cultivated centre of mechanical and maritime industry; and, as population increased, em])loyment would be liiund for the iiardy raee which this stern nursery wouUl t()ster and train, to draw wealth from tlie deep.
wliich, in many rcKpocts, iH very Niniilar to Sable iHland :
" Nantickkt — A HUiall crescent of pebbly soil, just liflinjj itself above the love) of the ocean, surrouiuled by a belt of roaring breakers, and destitute of all shelter from the stormy blasts which sweep over it, there is nothing about it ' but doth sutler a sea change.' Its inhaliitantB know hardly anything but of the sea and sky. Rocks, mountains, trees, and rivers, and the bright verdure of the earth, are names only to them, which have no particuhir significance. They read of these as other people road of angels and demi-gods. There may be such tilings, or there may not. Ihif, dreary and desolate as their island may seem to others, it realizes their ideal of what the world should be; and probably they dream that Paradise is just such another place — a duplicate island, whore every wind that blows wafts the spray of tlie sea in their faces!"
LABRADOR.
In order that a correct opinion may bo formed as to tlic natural resources and capabilities of tlio island of Newfoundland, and tlic value of its fisheries, it will be necessary to give a brief notice of the geographical position and physical conffirmation of that island. A brief description will also be given of the Labrador coast, which now tbrms part ol'the government of this colony.
Nevvlbundland lies on the northeast side of the entrance into the Gulf of St. Lawrence. J'rom Canada it is separated by the Gulf; its southwest point approaches Cape Breton within about 46 miles ; to the north and nortliwest are the shores of Labrador, liom wliicii it is divided by the Strait of Belleisle ; its eastern side is washed by the Atlantic ocean. Its form is somewhat triangular, but without any approach to regularity, each of its sides being broken into numerous bays, harbors, creeks, and estuaries. Its circuit is not much less than one thousand miles. Its width at the widest part between Cape Ray and Cape Bonavista is about 300 miles; its extreme length from Cape Race to Griguet bay is about li)ur hundred and nineteen miles, measured on a curv(! through the centre; of the island.
From th(i sea, Newli)undland has a wild and sterile appearance, which is anything but inviting. Its general character is that of a rugged, and, f()r the most part, a barren com. ry. Hills and valleys continually succeed each other, the l<)rmer never rising into mountains, and the latter rarely expanding into plains.
The hills are oi" various characters, forming sometimes long llattopped ridges, ami bcMiig occasionally round and isolated, with sharp peaks and craggy preeipcies. The valleys also vary irom gently sloping de[)ressions to rugged and abrupt lavines. The sea-eliils are tor the most part bold and lofty, with deep wal t close at their ti)ot. Great boulders, or loose rocks, scattered over ihe country, increase the general roughness of its .•ippearance and character. This uneven surface is covered by three diflerent kinils of vegetation, forming districts, to which the names of "woods," "marshes," and "barrens," are respcctivelv assigned.
The whole occupy imlitterently the sides, and even the sumn^' of the hills, the vaUeys, and the lower lands. They are generally i und, however, ch)lhiiig the sid(\s of hills, or the slopes of valleys, or wherever there is any drainage t()r the surplus water. For the same reason, probably, they occur in greatest abundance in the vicinity of the seacoast, around the lakes, and near the rivers, if the soil and other circumstances be also favorable.
Tlio tiTPs of Novvfi^iindliind consist prinri|Killy of pine, sprucp, fir, I'lrcli, (or liiickmatnc,) and I)ircli ; in some districts the nriountain ash, the alder, the; aspen, and a finv others, are also found. The character of the timber varies greatly, according to the nature of the sub-soil and the situation. In some parts, where the woods have been undisturbed by the axe, trees of fiir girth and height may be l()und. These, however, are scattered, or occur only in small groups. Most of the wood is of small and stunted growth, consisting chiefly of fir trees, from twenty to thirty feet in height, and about three or four inches in diameter. These commonly grow so close together that thi'ir twigs and branches interlace from toj) to bottom, and lying indiscriminately among I hem are innumerable old and rotten stumps and branches, or newly-fdien trees. These, with the young shoots and brush-wood, form n tangled and often impenetrable thicket.
Embosomed in the woods, and covering the valleys and lower lands, arc found open tracts, which are called "marshes." These marshes an> not necessarilv low or even level land, but are frecjnently at a considerable height above the sea, and have often an unchdated surface. They are open tracts, covered with moss, sometimes to the de|)th of sevm-al teet. This moss is grc(>n, soft, and spungy; it is bound together by straggling grass, and various marsh |)lanls. The surface is very uneven, abounding in little hillocks and holes, the to|)s of the hillocks having often dry, crisp moss upon them. A boulder or small crag of rock occasionallv protrudes, covered with red or white liciiens, an(l h«>re and there is a bank, on which the moss has become dry and 3'ellow. The contrast of these colors witli the dark velvety green of the W(>t moss, otien gives a peculiarly rich appearance to the marshes. This thii'k coating of moss is precisely like a great spongt> spread over the countr}-. At the melting of the snow in the spring it becomes thoroughly saturated with water, which it long retains, and which ever}' shower of rain continually renews. Numerous small holes and pools of water, and in the low(>r parts, small sluggish brooks or gulleys, are met with in these tracts ; but the extreme wetness of the marshes is du(^ almost entirely to the spungy nature of the moss, the slope of the ground being always nearly suffici<'nt f()r surface draitiage ; and when the moss is stripped oH', dry ground or bare rock is generally found beneath.
The "barrens" of Newfoundland are those districts which occupy the sunmiits of the hills and ridges, and other elevated and exposed tracts. They arc covered with a thin and scrubby vegetation, consisting of berry-bearing plants and dwarf bushes of various sorts, liare patches of gravel and boulders, and crumbling fragments of rock, are frequently met with upon the "barrens," which generally are altogether destitute of vegetable soil.
In describing the general features of the country one of the most remarkable iruist not be omitted, namely, the immense abundance of lakes of all sizes, which are indiscriminately called "ponds." These are found everywhere, over the whole fiice of the country, not only in
summits of the ridges, and the very tops of the hills.
They vary in siz(^ from pools of filty yards i:i diameter to hikes upwards of thirty miles long, and t()nr or fiv(! miles across. The numher of those which exceed two miles in (extent nmst, on tin; whole, amount to several hundreds, while those of .mailer size are absolutely countless.
Taken in connexion with this remarkable abundance of lakes, the total absence of anything that can be called a navigabh; river is at first sight (juite anomalous. The broken and gen(Mally undulated character of the country is no doubt ou(^ cause of the absence of large rivers. Each poiid, or small set of ponds, communicates with a, valley of its own, down which it sends an insignilicanl brook, that pursues the nearest eoursi! to tlu; s(ja. The chiet" cause, however, both of the vast abundance of j)on(ls and the genera] scantiness of the brooks, and smallu(>ss of the extent of each system of drainage, is to be t()un(l in the great coating of moss that is spread over the country. On any great accession of moisture, either from rain or melted snow, the chief pf)rtion is absorbed by this large sponge ; tin; remainder (ills the numerous ponds to th(^ hrink, while only some portion of the latter ruus oft' by the brot)ks. Great periodical Hoods, which would sweep out and deepen the river channels, are almost im])(tssil)le ; while the rivers have not power at any time to breach the harriers between them, and unite their wat(>rs. In dry wc;allier, when tiom evaporation and drainage the pcttids begin to shrink, they are su[)plied by the slow and gradual (Ir.iii.age of iIk; marshes, where the water has been ke])t as in a reservoir, to b(^ given off when re(|uire<l.
The (juantity of ground covered by (resh water in Newl()undlaiul has been estimated, by those aciiuainted with the country, at one-third of the whole island, and this li.rg(^ proportion will not probably be litund an exa^mration. The area oi iNewli)undland is estimated i i.'3,( 1 10,000 acres.
Of the coast of Labrador less is known than of the island of NewIbuiidland, to the government of which it was re-annexed in 1808, having lor sometime previously been under the jurisdiction of Caiuida. It may b(> said to extend Irom the lilii(>th to the sixty-lirst degree of north laliludt^ and from longitude 50^ west, on tlu' Atlantic, to 78^, on Hudson's hay. It has a seacoast of about JOO miles, and is i'rcqueiited, during the summer season, by more than 20,l>00 pc^rsons.
The climate is very severe, and the sr.mraer of exceedingly short duration. It is beli(>ved that the mean temperature of the year does not exceed the freezing-point. Tiio ice does not usually leave the coast l)el<)re .Iuik; ; and young ice begins to lt)rm again on the pools and sheltered small bays in September, when frosts are very liecjucnt at night. Situate in a severe and gloomy climate, and producing nothing
ihfit cm support humnn lifo, this is one of the most barren niul desolate countries in the world. But, as it" in comnrnsation lor the stcrihty ot" the land, the sea in its vicinity teems with lisli. There would be little inducement to visit the desolate cojist of Labrador but i<)r its most vahiabh? and prolific fisheries, which excite the enterprist; and reward the industry of thousands of hardy adventurers who annually visit its rugg(>d shores.
In general, the main land does not exceed the height of five hundred feet ahove the level of the sea, and is often much lower, as are all the islamls, exce])ting CJreat and Little Mecatina. The main land and islands are of granitic rock, bare of trees, excepting at the heads of b;iys, where small spruce and birch trees an; met with occasionally. When not entirely bare, the main land and islands are covered with moss or scrubby spruce bushes; and there are many ponds of dark bog-water, lieciuented by water-fowl and Mocks ot" the Labrador curlew.
The main land is broken into irdets and bays, and fringed with islands, rocks, and ledges, which f"re(juently rise abruptly to within a few feet of the surface, f"rom depths so great as to afl()rd no warning by the lead. In some j)arts, the islands and rocks are so numerous us to form a complete lahyrinth, in which nothing but small egging schooncrH or shallops can find their way.
IJut allhougli the navigation is everywhere more or less intricate, yet there are several harbors tit f(>r large v(!s.sels, which may be safely entered, with proper charts and sailing directions.
The Strait of Belleisle, which separates Newf()nndland from Labrador, is about fifty miles long, and tw«>lve l)road. It is deep, but is not considered a safe passag(^ usually, owing to the strong current which sets ihroNgh it, and the want of harbors. There are no harbors on that part tA' the Newfijundland coast which faces thi3 strait ; and those on the Labrador coast are not considered safe, except the havens near the northern and southern extremities of the strait.
During th(> winter meaths the resident population of Labrador does not exceed eight hunilred souls of European descent. Many of" the while men have intermarried with the Indians. The few widely-scattered families reside at the establishments f()r seal and salmon-fishing, and ii)r f"ur-tr;iding. Seals and salmon are very plentiful ; the latter are of a larger and belter description than those taken on the coast of" Newfoundland.
The furs of Labrador are very valuable. There are fi)ur kinds of foxes; with otters, sables, beavers, lynxes, black and while bears, wolves, deer, (caribou,) ermine, hares, and sev(Tal other small animals, all bearing fur of the best description. The Canadian partridge, and the ])iarmigan, or willow grouse, are also i)lentif"ul.
A muuber of small schooners or shallops, of" about twenty-five tons, are employed in what is termed the " «\gging business." The i^ggs that are' most abundant and most prized are those of the murr; bul llie eggs of" puffins, gannels, gulls, eider ducks, and cormorants, are also collected, llaliliix is the principal market for th(;seeggs, but lliey have been also carried to Boston, and other ports. One; vessel of 25 ions is said to have cleared $800 by this egging business in a favorable season.
In Newfoundland the term " fish " is generally undersnxid to mean codfi.^h, that Ix-ing tlu; great staphs of tlu; island. Every other deseription of fish is designated by its particadar name.
The c()d-(isliery is either prosecuted in large vessels in the open sen, upon the (jratul Bank of Newt()undland, or else in boats or shallops near the coast of the island ; and these modes of fishing are respectively designated the "bank fishery," and the "shore fishery."
II..! Cirand Bank is th(! most extensive sub-marine elevation yei discovered. It is about six hundred miles in length, and in some places five degrees, or two hundred miles, in breadth. The soundings on it are from twenty-five to ninety-live titthoms. The bottom is generally covered with shell-fish. It is fi-e(]U(>nted by immense shoals of small fish, most of which serve as UmkI t()r the cod. Wher(; th(> bottom is i)rincipally of sand, and the depth of water about thirty fathoms, cod are t()und in greatt'st plenty; on a umddy f>ottom cod are not numerous. The best fishing grounds on tiie Cirand Bank are between latitude 42° and 40°.
Those perpetual fi)gs which hang over the Banks, and hover near the southern and eastern portions of the coast of Newfoundland, are supposed to be caused by the tropical waters, swept onward by the fiulf steam, meeting with the icy waters carried down by the inlluence of the northerly and westerly winds from tin; I'olar seas. This meeting takes place o.. the (jrand Jiank. The difierenee in the temjjerature of the opposing currents, and in their acconipanying atmo.s[)lieres, produces both evaporation and condensation, and hence the continual tog.
Tlu^ cod-lisliery on the (Jrand liank begtm a few years after the discovery of Newioundland. in IfjO^, mention is made of several Portuguese vessels having connneiiced this great fishery. In 1517, when th(^ first English fishing vessels ap})earcd on the Banks, there •were then on the fishing ground no less than fifty J^panish, French, and Portuguese ships, engaged in tla; fisheries.
Th(! great value of this fishery was not fully appreciated by the English until about KiKS. In twelve years after, liiere were no less than one hundretl and fifty vessels from Devonshire alone engaged in it. At that period England b(\<>:an to supj)ly the Spanish and Italian markets, and then a rivalry in the fishery sprang up between the English and French. Its importance to England was manifested by the various acts of Parliament which were passed, and the measures adopted fi)r its regulation and protection. Ships of war were sent to convey the British fishing vessels, and protect them while prosecuting the fishery. In 1()7G, some of the large vessels engaged in the Bank fishery crarried twenty guns, eighteen small boats, and from ninety to oiu; hunilred men. This arose from the hostile position assumed by Franc(! with retl'renee to tiiis fishery. The English fishermen had nnich aimoyance and trouble from those of France; notwithstanding which, the British Bank fishery continued to prosper.
Owing to the confusion created by the French revolution of 1792, tlaiir bounties on the Newl()un(lland fisheries W(Me discontinued, and diey imnjcdiately fell oil" greatly. In 1777, no less than 20,UU0 French
From 17{)-J to 1814, the IJriiish lishrry at N('w(i)undland pn)Hj)cr<'d UfiTjitly. 'I'lir nrico in li)roi;;ii inarkt'is was very liiu;h, and dm vahie of lisli ('xi)oitc(i lioin Ncvvtuiindland in 1814 was (\stiinatc<l at lu.'arly iittccn millions of dollars.
At that time the western and sondierii "shore" fishery sj)rMnj; into imj)ortanee, and ollered stron;j[er indncetnents (()r its pursuit hy th(! itihaoitants of Newli)undlaiid than the JJank fishery. The latter was then cliiefly carried on lioni St. John, and to a firnited extent from Bay Hulls, (.'apc^ JJroyle, Terniense, Kenews, and 'I'repassy. It was prosecuted hy parlies from the west of Kngland, who wtTC the last to abandon it. Their "hankers," ns vessels which fish on the (Jrand Bank ore termed, generally carried twcdve men, whose <;ateli for the season was ahoul one thousand (juintals of cod; yielding, also, about four tons of" oil from their livers.
After the peace of 1814, the Itritish Newf()un(lland fisheries sudderdy declined, owing to the competition which sprung up with liie French fishermt'n, luid our own citizens engjigcd in the busiiiess. Many of the chief" merchanls r)f NewliMuidland engag 'd in the trad(>, as also numbers of the principal fishermen, were wliolly ruined ; and it is stated, on good Mulliority, that i)ills of" exchange on England, to the extent of one million of pounds sterling, were returned protested in the years 181.'3, 181(5, and 1817. So great was tli(> extent of \\u' depression in the liritisn fishi'ri<'S of" Nowii)undland, that it was at one time proposed (o remove llic settled population from the island. This, liowevcT, was not carried out, temporary measures being adopted to relieve the presure which bore with such excessive severity upon the staph; trade of" the country.
The bounties granted by France W(M"«' higher even then than at present, and were so iuranged as to exclude all fish of liritish cat(!h from the French, Spanish, and Italian markets. The cllrct of this has been to break up tli(; fishery on the Clrand liank by British vessels, altogether; and that fisluM^v is now prosecuted solely l)y the v(\ssels of France and of" the United States, under the stimulus ot bounties, which have never been given to this fishery by the Britisli.
TIIU HilOItE KISilEHY.
The irdiabitants of Newli)utidl;md prosecute the shore fishery f()r eod in boats, shallops, and schooners, aceoiding to the ability of those; who fit tliern out. In the small boats the fishery is pursued on the coast by the poorer portion of the inhabitants, who generally abandon it fiir the large-boat fisher}' so soon as they accpiire suflicient means. In the small boats the peoj)le are eontined to their innnediate localities, whether th(! fishing is good or bad : with the larger boats they can avail themselves of such of the fishing grounds us offer the greatest inducements.
A (air average catch fJ^r small boats is from forty to fifty (juintals per man f()r each season ; f()r the large l)oats, from eighty to one hundred quintals per man. The ex])cnse of" the large boats is about fifty per
At most of the fishing stations on the <'oast of NewliiMndlaiid the cod-lisliery commeiuM-s early in June, and by the lOili of August may bo said to be over, f()r, although the peo|)le eontiiuK^ it l()r two months longer, the f)roeeeds sometimes fail to pay even the expenses. The WaiU of other employment is the |)rineipal reason why it is not abat\doiicd in August. On sonu; [)arls of tlu; coast, however, the coil-lishery is pursued with much suceoss during the whole year.
The small boats land their catch every night, when llie fish are s|ilit and salted on shore. The large boats, when fishing near home, generally land their eateh and salt it in tho same way; but when at a distance from home th(>y split and salt on board lioin day to day, until they have completed their fare. Kour times the (luantily of split fish, as compared with the article wlii'ii caught, may be slowed in tiie same space.
fish and oil.
The cod-fishery being generally the most certain in its residls, has hitherto bccMi fi)llowed as the staph; and prevailing fishery at i\ewli)UH(llatid ; while the seal, the herring, the salmon, the mackerel, and the whale fisheries, have been prosecuted but a I'omparaiively short time, and to a limited extent, in those loealilic s when; they were first commenced. They are considered of s«ich minor im|)ortauee (with the exception of the seal-lishciy) that no pi rmanent ai rangenieiits havi^ yd bct.'U made tiir their development throughout the whole fishing seas(»n.
(treat shoals of herrings visit the coasts of Newfoundland in the early part of" ever}' season to depositc their spawn, when u sullicient quaiilily l<»r bait only is t ken by thi; resident lislic rmen. On the southern and western ci'i-is of Newliauullaml, liowevt r, tu rrings arc caught to sotne extent tor exnoitalion, but not by any means in such <|nantities as might bvi xpected, considering their wonderful abinuhinee. The inhabitants ilo not pursue the herring fishery as a distinct braucli of business : so many as are retjuired by themselves liir bait in the cod-fishery, and to supply the French "bankt>r>," app' u^ to be about tlic extent A' the <jiiantity taken in general. It is no lihomiiion thing on the «;.ulli and west coasts of' New!()undlan(l liir lain ireds of barrels of live he: rings of good (juahty to be turned out ot the scintvs in which they are taken, the people not deeming them worthy of the salt and the labor of cutini'.
This fishery might be made almost as productive as that for cod, and ])erha[)s more valuable, by tin; adoption of an improved system of curing and packing, which would rentier tla; fish fit l()r ihos;; markets from which it is now excluded by reason oi being imperli-'cily cured.
THE SALMON FISHERY.
This is a valuable fishery in Newfoundland, but it is not prosecuted so extensively as it might be, nor are the fish so valuable, wlien cured, as they ought to be, hom the manner in which they are split and salted. This branch of business, under better management, could be rendered much more extensive and profitable.
Although mackerel are said to abound on the southern shores of Newi()undland, as also north of Cape Ray, and thence up to the Strait of Belleisle, during the summer season, yet this branch of the fisheries is neglected by the residents of the island. They have no outfit for the mackerel fishery whatever, and this excellent fish seems to possess perfect impunity on those coasts of Newlbundlund which it frc(jucnts, going and returning as it pleases, without the least molestation.
It is believed that the whale fishery might be mucli more extensively pursued from Newfoundland than at present, particularly on the western coast, and in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, where it is prosecute<l to a limited extent by the hardy fishermen of Gasp(3, without competition.
About fifty years since, the capture of seals on the ice in early spring, which is popularly called " the seal fishery," first began at Newlbundland. It languished, lio\v(!v<'r, .until 1825, since which it has gone on increasing, year by year ; and when successful, it is the most profitable business pursued there.
The mode of prosecuting this fishery is as follows : The vessels equipped l()r the seal fishery are from sixty to one hundred and eighty tons each, with crews of twenty-five to f()rty-five men; they ar(> always prepared l()r sea, with the necessary e(juipment, in March every year. At that season the various sealing crews combine, and by th(Mr united efl()rts cut the vesstils out of the ice, iti which they have firmly I'rozen during the winter. The vessels then proceed to the field ice, pushing their way through the r>penings or working to windward of it, until the}' meet it, covered witii vast herds of sc'als. The animals are surprised by the seal-hunters while sleeping on the ice, and killed either with fir(docks or bludgeons, the latter being the prelii^rable mode, as firing distur[)s and frightens the lu^rd.
The sealing vessels during storms of snow and sleet, which at that soasoM they must inevitably ex[)(;rience, are exposed to fl-arful dangers. MaUj V(!ss<ls have bfujn cruslusd to pieces by the tremendous power oi vast masses of ice closing in uj)on tliem, and in some instances whoU;
crews have perished. Storms which occur during the night, and when the vessel is entangled among heavy ice, are described as truly terrible ; yet the hardy Newfoundland seal-hunter is ever anxious to court the exciting yet perilous adventure.
The vessels having completed their fare, or having failed to do so before the ice becomes scattered, and all but the icebergs lias been dissolved by the heat of the advancing summer, return to their several ports ; and it sometimes happens that vessels which arc successful immediately after falling in wjth the ice, make two trips in that season.
The fat, or seal-blubber, is separated from the skins, cut into pieces, and put into frame- work vats, where it becomes oil simply by exposure to the heat of the sun. In three or four weeks it flows freely; the first which runs off is the virgin or pale oil, and the last the brown oil: under these respective designations they are known as the ordinary seal-oil of commerce.
Besides the mode of seal-hunting on the ice above described, seals are also caught at Nc^wfoundland and Labrador, on tiie plan first aiK)pted — that is, by selling strong nets across such narrow channels as they are in llie habit of passing through, in which they become ♦•mangled.
First. The liritish merchant, or owner, residing in some cases in <Jr(!at Britain, but in general on the island, who is the prime mover in id) the business of the colony.
Second. The middh; rniui, or planter, as hf! is absurdly termed, probably frctui all the original English settlements in America having received the olfifial dcsigimi;.)!! ot' [)lantations.
The iiicrchaiil finds the ship or vessel, provides nets, line, provisions, and every other recjuisile t(>r prosecuting ihe fisheries; these ho. furiiisiies to the phintcr. In some instances the planter owns the vessel, atid provides his own outfit. It is his diity in all cases to engage the (•r(!vv and to siiperintt'od iIh; labor of catching and curing.
in the seal fishery prosecmted in vessels, one-half the prf)fit of the voyage goes to the inerch.int or owner who provides and ecjuips the vessel, the other half being divided among tlu; crew, jicsides the profits on the extra stores or clothing furnished to the crew. \hc merchant or owner dcducls I'roin each of them lioni six to eight dollars as berthmoney. To this ilicre are occasional exceptions in favor of (>xperienced men, who are either charged less, or get their berths free, in consequtjnce of being abh; marksmen; and then, by way of distinction, they art; ciiUed "bow-gunners."
The Labrador fishermen are in general shipped or hired on shares, or, as they call it, on "half their hand," being fully found by the planter in everything necessary to prosecute the fishery during the season. This is also the case, in some instances, with the fishermen engaged for carrying on the shore fishery of Newfoundland.
The Ibllowing return of the vessels equipped for the seal fishery, from the port of St. John only, and the number of seals taken by them during tlie last ten years, will give some idea of the extent and value of this bran(ch of business in Newfoundland :
382,083
The wliol(? outfit lor the seal fishery from the island of Newfoundland in the spring of the year 1851, amounted to 323 vessels, with an aggregate of 29,545 tons, manned by 11,377 men.
last seven years, is estimated at 500,000 per annum.
The Ibllowing is a comparative statement of the qnnntity and value of the staple articles of jiroduce exported from the island of Newfoundland in the years 1849 and 1850 :
4,276,876
Tlie extent of the foreign commerce of this colony is manifested by the statements which Ibllow, showing the numbers, tonnage, and men, of the vessels which entered and cleared at Newfoundland in the years 1850 and 1851:
The population of Newfoundland, by the last census, in 1845, was 96,295 souls. On the 1st of January, 1852, the population was estimated at 125,000, of whom 30,000 were engaged directly in the fisheries. In 1845 the number of fishing boats, &c., was as follows:
TRADE BETWEEN NEWFOUNDLAND AND THE UNITED 8TATES.
The following statement furnishes a full account of the quantity and value of the staple products of Newfound land, exported from that colony to the United States in the years 1849, 1850, and 1851 :
The whole of the foregoing articles were exported from Newf()undland to the United States in British vessels only, no oilier vessels whatsoever being employed in their transport.
United States is shown thus:
Return of (he quantity, value, rate, and amount of duty paid on yrincijial ""'rks, the growth, produce, or manufacture of the United iSfafrs, imtcd into the colony of Ncufoundland, during the year ending f)th
An examination of the preceding table shows that the principal articles imported into Newfoundland from the United States are precisely those which give greatest employment to our people.
The value of salted beef imported in 18f)l was S24,C90; of bread, 825,923; of bricks, $3,895; of butter, $43,987; of cheese, $4,775; of Indian corn, $1,650; of corn meal, $24,318; of wheat flour, $4,75,330; of apples, $3,785; of pitch and tar, $3,333; of salted pork, $183,085; of rice, $1,877; of tobacco, $54,535; of staves, $3,950; of wooden wares, $7,696; and of wolh^n manufactures, $11,736.
The total value of articles imported into Newfoundland in 1850, being the growth, produce, or miuiufacture of the United Slates, was $767,550; the value of such artich\s imported in 1851 was $954,266, showing an increase in the latter year of $186,716.
The following abstracts of the trade of Newlbundland show, comparatively, tiie rclntion which the trade with the United States bore to the whole trade of tfie island with all countries in the year 185J.
The first abstract which follows, shows the number and tonnage of the vessels entered inward in the colony in 1851, with the value of the goods imported in such vessels, distinguishing British from foreign :
This table shows, that next to great Britain and the northern colonies, the largest amount of imports into Ncwfoutidlinid is fronj tfie United States. It exceedfjd the nnportalions from tlie neighl)oring colonies last year by $59,000, and amounted to nearly one-half of all importations from every foreign country.
The succording abstract exhibits the number and tonnage of the vessels cleared outward from Newfoundland in 1851, with the value of tlie articles exported in such vessels, distinguishing British from foreign:
4,801,345
From the preceding statement it will be seen that the exports from Newl()uri(llim(l to the United Slates have but a small vidiie, as compared with ihi' articles imported from this country. For the staple products of Newiuimdland exported to Spiiiii, Portugnl, Italy, and the Brazils, amoiiiiliiig, in the whole, to $1,667,100, that colony receives a consideriihle |)rop()rtion of its payment in ready money, a large share of which finds its way to our country for beef iuul j)oik, pitcii and tar, bread.stufls and tol);u'co. The l)alanc;c of tr;ule bein<j; so largely against Ne\vf()un(llan(l, in its dealings with us, creates much difHcuky in that colony, and titrccs it to deal more extensively with European countries which purchiise its products, than it would do if the trade with us were more ne.irly upon ;iii equality.
In 1850 the number of vessels which cleared from tiie colony of Newfounillaiid was 1,102, of the burden of 129,832 tons. The total value of the viirions articles exported in these vessels is thus .stated. British $4,701,200; tiwign, $117,590; total, i54.87S.850.
The vahie of inijiorts at Newfoundland in 1850 was $4,330,585, and in 1851 was $4,455,180, being an increase in the value of goods imported in the latter year of $108,595. There wiis, therefiae, an ir»creased importation, with diminished exports, during the past season in Newfoundland.
feathers.
No accurate account of the v.alue of the exports of Labrador can be furnished, l)ccaus(^ there are no custom-houses or jjublic olliccrs of any dcscriplion on that wild and barren coast; but the lidlowiii/j; estimate is given as an approximation to the annual value of the exports. It has been carefully made up from the best and most peilicl infli inalion that can be obtained:
The salmon fisheries average, annually, about (hirly thousand tierces, not more than two hundred tierc(>s of which titid llieir way to Newfoundland. The salmon ( x|)orted from Ni;wti)undland are almost exclusively fhe catch of that island.
The herring fishery at Labrador is carric^d on by tishermen from Nova Scotia, Canada, Newl()undland, and the United States, and are shi{)ped directly liom the coast to u market.
Of the seal-oil, seal-skins, furs, and feathers, a very small share finds its way to Xewjliundlaiid. Merchants and traders on ihe coast buy them in exchange (I)r their goods, b(?ing h-ss bulky and more valuable than fish. The tratling vi-ssels do not buy many cod on the coast, preferring the other commodities named.
Since the treaty of I'aris, in 1814, the Labrador fishery has increased more than six-li)ld, in consecjuencc! (tf the (isheiinen of Newfoundland being ti)rc(>d by French competition from the fishery on tlie Grand Bank, and also driven from the fishing grounds, now occupied almost exclusively by the French, between Cape Kay and Cape St. John.
Lvtst.
It is thf most Cfisitern harbor in North Amt rica, only l,n()5 miles f'istfiiit froH' (Jalwjiy. on the west coast of Ireland, l)(iii<,' the .-^liortcst »>ossil)l(' (ILslaiici; hctwccn llie coiilinents of Europe and America. As It lies directly iu the track of the Atlantic steamers betwei-n the United States and Kiiro|)e, public attention ha.M naturally been direct<'d towards its harbor as a posil ion of promineni ;ind .xliikiuu; importance on this side the Allauiic. It therelijre deserves HomeliiiuL; more than a passing notice.
It has recently been proposed that St. John should he established ns a port »»l' call l<)r at least one liiK! of Allaiuic stejuners, and that the intelligence hnni^ht by this line from thi; Old World should be thence tjansmitted by telegraph to the whole of North America.
Th(! route li)r the line of the jjroposed telegraph t'lom t^t. John to ('ape Itay, the southwestern extremity ot'Ne\\i()undl;ui(l, was cJiplorcd during die latit .• part ol" the season of 1851, in a very energetie and succ-'cssful mannti, by Mr. (lishorne; audit was l()uiid, that beyond the (juesljon of expense, there were no unusual obstacle*; to prevent the eonstructiiiii of the Iin(\ From Cape Uay to Ca[)e N(»rlh, at the noitheastein exncniity of Ca[)e Bretot», the distance is ti)rty-eight miles, across ihe !j;reat entrance to the (Jiilf of St. [iawreiice. It is pr(*posed thai tili graphic.- communication shall be maintained across this passage by a submarine cable, similar to that now successfully in operation between I'lngland and I'^rance. Fioin C.-ape North to the town of Sydney, in (-ape IJreton, the distance is but short ; and Sydntjy already conimunicates by telegraph with every place in Amerieii to which the wires are extended.
Another proposition is to carry the submarine ( i!»le at once from Cape l{.ay to ihe east cape of l*rince Kdward island; then traversing a portion oil hat i>laiid, to pass across the straits of Northumberland into iNew r.iitiisw iek, theri^ to connect at the fiisi <:onvenicnl station with all the It leu'iaph lines in North America.
It is alli g((l thai a fast steamer, lia\iiig on boiird only the small (]uantily ol coals which so short a trip would r( i|uiit', iiiiirlit (M'oss the Atlantic hoin (lalway to St. .Tohn in liv(> (l:iys ; and, if >o, inforniation I'ronj all paits of Kiirope could hr. disseminated o\cr the whole of our Union, even to the Pacific — from Moscow to San Francisco — within six days.
The harbor ofSl. .John is one of the b(\<t in all Newtiuindland, where good harbors abound. It is li)rmed between two niounliiiiis, the eastern poitits of which have an entrance calleil "the .\;irrows."
From the circumstance of this harbor being only accessible by one large ship ai a time, and from tlu; numerous batteries and l()rtilications erected lor ils proti'ction, St. John is a place of very considerable strength. There are about twelve fathoms water iu niid-ehaiiiiel of the entrance, w hich, although but one hundred I'alhonis wide, is only one liundriul latlioms long; and, when the Narrows are passed, ihe harbor trends off to the southwest, aHbrtling ample space li)r shij)ping, with good anchorage, in perfect shelter.
Som(^ vi'iy interesting testimony was taken betl)re the Legislative Assembly of Newfoundland in IS-iO, with rclirence lo the advantages uf St. John as a port of call lor Atlantic steamers. Among other
respectable sliipmastcT, who stated as follows :
•'I am a niastcr-iiiariner, and I have hc'en en^a^'ed iti the trade fortytour y<'ars. 1 have arrived at Nirwfoundlarid tVoin Kiij^laiid and foreign countries duriiij^ eac.h mouth in the year. The eoasi ol" Newfoundland, from Cone(>pii()n hay to Csipv. Race, is <i fine, hold shore ; there is not a rock or shoal to take up a vessel in making tlu; land. The harbor of St. John is sali; and commodious; it is as liiu^ a hari)or as any in the colony; thn water is deep enough for a linc-of-batlle ship. 77tcrc are no pcrcrjuil 'r thin. The light-house on Cape Spear afl()r(ls a fine light, which can l)e nreu iipwarils of twenty miles at sea. Tlure is a good harbor light, also.
"The norlhern ice along the eastern side of N(!wfbundland is generally to be f<)inul in greatest (piantities during the months of March and April. The iee in April is softer, mor(! honey-eombeil, than in March; by April, the great body of field-ice has generally passed to the soutljward, and is found as far as the bank off Cape Race. I have, as a master, made several voyages to Nova Scotia, the coast of which is a very dangridus one, Irom the shoals that lie of!" it at a considerable distance.
"Fogs prevail along the coast of Newfoundland and Nova Scotia chiefly during the months of May, June, and July ; they are lliiekest on the lianks. Tlios(' that are accpiainted with the navigation of Newibutidland boldly run through the f()g tiir tlu; land, and fiuil ilu? atmosphere clear within a mile, or a mile and a half, of this shore;; and tht» gatety and b(}ldne;is of our coast pi'rmit the running clos(.' inshore with impunity.
"Between St. John .and Cape Race,* a distance of about filly miles, there are seven harbors, into which vessels of any si/e (jould enter easily and lie saiily. A straght line from LivcTpool to ll.ilil'ax would out .'^l. John harbor. From St. John to Cape Clear is 1,700 miles, or thereabouls."
In a representation made very recently by the peoj)le of St. .J(»hn to the imj)erial goverum<'nr, it is s(;t forth that the geographical position of" St. John is the nio.-t eastern land on the American side of the Atlantic, situated on a promontory directly in the route between the oth«T North American pro\iiiees and the United Kingdom, and distant from Irel.ind IjtiG.') miles only, obviously points it out as a pt)rt of call for Atlantic steameis. 'i'liat in addition to its favorable j)osition, the harbor of St. John |K)ssesses the advantages of being capacious yet landlocked; of" haviug a depili of "water and absence of tides which enable the largest ships tliat float to enter and leave it at all hours; of being easy of access and Irei; iiom shoals or hidden dang("rs, as none exist
•A bcaron lias rocciilly l)ncn errrtpd on Capo lliico, on tlip soiittiorn conttt of Newfoundland, l)y tlic iiii|i(.'ri!il irovoriiiiiunt. 'I'lio totui licit^lit of tlic hcucoii ih fj.') ti'i't. It Rtunds on Ui<* rit<in^ {;ruiiii(l, 141) t<M:t liit^li, iiiiriiL'diutuly buliind C'a|i(! Kut'u rock ; so Uiiit the top of th« bearon is at an cli'Valuiii (il'ljll.l A-ol above tlie level of the sea. It is of hcxiii,'()nal Hha|>e, ISi foot in diameter at the base, and 1 1 feet on each liico. It tapi^rs upwards to a height of 56 foot, wht-re its diameter is but ^ fe(;t 9 inchcH, and is then siirinounted by a skeleton ball 9 feet in diameter — m ikiii},' \\h: total heiijht (if) feet, 'i'he faces of ibi- beaeon are painted alternately white and red, and llie ball at the top red. 'J'lie Cnpi' I'iiie lij.'lit Iiouho is also painted white and red, but in horizontal alternate stripes; whereas, Cape Race beacon is puiiitcd in vertical alternate stripes.
lllaco beacon it
along the lino of bold const b(;t\vcrn Capo St. Frnncis nnd Cnp*; Race, whicli may every\vh<?rc be approached with siifety. It is, then;|oro, said to b(! niiinili-st that the port of St. John pre.-enis fn(i lilies and conveniences li)r .sl(!amers which cannot be surijassed in any |)orl in th(! world. There is said to be less log on tlic! coMHt of this part of Ncwfoiuidlaiid than on the Atlantic coast of Nova Scotia ; and oftentimes when the l()g is thick on the Banks of N(!wli)nM(llan(l, this coast irt free from it.
A good land fall is of great value to tiio navigator, and it is nssnrtod that none belt r can be liaind for trans-Atlantic steamers than St. John, as the royal mail steamers li)r Halifax usually endeavor to inakc! the land about thirty mih-s to tlu; southward of St. John. Hence it is arguoti that their call at St. John would detract nothing from their safety, and hat httle from their dispatch.
All history and experieiic(! prove that the nrces'-ities of commerce seek out the nearest and shortest routes for travel ai<d business. Calais and Dover have been the points of embarkation between Kngland and the <;ontinenf of Europi* ever since the; invasion of Jiritaia by 'Ja\sar, and fi)r the sole reason that they are tluj nearest po. ts bet • cen th( island ot"(ireat Ihitain and the cotilinent. Where Ca's;a crossed th* straits of Dover, the submarine telegra[)h now transmits iiitelligcii^c from every portion of Knrop<', on its way to North America. A glance at the map of the world shows that in all time j)ast, th(> point o " islands or continents which approach the nearest havi; i)econi<' th' hi^iiways of their intercourse and commerce. Cape Surium wuc, tli(> point of concentration t(»r tiie Irach* of Crecce, because it was the nearest point to Kgyj)t. 'I'lie Appian Way was cxteiah'd from Capua to Ih undusium, on the Adriatic gulf, because that was the nearest good harbor, near th(! narrowest part of the Adriatic sea, in the most dire cl line from llonu! to C'onstantinoj)le. In modern times, that most wonderful and costly work, tin? liritaiuiia tubular bridge across thi; M( nai strait, has b(!en ereeted at vast (>xpeiise, simply because; it is in tli(> mo.sl direct tine from London to Dublin aiul Ireland.
Under tla; impulse given to connnunication between Kuroj)(» and America by the last ocean steamers now trave-'ino; the Atlantic with speed and eertainly, and the (luickening inline;: .• f tlu^ eleetric telegraph, spreading its network of wires over tla; Uiiglh and breadth of the continent l()r the instant communication of intelligence, it is but reasonable to believe that tla; n(;arest points lu'tween the continents of Kurope and America — between the west oast of Ireland and the castertmiost point of Newfoundland — will be established as the highway li>r communication between this country and Kuropis to insure the transmission of iut(^lligence in the shortest j)<)ssil)le space. Nature appears to have decreed this ; and it only remains l()r man to carry out, in the most advantageous manner, what has b(;en thus decreed.
The legislature ot Newfoundland appears to be (idly alive to the imjM>rtance of the geographical position of the harbor of St. .John, and lirmly impressed with the belief that, by means of steam communication with Ireland, it must be the point from which, without dispute, the earliest and latest intelligence will be transmitted between Europe and America. Influenced by this impression, it has made liberal otters to
parties who will undertake to make St. John a port of call for trans* Atlantic steamers, and will establish a line (if electric telegraph from thence to Cnpe Breton, within a given period. B(\^i(les other advantages, it has voted to pny a bonus of $7,500 tor each one hundred miles of telegraph line, and $.12,500 per annum for fiv(.« years to a line of steamers, calling twice each month at the port of St. .John.
are thus described :
At Cape Bonavista there is a powerful light, revolving every two minutes, red and white alternatelv ; elevation, one hundred and fifty feet above the sea; seen at a distance of thirty miles. Tliis light is in longitude 52^ 8' west, latitude 48<3 42' north.
At Ctipe Spi-ar, distant I'rom Cape Bonavista seventy-three miles, there is a powerful revolving light, showing a brilli.inl Ihish at intervals of one miiuitc ; elevation, two hundred and seventy-Hve fi-et ;ibove the sea; seen in ;ill directions seaward at the; dist;uice of thirty miles. In longitude 52^ 37' 5" west ; latitude 47° 30' 20" north.
At C;ipe ifitce is fixed a beacon-tower, in lonijitude 52=' 59' west, latitude 40^ 40' north ; distant from Cape Spenr liliy-six miles. This beacon-tower is hexiigonal, painted in verticid stripes, r(.'(l and wliite alternalely. It has a sk<4eton ball at the top, pointed red; its height is sixty-five fi''t, and it stands on ground one hundred .and f()rty fiL'ct above the level of"th(! sen.
At Cape I'ine, distant from Cape Race thirty-two inili's, is a powerful revolving liiilil, three times a minute; its elevation nbovf; tlif; sea is three hundu d and two feet, and it can be seen from all |)i)ints to seaward at the distance of thirty miles. Longitude 53^ 32' 12" west ; latitude 4(5^ 37' 12" north.
In iiddilion to tliese lights, there is a good fixed liulit at the entrnnee of" the liai l)iir oi' St. .John, on the southern head, in longitude 52^ 40' 50" west, and latilu'le 47° 33' 50" north. In f()ggy weather a heavy eighteen-pound jiun is fired by day every half hour, thus enabling vessels to I tin at all times tor the Narrows, the \vater being deep and the shore bold. The greatest distance between any two lights on this coast is eiiihty-eiglit miles; and as each light can be seen thirty mih-s in clear wcailier, there would be but twenty-eight miles to run without
As furnishing an insight into tho general character of the trade and business not only of the port of St. Jt^hn, but of Newfoundland gen^^rally, the following statements of imports and exports at that port are here submitted.
In addition to the quantity of cod mentioned above as having been exported during the year 1851, there were in store at St. John on the 20th of January, 1852, no less than 181,000 quintals ready for exportation the coming spring.
The value of the imports into the port of St. John from the United States during the year 1851 was as follows: In British vessels, $6G0,G85; in American vessels, §^75,G50; total value of imports from the United States in 1851, $736,335.
The l()llowing statement compris(;s an account of the various descriptions of articles imported into the port of St. John from Canada in the years J850 and 1851, with the (quantity and value of each article :
300,322
The imports into the port of Si. John in 1851 from the British West Indies are thus stated : Molasses, 20,063 cwt. ; value, $49,050. Rum, 49,4H gallons; value, $21,595. Brown sugar, 2,188 cwt.; value, $10,780". Total value from British West Indies, $82,325.
From Spain, the imports at St. John in 18.01 were as follows : Corks, 11 cwt.; value, $115. Feathers, 5,93G lbs.; value, $430. Dried fi-uit, 36 cwt. ; value, $255. Olive oil, 424 f^allons; value, 210. Salt, 482,504 bushels ; value, $38,055. Wine, 3,325 gallons ; value, 84,700. Total value of imports Irom Spain in 1851, 844,305.
The cfiange in the navigation liiws of Great Britain enme into operation on th(! 5th January, 1850; and our vessel?^ immediately availed thc'inselve.s of the new deseription of freights whicii th(> new arrangements oiI(?red to them at N(nvti)undland. It will no doubt be interesting to observe the eourse of tralKc which our vessels have adopted with respect to this colony during the past year, when the business became better understood. The i()llowing statement, showing the number of our vessels which arrived at the port of St. John during tiie year 1851, with the places whence they came, and the nature of the cargoes they brought — as, also, the ports for which lliey sailed, and the nature of
Except occasi<<nally in the months of February and Marcli. wiien in severe seasons tiie ice is on the coast of Newfoundliind, the harbor of St. John is always easy of access. In order to show the n-uribcr of vessi 's which have entered and cleared at St. John in (wcry month of the year during the years 1848, 1849, and 1850, the following statements have been published in the cohmy :
Il is believed that the returns of tlie trade and commerce of this important colony are more full and correct tiian ever belbre presented to Congress. They were compiled Irom trade returns of the customs, which are annually made uj), in a very correct and comprehensive manner — as much so as iliose of any commercial port on this continent. My thanks are presented to honorable Mr. Little, member of the Provincial Assembly, l()r much valuable inlcu'mation relating to the trade, resources, and great injj)()rtance of the fishing interest of diis colony ; to the honorable Mr. Kent, the collector of the port ; aiid to several other gentlemen.
Tho island of Prince Edward, ibrmorly called St. John's island, is situated in (i deep recess on the western side of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. It is separated from New IJruuswiek and Nova Scotia by the straits of Northumberland, which, at their narrowest part, are only nine miles wid(!.
This ishmd is somewhat crescent-shiiped ; its length, measured on a line ihrniifih its eenlre, is about one hundred and thirty miles ; its greatest breadth, thirly-li)iu miles ; in its narrowest part, near the centre, it is only f()ur miles wide.
The east point of Prince Edward Island is distant twenty-seven miles from Cape linton, and one hundred and twenty-five miles from Cape Ray, the nearest j)oint of Newfinuidland. Owing to the manner in which tiiis island is intersected by the sea, there is no part of it distant more than eight miles from tide-water.
The whole sinlace of tlu; island consists of gentle undulations, never rising to hills, nor sinking to absolutely flat country. The soil is a bright reddish loam, (piite ficc fiorn stone. The entire island is a bed of rich alluvium, ("levated from tiie sea l)y some convulsion of nature, or else left dry by the gradual recession of the waters of the gulf. Tliire ari" n)any beautiful bays and safe harbors ; and wherever a brook is not t()und, good water can always be had within eighteen feet of the surliic(,', by sinking a well.
The soil is admirably adapted for agricultural purposes ; it is easily worked, and there is abundance of sea-manure everywhere at hand. There are no stones to impedi; the plough ; in fact, stone is so scarce that such as is recjuired for building pur[)oses is imported from Nova Scotia. Wheat, oats, barley, and potatoes are staple products, and are produced abundantly.
The area of Prince Edward Island is estimated at 2,134 square miles, C(iual to 1,3().'3,000 acres. According to a census taken in 1848, the population amounted to 62,678 souls, being in the proportion of one 8(jul to every twenty-two acres of land, or nearly thirty souls to the square mile.
The climate is neither so cold in winter nor so hot in summer as that of Lower Canada, while it is free from the f^)2fs which at certain seasons envelope portions of the shores of Nova Scotia and Cape Breton. Its climate is very nearly the same as that of Cape Breton, but more equable ; the seasons are very nearly the same. It is exceedingly healthy in every part.
This island was discovered by Schasliaii Cabol, on Si. John's da (24Ui June,^ 1497, and liicnci! rocciivcd the name of St. John. TIic English look very liuh; notice ol" this (hscovery, ahhon;L;h nuide nndcr their own Hag ; but the Gulf of St. Lawrence was very soon visited by the Hns(|nes, Bretons, and Normans, on account of its lisheries.
of the gulf, and of this island.
It contiinietl to be the resort of French fislMnnien \Hitil iGf)'], when it was leased by anth(»rity of the King of France to the Sienr Doubletti', and his associates, as a fisiiing-station. As the French did not encourage settlements near their lisliing-stations, any more than the English, very litti(; progress was made in its colonization, until after the treaty of Utrecht, in 1713. Its settl(;ment and agricultural improvement were then encouraged, in ordtT that the islan<l might l()rm a granary (()r the suj)ply of the fortress of Lonisbourg, upon which so much money was exj)ended.
At the taking of Liuiisbonrg, in llfiS, was stipulated in the articles of capitulation, that llii; Frencii of St. John's island should lay down their arms. The island was shortly after taken possession of by a hotly oi' British troops. It then contained ten thousand French inhabitants.
After the treaty of i'aris, in 1703, by which France ceded this island, with her other North American ('oionies, to England, the Frendj inhabitants were driven oiY, as on all occasions they evinced great hostility to the Eiiglish.
A survey of this island was completed in 17()(), when it was divided into sixty-seven townships, nf about twenty llionsand acres each. The whole of' ihese townships (with the exceptiou of two, then occuj)ie(l Jjy 0 fishing company) were disposed of in London, in one day, by way of lottery, the tickets being distributed among ofliccrs of the army and navy who had served in the preceeding war, and other persons who had claims upon the governnienl.
In 1770 I'rinee Edward Island was separated fi-om Nova Sc '«tia, and erected into a separate colony, with a lieutenant governor, an executive; and legislative council of nine members, ;iiid a house of asseuibly of fifteen members. It has since ('ontinned I" mjoy representative institutions; the execntivt; and legislative council has i)een divided into two distinct councils, and very recently the principles of responsibh; government hav'e been established in this coloiiy.
The crown has very little land tiir sale in this colony — meri'ly the residue of the two townshi[)s that were not dis[)ose(l of by the lottery. The price at whitOi small lots an; sold i about three dollars per acre. The proprietors rarely sell any of their lanch : but when they do, the price is about live dujliirs pr, acre. Farm Inis are usually leased at twenty cents per acre [)er annum, l")r terms "[' sixty-one and ninety-
do not grant this privilege.
By the census return of 1848, it appears that the nunibf>r of ficres held in fe(! simple by occupants, was 280,049 ; under l(!ase, 330,293 acres ; by written demise, 31,312 acres ; by verbal agreement, 38,786
Tlu! croj) of 18-17 was as liillows: vvlu-at, 210,787 hiisliels ; barley, 75,r>i2J bushels; oals, 74f),383 bushels; potatoes, 731,575 bushels; lunii[)s, 153,933 bushels; clover-seed, 14,900 pounds; and hay, 45, 128 Ions. Tli(^ (|uaiilify of potatoes in 1847 was much smaller than in [)revious years, owing to the preval(;nc(! of the potato rot that season.
The 6t(;ek oftlie island in 18-18 was as follows: horses, 12,845; neat cattle, 49,310; sheep, 5)2,875; and hof^'s, 19,083. [n that year there were in the island 109 (•hurehes, 182 scliool houses, 13 breweries and distilleries, 110 grist mills, 27 carding mills, 139 saw mills, and 246 threshing machines.
In 1849 there were 88 new vessels built in this colony, of the burden of 15,902 tons; in 1850 there were 93 new vessels built, of the burden (»f 14,307 tons; in 1851 there were 89 vessels built, of the burden of 15,(577 tons. A large proj)ortion of the vessels built on this island are int(!n(lf tl ex[)ressly l!)r sale in Newibundland, where they find a ready market, being well suited l()r sealing and the lisheries.
On the 31st D(>ceml)er, 1850, the number of vessels owned and registered in Prince Edward Island was310, of the burden ol" 27,5)32 tons. On the 31st December, 1851, the vessels owned and rcgisten'd in the island amou'iled to 323, of the burden of '")1,410 tons.
The extent of the import and export trade of this island will be best understood by the fiillowing comparative statement of the \ aluc of imports and exports in 1849 and 1850 :
325,989
The wide diflerence between the value ot' imports and thai, of exports is made up by th( salt^ of n(?vv vessels in (Jreat Briti'iu and Newfoundland— an account of which cannot be ascertained.
By a return published at Newlliundland, it appears that in the year 1851, the numbi'r of new v<>ssels built at Prince Edward Island, and sokl in Newl()undland, was 10, of the aggregate burden of 1,921 tons; and that the sales of such vessels amounted to $55,310.
Tfic Jolhm-inrr is k Hlntcmcnt of ihn i/uantlfif, rate, and amouul ofthiti/ jiuiil on all nrtidin t/ir, irnnrt/h jiioihicr, or minnifnrtnrr of llic Unittil S(nkH% nnimitrd into ihr colnnij of Piiiiii: I'jihnird IMdiid, in liJ.Ol.
'I'lic toijil v;ihic ot' the iirlii-lcs on which the iibovc (hity <>t" .S14,<I'J0 Wits paid Wits .'?77,!S.0(^, the whole of which Wiis imporlcd into Prince Kdwiird Isliiiid in British vessels, witli the exci^ptioit ot" hk rcii;tn(Hs(^ of'the viilue ol" .S3,l2()(), in iin Ann riciin hoilom.
In JiS.OO, the Viihieofiirlicle.s, the gfowlli, produce, and inannliictme ol" the I'liited Sl.'itcs, imported into I'rince Kdwiird Ishiitd, w;is only S4"J,1 13, ii[)on which duties \\v\v piiid iiniountin^ to S(>,4!20.
The wide diilerencc; between lh(! value of imports tiom the United ►Stiites in 1850 ;ind 18ol, Jiriscs Irom the liict that in 1851 the duties on imports were i>re;illy reduced irom the rates of the pr(H-eding yt iir, aitd hence the incrciised Viiku; of im[)orts in 1851. With llie hi,i,di riitc of duties in 1850, only S0,420 was received on articles of American production ; while in 1850, with diminished r;ites, tht^ duties on Americiin production were incrciised to $14,020 in the ii_ti;j:re,c:ate.
It is it tiiir inlercnce, liorn this st;ite of iiicts, that Prince Edward Isliind would take a much larger amount of American goods if the duties were still further reduced, or if no duties whatsoever were levicil on their importation.
The value of the foregoing, with the value of sundry other articles not enumerated, amounted together to $119,236. The value of similar articles exported to the United Slates in 1850 was only $55,886.
COLONIES.
liie industry of the inhabitants of the British North American colonies is principally engaged in agricuhure, the fisheries, mines, and forests; in exporting the products of which to the United Kingdom and other British possessions, and to some foreign countries, and importing from thence, m exchange, the various requisites whose growth or manufacture is ill suited to the climate or condition of these possessions, consists their trade, and the great extent of employment it gives to British shipping.
The most important object of industry in British North America, as well as the most striking physical feature of the country, is the forest — lofty, wide-spreading, and apparently illimitable — all unplanted by the hand, and, for a large part, yet untrodden by the foot of man ; where, without having planted or sown, he may enter, and reap and gather in what nature lor many centuries has been bountifully preparing for his use.
The importance and value of the North American timber trade to England is so fully established, as to be beyond a doubt. The maritime supremacy of England has been maintained by it, new markets have been created for her manufactures, and i. "me, with remunerative employment, has been found lor her surplus population.
To show the rise and progress of the trade between Great Britain and the North American colonies, tlu; tb'.lowing statements are offered. These have been carefully compiled from Parliamentary returns, and may be relied upon.
As mnrking the progress and extent of the trade between the United Kingdom iind the North American colonies, the following return is presented, showing the ships and tonnage inward and outward in Great Britain .uul Ireland, to and from those colonics, distinguishing British irom foreign, from 1840 to 1850, both years inclusive :
15,930
The official value of the import and export trade between Great Britain and the North American colonies, fiir the years 1818, 1819, 1820, 1832, 1838, 1843, and 1848, is thus stated :
gulshing British
The following statement, compiled from official returns, exhibits the total tonnage inward in Gieat Britain from the British North American colonies, as also the total tonnage outward to the same colonies, in 1845 and 1850, distinguishing British from foreign tonnage :
92,434
It will be borne in mind that on the 5th of January, 1850, the change in the navigation laws of England came into operation ; and the foregoing table, theref()re, shows the extent to which foreign tonnage was engaged during that year in the trade between Great Britain and the North American colonies. "
The extraordinary increase of the timber trade between Great Britain and her North American colonies is presented in the following statements, which commence with the ye;u 1800. In that year there were imported into Great Britain, firom the North American colonies, the i()llowing quantities of timber :
7,214 hundreds staves.
In 1819 the timber trade with North America had greatly increased, as will be perceived by the following statement ot timber imported into Great Britain from the colonies in that year:
The statements which follow give the quantities and value of the North American timber trade in 1840, 1845, and 1850, distinguishing the quantity entered for home consumption from the whole quantitv imported :
To tlio.se iicqualntcd with tlie timber tra Ic, those returns will very likely explain theni.selvcs ; but, in order iu present in more precise torm the state of the North American timber during the la<f three years, the folIowiii<T statement, compiled from the roturns of the Board of Trade, is submitted:
1851, 1,119,000.
In 1847 there was a large reduction in the duties on Baltic and oth«'r t()reign timber ; and in the North American colonies, great apprehensions were entertained that the remi-ssion of" those duties would be highly injurious, if not almost tiital, to the colonial titnber tra<lo.
Such, however, has not proved to be the case. It is true, as will be seen by the following statement, that the quantity of foreign timbc'r imported into Great Britain since the remission of duty, has considerably increased; but the quantity firom the North American colonies has likewise increased, as shown in the preceding statement.
The effect of opening the market to foreign timber by a reduction of duties, and consequently an increased importation, has nol, as was greatly feared at the outset, proved injurious to the colonies by diminishing the price of their timber. The increased consumption of timber in Englnntl lias caused a demand for greater varieties of wood. The use of Baltic timber more extensively than heretofore, has caused a greater demand for colonial wood to be used in connexion with it ; while the change in the navigation laws has so reduced freights, that the producer of" timber and deals in the North American colonics now recciives more for his articles than he ever did before the reduction of the duties.
Besides timber, there are other products of the forest, such as ashes and furs, which form no inconsiderable item in the sum total of colonial produce imported into the United Kingdom.
The total value of all colonial products to the United Kingdom, including those derived from mines, agriculture, and the fisheries, is fully set tintli in the various tables to be fiiund in this report under head of each colon}' respectively; and to these, reference is made tor more particular information.
England pos.sesses no nursery for seamen at all equal to her North American colonial trade. Besides training her own hardy and burly sons to the dangers and hardships of the sea, that trade fosters and rai.ses up, troiu among her activt;, well-built, enduring, and intelligent subjects in the northern colonies, as line seamen as ever trod a deck, ufiaid of no danger, and perfectly fitted to sustain any reasonable amount of cold, hardship, and fiitigue. The vigor of their frames, th(>ir sound constitutions, and the habit of facing severe cold, violent gales, and stormy seas, in a high northern latitude, aided by <|uick perceptions and ready iiitelligenc(>, eminently (jualify them to navigate^ her ships to any (]uarter of the world, either to u])hold the honor of" their country in fighting her battles upon the seas, or, better still, to extend and enlarge her commerce to every ])art of the habitable globe.
To h(>r colonial seamen, England may well look with honest pride. Save our own citizens, they have few ecjuals, and none odiers are their superiors. Whether in war or in peace, these British North American sailors, cradled on a stormy deep, and roughly nursed amid storm and tempest, are in every way fitteil to flillil their duty, and do honor to the country which claims their allegiance.
CAN COLONIES BY SEA.
The direct trade by sea between the principal Atlantic seaports of the Union and the British North American colonies has, within a few years, beeonio of such extent, value, and importance, ;i^ to demand more than ordinary attention.
Probably the most remarkable and interesting feature of the age, is the rapid increase and constant activity of the world's comuicrce. Its great agent and promoter, navigation, to which such enormous annual contributions have latterly been made by England and th(! United States, is more firmly establishing it on a more extended basis, for still greater and more universal achievements.
Tlie great addition to the navigation interest of the world furnished by the British colonies is not generally considered ; nor is its important and influential character fully understood, save by a small portion of the leading statesmen of Europe and America.
The great maritime resources of the North American colonics, and the advantages of their geographical position for an extended commerce with all mankind, will contribute more effectually to accelerate their onward progress to wealth ami power, tmd unquestionably give them a commanding position in all future commercial developments.
colonies, is most remarkable.
Commencing at the river St. Croix, the boundary of the United States, there is nuich coast, and many fine ship harbors, within the Bay of Fundy and the islands it encloses. Next comes the Alluilic coast of Nova Scotia, with its numerous indentations ; then the sea-shores of Cape Breton, and its beautiful and extensive interior coast surrounding that large arm of tlie sea known as the Bras D'Or, or " Arm of Cold;" next, the eastern or Gulf coast of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, the Bay of Chaleur, the shores of the whole colony of Prince Edward Island — of the Magdalen island:^ and Anticosti, and all the Labrador coast from Mt. Joly to Davis's straits ; in the aggregate, about 3,500 miles of coast-line, everywhere teeming with fish, in greater i'bundance and excellence than in any other part of the world.
To this great extent of seacoast, admirably provided with large and excellent harbors, must be added the coast of Newf()undland, more than 1,000 mik'S in extent, whose harbors and fisiuTies have been known and constantly frequented tor more than three centuries.
Porley, of St. John, New Brunswick, n yomig rnginocr of much promise. Tlio orijLJiinal surveys, ni.ips, and charts, Irom which it was prepared arc of the most recent daU;, and of the highest authority ; they were obtained wilh some tr()nl)le and at much e\|)ensr, from Enghmd and from the provinces. Th ■ have been carefully colhited and compiled, and the n-sult is the pre^ .1. map, which is rec<»mmen(led a, .'je of the best N<'t presented. It exhibits llie pecuhar eonfignratiori '.A' iho (Julf oi' 8t. Lawrent;e, and oi' tlie coioni(>s which are washed by its waters, with their infhiity of rivers and harbors, and endless variety of creeks, coves, inlets, estuaries, straits, bays, and arms of the sea.
Till re caiaiot, perhaps, l)e l()und elsewhere tiie same extent of country possessing in a greater, or evcui un ccjual degree, all the recjuisites for eonstructiiig a mercantile marine, nor the like ( xtent of seacoast so proliiscly fiunishcd with the linest and most eapn( ions harbors, as the colonics of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia.
A glniice at the map at once shows tliat those colonies arf^ but a mere extension of New England, and that ai iMterchange of tlu'ir respective j)ro(liicts Muist not only exist, but will of necessity be mutually beneficial, if not absolutely essential to the j)rosperity of either country. The wise and truthful spirit of commerce will b(; opposed to any jiolicy, whether British, American, or colonial, that restricts in tlu; slightest degree the culire freedotn of commercial intcn-oiirse between countries in such immediate; proximity, and whose best interests are so closely int<'r\voven.
The island colonii^s of Newt()ini(llan(l and Prince Edward Island, lying contiguous to New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, with similar characteristics in almost ( ver\' |)arlicular, nr(; rapidly becoming convinced of the value of thfi, u^it'rial interests in connexion with the lu^cessity f(»i' a more libera! • ■ .•nmr reial intercourse with the I'nitcd States.
Although ,'he tabic-; w iiich follow show that thi^ trade of the t()ur lower colonies is chiefly eonlii .-d to Boston and New Vt>rk, vet th<"y alsopiove that eonunercial intercourse with th(Mn is becoming more gftieral with all the towns and seaports of tli(> Atlantic States, and that iialtimore and Bliiiidelphia also participate in its benefits.
To encourage the intercourse thus springing inti> existence and attaining ;rr( at value fiom the natural course ol tra<le, and the relative position of the j)arties wilh reference to certain natinal products of each, would seem to b(; tin- Ixninden dut}' o*" the governments of those respective (countries.
Th(! first object of (!very commercial system should be to create and uphold a great commercial marine. Mr. Iluskisson laid it down as a prinei[)]<>, that "the only true; and durable fijundation of" a large commercial mariiic is to be laid in the means of afii)rding it biMieficial employment. Without such employment — without, in short, (>xtensivc commerce^ and great eaj)ital to sustain and invigorate that commerce, no laws merely protecliv(> will avail. Strict navigation laws have not
attained great value and importance from a very small begitniing.
The; toiniage inward from the United Stat<>s, in all the iJritish North Am(!rican colonics, tluring the years 1787, 1788, and 1789, amounted on the average ' '" those years to 15,524 tons aiuiualiy. These were all British vessels.
Th(! absurd and injurious restrictions having beei. removed, trade and navigation between the colonies and the United States at once revived; and in 1840 the inward tonnage from the lJnit<'(l States was as li)llovvs: British, 401,676 tons; American, 357,073 tons: total, 758,749 tons.
The asionishing increase in the nine years which preceded 1840, was li)llowed in the; ten years which succeeded that period by another surprising increase, amounting to more than 250 per cent.! And now connuences the year 1851.
The first table hereafter presented exhibits the description, quantity, and value of the various articles of domestic production exported from twenty-three Atlantic ports of the United States to the colonies of New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Newlbundhmd, and Prince Edward Island, during the year 1851.
To exhibit in a more condensed form, and place the value of this colonial trade in a position to be better understood and appreciated, the following statement is submitted, showing the total value of domestic and foreign exports, and the value of colonial imports, in 1851, deduced from the preceeding statements.
5,227,090
The preceding table shows a trade which has, almost without attracting any portion of public attention, already sprung up, and been extended to the amount of nearly five miUions and a quarter of dollars during the past year.
To show further the importance of this same colonial trade in encouraging our mercantile marine, the following table of shipping, inward and outward, during 1851, to and from nine ports of the United States only, and tlie colonies of New Brunswick, 5fova Scotia, Newfoundland, and Prince Edward Island, distinguishing American from British shipping, is also submitted :
This table shows that, during the year 1851, 341,372 tons of shipping entered inward from the lower eolonies in nine Atlantic ports only, and that 588,658 tons of shipping cleared outward from those ports for the same colonies ; making, in the whole, an aggregate ol" 930,030 tons of shipping engaged in the colonial trade with nine ports of the Union alone in that year.
In order to show the relative total amount of tonnage inward and outward to and liom the principal seaports of die United States and the North American colonies, the following comparative statement has been compiled, showing the whole tonnage inward and outward at the ports named, in 1851 :
91,191
The foregoing comparative statement will, no doubt, excite some surprise as to the nlative amount of shipping and navigation to the principal seaports of North America. It proves, beyond a doubt, and without reference' to any other statement comprised in this report, that the British Nortli American colonies have industriously improved the extensive facilitifs and abundant resources tiiey possess, and have already achieved tlie high position of being the finulh, if not the third, commercial power, in point of toimage and navigation, in the world.
The character of colonial vessels has imj)roved wiiiiln a few years very rapidly, and they are selling very readily in England at remunerating prices, and are l()und to be as good vessels as are built in the world. The St. John and Quebec ships take tlie lead in colonial ship ping.
IINUKU TIIK DIRKCTION OK P. URGF.I.Y, JB., EKQ., COLLECTOR OK THAT PORT.
The lisliorics of Miissju'liusctts, iuid of the other New England Slates, were pr()seeut<-(l suceessfiilly, iind to u greiil extent, long prior to the r(;volulion;iry w.ir; and it will hr s(H'Ii by lli<' treaty of 1783, that they oceupied a prominent [)oint in the negotiations l<)r peae(\ IJy the third artiele of that tn-aty it was stipnl itcd, " that the people of the United States shall ef)ntimie to f-njoy unmolested the right to take (ish of every kind on the (Jrand IJiJnk, and on all other hanks of N(\vl()undland ; also in the (iulf of St. Lawrenet^ and at all other plaees in the sea, where tlie inhabitants «>f both eonntries used any tiuK; to fish ; that theinlmbitants of the United States shall have /ifjcrlij to take Hsh of any kitul on sueh part of the (.-oast of N(>wti)undland as the British shall use, (but not to cure or dry theiri on the island ;) and also on the coasts, bays, and creeks of all other of his Britiinnie Majesty's dominions in America; and that the American fishermen shall have liberty to dry and cure fish in any of the unsrttl«'«l bays, harbors and creeks in Nova Scotia, Magdalen islands, and Labrador, so long as the same shall remain unsettled; but so s(M)n as the same, or either of them, shall be settled, it shall not be lawful for the said fishermen to dry or cure fish at such settlement, without a previous agreeme •■. !or that purpose' with the inhabitants, proprietors, or possessors of ttie ground."
This article S(;cure(l to us the right of the (oust fishery, which, as colonies, we had xz^ii'd and possessed in eoinmon with the mother country ; and under its provisions the cod fishery recommenced at the close of the war, and continued to increase with tlu" encouragement granted by the government.
At first a bounty was allowed on thf^ exportation of salted fish, as a drawback of the duty on im])ortt!d salt; and subsequently, the present system of aUowanc(?3 in money was established to vessels employed i()r a certain specified time in the Bank and other cod fisheries. The State of Massachusetts alone employed in the cod fishtny, from 1786 to 1790, five hundred and tialy vessels annually, u)easuring about twenty thousand tons, miunu'd by thnr thousand three hundred seamen, and the* value of their products in fish exported to Europe and the West Indies exceeded two hundred and t()rty thousand dollars.
ciiil rcstriciioiis whicli Knl lo llic nnhaitfo of 1808, jind the war with Engliiiid III 1812. Tlid niMgiiitiidi- ol" our (ishnics from 1790 to 1807, the gr(?.il('st |H'rio(l.s of pi(»s[»L'rilv, can he realized hy llio.s(! only who hiwv. studied ihls hrntich ot"Ainerieau iiuhistry. liiyond what relates to th(; value of the weallli aiimially addi d to tlKM-DUiilry, and the extensive ein[)loym(nit it gives t(» our native seaiix'ii, il li;is elaims on the prott-ction of the govertneiit as a nursery t!>r tli(< hardy and daring mariners wlio have heretof()re manned our lleeis and ll)uglit tlu^ hatth's of our navy. kSomi? idea, may he lltrmed of the rxtcnl of the fisheries just prior to the mercantile dislurl)ances of 1808, from the fu.t that, during the v<'ar 1800, the value ol" dried and pickled lish exported exce«'de(l 5^2,400,000. From this time to the years 1813 and 1814 it dwindled down to less than $5100,000. 'I'lien it was that the war hetween th<^ United States and Englaiul almost annihilated the iisli(>rics ; l)ut tlut navy was recruited, tiom the vessels laid n|), with that sti( iif>tli und daring which enabled il to cope so successfully with its adversaries. When peace was concluded, the rights secured, under the treaty of* 1783, to carry on the* cod lislieiy on tlit! colonial shores, was rcl"us«'d by the British government. The treaty of (ilient, and liw. commercial conv<'ntion suhserpiently, are both silent on this important subject ; and it was not until by the convention of 20Lh of Oclolxfr, 1818, that wu obtained the privihgr. to lake lish " where the inhabiliints of both countries," under all ti)rmer treaties, claimed iln^ right. And by this same convention it will be seen that " I Ik." United kSuiies renounced any liberty betbre enj«)yedor claiuKjd by them, or their inhabitants, to take, dry, or cure fish, on or willun three marine mites of any of tin; coasts, ba^'s, creeks, or harbors of any of tin- British (h)U)inions of America not included within that part of the southern coast of Newfoundland extcn('ing from Cape Ray to the Uameau islands ; on the w(!stern and northern coast of Newt()undland, from Cape Kay UUhcQuiepen islands ; on the shores of the Magdalen islands ; and also on the coasts, bays, harbors, and creeks, from Mount Jolly, on the south of Labrador, to and through the straits of Bellisle, and thence northerly along the coast."
We have, by this agreement, thi* liberty to dry and cure fish in any of the unsettled bays, &c. ; and when settled, with the grant of the; proprif'tors of the ground. Some of our vessels have attempted to carry on the fishery as they had been in the habit of doing; but the prescribed limits of three miles from th(j sh(»re the imperial govermnent decided should he measund from the headland.*, and not tiom the interior of the bays, and excluiled our vessels from the passag(; or strait of Canso, and denied our right to land on the MagdaU*n islands ; thus driving otf the American (i.^^hermen from the usual fishing grounds, and in many instances seizing and confiscating th«!ir vessels.
These procej'dings have naturally excited much ill ti'i'ling, especially \\,M those who have fi)r so lung a time resorted to those shores ; and these onerous restrictions are still in lull l«»rce.
Tlie advantages thus secured lo the colonial fisliermen must be apparent ; ti)r wliili! our fishermen are com[)(jlled to go out to the banks m large vessels, filled at great expense, and wilh crews averaging nine men to every schooner of ninety tons burden, and extending their
voyngna for many weeks, the coloril«t« carry on tlieir (isliiti^ ciitirrly in sniiill l)o:itt», wiili |)('rliiip8 not njore tliiui two tn<'n in cikIi, who return to their flhores nt the close of each (hiy's work, and Imid and cur(! their iisli, which at th»! close of tla^ siunnier are laden on hoard their shi|)s ior a l()rei<j[n market. Our vessels return to our ports, when laden with fish, to wash out, dry and cure their "liires," and they aro necessarily much behind their more favored c()m|)(titors in seeking u market for tin; produce of their toilsome labors of the fishing season.
In conse(juerice of tlu'se une(|ual privileges, and the change of policy of our govertnnent with regard to a reduction of duties, from specific rates to a uniti)rm ad valorem rati! of twenty per eenlum on the il)reign cost of imported fish, our colonial competitors now supply our own markets, as they did liauKMly the princi[)al markets of Catholic Europe and the Wosi Indies. And not only our own markets are fiooded with foreigi:-caught fish tor consumption and Ibr transportation to other American markets, but tlu; Atlantic ports, since; tla; year 184G, have become depots of vast (juantities of dry and pickled fish f()r exportation to foreign countries.
Prior to the enactments of the larifl" law of DecjMnher, 1840, and the warehousing act of August of that vear, no drawback was allowed on foreign dried and pickled fish, and other salted provisions, or fishoil; and so far as relates to the drawback of the duties paid on said articles, the prohibition of the 4th section of the act of April 27, 1816, is presumed to be in fiirce. But its provisions are entirely nullifuid by the operations of the warehousing act, which allows foreign fish to be imported, juid entered in bond, and exported thence uii/iout the payment of any duties.
By the statement marked No. 1, appended hereto, of the imports of fish into this port, from J 821 to 1851, it will appear that during the first-named year only six quintals of dry fish and tiifhty-scven barrels of pickled fish were imported; and that, during the first fiscal year after the passage of the tariff' of 1846, nearly y«Mr/ ten thousand <|uintals of dry fish 'iii\<\ forty-two t/tousand barrels of pickled fish were im|)orted; the foreign cost of which was a fraction short of $200,000. Statement No. 2 exhibits the exports from 1843 to 1851, by which it appears that in 1843, 18 W, 1845, and 1846, not any foreign-caught fish was exported; and that i.he value «)f the exports of American fisheries averaged half a million of dollars annually. The same statement shows, that from 1847 to 1851, there were exported from this port 63:816 (juintals of dry fish, and 92,524 barrels of pickled fish, all of which were entered under the provisions of the warehouse act, and consequently exported without paying any duties.
These facts most strikingly illustrate the hard lot of our fishermen, who are denied e(]ual competition on the fishing grounds, and are hkewise deprived of the discrimination in their fiivor, extended to them f()r more than half a century, by the general government; conse(iuently, the results of their adventures are diininished from year to year, Jis the home markets, as well as the foreign markets, are being supplied by foreigners with foreign-caught fish.
Hlutcriiciil No. 4 sliuws tlir sMiiic l!>r jtickli'd li-tli. Ily ilif (iist it will l»t> rtcni lliat iwj'iiiy-Htvcii tliirlv-li'nilli |»arl.s of tlic \vlii)|(> iinporiiitioii utrr rN|iort*'<|; jiiid l>y tlx* srcdtnj, tliat lifiy per ct'iif. of llic imports wcrr sliippi'd oiil ol'ilic coiiiiliy, f<» lire cxclii hIoii of Ariu'iicaii (isli. Tjirs*' fads arr h» very siriUiii;,', llial comiiM'n is (l('ciiic<l umicccssaiy.
Stalciiicrils Nos. .0, (I, and 7, rxliiltil the qiiaiilily and valm- of caoh kind of fisli imported into llic Unilrd Stiles from \H4'^ to IHr^, inelut<ive, and also tjie exports liir the same years, of lioili lorel^n-i'auglit and American fislieries. In the table No. T), the ita lease of imports will sndicienlly appear; and 1 have to call your particular ultenlion to table No. (), in which will be seen that in l»S4'} lut Jim ign dry fish was ♦'xported from any port in the United States, and only one hundred nnd three barrels of pickled fish; and even down to IM4(), the small nniount of/. « (piintals oidy were «'xporle(l. The li )l low in;j; year, 1847, ihirtij-fivr lliousiiml (piintals of <lry and J'»ur(tni thousand barrels ot" pickled fish were exporttd, and the annual exports have ^'oiie on increasitii^ from that time to the pr<>senl; the (piantity of piekl<'<l fish liir 1850 bein^' over Jiftifninr tltniismid barrels. Table No. 7 shows th»! <piantily and value ttt' American-c.iu;,dil fish exported to all countries l(»r llu; satne years.
I also append table No. 8, which shows the whole quantity of |)ickle(| fish inspected at tlie various lishini; towns in Massachusetts fiotn .1838 to 18.00, inclusive. This document is compiled to exhibit the ina;>nitnde of this branch of the fisheries in this OtMiimoiiwealth, and tho inl<'rest Massu(;husetls ciii/ens have in the proper regulation of llm fisheries.
1 also a|)pend |ier«'to statement No. 9, of the toniuig** of vessels employed in the fisheries of the United States fitr the years IKIO l(» 1850, inclusive, desiijnatin^ the tonnage employed in the cod fishery, mackerel fishery, and of vessels undiT twenty tons burden in tin; cod fishery, and also register tonnage in the whah; fishery, together with the aggregate tonnage of tlie whoh^ country f()r each period, by which a comparison can be made, at a glancj*, of the relative tonnage in each employin«'nt, with the entire tonnage of tlu' United States.
In the year 1815, the yeai alter the termination of the late war with (Jroat Britain, tlu^ fishing tonnage of the United Slates did not <'xc»'ed fifteen thousand tons; in 1835, twenty years afterwards it n.-ached one hundred and f()urteen thousand tons; in 18'l.'i it was two hundred and tighty-s(.'ven thousand tons; and from 1840 to 1850, it increased about nine thousand tons only, including the whale fishery.
Although the cod and mackerel fish«ries were each regardeil a trado or (!m[)loynient within the true intent and meaning of the 32d section of the act of 1703, the authority to issue licenses ii>r the mackend fishery was first granted by the act of Congress of 24th of May, 1828, by which it was [)roposed to keep the two i'nij)loyments distinct. But every year's returns show that V( ssels so licensed have been engaged in catching cod fish; and the owners of such vessels have in many districts obt.'iined the bounty allowed to vessels in the cod fishery, by do-
il coiiiinctit
tlDrtiiKf the tunc ctnployi'd in muckcrcl fisliiiiu, if tluf titni* r<i|iiii(>(I tor lM)unly w;is ollicrwisc rn.tdc out Ix'twccii tin- \;iM <liiy of h'thii-iry iiiul tlio lii.>i (Itiy of Novcinlii r, in the y«!.ir «'rn|)l(>y('(|. 'I'lic immisi (|iicn(.'(! )in<4 hi'i-n, tli.it within th<> <'ust(ini;n°y rnn^r of ii fishing' voyii<rc lioih cod nnd niiickcicl hiivc hccn tiikcn, withnnt rcifiu'd to the tenor ofihe license, and the coilectors ^cneiiilly have paid the full houiity nllo\V( d hy law to those eniplnyed exeUisively ill the cod lishery. It would therclitre ii|)|)eai' from the le^al history nf the tishinir hounti's and allowaiices, and from till* eonstrnetioiis and niider.standin<; of them hy the various ollict.-rs wlntse duty it is to execute them, that, the whole system reqnircH revision, 'i'hc re^'uiatiouH liir dividiuij; the proceeds of the lishiiii^ voyages, instead of payiiii; monthly wa,i,'cs to the crew, an? too fre(|nenlly invaded l>y a large inunher of vessels; and tii)twitlistandin<; all the vigilance of the ofticers of the revenue, it is <|uite douhtful iftluiacluai fisliermen now derive much if any henelit liom the large sinus anmially j)aid out (tl' the treasury l(»r fishing hounties. 1 regard it of great importance to cherish this hraiich of industry, and would not recommend that anything should he adopted which would impair its {)rosperity ; hut 1 am s(» strongly impicssecl with the conviction that thiw«; most interested in the husiiies.s would he Ixmk filed l>y a more thorough supervision of hounty claims, that 1 do nut liestitaie to urge its consideration upon tile department.
le acts ot
gusl4lli and the lOtli of August, 17!)();oftlie ISlli of Keliruary and 8th of July, IV.)>; 2d of March. 17fM); 12tli of April, 1801); and liually repeah'd Ity the aholition of the salt duly, March .'id, 1807. From 1807 to July iii)ih, 181'}, t/iire in rr uo /xmiitiis nr dllinuniccs lu /isfiing rrxscls. This la^l act ri'stored the fishing hounties without granting any allowanci! <ir diauh lek on llu' » xpoiialiou of salted heef and pork; and the rates allowed were increased hy the act of March od, 1811), according to which all piynieiits lu'e now made.
1 have thus summarily traced the histoi v of legislation in regard to this suhji'cl, in order to show the share of piililic alteniiou given to it, and as picparatory to giving a comparative view of the sums j)aid hy govtanmeiil as hounties under the various acts of Congiess.
It app( ars that lor the year ending Dccemlicr ,'31, 17i)i, the sum of ^2!J,()82 1 1 was paid as lioiinlies on saltt'd provisions and pickled fish, hut nothing was j)aid to irssr/.s (mjtloijril in the Jhliciiis [nwr U-* ilWi, when till- sum ]>aid was nearly $!7.'J,000. Kor the year 180G, the sum of !?.'J7,000 was jiaid on salted |)rovi>i(ais, &c., and S1()-M)00 to vessels emploved. in the fisheries, making a total of ah 'Ul {i?:200,000. During the years 1812, 'l-'J, and '14, no payments w( re made. In 18ir>, oiily SI. 800 were paid; hut in 1820, the (irsl year alter the opcM'ation of till' a(.'t of 1819, the sum paid amounted' to $209,000. The nmouiii now |)ai(l annually is not far from S-]20,000. liy the abstract lierewilli, iiumher 10, it will he seen that at this port aloiu^ there luive been piid more than two miilioiis of dollars l()r hounties situu' the year 1841. The sums paid to vessels licensed at Boston 1 have separated
from the amounts paid for dralts drawn by collectors of other districts, dosi;a;natiiig the particulars aud the aggregntos f()r ench yri\r and tor thn whf)lc period. It will be seen, likewise, that while the; allowances have continued to decrease at Boston, at almost every other place they have increased. At this port, l()r several yenrs past, an inspector has been detiiiled at the commencement of the fishing sejison, whose whole duty it is to look after vessels engaged in the fislieries, and to note, from day to day, every vessel in port, and all the particulars relating to her business, and at the close of the season the facts collated are communicated in detail to the collectors of the respective ports whence licenses were granted. Under the instructions ot the depnrtment of February 22d, 1842, a certificate has been required previously to the vessel's departure, setting forth her seaworthiness and a description of fishing gear, &c., and such a certificnte has been regarded here as a necessary prerequisite to the obtaining the bounty. The journal of the vessel, to be sworn to by the master, has also been required, as directed by instructions of 2'2d of December, ]848; and the last circulnr on this subject, of September 17, 1851, as modified by circular of December 11, 1851, will be strictly enforced, and applied in the liquidation of all cUiims for the bounty tluring the past season.
If time permitted, other matters might be examined and stated, bearing on this subject, but they wpuld little aid or strengthen the inferences to be drawn from the facts submitted. The extent, charncter, and value of the fisheries, in coimexion with the trade and commerce of the British Nortii American provinces, will appear in an exnminatioii of the statistical tables which form a p.irt of tiiis report; and from an exjunination of the existing trc^aties bearing on the fisheries, the restrictions and ine(|ualities under which American fishermen pursue their business will be appiu'ent. It follows, iheref'ore, that to secure anything like reciprocal trade between the United Stales and those provinces, a mor(> liberal policy on the part of the British government m regard to the fisheries must first take place. 8o long as our citizens are compelled lo conrluct the fishing business from their vessels in the open sea, and the colonists are permitted to land on any of tlu^ shores, inhfibited or uninh;diited, and set up their fishing stations, and cnrry on their employment from the land, nnd American vessels are denied the fr<'e navig.'ition of tlu; St. Lawrence, the (iut ofCniso, tla; shore fisheries, and other advantnges cliiimed by the colonists, under the siiuetion of these treaties, it is believed that our government cainiot adopt any measures tending to additional benefits to the connnerce of the colonies.
I also transtnit abstract (No. 11) of fishing vess( Is lost during the past season, their tonuiige, loss of liti", &c., as returned by the collectors of the severnl ports therein named.
rrcont movements in brnnco m re at Nc\vll)un(llinul, aiul cxjjortcil to ti)irign countries, nre sMigularly interesting at the p/esent lime, becau.-'e it will be t()im(l, from what follows, ihiil the (rlianges wliieli take plaee during the [)resent year in the allowance of those hounlies are cah/ulatcd to exercise a powerful efK-ct on lh(! (l(!ep-sea fisheries of the United Slates. Hereafter we arc to liav(! fish, caught and cured by citizens of France, entering our markets, under th(; stimuhis of a large ijoimty, to competes with the fish caught and cured by our own citizens. This a1togeth(>r new and unexp(.'cted movemenl on the part of France has ah'eady attracted attention and excited much interest among the fishermen of the N(!W England Slates. As airecting an important l)raneh of the induslry of our jx-oplo, ihis change in the [)olicy of France will hr. reviewed somi.'whar at length, in order that tli(! whole matter may be fully understood. The law of France which granted bounties to the sea fisheries being about to expire, lh(> project of n new law was submitted to the Niitiouid Assembly on the 2()ih of Decend)er, l.SoO, by Monsieur Dumas, Minister of Agriculture and Commerce, and Monsieur Itomain-Destijsses, Minister of Marine and Colonies. At the same time, these ministers sid)^ mitled lo the National Assembly an abli; report on the deejj-sea fisheries of Franc(s and a variety of inter(;sting statistical returns, translations of which are embodied herewith.
It is set t!)rlh, among other things, by the Minister of Slate, that the bounties paid by Frane(> during the nine years from 1841 to 1850, inclusive, fi)r the cod fishery only, had amounted to the mean annual avfMage of 3,900,000 francs. The nurid)er of men employed in this fishery annually amounted to 11,500 on the average. 'V\ir annual expense to the nation was, therefi)re, '}'}S liancs per amunn fi)r e.ich man. France trains up, in this manner, able and hardy seamen fi)r her navy, it is said, who would cost the nation much more if they were trained to th(! sea on board ves>els-of-war.
Tilt; proposed law and report of the ministers of Stati' who introduc(>d it having been submitted to a commiltix' of the National Assembly, a report thereon was j)resent(>(l by Mcmsieur Ancet, th(; chairman, on the 3d day of May, 1851, a translation of which is as t()Uow3:
Ilejiort rendered in the name of the commission for the inquiry into the ■projected law relating to the great sea fisheries, by M. Ancct, rcirrescnlative of the yeoylc. Session of May 3, 1851.
by iho Ministers of Marine and Commerce, has devoted itself to the said cxiiijiination with all the attention which its injportance demanded. It has heard delegates from all the ports out of wliich tin; vessels are c'(iui()ped. It has consulted the att<'sted reports of the remarkable discussions held by the Counsel of State, as well as the deliberations of the commission t()rmerly appointed, under the honorable Mr. Dueos, its president; delibi.'rations which served — if one may so speak — as the basis i()r this {)roject; and to conclude, it is only alter comin<5 to a perlect nnderslaiKhng with Messieurs the Ministers of the Mariye and Commerce, and the Director General of Customs, that wc lay before you the result of our labors.
Your (;oimnission, messieurs, has not thouglit for a moment that the encouragement granted to the great fisheries can be regarded as any cxclusivt: favor or protection to anyone l()rm of industry. UiKjuestionably, the industry exerted in the fisheries, and the commercial activity arising from it, becomes a very considerable element of employment and conil()rt to a numerous class of people, but this consideration appears to us entirely secondary and insuliicient to justify the fiivors of especial legislation.
We conceive that such industrial employnicnts as can prosper only at the expense of the public treasury should not exist; aiul that the intervention of the State, in the f()rm()f aid and l)ounties, can be justified only by considerations of general and public interest. It is not, therefore, a commercial law that we have the honor to propose to the Assembly, but rather a maritime law — a law conceived f()r the advancement of the naval power of this country; for it is in this point of view only, that, in our opinion, the encouragement granted to the great fishcries ought to be maintained. F/;.ncc, seated on the three most important seas of Europe, must continue u maritime power. The memory of her history, the genius of her inhabitants, the variety of her prod u (lions, the easiness of her communications with the rest of the continent, and, yet more, the interests of her greatness and of" her preponderance in the world, connnand this.
Nevertheless, the loss of her most magnificent colonics has occasioned irreparable injury to the commercial marine, which is an essential element of naval power. Treaties, which became inevitable in the course (>[' time, have successively robbed her of the most valuable objects of freight. Cotton belongs to the Americans, coal to the English ; and at the present moment, the shipments of sugars, our last resoui e for distant navigation, seems to be daily growing less and less.
Tlie great fisheries still remain tt) us; and in order to preserve them, we must continue the encouragements they have received, even at periods when a commercial and colonial prosperity, infinitely superit)r to that now existing, multiplied our shipping, and created abundance of seamen. It is on our fisheries that at this day repose all the most serious hop(^s of our maritime enlistments.
In ftict, the fisheries give employment to a great number of men, whom a laborious navigation, under climates of extreme rigor, speedily forms to the profession of the sea.
These figures clearly |)rov(! the considerable share which cod-fishing bears in the develoj)nient of our maritime enli^tmenls. If it were necessary to confirm the fact yt-'t more strongly, W(! should say that table No. 2, appended to this report, establishes that the increase ol' the maritime population in the districts in which these vessels are fitted out has been, on the average, during the ten years under the pr(!valence of the law which we call upon you to maintain, not less than twentysix per cent.; whereas, in the other districts tiie progress has not exceeded Iburteen per cent.
England, notwiihstanding the immense resource's of her insular position; the United tStates, wliere fisheries are both economical and easy, inasmuch as they are carried on upon their own coasts, and Holland, had always tiivored this description of shipping, and have proportioned their enccniragement to the chances of profit or loss, as they appeared to predominate.
Less tluai any other maritime nation ought we to refuse; support to this adniiral)le school l\n- our seamen, li)r the French shipmasters are at present in a condition very inferior to that occupied by their rivals.
There was a time when France possessed all the piincipal fishing grounds in Acadia, Canada, Isle Royal, the isle of St. John, and lastly Newt()undland. The treaties of 1713, of 17G3, of 1783, and finally of 1814, have reduced our possessions in those seas to the two islets of St. Pierre and Micjuelon ; that is to say, of two steriU; rocks, destitute of all resources, and on which we are tbrbidden to raise any fortifications.
The same treaties reserve to us the right of fishing along the coast, but only at determined points and distances. We are only permitted to establish ourselves on the northern part of Newfoundland during a few months of the year, and that without constructing any permanent habitations.
Thus, while the English are in exclusive possession of the best fisheries— while they are enabled to Ibund numerous permanent habitations on the southern coast of Newfoundland, favored by the mildness of the climate and the fertility of the soil — our fishers are obliged to carry out with them yearly, to the north shore, salt, fishing utensils, materials for the construction of places for shelter, and, in a word, all that is necessary for subsistence and tor the operations of the season. Thai portion of Newfoundland is, moreover, as the honorable Mr. Ducos observes, in reporting the laws of 1841, uncultivated and savage ; its climate is stormy and severe ; its waters far less fruitful in
H.sIk's. As rcpj.'irds thn Ariicriciins, wo linvo alrrn<ly sriid tlinl thoir ti.sli(>ri('s me r;isy nud ('coiioiiiiciil tilonu; iIk; vast ningo of coasts thoy possess, near tli(^ most favorahlc lisliitii,' uromids.
Tlu! coiiscciueiiccs ot" .siicli iiK'niialii y in |>osili()ii can Ix; rradily appreciated. Oil all sides, the cfid taken in the Knglisli and Anierican lislieries can Iw sold at prices ;»reatly ind'rior t(» the rales l!)r French cod; ami tla; great marts to which wc carry our |)rodui'tion3 will be very soon closed a,u;ainst us, if wc; do not counterbalance the disadvantages ol'our situation by nutans of prudently considered encouragements.
1. That commercial na\i<j[alion having lost its best elemcnils of transportation, the preservation of the great lislieries assumes a degree of importance more serious when tli' v are viewe<l as being in liict the nursery ot" our military marine.
2. 'I'hat tlu! increase of the enrolment for the navy arising from the vessels used in the fisheries, has justilied the hopes which induced the legislation to impose certain saerilices on the treasury.
3. That in the disadvantageous jiosiiion to which tlu; treaties have reduced our shipmasters, the fisheries can be maintained only bv means of encouragement which will in some; degree diminish the advantages possessed by our rivals. It remains to examine what lias been the importance of the sacrifices to which the State has submitted, and to consider whether we may look f()r results jnoportionate to the assistance a.skcd fi»r fi-om the new clauses of the j)roposed law.
Wc fish with or without drying.
Fishery without drying is carried on in the Icelatidic seas, on the Dogger Hank, and on lliiMiraiid Itanks of" i\ewl<)un(lland. Tlu^ fish so taken is salted on board the fishing vessels, and each vessel brings it to France as soon as tfie cargo is c mipleted. This is ihc green cndjish, which is consumed ( ntireiy in France. This description of fislicry employs fiir fi'Wer men than the (isliery with drying, and yet its returns are far more abundant. Fishery with drying is practised on the (Jrand H;mk ol"Newli)undland, on the shores of that island, and on those of" th(! isles of St. J'icrre and Mi(juelo!i.
The cod there taken is dried on shore, either at St. Pierre and Mi(jUclon, or on those coasts of Newf()undland when; that j)rivilege is reserved to us. This day, cod is not sparingly cotisiimed in France. It is principally cxpc)rt(>d, witli the aid of bounties, to Frencdi colonies and fijreign countries, either directly from the fisheries by the lishcrs themselves, or by transhipment from France.
of tho French
fisheries hav(^ been annually, on an averapo, nbonl 41,(KK).(I()(I kilogram ines : <>r this gross amount, ii7,()()( 1,000 have been consumed in France, 17,000,000 have hem exported to the ei)lnnies or to lltr( i^^i lounlries; and thai the e\jt(»ilatii)n lias been made in llearI^ (([ual j)ro[xirtions iVoni the si'ats ol'lishery and from the ports of Fiance. 'I lius about twc-lilihs of the returns of our fisheries are yearly exported to rriarkets from which the competition of onr rivals would very soon ex( lude us, Wire it not fiir the aid afforded by means of bouirlies; for th(^ prices of the Kuglish and American cod must always be lower than the rates of (tur fish, owing to the difU-rent positions in wlm-h we are placed. VVe shall [in»eeed to show that, should this be the case, and this i'Xportation be stojiped, our e(|ui|)menl of vessels fbr*tl:e fisheries would be r((luced to a most insigiiilieant number, and our eniolment of" seauien would be deprived of' one of iis most precious resources. The encoinagemruts given to the c(<(l fishery arc; diviiletl into bounties on the num!»er of men in every crew, autl into bounties on the exportation of the jirodiiee, counted by the fiuiiital of cod, but tho amount of bounty varying aecordiiig to the destination of the cargoes.
It fitllows that the bounties on the crew arc beneficial to the vessels ompioyed in both kinds ol' fishing — that with, and that without drying. The average aniiuai amount ol' Ixainiies to the crew lor the last ten years has been 6;i0,000 to 540,000 tiancs.
The bounties on exportation '"ipply only to tiie 17,000,000 kilogriimmes exported, wliether to our own colonies or to tbreign countries, and have amounted, on an average of years since 1841, to 3,800,000 francs; that is to say, during the nine years elapseil since 1841, the expenses of the (State on the cod fisheries have annually reached tho average of 0,!)00,000 li-ancs.
The cod fisheries employ 332 vessels, 47,000 tons burden, and manned, af-'cording to the governmenl returns, by 11,500 men. Each of these men, theiif()re, is an annual charge on thiMiation of 338 tiancs. But it has been :.aid that if th(> bounties paid on (he exportation of fish were tlisc:ontinued, the fisli(>ries necessary fi)r the provisioning of France itself would still remain; and it is, in reality, l()r only about one-third of the products of" our fisheries that the budget is charged yearly with so heavy a sum. It is n{»t, therelim-, l!;?,000 siulors, but tln^ tliird ]»arl of that nund)er, which costs us three millions.
Messieurs, this reasoning has been seriously discussed by your commission, and it ajipcars to us that it is actually the 12,000 lisher sailors, and not the third of that nuujber, who profit by the sacrifices of the tr(!asury. In tact, the operations of the fisheries are indivisible, and form a single wiiole. It is the elasticity givini bv (exportation to the price in our miirk(!ts which alone induces the fitting out so many vessels. Is it not true, if the bounties did not aid in tlu^ shipments to the colonies, and to t()reign ports, of a consideral)l(> j)roportion of the ])roduce of the fisheries, those (external markets would be closed against us, and tlitit cons(Mpiently thereupon tlie French markets would be embarrassed, and prices lowered?
The conse(|uenecs which must follow from such a state of things can be easily fbrest'eu. 'Vhe produce of the fisheries selling in Fiance only, because all exportation would be impossible, two-thirds of the outfits
would cease. It mny he said that there would ho even a greater reduction lliati this, and that France, after the loss, too great to he appreciated, of a large part of her naval enrolment, would have cither to pay very dearly lor French fish, or else admit f<)reign cod.
As we have oi)serv(;(l, messieurs, the fisheries without drying, the nperations of which an; more simple and tlu^ returns larger, enjploy a much snialU^r numher of sailors. But, again, the vessels in use for this purpose? employ oidy the actual numl)er of hands necessary for the navigation of them; and it may he said of this fishery, that if it |)repar(;s /ewer men ft)r tlie stja, lijorms hi-tter sailors, the? clUe of the navy. It is pursued princi[)ally on lUv Grand Baidi of Ncnvliiundland, and in forty fathoms of wat(M-. 'VUv vessel li(,'s at anchor, and sends out her hoats every d.iy, in tht; heaviest seas, to set, and again takt; up the lines. Of all kinds of fishery it is th<! rudest and most expose-d.
It would s<'e:n at first that the encouragements given to it should he equal to tliose given to the fisheries with drying and the island fisheries, since, on th(M)n(! hand, its products are ahundant, and more capable, owing to their (piality, of sustaining (!om|)elition against f()reigii produce ; and on the other, it liirnishes excellent sailors f()r the naval levies. But to the po\V(;rful t;oiisi(lerations of economy which have continually governed us, and led to reduce rather than exceed the amounts of the encouragennMit given in past times, is added this n'flt!Ction — that th(! law cannot adopt as its end the encouragement of" the trade in codfish. This hranch of industry, as we hav(! already staled, could have no title ahove any other to reepiire sacrifices on the part of the state, if it did not, in a very advuiitageous proportion, angmi'nt the nurnbi^r of our sailors. In this point of view — the only oni? which can he admitted hy the legislator — that fishery which furnishes tlu' most sailors is that which hest justifies the highest encouragenu'nt. Now, the fishery on the (Jrand Bank, without drying, is th(! Ixvst school for sailors ; but it is incotilestahle that the lisliery on the coast of Newl<)un(lland, as well at St. I'ierre and Mi(juelon, offer a readier and more efiicaeious means of recruiting the navy. As to that which is carried on upon tlu? coast ol Newli)undland, with drying, the bounties on tlu; outfit which it enjoys have not been altered since 181G. It has always been fixed at fiity francs per man fiir eacfi of" the crew. The law, moreover, imposes on all vessels fitted out with this deslination, tlu; ol)ligation of emb.nking at least twenty men in every vesseloi less than one hundred Ions hurdfu; thirty njcn litr a vessel from one hundred to one hundred and filiv-eiglil tons; ■nid fifty men f(»r a vessel liom one lumdn>d and fifty-i'iglit tons upward. It is this fishery which employs the largt\st numher of vessels, and which is most liivorahle to enlistments. In it, young men lr(»in filteen to eighteen years, who oth(Mwise would never have thought of navigation, g<» on hoard as cahiiehoys or green-hands, and make several voyages. Th"'y ;ire employed in the work aslion^ and in drying the fish. The second year they go out in the fishing boats every morning, and retin'n every (wening ; hy this means tlay are f()iiiied gradually to continued navigation. After three years, these young men, if they have passed the ai^e of sixl(!eii yf-ars, are classed, Hiid I) I'lig i<)r the remainder of their lives to the maritime lists. Beyond (jnestion, these; recruits who so largely swell our lists are, at
first, but very imperfect snilors; there are even some who, after the thn^e voyages reijuired previous tf) heuig entered on tli(3 lists, give up the sea as an employment; but the numl)er of these is mueh smaller than has bf^en stated. And is it not evident that our population on the sea-board would enter less readily upon tli(> (;areer of" seanxn, if, in plaee of" the (^xcitenuuit and interest which their engagetneiit in tin* fisheries ofii'rs, they had no prospect but that of" embarking in the vessels ofstaK^?
The government proposes to you tf) continue the bounty of" fifty francs a man l<)r th(; crews of vessels em|»loyed in the fisheries, with drying, whether carried on upon the coasts of N(!wlbiu»(lland, at St. Pierr(!, and Mi([uelori, where tfic conditions and method of fishing are analogous, or u[)on the (jrand Bank. We have alluded to the difiieulties of this mode of fishing, even when it is prosecuted without drying the fish caught.
The l)ounty on tlu- fishing without (hying in the l(!elandic seas, is fixed at filiy francs per man f()r each of the crew, inco the law of .June 25, 1841. W(! Iiavt! retained this also, on the reconunendation of messieurs the Minister of Coumierce and the Marine. No fishery, in truth, is more suitable f()r the li)rmaiion of intrepid sailors. On the coast <jf Newl()undland the ship is laiil up and dismantled; on tlie(jrand IVinks it is at anchor; in Iceland it must needs be un«ler sail among floating ice, and on a sea ctintinually stormy and agitated. The fishing is [)ractiscd with hand-lines, from a hundred to a. hundred and fifty fathoms in hingth ; the fish, instead of being sailed in bulk, is prepared and salted in tuns brought from France;. Tfie cod coming from lc( lajid are not dried ; this fishery only furnishes tlu; grecMi cod consumed in France, and thus it receives no benefit on the bounties for exportation. The numlxT of vess(>ls fitted out not having itiereasetl of late years, it is reasoiudjle to conclude that the profits of this fishery are not considerable.
Six vess(ds only have been sent to the DoggcT Bank since 1841. We retain the bounty of 15 francs p*'r man fJ)r each of" the crew, which is given to this fishery, carried on in the North sea.
Bounfij mi the produce af ihv fuhvncs. — According to the law of 1841, the bounty on dry codfish sent to the; French colonies, whether from the plae(! when; the fish is caught or from the warehouse in FraiKU', i> fixed at 22 fiancs per (piintal. The law proposes to reduce this auiouni t > 20 francs per cjuintal; and we approve the redu' lion. The same law of 1841 assigns abounty of 14 francs the (juinlal toallc«idfish sent into transatlantic countries. A decree of August 24, 1848, raised this bounty to 18 francs. The present project pro[)oses to rendrr it e(|ual to that accorded to fish sent to tlu; French colonies. W(! believe fins new proposal to be wisely conceived, and likely to pioduce very ben< ficial efliets on our fisheries. In fiict, the diminution of" two francs per (jiiinlal in the bounty on exportations to our colonial possessions, together with an augUKUitation of" two fr.mes in fiivor of exportation t(» liirrign transatlantic countries, will tend to open new lixcign maikcis to us, at tht; very moment when the jxilitical and commeicial situation of our colonies leads us to apprehend a decrease of their ordinary cofisuinpiion.
The sacrifices on the pait of the treasury will not be augmented ; (or a considerable (juantity of codfish was re-exported from our colonies, after having enjoyed the bounty of 22 francs. The sliippers would no longer have an interest in overstocking our colonial markets with their produce, since tiie bounty will be no higher when sent there than when sent to Cuba or Brazil; and, at the same lime, the exemption from all duties in our colonies guaranties that they will always be sufficiently supplied.
The prohibition to send codfish to ports at which there is no French consul forms part of the law of 1841. In order to prevent abuses, the shippers are obligeil to flirnish a certificate proving the good quality of their fish, and its exact weight. It is important to the interest of the treasury that these certificates should be made by a government officer, who would be under the influence of responsibility not felt by men completely unconnected with the administration. Tliere is, moreover, no port of any consideration at which there is not a French consular agent.
This commission has considered it its dut}' to admit our colonics on the western coast of Africa to the benefit of tlie same bounties accorded to the West India colonies, and has especially had Senegal in view — a colony loo often overlooked and ilirgoilen. The government has accepted this addition to the proposed law.
The present project establishes the bounty of IG francs on exporlations to European countries and to foreign States on the Mediterranean, which the law of 1841 had established at 14 francs, and a decree of 1848 had raised to 18 fiancs. This reduction in fiivor of the treasury we do not consider likely to militate against our exportation to those countries. In concurrence with the govtMnment, we include Tuscany in tliis category ; but we except from it Sardinia, where ancient and well-assured relations permit us to reduce the protection to 12 fiatics.
Upon the whole, messieurs, the scale of bounties winch we above prf)pose' to you promises the treasury a saving of 300,000 francs, })rovided that, in spite of our fears of its decrease, our exportations of codfish remain eijual to what they have been during the last ten years.
The second article of tiie pro[)ose{l law retains the obligation that each vessel shall have; a minimum of crew prof)ortioned to the size of the ship. This measure, which was eslablisiied in 1832, on the request of the sliipmasters themselves, is at once jireservaave of their interests and those of maritime enlistment, the essential object of all the protection to the fisheries.
The Minister of Marine has declared to us that the minimums appeared to iiim to be judiciously regulated, and that there was no necessity l()r modifying them, liie administration having had, thus far, no reason to complain of any abuses. Tiic commission has theref()re approved the inmimums as they are now establislied, adding, that if, in the course of the term which you proj)ose to fix fitr iIk; duration of tiie law, the nec(!ssiiy of augmenting tliem shall become evident, the government shall iiave the power to provide f()r their incre.'ise.
The vessels sent to the fisheries witiiout drying, having salt on board — that is to say, iii Iceland and on the Grand Bank — arc never subjecteil to the ordiuimce respecting minimums; they embark at llieir own pleasure
such number of men as their crew as they deem advisable for navigating and fishing. Their crews are less numerous, because they have no need, like the vessels fishing on the coast, to employ hands in the operation of drying fish ashore ; but all the men being mariners, all contribute alike to the naval enrolment. These vessels are compelled to bring back to France the entire produce of their fisheries. Several ports on the channel, which fit out especially for the fisheries without drying, have many times complained of the absolute prohibition to sell any part of their cargoes at the seat of the fisheries, or to store them at St. Pierre, inorderto be forwarded thence to colonial or foreign markets. It is understood that the object of this prohibition is to disallow the great bounty (formerly 22 francs, hencetbrth 20 francs) to vessels, which, not being subject to the regulations respecting a minimum number of crew, do not contribute so largely to the naval enrolment. It inay be observed, on th(! other hand, that these vessels form the best sailors; and there are circumstanc(\s unihn' which ihe absfjlute compulsion to bring back the produce of their fishery to France may prove ruinous to their operaticjiis.
Messieurs the Ministers of Commerce and the Marine have entertained this view of th(^ case, and have staled that it is the int(^ntion of the government to grant the liberty desired, under certain conditions, which will ])revent the abuses that might otherwise creep in. Your commission |)roposes to you to jirovide by law that a regulation, made and jiublisluMl by the gr)veriinienl, shall declare under what circumstances th(j warehousing of fish at St. Pierre shall be permitted, and the conditions which shall regulate warehousing. The fishery at the Grand Hank, without drying, decreases under the bounty of 30 francs. Not being al)le, however, to ask further sacrifices of the treasury, we wish to reanimate the outfit of these vessels, which it is so important to preserve, by other means. The third article stipulates that the bounty on the crew shall b(> j)ai<l but onc(> during the season, even if the vessel should make several vt)yages. This M'ise disposition prevents the possibility of having thi^ same men counted twice in the same year. This same' article prohibits l\\v payment of the bounty to any men but those who liavt> arrived at the maritime (>nrolnient through the gradations recniired by law, or to those who, having been inscribed therein, c'onditionally, sliall ncjt have attained the age of twenty-five previously to the date of sailing.
The men who have passed the age of twcuity-live without being classed — that is to say, without having made three xoyages — are less easily trained to the habits of the sea. Th(> pnifl'ssion of a mariner is one which nuist be adopted while young; and if the bounties were accorded to men of above twentv-live j'ears, and not classed, the law would tail in one of its most important ends — that,nam(dy, of cr(>ating a class of men especially suitable for enrolment in the navy. It is right and fit, th(>ref()r( , that the projected law should exclude such men from the recei[)tof the bounty.
The fourth article requires that, in order to obtain the bouniy, the cod sliall be in fit condition f()r consumption as fixxl. This jirovision of the law cannot but ol)tain general approbation. The fifth article admits simple coasters to the right of carrying codfish, and receiving the boun-
tics allowed on tlip exportation of the same to ports and markets. This fight is accorded by the laws now exisling. At present the law permits every mariner who shall have made five fishing voyages on tlio coasts of Iceland, the two last as an officer, to be deemed capable of commanding a fishing vessel in the same seas.
The sixth article of the government project abrogates this privilege, and reserves the cfniimand of such vessels exclusively to captains in foreign voyages, and ttie masters of coasters ; this provision to date from January 1, 1852. The chamber of commerce at the port of Dunkirk, where vessels are specially fitted out for the Iceland fishery, has protested strongly against tiiis provision. Its adoption — so they say — would act runinously on the Iceland fishery. Of one hundred and twenty vessels annually sent to sea, fifteen, at most, are commanded by the masters of coasters, who quit that hard and laborious navigation when they find an occasion to take command of merchant vessels. In truth, it is our opinion messieurs, that the difficulties of tiie Icelandic fisheries require practical experience, and the endurance of privations of all kinds to which mariners, who have becomt; masters of fishing craft, are accustomed from their childhood, and we are of opinion that it is not advisabl(> to deprive these devoted and gallant men of the hope of reaching a station which more <>xperienced mariners are f()r the most part indifferent to ac(|uire ; and in order to reconcile the security of navigation with the facilities required b}' connnercial interests, and ask»»d fi)r by a whole class of sailors, we propose^ to you to suppress all conditions with refl-retice to date, and to add to the first article these words: "if he shall prove himself to have such knowledge of his profession as will be sufficient f()r the security of navigation.'' A ministerial (lecre(> of 1840 has already made an examination of masters of fishing vessels obligatory ; the new law will only confirm, by renderiiig legal, a usag(! .already (established. 'J'h<* f()urth article rej)roduces the provisions of tli(! twellih article of tlu' law of April 22, 1832, adding to it a provision by which the government will have the power of" fixing the period during which each vessel shall remain on the fishing grounds.
Your connnission is of opinion that it is advisable such periods sliould be lawfully deU'rmined ; but while admitting the article, it desires that such period should be so limited as to throw no obstacle in the way of the fisherman's operations, in regard to the bounties.
Your conmiission, messieurs, has carefully examined the provisions under this head. It has examined many individuals representing tlic manufactures of the; different kinds of salt, and several delegates from the oulfitt(!rs of vessels interested in the; matter ; and, after mature deliberati;>n, I Ik; commission has come to the opinion that, pending the existence of a special inijuiry into the manuliicture of salt, with which a committee by you appointed is at this mom<^nt engaged, it is our duty to strike out of a special law on fisheries, any propositions which might thereufier be modified by general legislation. We limit our-
selves, therefore, to affirming the legislation which actually directs the use of the various kinds of salt to be employed in the curing of codfish, without anticipating, by any particular delinition, the final conclusion at which the Assembly may arrive in regard to salt.
We are the more convinced of the propriety of holding ourselves to this reservation, since the government has declared to us, sincc^ the presentation of the prefect, that it was its intention to strike out the exemption which the article seemed to insure to the codfish imported into France from the fishing places, and that it shall be necessary to prove, as well f()r such fish as f()r that ex[)orted to the colonies or f()reign markets, that it was cured with salt of French manufacture, or with salt which had paid duty as at present.
The second head is, theref()re, merely a re-enactment of the law of 1848, which is useless. But you will agree with us, messieurs, that if the existing h'gislation on the character of the salt should be modified unfavorably to the cod-fishing interests, th(> scale of bounties which we have calculated on cleductions liom facts now existing, must be established j)roportionably to th<> redaction which the augmentation of the duties of salt maj' occasion.
Upon the f()regoing report the National Assembly of France passed the law therein mentioned on the 22(1 July, 1851, which was oflricially published on the 22d August last.
1. Dried cod, of French catch, exported directly from the place where the same is caught, or from the warehouse in Frai.ce to French colonies in Ameri(;a or India, or to the French establisl.ments on the west coast of Africa, or to trans-atlantic countries; provided the same are landed at a port where there is a French consul, per quintal metrique, c(/iial to two hundred and twenty and a half iwunds uroh'dupois, twenty francs.
2. Dried cod, of Frenoh catch, exported either direct from the place vvh(!re caught, or from ports in France, to European countries or foreign States within the Mediterranean, except Sardinia and Algeria, per (juintal metrique, sixteen francs.
3. Dried cod, of French catch, exported eitlier to French colonies in Amcricfi or India, or to trans-sitlantic countries, Ironi ports in France, without being warehoused, per <iuintal nictrif|ue, sixteen li-ancs.
From the f()regoing state ol' bounties, it will be seen that there are some grounds (or the tears entertained by the lishermen oi' New England, that the cod caught by tiie Freueh at Newt()undl!Uid will be introduced into the principal markets of tlie United States, witii the advantage of a bounty of twenty iiancs on the Fretich tjuintal metrique, which is two hundred and twenty aiul a half [xjunds avoir(liip<>is, very nearly ('(pial to two dollnrs per American (juinial of one hunch'ed and twelve pounds — a sum almf)st ccjual to what our fishermen obtain lijr their dried fisii when brought lo market.
In order lo show the extent to which the French pros(.cute their deepsea fisheries, the iiillowing returns are presented. 'I'hey ;ire iriinsliitions from tiic olHei;il returns annexed to the rt>port of the comniLssion of the National Assembly, and have, then 'ore, the highest ofKcinl authority.
No. 4. — Return of the quantity of dried cod exported direct from the i)lace where caught to the colonies of France, with the rate and amount of bounty jjaid thereon, in the years 1842 to 1850, inclusive.
76,100
No. 5. — Return of the quantity of dried cod of French catch exported from the warehouse in France to French colonies, in the year^ 1842 to 1850, inclusive, and the amount of bounty paid thereon.
29,758
No. 6. — Return of' the (pianlily of dried cod of French catch exported from /he ports and curing places of France to French colonics, in the years 1842 to IS'OO, inclusive, and amount of bounty thereon.
Having described in previous portions of this report the various works which compose our system of artificial improvements, a brief" notice of the internal and domestic commerce of the country, which may be said to be the result of these works in connexion with our unrivalled natural channels of trade — our navigable lakes and rivers; the general character and direction of this commerce; its progressive development, and present and prospective magnitude ; .he influence it has exerted in the advancement of the wealth and prosperity of the country ; and the relation that some of our leading staples bear to our foreign and domestic trade — forms an appropriate sequel to bo considered in this appendix.
The great facilities whicli are offered by the topographical features of the country for a vfist and extended domestic commerce were foreseen at an early period of" its history. The wonderful sagacity of Washington discovered and predicted the result which the people have within a comparatively few j'ears achieved. When, in 1783, he
1 proceeded up the Mohawk valley to Fort Stanwix, the; present site of :lomc, N. Y., and from thence over the route now occupied by the Eric canal to the waters of Wood creek, which How into Lake Ontario, and from thence to the sources of the Susquehanna, he gave the following expression to tiiis glowing thought: "Taking a contemplative and extensive view of the vast inland navigation of the United States, 1 could not but be struck with the immense diffusion and importance of it, and with the power of that Providence wiio had dealt his favor to us with so prol'usc a hand. Would to God we may have wisdom to improve them."
Our national progress has undoubtedly far transcended all that the "Fatlier of his Country" dared ever to hope or desire. Our natural avenues iiave been improved, and artificial ones have been constructed, allowing the fiee, rapid, and cheap movement of the products of national industry in every direction, and the producer and consumer in every portion of" the country are brought into convenient connexion with each other, liy opening easy access to markets, the development of our resources has been stimulated to an extraordinary degree. The results obtained can hardly be better expressed than by copying the following paragraph from the celebrated treasurj"^ report of the Hon. Robert J. Walker, of 1847-'48, in which he says:
" The value of our products exceeds three tiious;uid millions of dollars. Our population doubles once in every twenty-lnree years, and our products quadruph; in the same period. Of this three thousand millions of dollars, only about S150,000,OU() ar(> exjiorted abroad, leaving $2,850,000 at home, of which at least S-'">00,()00,000 are annually interchanged between the several Stntes of the Union. Under this system, the larger the area and the greater the variety of climate, .soil, and
products, the more extensive is the commerce which must exist between the Stntes, and the greater the value of the Union. We see, then, here, under the system of free trade among tht; States of the Union, an interchange of products of the annual value of at least $500,000,000 among our twenty-one millions of people, whilst our total exchanges, including imports and exports, with all the world beside, containing a population of a thousand millions, were last year $305,194,260."
The loUowing tables will exhibit something of the productions and value of the country in 1850, and of its commerce with foreign nations in 1851. These tables have been compiled from various authentic and official sources, and may be relied upon as the nearest approximation to correctness that can be had under the present system of procuring statistics.
On llif Isl ol' June, 18.50, the populiitioii of llic; T^iitod Slntfs \v;i.s 23,2(>3,()(I0, I'lnd the i<tt(> of iiici(';is(' durinfr the preceding ten years, with an average iniinigialioii ol' 150, 000 per annum, wa.s slu)\vn to be about three and one (itili per cent, annually. At this r;t(e of progres.s, t!ie inhabitant.s had increascul to "^5,237, 000 on the fir.st of.Tamiary, \X53. But (hn"intr the intervening time there liad arrived tiom Europe 990,000 immigrants, which wa.s (JOl.OOO above the av<>rage f()r the same length of time during tjje previou.s decennial term. This excess being added
ing added
to the natural increase, and to the number of immigrants who had arrived upon the average bel()re mentioned, the resuU shows that the population of the United States on the 1st of January, 1853, was 25,841,000, representing an increase of 2,578,000, sonievvhat over eleven per cent, during tiu; thirty-one months preceding. This increase of population is probably greater than the ratio which ought to b(! assumed in estimating the advance of the country in respect to its property, productions, and material resources in general. Ten per cent, may be adojited as a truer ratio, and upon this basis of computation and comparison the fi)llowing tables have been prepared.
Valuation of real and personal estate of ike inhabitants of the United States for the yiars aiding June 1, 1850, and December 31, 1852, together with the averasrc amount to each inhabitant.
III tlic propnralidn of iljc f!)rt>go"m^' st.'itcmcnt, the tables of ilie Rovciitli cen-sus liavi; been strictly f()llt)\V(^(l, and the general ales ot" increase, l)()ih ll)r pofxilation and property, l()nnd to havf; ohiained throughout the coimtry (hn-ing the past thirty-one months, have been upj)lied to each State, though, of eoin'se, some States have; advanced much more rapidly thfin others. TIktc is reason to belicive that the real and personal proj)erty is considerably undervalued in the census report. Ihis will be diuslrated by the follow ing comparison of property and wealtli among the urban and rural population. It aj)pears frotu the census that —
The subjoined table is designed to exhibit a general view ot" the agrieulturc> of the United Slates. The aggregate ciuantity and value of crops are first presented, and next the several items which are suppoi^ed to constitute th(.' fixed capital of the agri(Miltural interest. It has been thought proper to assign one-f(»urth of the value of live stock to tlit! column of aiuuial production, as that is probably the rate of yearly increase. The r(!mainder, together with the value of farms and farming implenn-nts and machinery, should obviously be reckoned as ca|)ital. In ascertaining the average price of crops, those of the New York J'ricc Current fi)r January, 1853, have been taken, and a deduction therefrom of fifUcn per cent, has been made, to cover expenses of transportation and commercial charges. Where special circumstances r(;(|uirc a dej)artiire from this rule, they are noticed in the remarks a[>pended to tlu; ta!)l(\
REMARKS UPON THE AOHICULTURAL TABLE.
1. The crop ypnr of 1849, to wliicli tlio returns oftlio seventh cf^nsus apply, was reported ncnrly all ovi'r the cfjiintry iis a scNison of " short crop." Investigations undertnUen by State legislatures and agricultural societies prove; that the aggregate production of wheat reported in the census tallies was below the; average by at least 3t),000,()()() of bushels. That amount has bei-n added to l()rin a basis of comparison tor ascertaining the crop of the past year, as given in the l()regoing table.
2. The (juanlity of tobacco assumed as the production of 18.'>2, exhibits an increase of more tiian t(>rty per cent, on that of 1849. This result is ascertained fiom commercial statements and circulars, the accuracy of which there is no reason to question.
3. The cotton crop in J8'/2 is estimated at 3,22'j, 000 bnU^s of f ho average weight of 400 jH)und.s, and the iiverage price t()r thc! year is assumetl at ten cents per pound. The (piantity will probably exceed that given in the table. Able statisti(,-al writers have made calculations .showing the probabilitv of such an increase in tht; production of this great staple as will bring u[) the crop of 1800 to 1,720,000,000 poiuids.
4. The census returns of 1850 showed a small d(u.Tease of tin* potato crop as compared with \ii-h). This was owing to the disease called the potato rot. That diseasi^ is said to Ix- disappearing, and it is considered sale to assume! the production of the past yc^ar as about e(|ual to what it would have been, had no such cause of retrogression occurred during the course of the late decennial term.
5. The census tables undoubtedly prescnit an estimate oi" the; wine crop very far below the truth, in the .State of Ohio the vintage; of 1849 yielded more; than thi' whole quantity assigned to the United Slates. Sinc(! that year, immerous vineyards along the Ohio, in Missouri, and elsewhere — sonii- of them ol' large extent — have been brought into a condition to add largely to the production of the country in this article. CalilJ)rnia and New M<'xico, also, reported as j)ro(laciiig more than a (juarter of all the wjneof tlu; United Slalfs, must become lertile wine districts.
G. Th<' value' of the proiluce of market gardens is much understated in the census returns. Tli(> class of produce coming under this designation includes the whole of some highly important crops, as beets, turnips, carrots, onions, parsnijis, melons, tomatoes, besides numerous minor j)ro(luction3 which are separately of small account, but collectively amount to a very large sum. The estimate in the table is a moderate one.
7. The pri(;e of hay in New York at the end of the year 1852, was between twenty-tivt! and thirty dollars pei- ton. Hut the (|uantity of this bulky article entering into tlic trade; of the country is relatively so small, and the expense of its transportation to a market is so considerable in comparison with its original value, that the; arbitrary sum oi' $12 50, or u'ss than half the selling price in New York, has been assumed as till' average in the country at large.
8. The item of the value of hides antl [)eltries is a very important one, amounting doubtU'ss to many millions of dollars ; but it is presumed to be included in the value of animals slaughtered.
9. The cstiinulcs fiir poultry, li'uthers, milk, nnd <'pg3, of which articles no returns arc t()und in the census tables of 18.00, may seem to many extravagant; hut the gross amount is e(|ua! to an average of only some twelve or fifteen dollars to each f:u'innig eslablishnient in the United States, and is undoubtedly very considerably within the truth.
10. Too high an importance has l)ecn sometimes attached to the residuum of crops as nn integral part of th(^ agricultural wealth of the United States. In ollicial tables lierelol<)re publishi'd, the value of such portions of the produce of the field and litrest as are not susceptible, in the usual course of trade, of a transfer to market, and nuist be consumed on the farm, has l)(>en giveti at one hundred millions of dollars. Hut it should be remembered that by far the great . jart of this valui) has been already expressed in that of live stock, by which nearly the wlu)le of il is consumed. It would obviously ai.MWer no good purpose to give prominence to what has been thus disposed of us an independent item in our annual pro(lucti(^iis. But straw, corn-husks, and souk; other substances which eonu^ under this classification, are extensively used in the minor manufactures of the i'oun!''y, and will b "ar the valu-
The following statements show the number of manufacturing establishments in the United States, the am.ount of raw materials used, the capital invested, and the total value of products, according to the census of 1850.
The ainounts s(?t ()i)[)osiU' tliosc St;Ucs iiiMikcd with n .star jiro not ofiicial, and tlio revision of the table now going on in the ('ensn.s OlKci' may .sliglilly vary tlieni; l)ut the incrca.sc or diniunition will not hv sd con.-^iilt'rablc as to afli'ct, in a material manner, the dednrtions wliic li it i.s onr purpose to draw from the statement. The aggregate of the above table added to the total product ion.s of agriculture t()r the |)ast year, anil the value of home maniif leture.s, given in another part of the census statistics, will give us a condens(;d view of the total money value of the productions of indu.-^try, inchuling all interests, lor the year 1(S52. The .statement is as f()llows:
enumerated interests 2,932,762,042
Were it practicalilc to bring within the scope of a general system of statistical incjuiry, hke that of the late census, every variety of occupation leading to valuable results, it ciinnot be doubted that this grand aggregate of pnxhietion in the United States would appear much larger than in llie l()regoing statement. Divided by the number of inhabitants, free and slave,*, it gives S126 as the average annual production of each person. 11" we estimate the proportion of adult rnales as one to (bur of the wlioli! population, the annual average production of each is shown to be $504.
The preceding tiible has never been published ; it shows tlint the exports have doubled, per capita, with an increase of the population of about two hundred and forty per cent.
lopulalion of
Statement exhibiting the value of foreign merchandise imported, re-exported, and consumed, annwtlbj, from 182.1 to 1851, inchisire, and, also the estimated jJOjntlation and rate q/' consumption, per capita, during the mme period.
RE PORT ON
The preceding returns, und tliose which immediately follow, arc presented to illustralc the chief object of the report, which is to show the value of the productions, and the rapid increase of the inland interchanges between (hffcrent parts of the thirty-one States, and the importance of this inland trade.
It is a natural characteristic of the North American people, influenced by that stern spirit of co-operation which has so signally contributed to their present high position, to examine with interest the results of their labor :'S exhibited in the advancement of its material or intellectual stren;i;th With tlie progress of the l()rmer, whether of conunerce, manii tact ire, or agriculture, there will be a corresponding increase of a taste tor literature, art, and the sciences.
It is gratifying to observe that no one interest outstrips any other interest, and that if one section ot" the Union is prosperous, there is a corresponding improvement in another section ; and, in contemplating the ha [)py state of the confederacy, we are proud to believe that "tlierc has never been imagined any mode ot" distribiiling the produce of industry, so well adapted to all the wants of man, on the whole, as that of letting the share of each individual depend in the main on tiiat individual's own energies and exertions."
Doubtless, the successful a[)pIieation ol' so just a. principle is chiefly owing to two causes — the |)erfect ecpiahty and protection of labor, and that prohibitory clause in the constitution prev(Miting any Stale from levying taxes on the produce of another State; and allliough it lias delegated to Congress the regulation of the "co(nmerce with fi)reign nations and among the several States," the federal legislature has wisely left the latter totally unfettered and free.
Since the publication of Mr. Walker's celebrated report in liS47-'48, in which he estimated the internal trade of the country at three thousand millions, already mentioned, various causers, obvious to all, have; conspired to gicallv extend its area by increased facilities, and increased its value.
The railroads have increased from five thousand five hundred miles, costing about one hundred and sixty-six millions, to lliirtetMi thousand thre<' hundred miles, costing lour huiulrt'd miHions.
The imporLs iind exports liave increased from thri e hundred to over tour hundred millions; the tonnage, inward and outward, from (),7(H),70-'3 to 1 0,0!) 1,040 t.. as; the tonnage owned, from L>, 839,000 to 4,2U0,Uf)0 tons. The receipts into the treasury, exi'lusive of loans, have increased from twenty-six to over tbrty-iiine millions; and the Caliti)rnia trade, the whole ot" which does not a[)pear in llii,' published returns — the commercial phenomena ot" a commercial ;ige — have also added a hundred millions to the national eoinmeree, and, more than any (ivenl of tlie last li'nty years, have invigorated the navigating interest of" the country, and to a great degree liad a [jowertul influeiu-e over the conuiiercial m;irine ot" the world; th<' whole conlribuling to swell the internal trade, and enabling the I'nited Slates to own more than Iwo-tifilis ot tli(! tonnage of the world.
tr.'ivelling public, and for tlin trjiusjMJrtiitiou of pKuliicc, art- ol" a liighn character than the additions tiiey iiiake to the weahh of the countryIn case ot* an unfortunate war, particuhirly with a maritime power, hy which our commerce with the ocean mijiht lie im|)eded, the means of intercf)mnmriication affi)rdetl by the rivers, canals, lakes, and railroads would still be enjoyed, and tlie domestic trade and commerce continue to be carn[)aratively unnjolested.
As great interest is nf)W maniti'sfed as to wiiat p(jrtion of the trade* of the valley of the Mississippi sh;dl seek a southern market, the following notes, prepared in part by Mr. Mansfield, of Oincinnati, will be found very useful and interesting by those engaged in that portion of 'tlie western trade. The line of separation referred to in tliene notes,
as dividing the northern from the southern trade, is by no means fixed or stationary, but varies from year to year, affected by prices in different markets, rates of freight, &c. — the general tendency, probably, being to the southward.
NOTES ON THE AMOUNT AND TENDENCY OF OHIO COMMERCE.
Th(> competition between the southern, or river route, and the northern, or lake route," to the ocean, has become so strong in the western States as to excite much interest as to the dividing line which separates the kgilimafe trade of tiie lakes tiom that of the rivers. It is desirable to know what portion of the country is best accommodated by the northc^rn, and what by the southern route ; and also to know something of the character of tlie articles which make up tin; princi[)al trade of the different channels respectively.
This is at first sight a difficiih question, because the lakes, and the public works connected with them, arc clostnl for a portion of the year, during which the trade tends southwardly. But there; is a certain method of deiermining it. Taking, for example, the arrivals and clearances at the extremities on the lake and on the Ohio river, and then comparing tin; result with tlu^ receipts and clearances at the intermediate ports, it will at once appear at what points the streain, southward or northward, terminates. First, then, to take the leadbig articles of groo(;ries which depart from Cincinnati and Toledo, and arrive at various points on the Miami canal, W(; have as follows :
4,164.059
This tabli! proves that groceries are transported in the Miami country both fron) the lake to the river and rice ccrsa ; but that a much larger portion go tiom the river than from the lake. An investigation of the recrtnts at the various ports ot" the interior proves that the country north ofFicjua, Mirmii county, ninetv miles from Cincinnati, is supplied from Toledo, and the country soutli of it from Cincinnati. A point on the Miami canal, about ninety miles from Cincinnati, is lher(>ti)re the point of division between the trade in fc)reign articles derived from the lake and that derived from the river.
3,840 i 3,176.424
It nppcars from nn rxnminntinn of the stnti^stics o{' the intrrior ports, wlicrc! their rrc('ij)t.s are lioni the Ohio ciiiiiil, that the ."^iijtphcs from the Ohio river extend as far as Ninvark, Licking eoimly, alioiif 12(1 niih'S tiom I*ort.-;iiionth and 150 from ('levehmd.
The Muskiniriim improveiiuMit (xli iids lo I)r''?den, on die Ohio canal, and the groceries are supfjlied from the Ohio, nl Harmar, .so far as to ZaiiesviUe, Mii.skingnni count}'.
10.HI0.710
It appears that grocorio.s are .cup{)lied from tlie Ohio river to nearly twice the valiu^ of thos(; forwarded from the lakes to the interior oi Ohio. From consideration of these facts, it ap|)ears that the line of general separation may bo drawn through Pi(jua, Miami county, Urbana, Chariipaign county, Columbus, Franklin county, Newark, Lick-
Jf tilt' siimc iiHjuiry l>t' cxtfiuliMl to the cx^ .irts ol' domestic produce from the interior of Ohio, t lie line of separnlion will Ix; found to run neiirer to the Ohio river, hut ncross iienrly the siune tract of cduritry. The following are aggregates of the rec(;ipt.s, in leading articles of domestic produce, at the lak'i and river ports:
58,777
ill reference to the pul)li(- works of Ohio, ihc'refore, the greater (|uantity of Hour and grain is exjiorled tiom the lake ports; hut the larger |)ro|)ortioii of live stock, animals, provisions, and whiskey pass through the river j)orts. As hogs are chielly driven to Cincinnati, the ahove t.'d)le expresses hut a very small portion of ihe animal l()od ret-eived tiom the interior at the ports of C'inciiinati and P()rtsmf)Uth. The export trade of Cincinnati will he shown in another table. By examination of th'' arrivals and clearances of domestic produco on the Miami canal, it ap[)ears that Hour and other products are shipped to ('ineinnati from l*i(|ua or its vicinity — about JOO miles to the northward. The lint; of separation, in regard to the ])roductions of (.)hio,
of domestic produce, in the imtnediate Ohio valley, exc(>pt, perhaps, tobacco, wuol, and mamifactured articles, go to tlie lake ports. In the articles of tobai.-co and wool the trade almost alloirether tends lake-
wards.
The following tabl(> of the imports of lumber, Irom the exterior to the interior ports, will show the tendency of thiU article at the present date. It must be observed, however, that the amount is a mere fraction of the whole, because the lumber imported into southern Ohio is almost exclusively brought from the Alleghany region, down the Ohio; though recently lumbtM- has Ibund its way through Toledo and Cloveland.
liike ports.
It li)llows, then, Iroin tiie above liicts, thiit two-thirds the eoilec; niid six-sevenths ot' the lumber passing over the public; works lor consuinntion in Ohio are imported throiii^h th(> hkr jjorts ; but thiit three-ll)urths the sugar and molasses, and nearly nil the lobaeeo, are imported through the river ports. Sugar and molasses, the prodtiets of Louisiana, are distributed from Cineinnati through the Northwest, even to the shores of the lakes.
Of the prodneo of Ohio, three-lbinlhs of the Hour and grain are exported through rhe lake ports, but more than rhree-l()urths of the prtrk, lard, and whiskey through ihv ports of the Ohio river, as will be seen by reference to the principal exports of Cincinnati, as connecti-d with llie above canal receipts.
Should the question now arise as to the comparative value of the exports ot'Ohio, it appears from the t()rt\going tables that the ex[)orts of flour, and wheat roclnced to (lour, amount to 12, 0(17, 02!) barrels, or, reduced to grain, 10,335,145 bushels of wheat. IJut the i'X|)orts from Sandusky, derived trom a very ti-rfih* region ot" country, and from Milan, have in some years amounted to 000,000 barrels, including wheat reduced to Hour ; while there are also larger exports ol' grain by tlie Pennsylvania and Ohio conal, and from various small ports on the Ohio river. The total exj)orl of wheat may therelbn' be sit down as ecjuivalent to tilteen millions of bushels, or to three millions ot" barrels ot" Hour. In the years 1850 and 1851, the wheat crop of Ohio was e{|ual, in the aggregate, to (i5,000,000 bushels. The consunn)tion of
It is possible that the ()uanlity consumed may exceed, and the slock on hand fall short oi', the ligun.'s assinnrd ; but there is no tune when, with an average cro]) ol wheat and corn in Ohio, there is nol a large surplus on hand to meet tlu; demands olan export trade. If the above export ol" flour and wheat be com|)ared with tlu> results of our exports to fi)reign eouiilries in 1850, it. will be seen that the Slate ot"()lii() alour exports a (|iianiity t>\ wheal and flour eijual to double the whole liireign export of" 1850. On an average of seasons, Ohio now exports an amount nearly etpjal to llie entire export of" the United Slates !
The Hour exj)orled by the lakes is l.'irgely consumed by the mauufactuiing population of" the KasUMii Stales, the amount received in New England from the West being about equivalent to a million of" barrels per annum.
Considering the agrienltural or strictly domestic |)rodu(;e of Ohio exported as a whole, the annexed table very nearly exhil)its the entire exports of the most important articles ll)r 1851 :
Whiskey 300,000 barrels.
The market value of the above articles amounts, in round luimbers, totwenty-fne millions of dollars. The smaller articles, not enumerated, would bring up the total to fidl thirty millions. The manufactures of Cincinnati and other towns exported to t()reign countries may be set down at ten millions in addition. So thatthe ;iggregate export of things produt'cd wholly within the State, and sold abroad, may be safely estimated it full i()rty uiiUions per aiunmi. The trade of a State, however, consi,-i> not only ii its own produc(>, but likewiseof all the articles imported, niul of the local trade from port to port. The aggregate trade of the various towns and ports of Ohio, import ami export, probal)ly amounts to one hundred and twenty millions per aniun7i. Some id(>a of" this may be attained by consideration of the li)llowing table of ex[)orts in the most material ai tides i()r the [)ort of Cinciimali :
This Ifihlo (lomoiislrritcs tliiit llie (-xport trade of Cincinnati has increased inoro than two hunched per cent, in the last five years. Its power and tendoicy to increase no less r.-ipidly for many yejirs to come is undouhled. There are many smaller artiel(\s not includetl in the above. The total value of exports from Cincinnati is thi-refore estitnated at ahove thirty millions of dollars, .and tin." aggregate value of its trade to bo sixty iriillions j)er annum.
or the exports from Ciiiciiiiiati, a larj>;(' pail an; maiml'aciiir' d articles, in whieh Cincinnati exceeds, Mn)p<»rtional»ly to its population, any town of the United States. The lialowiti^ tahh; ot' nianulaeiiires in '^iici'nnali ti)r IHIO and Ih/iO, with their increase per cent., will sho\v .«. hat ii mass of products llitTe mr. there whieh alliird a surplus '..■, i.iher markets :
300 per ft.
The ahove classification does not include the merely mechanical work, such as carpeiiterinju', hricUlayinti;, painting, &c., where the r<'su!l is wholly local. It includ(\s only those manufactures of which part may he i'xporled.
This tabic demonstrates that of tlie produco of Ohio — beef, pork, lard. Hour, and corn — nearly tiie whole quantity, as exported from CineinntUi, goes down the river ; a small portion only up the river ; and but a smrdl fractic^nal part northward by canal or railway. On the other hand, coflee, sugar, and molasses — productions of the t>outh — tend northward. Sugar and molasses are (;arried, dirough Chicinnati, to the borders of the lakes ; while coffee, as w^e have seen, principally imported I'rom Boston, Philadelphia, and Baltimore-, iinds its way by th(; lakes to Cincinnati.
The result of tin; tables hereinbefore adduced is iq prove that the trade of the Ohio valley originates in and is controlled by itself. All the produce of Ohio, from a line running through Piquii, Newark, DiOsueii, &c., tends to the Ohio valle}'. All the tobacco, hogs, cattle, salt, and lumber of Kentucky and Virginia, for one hundred and fift}^ miUiS soulli of the Ohio, t(,'nd to the Ohio river, and by that route mostly t' Cincinnati. All the produce, of wliatev(>r kind, concentrated in the Oiiio valley, looks l()r transport to the Ohio river, instead of passing northward by canal or railway — in tin; ratio of ten to one. Tiie articles of sugar and molasses will, in future, be supplied to Ohio and Indiana almost exclusively by way of the Ohio river. The construction ot' railroads, by facilitating distribution, is augmenting that tendency, and thence the business ot' distributing in Cincinnati is greatly on the increase. For the same reason, mu'-h of the coffee which has heretofi:)re been bought in the North will luMcafliM- be imported, at first hands, from Brazil and Cuba, entered at the port of Cincinnati, and distributeil l)V the jobbing houses of that city.
Thi> is the largest city west of" the Alleghanies, and is situated on the northern bank of tli(> Ohio, in latitudes 39" (>' 3tt" north, and longitude 70'' 'Z\' '2^>" west tiom Washington. Its site is just opjxjsite the uioutli of the Licking river, which comes into the Ohio betW( en Newport ;ui<l Covington, Kentucky. It is distant iiom New Orleans about 1,4'')<> miles ; from I'ittsburg, 4^)^> miles; from i^ouisville, ]32 mih's ; and I'rom the niuutli ol' the Ohio about .OOd miles by the course ol the rivers ; from ]>altimore, /)0U miles ; from Fliiladelphia, (iOO, and from New Vork, 0.')() miles, bv {)()st-i'oule. The poj)ulation in lS(IOwas75() persons: in ISld. 2,'>1U ; in 1820, !),(i02 ; in 1830,21,831; in 18-10, 4(5,338; ;uid in 1850, 11(),I08. This exhibition of increase in population has rarely been e(|ualled bv any city on the globe ; and there is very little doubt tli;il the same, or a greater ratio ot' augmentation will be j)reserve(l duiinif the j)reseiit period often years, to elapse previous to 18bO.
The munerous railwavs in proei'ss of construction, and already in operation, which will be tribut arv to her business, nnist have a very l)enelicial and prosperous cHiwt upon her growth. The Ohio and Mississippi road, which will coimect her with St. Louis, the luwt great western mart in point of size, by almost an air-line, caiuiot but be very
advantageous l(j her business interests, by opening to her trade a section of country which has heret.of()re had no access to markrls of" snoh importance.^ as tliese two cities.
A full description ol'this and all other railway and canal routes !< ading to or from Cincinnati wilt be l!)und in another part ol" tliis rei>ort, devoted especially to such improvements.
Th(? commerce of Cincinnati, as has been seem by the pnu-rdlng not(^s on Ohio commerce, and will be more; fully illustrated by the following tables, is immense, embracing almost every variety of production and manufactures. The river, at the point where the city is loc-at'd, is about six hundred yards in width, and its mean annual range from low to high water is about filly feet. In the midsummer the water is sometimes so low as almost to prevent the navigation of" the river by steamers above the city; gtnierally, how(>ver, boats of light draught can proceed to I'ittsburg without much dilHcully, except they may be prevented a 'cw weeks in midwinter by floating ice.
The sui:ceeding tables, prepared l)y direction of the Chamber ot Commerce of Cincinnati, exhibif the connnerce of the ])orl in detail, giving tin,' (|u;intity and character of the articles entering into its entnposition during the |)eriod of fiv(> yiiars past.
the sum of $24,715,331. Estimating merchcmdise upon the basis of valuation used in the Miami and oilier districts on the hikes, would give a farther amount of $32,140,400 — making the uggregiite import commerce amount to $56,801,731.
A oiiiiicf ;it the tiil)I(> ol" exports will .^nt,i,-<ty llic ()l).^('ivcr that the exj)orls air otlhc^ same artieles as ihc imports, and that the major part of the properly here noted is merely in (ra/mtu, passiii,£>; through the eommert'ial hou.^e.s of Ciiieiniiati on its way to a northern or southern destination.
Many articles, it will also be observed, ar(> much modified in their shape during their stay — such as pork, lard, whiskey, tallow, &c. These tables possess much interi\st, as showing the ecturse ot" trade at this j)oiiit, as well as exhil-.itiiig its nature and i-haracter more t'ully tlian can bi' olIicTwise done.
The city ot" Pittsburg is situated in the western part of' Pennsylvania, at the lieail ol" navigation on the ()hio river, which is t<)inie(l at that point by the union ol" the waters of" the Alleghany and Monongahela. ltisin"42o 30' north latitude, and 8(P 2' west longitude ; 230 mihs from lialliniore, and 21)7 t"roni Philadelphia; 200 mil«'s from Ilarrisburg, and 22(i from Washington. It had a population, with its suburbs, in 1800, ol" 1,.%.'; persons, and in 1850, of about 8;3,000. The enumeration of the inhabitants of llie eitv proper was, in 1810, 4,708; in 1820,7,248; in 1830, 12,542; in 1840, 21,115; and in 1850, with its suburbs, 83,000. This number ii)r 1850 includes Alleghany I'ity, of upwards of" 20,000 inhabitants, and some smaller places in the vicinity. Alleghany county, of which Pittsburg is the princij)al town, had a population, in" 1850, (")f 138,008, having gained, sinc<' IvS-lO, nearly 57,000. In this county a larger capital is investcil in iron manufactures than in atjy other county in the Stale, which is pretty good eviiienc«' that, at present at least, it ofier.s greater inducements to that branch of industry than any other ])oint. Except at short periods of very dry seasons, the Ohio is navigable to Pittsburg by boats of light draught, it is not, ht)wevi'r, navigable for boats of llie largest class during any consiilerable portion of" the .reason. When the tspring freshets occur llier«
is deep water ; but the boats built at Pittsburg arc adapted to the lowest possible draught, so that they may trfuisact business nearly the whole year.. At times, in severe winters, there is sufficient floating ice in the upper Ohio to impede navigation tor a tew days. The principal harbor is furnished by the Monongahela river, which has a better depth of water than the Alleghany. The city lies chiefly lictween the two. It has rather a pleasant site, and is surrounded with hills of bituminous coal, which can be (juarried and delivered in the city at a trifling expense. It is to this tact, and the close proximity of good iron ores, that Phtsburg owes her great growth in manufiictures. Pittsburg is the great cntrciwt of western Pennsylvania, from the Ohio and Missisippi basin and from the lakes. The Oiiio river gives her an eligible connexion with the first, and its trade ; while the Beaver and Erie and Ohio canals give her access to the latter; and the Pennsylvania canal from Johnstown, gives her the command of the principal portion of the trade of the State W(.'6t of the Alleghanies. Besides these connexions, however, Pittsburg is about to reap great benefits from numerous railway projects, whicli will soon be in operation in various portions of western Pennsylvania. These are spoken of pretty fully in another department of this report, and it is theret()re unnecessary to describe them under this head. One of the most important of all these projects is the Pittsburg and Olean railway, which will pass through some of the best agricultural counties in the tState, but which heretofore have not had access to a market, sufliciently expeditious to develop their rich and varied resources. To connect with the route just mentioned, a road is about to be built irom Buflido, at the t()ot of Lake Erie, to Olean. This ro;id will coniu^et the western termini of the Pennsylvania canals with the western termini oIUk; New York canals, and the head of ( >hio navigation with the great lake port at the eastern terminus of navigation on Lake Eric. JjulJido will have access also to the coal and iron of Pittsburg and other j)orlious of I'ennsylvania by a direct route, and by a mode, loo, which enjoys superior advantages over all others in carrying coal. IJailway iratrks may be laid direct from the city to the mine, and tbllou up the (juarrv iiideruiitely, perhaps, so that b}' such a mode no transhipment or cartage is reijuired; but, with water counuunicalion, it cannot be done so <'asily. There, coal must be carted from mine to boat, anil when arrived at the place of d(!Slination, instead of being (hiniped right li'oni the ears into the coal-yard, as upon railways, it nmst he raised out of boats and carted away lo the yard. IVrhaps coal and other minerals or ores are the only kind of heavy articles of which it can be said, with truth, that they may be transported more cheaply by railway than by water. The manutiictures and conitnercc* of Pittsburg are immense; but no returns, latir than those of the census of .1850, are at hand, by which lo ( xhibit the exact value of the i()rmer, and the commercial returns are bill iiiditlerently kept at any time. Below, such aulheutii; data are j)resented as could be jirocuied indicative of the character and extent of each.
In 18-10 ther(> were in operation iu Pittsburg and Alleghany city thirty-two furnae(\s and titrges, with a capital of 81,437,000; the total capital employeil in manufactures was slated al !i?'2, 784,594. The tounauo of the port, in 1840, was estimated at 12,000 tons.
In 1850, according to tho returns of the United States census, Alliv ghnny county had tnanufnctures of all kinds employing capital, iind yielding annual products ;is tollows :
The great i)ulk of the abov<^ aggregate of niNirly seventeen million dolhn's of the product of industry is made up of niMuufiictures of various kinds of iron, steel, nails, gfi.--, cotton, clothing, hoots ;uid shoes. c;d)inet*-warc, whiskey, flour 'niil provision-[)itcking. iron, of course, tnkes the lead, and enters into almost all kinds of manufactures to a gnan-r or less degree.
It is prop(!r to remark here, that liltie reliance is to hephiced upon th(^ accuracy of census niurns, generally, in ni.itlers of husiness which relate to the actual substance of men so intimately as the above queries indicate. Various motivi's instigate diflerent jiersnns to give ri'plies susceptible of constructions very wide of the mark aimed at by the goveriunent — sometimes above, perhaps, l)ut g- nerally very far below the real vrdue f)f the pro[)erty or business undergoing invesiigaiioii. Business men an; [)roverbially jerdous of all intermeddling in their atfairs; and so, how(!ver good the object of the medtller may be, or how innocent soever the instrument employt d, the replies are usuallv ro coloicd, as it is supi)osed will best subserve the interests of their maker. Hence, such returns should be used under a lull view of the circumstances and with many grains of allowance. In the cn.«!e of Pittsburu and vicinity, all conunercial returns, lately compiled, present very dilierent results from those of the census. That city is well known to i)e one of the most prominent in all the; western valleys lltr the coustruclinu of steamers — both of wood and iron — an interest which does not tiilly appear in the census returns. Jt is said that the number of steamers built at this plac(\ dining a series of years, will av(Mage about one [h y wcok. Supposing I'us statement to i)e correct, and that tlu' value ol'tlie macliinery and join(!r-work was included under those heads, which is liardly probable, there is still the cost nf mateiial .and lab(»r required to con.struct fifty-two hills, unaccountJ'd lor, wliicli, al the moderate average valuation of ten thousand dollars each, would amount to five hundred and twenty thousatid dollars.
This is l)ut a single item; and it is not ;it all improhal)le that many more might be eiied, less imj>ortanl to be sure, but still capable ol adding their quota to the gerv ral aggregate. In western IVnnsvlvafna — lixni is, in the twenty-two couiities west ot the Alleghanies — there were diffJ'rent varieties of iron woi ks in thirteen of the counties, i<) thi" miinber of on(; hundred and f»»rty, inv.-4vin^ ihc iuvestmt at of ''i?G,887,''37(>.
principal, and, m lact, almost tiie only accessii)ie market !(«• the products oilhis immense capital, is Pittsburc?. During late years, it is well known many of them have rem;iineil idle, owing to the low, unromunerating prices of iron. But the latt; advance of prices in Kurope, and the ])rcsent high rates, are stimulating this important interest, and, inviting capital, ;ind labor to engage in it, with gof)(l prosj)ecls of an adequate reward. I'ittsburg must, theref()re, soon reap a rich harvest in the augmentation of her traffic from this source. Pittsburg, how(!ver, is not entirely dependent on the suburban counties fJjr her iron manufactures. There are in the city lifleen rolling-mills, having a capacity for making 49,200 tons of bar, rod, hoop, sheet, and boiler iron, nails and spikes, and bar and sheet steel, annuall3^ Of the above fifteen works, six are employed in the conversion of steel; of which they made, in 1850, (),078 tons. In the same works there were 205 nail machines, capable of turning out 1,000 kegs of 100 lbs. each, or an aggregate of 10,250 tons. The aggregate value of the })roducts of these fifteen works is estimated at 83,425,000.
The ])ig-ir()n consumed in these ;nid similar manuliictories is supplied by the f()undries located U|)on the several rivers which communicate with the mountainous distric:ts. 'I'he ore is principally furnished to the t()undries by the neighboring tiuniers during the winter season, when their labors are not re(|uired in agricultural occupations. Digging the or<', and delivering it to the furnaet\s, fi-Uing trees, anil converting the wofxl (which is luilit to transl<)rm into lumber) into charcoal for the use of the furnaces, and raising [)roduee ftjr the subsistence of the hiborers employiul in the manufacture of iron, afiord abundant and profitable employment to the agriculturists of the surrounding country, and contribute largely to tlu' tradi' and commerce of Pittsburg.
The manufacture of' glass is carried on by thirty-lhn c different (establishments in this city, which is scarc(dy less notv-d t<)r {\iv (juantity and variety of this article, amuially classed among its exports, than for till' larger and more valuable interest just described.
These remarks are intended to convey some idea of the [)rincipal manufacluring, and consequent I'ommereial, interests of Pittsburg, as now in progri'ss; but it may be wi'll to add that tiiey may be extended almost indefinitely. There is no known limit to tlieir capacity, or to the elements necessary t()r their augmentation. Wootl, coal, ores, and agricultural resources, all abound in the utmost profusion, and at the greatest possible convenience. Ail that is wanting to constitute Pittsbin-g the "Birmingham" of the American continent is labor.
The commercial interests ot' Pittsburg are hardly less important than the maiudlicturing. The enrolled tonn;ige of the port in 1851 was about 17,000 tons, consisting of 112 steamers, employing officers and crews of 2,588 persons, and carrying 4()(),()6] passengers. Of the pro[)erty carried on the river steamers, either as to amount, character, or ijuantity, no retains an- at hand, and there is no very satisfiietory mode of ascertaining its value. The best mode of ascertaining its character which now pr(>senls itself is by the examination of" the returns of the canal commerce of Pittsburg, as made to the commissioners of the State works.
On llie average, ifiese iigures indicate a very gratifying increase in the canal commerce of" llie city, hut especially in the iron trade I'oi 1852. In lliis fiict, and in the greatly increased importations of drv goods and groceries, mav l)e seen the e\ ideiice of the stimulaiion which the .'idvanccd prices have ahcady imparled lothe iron manufactures.
2,787,179
It nui.st 1)0 remt'iiiborcd, lh;it wliilc tlicso tiil)U.'s (Miihriico all ;irliclcs imporU'd aiKl t.'XVK)rlfil on tlio Stnfe works, flu'V show nothing ol" tht; exports ot'nianutacturcs or rc(.'(<i|)ts oC goods mikI pnxhicc by the Ohio rivii-. Pittsburg has virtually a canal connexion with Cleveland and Eric, on the lake, which contributes hu'gely to her trade, and opens to her iron mannt'actures the lake mark(!ts. She is also in cotninnnication with Cleveland and Chicago by railway. But her river coinn)erco Js also olitnnienso value. Sonic! idea may be gained oi" its inagnilu(l(i from the tiict that, during the year 1862, no less than sixty-nine steamers were constructed at that point, of" an aggregate ot']5,(K)0 tons, or an average of" 213 tons each. And all this tonnage, besides that built at other points below, finds sullieient and lucrative employment; iliiot in the Pittsburg trade directly, then at j)oints below.
LOUISVILLE, KENTUCKY.
Louisvill(! is situated on the southern bank of the Ohio river, near the liills, in latitude 38^ 3' north, and longitude So"^ 30' west, 52 miles from Frankiiui, 1,400 from New Orleaii.-^, GOO f"rom C?t. Louis, 650 from Pittsburg by water, and 596 from Washington.
This is the commercial city ol" Kentucky, and (»ne of the live great places in the- valley of" the Mississippi. Situated at the liUls of the Ohio — ij;' only great ob.struction in a navigation of 2,100 miles f"rt)ni the Alleghany river to the Gulf of Mexico— it has, in this very circumstance, some great commercial advantages. One of these is, that, cxce{)t at high water, which occurs but at short periods, the largest class of steamboats seldom ascend above that point. It is also naturally the mart of an extensive and fertile country southwest of it, and also of a [)ortion of Indiana on the north. The country immediately around the " fiills" is also fertile, supplying an abundance of market products lor a large pop,!ilation. Its growth tias been more moderate
re moderate
than that of Cincinnati and iSt. Lonis, but it has Ix^cii steady; and the snine causes which n .iilted in its rise will continue to opeiate liir n, century to come. Tlie l<)llowing uro the most important statistics of this city:
the same rate of men .isi — 10 per cent, per annum, la 18G0, at this rate, Louisville will contain about 90,000 inhabitants. The neighboring town of New Albany (Inu'iann) is (juito u large place, and will, doul)tlcs3, continue lo grow. iSo, also, JeHersonville (opposite Louisville) will be a town of ctmsiderable importance.
Pork business.
The number of" hogs put up this season in Louisville, Now Albany, and Jeffersonville, round the "falls," is estimated at 275,000, which shows a large and increasing business. A large number of the farmers of Kentucky drive their hogs to the Louisville market; and, in the last two or three years, the business has been extended.
4. Steamboats and navigation.
Louisville embarked in the steamboat business at a very early day, and still employs a large number of steam vessels. In the year 1851 {vide United States Steam Report) there were sixty-one steam-vessels registered at Louisville, carrying 15,180 tons.
5. Mamifactures.
Louisville is a commercial and not a manufacturing town. Hence, its manufacturing establishments are small as compared with Pittsburg and Cincinnati. Yet they make, in the aggregate, a large amount. The li)llowing are the principal :
I 176,000
The manufactures of Louisville (exclusiveof mere mechanical labor) probably amount in value to six millions of dollars per annum — certainly a very good foundation for more extensive operations.
apolis with all the northern, Indiana, and Michigan lines.
5. New Albany, Salem, and Michigan city line. This will connect, at Orleans, with the Ohio and Mississippi railroad, and thus make a continuous line to St. Louis, and will be continued north to Michigan city and Chicago, Illinois.
great commercial advantages.
Louisville is situated in the centre of a large district of level and rich land. Its site lor building is almost indefinite. Provisions are cheap; and its position t<)r commerce one of the best in the interior of the United States. Its growth is not so rapid as that of some places, but is very imifbrm ; so that the growth in future may be very certainly counted upon at iho same rate. Allowing for some decrease in the ratio of growth, and it will probably, in half a century, have half a million of inhabitants.
A statement recently published shows that there are navigating the Ohio and Mississippi rivers an aggregate of 269 steamers, measuring 60,792 tons, and which are valued at $3,895,000, that can pass through the present locks in the canal around the rapids at Louisville. There arc also n^jvigating the same rivers 76 steamers, measuring 48,052 tons, and valued at $3,714,000, which are loo large to pass through those locks, and therelt)re cannot participate in the trade of the upper Ohio, being nearly one-half the valuation of the steam stock engaged on those waters.
ST. LOUIS, MISSOURI.
Lying upon the bank of the finest river on the continent, in latitude 38° 37' 28" north, and longitude 90° 15' 30" west from Greenwich, and backed by untold acres of lands, rich in all the elements of agriculture, forests, and mines, which may be made tributary to her commerce, St. Louis is entitled to important consideration in the investigation of commercial affiiirs on the western rivers. Having already reached an enviable position among her sister cities, she is looking westward with a system of railways intended not only to bring all the rich agricultural and mineral treasures of the Missouri basin into h-: <arkets, but event-
ually to extend beyond the Rocky Ridge to the valley of the Great Salt lake, and still further onward to the golden shores of the Pacific ocean. Tiiough these ultimate results are some years distant, yet a glance at the accompanying map will satisfy any one that a full development of the immense resources of that portion of the Mississippi valley north and west of St. Louis, and most of which has not as yet been reduced to the first stages of culture, but must sooner or later pay its tribute to the trade and commerce of St. Louis, will be sufficient to gratify the most sanguine expectations of those engaged in pushing forward the improvements tending t(j such an end. Whether these railways are extended beyond the Rocky mountains or not, therefore, there is a territory belonging to the great valley which can scarcely avoid becoming tributary to the business of this city, much larger and more prolific of all the elements of wealth than can be found adjacent to any other city in the West. This fact alone is decisive of the future greatness of St. Louis, provided she puts forth her energies towards the progress of the means fl.»r the exhumation of the resources of this country. Her connexions with eastern cities, through Cincinnati and Chicago, are already decided upon and secured beyond contingency, as will be seen by reference to the description of canals and railways.
This is now one of the most important of the river-ports. Surrounded by an extensive back country of unsurpassed fertihty, well watered and endowed with all the advantages requisite to support a dense and thriving population, St. Louis bids fair to become, at no distant day, one of the first cities in the United States in point of population and commercial wealth. It is situated on the Western shore ot^ the Mississippi river, about 19G miles above the mouth of the Ohio, 20 miles below the mouth of the Missouri, its principal affluent, and 40 miles below that of the Illinois. Still further northward the Fever, the Wisconsin, and other rivers from the country eastward, and the Des Moines and Iowa, with some less notable streams from the west, fall into the Mississippi, conveying the rich products of the extensive prairie lands on their borders to the marke* *" St. Louis. Kere these [)roducts are usually exchanged for merch. o and supplies necessary to the settlement and subsistenceof a now country. Many furs are also l)rought down these various streams to St. Louis, and exchanged f()r tlie goods and supplies which constitute the stock in trade of the western trapper and the Indian trader. Above that city these waters are navigable only by the lightci draught or smaller class of boats, while below it the large and splendid New Orleans packets find their rapidly increasing trade. Tliesc facts involve the necessity of a transhipment of almost the entire bulk of produce and merchandise arriving at St. Louis, and intended for points either above or below that city, bclijre it can proceed to its destination; and St. Louis is thus constituted the great receiving and distributing depot for all the u|)per country of the Mississippi and Missouri basins. To the vastness (jf this country, therefijre, the immense fertility of its soil, and its rich mineral resources, inducing an inexhaustible tide of immigration, does St. Louis owe her late rapid growth in population and prosperity.
fas the key
to the great territory to which wc have referred; but, until the last twenty years, its progress was very slow. In 1840 it could claim but 16,469 inhabitants, whereas in 1850 it numbered a population of no less than 82,744 souls, showing an increase of 66,000 souls, and an average rate of duplication once in four years. She has, moreover, grown much more rapidly during the last ten years than at any f()rmer period. Thus, in 1800, St. Louis had 2,000 inhabitants. During the last fifty years her population has been doubled once in 9 J years; during the last 40, once in 9 ; the last 30, once in 7; the last 20, once in 5J ; and the last 10, once in every 4 years. Such has been the almost unprecedented growth of St. Louis from natural causes. What, then, may not be expected as the result of the construction of her numerous railways now in progress, or projected, in connexion with her natural advantages? The opening of these artificial routes will give her easy access to numerous deposites of lead, iron, coal, antl copper ores, within a circuit of 90 miles, e<iual to the wants of the whole Mississipi valley for centuries, which have not, to this time, been brought to use. The lack of necessary means of transportation has heretofore precluded the successful working of these numerous mines, though they have l)ecn known to exist in richness rarely if ever excelled. The completion of the "Pacific," the "Hannibal and St. Joseph," the "St. Louis and North Missouri," and other projected railways, which is now determined, and will open easy communication with these mineral regions, besides developing the resources of large tracts of country second to none other in agricultural richness. Owing to these promising natural features, the hidden wealth of which will be brought to light and rendered availal)le through these stupendous lines of internal improvement, the people of St. Louis confidently anticipate a continuation of their present rate of increase during the next ten years, when lu-r ca-
Eacit}' will be etjual to the support of nearly 500,000 inhabitants, when er mines may vie with those of Sweden and Great Britain, and her manufactures and agricultural productions, her railway and river tonnage, and her aggregate commerce, may not be exceeded by those of any other region of the world.
A more detailed account of the diflerent lines of public improvement in progress will be f<)un(l under the proper head, in another part of this report, and their situation may be ascertained by reference to the accompanying railway map.
Over and above the articles here enumerated there are mentioned some fil'ty-one otliers, including nearly all articles of produce and merchandise prominent in the trade and productions of the West. The above, however, have been selected as showing the bulk of the commerce of the river at this point.
Showing, thiit while the number of arrivals has fallen off", the loss is more than compensated by the enlarged capacity of the boats, as exhibited by the increase of tonnage.
boatmen 3,441
No estimate of the total value of tlu? commerce of St. Louis for 1851 has l)een mndc, nor, indeed, would it be an easy task to prepare such with raiy (l(>gree of accuracy. Enough, however, is here shown to exhibit the import;uice which it must soon attain, and the power and intluence it will ultimaielv exert on the commerce of the Atlantic cities.
NoTK. — .St. Loiiia und Ciiiciiiniili, !iH nlrc;idy noticed, arn lieing connected by the Oliio and Mississippi railroiid. This road is all under contract, and crosses the Wabash river at Vinccnncs. From this point a railroad is under contract to Evansvillo, and thiisliod from Kvansvillc to White river, about thirty-six miles ; the whole will be completed the present 3-eur. Henderson, in Kentucky, is on the Ohio river, twelve miles below Evansville. From this point a railroad has been surveyed tiiroujjli the State of Kentucky, pa.ssinfj; Madisonville, llopkinsville, and Trenton, striking the Tennessee State lino about twelve miles north of <JlarkKville, and the whole distance m Kentucky is about ninety miles ; and .sufficient funds have been subscribed to grade, culvert, and bridge it. Henderson is at a point about central to that portion of tiio great Illinois coal field lying south of the Ohio river. This road passes over these coal bods for about fitly miles. The best workable vein, near Madisonvillc, is 8j feet thick, good rooting and drainage ; and the mines are so situated tiiat the coal cars, when liiden, will descend with gra(h>s on lateral roads of about thirty feet per mile ; and the coal (■;ix\ be carried on a good road for about one cent a ton per mile. The citizens of Nashville and the county of Davidson are now deeply interested in securin;r the stock to connect the residue of the dist;;nce in Tenne.«see, about fitly miles ; and the Kentucky and Edgefield company have taken §,205,000 of the stock. This road will secure to Naslivillc her fuel at the cheapest rate, and open a direct communication between the southeast and Atlantic seaboard from Florida to the Ca|)es of Virginia ; and as it starts at Henderson, opposite the centre of the great Wabash valley, from which the States of South Carolina, Georgia, East and West Florida, now get their supplies liy way of New Orleans and the gulf, this comniunication will supply all the northern portions of those States with all their breadstufl's, slock, &r., at about as chciip !). rate as it can be done when the articles arrive at Charleston or Savannah, so far as ('arrying is concerned ; and the road must, necessarily, be one of the greatest tlioroughtiires in the United States, embracing, as it does, every variety of climate and agricultural production, and the shortest communication to the seacoast ; and the attention of the public is now being anxiously turned to this great work. The country over which it passes is nearly " champngnc" in Kentucky, and all highlj' agricultural.
STEAM MARINE OP THE INTERIOR.
As the rivers of the gvcni valley west of the Alleghany ridgr — ihr Mississippi and its tributaries — constitutr the most important portion of our rivrr navigation, a full report «)f tli(! business transacted upon tliose waters is very desiral)le, especially in this connexion ; as it would show not only the relative value of the commerce of the rivers, as compared with that of the lakes, but also the exchanges among the several (hfferent points upon the rivers. Regrets have l)el})re been expresseil that returns have only been received from a few of the more important river cities in detail. It is thought best, however, to state the amount of tonnage employed in that trade, as the best means at hand of submitting proper approximate statements of the commerce of the great rivers. The character of tlie trade, and the principal articles of produce (Mitering into it, will be suiliciently shown by the detailed statements of the commerce of the largest cities. This trade has long been considered of the highest importance by our most distinguished statesmen, who foresaw the necessity of making provisions for its prospective augmeutation, as well as by the highest (commercial authorities who have rver advocated a liberal policy of internal improvements, and also by private individuals engaged in commercial affiiirs.
Mr. Calhoun, in his able report to the Memphis convention, convened lor the purpose of considerhig the valuable interests involved, amounting to more than three hundred millions, and to 'concert measures l()r improving the navigation of the " western waters," says : " Looking beyond, to a not very distant future, when this immense valley — containing within its hmlts one million two hundred thousand square miles, lying, in its whole extent, in the temperate zone, and occupying a position midway between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, uneijualled in fertility and the diversity of its productions, intersected by the mighty stream, including its tributtu-ies, by which it is drained, and which supply a continuous navigation of upwards of ten thousand miles, with a coast, including both banks, of twice that length — shall be crowded with population and its resources fully developed, imagination itself is taxed in the attempt to realize the magnitude of its commerce."
The trade on the Mississippi and its tributaries is now a matter oi great public concern. By its rapid advance and its great future it claims equal notice with the foreign trade and the trade of the lakes, and perhaps more than either as one of the main sources of the wealth of the confederacy.
The following remarks from De Bow's Review show the interest that is felt in this matter : " The free and unmterrupted navigation of these great inland waters must, of course, bo a matter of prime interest to the country. They are to the populous nations on their banks as the ocean itself, over which commerce, not kings, presides. No construction of State powers, as contradistinguished from Federal, can exclude these arteries of trade from tlie pfje of government regard and protection. They are points of national concern. No State, nor alliance of States, can apply the remedies which their exigencies require. No narrow views of economy, no prospective expenditure, however vast,
phis eonvenlion:
"That safe communication between the Gulf of Mexico and the interior, afK)rded by the navigation of the Mississippi and Ohio rivers, and their principal tributaries, is indispensable to the defence of fh(; country in time of war, and essential also to its conunerce.
"That the improvement and preservation of the navigation of those great rivers are objects as strictly national as any other preparation lor the defl-nce of the country; and that such improvements are deemed by this convention impracticable by the States or individual enterprisis, and (!alj fiir the appropriation of money t()r the same by tlu; general government."
Tlie l()llowing statements, compiled chiefly from a valuable and usetid rcportj already referred to, on the steam marine of the inland writers, are j)r(\sented here to exhibit the necessity f<)r securer inland navigation, and as having a special bearing on the trade of the Mississippi valley and tlie 8t. Lawrence basin:
"The order in which the sevend collection districts on the lakes and rivers of the interior arc shown, commences on Lake Champlain, tiom which it (extends up the St. Lawrence river and Lake Ontario to the Niagara river ; thence up Lake Erie, the Detroit river, and Lake Huron, to Michilimnckinac ; thence up Lake Michigan to Chicago ; thence across the Mississippi river, and down that stream to New Orleans ; thus extending on a natural line of interior navigation, which has but two slight interruptions, from the waters of the Gulf of St. Lawrence to those of the Gulf of Mexico, a distance of not less than 2,850 miles, upon which is employed, fl^r purposes of trade and travel, a steam tonnage of G9,16G tons.* The Ohio basin forms of itself a cross-section some 1,100 miles in length, embracing simply the districts on that river and its tributaries.
"Immediately west of Lake Superior lies the Minnesota district, with a collector at Pembina, on the 'i;\i between our own and the British possessions, and a deputy at St. Taul, on the Mississippi, within the Territory of Minnesota. This is a new district, and steamboats employed on its waters have hitherto been enrolled at St. Louis. During the years 1850 and 1851, three or four good steamers ran regularly between St. Louis and St. Paul, and Fort Snelling, two of which took several large pleasure parties almost two hundred miles up the Minnesota (St. Peter's) river. A small boat (the only one yet built in the Territory) has been running the past year above the falls of St. Anthony, 1,700 miles from the mouth of the Mississippi. Steamers run earlier and later on the waters of the Minnesota than those of the region of the northern lakes, in the same latitude.
» Ttiis distance is traced from Montren.1 to Lewiston on the regular line of stear boat navigation ; thence by land (the first interruption^ to Buffalo ; thence on the regular line of steamboat navigation to Chicago ; thence by the Illinois and Michigan canal (the second interruption) and the Illinois river, to the Mississippi ; and by that river to the Gulf.
"By a sunnnary of aggreg.ue.s, it appears that ilic entire strength of the steam-marine of the lakes and rivers of the interior is comprised in 76o vessels, measuring 204,725^4 tons, and employing 17,007 persou.s as ofHc Ts, crews, &c. Of this aggregate, 063 are ordinary steamers, measuring 184,2022i tons, and employing 10,570 persons; 52 arc propellers, measuring 15,729',! tons, and employing 817 persons; and 50 are ferry-boaLs, mea-suring 4,733Ji^ tons, and employing 214 persons. Of the lake steamers, 50 of the ordinary, and all but two of the propellers, are moved by high-pressure engines, and 48 of the ordinary by low-pressure. All of the river steamers, and all of the terryboats, have high-pressure engines. Low-pressure engines have at several periods been partially tried on the western rivers, and abandoned. In the year 1818, three boats of this description were built on those waters ; in 1819, seven boats ; in 1820, two; in 1822, one; in 1823, 07ic; in
182^, fim; in 1825, ah:; in 182(», eifrf,t ; in \H27, four; in 1828, /jw; in 182i), ////7t'; in J830, two; in lii'M,ji)ur: Wlui, /iirni-ncn n ; of wliicli thirty-tlirec were l>uilt iit (.'inoinniiti, five iil Lonisviilc, tlirce nt New ()rl(;an.s, luwl the reni;iining six .'it dilh'Tcnt poinirt on llie ()lii(j. On the lakes, exeept litr projiellcrs, liigli-prcssnrc engines have now eoin[)aralively few ailvoe.iles, and within lli(f hist l<>ur or five ye.irs veiy tew of ihein have been l)uill.
" Tho highest of the navigable wnter.'^ of tlu? [Jnited Stiites is Lake Superior, which i.s cinbnieed in the district ot' Michilirniickinac, with the St. Mary's river, (ireen Hay, nnd die Siridts of ArJickiiJiic. Following the water-flow from this district, we reach lh(> Cjulfof St. Lawrence through L.'tke.s Huron, Krie, Ontario, and tlw St. Lnwrence river; and the Atlantic coast by Lake Clianiplain and the New England iinprovcinents in one direclion, and in another by the Erie canal and the Hudson river.
In order to show correctly the currents of actual travel by the waters of th(;sc several lines of interior collection districts, with the local movement at the principal pt)rt of each, the l()llowing statement of the several Vm-Mi is presentt!tl :
ANDItBWN KKPOKT UN
Stntrmrnt of thr total iiumhrr nf pmnns who onivid at and drpartnl from tin: urincipal jutrt a/' earh rollrrtiofi ilixtritt "/' ////; iiitcrnn., hi/ utrainrra, railroad cum, stat^c-roarhm, canal hoats, and Mram frrry'lmitx, during the i/iar rndiiiff June til), l«S/)l.
It is not siirpiisiii!^ iliiit !i first !ini'tnj)t to colli'd mid ctnixxly thi.s iiil<>rin:ilii)ii .^^lioiild liiivc liillcn slir)i't of cotnplcti' .success at nil |)()itits. The Wonder is, nitlier, lli;it .so in;niy liicls should h;ivi' been ohlniiied, t)i" a reliable character, as are ;;iven in the |)reee<liiif; tables. The dcliciencies arc few in riiiinber; and had inor*' lime; Imcii devoted to tho collection of this particidar class of tacts in the Cnyalioga, Miauja, and VicUsburg dislriets, they would have been hardly wortli incntionin;^.
One of these centres is at the head of the Ohio river, another at the i()(>t of Tjake Krie, a third at \\\v head n I^ake Michigan, and a fourth on the Mississippi, below llie outllow of the Illinois ami the Missouri rivers. The heavy conjincrce that centres midway of the Ohio valley, though reaching up the Muskingum, thi^ Wabash, the Cumberland, and the Mississippi, by natural streams, and back into Ohio and Indiana by artilicial channels, is more dhrrt in its main lines, which (^^tend to Pittsburg ill one direction, and to New Orleans in another. Jn the first and last ttf tla^ lt)ur districts named, the number of boats and men, and the amount of tonnage, employed on each of the; several streatns to which 'lie trade (tf lliose districts extend, as well as th(> travel U[)on each, are shown by the li)llowing subdivisions of the whole number of boats ihirein severally eiiidllyd.
16,942
The main trade of each ot" the other four (Ustricts named is in a direct line from the second, nearly north and south, hy Lake Michigan and the Ilhnois river, and the Ilhnois and Michigan canal ; and (rom the third in a direction imhcated by the course of Lakes Erie and Huron and that of the Erie canal. The points embraced by the ramifications of travel, however, are more numerous; and hence the 'following subdivisions are intended only to include them, and show tlie total number of passengers who arrived at and departed from the principal port of each of these districts, by the several descriptions of conveyance mentioned, during the period included in all the preceding tables — the year ending 30th June, 185L
1,656,757
Showing a recorded movement at these four commercial centres of the interior, (of the Northwest, indeed,) of one million six hundred and fifty-six tliousand stiven hundred and fifty-seven persons in the course of a year, where tlic resident population is but 217,946. No fact can better illustrate tlie activity of our people.
The total amount of property thus shown to liave been destroyed on the Inkes and rivers of the interior, in the course of the year which ended on the 30tti day of June, 1851, is much below the common estimate. But it is here presented only as an approximutiun, to receive just so much respect as statements made up in the miuiner of this are generally entitled to. It is perhaps quite as likely to bo nenr the truth, however, as the exaggerated estimates usually made in such cases by interested parties who have a particular purpose to subserve. And with reference to it, must be steadily borne in mind the fact, heretofore mentioned, that the year embraced was one of unusual exemption from serious disasters on the lakes and interior rivers of the United Slates.
A list, containing the names of G18 steamboats lost on the rivers of the Ohio basin and the Mississippi valley, from the period of the first introduction of steam navigntion thereon to the close of the year 1848, has heen prepared by Captain Davis Embrce, one of theohlest steamboat masters ever engaged upon the western waters.
This list shows the place where, and the time when, each of the boats so lost was built; the amount of its tonnage; the date of its loss; the length of time it had been running when lost; its original cost; the depreciation of its value by use; and the sum finally lost in its destruction. Of the 618 boats it embraces, 45 were lost by coUismis, 104 hyjirrs, and 409 by snags and other (jbstructions to navigation.
The losses sustained through explosions, collapsing of flues, and bursting of steatn-j)ij)es, are not includcMl in this statement. With reference to losses ot" those descriptions, some interesting information is given at the close of Captain Knibiee's list, as also concerning the average life of steamboats on the western waters, the subjects of marine insurancf' th(>r(^on, the monthly and yearly cost of runninp boats, &e.
The history of the rise and progrt\<s of tlie steam-marine of the Uniteil Stales is one of llie most interesting and wonderful things in our national advancement. Although on(^ steamboat was built at Pittsburg as early as llu^ year 1811, and although elrvi a other boats were built on tl'c Ohio river and its headwaters within liic next fiv<^ vears, it was not until the yt.'ar 1S17 that steam navigation could be said to have been fairly introilueed u|)on the Mississippi and its tributaries. Previous to this year, there were twi'lve steamboats upon these waters, having an agfircgiito carrying capacity of 2,235 tons. Krom 1817 to 1834, the number of boats increased to 230, and the aggregate of toimage to 39,000 tons. In 1842 there wen; 475 boats on the same waters: in 1851 tliis number had been incrtjased to GOl.
Official reports made to the Treasury Department in 1842, stated in detail the steamboat tonnage on the Mississippi and its tributaries in that year. The following tabic shows the increase from 1842 to 1851.
59,7.59
Tlie year following the real commencement of regular steamboat navigation on the waters of the Mississippi and its tributaries, (1817,) the first steamer employed on the upper lakes was built and launched on Lake Erie. In 1819 the waters ot Lake Huron were first ploughed by the keel of a steamer, and in J826 those of Lake Micliigan. In 1832 a steamboat first appeared at Cliicago, and in 1833 there were but eleven small steanjers on the tiirce lakes named. This date may therefore be fairly taken as that of the real commencement of steamboat navigation on the upper lakes.
Ten years later (February, 1843) a report was made to Congress of the number and tonnage of steamboats employed on those waters, "from January 1, 1841, to January 1, 1843." Though this is a very loose way oi" stating a maltcM- ol" this kind, and does not give the true amount of the steam tonnage curolled and employodin either owt'of the two years included — necessarily overstating it — yet the iiicts thus {)resented arc used lor the pur[)o.se of comjiaring them with liiose now ascertained, as showing correctly the steam toiiiiiige of the year which ended on the 3l)th June, 1851.
These comparative statements show that in a period of nine years the steamboat tonnage of the Mississippi valley has nearly doubled itself, and that in a period of eight years that of the upper lakes has more than quadrupled itself: very significant facts touching increase of population, production, and trade.
The average size of steamboats now running on the kikes is found to be 437 tons ; that of the steamboats of the Ohio basin 206§f tons ; and that of those of the lower and upper Mississippi, the Arkansas, the Missouri, and the Illinois rivers, 273^,. On the Mississippi and Ohio rivers there are many steamers of from 300 to 500 tons each, and a number from 600 to 800 each; but the large number of light-draught boats, built to run in periods of low water on those rivers, and in all seasons on the smaller streams emptying into them, carry the general averages down to the figures given above. Several of the passenger steamers of the lakes are of eleven hundred tons and upwards each.
204,725 12
The cost of steamboats on the lakes and rivers of the interior, varies from eight to ninety and from ninety to one hundred dollars per ton. Taking the lowest price, which is that attainable in the Ohio basin, as the standard, we have ns th(? original value of the 204,725g-| tons of steam tonnage engaged in the trnnsportation of passengers and the carrying trade on tlie lakes and rivers of the United States, tor the year ending June 30, 1851, an riggregate of sixteen million three hundred antl seventy-eight thf)usand dollars; an amount of capital that goes entirely out of existence, and has to be re-invested every three and a half to four years — the period of tlie "natural life" of a steamboat on the waters of the interior.
This fact indicates vciy clearly *A\v immense extent of the employment provided and of the material consumed, in keeping up tlie steam tonnage of the United States to the standard required by the travel and trade of the countrv.
Statement of the numher of steam and sail vessels enrolled, registered, or licrnsed, in the several collection districts of the United States, that were lost on the lakes and. rivers of the interior in the year ending June 30, .1851, with the cause and manner of loss, and the number of yersons who perished thcrebij.
In llii.s lal)Ir wc find, ;it tliice periods, the rollowinciuiinbrr ot" boats, with llicir tfinimgr, wliich have Ik-cu l»nilt, worn out, and lost by disaster.'^, in tiio wo.st, prior to llic vfar 18-10:
The average number of [)ersons employed on the ordinary steamers of the rivers is 26 to (>aeh ; the boats of the Ohio basin averaging a fraction t/iidcr 26, and those of the Mississippi valley averaging a fraction over 2(i.
districts of the Ohio basin, and 241 in those of the Mississippi valley.
Of the 157 ordinary steamers and propellers on the lakes, 31 are (enrolled on liake ('hamplain, the St. liawrence, and Lake Ontario ; 66 are enrolled on Lake Erie; and 60 at Detroit and on the lakes above.
A remarkable e<iuality is tbund to «'xist, at the present time, in the distribution of the steam tonnage of the interior among the several lines of navigation hen'totbre specified :
Of this whole number, 35 were lost by tempest, 31 by fire, 19 by collision, and 33 by snags. All the losses on the rivers were of the class f>[" boats denominated " ordinary steamers" in this report. Nearly all the losses on the lakes were of sail-vessels, schooners and brigs.
The loss of lives, as shown by same tabular view, amounted to a total of 695 for the year — 628 on the rivers, and 67 on the lakes. This statement is ])robabry under the truth, except as to the Cincinnati district, which is thought to have more assigned to it in the table Uian its real proportion of the fatal calamities of the year. But this information is always difficult to obtain, and can hardly be had in an entirely reliable f()rm without a more determined and longer-continued eflbrt than was possible in the present instance.
GRAND RESULT.
The entire steam-marine of the United States, employed on the coast and in the interior, separate and combined, is shown in the following tabular view, with the aggregate tonnage thereof, the total number of persons engaged upon the same as olHcers, crew, &c., and the entire number of passengers, distinguishing between those conveyed upon ferry-boats and those conveyed upon steam-vessels of all other descriptions.
5,861,845
The strength of tht; steam-marine of t lie United States is thus shown to be comprised in thirteen hundred and ninety vessels, measuring four hundred and seventeen thousand two hundred and twenty-six and -9-4 tons, and manned by tw(;nty-nine thousand three hundred and seventyscven-men.
MARINE DISASTERS ON THK WESTERN WATERS IN 1852.
The annual statements of marine disasters on the western rivers and lakes, during the year ending December 31, 1852, exhibit serious results. On the rivers, 78 steamers have been lost : 48 of which were snagged, 16 destroyed by explosions, 4 by fire, and the remaining 10 by various other mishaps, such as collisions, wrecks, &c.
By these disasters 454 lives were lost.
In addition to the above; losses to the steam-marine on the rivers, there were lost 4 barges, 73 coal boats, 32 salt boats, and 4 flat-boats. The aggregate loss of property attending these casualties is not ascertained.
On the' hike or northern frontier, the annual statement of Captain G. W. Hounds exhibits the loss of life f()r 1852 at 296, and of property at $992,659. He recapitulates the losses as follows :
Do. on Lake Superior by stoam 24,000
Of llio 229 disasters here detailed, 7 oeeurred in the month of April, 19 in May, 24 in .Tune, 15 in .inly, 1(J in August, 21 in September, 27 in October, 85 in November, (55 in one gale of the 11th and 12th,) and 15 in Deo(Mnber. Six steamers, 7 j)ropellers, and 35 sail vesst^ls have gone ont of existence entirely. In many irkstanees the amount of losses, as above stated, hav«; been matters of estimate, as many must necessarily be ; but much pains and can* have been taken to |)roeure, in each ease, the opinion of competent uk'u who M'ere most familiar with the circumstances.
NEW ORLEANS, LOUISIANA.
The city of New Orleans is siluateil on the left bank of the Mississippi river, about 100 miles from its mouth, in latitude 29^ 57' 30" noilh, and longitude 90^ 8' wi'st. Jt is 953 miles below the mouth of the Ohio; 1,149 below the mouth of the Missouri, by the (M)ursc of the river; 1,397 miles in a direct line, southwest from New York; 1,012 from Boston; aiul 1,172 liom Washington bv post-route. The population of the city in 1800 was about 8,000; "in 1810, 17,242; in 1820, 27,170; in 183(), 46,310; in 1840, 102,193; and in 1850, with its sui)url)s, 125,000; showing a duplicalinn ot' inhabitants during the last hall century, on the average, once in twelve years. This, considering the character of the cliniMie, and tin; iiict that only about six months ot each year are devotcHl to active, business, is very extraordinary. The busini\>;s pojjulation has always be<n somewhat migratory ; many persons going there iltr the transaction of business during the winter season, anrl returning north to speml the sunnner months.
For coinmercial purposes, Nt^w Oilcans occii[)ies a very superior and commanding situation. It is the natural niiri jiof l()r supplies destined to all parts of tlie Mississippi valley, as well as the dfjxd ini those products ot" that salubrious legion wliicli seek a market seaward. IW m"ans of the Mississippi river and its tributarii-s, an inland trade is opened to her grasp, the magnitude ol which has never been (^pialled. Steamers may leave her wjjarvcs and proceed on voyages ol" several
ihouanml milos witlioul hnnikin;; bulk. Tlio Misisissippi jiiul its iifllui'Ula aiT lliiiikcd on ritlicr side hy cxlciisivt! tcrrilorics, iiiisiirpiisscd in liclilUiss ol' stiil, wliicli rciidily yield ii luirvesf lo tlu* liihorn (tf llu; ii^'iieultiiralirtl, wlK'llier it lj(! ofciine, (jorii, or cottoi). These iire tin- piineipid stiii)les of the Vidh'y, find the receipts ()t"(^;ieh of their pinduels :ii New OruMiis are riipidly iiicreiisiii/j;. Hei('t()li)re, the liver has iieeii theoidy chunnel depended uj)()n lor then- traii^porliition. Several line,-; of railway are in process of construction now, ln)wever, to liiciliiato the transportation of (potion and sugar, produerd at a dislrince from tlu> river, to market, ami thus enlarge the area of production. Tlie.s(! bulky j)ro(lucta will not heai- an exten?iv(.' land carriage by tlu; old mode, and result in wealth to the producer; but the construction of railways lor iheir cheap transit to thf; river, even, will not only change the prospects of the interior planters ibr tlii^ luster, but will add greatly to the wealth id conunerce of New Orleans, which is eminently a pla(;e of exchange
nd distribution. It is the great depot of the southweslern plantations when! cotton and sng.ar crops are bought and sold while still in ih( field, or " aflvaneed " upon prosprclively if necessary. Il, has also an extensive trade with Texas, Mexico, and the (julf ports, as well as a very liea\y ii)reign exi)ort trade. These facts will b<! fully illustrated by the accom|)anyiiig tables. She has, liesides, a large coasting trade with the Ailantit" ports, the value of which can only be known generall}'
Since the actpiisition of ('alit()rnia by the I'nited Stales, and tin; discovery (»f its mineral wealth, and the eonsennerit opening of important trade to the Pacific, the relative inqiortance of New OrU-ans to Now York and oilier Allanlie eilii s lias not been as well maintained as it was belbre. The Atlantic eiiies, but [larticularly New York, have received most of the Calilbrnia trade and commerce, owing to the establishment of lines of j'Xlensive o(.'ean-steamers via l^anama and Nicaragua, and the many steamers, and clipper and other ships, engaged in such trade iVoiii those ports, sent aroiuid ('ape Horn. Sanguine expeetalions are eiitertaiu(Hi in New Orleans oi ilie liiNorable results to that city, in respect to the; Pacific trade, when the (iull or Tehuantejiec route is opened, either as a route ol passage tiir ships l»v canal or a route of transit by railway. Doubtless, these anlicipations would be realized; bul, at the same time, the ;idv;iiii;iges of such route, il, is believed, would accrue in an eipially lii\(:iible degree to ihe Atlantic ports. Till" I'apitaK shipping, and seamen, su|)plie(l by ihoi-e cities lo the whaling, I'acilic, China, and East India trade, eould not readily be transli rred to New Orleans, even with the great ailvanlages such route would ailbnl that eily. As liie recipient, however, of the vast and inestimable resouri'cs ol" the Mi-;si>sippi valley — which natural advantage can lu'ver be destroyed by ..ililieial eommunieatioiis from ihal valley to the Allanlie — New Orleans will maintain its rank as tine ol" the largest eonimer<'ial cities of the worhl.
To present some ot" llit; advantages enjoyetl by New Orletnis as a commercial city, the liillowing extracts are made from an article published ill Di linir's Iliriiir in IS-KJ, prepared by llie present As>istant Secrclaiy of the Treasury, William Ii. Ilodge, esip Mr. llodge ha\ ing been Ibr many years a. lesident of New Orleans, intimatel}' and person-
"Her couimcrci.d lili' iii.iy he said to date ntti'r the c(!ssioii of Louisimi!' to the I'liitcd Slates, in J^iO.'}, as prt-vious to that her c-omiiii'rcc was insignificant; and yel, in this short period of ahout li)rty years, she alrea<ly ranks as the J'lmrth cifi/ of the \V(»rld tor the magnitude and value of her cnruuieree, being exceeded only hy r<ondou, Livt-rpool, and New York, The li)rt'in importations of New York greatly exceed those of New Orleans; hut if the whole ol" the tJ)reign and coasting trade of both ports are taken into view, it might be a matter of doubt whether the A«//-, and possibly ilu; niliic of merchandise thai eti'ers and Icfives the mouth of ihe ^fissi'^sippi, is not fully t<[\ial to :!iii! which enters and leaves Sandy lltHtk. At any rate, if it is mim !• ■ i v.illin a very tiw years not oidy e(|ual but cxcei-d it, and ; i ce Xew Orleans the third in rank of lh<^ conuiiercial cities of the woil.I. * • •
" TIk' tacilities and convenience of Iran aetii'.:; bnsines. ru New Orleans are fidly e(iual to, and in many res[)cct uhcrior to those ol' any other place. It is the centre of inmieusc exchangt^ opi raiieiis, and any amount of lunds can at all limes be obtained at the shortest notice under good letters of crcilit, and bill- negotiated with great rcadiiK'ss and tacility on any prominent point in the I'nited States, or any of the conuncrcial cities of westiun Europe; and the banking institutions jirtJ)rd all reasonable accommodations to the local wants and trade of the city.
"Some Euro])ean cities can show more splendid quays or magnificent docks l()r th»' accommoilation of shi{)ping, and tlu; huuling and loading <'l cargoes, i;n (ixeecding in ap[)earance and durability anything of the kuid in New Orleans, but in no way su[)erior in point of actual convenience to the unpretending wharves of the city.
"As is generally known, tin; surface ol'the alluvial soil of Louisiana, including, of course, the site of the city, is considerably Ixdow tla? river in ordiiuiry stages ot high-water, and the country i;* protected from inundation by a raised and solid embankment called tin; ' Levee,'' extending on both sides of ttie river below, and a great distance above the city. Outside of the levee the bank of the river is called the •Hatture,' which in many places is increasing from the continual alluvial depositcs, while in other p' ."cs the river has what is called 'a falling bank,' and the water gradually * ••» iDaches on the land In the l()rn)cr case the levee is advancer v ^ ri. • . ■ lure in ases, and this has been iIk! cas(! in a large portion "1 lUe Injut of New Orleans, where in sonic parts the levee has, in the last 2.3 years, advanced full 1,000 feet ; and the front warehouses now stand l()r a long extent that distance tiom the water, all()rding a sjilendid spaci' titr the vast bulk of produce that is annually landed and shipped. The wharves are constructed outside tl'.' levee on massive piles, driven with a heavy iron ram into the mud. £»nd extending over the river into the water sulHciently deep to aJtnii l.'c heaviest steamboats and ships to lie up against them ; heavy sleepers connect the piles at their tops, and on these oiles the platlbrm is laid
form is laid
of'lhicU plankint,', the edges of which are separated about one imh, to prevent till- aeeuinnlalion of (hrt whii'li fills ihreiiuli these inirrsliees mil) ihe river llowiiig !» low, .-uid in live miniiti s alter the heaviest Hiorui the whole surface is in perti'cteon<liiion to receive «ny deseiipiion of ini II haiidise. These wharves are ihus plaiiLd l» ick until they join th«! eiown uf the levee, in some j)hiees lf)0 hi ,i{}{) i*\\, which is made firm i"' solid by a eonstiiiit coaiiai,' of shells, and always kept in good order. One of ilipgc wharves presents an unbroken front on the river (»f I '">0() It'el, iiiid others 00(1 to MIK) lid, and in th>' business season it is usual lo see these fpinls entirely oecnjiie»l with sieamboats lying bow on, and each with her sta<j;e rigged out to the wharf, actively engaged in loading or nnlondjnir. I'jje wharves intended <wf sea-going vessels are detached from each other with an interveiiir nlock, and each wharf aecoinniodates i: tier of vej^sels, whi(,li, unlike he steamboats, are moored up arid down the nvcr, one outsid(> the otli»^> , three, l()ur, and live tiers deep, wilh a broad edininon stage -''iimmu'iieating with the levee, and extendinn oi," the bulwarks i*!' the vtsscl.*; 'o the (uilsideoiie; the timber, j)lank, and all ihe conveniences livr 'His si ai ig, being furnished by the city, who even also supply r irpauli to p, tect the goods in ease ot" rain.
"'I'hese details are given to show to those who ai ■ famih ii .m ping, the very great facilities ani. eoiucnience that are allbrde I and without which it woidd be ii juaericable to gel throiigl amount of business that is transac .d in the city, except with convenienc<' and enormous expen,'- ."
Having ihus sketched the comuK reial position of the city, a^ was, and the advantages and fiiri/i /'-s which it possi-ssed l()r continued ailvanceinent, Mr. IJodg proceeds to j)redict tlu greatness ol" this dej)ot of tlu^ (M»iunvrce of the Mississippi vali the tinlf of Mexico. He alludes to t! e dis[)atch givei to the di of steamers and <tther vessels, and then pass<'s to the luestion \\ Mew C)rh'ans will probably rttain Ik inunense trade, and ho\ will be alK'cted by the constant augii entatioti of population, anri he inevitable development of the resourei of the miglity West. Bu is these speculations with respect to tin futun' of New Orleans ha been tlir some tim(! past in a rapid com.- of realization, it is considereil unnecessary to re[)roduce them here.
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Mobile is situated on a bay and river, benring the same name, just at the point where the latter enters the lormer, and about thirty miles from the entrance of the bay into the Gulf of Mexico. It is in latitude 30° 40' north, and longitude 88° 21' west. The city is on the west side of the river, distant from Pensacola, Florida, 55 miles; from New Orleans 1(50 miles; from Tuscaloosa 217 miles; and from Washington 1,013 miles. It had a population in 1830 of 3,194 persons ; in 1840, of 12,672 ; and in 1850, of 20,513 ; showing, Irom 1830 to 1840, a duplication about once in live years, and irom 1840 to 1850, a rate of duplicjition once in about sixteen years. About iorly miles above the city, Mobile river is formed by the junction of ilie waters of the Tombigbee and Alabama rivers. These latter are both navigable for steamers, and a portion of the; distance (in vessels. Steam navigation on the Tombigbei; extends to Tuscaloosa, Alabama, and Columbus, Mississipp'. Vessels requiring five or six ted draught of water can ascend to St. 8te|)hens, about ninety miles from the bay. The Alabama river is navigable by steamers to Montgomery, three hundred miles ; and by vessels drawing five to six led, one hundred miles, to Claiborne.
Mobile l)ay is about ihirly miles in length, with an average breadth (»f twelve miles. The principal channel fioni the gulf has a depth of eighteen fi-et water at lovv' tide, and on the upper bar, near the mouth" of the river, ther(> is about eleven leet at low tide; and eighteen to nineteen fi-et at high water. Owing to this fact, vessels of heavy draught, when laden, have to proceed to sea at high ti(l(>. Tlie tonnage registered and emoiled at this port, in 1840, was 17,243 ; in 1841, it was 15,714 ; in 1840, 22,537 ; an.l in 1851, it was 27,327 tons. The tonnage entered anil cleared from and to Ibreign ports in those years was as follows :
17G,949
'I'he region of' coinitry around Mobile, and Hanking Mobile river and its various auflluents, possesses a soil of the most li-rtile character, which, being reduced to a high state of culture, must look to Mobile as the depot l()r the shipment ot surplus j)ro(hicts, as well as the m/trpot \\)V all tl)reign suj)plies, or necessaries not produced in that section. The face of the eouiitrv is level, and remarkal)lv adapted to tliech(>ap construction of" lailwavs. it will be seen by relt'rence to page 28!) otthis report, that this liaturc in the top(\iirapliy of the country has not been overlooked, and that several very ini|)ortanl lines of railway are already under contract, and in |)rogress toward conipletion, which must largely iricreiise the eonunerce ot' Mobile, imi dulv with the surrounding country, but with ti)reii»n ports. The l()llowing statistics of lhi> tratle and
commerce of the port during several years past, compiled from various autlientic sources, will show, that with only some five or six hundred miles of river nnvigation by which to reach the interior, her business lias reached a very enviable position, both in imports and exports. It should be remembered, moreover, tliat Alabama is, comparatively, a new State, and more sparsely settled than mnny others, all parts of which are more directly accessible by natural clinnnels. Mobile can hardly be said to have commenced her growth till since 1830, since which period she has grown in a ni(»r(> rapid ratio than any other southern city. The agricultural resources of the State of Alabama arc supposed to be second to those of hardly iiny oilier i()r the production of the sttiple articles of thnl climate ; and when, three years hence, nearly every portion of the State will become directly connected with Mobile by the completion of her system of railwiiys, it may well be expected that the growth of that city will increase beyond all previous periods of her history.
319,038
This statement exhibits very little evidence of an extension of the area cultivated during the series of years presented, which is a eorroboralion of tin; necessity l(>r e;isy coiuniuniciitiDii with a market. After tli(> opening of the railw.iys, no doubt a rapid gradual increa.se in the exj)orts of cotton will be observed. Besides cotton, a l;irge cjnatitity of staves, hnnber, and naval stores are shipped from Mobile seaward. The business in staves and lumber, during the last three years, was as fijilws :
.34,973
This sliows an increase of about sixty per cent, in one year, wiiich is e.'^rtainly very lian(ls(^-ne, and fuiijurs well for tiie future prospects of Mobile it) liie direct import lrad(\
The presenl may well be termed the railway era ; and, perhaps, there is no other place in the whole coullnlcracy likely to experience greater benefits, in propttrtion to its present population, lioni such improvements than Moi)ile. The railways now in progress, terminating at that j)oinl, must constitute her the mtnput of tbreigu sup[)lies tor a very large extent of couulry.
'l'h(! annexed ta!)le will show the tonnage entereil tiom and cleared to tiireign ports, in the distrit;t of Mobile, during a long se'ries of years — Irom 18*^() to 1851, inclusive. F(jr reasons (explained elsewhere, the tonnage cleari'd best exhibits the amount engaged in the export trade of that city.
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f, X X X X X X
The googrnpliical position of this ^Stalo, the peculinr pnnhictions to which its clim.'itc and soil arc adapted, its extensive seacf)ast, arid numerous rivers and harbors, and its various and valuahlo resources, and especially its im[)ortant. rehitiou in respect to tlie commercial and navigating interests of the other Slates, render a particular notice of it. in this report peculiarly appropriiite. C'omnnuiications addr(^s:=ed to tlie undersigned by citiz<Mis ol that tState, in response to notes re(|uesling information l()r such notice, are published herewith. .Some of the documents accompanying these letters are api)ended. The inlI)rmati(Tn contained in tliese letters and documcsits in relation to tlu; internal improvement olthe Stale, and of its rivers and harbors, to its ])roductions and resources, and its present trade and c;omnjerce, and that iuiticipr.ted, is so copious tliat it is not deemiul in
tions. 'J'hougli these piipers are voluminous, and though there are matters menlioned in them not directly pertinent to the object ol' tht? resolulions of the Senate, under whirh this report is made, and notwithstanding the undersigned nuiy not coincide with the intelligent writers in all respects as U) some m;itters lluy refer to, yet it h;is been considered just to them, and to the Slate, not to exclude any p;utof them. A piiper rcs[)ecting "//<<? Gulf of Mcnm (nut Stntits of Floridn,^^ prepared cliieHv trom notes and data iurnislied bv an intelli<:ent and dislinguished oHie(>r of the engineeis, and a map made bv the "Coast
ineree, and navigation of the United Slates.
As stated in the papers Jiow published, though Florida can furnish ample and superior materials l(>r ship-building from her inexhaustible f()rests, but li-w vessels are built in that State; and in fict most of those em[)loyed, and even most of iha^r owikmI in Florida, are owned and
rsued principally by the same class of' persons, now residents of tl CVS, and other residents, emigrants from th(> Bahamas, who have heeome citizens of the L'nited Slates, and by Cuban Spaniiuds. It may also be observed, that intelligent persons, ai-(]uainted with this subject, hav(> suggested thai, upon a rigorous ex( lusiou by the iiritish imperial and colonial governments of our fishermen from just j)arlicipatioii in the norlheiislern fisheries; the latter may find in those at the southern extremilv of tlie I'nion. resources l<)r similar emplovment, ecjually profitable to them, and as advantageous to the eonli'deracy ; and that the realization otsueh prediction may injuriously afiJ-et the trade and interests of the IJrilish colonies. One gre;it advantage of tlu^ soutluM'n fisheries is, that th(>v mav be carried on tiuoiighont llieyenr. Such tliversion of the oeeupatioii of our hardv eastern fishermen from tlu^ fisheries now used bv them t*» those appiutenant io the Stnte of Floridii, would
the vessels built in that
also be aecomi)ani(Hl by a laige incrense ol Stat(! bv mechanical l;d)or tiow employed in tlu^ east<TU Stjiles in such business. The injurious efli'ct upon the similar intert>sts of the British colonies can readily be anlieipaled, and {>articularly when it is consid-
The paoers now puhlished leti-r to other uiatlers worthy ol" investigation and (leliherali) rellection by the statesmen ol" this conti'deiacy. The ^Mvat importance to ihi" commercial and uavi,i;alin,i.Mnlcicsts of the, Atlantic ports and of the gulf, extending beyond the Isthmus (»f I'aiiama, of completing at an early period the tortilicalions at Key West and at Torlugas — of e.vpediling the valual)l(> labors of th(^ "Coast Survey" in that (piarter — of er«'cting projx-r light-houses, beacons, and buoys, &c., on th(! Ueys and coasts — of making Key West a naval station and a principal commercial depot and rendezvous II»r our shipiung, and a j)oint lor the deposite of coal and provisions in large (luantities, and (jf having a public navy-yard ther(> — is strongly and cogently cont(,'nded li)r in th(JS(; j)apers. Di)ubtless, when the extensive t()rtiiications now in progrc'ss at the two points desiguiitcd are conjpleted, our naval vessels, though of inferior l()rce, can readily, in case of war with any other nation, by operating from K<'y West and iiom tin- Torlugas, owing to their peculiar position, keep the Carribean sea, the (iulf of Mexico, the Straits of Florida, and the entire southern coast of th(> United Sialics, tree Iiom iIk; (k'j)redalions of any-naval en( my. When steamers become more generally substituted l()r sailing-vessels, the long and circuitous voyage that large vissels from Atlantic ports to the CJulf of Mexico, and linther south, now often make through the Mona passage, or through the " Windward passage," and going on tiie south side of Cuba, (and around Cape Antonio, when bound into the gulf,) can be avoided, ihtreby sa\ing several hundreds of miles of navigati(ai generally with unfavorable' winds. It has been estimated that i-xcei iling l()ur hundred millions of dollars in value in ships, merchandi.-^*', and produce, (a large proj)ortiou of the two latti r items limn and to the valley of the Mississippi,) annually j)asses near to K( y West and Tortugas, atid can be j)rolected or controlled from such points. Jiy the complrti(tn of the |)ropose(l improvements of the routes of passage or transit brt' 'u ihc Atlantic and I'acilic oceans, at Atratn, at I'anama, or at
Amongst the topics reterri tl to in the i)apcrs now published, is the alleged probaliilily of the extensive substitution, belinf the laj)so of many years, of oils produced from the turpentine and rosin of ihe southern Stales, (iir spermaceti and other oils. If full (aedmee is yielded to the' writer's anticipations — that resinous oil (lecc ntly highly improved as to its manufacture) is destined to alli'ct llu' jMolits of the labor and capital of the eastern Slates, now so exlensivi ly employed in the wtuile lishcries, and already greatly reduced by the deiacase of the sperm whale — tins subject becomes one wctrlhy of grave consideration. It is alleged that, on account ot its cheapniss, resinous oil is al-
ready em|)loyed in the adullenition i>[' most other expensive oils, and that it is bt'ginning to he much usrd li)r macliinery, lt)r various mamiiactures, and l()r lights, in lieu of other oils.
tiiinod in tlio loltors rdspcctiii" Floiidii, iinnoxcd licr(>f(>, .irid iIk; nocotnp.'inyinp; stjilisticid diilu, slmws liow closely hltiidcd, iiiid inlituiiudy interwoven witli cicli oIIkm', !irt' tlic int<'n!sts of tlie most rcniotc sections of this confederacy, and liow strong tlio biuids firo hy which the {»er[)etuity oCour glorious !nid hiip'^^v Union is seenred. If the interests of on(! kind of industry in one s( m itre iissailed and injured l)y l()reign illiherality, there soon opens in another part ot" this vast (>tnpire a new fieki t()r einploytnent oi' a congenial character, to which thai industry can 1)(; profiiahly a|)plied. And they show that, upon the (k;creasc ofan ini[)ortant article orconirncrce, andvaluahle i'or use to the whole country, the enterprise antl ever-ready inventive tjilent of our countrymen soon lind new and fully (lomniensuralc; means of supplying the necessities of eivili/ed lili' and the wants oi" commerce. A cheap substitute li)r the product of distant seas is obtained from our illimitablo and exhausth^ss t()rests, and new employment in its procurement and manuiiicture.
The suggestions in the paper upon the "Cotton Crop of the United States," appended hereto, and in relation to the vast capabilities oi" that region ol" tliis continent designated therein as the ^'■Cotton y^frmr," (as yet but partially devcloju-d,) and as to the <n('ct of the increased production otthat highly important staple upon th(; d(!Stinies of this con("ederacy, deserve deliberat<' attention and retleelion. This topic has been Ikmc tolbre alluded to in ihis report, but it is deemed pro{)er to publish the fuller statistical data in relation to cotton at]()rded by this paper, compiled irom lh(^ best authorities. The influence of the; interests ol' that region, and ot" the commercial and navigating interests of other sections, based upon and connected with it, is, in the conduct of the government oltliis country, conducive to the; preservation of peace with other nations, and es|)('(ially with thost; nations that atlitrd profitable marUi'ts (()r that product. The restraints imposed by seli-intcrest upon those ti)reign governments which nuist look to such products as ihv. ni'^ans lt)r em|)loymenl oi" se\er:d millions oi" n)anufacturing laborers, and hundreds ol' millions of eajiital, and as the basis of their commercial prosperily, I'lom heedlessly engaging in disputes, or coming into collision with u^, are nuu'li more powerful and cilt;clive in the preservation (»i' amity than treaty sii|)ulations, however ibrmally and sol-
The treasury tables show tli(; value of all our domestic exports to li)reigu countries, tiir the last ten years, to be about $l,'2o8,;io!2,lK)U; tlu; ainiual average.- value to be about Sl'i-'ji.'j.SS.OOO. Oi" these the
south and southwestern Mates (l)emg the region belore meiuioned as the "(Cotton /one") have, in the same pt riod, ex{>orted upwards of SCir) 1,707,000 worth nl'aidaii, being an average amount of 865,170,000 in each year; and it i« estimated that upwards of 840,000,000 is now annuallv used li)r home cotisumption, and l()r manufacture in the United States li)r exportation. The aggregate amount lu-portitl in 1840 and 1851, of the crops ot" cotton oi" 1848 and 1850, exceeded two thousand millions of pounds; and the avails of the exports of the crop of 3850 amounted, alone, lo $112,315,31 7. The same tables show the production, exportation, and home consumption of rice, and other products ol the region rcierrcd to. The upper Mississippi, or western States, ex-
port to tbrci^n countries cliiclly breadstulls, provisions, nnrt tho like, riio jinnujil avcnigr of lli(> Inst exports spc'eilied lor tho last ten years, rrf)m all the States, is less than $27,000,000. Most of all these varied products arc carricil to f()reign coimtrics by American vessels, owned m thr middle and (Cistern Stales, and manned hy American seamen from the same section. The return cargoes, purchased with the proceeds of su<th [)roducts, are chietly obtained through the agency ot the intelligi-nt merchants of the Atlantic cities, who duis protect the agriculturisi liom the unjust exactions of a foreign trader, utn"(>strained by Ji responsibility that can be enl()rced by aur judicial tribunals, and without the stinudants to liiir dt^aling springing from the ties of interest and feeling created by national brotherhood.
How cheering is the confidence th(S(; things inspires in every truly American heart, that th(; bands of union between the United Slates cannot b(> rent asunder by the ed()rtsof l()reign foes. They show that the infinite and varied resources of these States render them independent of, and impregnable to, any «>llbrts from abroad to injure our commercial or other industrial pursuits, by illiberal exactions, impositions, restricti<ins, or prohibitions. Th'iy show that we have within ourselves the means and ability to m-'i>l and counteract any and all illiberality ; and they also show llial the preservalion of our mutual inten>sls, and the prosperity of" our common country, depend, under Provid(!nce, upon oinselves alone ; and that the cultivation of fraterntd feelings and good will, the strict and faitlnid observance of tin; stipidations of our constitutional compact, and the neviM'-ceasing inculcation and rigid observance* of just and liberal principles and rules of conduct towards each other in all things, is the high and soletrm duty of every Am( rican citizen.
The amount contribute! by those Stales bordering on the (julf oi" Mexi(;o justifies me in calling alleiiti(»n to the following letter liom the assistant S(!cretary of the Treasury, W. L. Hodge, Esfj. :
Washington, IS.W.
My Dear Sir: In reply to your iiKpiiry as to the probable animal valu(.' of the trade of tin.' American ports in the (julf of" Mi'xico, I do not exactly understand whethcT you mean to confine it merely to the value of the mirchniKJise which arrives at and leaves those ports, or to include likewise the value of the ship|)ing employed in the transportation of that merchandise, [n connexion with the (juestion of" a sl.ipcanal through Florida, the Senate, in the late session of C' tigress, re<|uesle(l inli)rination from the Treasury Department as to the probable value of the propertv which aniuially passed round ('ape Florida, which the department, in its answer to the resolution, estimated at two hundred and fifty millions of" dollars. This estimate seems large, and was geiierallv so c.)nsidered ai the time, but I am, on further reflection, now convinced that it was an undrr instead of an orrr estimate, and 1 will giv(* you the tiata on whic:h this opinion is f()unded.
The great diflicidty in arriving at the true value of the (iulf trade, is lh(! imj)ossil)ility to ascertain the amoiuit of the coasting trade from the Atlantic ports, as no record is furnished to the custom-hous<' ot" even the kind of" goods shipjicd coastwise ; and, of course, nothing even
a{)|»n)iK'liing to tlic correct \ ili can be u: ( rtaincW tWnn tiic "*<atvv.' r<.| maiiili'.sts. l'c'rliiii).s tlic iiiokI ilfuihlc ( ji[cw'« si >{>;'(] in * 'i«ric«n ports iirc tliosf! liy the [Jiickct-.-Iiip.s to New (•iIchm- r.urj J)' ., NfVV York, iiiid I'liiliulclpliiii, aiul I liavt! no iloubt that lur sing; curj^ocs arc; not unlieciuontly wortii one million of dollars, ,id that h li' n million is a very common vahui t()r tlicm. Somo t()ia veiirs since, one ol' tlicso Boston j)a(.'k('ts — a vcs-^cl ot' 1,000 tons — was n.i.sriinii, ;ni(l consiclerablt; anxiety was li'lt l<)r licr satrty, and Intm the inciuirics madn as to tilt; amonnt of'insnranco clU'ctcdon her cargo, and the as(;rrtainod value of some of the heaviest invoices by her, it wjis pretty wcill ascertained that her cargo was worth $700,000. When it is recollected that the entire supplies of the; Slates on the lower Mississippi, and a large portion of thos(^ li)r the States higher up that river and its tributaries, are received through that city, the magnitude of them may to some extent be appreciated. The \alue of goods arriving at New ()rl(>ans from the American Atlantic ports, 1 should think would, ;it a low estimate, be at least fifty millions of dollars ; but, in order to Ik- perlijctly on the sali: side in this respect, I will (>stim;ite at that snrr all the supplies thus received at all the (Jidf ni»rts, iui-luding New Orleans, Mobile, J'ensacola, St. Mark's, Apalachic(»la, and all tlu; ports of Texas.
millions more.
Very correct statistical (l<;tails are kept at New Orleans of all the receipts of" produce fiom the interior, with the (luantily of each ; and an annual statement is published, with the estimat(?d value, based upon the current prices of the year, approximating, probably, as near, or mor<' near to the true value than such stiitements usually ilo. These statements show that tlu; value of this produce annually received at New Orleans f"rom the interior ranges from ninety to ninety-five millions of" dollars ; and allowing ten millions f()r the local consumption, it would leave eighty to eighty-live millions of" dcjUars as the ainiual value of the i.rpitrt trade of New Orleans.
Mobile "xports little but cotton, and the average receipt of which, there, is about 500,000 bahis, worth at present prices about $22,000,000. The exports, including cotton from the ports of Florida, and those from Texas, may, in the aggregate, be satcdy placed at ten millions more, showing a total of exports from the American ports on the Gulf of about «?115,000.000.
nnd Jit nil tlic oiIut ports r)l the (Jiilfit would prob/ibly hclOO.OOfltona inori', lUiikiiii,' .'in !i^'gr<'^nln of ()0(),0()() ton:*, which, iit the vnhic of 9>1^) per ton, would he .fff)7, . ')()(),()()() ; ;uid its tlu-si! vessels tUMkt! the voyii^c /// and nut, tlicctilirc v;du('otih<' ti>iiiiiiy^<:\s\\\v\\ ;uiriuiilly pnsscs C;ipr Floridii would SKJ5, ()()(», ()()(); which, nddcd to the preceding utnoiuit of Micrchiuidis(>, would tii;ikc u grand ii^jigrcgiitc of S.l'jrjiOUO,000 of property which !Uiuu;dly pusses lo juid lioni the Aniericiu ports of the (lidf of Mexico. Alllioui^'h this csliiuiite is ni;i(le up in rountl sunns, wilhonl goin<<; very p.irticularly into deliiil, I have no donl)t it is coiisiderahly helow tlu; real amount.
The value of the r.riiort.i from the ports of the (Julf could, with a little care and attention, he very correctly asccrlaincd, l()r they principally consist of articles of domestic produce, such as cotton, sugar, molasses. Hour, lard, bacon, vVc., Scv.. die i/mnitiliis of wliicli can alw.ays he as(;crtaine(l fp in the oulward m inilists; and the jtriirs arc a matter of record, from day to day, throughout the year, in the daily puhlicalions of th(^ public journals and price currents. Tlie ( ustoiuliouse record, of course, cxliibii the value ol' foreign iniporlalions ; and the oidy diirKtulty in arriving at the correct value of the trade of th(T tiulf would be in the coastwise shipments from the Atlanti<r ports. Nor do I s(>e how this can be corretly asceilained, and it will have to remain as ii matter of conjccturt-, though, in placing il, as 1 have done in this communication, at lilly millions of dollar>, I (i-el well assured it is considerably below the actual value.
I regret extremely, ihut under the heavy pressure ot ollicial duties, particularly at this time, I caiuiot devote more lime to the subject of your injury, aiul am obliged to give you .-.uch a hastily-prepared and crude eomniunication.
There cannot be any surprise that the attention of the coiuitry, particularly the conmiercial [)orlion, has within a few years been diiccted in a sjx'cial inanner to the value of the domcslic and li)reign i-onnnercr flowing through the Straits of Florida and (Jnit" of Mexico. That attention will tiow aiuiually increase, li)r obvious causes; and, iherelltre, iif) apology is deemed necessary lltrihe prominent jiosilion that >ubjcct, in connexion with the Stale of Kloiida, occupies in this j)art of the
lOili iiist., to liaiiisli you iiicmoriiiida of the works of intcrriiil impi iiiciit, and llir di'- iiii()i-ovciiK:iit of rivers and liarhois, licrcloliirc iiiidrrtakcii ill I'lorida, and wliicli it is antirlpat((l arc to he undertaken hy ine general ^niverniiM nl, or hy llie Stale, or associations in it; and likewise m to the yeticral rcsoin(,'cs of the State. You can use tlicsc! notes iti any inaniK r you please in your l()ilheoiniii,u; ic[)ort to the treasury. There is ii'ii, p( rliaps, any Stale of the eonlcileracy that can he mon; beiieiitled hy ttie cinislructiou of judicious Works of internal iinprovo iiii nt, and hy die ii:ij)rovenienl of its liarhors, than Florida. Thirly-one years iiave elapsed vince the provinces of Kasl and West Florida w taken p(.ssc.''siou of hy the niiiled Stales, under the treat v
oi cession
<'oncluded in |S|!). No works <»f iiileriial iniprovcinent, except lh( "Kind's road," in Fast Florida, and a short and siiiali canal t'lever ccuijilclcd) near liake Ohcr/io/jr, and l)c nralimc's surNc "'>,
amiculluial, and oilier rooiirces.
The loriilicatioiis then near l*cnsacola, that at St. Mark's, the l()rt al St. Au^'usliiic, and an old deliiice i-allcd Fort (Icorye, near llie mouth oftlic river St. John's, were all the military detcnces worth mentioning existing ill tlir provinces al liie cession. The United Slales have since t'slahli^hed a na\y yard and works l!)r the repair of vessels of war, and erected oiher litrts, and huill a naval and marine hospit:o near I'cn.sacola; ire hiiiidliiii iiirlilicatious at the 'I'orlugas, and at Key West, and iieai' the mouth o!' the St. Mary';-, ri\er, and have placed the f()rl at Si. Aii,:^n-i;ne m <.>ood conilition ; hat no other pari of the extensive and
riod, of such deieiiees. 'I'he ciilire Atlantic and dull' coast of th United Stales, from l'assaiua(|Uoddy to the Itio del iNorte, is ahout 3,O(J0 lijiies, and of this extent the coast and reefs of Florida, from St. Mary's, aroiii.d the Toriugas, In the I'erdido, comprise upwards oi 1,201) miles, exliiidiiig over S'"" oi latiliide and 7.V^ of longitude; heing more tlum OIK -third of the whole co:!sl.
Within a li'W years ])ast, our " co«.s7 ,s//nvj/ " has heen commenced, hut with meagre and inadeipiate appropriations, not at all in just pro])ortion cither lo the neces.>ilies of the work, or to the amounts yielded t()i siK'h surveys in oilier sections less important to the whole country. No canal or railroad has heen constrncttHl hy the lederal government in Florida, hiit the expeiidiiure of a lew thousands of dollars (whilst Florida was a Tini/tinj) t()r the removal of ohstructions in some of the rivers and haihors, and t()r two or three partial sur\eys of im[)ortant routes of a national character, has given rise to allegations that profuse grants have heen made lor her hcnelit. She has, too, been unjustly re-
proaclied as being the cause of the immense expenditures so profitlessly made in the Seminole war ; and by some she is held responsible for all the lolly, waste, extravagance, impositions, peculations, and frauds committed in that war by the cmp/oi/cci of the federal government, thougli not citizens of the State. A similar class have had the infamous audacity to impute to her jieople the purposed origination of the war, and a desire tor its protraction, as a source of pecuniary gain. A devastated frontier of sm'eral hundred miles, and tlu; butchery by the savages of hundreds of men, women, and children, throughout the State, and the utter ruin brought upon many of her citizens by that war, ought to be sufficient to j)rove the falsity of this accusation. Those who have propagated or countenanced such unscrupulous slanders against the people of Florida have not, when challenged, exposed a single case in which any citizen of the State has obtained payment of any demand against the United States, founded on fraud ; and the public records of Congress and of the federal departments will verify the declaration that scores of" Floridians hiive been refused payment of just claims, or postponed on the most frivolous pretexts and discredital)le suspicions.
If attempts have been made in any instance, by individuals claiming to belong to Florida, to obtain from the li'deral treasury claims not fimntled in strict justice, such disluinorable exceptions do not excuse wholesale imputations against the citizens of the Stat(; generally, nor justify the excitement of prejudices against them, and the withliolding payment of just demands.
I3oth of the provinces, when acquired by the United States, (excepting only a small portion of country around thecity of Pensacola, at the western extremity, and the region contiguous to the city of St. Augustine, and to the lower part of tlie river St. John's, in East Florida,) were in the possession of" warlike and hostile bands of savages. The territories, when ceded, were covered witli British and Spanish titles to lands, some lor tracts of several thousands of acres. The " Forbes grant" — extending from the St. Mark's to the west sid(^ of the Apalachicola river, and including also the site of the city of Apalachicola, and several thousands of acres contiguous thereto, further west, and the adjacent islands of St. George and St. Vincent, and Dog island, and reaching upwards of sixty miles from the coast into the interior — covered an area of upwards of one million two hundred thousand acres. Most of the lands which had not been previously granted were included in the concessions by the King of Spain to the Duke of Alagon, llie Chevalier De Vargas, and the Count of Punon Rostros, clandestinely made whilst the treaty of cession was being negotiated, and which, thougli annulled by a codicil to die treaty, are still claimed by the grantees, and those to whom the grants have been assigned, to be valid and in f()rcc. A decision has recently been given by the United States court in Florida, in a suit brought upon the Alagon or "Hackley grant," against its validity. The procrastination since 1823 of the definitive ascertainment and confirmation or rejection of alleged Spanish titles, has been a serious evil to the State, and aided to retard its settlement and progress.
The removal of many (»f the Indians fiom the up[)cr and middle .sections to below 28° (N. L.) on the peninsula, was effected about 1825, under the treaty made with the chiefs at Camp Moultrie in»
Moultrie in
1823. Though this measure opened a large portion of the country to settlement, and when adopted was generally commended, experience has proved that it was injudicious policy. It has been the prolific cause of subsequent troubles, and of great sacrifice of life and property by the people of Florida, and of immense expenditures by the federal government; the responsibility lor which, as before stated, has been most unjustly attributed to the inhabitants of the State. The measure referred to has put back the State at least a fifth of a century. Four large bands or towns of Indians, located on the Apalachicola, remained tnere till 1834, when they were removed peaceably, in conformity with treaty stipulations, to the Indian territory west of the Arkansas. In 1835 the Seminoles, Miccossukies, and other tribes, {concentrated, as above stated, near the fastnesses of the peninsula,) in resistance to the enforcement of treaties stipulating for their emigration west of the Arkansas, commenced predatory hostilities that soon ripened into open war, which lasted for seven years, and was attended with but limited and partially creditable success to the federal government, or to its officers, either in arms or in diplomacy. The best measure adopted by the United States during the war was the "armed occupation" act of 1842 ; though the policy pursued by the federal government, in ihe execution of the law, until the act of July 1, 1848, was passed, decreased its benefits. The contest was abandoned by the United States in 1842, an " arrangement" with the yet unsubdued Indians then being made (similar to two others after 1835, which they had violated) by the general officer commanding the United States regular forces in Florida ; and which last *' arrangement," in disregard of the previout treaties, stipulated that those Indians, headed by the chiefs Arpiarka and Bowlegs, might remain on the peninsula. Their whole number, it is estimated, cannot exceed eight hundred, and they are on paper restricted to prescribed limits, embracing many hundreds of square miles in area. Since that '• arrangement," repeated disturbances, attended by bloodshed and the destruction of pioperty, have occurred, owing, it is alleged by the citizens, to the depredations of the Inaians outside of the country reserved for them ; and, on the other hand, asserted by those inimical to the people of Florida to be occasioned by the encroachments of the frontier population upon the Indian reservation. The officers of the federal government have not restrained the Indians to the limits of the " reservation;" and while this duty is neglected, collisions and conflicts between the savages and the settlers near to the lines are inevitable. Means are now being adopted to effect the removal of the few hundred warriors and women and childr<n yet remaining (and it is said in a state of destitution) on the lower end of the peninsula, and which efforts it is hoped may be successful ; but if they fail, prompt and efficient measures will certainly be taken by the State government to abate this evil, so blighting to the prosperity of Florida.
It is a striking fact in the history of the provinces of Florida, that since their first discovery by the Spaniards, neaily three centuries and a half ago, they have never enjoyed twenty successive years of peace and tranquillity, undisturbed by domestic warlike conflicts" or foreign hostile invasion. They have changed owners and masters several times, The late disturbances with the Seminoles brought destruction
and ruin upon many Floridians, and the insecurity to life and property since 1835 not only deterred emigration to Florida, but hundreds of worthy and valuable citizens abandoned their plantations, and, with their families, went to other southern States, where they would not be daily liable to massacre and devastation, owing to the neglect, by the federal government, of the duty of protection.
The creation by the territorial legislature of some ten or a dozen banks, to three of which were given territorial bonds or guaranties to raise their capital, and the failure of all these corporations prior to or in 1837, the inability of any of them to retrieve their credit, and the liability imputed by the foreign holders of the "faith bonds" and "guaranties" to the State of Florida, since organized, for several millions of dollars, have been a serious drawback to the settlement and growth of the State. The State constitution expressly inhibits the State legislature from levying any tax for the redemption of these imputed obligations ; those who effected the adoption of such restriction contending that the people of the State are not justly responsible for the improvident acts, allowed by Congress, of the territorial authorities, who, they insist, were the creatures solely of federal legislation and federal executive power, and also that the bonds were purchased by the holders in disregard of the conditions of the acts of incorporation, and with full knowledge of all the facts. Some contend, also, that the territorial banks were created without any competent legal power in the territorial legislative council therefor.
from Florida to those States.
These events have greatly retarded the growth and prosperity of the State ; and the present backward condition of her internal improvements should not be mentioned without also adverting, at the same time, to them as her apologies. Her people are as public-spirited and as enterprising as those of any other section, but their energies have been stifled by the series of untoward circumstances alluded to. Blessed with a genial climate and a fruitful soil, and advantages for improvement, with tacility and cheapness unsurpassed by any country, it is believed Florida is destined, in time, to become a populous and one of the richest and most prosperous States in the Uni(»n.
The severe restrictions imposed in 1832 and 1834 upon our Cuba and Porto Rico trade are ably and fully exposed by Senator Mallory in his recent pamphlet on that subject. They are a serious grievance to the State. But for those restrictions, we should sell annually to those islands many thousands of dollars worth of agricultural products, stock, &c. The restrictions should be forthwith abrogated, if the commercial and agricultural interests of the Gulf and Atlantic southern States are entitled to any consideration ; and, indeed, the dictates of sound policy and equal justice to every section of the Union imperatively demand the repeal of those laws.
It is proper, also, to state here that the failure of the federal government to fulfil in gcM>d faith its obhgation to indemnil'y Spanish inhabitants for the spoliations of 1812, 1813, 1814, and 1818, when the provvinces (then belonging to Spain) were invaded by the troops of the
United States ; and the withholding of protection to the citizens of Florida during the protracted Indian hostilities which commenced in 1835; and the refusal to indemnily the many hundreds of citizens whose property was devastated by the savages, owing to the flagrant neglect ot the federal government to fulfil its duty of affording proper protection to them ; and, likewise, the refusal to pay others their just dues for supplies furnished to troops in service, and ibr services rendered the federal government— are all matters that have been severely felt in Florida, and have all materially retarded its prosperity.
The only railroad in Florida now m operation is the Tallahassee and St. Marks road. It was built about 1834, by an incorporated company. It now runs from Tallahassee to the seaport at the site of the ancient Spanish fortress of St. Marks, at the junction of the St. Marks and Wakulla rivers, a distance of about 23 miles, and is in good condition. Between twenty and thirty thousand bales of cotton, and large amounts of other produce and of merchandise, are annually transported over this road. It originally crossed the St. Marks river, and run to a point on the bay of St. Mui Us, or Apalacfie, a short di.sLance below its present terminus, where a flourishing village soon sprang up, but which was in 1843 totally demolished by an unprecedented hurricane and flood from the Gulf, by which many lives were lost. This railroad is now owned chiefly by General Call. The cost of construction, of rebuilding it, and of repairs, has probably been $250,000 ; but it is generally considered to be a good inve?tment. If it is intersected by the contemplated great Central road, hereafter spoken of, it will increase in value. The Georgia " Brunswick Company," hereafter alluded to, it is understood desire to connect with this roacl; and projects have been in contemplation to extend the Tallahassee road to Thomasville, Georgia, and to other points in Georgia, without reference to the Brunswick Company. Such extension will add to its importance.
Plank roads are being projected at several detached points in Florida, for short distances, and one several miles in length is now in course of construction from New Port (a rival town to St. Marks, situate a few miles above it, on the St. Marks river) to the Georgia line.
A small private railroad was constructed a few years ago, leading to Forsyth & Simpson's extensive manufactories and mills, near Bagdad, on Black Water river. West Florida ; but it became useless, and has been taken up.
In 1835, a company was incorporated to build a canal or railroad to connect the Apalachicola river (through Lake Wimico) with St. Joseph bay ; at which it was intended to establish a shipping port for the produce brought down the Chattahoochie, and Flint, and Apalachicola rivers, and from the surrounding country, and for receiving and forwarding merchandise to the interior, and as a rival to the city of Apalachicola. A road about nine miles long was put in operation, but, in consequence of the difficulties attending the passage of large steamboats through the shoal waters of the lake, it was abandoned in 1839; and another road running from St., Joseph, north, about thirty miles to lola, a village eslablished on the west side of the Apalaciiicola, a m.ile above the Chipola river, was constructed at an expense of upwards of ^00,000. A bridge of superior construction, several hundred yards in
length, was thrown across the Chipola, and the raihoad continued upon it. A town was soon built, at the southern terminus, on the bay of St. Joseph, which bay has an excellent harbor, easily accessible to merchant vessels of" the first class usually employed in southern trade. In 1841, the railroad, in consequence of pecuniary embarrassments of the company, occasioned by its immense expenditures, was abandoned, and soon after, the rails were taken up and sold to a railroad company in Georgia. Many persons contend that the site has superior advantages, and that with judicious management it would have succeeded, and that it may be resuscitated at some future period under favorable auspices. The proper and judicious improvement of the harbor of Apalachicola would, of course, prevent this, and especially if the inland communication along the coast (hereafter mentioned) from South Cape to the Mississippi is undertaken. Apalachicola now ships to foreign ports and coastwise upwards of 86,000,000 worth of cotton and other produce annually ; and receives a corresponding amount of merchandise for transportation into the interior ; and lias, besides, considerable trade.
Some miles of the Florida, Alabama, and Georgia railroad, near Pensacola, were graded as hereinafter stated several years ago; but that work has been suspended for the present.
Excepting some local improvements at tiie cilv of St. Augustine, made by the federal government, and which were necessary tor the preservation of its property there, the foregoing, it is believed, comprise all the works of the character you inquire of heretot()re constructed or partially constructed in Florida.
Florida has several capacious and secure harbors, and of easy entrance. No less than twenty-six important rivers — the Perdido, the Escambia, the Black Water, and Yellow rivers, (through St. Mary de Galvez bay,) the Choctawhatchie, the Aj)alachicola, (into which How the Chattahoochie and the Flint,) the Ockolockony, the St. Marks, and Wakulla, thrf)ugh St. Marks or Apalache bay,) the Wacissa and Oscilla, the Suwanee or Little St. John's and its tributaries, the Widilacoocy, and Alapahau, and Santaftei, the Weethlockochee or Amixura, the Hillsborough, the Nokoshotee or Manatee, the Talarhpko, or l*eas creek, the Caloosahatche, the Otsego, the two Caximbas, the Galivaus river, Harney's river and Shark river ; besides other streams of lesser note — flow from or through the State into the Gulf of Mexico. The five first named rivers extend into the State of Alabama. They already bear upon tfieir waters to the Florida Gulf shipping ports valuable products, whicli could be greatly increased by comparatively trifling jiriificial "internal improvemtets," and the value of the public and private lands in Alabama, contiguous to them, much enhanced. The Chattahoochie river is the Ixjundary between Alabama and Georgia, and is navigable f()r steamboals ihv u{)wards of 150 miles northward from its Junction with the Flint, where they form the Apalaciiicola. The Flint extends upwards of 100 miles, into one of the most productive sections of Georgia. Ttie Ockolockony, the Oscilla, the Suwanee and the two first named of its tribularii'S, all extend into Georgia; ami if all of them are n(»t susceptible, by artificial improvement, of Ijeing made navigable for steamboats of a large class, they can be made equal
to most of ine ordinary canals in operation in the middle States, to within a few miles of their respective sources, in affording facilities for the transportation of produce to the coast, and of merchandise into the interior. Every one of the rivers named, not only at their respective outlets to the gulf, but with reference to their navigation in ihe interior, is susceptible of artificial improvement, the beneficial effects of which would be commensurate to the expense incurred. The country at large would not only be benefitted by the promotion and extension of the agricultural and commercial interests of the contiguous region, and the development of new sources of wealth and prosperity that the improvement suggested would cause, but the facilities for cheap and ready defence of an extensive coast frontier (nov/ greatly exposed to a foreign maritime enemy) that such improvements would afford would be of incalculable national advantage. In fact, the federal treasury, as to most of them, would be more than reimbursed for all outlays (if it undertook the works) by the enhanced value of the public lands in their vicinity, and their consequent increased sales ; and if undertaken by a iState or States, or by corporate associations, and a proper p^Mion of the lands were granted in aid of the works, the United States would be remunerated by the increased value of the portion retained. The States of Alabama and Georgia are directly uiterested in the improvements referred to to an extent (juite equal to the interest of the State of Florida. Some years since, the legislature of the last named State directed an examination of the Ockolockony river with a view to its improvement; and it has, also, at different times, made examinations with a view to the improvement of the navigation of the Chattahoochie and Flint rivers ; and it has expended some money on both. Alabama has as yet done but little to promote the interests of her southeastern counties in obtaining facilities tor the transportation of produce to the gulf through Florida.
It is believed that the improvement of the bays and harbors, and of their outlets, to the gulf or sea, can be rendered easier, less expensive, and more substantifu and permanent, by the adoption of the system of closing unnecessary delta or outlets ; and, instead of removing bars or deepening channels by excavation, making portions of them positive and immovable obstructions ; thereby confinmg the waters to as few channels as possible, and causing them to force and deepen those channels for their debouchement to the jrulf or sea. Especially on the southern Atlantic coast, and in the gulf, is this plan deemed to be the most eligible.
Several diflerent examinations, reconnoissances, or surveys have been made of some of these rivers, and their outlets, and reports furnished as to their susceptibility of advantag(>ous improvement; which can be found by reference to the public doc jments, of which a list is annexed in note A. .
That an inland water communication from the Mississippi river to South Cape, in Middle Florida, could be obtained for steamooats of a medium size, and coasting craft, was many years ago maintained by high authority. The expense necessary to obtain such inland communication, by canalling between the nearly continuous line of bays or sounds running parallel with the gulf coast from South Cape to the Mississippi, and by closing the mouths of one or two streams, and stopping a few shoal inlets, is really trifling when the immense advantages to flow
from such work are estimated. But I will not dilate on (his undertaking. The public documents enumerated in note A afford full information on the subject, and demonstrate to my judgment, the entire practicability of effecting results especially beneficial to the western States, and to Alabama and Florida, and, when such communication is extended ac'oss the peninsula to the ocean, important to the Atlantic States.
On the Atlantic or eastern coast of Florida, abovi' or North of Cape Sable, there are several important streams, which could also be improved by widening, straightening, and deepening, and by removing obstructions in the navigation, at comparatively trifling expense, considering the benefits that would result thcretrom'in the same wa}' above mentioned.
The sound behind the tongue of land terminating at Capt; Florida receives the Miami river. Little river, Arch creek, Rio Ratones, and Snake creek, and extends several miles north, parallel with the sea-shore. New river inlet, Hillsborough river and inlet, Jupiter inlet, St. Lucia river and inlet, Halifax river and inlet, Mosipiito river and inlet, Mantanzas river and inlet, St. Augustine harbor. North river, San Pablo creek, St. John's river, Nassau bay and river, and the river St. Mary's, (the latter being the boundary between Florida and Georgia,) are all important points on the Atlantic coast. As is heretot()re stated, in respect of the gulf coast between South Cape, in Middle Florida, and the Mississippi, a nearly continuous line of inland "sound navigation," fi)r coasting craft and steamboats of the medium size, drawing six or seven feet, it has been suggest^', (.'md with great plausibility,) may be effected from Cape Florida to the mouth of the St. Mary's river by closing securely and permanently some of the inlets mentioned, and b}^ excavating less than thirty miles of canal, and by widening and deepening, in a few places, the natural channels of the interior communications now existing; being the "sounds," and also the "lakes" and rivers, adjacent to, and extending, (with but trifUng interruption,) along the entire eastern coast (tf the State, and running parallel with the seashore, at a short distance therefrom, in the interior. And it has been predicted that, alter such improvement, the natural effect of the tides from the sea, through the "inlets" remaining open, and of the iiccumulatioii ot" the waters flowing into the sounds from the interior, and restrained to such outlet to the sea, and the currents crmsed thereby, would be, not only to increase the depih of the channels of the sounds, but to deepen several feet and keep open iIk; entrances from the ocean at St. Augustine, and St. John's, and to such extent as always to admit large vessels adapted to foreign trade. The entire expense of such imp' ovemenis, it is estimated, would not exceerl two hundred and fifty thousand dollars. But if it should b^' three or f()tn- times that sum, it would not ecjual the value; of the benefits resulting in a national point of view, and to other States besides Florida. Such improvements would render the entire coast from St. Augustine to Cape Florida liirever impregnablc to any enemy, and cv(>n exempt it from annoyance; without the necessity of fortifications, except at the outlets to the sea, left open, and deep<'ned, as suggested; and many coasting vessels from th(^ eastward, going southward, might, by such inland communication, avoid the necessity of stemming the strong current of the "gulf stream;" of"
crossing the Bahama banks ; and also the other hazardous experiment of hugging Cape Carnaveral, and keeping close to the Florida const, in trying which so many such vessels oound southward are wrecked. The documents referred to in note A will give you valuable inlbrmation on ull these points.
The clearing out of the small streams emptying into the sounds at the southern part of the peninsula, and the connexion of the sources of those streams by canals with the interior and Ircsh waters of the Pahhayoke or Everglades, covering an area of at least eighty by thirty miles, and with the large and deep fresh-water lake Okechobe, further north, and with the interior river Kissimme, running into said lake from Tohopekaliga lake and other lakes, (the waters extending ninety miles north Irom tlie mouth of the river,) would not only reclaim vast (juantities of rich sugar lands, now submerged by the overflow of the waters, at certain seasons, but would be tlie means of facile interior communication, and also betW(!on every part of the interior region and the seaeoast, and afford easy and cheap transportation tor all the produce intended for exportation to foreign })orts or shipment coastwise. The extensive swamp called Halpatioke would become dry and cultivatable. And the character of the country is sucii, that the cost of such improvement would not be great. The upper soil is light and easy of excavation ; the substratum of clay with which it is underlaid is tenacious, and prevents the difficulties so often caused by caving or sliding. The lace of the country- is level, and no material obstructions arising from rocks will be found. The principal obstacle to the undertaking is, that it is of a character which renders it necessary that every portion of it should be commenced and carried on to completion simultaneously, and speedily, requiring a large laboring force and united, combineil, and concurrent action.
So, too, on the western coast of the peninsula, the de(*pening of the outlets, and the connexion of the rivers emptying into the Gulf with the same interior waters aijove mentioned, would be equally beneficial. The vast swamp called the Big Cypress, or Atseenhoofa, could be reclaimed. And the completion of such works on both sides would probably effijct a means of passage t()r small coasting vessels and steamers across the peninsula, thereby avoiding the perilous navigation of the keys and reefs farther south, and extending southwcstwardly, upwards of a hundred miles irom Cape Florida and Cape Sable, into the gulli
The in^provements suggested in the two last paragraphs are subjects of comment in the valuable documents annexed to a report made by Senator Brcese, of llUnois, liom the Committee on Public Lands of the Senate, at the 1st session, 32d Congress, August 28, 1848, Doc. No. 242. Other important int()rmation as to the agricultural capabilities, and products, and trade, and fisheries, and other resources of Florida, is to be Ibund in these documc's.
On the peninsula a railroat .m Tampa Bay to the navigable waters of the St. John's, near the head of the navigation of that river, has been spoken of, and will probably in a very iew years be undertaken. When the adjacent country becomes more densely populated, such work will certainly be constructed.
Another road from Trimpn, running northwardly up the peninsula, avoiding the water-courses on both sides, and extending as tar up as Jacksonville, has been strongly urged, and has many advocates.
Above Tampa, on the peninsula, various projects have been suggested to connect the lower with the upper region of the peninsula, and and to connect the Gulf" of Mexico with the Atlantic.
It is said that the head waters of the Kissimme can be connected with those at the sources of the St. John's river, so as to be navigable for boats transporting produce.
A canal for boats or barges ilrawing four or five feet, has been spoken of as practicable, at small expense, from the Ocklawaha, a branch of the noble river St. John's, to the navigable waters of Weethlockochee, or Amixura.
A canal from the sound near Smyrna, on the eastern edge of the State, to lakes which are the head waters of the St. John's rivtsr, a few miles west of the seacoast, or from a point op the sound to the same waters, some distance farther south, has also been suggested.
A railroad from Pilatki, on the St. John's river, to such point as may be ascertained to be the most eligible, on the gulf coast, near Cedar Keys, or near Waccassah bay, has likewise been spoken of; as has also a similar work from Jacksonville, on the St. John's ; and also one from the mouth of the St. Mary's to the same points on the gulf. In fact, several different railroads from the west side of the St. John's river, farther down to the gulf, are in contemplation.
One from Picolati, intended to extend east to St. Augustine ; one from the head of navigation on Black creek ; and one from Jacksonville, or a point near that town, to some point on the gulf, or on the Suwanee river, have been spoken of; and, likewise, a railroad from St. Mary's river to the Suwanee. Charters have been obtained in past years, from the Florida Idgislature for some of the last- mentioned works, to be undertaken by corporate associations ; but none of them, it is believed, ,have as yet had any route properly surveyed, preparatory to carrying out their charters and commencing such work practically. The routes of two of these contemplated works are laid down on the map enclosed to you, of one of whicn it is understood some years since a reconnoissance was made by an officer of the United States army (Captain Blake,) since killed in battle in Mexico. The same officer made a partial survey of the harbor of Tampa, and of a portion of the eastern coast of the State, and of the sounds contiguous thereto, which are referred to in the said list of documents, marked A.
The "thorough-cut," or "great ship-canal," or "ship-railway" across the head of the peninsula, has been written about a great deal within the last thirty years. It has formed the subject of congressional speeches and reports, and of newspaper essays; and, many years since, a board of United States engineers, at the head of which was General Bernard, made a partial survey, with a view to ascertain its practicability and its cost. His report and maps of his surveys are to be found in vol. iv. Ex. Doc, 2d sess. 20th Cong., 1828-'9, Doc. No. 147. Different termini have been indicated on the gulf side for this work. The St. John's river has generally been mentioned as the most eligible terminus of said work on the eastern side. An appropriation of $20,000 will
survey tor this work.
Whilst the certain practicability of effecting the completion of this stupendous and magnificent project to the full extent anticipalcfl by some of Its advocates has by many been deemed questionable, (and it sfcms General Bernard did not believe in its favorable success,) yet other disinter sted and impartial persons, of a high order of intelligence, and possessing accurate knowledge of the location through which the canal must be constructed, and of the soils to be excavated, confidently contend that it is entirely practicable. The immense cost of the construction of a ship-canal is an insuperable obstacle to its being undertaken by the State of Florida, or by any association of individuals there. Tho State constitution contains provisions virtually restraining the legislature from borrowing money on the faith and credit of the State, even for such purpose. Therefore, if such work is undertaken, it must be by the geneial government, and upon the most considerate estimates, founded upon previous examinations and accurate surveys by scientific and impartial engineers. The same observations apply to the construction of the **ship-raihva)j " that has been suggested. If the construction of either of these works is ascertained to be feasible, it will be beyond all question the most important undertaking of the kind in the United States. No one can deny that its beneficial results will be eminently ^^natioruiiy Whensover any route inside of the Gulf of Mexico, whether through Texas, through eastern Mexico, or by Vera Cruz, or by Tehuantepec to the Pacific, may be established, a passage across Florida, as a means of speedy and safe travel, and tor the transportation of merchandise, will become imperatively necessary, to enable the eastern and middle Atlantic States to participate fully in the benefits of such route. The proposed canal or roid may be located on a direct and straight line drawn along the coast, from Cape Hatteras (to pass which, in sailing from New York, a considerable defiexion east must be made) to the mouth of the Rio Coatzacoalcos, on the gulf side of the isthmus of Tehuantepec. The legislature of Louisiana, smothering all selfish local considerations, at a recent session adopted resolutions asking Congress to institute examinations as to the Florida "shipcanal ;" and patriotic and enterprising citizens of eastern and western States, with wise forecast, look to the ascertainment of its practicability as a result of the highest importance to the general interests of the whole confederacy — as well to the Atlantic, southern, northern, eastern, middle, and interior States, and those on the Pacific, as to the gulf and Mississippi States. Our Atlantic merchants see that it will greatly faciUtate our future trade, not only with the Pacific generally, but with China and with the East Indies.
Whatever doubts may be entertained as to the practicability of the construction and successful operation of a "s/tip-m/w/ " or ^'ship-railway " across the peninsula, it is not doubted that canals tor boats drawing six or seven feet water may be made, cither from the head of navigation on Black creek, or from one of the two southernmost prongs or branches of the St. Mary's river, or from the St. John's river, directly to the capacious, deep, and never-failing lake, called " Ocean pond," about thirty miles westwardly of Whitesville, on Black creek, and about forty
miles from Jacksonville, on the St. John's river. From this lake it is supposed such c.in.'il can be continued to the navigable waters of the Santafll^e, and, by the improvemc^it of the navigation of that river and of the SuNvance to the gulf, can also, without doubt, be constructed ; and the expense is not estimated to be so grat as to render it an injudicious investment. It is believed also by some persons, that a similar canal for boafs, commencing at the head of navigation near the great southern bend ot' the St. Mary's river, and running across near to llie southern margin of the vast lake or swamp called Okelenokee, and directly to the head-waters of the Suwanee, with projierin provements to the navigation of the St. Mary's and Suwanee rivers, is practicable, and would be highly beneficial as a means of transportation of produce, lumber, naval stores, and merchandise, and that it would also drain and reclaim tens of thousands of acres of the richest lands in that region. Such work would be greatly beneficial to the State of Georgia, wiiich State has heretol()re made examinations and surveys, with a view to its construction.
A railroatl has been projected from Brunswick, Georgia, to the gulf coast, on which coast tlifterent points tor its termination have been indicated. It is stated that an association is now being organized to raise funds and commence such work. Some years suice, partial reconnoissances, and some unperfected surveys, were made (»f such work, from Brunswick, on two different routes entering Middle Florida; but, ihmi circumstances not fully understood, the commencement of the work was postponed, and the results of the surveys have never been made puolic. Unless the proposed work should enter Flo- ida much I'arther to the ea.tt than has been stated is intended, and become connected with the great trunk or Central railroad hercaller spoken of, so that it would result to some benefit to East Florida, it will be regarded with disfavor in that section of ihe State, and meet with such opposition as probably will prevent its extension into the State at all. It would certainly be a competitor and rival of the Central Florida railroad, if allowed to abstract from it the southwestern travel and transportation, for the benefit of southern Georgia, by leaving the State of Florida in the western section.
To all the suggested improvements terminating on the gulf coast, near to the delta of the Suwanee, some persons have objected that formidable dnijculties will b(! encountered to their successful operation, owing to the want of a safe and good harbt)r there, of easy access near to the shore t()r vessels drawing over seven or eight feet, and owing also to alleged hazards attending the approach ot that |)art ol" the gulf coast. I do not, however, hesitate to say that I regard these objections as fallacious, and that safe and good harbors tor vessels of twelve or fifteen feet draught can be found, and v/hic*? jan also be greatly improved by artificial means.
The first great work to be undertaken ))y the State of Florida, is, in my judgment, unquestionably, at the present time, the trunk or Central railroad, commencing at Pensacola, and running eastwardh' from Deerpoint, at the opposite side of Pensacola bay, along or as near the route of the old Bellamy or Federal road as is practicable to the river St. John's ; the distance being about three hundred and fifty miles. A road can be run from St. John's to St. Augustine, from Jacksonville, thirty-eight
miles, and from Picolati, eighteen miles. All the diflerent sectional interests of the upper portions of the State would he promoted by tjuch work. Lfiteral railroads to necessary points on the gulf eojist, and to the towns where the country trade is carried on, norlli of the main road, can be made. These liiteral roads could be extended into Alabiima and (ieorgia, and, when it mny be deemed advisable, connected with the railroads in those Stat(\s ; and in a lew yi-ars not merely Florida, but her conterminous sister Stnles, will be interlneed and bound togcnher, and muturilly strengthened by bands of iron. The sugar, cotton, tobacco, rice, Sisnl hemp, tar, turi)entine, rosin, and resinous oils and lumber, luid othei products of tiiose li'rtile regions, can be speedily, cheiiply, and safely transported to market, either on the gulf or Atlantic, or t()r exportntion to li)reign ports or shipment coastwise, in time of war or of pe.'iee ; and in time of war material aid lor the fl("tence of the coast against litreign assault from nny ([u;nter of the Slat:^ cm always be at once furnished from the interior. Yet in the constructirjn of such work, the just share of the general improvement fund of tiie State due to that section detriched from the immediate and direct ndvantiiges and convcuiiences of this road, and lying farther south than its efl(?cts would be telt, should not be expended, but should be scrupulously retJiined ti)r the benefit of such section. The facilities such road would aflbrd the ll'deral government ti)r the chenp and rapid trans|)ortrition of the mails in times of peace, and the like liicilities given Ibr the transpoitation in time of war of troops, munitions of war, and subsistence, would be of inenleulable vat'mud hcnrjk. The river St. John's, which is g(>ner;illy spfiken of as the ciistern terminus of the Central railro;id, extends from its mouth three hundred miles south, running nearly in th(> middle of the peninsuln, its sources being chnins of large lakes exli^nding south beyond the sources of the Kissimme. The bar nt the entrance of the St. John's cannot ordinarily be passed by vessels drawing over tliirte(>n tlM.-t, but inside it is navigable by vessels of twenty-five feet draught as far up as Jacksonville, and by those drawing lwelv(! teet up to Lake (Jeorge, and two ti-et water can be hnd to Lake Poinsett. The tide seems to have intiuence at Volusia. The tnule of the river at present is chiefly lumber. More than thirteen large lumber mills (mostly steam) are on the river above and below Jacksonvill(\ the principal town upon the river. About three hundred and fifty vessels annually are loaded with lumber and produce on the St. John's. The quantity of lumber annually shipped from the St. John's river is estimated at 50,000,000 of tc-et. An eftbrt will be made this fsdl to deepen the water on the bar, which it is sanguinely anticipated can be done, so as to admit vessels at low water drawing twenty or twetUy-five feet, and by an expenditure of about twenty thousand dollars. Should it be eflected, though it should cost twenty times such amount, it would be a wise disposition of the money. In case this work succeeds, so soon as the great Central road is finished to the St. John's, a large and flourishing commercial city is sure to spring up in a lew years at the terminus on the river, wherever it may be.
Partial surveys of the eastern part of one proposed route ibr this road, terminating at Jacksonville, the prominent point on the St. John's, were made some years ago by an association of eastern capitalists,
gressing with the undertaking.
A ruilrond has been eontetnplnted from Pensacfjla, across the southern corner of Alabama to Montgomery, Ahibama; or tf) Cohimbus, Georgia ; or to some; point in Georgia, low(3r down on the Chattahnoc'hio river; and to unite with sotne of the Georgia roads running to the Atlantic scnbonril. Great interest is felt in the completion of this road at the city of Pensacola, and throughout the surrounding country, and on the (liferent routes proposed for it ; and the federal government is also deeply interested in its being finished, insomuch as it would attbrd certain m(;ans fi)r the d(!fencc and protection of the valuable public proj)erty at Pensacola — worth many millions of dollars, and as tlie le<lernl treasury would be benefited by the enhanced value of the public lands in Alabama through which the road would run, and their increased sales. On these points I refer you to the documents specified in note B, hereto annexed. The surveys for the chief part of one of ihc. contemplated routes of this road were, it is understood, perfected some years since, and several miles of the road near Pensacola were graded, and other work done. It has, however, be»>n suspended for some time, awaiting the action of Congress granting the right of way through the public lands, and also grants of alternate sections along the line of the road. Bills making such grants have passed the Senate at different sessions, but, as yet, tfie association nave been unable to obtain the concurrent action of fxuh houses at the same session to the same bill.
Connected as the ffrcat Central railroad of the State will be, at Pensacola, (or at any of the gulf ports that mny be selected,) with the commerce to distant foreign or American ports in the gulf and elsewhere and especially with steamships to Tehuantepec as soon as the interoceanic communication is made at that isthmus, (whether the Florida road is extended to Mobile and New Orleans or not,) it must soon become the principal line of southern and southwestern travel to and from the eastern and middle States, to California and Oregon, and the Pacific generally. It is the natural and direct course of sucli travej. The sagacious and enterprising merchants of the Atlantic cities engaged in the Pacific trade, and in the trade to China and to the East Indies, will also so(»n discover that such work mny be usexl to promote their interests. Of its profitable success as a pecuniary investment, little tloubt can be entertained.
A canal from St. Andrew's bay to the Chipola river har. been contemplated t()r many years, atid an association has been incorporated to construct such work. Full surveys have f)een made, and the feasibility of constructing either a canal or a niilroad fully demonstrated. It is in the hands of citizens of respectability, who possess means to complete it, with such assistance as may be afforded by the general goverment, and by the State. Extensive tracts of valuable public lands, in the vicinity of this work, have been reserved from sale by the United States ior " naval purposes." These reservations are profitless, rmd the lands should be sold. Their being held as at present is injurious to the country in which they an; situated. Sound and judiciouf policy
liciouf policy
demands tuat the federal and iStale gov(;rnmenls, iioth, should eiicourago the speedy construction of the canal or road from St. Andrew'.t bay. The oay lias a good entranci; l()r large vcissids, and it is a sale ami capacious harbor. Intersecting, as such vv(»rk probably would, (bv on extension for a short distance into the interior,) the great Central i late railroail, its completion at once will be a valuable auxiliary to the ch(!ap and S{)eedy construction of the latter.
The State legislature, however, (under the advice of the '• State Board of Internal Improvements," composed of citizens from each section of the State,) will, it is expected, this fall, when its bicnnud session is held, devise some additional measures l()r carrying out the most judicious plans of internal improvement to those henaoibre adopted. The schemes, wiles, and intrigues of speculators and jobbers, pecuniary and political, it may be anticipated, will, in Florida, (as sad experience has proved in other States,) have to be enccjuntered and ov(;rcome, and thwarted, by the just and patriotic citizen. Attempts, by means direct iind indirect, to apj)roprial(^ the lands given to tlu; State lor pur[)os(.'s of "internal improvement" — the "swamp lands" — and every (>lher available resource, to objects merely local, sectional, and selfish, will, it may W. conjectured, be made ; but the sle(;{)les3 vigilance of the guardians of Uii; public and general weal will be liiithfully exerted to prevent any combinations ti)r such {)urposes being successful. That c/if/ues, having their own interests exclusively in view, have so often elsewhere been able to consummate their designs, will admonish the executive and legislature to watchfulness and caution. 1 place the firmest reliance on th(? intellig(Mice, patriotism, and [)rudence of those dejtarlments of the government ol' my Stale in this regard.
The cost of the; great Central Florida riiilroad, it has be»!n estimated, will not probably lidl short of four millions of dollars. The proceeds of the sales of town lots at the extreme termini, and at several points "U the route where the tradf.'of il»e surrounding country will be con(. i.-ntrateil, will go liir in aid ot" the work. Jlut unless the federal government does, as it should do, grant to the Slate alternate sections on both sidt;s of tlu; road on it.-, entire lin(!, and tiir several miles laterally, as th(! State has not ai present the achujuate up ans for its construction, it will probably be deterred. Few foreign capitalists are disposed to embark in such an undertaking, as a permanent investment of their means, especially when the proposi-d work is in a country distant from them, and tin; progress aiul conduct of which work they cannot })er3onally attend to; and the assistance of those who may subscribe for stock, as a matte! of .sent speculation by its sale, is generally of doubtful value. 1 append hereto a statement obtained from the General Land Otliee, (marked C,) exhibiting the number of acres of public lands in Floriiia, "surveyed" and "unsurveyed," on the 30th of June, 1851; also, the (juantity ''■offered f()r sale," and the quantity ".so/^/," up to the same ilay, and other aullientic and valuable information as to the fi^-dcral domain in the State. By a reference to the last annual report of the General Land Office, it will be seen that Ohio, with an area of 12,354,500 acres leas than Florida, has received grants in aid of " internal imp-ovemenis^^ fbi 081,135 acres more than Florida; Indiana, with an area of 10,293,900 acres less, has received 1,109,801
acres more; Iowa, with an area of 5,346,560 acres less, has received 326,078 acres more than Florida, and claims (and justly) 900,000 in addition as having been granted, making 1,225,078 acres more than Florida; Wisconsin, with an area of 3,420,160 less, has received 358,400 acres TMore than Florida; Illinois, with an area of 2,472,320 Zess, has received 2,246,490 acres (the Central Railroad grant) more than Florida ; and a similar disproportion will be seen to exist with respect to other States. And with respect to donations for schools, &c., a like disproportion exists between the allowances to her and to most of the other Stales ; and, by some process, whilst Louisiana is reported as having 8,877,998 acres of swamp-lands, Michigan and Arkansas, each, upwards o^ four millions and a half, Mississippi 2,239,987 acres, Illinois 1,883,412, Missouri 1,517,287, Wisconsin 1,2.59,269, Florida is set down as having 562,170 acres! But this, it is understood to be, is because all those lands in the regions yet unsurveyed are not yet officially reported ; nor have the State designations progressed as far as the other States mentioned. The swamp-Tands in Florida will probably exceed those in any other State. Most of the lands heretofore offered, and yet remaining unsold, (and sixteen-seventeenths of the lands offered are yet unsold,) will remain unsold lor many years to come, unless some of the public improvements suggested should enhance their value. At least eleven-twelfths of all the lands in the State are yet owned by the United States. A very large portion of them, even if the principal improvements suggested should be made, would not probably for some time afterwards be sold at the present minimum price of the public lands. The fact that of 17,043,111 acres surveyed and offered for sale prior to June, 1851, but 1,000,407 acres have been sold, (and many of them have been offered for sale for twenty-seven, twenty-five, twenty, fifteen or ten years,) proves that in the present state of things they are utterly worthless to the United States. On the proposed routes of the great Central railroad there are, in different sections of the State, vast tracts of these lands at present of no value to the general government, to the State or to indivitluals. Rich and exhaustless beds of marl are to be found in several sections of the State. Those at Allum Bluff, on the Apalachicola river, but a short distance from the place where the great Central rofid will probably cross, are of great value. That road alone will, by the cheap transportation of the marl, afford facilities for fertilizing the lands contiguous to it in every section of the State, but especially in Middle and West Florida; and at the same time the lumber, tar, turpentine, rosin, and resinous oils that may be obtained from most of such lands, prior to their being thus prepared for and put iu' cultivation, could be readily conveyed to market by the same means.
Florida is the fifth State in size in the confederacy. Her area is 59,268 square miles or 37,931,520 acres. She possesses an advantage had by no other State of the Union. She alone, of all the ftcscnt United States, can cultivate and raise advantageously, and for the supply of the otfter States on this side of the continent, tropical fruits and other highly valuable tropical products! She will have no rival in this respect among her sister States till furtiier "extension" and additional "annexation" is effected. You are referred on this subject to the public documents and other authentic books specified in the note D, hereto annexed. In a
exed. In a
few years, whether in time of war or in time of peace, not only the Atlantic cities, but the entire valley of the Mississippi, can be supplied by her with most tropical productions with greater facility, and cheaper, than they can be procured from Cuba, or from any other of the West India islands. A tithe of the sum necessary to purchase Cuba, if Spain should be willing to dispose of it, and a fiftieth part of the amount of expenditure necessary to conquer and annex that island by arms, or to obtain it in any other mode, honorable or dishonorable, if expended by the federal government (even as above indicated, by liberal grants of land) in aid of works of internal improvement in Florida, would render that State more valuable than, Cuba ever can be to this confederacy. Such policy might also subdue some of the covetings and cravings many seem to have for the "Queen of the Antilles," (as they designate that island,) and obviate in some degree the necessity which they insist now exists of its being forthwith wrested from Spain and possessed by the United States. War and bloodshed would also be thereby averted.
The most judicious policy that can be adopted by the federal government with reference to Florida, in my judgment is, to transfer without delay to that State every acre of public lands within its borders, stipulating that the proceeds thereof hereafter realized by the State shall be exclusively devoted to internal and harbor improvements within the State; the United States reserving only the necessary sites for light-houses, tbrtifici aons, and other structures, under the control of the federal government. At any rate, the transfer of all lands that at this time, or hereafter, have been offered for sale at $1 25 per acre for ten years, and that remain unsold, should be made, and a similar rule could be wisely applied to all the States wherein public lands lie.
No one, it is presumed, will deny that the coast frontier of every pait of the United States is peculiarly a subject of legitimate concernment for the federal government, or that, to a certain extent, the States have yielded the partial control thereof to the United States ; and that, in some respects, it may be regarded as the common property of the people of all of the States of this confederacy. The lines of jurisdiction betwr-en the States and the federal government, and between the respective State governments, as to such coast frontier, are distinctly marked by the federal constitution. The federal government has not been invested by the States with any right of property to the coasts. By article 4, section 2, clause 1, of the federal compact, it is stipulated that " the citizens of each State shall be entitled to all privileges and imtnunities of citizens in the several States ;^^ and it has been held that the free right of navigation, of commerce, and of piscary, and in fine of every usufructuary privilege of the coast waters, (not essential and exclusively local,) and that are common rights, as distinguished from exclusive rights of property, in a State, or in individuals, pertain equally to the citizens of the United States of every State of the confederacy, without distinction in favor of the citizens of that State of which such coast is the frontier. Such police regulations as sound policy may render necessary can be rightfully established and enforced bp that State, and it may enact laws for the protection and conservation of such common rights, and to regulate their use, so as to prevent their abuse ; but such
laws must apply equally to its own citizens as to the citizens of the other States. The general rights of navigation and of commerce by all, and that of piscary in waters not exclusively local, cannot be withheld for the exclusive benefit of its own citizens. But no other State may rightfully legislate as to such privileges on the coasts of a sister State ; nor does the federal government possess any constitotional power to regulate by law the right of piscary on the coasts of a State, nor to cede by treaty, or otherwise, the privilege of using such fisheries to a foreign power, or its subjects, any more than it can regulate by law any other common right in a State, or cede away a part of the territory of a State to a foreign power. To defend and protect such coast frontier in which the citizens of the United States in all the States have such common interest, as well as because it is a part of o»« of the States; to " repel invasiona," (see article 1, section 8, clause 15, Constitution United States,) is the bounden duty of the lederal government. It is, in the clause just cited, invested with fiill power ; and the national compact tunce enjoins the fulfilment of such duty, (see clause last cited, and article 4, section 4;) and the same instrument contains an express constitutional guaranty that " it shall -protect each oj them [the Stales] against invasion," Sec. The 'ederal government bmlds fortifications, and navy yards, and ships, and armories, and arsenals, and military, and naval, and marine hospitals, and custom-houses, and it establishes lines of mail steamers *'. G''»at Britain and Europe and to the Pacific; it has erected and rnaiu*' . -ii Observatory, and a Military and Naval Academy; has a "Coast £ 3 ' establishment ; sends ships-of-war on exploring expeditions ; and Congress, within the last fifteen years, has spent millions of dollars for the making and publication of all kinds of books, on all kinds of subjects. Some of the improvements on the coasts, and leading to the coasts of Florida above noticed, are as directly and immediately important and essential for the ^* defence" and "protertion" of that section ^^ against invasion" as forts, ships, &c., can be elsewhere. This, it is true, is owing, in some degree, to the peculiar geographical position, insular formation, and character of that section. Under such circumstances, to deny the legitimate constitutional power of the lederal government to ^^ protide for the common defence" by aiding and promoting such necessary improvements in Florida, is to deny to it the power to employ the proper and necessary means of fulfilUng such constitutional duty. Whilst the obligation of the general government to " defend " and " protect" a State ^* against invasion" in time of war is conceded, to object that the federal constitution does not allow prudent and proper and necessary prepaiation by it, in time of peace, for the fulfilment of such duty economically, advantageously and successfully, is extending " the salutary rule of strict construction" into absurcQty. The attennuated lo^c by which objections are made to the means of defence and protection as unconstitutional, because forsooth the resort to such means may also, and otherwise, promote other interests of the State, or of the confederacy, has little weight with me. But when the aid desired can be yielded in the exercise of the undoubted constitutional authority of Congress to dispose of the public lands for the common benefit, all scruples with respect to grants of such lands in aid of those improvements in the States where the lands lie should be extinguished. The
uished. The
impolicy and injustice of the federal government retaining all the lands unsaleable at the present minimum price fixed by it for a series of years after they have been offered for sale, without yielding any taxes for them to the States wherein they lie, not contributing anything in any mode for the making and repair of ordinary highways and bridges through them, is severely felt by every resident (whether rich or poor) erf a country in which there is a large quantity of unsold public lands. The personal labor the settler is compelled to yield in this way, to enhance the value of the property of the United States, in addition to his other taxes, is an onerous burden. Difficulties will probably ensue from the granting to one sovereign Stale the control and ownership of lands within another sovereign State, even if the lands are made liable to just taxation ; and still greater difficulties will arise as to the adoption of any just rate of distribution among the States. Some proposed rules of distribution are absurd as well as iniquitous. By the rule of population, New York would at this time receive 33 acres to every one received by Florida, and yet Florida has 1,200 miles of seacoast to defend, whilst New York has less than 150 on her Atlantic li-ontier. Florida has 7,071,520 acres more in area than New York. She is larger than New York and Massachusetts or New York and Maryland together ; she is larger than New York, New Jersey, and Connecticut all together ; and, leaving out Maine, more than tmce as l.-irge as all the other five New England States together. Florida lias no mountains ; and properly improved she will have within her limits less waste land, not susceptible of cultivation, tlirm either New Hampshire, or Massachusetts, or Maryland, or New Jersey, though neither of those States is one-seventh of her size ; anti she would be capable, in a few years, if improved as suiigested, of sustaining comlbrtably a larger population than New York oi" itself, or all the New England States united. Population is a shifting rule, and not based on any just principle when adopted \\\i\\ reference to grants to the States. If the grant is intended to be given to the citizens of each State disposed to emigrate to and settle on such lands, the lijderal government had better make the grant direetly to the o(;cupant. The only true and just rule as to grants in aid of works t()r coast defence, or any other national objects, is the ncnssiti/ or importance of such work, and the advantage tjiat will result to the eoiintry therefrom. The policy of promoting the settlement of an exposed frontier State by five grants of lands to occupaiits, and to the State in aid of internal improvements, is, it is conceived, quite as obvious, and fully as strong, as any po^'cij of <hfcnce, as to a future war with a naval power, that can be adopted. The expense incurred in one such war of three years, necessary to defend the 1,200 miles of seacoast in Florida, would probably exceed fourfold all that is necessary for tiie government to yield in aid of internal improvements in liiat Slate ! Our entire national coast should be defended : " No foe's hostile f()ot should leave its print on our sliore." The dishonor of a successful invasion by an enemy will be as great, if the assault be made at Cape Sable or Apalachicola, as if made at Philadelphia or Washington. Besides, if such improvements are made, the means of defence thereby permanently established in Florida will enable the fiuleral government to provide more readily and early tor other exposed points, and
federal duty.
That the scientific and able engineers educated for and in the federal service ough'; to be (when the federal government has so little appropriate employ for them as at present, and generallj'- in times of peaces) assigned to duty in the Slates, in surveys for public improvements, is an opinion becoming quite general ; and if such course is adopted, it will probably prevent the abolition or reduction of such corps. The services of such officers would be most valuable to Florida in her surveys for the various works I have mentioned above.
The population of Florida, by the last census, was but 47,1G7 white persons, 928 free colored, and 39,309 colored slaves ; in all, 87,407. If Congress will encourage and foster the grow'th and prosperity of the State by aiding and promoting the works indicated, in the manner suggested, emigration thither from Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, Kentucky, Tennessee, Missouri, and other States, will speedily commence ; and by the year 18G0, her population will be quadru[)led, her resources and wealth augmented in still greater ratio ; and the most exposed and defenceless sc.cl'w7i of the Union rendered impregnable. By even ^^(^Uling to the Slate merely the lands made valuable by the works she maij coiistnict, and witli ihe means thereby afforded t()r th(! employment of labor in the construction of such works, she will be enabled to do much. Grant her all the vacant land, and (i^xecpting the " ship canal ") she may effc'ct all that her own interests or those of her sister States demand; now or herealter.
A relerence to the map of Florida now sent to you, madr at the Bureau of Topographical FiUgineers in 184G, and to a chart of the light-houses of the United Stat(>s, also enclosed, will show you that, with upwards of 1,200 miles of dangerous sea-board, there are fl'Wcr light-houses in the State than there are appurtenant to the cities either of New York or Bo.ston. Property ot upwards of two innKJrcd millions of dollars in value, it is estimated, annually passes along a large portion of tlu; Florida coasts, which are, in many plaer's, as much exposed and dangerous as the coast of any section of the Union.
In the document referred to in note E, annexed hereto, you will find stated the value of the property annually wrecked on th(! keys ami reefs and coasts ot" South Florida, and which is carried into Key West l()r adjudication of the salvage, t'ov each of the ten years last past. A large amount wrecked elsewhere, on the upper coast, and tfiat which is totalhj lost, is not estim;itrd ; nor is the great loss of human lite adverted to. 'J'he average value of all the property annualhj wrecked and lost on all the Florida coasts and reefs cannf)t be less tliana million of dollars!
You are referred to the statements procured from the Treasury Department, herewith sent to you, and to the documents speeilied in note F, lor the tonnage and Ibreign ex[)orts and imports, and other statistics of the State.
You will find in some of the documents I send you authentic inll)rmation as to the fisheries on the coast of Florida. It is predicted tliiit, before tnany years, these fisheries will become a source of profitahlc
■employment to thousands of seafaring men, who will be induced ihereby to become residents of the islands and coasts contiguous to them ; and they will be looked to particularly by the inhabitants (jf the great western valley for the supply of that article of subsistence ; and other sections of the Union, and foreign countries, may likewise be fu^• nished from them. They pertain exclusively to the State, the constitution whereof asserts its right ; and they arc regarded as destined, to he of as much imiwrtance and value us the fisheries on the coast of the British colonies at the northeast end of this conlinerit.
In addition to the documents above mentioned,! enclose you a letter (G) respecting the State of Florida from that intelligent officer, J. C. O. Kennedy, esq., of the " Census Bureau ;" and also a statement, (H.) compiled from the laws, o.'" all the appropriations of money or lands made by Congress since the acquisition of tiie Floridas, in anywise iu aid of public improvements lierein.
Though hundreds of invalids and valetudinarians annually resort to Florida from the North and West, during the winter months, die State has been slandered as being insalubrious. The letter of ISIr. Kennedy proves that on the score of health she stands ahead ofaiuj other southern State, and is exceeded by hut one old State and hut two new Statis (f the Union. Some transient visitors to Florida, ignorant of the ordinances of J*rovidence for the preservation of health in tropical regions, ami ignorant of the genial effect of the climate upon the soil, and comparing the soil of Fk)rida with the rich bottom-lands of the western and middle States, denounce the lands of Florida as "barren sands," as " wortidf.'ss," &c. I\Ir. Kennedy's testimony, founded on the unerring test of official statistics of liicts, disproves all these notions, and establishes the fact that in yrointrtion to the improved lands, and in 'projiortiou also to her jiopulation, her agricultural products exceed in value those of anij other State of the Union ; and so, also, in proportion to her slave populatit)n, they exceed in value those of any other of tin; slave ♦States.
[This does not include sites for forts, light-houses, &c., or town lots of United States in Pensaeola and St. Augustine, nor the keys and islands on th(^ coasts, all of which are reserved tor the present ; tlie departments having decided that an act of Congress is necessary to release a reservation by the President t()r any purpose.]
War Department, estimated at 3,600,000
Land sold in year ending June 30, 1851, 27,873 acres : receipts same tune, $34, 842. The expenses in Florida, of the United Stales, as to the public lands, tor some years exceed the receipts.
August 23, 1852.
Dear Sir: In compliance with your request, I enclose you sundry printed statements compiled in this office in January last from the official returns, relating to the population, products, &c., of Florida, and also of other States, so far as is necessary to v. rify the comparisons made below. The statements are generally correct ; but typographical and other errors which exist to an inconsiderable extent, will be rectified in the official publication soon to be made. These corrections will not change materially any of the results given.
It seems :
1. That the number of deaths in Florida in the year ending June 1, 1850, was 933, the population being 87,400. This is but one in 93 (and a fraction) in that year, and is less in proportion than in any other State of the Union, except Vermont, Iowa, and Wisconsin.
The Territories of Oregon and Minnesota, it appears, had fewer deaths in 1850, in proportion to tlicir population, than any State. This may in some degree be accounted for by the fact that emigration thither is mostly of male adults in the vigor and prime of life, and there are in tiiese countries comparatively fewer aged and infirm persons, and fewer children, than in the old settled States.
2. The entire area of Florida, in acres, is 37,931,520 ; and of this there were in 1850 only 349,019 acres of improved land. The official average valuation of these improved lands, made by the returning officers, is §18 per acre, being mucii less than the average vakiation of im|)rove(l lands in any other State or Territory.
4. It seems that, in proportion to the quantity of improved lands, Florida produces more cotton than any other Stale. So, also, in proportion to the slave population, she produces more cotton than any other slave State. So, also, in proportion to her entire population, slic produces more cotton than any other Slate of the Union. • 5. She produces more sugar (from cane) in j)ro{)ortion to the lands iu cullivation, and also in j)roj)ortion to her slave population, and also in j)roportion to her entire fiopulation, than any other State of the Union, except Louisiana and Texas.
0. Floritia raises a greater (juantity oi' tobacco than any of the other States, except Connecticut, Maryland, \'irginia. North Carolina, Tennessee, Kentucky, Ohio, Indiana, and Missouri ; and, in proportion to the lands in cultivation, and to the population, greater than several of those Slates. She raises a greater number of bushels of sweet potatoes thanany State of the Union, in proportion to the lanil in cultivation, and slave population, and aggregate; population.
8. Xo account of oranges, figs, olives, plantains, bananas, yams, or other tropical tiuils, or ot the coomptij or urnnL-mot, or Sisal hemp, or other tropical productions, can be giv»Mi at this time from this olHce.
There is great dilliculty in estimating the vulm of the ditll-'rent products oi' the difK'rent States, and of the sanu- products in diflercnt Stales; but, from a general and hasty estimate Irom the best data I can reliT to, and irom comparison, I am salislied the value of the agricultural prockicts of Florida, (of course in the State,) in proportion to the area of improved lands, and to the poj)ulalion, slave or tree, and both, will con)j)are favorably with the value of the products of any State of the Union. When, therelijre, the lower value of the land and of tiie agricultural implcuients used is estimated, and also the superior health
Florida, is behind many of the States in her corn crop, and she raises but a small (juantity of wheat, rye, or oats; and it appears llie value of all investments in the State of Florida in cotton manuliiclures is $80,000, which is of cotton goods — making 024,000 yards of sheeting ainiuiilly. It is Impossible at this moment to furnish the statistics of the lumber business in Florida, which amounts to a large sum annually.
Dear Sir: I have caused a clerk to compile tlu; memoranda desired by you of the statistics of commerce and navigation in Florida in 1850-'51, whicii are as follows:
Of die ex[)()rts in 1850, $2,540,471 was from Apalachicola; and in 1851 I 111 re was $3,858,983 from the same j)ort. In 1851 the Ibreign exports from St. Mark's were $01,755. Much more than half of the tonniige of the entire State is from Key West.
Of the value of shipments of foreiiiii or domestic merchandise or products from and to Florida ports, coastwise., to and irom other ports of the L'nited States, no returns ari' made to the treasury. It is presumed that the value of the shij)tnents of cotton, tobacco, rice, sugar, lumber, tar, turpentine, and other products of Florida so shipped coastwise, vastly exceeds the value of the Ibreign imjxntations.
The exports, ibreign and coastwise, trom Florida ports, grcatl}'' exceed the products of the State. This you will perceive by comparison of the Census Oilice returns, and estimating them with the gtatisties you can procure from the chamber of commerce of each port, or merchants, of the coastwise exports, adding the latter to the ibreign exports above given. This is accounted tor by the fact that a large amf)unt of tin; [)ro(hicts of the States of Alabama and Georgia is sent to the Florida, Gulf ports for shipment.
The iibovr is tnUcn I'rotn Mf.ssrs. (iiill;i<flicr & i\I;in.s;(icl(l's report of 1852. Th(! sleaiDcrs at Apaladiicola arc not stated, 'riicrc are between (ilicen and twcMily steamers runningdn the Apalachiccda, Chnttahooehee, and Flint rivers, and in St. (leor^e sound, and alontJt llie coast from that port, the tonnage of which amounts to perhaps ti,/Jt)(J tons, and the numl)er of hands socm[)loyed not less than '6'A). Messrs. (j. & M. say, in a note to their account, "only those; vessels at New Orleans which ply on the CJulf of Mexico" an; given i)y llicin ; the Mississipj)i riicr boats being stated in another part of thiir report. Key West is not given in the abovi-; but there are not more than two steamers along the coast not included.
The Gulf of Mexico and the Straits of Florida.
The (julf of Mexico is the southern boundary of this conti dcrai-y from the "Dry Tortugas" to the month of the llio (Jramle del Norte; and it is remarkable f()r the absence of capes and of indentations, in comparison with other seas. The coast between these points is about 1,'>(K) mih'S in extent. The streams emptying into the gulf from the Stale of Florida are mentioned in another part of this re|)ort. Proceeding wcstwardly, the following rivers debouch uito the same connnon reservoir : 'I'he Alabama, 'I'ombigbee, and Mobile rivers, with the waters ol" their respective tributaries ; some, reaching inland into the States of Mississippi ami Georgia, enter the Clulf through Mobile bay, from the State of Alabama. The l*carl and Pascagoula, liom the Slate of Missis?ij)pi, and the mighty Mississippi, (appropriately styk-d '^ I'afrr Fliiriorum,''^ ) by its difll-rent delta How through the State of Louisiana. Still lurlher west, the Sabine dividing Louisiana mid Texas, and the Angelina and Neehes ; the Tritiity and liuffalo bayou, (through (jalveston bay ;) the Drazos San Bernard, and the Colorado, (by Matagorda bay;) the Navidad ainl La \'aca (by La Vaca bay;) the (laudalupe and San Antonio by l*ass Cavallo; and the Nueces — all How into the gulf from the interi' r ot Texas. The Itio Grande divides Texas lium our sister republic of
jxico, and oxtonds from its outlet, (latitude 25° 56' north, longitude 97° 12' west from Greenwieh,) northwest, as sueh boundary, to El l^iso, at tli(! 32d parallel north latitude ; and still further northward to its sourecs in the mountains of New Mexico, more tluui ],3()0 rnih'S in length from its mouth. The cities, towns, or shipping ports of Tampa, Cedar Keys, 8t. Mark's, Apalachicola, St. Joseph's, St. Andrew's and Pensacola, in Florida; the city and shipping-port of Mobile, in Alabama ; the towns of Pearlington and East Pascagoula, in the State of Mississippi; the city and port of New Orleans, in Louisiana.; and Sabine City, (Jalvcston, Houston, Velasco, Brazoria, Matagorda, Lavacea, Indianola, La Salle, Saluria and Copano, Corjms Christi, Brazos Santiago, and Brownsville, in Texas — are all situated on or contiguous to the shore of the gulf.
The Mexicran States of Tamaulipas, Vera Cruz, Tobasco, and Yucatan, to Capi^ Catoche, form the southwestern and southern gulf coast. The rivers Tign.', San F<Tnando, Santander, the Panuca, and the Tula, (by Tampieo harbor,) the Tuspan, the Alvarado, and the San Juan, the Coatzacoalcos, the Tobasco, Laguna de Santana, Lake dc Terminos, the IMo San Pedro, the IJsinnasinta, and the San Francisco, with others ot' less iiiiportaiu-e. How into the gulf from Mexico; and the towns of Matamoros, Tanijiic^o, Tuspan, \'era Cruz, Alvarado, Minatillan, Fronlero, Lnguna, Vitloria, and Campcachy, Sisal and Mcri(]a, are all upon or near to the coast.
A glance at the map of this contiru'nt will show that this great estuary isof an irregular circular liirm, embracing from 18"^ to 30"^ north latitude, (n])wards of 750 miles,) atid from 8J" to 98^ west longitude, (nearly J, 000 miles;) that the extent ol" the coast, from Tortugas to Cape (Jatoche, is about 2.700 miles ; and that the waters of the gulf cover over 750,000 stiuju-e miles. Inside the gulf there are none but small islands close to the mainland, except those; off the capes of Florida and those adjacent to the coast of Yucatan. The distance from Tortugas (21 ' 31' north lilitnde, longitude 83"^ 07' west) to Cape Catoche (latitude 21^ 30', longitude 87^ 11') is a little more than 2(50 miles, and the course; about southwest. Projecting nearly Ix'twcen thest; two jioints, but several miles nearer to Cape C'atoche than to Tortugas, is (' pe Antonio, (latitude 21° 52', h)ngitud(> 84**" 59',) the southwestern extremity of tlu; island of Cuba, which island reaches some 70 miles n(»rth and eastvvardly, and then some 580 mili^s tuillierto the east. Cuba on thn south, and the rc-efs and keys of Florida on the north, (between 75 and 80 nautical miles distant,) l()rin the entrance; of the "Straits of Florida."
It. is more a practical iact than a mere (''.lure of speech that these straits an; bat a c-onlinnance of ev(;iy river tailing into th(> (uilf of Mexico ; and that the place where their united waters, flowing through these straits, mingle with those of the Atlantic ocean, is the true mouth of each and all of these rivers.
is nearly north. Alter this cliang(> of course, they are coulincd, on the west side, by the eastern peninsular coast of Florida, and on the eas side by the Bahama banks, the Bitnini isles, and the westernmost Bahama islands, and the Matanilla reef, (to latitude 27° 35' north, longitude
79° IT west,) wlirro their b.init'r on tlinl side ccmvs. Tlni distiinrr from the "west lic-id" oi' l\u\ "(Jrc.it liiiliriniii" islmid (l.-ilitiidc '^d'^ 42' iiorlli, loii^'iliidc 7!)^ OO' west) to ihc Floridii sliorc, due wcsi, (loiiii;itiide 80^ 3' west,) is iesstli;ni seventy miles; and, in tlie i-ntircM-onrse of those
straits, iit no |)onit does thiir wuiin cxcieed em;hly miles, l lie numense waters of the gnil", eoutribnted hy die nuniei'ons rivers ahove named, and others ol" less magnitude, are all ti)rced, on leaving llu; gulf, by the powerful currents eoming into the mouth of the gulf from the south and southeast, through the Caribbean sea, from the coasts ou diis side of both American continents as far south as the Amazon, and beyond Cape St. l{,o(iue, and even froixi the equator and western shores of Africa, acnts.s the Atlantic ocean, through these narrow straits. The vast \-oiume of water thus eonfnied rushes through lhes(> straits somelimes at a velocity of live miles per hour. After passing the Matanilhi reel", the (ii/// S/nain, as it is culled — gradually sj)r(!ailing till opposite the caj)es of the Delaware, it is widened to upwards of two hundred miles — eontiuuts increasing in width still furtiu'r north and east ; and its inliuenee as a eturent, and U|)on the temperature of the waters of the Noilh Atlaiuie, is percej)!ible as high up as the Danks of i\ewl()undland, and beyond the -1 llh degree of noidi latitude.
Then- is n(» other such .-ea as the Cull" of Mexico, so entirely surrounded as it is by countries of such superior agricultural, miner.il, and eonunerei.il resources. Xo similar null' exists, the niilural and nidispiinaiihlc oullel titr v.ist interior Stales, with a popuhilion of m:Miv millions of icpublican freemen, unecpialled by any people, noticed in ancient oiniodein Iiislorv, l'»r general intelligcuce, indiislrv, eiitt ipiise, and independi'iiee, and who are consequeuiiy thriving and jtroperous h<'V'»ud ixample. Thcsi; States extenil upwards of twelve hiaidred miles from its shores. Their wealth is exhnustless. Their popnj.iiiou may be (piinlupled, and they ean still sustain sueli number iu plenty! Their s(mI, and es|)eeially that of the gre.ii valley of the Mississippi, is of surj)assing liilility ; and their contribulions lo the conuueree of the world, through this gulf, are the varied [)roductions of a regiou spreading o\( r IS degrees of latitud*' and the same degri-es ol longitude, and adaj)ted to the diversilied wants of nearly every other country. And this great " inland sea," though easy of egress, i>, ai llie sami' time, readdy susceptible of deti-nce as a mure rlnusinn, by the States situate on its shores, against any t()reign intrusion they may chvcide to interdict. The Mediterranean or Adriatic is not e(]u;d to it, ii(»r the Jiaiiic, nor the s<'a of Marmora, nor the Kuxine, superior to it, in this resjteet.
The reali/iUion of the m;ignilieenl project, conet i\ed by the genius of Cortez, of making tla; (Jull'of Mexico a great thorout'litini; l()rtliecoinnieree between Kinope and China and ihe East ludit s, and llie I'acilic ocean gener;dly, by a cotnmuniealion through the Islhinus of 'I'ehuanlepiH', will itnmeasurably augment the imjiortance of lliis sen. 'I'otiie benelits which that great man, more tiiiui three liuiahed years ;igo, foresaw would n.-sull to Kiirojinin conunerce, nuist iimv be suj)eradded the advantages such conununicalion will give to Ann iiaiii eomiueree with Asialii- countries, and in the l*aeilie, not inferior in value totlnu of Ei/rDjir. But especially would such comnunii(;ation be valuable to the l-uited States of America l()r the liicililies and secuiiiy it would atl()rd to the
mcree, ancl iiiiviU'''ti<>ii <'l l'"' liihled fc^tales, through 'ich mint vine alone^ if a ship canal there be practicable, wouhl, within live; years from the completion of such canal, exceed the a^f^regate value ol' all the present external trade und comiiiorec and navigation wc now have, hirgu tid it is. Markets would then soon be open to our enterprising merchantsin .su{)[>lying to the hundreds of millions of inhabitants of Asia, and the rich, extensive, and populous islands in tlu! Asiatic seas, not only articles of necessity, but also of luxury, from our surplus but still constantly iiKM'easiiig stores; and our trade with the islands in the Pacific, ami to tin- lijreign States on its shores, vvo'dd, within the same peri(jd, increase tenlbld. We could then, as to lii this trade and commerce, enter into full competition with every other commercial power — and even if all were combined against us — on terms of great advantage, that Would soon obtain nd si-cure li>r ii • a permanent ascendency. A railroad across the same isthmus would result advant!ig(;ously to us in the same way, though not to tlu; same extent.
A ship canal, or lailroad, at eith r of the otlitr routes of i)as3agc or transit to the I'acilic, tinlher so -'li, gene .illy spoken of, (iNicaragua, Panama, or Atrato) — ami it railroad is ah dy in progress at Panama — must advance our i-ommerce and navii. ii>)n m the sanu! way; but it is not believed they can be as vah'iible to ihis count v us the " (/////"route" wouKI be, if put in successful eioi Uion.
These great iiuprovements n' ;dlud(;d to because, wiiichsoever of them is adopted, and if all of ihein should be put into operalion, most of the trade, cominerce, and navigation to or ihrough tliem, or in any wise arising from lh(,'m, must necessarily pass through the "67/v//Vs of F/'»-i(l(i.'^ All of such trade, commerce, and navigation, throuf.'h Teliuantepec, liom the I'acilic, lot expressly destined tiir gulf ports, whether bound l(» Atlantic ports or Europe, or elsewhere, would be obliged, in gelling out of the gulf, 1(j go near to Tortugas anil Key West.
The eiiief portion of all our trade, commerce, and navigation, \vlth Cuba and the West Indies, and especially with Jamaica ami the Windward islands, ail ' vviih tlie eastern coasts of South America, now passes through t;: straits, aiul likewise the trade, connnerce, and navigaiion of Euroj)e with those places, in sailing-vessels, on the homeward voyage. Steam-vessels, on their outward passage from the Atlantic. States, also pass through tiie straits, and most of our coastingvessels, ev<'i., of the largest class, bound litr the gull^hey, generally, Ciossing the Bahama banks. The voyage througli the Windward passage, or the Mona passage, going near Jamaica, and round Cape Antonio, i.s sometimes pursued; but it is several hundred miles longer, and is attended with its peculiar hazards, and also delays, that render the other passage preferable.
An estimate ot the trade, commerce, and navigation of iJic Gulf now annually j)assing through the Straits of Fkuida; and also of the other trade, commerce, and navigation of the Unitetl States and of other countries, above rclerred to as pursuing the same channel, has stated it
as probably amounting to $400,000,000, (four hundred millions of dollars.) That it must increase, and rapidly, and to an immense amount, and particularly that of the United States, if we are blessed with a continuance of peace, no one can doubt.
With reference to this trade, commerce, and navigation, the Straits of Florida, and the islands, and keys, and coasts of Southern Florida, and particularly the positions of Key West and Tortugas, are of the highest consequence to this country in time of war and of peace. They are equally as important to the commercial and navigating interests of the Atlantic States, and of the Atlantic seaports as to those of the gulf States and of the gulf ports. They are important to the same interests in California and Oregon. They are important to the agricullur.'d interests of the great valley of tiie Mississippi. They are important as the outposts of the military and naval drfences of the entire gulf and southern Atlantic coasts, and as points from wiiich to msail an enemy. They are essential for the protection of all our commercial and navigating interests, not merely in, or to, or from, the gulf, but with Cuba and most of the West Indies, and with the eastern coasts of this continent iurtlier soutli, and with South America. The prospect of an extensive and valuable trade with the rich countries bordering on the Amazon and its tributaries being soon opened to us, is favorable; and the recent auspicious changes in the atiiiirs of the Argentine Hcpublie promise an increase of our commerce with the La IMatii and \\\v: States on its waters. Our conuncrce is extending with IJra/.il and with the States on the western shores of South America; and all of the trade, commerce, and navigation, just enumerated, and that in tlic l*aeilie, and throngh it to China and the Asiatic seas generally — tlu; antieij)ated augmentation of which is bel(>re adverted to — must ot necessity pass witliin sight of these two jiositions above designated, and most of it through the entire extent of the "straits."
Tortugas is to the (iulf of Mexico, to the Straits of Florida, and to the Caril>bean sea, and in fact tf) the entire West Indit's, what Afalta is to the Mediteiranean and Adriatic seas, and the countries on their shores. The posiliou of (Jibraltar with reference to the eoinineree passing through the; Gut into and out of tht^ Medilerran(;an is not as commanding as is the position of Key West, with reiiMcne*' to all the immense eoimuerce of this country, l<)reign and domestic, and that of tiucign countries, passing through the Straits of Florida. The il)rtificatious at the Dardanelles do not more completely control the entrance to the sea of Marmora and that to the Euxin(S or the Castlt^ of Cronberg that of the Baltic through the sound at Elsinore; than the ll)rts at Key West and Tortugas will, when finished and garrisoned, rind aided by the modern naval power of steam frigates — the most litrmidahle ever known — control tli(; entrance to \\u\ Straits of Florida and its entire passage.
Key Wi!st is one of the finest harbors in the United States. The largest ships-of-war can enter it at any time with facility. The anchorage is secure, and it, and also the T(»rtugas, are being well t()rtilie(I. Tortugas protects Key West on the south and west, and the latter is equally essential to the full protection of the li)rmer. As Key West has a channel of ingress juid egress from and to the (hilf of Mexico, as
of Mexico, as
well as from and to the Straits of Florida, and supported as it is by Tortugas, having similar channels, it would require for the l)lockade of ii naval Ibrce in cither thrice the strength of the force blockaded; and the blockading force must necessarily be so divided as to prevent any junction giving it effectiye superiority. These two poshions will be t(>rmidable to any power that may provoke this • ountry to a war, and that has possessions in, or convenient to, the West Indies; for, besides the Gulf of Mexico, and not only tlie Havana and Matanzas, but the entire island of Cuba, and every otlier West India island, and tlie whole Caribbean sea antl its coasts, could be successfully blockaded by a vigilant and effective fierce of war-steamers to rendezvous there. From thence any point in the region named could be assailed in a few hours.
Another consideration gives consequence to tliis position with reference to the interes!> of the trade, commerce, and navigation, l)ef()re leliTied to. Froiri a report made to the Coast Survey othce by the agent of the underwriters of our Atlantic and other seaports, it appears that, from the year 1845 to November 1, J 852, the number of American vessels wrecked on the Florichi reefs, keys, and coast, and brought into K(y West, was 252; and the aggregate value of the ships and cargoes was 87,932,000. The salvors were awarded on this property S798,317, or about ten i)er cent, average salvage; and the expenses incTured were S38i),380 — about ya'c yer cent. move, amounting in all to $1,187,097, or nhnutji/tcen 2>cr cent, loss to the owners or insurers. In this statement, the fiireign vessels and cargoes wrecked there are not included. It is estimated tiiey C(|ual at liMst onc-jijlh of our own in number and value. Those vessels that were supposed to be entirely lost, and the crews of which probably perished, arc not estimated in the statement. Tlie system fi)r the n^gulaiion of the business of assisting wrecked vessels, and tor securing the fidelity, honesty, and vigilance of tli(! " «///'w/s," now enll)rced by the admiralty court !it Key West, under authority of acts of Congress, is judicious and salutary.
The extended introduction and use in navigation of steam power, defying tlu; currents and tin; storms ; the ac(|uisition of more accurate knowk'dge of the reefs, and keys, and coasts, and currents, and the course (»f the winds; anil the improved skill and greater care on the part of navigators, and the erection of further necessary light-houses, Ihmcoiis, buoys, &c. — it is hoped, may (h'cri'ase the number of wrecks on those reefs and coasts, and the immense losses sustained ihen^by, (•liielly by eastern merchants, or ship-owners, or insurance olliccs ; but there will always b(! many unavoidable casualties attendant upon that navigation. The subject of devising further means, looking to the prevention of shipwrecks and conseiiuent loss of human lili- and di-struction ot" proj)erty on the reefs in the vicinity of Key West, commends itself" to the consideration of every philanthropic statesman. Frovision f()r the ilestitute mariner cast upon those islands or coasts by shipwreck is also a subject meriting attention.
There is no navy or ship-yard at Key West. There are lo public establisliments ti)r the repair or refitting of ships injured in battle or by storm, or by having been ashore, nearer than IN usacola, on the gulf side, and Norftiik, n\ Virginia, on the Atlantic side. There is no naval
hospital at Key West. There arc no naval or military nwga::ine!i of storehouses. There are no supplies of naval or military armaments or munitions of war. There are no public supplies of" provisions ; no coal for steamers, or other naval or miUtarij stores of any kind, or places to depositc them in, if taken there. There are no materials for tlie rc^pair or refitting <if vessels. There arc no public workshops, or artisans, implements, or tools, or machinery, or tackle, for sueli oliject. And the case is the same at Tortugas. The nearest government establishments are at Pensacola, six hundred miles across the gulf, and Norfolk, nine hundred miles up the Atlantic coast.
Every dictate of prudent foresight demands a change in these respects. At the present session of Congress, an appropriation of twenty thousand dolhns is made '*l()r establishing a depot liir coal, fiir naval purposes at Key West." No appropriation allowing farther ])rogress in the fortifications at Key West or Tortugas has, ho-vvever, been made. It is believed, sound economy dictates that such amounts shoidd be given as would enable them to be completed, and the arniamcnls and militarv stores supphed to them forthwith.
Key West will hereafter be more looked to as a rendezvous tJir our merchnut-shij)s passing near to it. The great utility df ;i public sliip^•ard and dock there, must be apparent to all who relloct on the subject. That pr)rt should be reiierl upon as a certain depot il)r coal and provisii'ii;; and stores of all kinds, but espceiallv li>r shi[)-chaudliTy ;uid niatcriids f()r rej)airing and refitting our ships-of-\v;n- and mcrcliiuUVf^ssels, injured in any way, if they should put in there, or be taken in by "snlvoi's." The establishment there of a naval hospital would \h' a just and a judicious niensure. If made a sloppinu-place for the I'niled Stales miiil steamers between Chagres and Niw Voik tnid Nc;w Orleans, ;nid ;ill others going to, or returning from the South, the advanlige thcrebv afford"d of shipping wnvked goods bv tlie Inrge steanieis direcilv to Xew York or to Nc'w Oilcans wonid b(^ important lo the insurers and others interested. The* adop.iou ol" tlie ni"asures suggested could not but residt beneficially to the coinitry in excry resjM'ct. To wait till circannstances of necessity Ibree such I'l suits — till private inlcreshj are constrained or induced to f)uild up [iiivate eslnblishnients, .and provide the means for making Key West a reixlezvous und haven and depot, as suggested — is, it is conceived, shorl-aiihtcd policv. I'ublic ;uid LiencTal interests are involved, and public governmental aid should be vielded. Ki'V West will become more and more essential as a place of (h-pot tor American coal as the steain navy and .steam m<acantil<' marine iufa'eases. If 'i'ehuantep<'c should be made a good route of" transit or of passanc to the J'jicific, Key West, being ia the direct pathwav of steamers Ironi lhenc(> to the Atlantic |)i'rts and to Min'o])e, .and about midvaij of the voyage to and from New York, will be .absolutely indisptaisable to ihi; steamers in that business as such (h'pot.
(Jogent arguments an"- urged in flivor of Key West being made .-i principal nav.al station, and ii)r establishing a navy-yard there of the first class. Ib'sides those arising from its peiadi.ar .advantages of position, beliire alluded to, in time of war and ot"])r'!ice, the ficility of procuring all kinds of naval timber cheaply, and also of tar, pitch, and
turpentine, from the contiguous public domain on the peninsula, is n matter deserving considerntioa. At any rate, it should be made an auxihary 5'ard tor the repair and rvfiii'mg of vesscls-ot-war injured in battle or by storm, even if it should be deemed injudicious to comtnict or hald sliips there. Large sums have herctotbre been expended at Port Million and elsewhere in tixeign ports, by the United States, tor similnr limited public establishments. If provision is made by law, allowing, on proper terms, the use of such works for the repair and refitting of wrecked merchant-vessels, it would be highly advantageous to the commercial and navigating interests of the Atlantic seaboard.
The sujjerior eligibility of Key West as a naval station and depot, Hud the sound policy of t()rtitying it strongly, have long since been urged upon the government by oHicers of the army and navy at the head of their })roi(.>ssioii. President Monroe's message, January 20, 1823, and Secretary 'J'hompson's communication referring to Comniodore M. C. Perry's report. Am. S/a. Pa., (i(. Nural JJfilrs, p. 871; also Commodore Rodgers's report, November 24, 1823, i/^i-V/., p. 1121 ; also President Jackson's (executive ord-'r, April, J82i), and Secretary Branch's report in 1829, Sen. Dor. h( srss. 21.';/ Cong., I'll. 1, A'';. 1, ;;. 37 ; and Commodore Itogcrs's report, ilniL, p. 23^5; also Presid(Mit Jackson's message, Maich, 1831), and Secretary liraiich's letter and Captain Tatnall's report, Sen. Dnc, l.s7 .sr.w. 21s7 Omg., vol. 2, No. 3, pp. 1, 2, anil •') ; also Secret:iry ('oiirad's report, Dec(>mber, 185], Ex. Dm. No. '), p. 9, Isf srss. 32'/ C'liifT.; and (ten. 'J'otten's report, ihiiL, pp. 25-52; and Jiieutenaiit Alauiy's rej)ort, Ihid.^pp. IIG and 17!) to 184; ami Lieutemuit Maury's (vssays in Southern Liternry AL.-'srngrr of May, 1840, pp. 310, 311, &'c.; and numerous similar paju-rs to be tliund in the published documents of (!ougiess since 1821, show this. The Jate Commodore David I'orter, at difli-rent times, olbeially and unoRieially, in communications published in the newspa[)ers, e\[)ressed his imeijiiivocal concurrence with Coininodon^ Itodgers in the opinion he gave of the great inijiortance ol' Key W(>sl and 'I'orliigas, and ol"th(> policy and measures that should be adojtted with res[)ect to those points. And when Commodore Porter was in tlie s(M'viee of the re[)nblic of Mexico in herstruggl(^ t(')i- iiidependeiH-e with Spain, he u^ed Key \V(\st, then first l)eing settled, as a point of rendezvous, I'rom whic!? he was enabled to well nighdf-stroy tlu> comuK^rce of th(> Havana ;ind Malan;^as, though scnighl to i)e pro1(-ete(! by a superior Spanish licet under Admiral Laboi-de.
In the celebrated report to (jongn^ss, April 8, 183ti, ( Kr. Dors., vol. G, \'/. 2 13, [sf. srss. '24t/i Con<r,,) made by (Jeneral Cass, then Secretary of War under CentM'al Jackson, and which, it has been considered, enibodi'S all tli(> arguments against the general system of coast l()rti(ications as an economical or as the best means of defence ti)r this country, positions like Key West and Torlugas ar(> e\ce[»ted I'lom the general objeclions to tlu; systtnn, Insomuch as th(>y an- not within the class of onlinaiy coast tiirtilications on the main land. Tluy are rather auxiliaty naval works. Ihit!., pp. i], 15, &c.
The opinions expressed as to the value of Key West and Tortugaa to the ['nited States, in the documents and papers above r(>l"erred to, an^ by no means peculiar to tli(> eminent men and oliicers who thus expressed them, nor are they, in the least degree, novel. Similar views,
it is well known, were entertained and expressed, by British engineers and other British naval and military officers, to that government a long time ago. Great Britain took the Havana and the provinces of East and West Florida from Spain, in the war of 1762-'C3. On the restoration of peace in February, 1763, she relinciuishcd the Havana and Cuba, but retained the Floridas, which remained in her possession till 1783, when they were retroceded to Spain. Whilst in possession of them, the British government caused partial surveys to be made of the •ects, ke3's, and coasts ; and the reports of her officers represented the Tortugas, and other islands and keys adjacent to the coast, as commanding, if fortified and aided by a small naval force, the trade of the Kwana, of Matanzas, and of tlie entire gulf and Straits of Florida. Excepting the Floridas, the whole gulf coast (Louisiana and the viceroyalty of Mexico) was at that time possessed by Spain. Th(i British officers represented truly, that the Tortugas and the otlier Florida keys were of more importance to Great Britain, in a naval and military point of view, than the Havana ; because, wliilst they are a check upon it, and, as has been before mentioned, they could eifcclually blockade it, aided b}^ an efficient naval force, the Havana has no countervailing ciieek or control over them with such naval force to sustain tliem. It is true, objections have been prefi'rred to these views. It has been asserted that K( y W(\st and Tortugas are " uniiealthy." 'J'lie census reports of ]8.'3(), as to llie immber of deaths tlier(% and llu^ official reports of army and navy, medical, and other oflicers, and tlie experience of till' resitlents of tlie Florida keys for the last twenty years, disprove this assertion. It has been stated that the isolatcxl [)osition of th(;setwo points renders the construction and maintcnanci! of public works there more expensive than at otiier places. This is not correct to any very great extent, and it is not a good reason lor withhohliiig the means if tlie advantages are superior, or lh(.' nc^cessities greater, t()r sut^h works there than at other places. Besides, thes(; two works will cost t()r the construction less than the aggregate of the cost of titur fri,L;ales, (if estimated at tjuly $()0((,U00 {.'aeh;) aiul it nuist b(! remernbered that our naval shijts ordinarily recjuire in eight years the amoui L ■>[' their prime cost fiir repairs, ri'litling, &-e.
The objection h;is also bee'i i.rged that, if such litrls wnc. l)e.siege.(l, there would be diHieuIty in aliiuvhiig them siibs.'steiiee or other succor. It is not eas\' to imagine the probabL necessity ot such succor, excejit produced by a course of llagrant neyligenei; and want of precaulioii, with respect to them, that it is not likely would be pursued by ourgovernni'tit in time; of war, nor by our army or navy ollieers. And it i« denied, if such were the ease, aid could not be rendered from the adjacent coasts, especially ii'some of the keys (such as' Bahia Honda and Key \'acas) nearer tlu; capes are protected by suiall de!r!K-es, as should be, and can be tlone, at trilling expense: and if it eaa be supposed thai there was no naval t()rc(! ot" the United States on the liulf compete iit to repel the iiiemy. The assertion has been made in crude essays in political newspapers, and it has been elsewhere re-echoed, that Cuba, the Havana, and the Moro Castle, are "the true and only keys to the deti'iice" of the shores of \\h- South, "and to th(' inunense interests there coikcled," and that Key West and Tortugas were not the con-
trolling positions stated in the documents referred to. It i.^ believed that but a solitary instance exists where such opinion has been acquiesced in by any distinguished naval or military officer.
Such peculiar opinion, with respect to the relative value of these positions, and of Cuba, and of the Havana, and of the Moro Castle is unsupported by any sound reasons founded on undisputed facts, and it has generally been urged to sustain ulterior views of policy beyond the mere protection of our commerce. The idea of the Havana being regarded as a key to the gulf, when Key West and Tortugas are fortified and supported by a small naval force, is preposterous. They are to windward of Cuba, and are located at the centre, while the Havana is outside the periphery of the circle of the commerce of the gulf and straits ; and they have different channels of ingress and egress to the gulf and the straits, while the Havana has but one, and that to the straits. Vessels bound to or from the gulf, or further south, do not ordinarily pass as near to the Havana as to the Florida keys. They seek Lo avoid the iron-bound and generally leeward coast of Cuba, and the currents near it.
As points from whicii to make an offensive or aggressive demonstration by seii, either in the West Indies or to the sotith, or in tlie Atlantic beyond the Caribbean sea, as lias before been observed. Key West and Tortugas are the most favorable positions in possession of the United States. Foreign statesmen and military and naval officers are not unapprized of this; and hence, upon the breaking out of a war between us and any naval power of Europe, a large naval force will be fordiwith dispatched by the enemy to their vicinity, and, as was predicted by Commodore Rodgcrs in 1823, "^//c first important navnl contest in, which this t:nuutrif shdll be engaged, will be in the neighborhood of this very island,^^ \_Kcy IVest."]
In confirmation of the correctness of tliose remarks, it is not inappropriate to refi'r to debates in the British Parliament more than thirtythree years ago, in which eminent and sagucious Britislt statesmen, who doubtless received the views tliey ex})rcsscd from British military and naval officers, (as is the practice of wise British statesmen on such subjects,) uuecjuivocally attest tlie value to the United States of these positions, obtained by the then recent cessions of the Floridas, by Spiiin. [y'u\v Lord Lansdowne's sj)eecli, in. May, 1819 Hans. Pari. Deb., vol. 40, p. ?91; Mr. Macdonald's speech, June 3, 1819, ibid., p. 9U2; Mr. Maryatt's, ibid., p. 893; Sir Robert Wilson's, ibid., p. 871; Lord Carnarvon's, ibid., p. 1413; and Lord George Bentinck's, February u, 1848, ibid., vol. 9G, pp. 7 to 42.]
Tlii3 is not the oidy time similar views were expressed in the Briiish Parliament; and li has been stated on jiood authority, that, antciior to tlie cession of 18i'^ an eminent, wateliful, -md fiu'-seeing English stiiLc-«man called public attention to the importance of the Tortugas, and to the expediency of the British government taking possession o'l' and fortifying those islands.
pi iated note, made by one of the then Senators from Florida :
[Note by J. D. W. in 1848.] — "It is not a little surprising that, in the twenty-seven years Florida has been held by the United States, no complete nautical survey has been mnde of the ^Florida ree/.^ During such time the British governmcsU has liufi shins-of-war, (among them tli;; brig Bustard,) with scienfilic oilircrs,. eng? ,!:;<d lor months in such surveys; and even in surveyjug i'r iiarbor of our harbors there! The charis U3ed by our
itrators are the old
Spanish charts, and those made by the Biiush ii;.'a 1763 to 1784, and of the recent British surveys al'uded to, and compilations of them by Bluiil and othoji^ — all iruperteci in many particulars, and erroneous in others. We /tore no original American chart of aU the reefs and keys! That accomplished and scientific f Iftcer at th^ hct. i of the ' Coast Surrey,^ Professor Baelte, hris inf 'rmed me, thai if the means were appropriated b\ Congress, the entire reef and all th.e keys, from thcTortugas up to Cape Sable, couM I*' surv. yed >•,*. ywc xmson. The expense, to enable the work to be fini-^lied in one srnson, might not fid! short of S10(-,OOU; as, to effect it, three or iinir different parties of officers must be * liiployed. But the beii(>fits of such work would greatly outweigh ibis amount; and it will not cost less, to devote two or three years t< it.'-
No intelligent man, after investigation and reffcction, can question the great value of the " cou:- 1 surveys." They have been prosecuted with dihgence on this coast, as the resuUs show, since the first appropriation of S7,500 was made in 1848. The annexed map, showing the coast of the Gulf of Mexico, and also the relative positions of Cnpe Caioclu! and of Cuba, and of ;he Bahama banks and islands, to the peninsula, and to the islands, keys, and reefs of Florida, and also of the Atlantic coast as far north as Ciiarleston, has been furnished from the " Coast Survey" office, upon recpiest, expressly for this report. It will be found to be highly useful. Some portions of the coasts tfierein delineated liave not as yet been fidly surveyed, though the work, as it respects the coasts of the United States, is progressing as rajjitlly as the limited means yielded will allow. The parts unsurvej^ed l»ave been laid down from the former surveys alluded to, and from the partial, or prehminary, reconnaissances made by the Coast Survey officers. The beneficial effects of the hU)ors of this valuable public establishment (characterized as those labors are by that perfect accuracy attainable only by the highest degree of science and professional skill) should \yc conceded by all, though i'. seems such is not the cas(^ It is to be lamented, as a drawback to these pnd all similar works tor the iirnrntion of casualties of any kind, and particularly those by shipwreck, that they are not generally appreciated. Their salutary results are silently effl'cted, and theref()re p.(iper(;eived by many. Even the merchant, whose property is saved from destruction by the charts of liidden dangers, and of safij charnels and harbors, furnislied by the " Coast Survey," reflects bui little to whom he owes its preservr.tion. But the tempest-tossed mariner, when iiis ship and his life are in peril, fi'om which there is no escape except by tlju aid these charts give hiai, then
WRECKS.
The following statement has been compiled from Sen. Doe. No. 242, 1st session 30th Congress, pp. 25, 26, and ibid., pp. 99 to 10.5 ; also Sen. Doc. No. 3, 2d session 30th Congress, 1848, pp. 30, 31, &c.; also Sen. Doc. No. 42, 1st session 32d Congress, 1851-'52, p. 11; and other documents referred to in the foregoing paper, and in Mr. Cabell's letter, which precedes it. See also Mr. Hoyt's (agent) report to "Board of Underwriters" in New York, for 1852:
The foreign vessels are not included in the above, except in the first three years, when there were 17 British, and 84 A;neriean, and 6 of other nations. Foreign vessels included, since 1847 the number of wrecks is altogether about 290 vessels. The expenses are distinct from salvage, being charges against vessels, &c., in port, as harbor fees, wharfage, storage, auction commissions, exchange, commissions l()r advances, support of crews, repairs, refitting, &c.
T.HE COTTON CROP OP THE UNITED STATES.
This paper is not intended to be an essay upon the questions respecting which much has been written as to the time when, and by what peo plc, ^^cotton-wool" was first used for making cloth ; or when, or by whom, It was first cvltivn(cd for use ; or when, and with what nations, it first became an article of commerce. Several different and various publications, official and unofficial, readily attainable in most parts of this country, each, afford all the information on these points that can, in any degree, be practically useful to any person. Nor is it intended to discuss in this paper, or even to intimate an opinion respecting those topi(;s of political economy connected with the different " cotton intt^ests," which nave divided public sentiment in this country in years past. The sola object is to present data, gathered and compiled from authentic sources, reliiing to the cultivation and production of cotton — its past increase
The first generally commands twice or thrice the price of the latter kind, and superior sea-island often brings a much higher amount. Very choice (jualities of sea-island cotton have coininauded upwards of a doli.ir per yound. Sea-island cotton is prepared for market with great care, being mostly cleaned by hand, or oy the "ro/fc?" gin; the "s«j<j" gin, used to separnt(! the wool of tlie "short staple" from its seed, injuiing the fibre of the " long staple." The long staple is usually put in round bags, not exceeding 350 pounds in weight, whilst the short staple is, in \\\Vv. years, compressed into scjuare bales of generally 450 or 500 pounds each, and in some States more. The annual yield of the long staple is generally liom 75 to 150 poiuids of cleaned cotton to (!aeh acre of average good land cultivated, or from one to one and a half and two bags of 300 pounds to each able plantation hand eniplo^'ed; whilst the short staple yic.'lds from 150 to 250 pounds o{' cleaned cotton to the acre, or from three to seven bales of 400 pounds to each hand. In the best seasons, upon land of the first (jualiiy and with good cultivation, eight, nine, and sometimes ten bales of upland cotton, to the hand, have been produced. The hands (employed in the cultivation of cotton, and the product of whose labor is thus estimated, are estimated as if n(»t engaged in the cultivation of rorn, potatoes, and other products, &c., for th(; sujiport of tlir |»lantation.
The regions in the United Slates adapted to the |)rofitable raising o^ sea -island cotton are not so extensive as those in which the short staple can be advantageously cultivated, and the crop of sea-island has cons(!(juently not increased in the same proportion as tin; sIkhI staple. And \\\v demand for sea-island is not so great, as it is chielly used for the manufacture? of lae-es, fine cottua threads, and cotton cambri(;s of the most delicate texture, it is now also used with silk in the manufacture of several articles passed oft' as silk goods. No coiuilry has j)roduced any cotton etjual in finenc^ss, length, and strength of fibre, and of such whiteness, as the sea-island of South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida. This superiority is doubtless, in a degree, owing to the peculiar "d.iptation of the climate and soil of parts of those States ;,u me lavorablc production of that kind of cotton; but it is also attributable to the great attention given to its cultivation by intelligenit and olserving planters, availing themsc.'lves of the aid of chemical and ?,gricultural science — making experiments lion) yi i r tu year l()r im])r)ving the pro' .. ';3 ol cultivation, and for increasing the excellence a . well as the (juanlity of the product; and who profit by the pract'cal experience of their antecessors of more than h' i" a eontmy.
'J'Ik! treasury accounts exhil; it tl:e pr;)grcss of the "sea-island" cotton crop of this country from 180;3 to 1852, inclusive, 'idler tlLr- mcy do the j»rogress ol" the crop of "upiind" cotton, for the reason tluu the ♦'(>'■ mcr has been mostly exported, wlulst a large poilion of the latter has
always been consimied in the United States. Prior to 1805, no distinction was made in the treasury reports between the " sea-island" and " other cotton," styled, in v treasury report of 183G, •' common cottony
The treasury account show that, during the years 1790-91, and '92, about 733,044 pounds of cotton of all kinds, foreign and domestic, valued at $137,737, were exported from the United States. There had been imported into the United States previously, and during that period, foreign cotton to a considerable amount. The impfyrtations within the years named were about 889,111 pounds, which, valued at the same price as that cxiiortid, amounted to .^202,014. The importations of foreign raw cotton during those three years exceed the cxportalions 156,067 pounds ; and, consequently, either the whole of the domestic crops, and likewise that much of the foreign (and imported) raw cotton, was then consumed in the United States ; or a portion of the domestic crops was exported, and a greater amount than is ahove stated of the f()reign raw cotton was consumed in the United States. The quantity of foreign raw cotton consumed in the United States in these three years is, however, estimated in a treasury report of 1801 at 270,720 pounds, which w^ould make the exportation of domestic cotton in tljose years 114,653 pounds. It is known that some, though limited quantilies of domestic raw cotton were sent to Great Britain in the years specified ; hut the correct accounts thereof cannot now be obtained, and therefore, with this explanation, it has been deemed proper to state all the cxpurtations for those years ns foreign cotton, as in fact most of them were.
The only accounts of the entire annual crops of the United States that can be obtained are unoHicial, except the decennial census statements. The ^^ commercial ''^ accounts are usually stated as fiom tlic first of September of each year, to the 31st of August f()liowing ; it being presumed that, by the day last mentioned, the entire crop of the pr<yciaus year will h;ive been received in the home market; and the amount of such receipts, consequently, afUirds tolerably correct data, for estimating the '^entire crop" of that year. The official or treasury accounts, ending each year on the 30th day of June, (the last day of the fiscal year of the federal government,) and before the entire crop of the previous year has been received in market, the crops of the two prccecling sear.ons are often confounded. Nevertheless, by coirparison ^f the different accoi:nts with each other, estimates may be made ( f the crop of each season, clor'ely approximating to general correctness.
The aiinuul exports of '• sea-island" cotton for the last nineteen years, excepting the yi-ars 1845, '40, *49, and '52, were less in quantity than the exports of the same, kind in 1805. The fluctuations in the prices of " sea-island" cotton have not been so great as in those of " other cotton." The " embargo," laid December 22, 1807, and which continued in force till March 1, 1809, afll-cted the crops of 1808 and 1809, as to c|uantity produced, and prices ; and the war with Great Britain (declared in June, 1812, peace being fully restored in January, 1815,) injuriously aflected the production and prices ot" all cotton for the years 1812, '13, and '14. The annual consumption in the United States of raw " sea-island" cotton, it is esiimatecl, is not now more than one-hundredth of the amount exported, Ix'iiig in 1852 estimated to be about 100,000 pounds. Though the treasury accounts from 1805 to 1820 distinguish in the tables of erports between domestic and foreign cotton exported, and the (luantities and values of the diflierejit kinds of cotton, and that exported m foreign and that in domestic vessels ; since 1820 to separate values of " sea-island" and of " other c<nton" are not stated in tin; published reports. It appears that l()r many years Great Britain has generally received nearly lour-fifihs, and France about onefifth, in «|uantJty, of the " sea-island" cotton exported.
It has been staled that a proc<;ss of dividing, or splitting, the coarser " upland" cotton, and of substituting the divided Whxc l()r the fine " sea-island," in the m.uuifaetnrc of the liner muslins, has recently been discovered in Europe ; and which, it has been conjectured ly some, may cause a diminution of the value of " s(!a-island" cotton. Th(' account is not fully credited; but if the Diet be as stated, it is considered that the expense and labor of dividing the coarser cotton must exceed the additional cost of the production and preparation of the •'.sm-/y«H^/" l()r market, to that of the "?//>/««</;" and more than the ordinary difliirence between the prices of the dilli-rent kinds. And it is also believed that articles manufactured from cotton naturally tine, must excel in apjM'arance, strength, and durability, any made from cotton tlu; fineness of which is produced by artificial means, liki those intiujated; and that for a long time to come, markers etiually as certain and as profitable as now exist for all the "sea-island" cotton that can be raised m the United States, (as before observed, necessarily limited in quantity,) may ije certainly depended upon.
A comparison of the ejj)ortations of " sea-island" cotton with those of " all other" domestic raw cotton will show that, whilst in 1805, '6, and '7 the former amounted to 23,809,752 pounds, the quantity of the latter exported during the same period was 114,182,250 jmuruls ; the propcjrtioii of " sea-island" to "all other" being less than a fourth, and to tlie entire exportation less tlian a fifth in quantity. In 1821, '22, and '23 the proportion of " am-iVanti " to the entire exportation was less than a twelfth in quantity ; and in 1849, '50, and '51 that proportion was less thnn a ninetieth ! In the year 1852, the " sea-island" ex[)orted was 11,738,075 |)ounds, and the projxvtion to the entire exportation of 1,093,230,039 pounds was less than o7ie ninctij-third.
The " upland" cotton crop of the United States has increased since 1790, with a rapidity unexampled, in history, by any product of agriculture, in any ccnintry. Its augmentation in respect of quantity, as
well for home manufacture and consumption 'is for home manufacture fi)r exportation, and as an article n\' foreign commerce in its "n/io" state,, and ' kewise the increase of its importance and value as an article of commerce aflcr its manufacture \n foreign countries, are also unj);ualleled. The consefjuence it has attained as an article of netM-s.^ity, in afl(irdin<i the means of employment to tin; manufijcturing classes of Kurope (and especially Great Britain) and of this country, is also without precedent.
The exportation of " sea-island" in certain periods is stated above. The CT/wr/s of " other <-ott()n," or "upland," and likewise the "total exports" of all domestic raw cotlofi, in the same periods, were as follows :
Ju ia52
The official returns show that the increase of tlie Jiggregate of the exportations of all kinds of domestic raw cotton, since it has become a prominent nrticle of foreign commerce, (except whilst the embargo of 1808, and the war of 1812, 1813, and 1814, affected our foreign trade, or when adventitious and uiitiivorable circumstances shortenc^d the crop,) has been unchecked and regular. That increase, since 1805, has been upwards of tucntycighi-fold in (juantity, and more than nine hundred mr crnfwn in value, and the steadiness of the augmentation will he manilest by taking the aguiegateof each successive ^Arce years after 1804, down to and inc'uding 1852, omitting only the years when all the commerce of the United States was shackled and reduced, as above noticed.
The importations of foreign raw cotton inlo, nnd the cxjxjrtulions of foreign raw cotton out of, tliu llictrd Slutrs, ('l/o diflcronco hv'iufi^ connurrnd in the United States) an; L f d ooIcav for certain years, as taken from the treasury returns:
The quantities nnd values for every year hav(> not all \)ovi\ found in the treasury returns; hut the one may generally he estimated liom the other, and from tiie prices of domestic cotton the same year. It apjM'ars that the prict; of some fl)reign cotton was fiirrnerly very high; hut the averagi' of medium " j/y^/<///<i" domestic cotton is now loo great f()r lheyw;r/^n cotton imported. As beli)re ol)serve(l, the eiitin: j-xporls of 1790, 'Ul, and '92, an; st't down as foreigrj raw cotton; insomuch as they were less than the imporLs of .same cotton in same years. The total amount of the crops of the United States in those three y<'ars has been vaiiously estimated; hut tlie accounts of the imporix wud rrporls of foreign raw cotton, (before stated willi explanations.) show that the cotton then produced in the United States was not fujficicnt for tin: domestic consumption in those yairs!
Our iin|)(»rlati(»ns have; swelled in the aggregate from about »388,(»(7(!,(J00, in IHO-O, 'd, and 7, to S!.'342,220,(kS9, in ISK), '50, and '51. In the year ending Juni" 30, 1852, they amounted to Z'Z l2,Gi3,282. In considering Uiis increase, it should be recoUected that this statement does not show the increased consamjition in the United States, of tinIbreign articles, which in some instances is greater than appears by such account.
In f()rmer years a large portion of these! importJitions was destinetl for exportation from the United States to fiueigu countries, and was tiot consumed here. We received llie freiglits upon such of llii-m as were carried in our ships, in or out; and import duties, less the drawback on exportation, and the incidental exptinsis of storage, &c. 'JMiis "earryuig" trade has decrea.sed more in j)roportion than any other. TIk! following account of such aggregate importations and exportations of all foreign merchandise, and likewise the next f()llowing ac(;ount as to foreign cotton manvfacturcs imported and ex[)()rted in diflerent periods, will illustrate these remarks. 'V\\v diffircnce is tin; true; amount of such importation consumed in the United States. The atx-ounts, or geiveral tables, anrmally published by tin; treasury, do not direct attention tt> past changes in the course and character of our trade, commerces and navigation ; and therefore its true decrease or increase, anil its actual
Th(! value of importations and exportations n[' /(irrlirn .n I'handisc, and "difference," (being I he; amount conmmcd in the UiiI.lJ Blitcs,) in ccrluin periods, were as follows:
The v;ilue of im|)ortalions and exportations o[' J'oniirn manufactures of cotton and "ditU'reiiee," being the amount mnsumcd iix the United States in certain periods, was as tiiUows:
A reference to the more detailed statement appended will show that, for some years past, most of the above specified importations have been of the finer kinds of manufactures, made chiefly from the "seaisland" cotton, or the best qualities of" upland." Our domestic manufactures, though improved greatly as to quantity, have hitherto been mostly of the medium, or of the coarser or lower-priced goods, made from ordinary '• upland " cotton, manufactured with less labor, and more cheaply than the finer goods. A reference to the following compiled account, and to the more detailed table appended, of our domestic cotton manufactures, exifortcd since 1826, will verify this statement, as to the quality thereof. A comparison of these statements with those of our exportations of rmo cotton will show that, whilst our exports from cotton have, since 1821, increased nine-fold, the importations of cur foreign cotton manufactures have but a little more than doubled. Our rxportations of domestic cotton manufactures have nearly destroyed the exportations of foreign cotton manufactures, and taken the place of them.
The treasury returns of exports show to what countries the foreign cotton manufactures, and also to what countries the domestic cotton manufactures, were sent from the United Stntes ; and an investigation as to the facts, in this respect, would be interesting and useful to the merchants and statesmen of this country : but the limits to which this paper is restricted precludes, at this time, anything on this subject but the susro-estion nf)w made.
,672,151
Though the quantity of ybrr/g'rt "raw" cotton consumed in the Uniled States is readily ascertainable by deducting the exjiortations of such cotton from the importations; and though the v.dueofthe foreign manufactures consumed may be ascertained by a similar process, and a tolerably correct estimate made of the quantity of raw cotton (of the United States) used in such manufactures ; yet it is well nigh impossible to ascertain with certainty the quantity of domestic raw cotton consumed in this country.
sumed in the infinite various uses to which it is applied throughout the country, and especially in the States where it is grown, has to be guessed, without very certain data. So also the quantity destroyed by fire, or otherwise, in its transportation to the southern shipping port, or by sea, before it is taken into the account, cannot be ascertained. The rates of insurance from the Gulf to the Atlantic ports are very high, and should be some criteria by which to judge of the extent of these losses.
The last censi'-'" returns state the value of all the " /towie-ma<7e " manufactures in thf lei ^»<- c d States to be $27;544,679. Of these, the States of North Caro*""'^'"' cd r^.th Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Tennessee, Arkansas f ^?^ .''ippi» Louisiana, Texas, and Kentucky, made upwards ^^..«J4,()35,0()0 ; being more than half, though the aggregate of their ^"h'lte population is less than a fourth of the whole white population of the United States. In those States cotton is a principal material in such manufactures ; and they are made by every class, and used by every class of the population. It is not considered extravagant to allow for the raw cotton used in " home-made" or "household " manufactures in the United States, including that applied to other uses, $7,500,000, equalling, at 11.31 cents per pound, 66,372,000 pounds, or 165,930 bales of 400 pounds each.
And it is estimated that 7,500 bales of 400 lbs. each, or 3,000,000 of pounds, are annually lost or destroj'ed, and not put into the account of the crop, as above staled. It is valued at $339,000.
The second item is the amount furnished the domestic manufactories of cotton in the United States, to ascertain which, even approximately, recourse must be had to unofficial statements of manufacturers, and to commercial accounts, that cannot be otherwise than imperfect ; and to tlie more authentic, but still somewhat uncertain accounts, taken from the last census returns. The ccns s returns of 1849-50 of the cotton manufactories in tlic United States give the following statement :
The quantity of cottoi. used is stated in bales. A bale is estimated in another part of the census accounts to weigh 400 lbs. It is believed such estimate, as to the cotton furnished our manufacturing cstablishmmts, is underrated at least 12J per centum. Most of the cotton used in those manufactories is " upland,*^ the bales generally, for the last five years, averaging 450 pounds. That the other census accounts relating to the '-^ entire crop," (including ^* sea-island'^ and "upland,") though
Stated in pounds, mention the bales as " of 400 lbs. each," does not make the above reduction of these bales to pounds, at 450 lbs. to each bale, incorrect. The estimate of 400 lbs. is carried through all the statements and estimates in this paper, (except in the above,) to enable ready comparisons to be made.
The " products" of those establishments are stated to have been, in ]849-'50, 763,678,407 ynrds of sheeting, and 27,860,340 lbs. of thread, yarn, &c., and 13,260 bales of butting, and are valued at $61,869,184. The value of domestic woollen manufactures is stated at $43,207,555; that of domestic iron manufactures, of all kinds, at $54^600, 000. The value of 1,177,924 barrels of ale, beer, &c., or of tl^s wiL\33,955 gallons of whiskey and "high wines," or of 6,500,500'" jCXpoi^ gf^rttw, manufactured, is not stated. The annual wages of the hands rrtipliK^f*^ in cotton manufactories, it will be seen by the census returns, amount to $16,286,304. The woollen manufactories employ 22,678 male, and 16,574 female hands — in all 39,252 — whose annual wages amount to $8,399,280. The iron manufactories employ 57,017 male, and 277 female iiands — in all 57,294 — whose annual wages amount to $15,000,000 ; and breweries and distilleries employ 5,487 hands, the value of whose labor if; not given !
Deduct from t'ne value of the " products " of these cotton manufactories in 18 19-' 50, stated to be $61,869,184, the value of ili(> erpoits of domestic cotton manufactures for the same year, $4,732,424, and the balance, $57,134,760, is the value of lh(> domestic cotton manufactures, made in oin* own cotton-manufacturing establishments, niid cousvmcd in the; United States.
The value (and afterwards the quantity) of row aitlon for these respective portions of the domestic cotton manufactures of the United States, may be ascertained by a deduction of 50 prr cmfitm oi' {he value of the manufactures, f()r the cost of manufacture, wastage, profits. Sec, and calculating the (]uantity corresponding to such value, at the j)ri(i: for that year, of lair " upland" cotton. 'JMie correctness oi' lliis nindi' will be verified, as to the y(>ar 1849-'50, by reference to tlu^ items ia the census account of the manufiictures of cotton above given, of tiie value of raw materials used, and "bales of cotton" used, and "value of entire [)ro(lucts," and to the expenses of manutiicture, as set fbitli in that statement.
The (juantity of domestic raw cotton consumed in the United States, in forrign manufactures, has been estimated by a similar calculation with reference to the " difii'rence " between the importations into, and exportations from, the United States, of such foreign manufiictures hefore given. The enhanced value of the foreign cotton manufactures is stated at 100 inr centum more than the raw cotton, and includes freight, insurance, duties, and all other expenses ; and the cheapt-r labor in foreign countries, and the h.igher value of the sea-island cotton, generally used in such manufactures, and profits, &c., have als(f been considered.
The following estimate of the quantity of don. ; -, "raw cotton" consumed in the United States, in domestic and in f()reign manufactures, and in " household " or " home-made " articles, &c., for the year ending June 1st, 1850, is believed to bo nearly correct.
In domestic manufactures — deducting value of those exported from value of entire manufactures, and n.lso 50 per cent, for cost of manufacture, profits, &c.— about $29,000,000=256,638,000 lbs.
In foreign manufactures, /from domestic cotton,) — deducting from imports, ($20,108,719) value of exports of same, ($427,107)=$19,681,612 ; and 50 per cent, for cost of manufacture, duties, profits, &c., &c 9,840,800= 87,087,000 "
The total consumption in cotton manvfacturcs same time — foreign and domestic — including " home-made," amounted to more than $82,000,000, upwards of thrccfourths of which were made in the United States.
Fractions are e(|ualized in this estimate, and the value stated vi the olHcial av(>rnge valuation of all cotton for that year. The cotton, of which tlie foreign manufactures consumed in the United States are composed, bring mostly "sea-island," its value should perhaps be higher; but in such case, the values of the; other cotton ouGfht to be reduced in proportion to (juantity and price, to make the correct average. The values of "sea-island" and "upland" should be kept separate in the treasury accounts.
The donit'stic consumption, of course, increases each successive year, etjually with the pi)pulait •( , and the discovery from time to time of new uses to which cotton may be applied also adds to the consumption; and a full croj) increases it.
Similar dilHcullies exist with n^spect to the ascertainment of the quantity and value of the " entire crop^^ of raw cotton, in each year. Various means of cstiniaiui;^ the entire crop are adopted. In one mode, the first item is ihc ciuantily and value of ej-portatio»s of raw cotton. The (juantity is furnished ([uite correctly t()r this item, by the treasury returns of exports; except that the vahu; is not always accurately given in them. The value slated in the treasury returns of exports can, liowev(>r, generally be rectified, if erroneous, by reference to the general "prices current" of the same year, to be l()und in commercial newspa|)ers. The price stati'd t()r 185] -'52 is 8.05 cents ; and it is conceived li'e average is too small according to the commtncial accounts of this country, and of < jreat Britain and France. It should be at least 9 cents. Nevertheless, in this paper the treasury price is adhered to. The second item is the (quantity furnished the manufactories of domestic cotton. To ascertain this, even approximately, recourse can generally only be had to the unotficial stattsments of tlie manufacturers, and to commercial accounts, which cannot be otherwise than imperlecl. The third item is tlic quimtily used in what are generally called " household" or
" home-made" manufactures, before adverted to. The fourth item Is the quantity destroyed by fire or otherwise, and not received in market, or taken in the above accounts.
Another mode of estimating the ♦« entire crop" is by estimating the number of acres of land in cuUivation ibr cotton, and the number of agricultural laborers employed in cultivating it; the increase of such arable land, and of the labor by emigration to the cotton States, from other southern States ; and the general yield of the Innd compared with past years ; all derived from intelligence obtained by correspondence, or the public prints, and information generally diffused as to the effects of the season with reference to a full or a short crop, injuries by drought, storms, rains, caterpillar, &c. Of course this last mode is a mere estimate. The most reliable data is that furnished hy commercial and manufacturing dealers ; though it has been observed that very often the estimates as to forthcoming crops, by purchasers, are too large, whilst, on the other hand, those who sell an; prone to make them too small.
The following is an estimate of the entire crop of 1849-50, given as an example of the first mode above mentioned of estimating sucii crop, and it is believed to be nearly correct. The year 1849-50 has been selected, because the entire crop of that year is stated in the "census returns;" between which and the estimate now given a comparison can be made.
The statement in the census returns of the production of cotton in the United States is fi)r the year ending June 1, 1850. Tlie day specified was before the crop of the seasan of 1850 could fiavc been ascertained. The statement is, of course, of the crop of the previous season of 1849, slated in the treasury returns of "fj-^/om, "&(;•, tt)r the year ending on the 30th of .June, 1850. Th'; treasury accounts of tlie exports of raw cotton for the year ending June 30, 1849, (the crop of the season of 1848,) state that 1,026,602,269 pounds were exported^ being more than the entire crop stated in the census returns ; and the quantity exported in 185 1 (ol' the crop of the season of 1850)
was 927,237,089 pounds. The crop of 1849 was a very sliort crop. It was also actually less than the crop of the season of 1839, of '42, of '43, of '44, or of '47 ; though its value, owing to the high prices received for it, was more than that of any previous crop. The exports of the crop of 1848 were 391,220,665 pounds more than those of the crop of 1849; and yet its value was $5,587,649 less. The exports of the crop of the season of 1840 were, as above stated, 927,237,089 pounds, and they were valued in the treasury accounts at SI 12,315,317 ; whilst the exports of the ciop of 1851 were 1,093,230,639 pounds — being 165,903,560 pounds ntorc than the crop of 1850 ; and by the ti-easury account they were valued at $87,965,732, or $24,349,585 lest than the exports of 1850.
Besides tne census returns of the cotton crop of the season of 1849, given below, a statement from the same returns is given of the area of each State producing cotton for sale ; tiie area of acres of improved lands in each ; and the population of each ; which may be useful for reference and comparison.
The cotton crop of the United SlJitrs now ji mounts to upwards of sevcn-tontlis of all the cotton produced in tlic world. Tlif (juantity anininlly exportrd from the [Jnit<'(l States is about eight-tenths of the aumetjate of all exported liv all r;ountries.
Total 1,899,800,000 1,306,7.30,039
Th(> iirst column ot the above stat(.'S all that is estimated to be consumed, in the countries named, in "household" marnitiictures and lor various domestic uses, as wdl as that used in their home cotton manufactories, and likewise all ex])orted to other countries. Fn the second coliMiin is estimated the e^port^ to contiguous toreign countries tor mimufacture, as w«ll as the e\[)orts to Eur()j)e, &c. In the Eiist Indies such exijortatioiis, to contiguous countri(>s, is not leas than the amount slated. An English writer, in J^24, {Smithei's History of Liverpool, p. 116.) says, with respect to China, that cotton and cotton m;mutaclures are "est'tnnted to (Mnploy, directly and indirectly, nearly ninc^rw///s of the immensf^ populalion of that country. A vim'v i.u'ge ])roj)()rlion ot" what is ni;id(; is useil l<)r inleniid consumption, pnrticulariy the vi'ry iinest and most costly fabrics. iNankcens ami chint/.es l()rm the pri!icip;d arlicies f)f th(>ir exportations."
'J'his es!imat(>, it is believed, o\(>rr;ites the number of pcM'sons so cmj)loyetl. One-tenth of the 3.50,000,000 there ni;iy be so emj)loyed, but not moi'e. The United States exported, in 18.52, upwards of S^2, 200, 000 ot'domesllc cotton manuf'ictmcs (coarse whit(> muslins) to ('l)iu;i. We tbrmerly procured some nimkeens from China; but our imports of cotton goods irom thence are now comjiarativel}'^ nothing. The above estimate as to the croj) in China is doubtless too smidi, but the production there is decreasing.
There is not now any serious cause; li)r apprehension bv ih'- agriculturnl, eotnmcrcial, or manufacturing interests of the United States, of successful competition with the soutiieiii States of tliis conlJ'deracy, by any other country, in the jModuciion ot" cotton.
(;eptiniis, used every efl()rl aiul (levf)tccl cveiy Ihculty and power to duniiiish aiiil prevent all iiecessity lor (lepeiideiiee, in any degree, by her eiipitnli.stri, (having Uirge and inerc asing investments in nianufaclurejj iuid eonHiieree,) iqx/n (t/nj nf ihc jtroiiurtx of the C/'ifnl Stales. The younger Pitt — the inost <!nlight(uie.d and sngacious, and iherelbrc the iriost hhertil .stiilesniiin (in.'at liriliiiii has had iu her councils within a e(!ntury j);i:-t, did not aj)pr()V(; sueh [)olicy towards us ; but he was overruled. In Jay's treaty of 1794, as (iriginally ngrced to by the negotiiitors, it was iitlenipted, by diftereut provisions, to n strict us in the exportMtion 1o any [)art ol" the world, even in our own vessels, of" our own raw cotton! Our negotiator, it seems, did not apprtciate the future import ;utee nnd value of this product to liis own eountr}', which had th(Mi recently embiuked in its cultivation. I>ritish sagacity, however, not oii'y l()resiiw it, but sought to stifle the enter[)rise in its infancy. Tlies(! provisions were of course <'xpungvd from the treaty by the United States Senate, l)(^f()re. that body would "advise and (.-(insent" to its "ratification." If the liberal and wise e(»uiis( Is oi" Mr. Pitt had been adopted and adiiered to by (Jreat Britain, she wouhl have advanced in wealth and prosperity, and in all the true elements of strength, and j)ower, and greatu'ss, in i much gre.,ier degree than she has since 17^<'? ; and it would not have been any detriment to her that the consummation of the certain tlesln:y of this country would thereby have been accelerated. VVi; should not, as in ft)rmer times, l)ei()r(; th(> war of 1812, have had our eomiueree injureil by open s{)()liatioiis. 'Dial war would not ha\e occurred. We should not hav(^ h;id, beliire and since the war, our agricultural and commercial interests fluttered and eripph'd by her illiberal restrictions and regulations on the one hand, and by our countervailing legislation (»n the other. Until within a It'W years past, (Jreat Britain has not relaxed her illiberal and selfish policy ; and the cotton interests (tfthe United States have seemed to be especial objects oilier inieeasing hostility.* She has used every exertion, jmuI availed herself" of every means she possessed, to create comjietition anil ri\alrf to the southern States of this conl(;deracy in the cultivation of cotton, and to relieve herself liom any depiMulence u[)ou those States ti)r the UK'ans of employment t()r her working elassi s, iu the manutiieture of cotton, and in auxiliary avoi'ati(Mis. She ex[)eriniented in its e-ullivation, at great co.sl, in her West India colonies, with the advantage of slave labor, until she abolished th<< institution of" domestic servitude" in tliosi; colonies, as to those who had bet ii held ;.s "slaves." She then tried " appreutit;e" labor, with still more unfavorable success. Shi^ trieil the cul'ivatioii o! cotton in every one of" her numerous possessions in the difJerent (juarl(M's of th > gk)be, where the climate and soil allowed any (expectation of ;i. f-ivorab!(> result. She encouraged it.> cultivation ii difierent coiintries, not politically connected with her. Kvery kind of labor has bi-eu emj)loyed in these experiments: tree labor ; J'ish, Scotch, Anglo-Saxon, and Afr'can ; colonists, ap{)rcntices, coolies, Chinese,
• A iiinniliir of the Kiifjlirtli Parliainint — ox-Lord-Cliaiiceilor Hrou^lKiin, who was coiisidiTcil f;()riiewhai f■:lln()U.^--lrl a spooch ri'siici'tiii'r mw cuttoii iiiaiuit'ai.-tciries, t-ooii allur tlio war wiiiL'li oiiilfil m \t*\^>, biii<l : ■• It is vvt.ll wortli wliilc to incur a io-w iijicii tlio tir.--t oxjiorlation, it) order, hy the iilul, to xtijli , in the ivtidlf, tliosc! risiiiif laauuliictiircs in the Ifuilo i StalfB wtii'li the war had/t-rctJ into ivvlKteuro, contrary to tho natural courcie of tilings."
convicts, and slaves ; Christians and Pagans, civilized iind saviige. Ot" her efllnts to induce its cultivation elsewliere than in this country, wo had no right to eoniphiin. But of her illiberal restrictions and wrongs done to us, we had ; and ihey engendered tu) \\\[U\ ill leeling lowards her in this country. Her statesmen, since the war of 1812, have urged in justification of her course, that they were to "counteract" the tn(,'asures of the United States, at diflerenl times, afli'cting her commerce and manufactures untiivorably. The condud of the governrncMit of the Unit(Ml States has, however, from the outset, nlwaj's been solely delensive and countervailing. We havt; not been in any instance the tirst to adopt illiberal and injurious measures. We have been constrained in past times to enact and enforce laws, necessary iu pr()j)er selfdef(Mice, against her illiberality, nni only antecedent to the war, but since. That difii-rent relations were created by measures adopted under the administration of that pro(()und and able statesman, Mr. Peel, and that tln^y now exist between the two countries, is because Great Britain fidt that (>v(My attempt to end)arrass, or iett(.>r, or restrain, or otherwis(; injure the trade and commerce of this country, wouhl certainly recoil npon herself. The futility of warring against the natural laws governing trade and commerce, and against advantages given by the superior adaptation of climate and soil, and experienced and edet'tive (becaust^ united) labor lf)r the production of an iiiliele like cotton, and the folly and presum))tion of any nation striving to establish t()r itself an exclusive and selfish monopoly or control of all things, is fully demonstrated in the f()rmer course of the Uritish jx'ople tmvards us. It is, perhaps, best f()r her that her ex[)erimcnts in making cotton, to "root the Yankees out," have so signally failed ; for the cotton crop of the United States is the main link connecting the two countries commercially ; and if it is broken, the entire tradt; betwe(/n them will soon ijeconie comparatively valutdess to both.*
And the efforts to induce to the {»roduet ion of cotton, to compete w^ith the UnitcHl States, have not been confined to (Jreat Britain. France attempted it in Algeria, without liivorable suce<ss. It has been tried by the Turkish Sultan, ami a superint«Mident and intelligent and experi-
* Tlio followinjT lias been extriictod from an nrtirli', vprv ubusivo and donnnciatory of tiiiu country, and its institutions and |)eu|>lo jjoiierally, cniit;iiin'd in a recent luiinbcr of " Blackwood's (IMinburjjlij Mugaziiio.'" 'I'lic jiurts now t/i//iri,v< (/ betray tlie fei'liiijrs and motives of tlio author :
" In the year 17sit, only one million pounds of cotton were jrrown in the United Mutates ; now, the produce amounts to about l,,)U(t, 000,000 of pounds ! Kow jrrcat a stimulus this has proved to the employment of sl.ive lai)or, by which it is raised, ami to the rapid multiplication of the slaves the usel'.es, <'an easily be imairined. The iiitlui'iice of the potato on the social, mora', iiul indimirial character of the Irisli people, has Ion;; been recoi^'iiised among us. I>ut the history of the cottoii-plani shows how power*" I a conirol an obs( ore plant may (exercise, not only over tlie so« lal character of a pco|)le, but over their >rem'r;il miitcrial prosperity, their fxh'rnul jwlitiial pouur, and their relations wilh the world at l:ir;»e. Tiie toltoii shrub, which seventy years »go was ifrowii oiilv in jiarcbMis as a curiosity, yields now to the I'nited States an amount of exportable |)roduce which, in the year endinj: \>, ilh .Inne, IS.HI, iniiountcd to sovijiity-two millions of dollars, of which tVoiii Ihirtv to forty millions were clear ])rolit to the country. \V'' ii its increased ;rrowt'i has spriiin;- up tliul mitrimliii iii7i», triiirk note vaves its .stripes and sdov orcr every itu ; and that foriig-n niy.'io iin ic/uV/i luis pload Hit intirnal peace — '.re maij saij the fiil'sislenre — nf ritiltiruifi in fieri/ mioii'/iic/tin'Mc: (•cini(;'i/ in Europe, trithin the power iif (in (iH;;ureltii rf ptitnttr^. * * * The new and j.'-rowini.'' cominerce soon gave birth, likewise, in tin- free Slates tin inselves, to a large mo ((iii/ii''. i»,7ni/./(ii/t(riii,ff, nii(/ 7Jici(('i;f(' jiur<i/, u'hom nell-intercit hiui constantlv inclined to sepporl the view» an<l poli''v ol" the toutherr States. ■■"
enccd slave hihorcr.s [)r{ic'iirc(l from ihc State o, .'>oiuli CaroliiiM, but tlic trhil (lid tidt succeed |>n»(il:i!)l3-. It Urn h'ca tiied in dillcreiil pliiees, oil liie extensive slioics (jl llie Euxine, ojeiK.d to llie eornnieree of Clnisiendcjui by llie eiuuion of the iillies at Navaiino, in 1827; it baa been tried in M<'xico, in Ctintnd America, in the dillerent republics of SoLitli America, and in die eiiij'i:'- of Iba/il; il lias been tried in ditfl renl parts of the Easl Indies, uni in Allien; and llie fact lia< been fully and coiudnsively tested and established, that llie soils, seaseiirf, climate, and labor, of no t'ounlrv can successfully eoni|)ele with those of that vast region ot'tliis confederacy which has bi>en appropriately slyleil iIk; "Cotton Zuxe," in the raisiny ot' this product. It is proper, bowever, to slate that many of the most intelligent eolton planiers of that region insist tiint lh"ir now geia^'ally eonc(Mled superiority is not so much attribuUible lo any railieal dilll'ience of Uic: soil or dissiniilarity of the climate in that region, Irom those of several other iM)untries in like latitudes, as il is to tin; advantages afllirded by the .iggregated and combine^, and elieap, and reliable labor they derive from llial patriarchal system oi' domestic servitude existing throughout the " Cotton Zone," and to the superior intelligence, and greater experience, and skill, and energy, of the American |datiter; and to the improved and constantly iiDpiming tti/xfcnis ot' cultivation [lursued by ihem — the most iifHuenl attending personally to his own crop.
The "(Jolloii Zone" extends from the Atlantic ocean to the Ilio del Norle, and iiielud''s the iSuites oi' South Carolina, Cieorgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and those portions of the Slates ot' jNorth ('arolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas, that lie belitw 3')^ luirtli latitude; and all of the Slate! of Florida above the 27tli jiarallel of iiorlh latitude; and ;ill of the Slate of Texas between the Cult' of Mexico and the .'Jddi parallel of north latitude. The region deserib( d is an area ol upwards of i()ur huiuhed and fifty liiousand s(|uare miles; but largi^ portions are mouiiiainous, or covered with wati'r, ami in each Stat(> more than twothirds, from vaiious other causes, it has been e^timaled, is not adapted to the growing of cotton advantageously.
The annexed table shows the estimated cotton eroj) of each of the States nuntioned that produced raw eotloii l()r exportation in 1S;VJ; the number oi' agi icultuial laboitis employed in the eullivation of eolton in each Slate; the e.-^tinialed (pianlity in each Slate; of lands now a()proj>iiated to the growing of collon; and llu^ (piiuitily, not in cultivation m collon, but that wliich may Ix' advaalageously ajjplied to the growing of that product, when a tarther supj)ly is iierdi d; ilie number of agricultural laborers iiec< ssary to till sui.'h lands; and the probably attainable product ol" such laiul and labor.
duutH inoro tlinii cotton.
In ihe above csliiiiat*' of the nundxir of liaiid.s cnnployed in ihe cullivalioii ol' cotton, il will i)i' noticed llial nearly iwo-lhirds of the slave po|)ulalion of the States within tlu; "(-otton Zone" are ex(;lu(led> Some aie engaged in the eiiltivalion of .sugar-cane, rice, tobacco, and oilier producls; others procure lumber, or .•^uperiiiliMid mills, or ar(; employed on steaiiilioats; some are mechanics, some domestic servants; and with them must be included those of advanced age, or infirm, n id the women and children. Many of these iloublless contribute to the cotton crop, when living on planlalions, but more labor is abstracted from cotton in various ways, than is given by ihrm to it. A large number of slaves living in villages, towns, and cities, perllirin no agricultural labor whatever. Il should also be slated, thai in portions of some of the Stales, upwards of fifteen per cent, of the agricultural liibor in cultivating cotton is perfiirmcd by white citizens, who cultivate their small crops themselves. This is full proof" that '■'■ hilior''' is not "(k'graded" there.
Tlu.' hands are estimated at an average of iinir bales f()r each hand, and the land is estimated at eight acres Uir each hand, or 200 pounds for each acre. A reference to the table, {antr, p. 730,) showing iIk^ entire area in acres ot Cach of the Stales within the "Cotton Zone," and other Stales, and the area of all the "improved" lands in each ot" said States, and the population of each free Slate, is necessary fi)r c;oinpari.son with the above, and ih.'it botli may be consiilcred uiiderslandingly.
It will be seen that the "Cotton Zone" is, when the necessity occurs, capable of' sustaining and of employing in the cullivalioii of cotton, in addition to the slav(^s now there, a much greater nund)er than the entire slave population of the States of Maryland, Virginia, Missouri, Kentucky, and North Carolina, or the probable increase for a long time.
3,197,865
These live first-named States are the sourees from which the " Cotton Zone" derives additional colored agricultural labor by emigration. If the demand t()r " raw cotton," or, after its manufacture, for exportation, should increa.se, as some intelligent persons anticipate will ere long be the (;ase, upon the extension of our commerce to the Pacific, to China, the East Indies, and the Asiatic seas generally, and to our southern sister American republics, the lighter labor recjuired of those engaged in cultivating cotton, and its constant concomitant "Indian corn," in comparison with that necessary in the growing of tobacco, hemp, rice, and other crops — tlie decreased cost of the support of the labor employed in cultivating cotton in the "Cotton Zone," and particularly in the southern
{)ortions — the healthfuliiess of such occupation — the cheapness of the ands — the equal, if not greali-r, certainty of the croj) — the certain market it always finds, and the greater prolit deriverl from its cultivation — are causes combining to induce large emigration from the five Slates above mentioned, within the next il'w years, to the southern portions of the "Cotton Zone." Though the cotton crop will thereby nec(,'ssarily be greatly augmented, it will not recede ; t()r the labor once removed, and the lands settled, it will remain upon them, and the crops will increase so long as the demand justifies such increase. In process of time the annual product of cotton in the United States can be augmented to six times its present yield, and it will not be more astonishing than its augmentation since 1790. And on this point it should be observed, that wiien the cidtivation becomes more extended, and to all sections of the " Cotton Zone," covering more than eight degrees of latitude, and more than eighteen degrees of longitude, the pi-ob,'d)iUty is lessened of any untoward season, or other casualty, affecting the aggregate crop injuriously, and consequently the average sup[)ly, and the prices, will bcicomc more regular and uniform.
12,037,043
From the foregoing tables, and others contained in this paper, or annexed hereto, it appears that cotton and domestic manufactures now constitute more than one-half of the exports of the United States of agricultural products and domestic manufactures thereof. They constitute more than two-fifths of the total exportations of all kinds, including " products of the sea," "products of the forest," as well as the "products of agriculture " and "manufactures," "bullion and .specie," &c. TIk^ statements from the treasury bocks show, with reference to *^ exportation,^^ how far behind cotton every other agricultural product is, as to iis increase, beyond the necc;>sary consumption of the United States, since cotton has been cultivated for the foreign market. Generally a country does not export any but its surplus productions. Vast as the increase of some of our other agricultural products besides cotton has been, such increase has, in but few seasons, exceeded the increased wants of our population, constantly and rapidly augmenting by emigration.
91,201,429
It is not within the proper range of this paper to comment upon any of the (lifFereiit opinions entertained with respect to the causes and effects of the fluctuations exhibited in the above statement, and in the detailed table annexed hereto of these imports and exports. Some political economists contend that what is called the "balimce of trade" being in lavor of or against the United States, as shown by the importation or exportation of bullion and specie, is the best evidence of the prosperous or unjirosperous condition of our trade and commcuce. On the other hand, others insist that such importation or exportation is no true test on either side ; and that when a >.uitry has a surplus of bullion and specie, it is best to exj)ort a p* i of the redundant supply ; and that then those articles, besides iuliilling their j)roper functions of being th(3 media and regulators and e<iualiz('rs of trade and comiTierce, become themselves legitimate subjects of trade and commerce hke other products ; and that this rule especially applies to a cownivy i)roducing the j)recious metals.
The sole obj(;ct, however, of the reference now made to the importation and exportation of bullion and specie is to notice the fact, equally t'orcible as respects both of these theories, that but fjr exportalions of raw cotton, according to the treasury statistics, more than forty-eight millions of bullion and specie would have been required annually, since 1821, to have been exported (in addition to all tliat was exported) to meet the balances of trade aijaiiist us that would have existed but tor those exportalions of raw cotton. It is true th(> treasury accounts of exports are not salt' criteria as to values, they being in the l-nited Slates, as in other countries, generally undervalued ; but without the exportalions of cotton from the United States, the balance-sheet would be u sorry exhibit of our condition as a commercial people, and of general prosperity. Our other cxptjrts, and especially of other agricultural
rr agricultural
products, are, when separately estimated, really insignificant in comparison with cotton. A table of the exportations of the principal domestic exports, since 1821, is appended. The ibllowing statement shows the principal domestic ex|)orts in the years 1821, '22, and '23, and in the years 1850, '51, and '52 :
51,370,348
Among other articles not specified in this statement there was exported in 1852 over $1,200,000 of oils, $1,200,000 of naval stores, $500,000 of pot and pearl ash, $2,500,000 of wheat, $2,100,000 of Indian corn and meal, and $1,100,000 of " raw produce," kind not stated in returns.
The relative importance and value of the cotton crop of the United States to the other leading agricultural prorlucts of this country, and other princip.'il artitdes of our domestic and foreign commerce, is more striking when the circumstances attendant upon the progress of each crop, and \Li'. otluM-s respectively, are considered. The augmentation of our })opulation — the vast extension of our tenitory — the great increase of the area of our lands in tillnge — the immense additions to our agricultural labor in our native population rmd in foreign emigrants — have given us consequent vastly increased resources and ability lor greater production. As before shown, however, the greater portions of most of the agricultural products of the United States, and of the manufactures of them, except cotton, consumed in the United States. The fact that the exportatioyis fioni the United Stat(!s of many of its most important products have not increascid in proportion to our increase of population, resources, and ability, and that the article of raw cotton is a signal exception, surely is some evidence of its value and of the real position and actual increase of the wealth and prosperity of the cotton region. When it is recollected that very little of the additional labor given hy foreign emigration inures to the cultivation of cotton, (and it is estimated that not more than one in GOO of the agricultural emigrants go to the cotton region ;) and when the extent of internfd improvements in the States where cotton is not grown, to trans[)ort tlu^ir produce to market, is considered, it will be seen that this advancement of the cotton region is solely the result of steady industry, regulated by the intelligence to make it advantageous. The increased labor of that region has been almost exclusively derived from those; contiguous States that do not cultivate cotton. The disparity between the increase of cotton and
that ot" other vigricultural products appears much greater when these facts arc considered ; and the doctrines that hibor advantageously applied, and not population merely, is the true foundation of a country's wealth and prosperity, is fully verified.
The treasury accounts before referred to show that th(^ aggregate increase of our f()rcign importations of merchandise has not equalled our increased exportations of raw cotton, and that it, as before stated, has most of all other articles enabled us to keep down the balance against us created by sucli importations. And it should be noticed, also, that the increase of importations is mainly for the use and consumption of those portions of the country tiiat do not produce cotton. The consumption of imported merchandise and products in the cotton region may be greater thnn the proportion of its white population to thai of other sections, but in the aggregate it is much less, and it is also much less than the proportion of its wliole population to that of the other States.
Adding the increase of the cxportatiovsoi' our domestic manufactures of cotton to the exportations of raw cotton, the comparison between it and other agricultural products is still more favorable to it. Prior to 1826, such exportations, it" any were made, were not specified in the treasury returns, and all our importations of cotton goods specified in those returns are exclusively those of foreign manufacture that had been imported hither. And the nearly total decrease of the importation of f{)reign raw cotton, and the manufactures thereof, and the substitution therefiir of our own product, and manufiietures thereof, should also be estimated.
Nor is the su{)ply furnished from the cotton crop for the numerous "household" or "home-made" manufiietures used in the United States an unimportant item constituting its value. The aggregate of the value of ,dl these tnanufictures was, in 1849, upwards of $27,540,000, and it is estimated, as bef()re stated, that the cotton consumed in them is worth annually upwards of $57,500,000. But f()r our own crop, this would have to be imported.
Though it is not intended to express any opinion in this paper ujhim the policy of a protective tnriff, it is proper to say that the increase of our domestic cotton matuitiicturing estabhshments, within a few ^^curs past, has well nigh been as astonishing as the increase of tli(^ cotton crop, especially when the advantages of cheap hdjor and low interest for capital borrowed, and other advantages possessed by British and European manufiicturers, are considered. Against sucli advant.-iges, our manufacturing establishments alrefidy use about one-third of the entire crop of raw cotton of tluj United States. I'rior to the war of 1812, they were of little oonscHjuence. They first became of im|)ortance during that war. They now supply more than ihrcc-Jmirf/is oi' ihc cotton mTinui'nctm'cs consumed in the United States. Such supply lin' home consnmpt'u)ii. of our domestic cotton manufiietures exceeded filty-s(n('n millions of dollars in 184!)-'50. We exported in same year upwards of l(>ur millions seven hundred thousand dollars of our domestic cotton manufactures to f()r<'ign eouiitrirs ; and these exports in 1852 amounted to upwards of sev(Mi milli»)n six hundred thous.md dollnrs. Our importations of fiireign cotton manufactures in 1852 were $19,G89,4})t), and of this we exported $i0!)l,784, consuming the balance of $ J 8,1)07,71 2.
consumed.
We now pay annually out of the avails of the cotton crop in Great Britain and Europe about $10,000,000 to those countries for manufacturing for us that portion of our raw cotton which is first exported thither, anil the manufactures thereof then imported into the Llnited Slates ; but they are at tlie same time th(^ purchasers ni' two-thirds of our entire crop, and most of the articles the}'- send us could not be manufactured here at ihe same cost to the consumer; iind the cotton producers insist that the foreign market is the most valuable to them, and that they have the right to sell their crops wliere and to whom the^^ choose, and to employ and pay whomsoever it pleases them to manufacture it. Our domestic cotton manuliicturers fire, however, destined to increase still more. Everything indicates that an immense commerce will ere long arise in the Pacific oeean, and through it to China, the East Indies, and the Asiatic seas gencrjdly. The commercial nations of the world are now about to embark in a strus:Q;le i()r the control of that commerce which may perhaps continue through the present decade. But the superiority of position, the greater diversity of the productions of the United States, and the enterprise of our merchants and navigators, will insiu'c the supremacy to us. The domestic cotton manufacturers of the United States may, it is believed, rely upon innnensely increased markets tor the gcjods they now manufacture being afUndfMl by the c(»mmerce thus opened. The amount necessary to supply these new markets, it has been anticipated by some, will require, in a few years!, cotton ecjual in (juantity to the present " entire crop" of " upland" cotton of the United States. The superior liicilities tor such commerce which our merchants will possess with respect as well to the outward as to the return trade, will enable them to sell our domestic cotton manuiiictures in tlios(! markets more advantageously than any other country can sell ihc^ same kind of goods. The official statistical tables slu)w that the domestic cotton manufactures of the United States have not onl}-^ increased in proportion beyond the increase of our aggregate population, and in a proportion beyond any otIuM' prominent article ot manufactures, but, in tiict, such increase of the cotton manutactures of the United States since 1820, with reference to crportatioim, exceeds in value the aggregate^ of the increase of all our other domestic manufactures added together!
A g(!ntleman holding a high position in the legislative department of the federal government, and whose intellig(niee on this subject is not surpassed by any, estimates that in ]852 the capital invested in cotton manufactories in the United Slates is at least §80,000,000 ; that the valuta of the annual products of such manufactories is at least $70,000,000; that as many as 100,000 male and lemale laborers are emi)loye(l iu such manufiictories ; and that quite 700,000 bales, or 315,000,000 pounds of cotton, worth at h'ast S'35,0()0,O0O, will be spun and sold as thread and yarn, or wove into muslin and other manufactures, in this year — 1852.
With retl'iciico to our forcifiii cornnu'ri-r rspccinlly, tl)(! incrnasod consiiiiiptioii in the lltiilcd Stiitcs of forcimi imd (lom('.><tir cotloii iiiiimi(iicluros, ill lieu ol" ;irii(.'lcs tliiit must have swelled our ini|«jrliifioiis slill more than hjis l)oon tlie case, is an importatil eoiisidenilioti. iiiil (or our eotton, until our doniestie products of wool, ot'silk, anil of (lax, had b(!corne sudicient liw our necessities, \vv should have Ixn-n eonipelled to rely on (()rei^n countries. Cotton and its mrnudiu'lures have decreasi^d the demand (i)r (he other articles. In tliis iespet;t the increased consumption ol" cotton and its manul'actures in the United States and in l()reign countries should he regarded hy those who deprecate an excess of importations over exportatioiis as injurious to a country, as having been greatly l)ene(ieial to our (i»reign commerce, inasmuch as it has lessened the imporfudons by us of tin; oth(!r articles mentioned.
If the r.xpurttttims of r;iw cotton from the United States should, contrary to general anticipation, decrease from any cause, unless its place, as an articU; of ex[)ortation, coidd be fully sup[)lied by an e()uivalenl amount of domestic manutiictures of cotton crpurted., its cultivation and product must, of necessity, also decrease in a corresponding degree ; and the 787,f'j00of able agriculturrd laborers, and the G,300,00U acres of arable land now devoted to its production, would be diverted, by the same necessity, to tin; production of other articles, (wheat, rye, corn, barley, oats, and the like,) and tin; raising of stock l<)r provisions, (beef, pork, lard, butter, &e.) The result, it can be foreseen, would bo the cheapiMiing of those articles, and rendering their production in the present grain growing and stock raising Statt-s less profitable than at present, and the apricullurists and stock raisers in these States would also then lose their markets in th(^ cotton growing States, b(;sides having to encounter competition from them in other markets ; and besides, some of the surplus labor of the cotton growing States would then be employed in manuliictures and mechanical pursuits, now diielly engrossed b}' oth(T States, from which th(! supplies are now recfuvt'd by the cotton growers.
The causes of tlu^ (kietuations in tin; prices of cotton have been subjects ol" investigation and discussion among the political economists of the United States, and others interested, but hitherto th(Mr investigations and discussions have not result<>d in much practical good. Conventions oi" cotton producers h;ive been helil in the Southern Stales, and tlilierent theories advanced as to these causes, and (liHi.;rent remedies suggested. Disagreements as t«) the causes of these? (luctuations have produced diliJ-rences of opinion as to the remedies and preventives ; and eoiiseepiently, heretotore, no measures of a practical character have beiMi adopted. In some instanci's the causes are widely didl'reiit (rom those producing similar efll-cis as to othtsr products. Doubtless the extent ot the crop has, onlinarilv, no inconsiderable inlluenceon the price; and yet, whilst the crop of IS6(), the cxportalvms alone of which were 927,237,08!) pounds, wliicli at J2.ll cents, brought !?112,31,'3,317, the short cro|) of 1848, the exportations of which were but ()35,383,604 pounds, brouglit 11.31 cents, or .S7 1, 1)84,0 Ki; and the crop of 1848, the exportations <»f which were l,02G,042,2Gt) pounds, brought ().5 cents, or S()G,3!Jt),f>G7 ; and repeated instances will be found in the aimexed tables, wh(!re large crops have brought large prices, and short
fjomi! infUicnco. Mncli more (IcjjcikIs upon lli(3 condiiiDii of tlu! tijreign and doincstir eolton ninnuliiclorics — llic gcnciid d<>prossi()ii or prosperity ot'triide, coiinnerce ;nid niivigiilion, inid the .slide of llwi money niarU( t. Tlie iiiMuufaclurers at home and abroad hav(! to r(\sort to extensive ercilits lo carry on their vvoiks, (nt-n to pureha:<e tlie raw cotton; and th(; scaicity o[ monr-y is certain to cauj^e a corrcfipoiulinir depression in the price of cotton, iiia the ])riniary and ('hier cause of thes(! Iluctuations is lo he l()nnd in the liK-t, tfiat vi-ry often, so soon as raw cotton leaves iIk" posses.-^ion of the phmter, whether it is pnrch'a^ed from him or \n>l, il becomes ilic .-.take lor the most hazardous gambling among those who should be j^iyled comntercial speculators and gamblers, ratjier than merchants. When it is seen that a rise of cotton ol" one cent ])er j)omid creates ;i dillerence in the vaiui^ of that (.r[ji)rlrd from the I'niled States alone, (A' tc/i mi//ii)/is of dollars (and of course a rise of a mill, one mUlioii, and of a tmlli of a mill, owv lumdred thousand dollars;) and when it is recollected that raw cotton is reganled as u cash article, and used in lieu of exchange l()r remiUanires abroad, il can readily be imagined that temptations and inducements exist to the most hazardous speculations in that articde, by those who imagine they t()resee an advance in its j)rice, and who, so soon as they purchase, exert themselves to ellt'ct the res(dts they tiesire. The establishment of " Vlduhrii' IJuioii Dfjiiits'^ at the chief shipping ports in the South, tor til • storing of cotton l()r w/A', and also similar depots at or near the chief Alhmtic cities, has been proposed as a renu'dy l()r, and prevention of, \\n\ evils com|)laine(l ot". And ihe establishment of similar depots at ditlcrent points in (Continental Europe has also (since recent occurrences in (ireat iJrilain, iniheatinga revival of the ancient hostility to the cotton intert'sl of the United .Stales) been suggested. Doubtless, the establishment oi" such '■'' Conthicnlnl Drpotn'^ would open new, as well as extend ihe existiny markets ti)r our raw eoiion, among the continental maiuil;i(.-tarers ; and it would greatly encourage and promote' the latter, and cause them to become li)rmidabK' (.•omp<'titors and rivals to the manuliicturers of (ireal liritain, and it is not. u'lll^ely some practical measures of the kind will be ado[>ted. Direct tiwie between southern ports and Europe, so far as it respects the cotton < xported thither, has been lookctl to as likely to relievt^ the planting intere.-t from the effects of the Iluctuations as to prices, and at the same lime !.o relieve it from the exorbitant and onerous charges it is at present subject to, by shipments to Eastern Atlantic ports bel()re shipment to Europe; but it is strongly doubled wheilier tlie result of such change, without further preventives, would not b(> merely another illuslralion ottlie old fable oi ihe fox and the tlies. The planU'r will always be subjeit to similar exactions to those now made; and ihey will be increased, till he restrains himself from parting with the plenary and personal control of his crop, in any way, except by absolute sale. He will not be relieved whilst the payment of atlvances on his crops, or other mercantile debts incurred on their credit, constrain him, year after year, as to the disposition of them To be relieved, he must becomes less dependent on the store-keeper, and more self dependent; and then he can constrain the purchaser to come
to liirt j)l;nitiitiun lo niir(;liaf5(> his nop, nnd it lio is Hot pnid a fiiir price, n fusf! t(» part wiili it, rind keep it in store until iui ciin jjct sucli price. When {)hniters jcjonenilly adopt and adhere to such system, it will be of little eonse(|neii('i' to llieni what eliarijes their crops aic subjeeled to alter they leave their hands, and they will he iniafK'eted by the llnetuations occasioned by spemilations and ^aniblint,'. The i()reign and domestic manutiicturers will also lind that it is tlieir interi>st to get rid of th(! intermediate eotnmereial a^'eneics, and expenses, between thc'm and the plant(M', and will unite in the adoption of such system.
Appended hereto uvr 'abbs of the exports ol" raw cotton in 1N52, exports ot" domestic cotton manufactures, same year; exports of li)reign cotton mamifai'fures, sanu' ycjM- ; and imports of cotton manufactures, same year. Particular attention should be given to them. On such relerence, the tiict e;ninot escape f)l)S(Tvation, that the governmiait of the United [States, by liberal and judicious (and Judicious because liberal) arrangemenis with the ditlircnt governments of tliis antl the southern continent of America, by enabling these countrii^s to pay for our domestic cotton manuiiictures in their products, which we do not raise, may open extensivi- and i)rotitable markets t()r us, thereby promoting the prosperity as well of tlii' manufacturt;r as of the producer of cotton. And once open and establish such market, the demand would in a lew N'cars, it is anticipated, be ('(jual to the whole of our present exportations. Thc^ Held ot" commerce bet()re us, aiuJ ibr us, in these countries, and in the Pacific and Kast Indies, is unlM)unded.
1'lwsc fiicts fully d<nnonstrate not only the futility of nil the expc^dients that may be adopted by tiireign governments to supplant the cotton crop of" this country, but also the ineHiciency and tolly ot" any measures of restraint or cocrcaou that may be contrived by them to " countcr;ict" what;'ver policy the United Slates may decide to adopt, at any time, to sustain and maintain tlu; great interests involved in the cotton crop. If it should become necessary, the cotton-growers of this confederacy can, of themselves, withhohl from any tiaeign country every pound of" cotton; and the labor now employed in its cultivation could be, in one seaijon, restricted to growing merely enough for our own consumption. It is an error to suppose that such measure would be ruinous, or even j)ermanently injurious to them. Such labor cf>uld be e:nplo3'ed in the cultivation of other products — in iIk; rearing of stock, and articles of" subsistence, and in the improvement ot" the lands; with little^ detriment that would not b(! temporary, and with less loss and inc(aiveni'^'nc( to them, than a similar revolution in industrial pursuits and productions would cause in any other country. That the cotton-producers of the United Stat(>s may rightfully exercise the power, which, by union and conceit of" action, they unquestionably possess, of" decreasing or incri'asing the aggregate annual supply, and regulatinir its j)rice, so as to secure the receipt of its just valu(!, cannot he deii. Owing to the nujlti{>lied charges and exjx'nses to which his
cotton is subjected bclijn^ he receives its proceeds, tiie planter is generally the pi!rson who makes the least profit from it. What are believc.'d to be the most practical ])r!'ventives have beiui before alluded to. M(!ans and ways ot" avoiding imposition will suggest tlicnnselves to the intelligent i/lanter, and his example will be f()llow<Hl by his neigh-
bors. Kre long oiu' manufaetorirs will furnish us with all of the cotton goods we need, at our own doors, and of our own maniifaeliu'c, tiorn the })roduct wo huv(^ rnis(!d. Hut whatever we may determine to do, no gf»vernniental policy of any li)reign country, hostile to our interests — no coinbiiuition of such govermnenis — can releiiseor lessen the absolute dependence upon the "Cotton Zone" of the United States, which nil who maufacture or use this product are, and must continue to br subject to, till Providence decrees the eh.'uige by means now unforseen and unanticipat( d.
.July, 1812. During the war, and till April, ISKi, it j)aid six cents, and since that day it has paid three cents, till, by the act of 184(1, it was made free. Alexander Hamilton, in 1791, recommended the " repeal" of the duty as "indispensabh!" Ii)r the security of the "national luanufiicturcrs" of cotton.
Within two-thirds of a centmy, this product has become one of the most im[)ortant of the agricultural products of the world, and an article of necessity I'or which no ade(|uate substitute can reailily bi> had. It is now by tiir the most valuable article of commerce existing between diftf>reut nations. The l()rcign commerce of no one nation, in wheat, or wheat-Hour, or other cereal products tor die subsistence of man — or in beef, pork, or other provisions, (>veu if estimated together — has <'vcr been, or is now, as great in value as that of the United States in the article of raw cotton produced in tlu; United States, and in manufactures therefrom. The articles of tea, tobacco, ardent spirits, wines, silks, and coflee, have ranked high on eonunercial lists ; but none of them have eciualled, in any one country, the present rank of American cotton and its manufiictures: and the articles just specified are, too, all luxuries, not absolutely indispensable for subsistence or raiment, and tijr all of them substitutes may be found. In tact, if the importation or use of every one; of these articles were destroyed or decreased by legislative enactments, or the eipially arbitrary decres of fiishion or custom, or by other means, the next generation, would not feel the deprivation. The abanilonment of other articles fi)rmerly used instead of maiiutactures of Cv)aon, and the general use of the latter, and especially of the ordinary kinds, throughout the world, (induced by their cheapness and superiority,) renders them indispensabl(Mo the comf()rt of man till something is discovered to supply their places For half a century, nearly every people — of every degree of civilization, of every class of society, and in every variety of climate — has adopted the use of cotton manufiictures. Such is the character (tf the product, and so diversified are the articles that can be manufactured from it, that they have taken the place of many other articles widely diflerent from each other; and they are applied to various and dissimilar uses, in climates of difH-rent Iemper;iture, and among different races and nations, whose habits and customs arc as unliki; as their respective countries. The manufactures of this product in the world, now ecpial the manufiictures of animal wool, ot' flax, and of silk, all combined.
llic oll'n'iiil sl;iti>ii('s, mil only of tlir |,'ov( rnirii'iil. ot llir United Slnlcs, but. ol' liir('i;,'ii ,t,'i»vtTiim('iils, mid hy ill'' <'(nnni(Tcial !icc()imls (if tliis (•(Minlry mid of (illicr couiiliics. 'riicy csinhlisli, it is hclicvcd, tlu- ••orrcctnrsH (if .'dl tiic (ipininns ndvmict'd in diis |);i|)('r ii.s In tlu^ pm'mnonnt iin|)*»itmicc of die cotton croi) of the llnilcd Si.itcs, nol int'icly to our own coiniiry, hut to the world, over rvcry oiIut n^ricidtninl piddnct tli:it liiis l)('cn, now is, or is likely to heeonie, nn iirlieh; of eoiinnerec hetween niitions. 'I'liey certainly prove tli.'it it is tlie chief element mid l)asis of till- coniniercial prosperity of lliis eonli'deracy, and as well with respect to the trade hetwccn the States as to tlu; commerce of all with liirci^n nations.
The cultivation of cotton and its preparation tiir inarkt-t in the United States, at this time, emplf)ys upwards of SOO, ()()() agri( iiltnral Inhorers. As has heen slated, 8.0 per centum of this nnmher are slaves ; and the residue (j'20,0()0) are white citi/cns, who arc; liiimd in every partoftli(^ Cotton /one, raisinu cotton hy their own lahor, on their own lands — a pra(.'tical reliilation of the sland(M" that '■^ liilntr is drirradnr^ in tliiit n <;ion. These citizens and their liimilies are sustained in part hy the cotton crop. And lin" every two ahlc-hodied cotlon-licld hands, it is estimated that at least t/in:c of inii'rior physical capacity fiir lahor are employed ill raisiii<i[ snhsistcnce or in domestic avocations on tlu; plantation, or reside! in th(^ cities, &c. All these arc supported from the avails of the cotton crop.
At least S^r^.OOO.OOO in value ol" hieadstulls, provisions, salt, sii^^ar, molasses, tea, coiK;c, shoes, blankets, Jirtides of clothing, and other articles of necessity or coml()rt, is atimially re(|uire(l liir such laborers and others engaged in such production or preparation, or who possess the ca|)ilal (lands, slaves, &:r.) employeil therein ; and ot" live sto(;k, agricullnral implenK-nts, machines, bagging, rope, &c., chiclly furnished by the other States of the eonli'deracy from tlicir own products and Tnanufactures, or, through tlicm, from liireign countries who purchast! our cotton.
Cotton employs upwards of 120,000 tons of stetuu tonnage, and at h'ust 7,000 j)ersotis engaged in steam navigation in its transportation to souiIkmii shipjiing ports. In somi; sections it pays freights to railroads liir such transportation. Its iirst tribute to the underwriter is ti)r insuran(;(! against casualties in its transportation from tho interior.
Cotton artt)rds employment ami profit to the southern commission merchant or ftctor, and to the many and various laborers engaged in carting, storing it, &(•., in the southern port; and a second iributi; is paid to the underwritfT ini insurance against lire whilst in store. The "compressing" and relading it liir shipment coastwise; to eastern Atlantic; cities, or to liireign ports, .nid insurance against the d.angers of the seas, give additional employment, and cause additional charges.
The transportation of that portion of the croji sent along the gulf coast to the |)rinci[)al gulf jiorts, (»r coastwise to eastern Atlantic cities, employs u|)wards ot" 1,J00,000 tons o\' American shipping in the gull' and Atlantic coasting trade, and upwards of 55,000 American seamen engaged in such trade. As no fiireign vessel can participate in the trade, the Ireights are highly prolitublc. 'L'hey ordinarily average tiom
pound freight.
In the eastern Athinti*; cities, the wharfing«'r, those who unlade the veHsel, th(! drayman, the 8torekeep«'r, the eoinrniHsion nn'rehant, the cotton-broker, the weigher, the packers who eonipress the bales by steam power or othei vvisrr, the laborers, and those who charge! tiir "niendage," '•cordage," &e., &c., the lire insurer, and the shipper, the stevedore, and riunierotis other pe^rsons in those ports, tind protitabl(> avocations arising from cotton, whetlior destined l(>r a liotnc or l(>r a tbreign market.
If destined l()r a home market, it pays the expenses of relading for shipment coastwise, or of itiland transportation, by railroad or otherwise, till it r<'ache3 tht; manufactory. It gives employment at this time to upwards of $80,()()0,()(M) of capital invested in such manufactories. ll uiiiirds means of subsisttnice to about oni* hundred thousand operative manufacturing laborers, mal<? and li'mfde, whose aggregate annual wages exceed screnfrrn millions of dollars. 'I'lu! manufactories consume coal, use <lyestuHs, employ 'nachinists and other mechanics, anri encourage, because they aid to sustain the carpenter, the mason, the shoemaker, the tailor, and, iiuh-ed, all others in their vicinity fiir whom they create employment. Calculating int(;rest on tlu; capital invested, and all other expenses, estimated at $62,000,000 annually (including raw cotton worth 1^35,000,000,) tlajy furnish manufactures valued at $70,000,000. And there are, it is believed, at least 25,000 persons in tla^ United States who find profitable avocations in the receiving and sale or shipment ol" these domestic cotton manufactures, whether consumed at home or abroad.
More than 800,000 tons of the navigation of the United Stales engaged in the t(>reign trade are em{)loyed in carrying American cotton to Europe and elsewhere, and uj)war(ls of 40,000 American seamen are given employment in such vessels.
It is estimated that tlu: liireign tonnage and seamen employed in carrying American cotton to Europe and (dsewhere to fiireigii countries amount to alKiut one-sixth of that of the United States so employed. An amount of cotton not ecpuil to the average annual crops of Alabama, Georgia, Mississippi, and South Carolina, uniti'd, is annually furnished by us, and provides means of employment in Europe lor upwards of 3300,000,000 of capital, invested in cotton manutiictories, and to more than 3,000,000 persons of the; "working classes" and others, who receive, store, sell, transport, or manufacture the raw product, and to many others, engaged in the sale or shipment of the manufactures.
1)le of the United States is, that it affords to the household of the hum)lest citizen, of every occupation — to the husbimdman, the mechanic, and the laborer, whether distant from the marts of commerce or without the p(,'cuniary ability to resort to them — and to the planters and their d(;pendents, the masters and the servants, the means of supplying themselves, by their own handiwork in its manufactun;, with numerous, and various, and inappreciable comforts, which, without it, they would have difficulty in obtaining. In yielding them such comforts, it stimulates them to industry and frugality ; it gives them contentment ; and
it fosters and cherishes that elevated spirit of independence, and that equally ennobling feeling of scJf-depcndcncc, under favor of Providence, which ought to he universnl constituents of American character. Not less than $7,000,000 in value of the products of the cotton-fields of the South is annually appropriated to such uses.
Every interest throughout the land — at the north and the south, in the east and west, in tlic interior, and on the Pacific as well as the Atlantic coast — receives from it active nnd material aid. It promotes essentially the agricultural interests in those States where cotton is not produced. It is the main source of the prosperity of the mechanic, the artisan, nnd other laboring classes, as well as thnt of the merchnnt and manufacturer, in every section of the Jnion. Everywhere it has laid, broad, and deep, and j^ermnnent, the f()undation3 of the wealth and strength of the United States, and of their independence of foreign nations. More thnn anything else has this |)r()(luet made other nations, even the most powerful, dependent on tlu; " United States of America." More than any other article, nay, more than all of other ngricultural products united, has cotton advanced the navigating and commercial interests of the eastern Atlantic St;ites, and of the whole Union. It, more than any other agricultural product, has cherished and sustained those interests, not merely by its direct contributions, but by awakening commerce in other countries, trom whicii tiieyhave received profitable emplo\ iiient. Neither the whale-fisheries nor the mackerel and cod-fisheries have been of the same importance and value to those interests as the annual cotton crop of the United States (since the war of 1812) has been li)r its transportation coastwise, and exportation to foreign countries. Like the light and heal of the sun, the gtiuial efiects of this in(»stimable blessing, which Providence hath bestowed upon this favored people, reach ever}-^ portion of" the land. They extend to every city, and t(jwn, and village, and hamlet, and tiirm-house — to the ship, to the .steamboat, to the canal-barge, and to the railroad. Throughout the length and bn-adth of this vast empire, there is not a tenement in which manufactures of this ])rodui't are not t()un(i. In the sacred temples, in the fialls of jusliee and of legislation, in the counting-house, in the workshop, in lh(; stately mansions of the rich and lowly dwellings of th(i poor, wheresoi'ver man resorts, may they he seen. Cotton is timnd in the silken tapestries and decorations of the fashionable |)arlor, and it contributes more to various articles in less costly tinnished apartments. It is used in the luxurious couch ol' the afiluent, and in the pallet of the indigent. Kvery trade, calling, occnj)ation, prolession, and interest — all classes, in all seasons, and at all limes — in the United States, need and use manulacturts ot" cotton, in habiliments fi)r the person and otiierwise, in ways as various as their wants. The (alitor in his gazette, thi" author in his book, the lawyer in his biiel", and all in llieir correspoiidenee, use [)aper made from eollon. And not only have cotton and m.inutiietnres from it entered into and become iiidispensabj(! to the conveiiienee and eomli)rls ot'the peo[)le of the United Stales — not only has tliis boon from the Giver of all goixl to less than a third ot" the States ol" the Union b(ien the prim.ary and copious fountain from whicli has (lowed the ehiei" portion ot" the vast aggregated wealth of the conlederac}' — not only has it, for at least
it, iijr at least
forty-seven years, done more than all else to enable us to attain our present advanced position as a commercial people, equalled but by one nation, — but, unless it is forbidden by a greater than earthly power we shall ere long, chiefly by the increase of the cotton crop, hold supremacy over her. The aggregate of our cxiiortations of raw cotton since 1821, including that year, is upwards of one thousand five hundred and thirty-nine millions of dollars, according to the Treasury returns ; and whenever the increased wants of f!)reign countries require an increased supply, the quantity of at least one thousand and three hundred millions of pounds, which hereafter will probably be produced annually for foreign and home consumption, can be augmented to meet the full demand, and still further increased tor many successive years. Wc possess the resources in land and labor to supply the whole world ; and, after retaining all that is required for our own consumption, it may be anticipated that hereafter, whilst we are blessed with peace and fair crops and prices, our annual crporintions will not be less in value than one hundred millions of dollars. With this we can in a few years extinguish our foreign debt, both public and private, and amply supply ourselves with all the necessaries, comforts, conveniences, and luxuries of other countries which we do not yet produce cheaply or in abundance.
There are other important results of the cotton crop of the United States deserving notice. There is one that must suggest and commend itself to all acquainted with the subject, and especially to the wise and intelligent statesman who looks beyond the generation in which he lives, and above the atmosphere of party, upon which comment is omitted in this paper, lest the restrictions referred to in the first paragraph might be considered by some as violated.
But there are two influences of this product (both moral and political, rather than pecuniary) which should not be overlooked. The Jirst relates to our own country exclusively, th(i second to its position with other nations.
The influence of the various " cotton interests " in every section of the confederacy in strengthening the bonds and bands of that federal union of the thirty-one States which constitutes our strength, and glory, and pride — its pow(M- in insuring the maintenance of the federal compact inviolate, and the maintenance of the laws of the land enacted under it — that influence which unites the promptings and also the restraints of self-interest with those of patriotistn — is neither light nor transient. It is potent and permanent. Cogent and satisfying to every true American are its teachings that no " section" of this confederacy is the rival of any other " section," except in j)atriolic efiorts to advance ihe welfare of their common country. Their natural, and rightful, and legitimate interests do not clash ; and all are best promoted by aiding, sustaining, sup}H)rting, and cherishing each other. If any would maintain the false ik)ctrine that a " section" or even a single State, may justly have its etpiality reduced, its rights and interests disregarded and broken down, or that the local interests of one section maybe promoted at tlu> expense of any other of inferior numerical strength ; and if, unrestrained by the federative compact, they should attempt the enforcement of such principles. — when the time comes lor practical action, the
conservative influences above adverted to, in all sections, may be relied upon ibr the administration of a rebuke whicli, though it tails to convmce the misguided of their error, will not be the less withering in its efJects upon them, or the less powerful in upholding right and in the preservation of concord and union.
With respect to foreign nations, it cannot be denied that by means of our cotton crop we have contributed to the necessities and wants of millions of the people of other lands ; we have created employment for their manuficturing laborers ; we have done much to ameliorate the condition and alleviate the sufferings of all the oppressed and impoverished working classes of the old countries, and added to the sum of human comfort and happiness more than any other people within the last half century. And it has not been a theoretic principal, a transcendental abstraction, or a Utopian scheme of " liberty, equality, and fraternity" — a cheat, like " Dead-sea fruits, that turn to ashes on the lips" — that we have bestowed upon them ; but actual, practical, real, tangible, substantial comforts, apparent to the corporeal senses. And, still more, by it we have been given effective means of check and restraint, and, if need be, of coercion too, as to the governments of those nations who have become, and must continue to be, dependent upon the southern States of this confederacy for the supply of cotton wher«;with to provide employment lor millions of their working men, women, and children, and wherewith to obtain raiment for all classes — idle and laboring, rich and poor. The necessity tor such supply, and the dependence upon the United States for it, is valuable surety tor " the peace and good behavior" of those governments towards this country, and towards all others, in " the peace of God ;" and it is also some guaranty against outrage or oppresssion in their own househ(jld.
The true policyof this confederacy, dictated alike by interest and by duty, is to cultivate friendly relations with every other people. All that we enjoy we hold from the bounty of the great Ruler of nations and to fulfil his all-wise purposes. Those who suppose our high mission is inconsistent with the sacred precept, "on earth peace, good will towards men," are in error. Insults may be repelled, wrongs redressed, and justice executed, without violating tins rule. Until the people of these confederated sovereignties cease to deserve the blessings oi" civil and religious freedom, the federal government cannot be transf()rme(l into a consolidated military republic, which niay, when incited by lust of conquest, wield its mighty power to ravage, despoil, conquer, or subjugate other nations. An illustrious chief magistrate years since proclaimed that " a fixed determination to give no just cause of offence to other nations" was a cardinal rule in the administration of the federal government; and he also said that "with tliis determination to give no offence is associated a resolution, ecjually decided, to submit to none." Illiberality, displays of hostility, and officious intermeddling in our affairs, may engender ill feelings, and provoke to recrimination and retaliation, and cause collisions ; but in their career to the consummation of the high destiny awaiting the American people, if they do not forfeit it by misconduct, they should rigidly adhere to the rule just quoted, and to the other injunction by the same high authority — to "ask for nothing that
STATEMENTS OF THE COMMERCE OF THE ATLANTIC STATES AND CITIES.
It lias been tlioiiglit [jropcr to j)liicc on record, uiuler this head, a tew general statements ilUisHjitivc of the eoinineree and navigatiDn of our prineipal Alhinlie [unU with Icuciyn countries, in a i-onvj-nient t'oriu l()r comparison with the aggregate of the United States, the; internal commerce and navigation ot" this contedrracy, and with that of any or all l()reign countries in the world. To this end, some staietuenls lelating to the aggregate commerce and tonnage of the United States are also appended. These; statejuents are of an entirely reliahle characi('r, most of them having been derived from oIKcial sources.
It was under contemplation to prepan; specific notices of each of the more ])romin«'nt of tlie i-ommercial cities of the seahoartl li>r this portion of the report; but, u[)on a[)plication being made; at the several points lor the retjuisite statistics, and tla^ discovery of the entire! absence of such accounts as might i()rm a proper basis on which to calcuhi'tLe value of the coasting and iidand or domestic trade centring at tli' several ports, it has been judged best not to m.'ike the attempt.
Th(! trade of IVew York, IJoston, and New Orleans receiv«'f ,i linger (juotu from the interior than any other cities of the seaboard. 'I'lils is owing to the fact ot" their better natural and artificial communication with that region lying between the Alleghany and Rncky ridges. The communication ol the rest of th<' Atlantic cities with the interior couJitry has been chiclly, /»(hrr(o, with that portion lying rust and south of the Alleghany ridge, and by means of railways and navigalde rivers. It will be seen that by far the largest t()reign trade is enjoyed by New Y(irk — the next in value of imjxtrtations being IJoston ; and in value of cxportations. New Orleans. The l()reign exports of IMiiladelphia and Baltimore are made u)) principally cf domestic manufactures, i()r the producing of which tli(_) possess facilities seldom surpassed, and of the agricultural producliius (»l the States ot" which they are respectivi.'ly the conmiercial capitals, and of Virginia, or rather those portions of these several States lying east of the Alleghanies. Their importations are chiefly lin^iited to the more bulky and (;heii|»er of such t()reign fabrics, or mat<'rials and productions, as inc-urthe least risk, and as are most wanted by those; classes fi)r whom they export — the richer and Ihier articles, to which greater risk is attached, being generidly purchased of manulacturers' agents, at the larger important cities.
The southern I'ities have; a large ll)reign liiid coastwise cjport trade, for the reason that the lal)or in that jjortion olth' lomitry is princi])ally confined to the production of" those articles for V'. • ' 'hert; i., a futi home demand. The pcoj)lc of South Can 'in ', :.jr ...ample, are chiefly devoted to the production of" cotton and ric(^ and the exports from Charh'ston are |)rincipally made up of these articles. The same may be said of Georgia, with respect to cotton more particularly, and the k-xport'- from Savannah. Both of these ports have excellent harbors, o» , ;,y entrance and the; trade; of" Savannah is rapidly increasing. .lust hciow '.'ic city .'-ome obstructie»ns e-xist in the; Savannah river, caused by tiie sinking of xi'Srie-ls eluring the; war of 1812 and' 15 to pre-vent the Britijii from reaching and destrejying the city. Tlu\se are abe)ut being removed, and, when their removal is accomplished, vessels of licavy
sscls of heavy
dr.'mght can proceed safely to the wharves at the c.\ly. These southern cities import largely of northern maiuifai-tures. A statement fairly exhibiting the m vriucnt of merclamdise consfwini: wmM uliow a ilonieslic importation into iIk* southern cities having a much in ;ir<;r ratio than the l!»reign importaiions to their exp«)rt trade. While a greeitei portion of the coll' "f the soulli^tn States is exported Ikiih ihrir <)'\vn ports directly to Kur(>[)e, (Ik^ returns, either in niouey or meriU:mili«te, nre rec(uved prin 'pally through New York — which cx[)hiiiis *atistiictorily the excess of imports over the ex|' »rts of that city.
The citii'S of lialtimnf •, Charh\stoii, and iS;ivannah liiainlain their communications with the interior principally by railway; ami Mobile by the Mobile river and its tributaries. These, like tho northern cities, are pushing lines of railway into the heart of thee uutry. The rcswlts which arc; to tiillow the construction of such work> remain to be seen ; and it is acpiesiiou worthy of grave ccmsidrration whether these routcn are not calculated to eflJ'ct remarkable cliangi ;♦ in tlu; direction of our interior commeri'c, which, up to the pr(>sent time, \\:\< of necessity been eonrnied to ti-w ; and whether an apparent monopoly which has Ix'cn cnjoved by twct or thr<'e citii'S is not to iK'cotne, when conmierce hall be liberated from the chaniu^ls of necessity, 'he connnon [)ropertvof idl. In any event, there can be no(|ucstion as lo the goodellict wliicli the works referred to will hav<; upon the busiu>ss of the ports where tliev terminat*'. By opening a market to exit !isiv(^ tracts of country previously inaccessible, the producing area musi be largely increased ; and lh<' productions will naturally liillow lliese railways to a market for shipment.
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Statement of (In: receipts into ike trcasurij an aroiinf of' duties collected iii the ports of linslon. Neir York, I'hi/ade/phia, and Halt imorc, from 1835 /" the 3(VA ffJu/ir, IS'/J, inclusive.
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The (ullowinir tiiMcs arc sul)ii)ill('«| in ri't'crt'iicr to llic iiil.ind watrr rouirs, niid the (.'liararlcr and valuta of their trade, so liir as tliey ('(iiild I)e ol)taiii((l. Application was made to [(ersons iti caeli of the piiiicipal cities iJir inl<»rtnalioii relaliii;,' to llicir inland trade, wlilcli was nnsnecesst'ul. Il is mentioned with the hope that the principal connnercial cities on the Atlantic and in the interior will j)romptly take; measures to have this matter receive pro[)er attintion.
It is dne to tlu^ interests of the cities, to the inland trade, and to the railroad interest, that all ihc inli)rmation relating to routes, jiicility of transportation, expense, distrnice, &-c., slioidd he correctly prepared and protnj)tly given to tlu; j)ul)lic iii animal statements.
It is necessary to slate again, if any complaints are mad(! of int(>resting local points Icing ninictticed in this repoil, the fault is not with the undersigned, hnl is chargeable to the indiir'rencc of those to wliotn repealed apj)lications Were made fi>r the requisite data.
The appended statemctits have been compiled from ollicial and authentic relinib-, exhibiting the cstimaled value of the lonnage of the leading inland water routes which connect tin; tiilc waters of tin; A Jantic with those of the Gulf of Mexico.
There are at the [ires( nt time /(>///• great routes to wliic^h the interior tradt! oi'ihiMUHintry has been chiilly conlined — ihc Si. liawrcnc', th(! Krie canal, the I'ciinsylvania improvements, and the Mississippi river and its tribul. ries. All these routes are mutually connecli'd by an interior ih iwoik of raih'oads and canals, and niercliaiidlse may be llirwarded from the resjii-cMivc termini of each, ujjou tide water, to any jiart of the country, (and by water excc[»t upon the I'ennsylvania line,) and may be pissed with conv<'nience from one to the other. Then; are imj)oit:ii)t Works recently completed, and others in progress, d( signed to occupy a similar relation to this trade to those already described ; but these have too recently come into operation to allow their results to bi' compared with tin- above named. None of the |!)rmcr have passed into \\u'. great interior basin of the country save the (i(M)rgia line, which is yet wauling in those connexions which are necessary to secure; to il the trade of an extensive rangi; of country. When complel'd, the J3allimore and Ohio railroad will add another to what may be termed the iiatioiitil /l/uu and olliers c(]ually ■xt(^n.>ive, and pei haps equally im})ortant, will soon fiiUow.
L'|) to lh(! present time, conse(|uent]y, the routes of <!ommercc between the iiiti'rior and the sea-board have been those lirst described. We have, liitwever. uiiforlimatelv, accurate; and salisfactorv returns of the (juantitv and value upon one route only — the Kri<' canal. The excellent system prevailing upon ihat work gives, in great detail, every liict of inten'st in reli-rcncc to the source whence; received, tonnagf\ value, character, and direction of all property j)assing over il. Upon the St. Jiawreiice canals, values are not given in the re'porls of the Board of Works of Canada; and these hav(> been estimated to agre(% as nearly as possible, with the reluiiKMl values of the same articles upon the Krie canal. The tables showing the values of produce received at Ne>w ( )rU'lUn tiom ih(! interior are cetmj»ile(l lre)m the- annual slalemcnls which
Imvo iipperu'ed in thi^ " \ew Oriejuis Prieo Current" lor !i series of veiirs. There is no mode of iiseeriaiiiliii,r the v.ilue of propi ri y nnssinijf uj) tlie Mississippi river from ISew Orleans; it has, theiejlire, heeii estimated in the l(»llowinj^ tables to j'(jual three times the nmount of importations of liaciyn ^'oods.
TIk' want of eorrei't statistical information rclatinj; to the trade, comtneree, and navigation of this conll'deraity is a sullicient reason ti)r <;omn)ending, in a special manner, to the public, th(! volumes recently published, by I'roli'ssor Dellow, of the rniversily of Louisiana, entitled " The Industrial Wt'somces of the South and West," which can be profitably coiisuUcmI I>v idl desirous of obtaining commerciid int()rmation niiuulc in its details and philosopliiciil in its urrangenient.
The t()llo\s _, orief notices and nceompanying tables will fierve more fully to il|u>lr;iie the character of the business of this route in detail, and also vtwivvy to the mind ol' the reader some idea of the inlluence which ll'^e coi.'iiineree Mowing through this channel has had in building up the I. v\us and (;ities on llu' tide-wat.ers of the Hudson riser.
Alhani/. — This (.'ity, one ot" tln^ most anci(>nt, and at out; time of first coimiK'ri'ial importance among the marls of America, has direct relation with c()l(»nial trade and lake commerce and navigation.
When it is considered that the extraonimary liicilities lurnished by the Hudson river toward r(>acliing tin great marts on the Atlantic coast called into t;xislence, if they did oi actually creal<; a necessity fi)r, thosi' artilicial channels through which the great lake commerce liiids its way to tidt!-water, it will be seen that there is a most intimate commercial connexion between the great lakes and iIk; ports on the tide-waters of the Huilson. The whole elleet, ther(>i()re, of the vast trade under consideration, is not visible without a sketcb of the business of those ports — espiM-ially as much of the Canada trade, indeed^ nearly tlu- whoh; of it, with this country, reac^hes tide-waicr by way of Albany, and makt^s part of the commerce of the Hudson.
thriving business.
Wiitertbrd is the most northerly, and lies on the west bank of the river, nearly opposite Lansingburgh, at the point where the Champlain and Eric canals form their junction. It is not a large town but has some flourishing manufactories, among them several flouring mills, which add much to its canal commerce.
Lansingburgh, on the opposite side of the river, a little further south, Is an old town, which was engaged in a flourishing river commerce, carried on by means of sloops and schooners, as early as 1770, with New York and the West Indies.
warehouses at this day.
Troy, three miles south of Lansingburgh, is a large and enterprising modern city of about 30,000 inhabitants, liaving increased in population, from 1840 to 1850, 9,451. The city lies on both sides of the Hudson, six miles north of Albany, and one hundred and fifty-yix from New York. The principal portion of the city is on the eastern bank of the river, over which communication is kc])t up by ferries and a bridge. Troy is at present, tliereiore, virtually at the head of stc.'aniboat navigation on the Hudson. On the west bank, the canal is connected with the river by a lock, tlirough which boats may pass and thence tow by st(!ain to Albany and New York, or, which is more fre{iii<'iitly th(^ case, discharge thtir cargoes on board barges, of great capacity, which are towed ilown the river to New York, wiiile the canal craft r(;ceive another cargo and return northward or westward. It is this business of" transhipment and exchanges which forms the principal couiinerce of Troy, and occasions its rapid growth. It is connected with iJctstoa and New York, as well as Burlington, Rutland, MontrtMl, and all western cities, by railway, as will be observed l)y the accom])anying railway map.
Albany is the oldest and most important of all the river cities. It was first visited by lleruhick Hudson in 1009, and was settled a tiw years Inter, under the iipjU'Uation of the manor of " Hciissella<Ms-wyck," by a coli)ny of Dutch, under the manorial superinlindence of .Jereinais Van Iteiissellaer. It has steadily increased in population, w<'altli, and enterprise since the date of its settlement, but lias throughout adhered to many of its old Dutch ciisloius and names, in 1754 it had attained a population of 1,500 to 2,000; in ISOO, 5, -MO — since wiiii-h lime the number of iiihabitants have been douhled, on the average, ence in fifteen years, giving it, in 1840, ;i pojxiliilion of 33,721, and in 1850, 50,771. It is the caj)ilal oi the great kState of New York, and is now easily accessible fiom all parts of the commonwealth. Thecapiiolis siluattHl on the hill back from the river, commanding a line view tor many miles up and down the stream, as well as over the surrounding country. The elevated position of tht; city mak<\s it a healthy and delightial residence. The ("ountry around is uneven, and in somt* parts mountainous, but mostly susceptible of" a high state of cultivation.
of its river commerce were kept previous lo that date. As early as 1770, Albany sloops visited the West Indies in large numbers, and in 1785 the " Experiment" a sloop of 80 tons, was fitted out here for China, being the second adventure from this country to Canton. She created great interest in the China seas, returned in saf(?ty, and made several subsequent trips. The application of steam as a propelling power has nearly revolutionized the commerce of tlie ports on the Hudson ; and the ancient foreign trade of Lansingburgh, Troy, and Albany is now extinct. In 1791, no less than forty-two sail were seen to arrive at or pass Albany, on their way to places above, in a single day. After Albany was erected into a port of entry, Congress made an appropriation for the removal of the obstructions to navigation, about six miles below the city, known as the Overslaugh. Although much was done to clear tlie channel and prevent future accumulations, yet the passage is still difficult at low water, and requires further and more efficient improvements. No detailed statements of the river com- " merce of Albany are at hand ; but much may be learned from the (!xcellcnt reports of the auditor of the canal department with regard to the quantity and value of articles arriving at and going from tidewater. This will give nearly all the commerce of the river at Albany and points above.
The numb(T of vessels arriving and departing from Albany, consisting ol" schooners, sloops, brigs, steamers, propellers, and scows, was, in 1848, 788, and in 1849, 785. The tonnage entered and cleared at this place, of the same class of vessels, for a series of years was as follows :
Besides this nrray of" tonn.ige arriving at tide-water on the canals, there was, in ]85], of the same classes of property, to th(^ amount of $8,332,441 landed at Troy and Albany by railway from the west. There also went west by railway from Albany and Troy 29,112 tons of merchandise, furniture, and other proper!}''.
From the foregoing statements it may be seen that all the property from the Canadas via Lake Chamj)'ain, and all that tiom the western States via the canals or central line of railways, destined for New York or Boston, must pass through these tide-water ports, ivhieh it rarely does without being either transhipped or handled sufHciently to pay a tribute to the commerce of some one of them.
All)any and Troy are Jidvantageoiisly connected with Boston, New York, and the lakes Ontario and Erie l)y excellent water and railway routes, and, from present appearances, must contiiuie to increase in connnercial wealth and itnportance so long as the Atlantic cities on the one hand and th(! west on the other maintain and muUi])ly their present trallic with each other.
30,768,966
There sliduld be added to the foregoing table, in order to exhibit fairly the tonnage ol'the New York or Erie route, the amount of (Veighi carried to and taken from tide-water by the several lines of" railway. The following is the estimated business, in tons, taken from oflicinl souree.s, of the Northern or Ogdensburg, the New York Central, and tlie New York and Erie lines. These diflerent lines landed at tidewater, in the aggregate, 228,107 tons, valued at 811,405,350; and look from thence to the interior 89,112 tons, valued at 844,550,000.
'Comparative statement showing an estimate of the tons of some of (he principal articles landed at tide-water, and going from thence to the interior, via the different routes, in 1851.
1,292,670
Tlie.sc figures show correctly the tonaasvo arriving at and departing from tide-water on the Ilndson by canal, and that pa.ssing up and down the St. Lawrence canals, during tlie past year. Upon the Mississippi
routes tho estimates are based upon the best data obtainable. There are no means at hand ot'estimatmg with any probable degree of accuracy tiie "up" tonnage of the Mississippi. With these additions, tho toliowing table would show the comparative movement upon the dittcrent routes :
Cominiratwe statement showing tonnajre and value of merchandise sent from and received at seaboard btj way of the New York canals and St. Lawrence and Mississippi rivers for 1851.
The movement on the Pennsylvania line is not entered in the conijiarative statement, because only the through-tonnage, wiiich is suppo-sed to l)c represented by the amount Iran.-^ported over the rartage railroad, is shown. The amount of" this loniiag<> going (;ast upon this road tor 1851 was 13,()i)6 tons, valued at 81X?5,()iH>; total tonnage going west, 10,901 Ions, valued at 82,779,731, The tonnagt; of tin; jiuhlic works of INiuisylvania having an (a.st(>rn direction is derived cliiclly from the produce of tlu; t^tatc, which is of great magnitude and inijjortanc . For this trade there are two outlets — one by the Columbia railroati, and one by tli*; Tide-water canal, tin; returns of the tttnnago of which will be found annexed.
The movements for the past year upon the St. Lawrence and Portage routes only are given, tor the want of convenient data. The downward tonnage upon tlie St. Lawrence canals for 1850 was 212,13<0, against 320,621 tor 1851, upon which the above estimate is made.
Undor this title nn nstimiit(! will bo li)rin('(l of the jiifiiicjiitc viilijc ot th(i liikc ntHl river comtnorcc ()('18-')1, and nlso iiii csliiiiMtcOrilit! Viiluo of the (;iitirc c()M.«»tini;, catjal and railway coiiiincnM' of ihc United Stati'S for ISriiJ. h will H'adily he ix-rccivcd that all oin- coninirrec, which is not composed ol" transactions with (l)rei,t,Mi countries, |)ro|)( rjy eoincs under the dead of *' internal" or •'domestic" commerce, as it is a trade or sy.«tem of exeiianfjes which exists among ourselves, and tinough which we arc enabled to consume so large a share of our own i)roductions.
It is very probable, r.«ipccially in domestic trad(!, that the same merchandise or nroduee may enter into th(! comput.'ition of the . qregatc liir the whoh> country several dillerent times; but the tiict ll.it it is obliged to pay a comtnercial tribute nt cvt^ry point where it is handled, sold, or exchanged, in the .shape of comnussions, storage, <'artage, cooperage, insm'ance, etc., renders it as a pidi)ri!itely a pcrtion of the comniere(> of the phu'e where its value is enhanced by these expenses, as though lliey occurred each time in foreign countrie:^. Thus, a, computation of the value of lh(! entire commere< of the \\oil(l would show the value of the; imports and exports at each aiui every i .iL of all countries; and yet such a compulation would scarcely give ;,• definite idea of tli(! true "money value" or •'ciuaiuity" of the pi p.rty entering into "/''■ exeliange ; or, in other words, tlii; pro] I'tion ot llie ag': •gale j)niduetioiis of the world wliieli are exeh; iigt 1 or [>nt into a market prc'vious to consumjition. In these estiniates, tliere!i>re, the gross value of tli(> domestic trade will be considered, mid if tli(,' results arrived at be correct, they should nearly etirrespond with the aggregate business transacted by all the commercial houses in the country.
It has been shown that the domestic or coastwise tra(U> of the lakes in b^-'">l was valued at .^-31 1,473,158. As it is usual ti)r j)riees of all agricultural produce to lluetuate, it is impoitnnt to know the (juantily as Well as value <-omposing the commerce, in order to decide* upon the actual increase or decreas.' of prodiietion. The r<'tiu'ns of the district of "lUifliilo creek" show the I'ins of property composing the imports and exports at that port; and as the commerce of that distiict is u very fair rej)resentation of the cliarae ■. .>f the whole lake commerce, the tonnage, the value per ton, ol' the -mnierce of that port will be u>vd as a basis in ascertaining the tons of the lake commerce. In this wav, the average valine <if exports and imports is ascertained to be 87!) li) i)cr ton, which into $314,17'), loS, as above, gives 3,071,126 tons as the gro.-s inii)nrts ned exports at all the lake ports. Tlu^ licensed Amerii-au tonnage engaged in this trade was 215,975 measured tons, wliicli into 3,!)7 1,120 tons, gives a fraction oven- (>ighleen gross tons per ton measurement, or eighteen tons, as it may be called f()r coiivenienci', rec(Mved and discharged j)er ton licensed. Ai)plyiiig this rul(> to tlie tonnage of the Mississippi and its tributaries, with an addition of twenty-live per cent, in consiileration that the river tonnage is cmploye'd the whole year, instead of eight to nine months as on the lakes,\vill .show an approximation to the gross tons of the river commerce. Mr. Couwin's report on the "Steam-marine of the Interior"
states the river tonnage at 135,560 measured tons, which multiplied by twenty-four, gives 3,253,440 tons. Adding one-fourtii, 813,360 tons, to this amount for flat and keel-boat transportation, and tiie aggregate is 4,066,800 gross tons. The average value per ton of such property received at New Orleans during the year ending August 31, 1852, was $83 58, which is assumed as a fair representative value of the whole trade. Tlie gross value of the river commerce in 1851 was $339,502,744; and the total of lake and river, according to these estima. s, $653,976,202.
None of the enrolled and licensed tonnage of the United States is engaged in loreign trade. It amounted in 1851 to 2,046,132 tons, 87,476 of which was engaged in the cod-fisheries, 50,539 tons in the mackerelfisheries, and 1,854,318 tons in the " coasting trade." The tonnage of the lakes and rivers is all included in the "coasting trade," as cii. ^silied in the treasury returns. The treasury returns i()r 1852 show tiiat the aggregate registered, enrolled, and licensed tonnage has been uugm(>nted mice June 30, 1851, by amount ten per cent. If liiis increase of ten ])er cent, be added to 1,854,318 tons, an aggregate is arrived at f()r 1852, of 2,039,749 tons of ship[)ing employed in our domestic "carryiiic; trade" or "exchan<res," besides considerable recistered tonnage whicli frequently enters tlic coasting trnde between ihe Atlantic ports and those on the Gulf and the I'acific. It should he remarked here that a large proportion of" this tonnage is sail, and, tiiercl<)re, incaj)ablt' ot" as frecjuent trips as steam. An investigation, however, shows that there is very little dillerence in the carrying cajiacity per ton measurement; as the fuel and machinery of steamers take up so much room, and add so largely to the weight, that but a small proportion of freight is recjuired to put a st(!amer in the " passage trade" in "rmniing trim." Hence, the annual "carrying traih;" of a large steamer is generally less per ton measurement than that of a sailing vessel. As some of tl'is coasting tonnage is emj)l<)yed only in summer months, but the major portion of it during the whole year, the capacity per ton measurement will be assumtxl in this estimate at 20 gross tons. This f()rms an aggregate of property received and discharged, in the transaction of our domestic trade, of 40,794,980 tons; which estimated at the mean value ($81 36) per ton of the lake and river commerce of ]851, would constitute a gross sum of $3,319,030,372.
The canal commerce of liie United t^tates is prosi'cuted upon about 3,000 miles of canal, which, excluding the coal trade, cleannl and landed an average of about 6,000 tons per mile. The New York 8taie canals averaged, in clearances and landings, !d)ont 9,()(>() tons per mile, but this is abovf! the average f()r all the canals. At 6,000 tons per mile, 3,{)()0 miles give 18,000,000 tons, valued at $(')6 the ton, and li)rming a gross sum of $1,188,000,000.
There are also completed in this country, 13,315 milrs of railway; but as 2,500 miles have been opened since .January 1, 1S52, only 10,<S15 miles can ])e considered as having [)articipat<'(l in the trade of 1852. »S<veral of the longest freight lines have received and delivered an aggregate amounting to ;m average of 2,000 tons per mile; but as many other lines do a comparatively light li'eighting business, the average; assumed will be, 1,000 tons per mile, or a gross business of 10,815,U(X)
tons, whicli, from the gnneral character of railway freight, as being of u lighter and more costly character than water iVeight, may bo valued at $100 the ton : this would give an aggregate of gross railway commerce amounting to $1,081,500,000.
This is undoubtedly a very unsatisfactory way of computing the value of our domestic trade, but, until better data can be arrived at, the fairness of this statement cannot be denied ; and it is only put Ibrth as the nearest approximation that can be made to accuracy, under our present system of internal trade returns, in the hope that the startling results liere obtained may arouse those interested in this important trade to a full investigation of the subject by the collection of authentic data.
It has been customary herctotljre, in making up these or similar estimates, to call the net money-value of property oue-hnlf the gross amount. Though this process may correctly denote the number of tons transported, it will by no means decide that the same projjcrty has not entered and re-entered, several times, into the genera! account, as it mov(xl from ))oi[it to point in search of a consumer. Foi convenience, liowever, the f()ll()vving tabular statements, showing the gross and net tons and value, are presented :
20,3117,41)0 : $l,(;.-i9,51<),f,h(l i 40,794,980 $3, 319, 039, .372 9,000,000 1 594.000,000 ! 18.000,000 1 1,188,000,000 5, 407, .WO j 540,750,000 ! 10,815,000 | 1,081,500,000
The retiu'ns already made from some of the lake ports indicate an increase over 18/31 of over twenty-five per cent, in value of trade, and twenty per cent, inereasi^ of tonnage.
This eoinm(Mce and its necessities have occasioned the construction in the United States of nearly twenty thousand miles of magnetic telegrapii, at a ct)st of little less than $6,000,000.
Conunent upon such fiicts as arc; Ikmc presented will readily suggest ihemselvi'S to the minds of all intelligent men. It will bi; seen tiiat our domestic commerce is of incalculable value to us, even as repre-
sented by the " coasting" trade ; but when to this is added the value of our whale, cod, and mackerel fisheries, and our *Oalilbrnia trade, that is carried on in registered bottoms, its magnitude w Ul be still more astonishing. The fact that our domestic exchanges amount, by sale and resale, and by the additional value gained by the labor bestowed in transportation, sale, &c., annually to over Jive thousand million dollars, as the sum upon which one commission or profit is paid, and that in this trade is employed actively and profitably over tim million tons of shipping, which cost not less than one hundred and twenty million dollars, three thousand miles of canal, thirteen thousand miles of railway, and twenty thousand miles of telegraph, costing about tour hundred and fifty million dollars, is one calculated not only to astonish, but to excite admiration of the energy, industry, and enterprise which, in s(J short a period, have achieved this high position.
Statement sliowing tiio estimated value of ea<:h aggregate of the severnl articles received at each of the several ports in tlio district of llutfalo Creek coastwise null from Canada, and total values of nil, for the year ending the 31st
An necount of tlie principal articles of tltreicjn produce, growth, and niMuufirturr-, exported to the ISritish North American colonies, in British and Anieriian vessels, from the district of Ilutfalo Creek, for the year ending December
An account of the ])rincipal articles of the growth, produce, and nianuliiclurn of the I'nitcd States, exported from the district of Rufl'ilo Creek to the llritisli North American colonies, in liritisli and Americuii vi;H«els, for the year
An account of the princi|)al articles of foreign produce and manufacture, with the values and amount of duty, entitlcil to drawback, exported to the Itritish North American colonies, in Ilritish and American vessels, during the year
An account of the principal articles, quantities, and values, imported into the district of ltii''"ilo Creek, from the Ilritish North American cobmics, in American and British vessels, with the amount of duty rwx'ivtd, lor the year
Statement of C'anadian produce imported into the district of Biitlalo ('reek, for warehouse and for transportation in bond to tho port of New York, ti)r exportation to foreign countries, during the year ending December 31,
BntValo Oeok, iluring tho year ending December 31, 1851 liT
A staieinent of tiic vessels and tonnage whi('h entered into, and cleared from, the British North Amerioan colonii-s, at tho district of Butl'alo (.'reek, for the year ending Dccembci 31, 1851, distinguislung British from American, and Btvam from tiaili.ng vessels c 124
Enrolled and licensed tonnage for 1851 147
Canadian trade in 1851 ; imports and exports in .\nicrican atid IJritisli voshcIs. , , . 147 Tonnage, inward and outward, of An)erirnii .-ind Ilritish vc8.sels, stoam and sail., 14S Statement showing the principal articles, their quantity ant' value, imported coastwise into the port of Toledo during the year ending December 31, 1851. .. . HS Statement of the principal articles, their quantity and value, exported coastwise
Statement exhibiting the trade and tomiagc, AuicriciiU and Canadian, the tonnage enrolled, and the amount of duties collected in each of tho collection districts on tlie lakes, and tho aggregates of the whole lake commerce, for the
Statement showing tho quantity and value of tJio principal articles imported into each collection district on the lake frontier, from Canada, during the year ending December 31 , 1851 206-210
on the lake frontier to Canada during the year ending Dccenibor 31, 1851. . 211 215
Statement showing the value of some of the principal articles of foreign merchandise exported from the collection districts on tiie lake frontier to Canada during the year ending December 31, 1851 216 218
Statement oxiiibiting tiie export trade of the collection districts on the lake frontier with Canada during the year 1851, distinguishing between foreign and domestic produce, and showing what portion of the former was entitled to drawback, and whether exported in American or British vessels 219
Statement giving a tabular view of the Canadian import trade of the lake districts, and also the tonnage entering and clearing at each port, distinguishing American from British vessels, and steam from sail, during the year ending December 31 , 1851 220—222
Whitehall, during the year 1851 223
Statement showing the quantity of some of the principal articles exported and iinjtorted coastwise, in the several collection districts on the lake frontier, during the year ending December 31, 1851 224 — 229
Influence of the Erie canal on the prosperity and connnerce of the comlry 235
Comparative statement sliowing the tolJs, trade, and tonnage of the New Y'^ork Slate canals, and the progress in ccninierco, navigation, population, and valuation of the four i)riiicij)iil Atlantic cities, and the foreign commerce
ing the principal articles 400
Statement showing the value of imports, dutiable and free, into Canada from the United States, the amount of duties collected, the total value of exports, and the tonnage, steam and sail, inward and outward, at each port, in 1851 401—403
Comparative statement of the quantity and value of the principal articles of Canadian produce and manufacture exported during the years 1850 and 1851, and indicating to what country exported 404 — 411
which imported 41H
General statement showing imports into the port of New Carlisle, district of Gaspu, for the year ending January 5, 1852, distinguishing the countries from wlience and tiie ronte by Vi'liich imported 419
Abstract of the trade of the port of Qubec, showing the ships and tonnage employed, and the relative value of the imports, distinguishing foreign goods from goods of British produce and manufacture, during the year ended January 5, 1852 420
Abstract of the trade of the port of Quebec, showing the ships and tonnage employed, and tiie relative value of the exports, distinguishing foreign goods from iroods of British produce and manufacture, during the year ended December 31, 1851 420
Statement showing exports from Canada to the Ignited States, at the port of Quebec, in tlie year ending January 5, 1852, distinguishing the amounts carried in British and American vessels respectively 421
General statement showing the imports into tiie port of Quebec for the year ending January 5, 1852, distinguishing the countries from whence and the route by which imported 422, 423
year ended 1851, as compared with the year ended 1850, port of Quebec . . 428
An account of the staple articles, the produce of Canada, &c., exported in the year ended 5th January, 1852, as compared with the year ended 5th January, 1851, port of Montreal 429, 430
governor general, in the year ending January 5, 1853 431
Statement showing exports from Canada to the United States, at the port of Bruce, in the year ending January 5, 1852, distinguishing the amounts carried in British and American vessels respectively 433
Boston to the British American colonies during the year 1851 44S
Flour and wheat, the produce of Canada, export(ul from the port of New York to the British colonics, &c., in 1851 ; and also the value of all other Canada produce exported to the colonies and to Great Britain, &.c 442
Ues in Canada, for the years 1848, 1849, and 1850 443
Statement showing the relative amount of business done in American and Canadian vessels at the undermentioned American ports, at which sep^.rata statements have bean obtained, in 1850 443
Statistical view of the commerce of Canada, exhibiting the value of exports and imports from Great Britain, her colonies, and foreign countries, together with the tonnage of vessels arriving and departing, during the year 1850. . 444
years 1849 and 1850 450
Abstract of the trade of the port of St. John, showing the ships and tonnage cmployed, and the relative value of the imports, distinguishing foreign goods from goods of British produce and manufacture, during the year ending De-
Abstract of the trade of the port of St, John, showing the ships and tonnage cleared outward, and the relative value of the exports, distinguishing foreign goods from goods of British produce and manufacture, during the year
ending December 31, 1850 451
Abstract of the trade of the port of St. John, showing the ships and tonnage entered inward, and the relative value of the imports, (iistinguisiiing foreign goods from goods of British produce and manufacture, during the year ending December 31, 1851 451
Abstract of the trade of the port of St. John, showing the ships and tonnage cleared outward, and the relative value of the exports, distinguishing foreign goods from goods of British produce and manufacture, during the year
States in 1850 495
Return of the quantities offish and fisii oil exported from Halifax in tlie year 1851. 4'JC Number] of ships and their tonnage which entered inward at the port of Halifax during the year 1851, and the value of imports by such vessels, distinguishing British from foreign 497
1851 520
Ueturn of the quantity, value, rate, and amount of duly paid on principal articles, the growth, produce, or mantifacture of tlie United States, imported into the colony of Newfoundland, during the year ending January 5, 1852.. . . . 520, .521
Abstract of the number and tonnage of vessels which entered inward in the colony of Newfoundland in 1851, with the value of the goods imported in such vessels, distinguishing British from foreign 522
Abstract of the number and toiuiage of vcssols whicli cleared outward from Newfoundland in 1851, with the value of the articles e.\|)orted in such vessels, distinguishing British from foreign 523
Indies in 1851 .533
Statement showing tiin number of vessels which arrived at the port of St. John during tlio year 1851, with the places whence they came, the nature of the cargoes they brought, the port for which they sailed, and the freight they
Value of the exports of Prince Kdward island m 1851
Statement of the quantity, rate, and amount of <luty jiaid on all articles, the growth, produce, or manufacture of the United States, imported into the colony of Prince Kdward island in 1851
nies in tho years 1800, 1805, 1810, and 1815 545
Statement of tho number of ships and tonnage inward and outward in Great Britain and Ireland, to and from tho North American colonies, distinguishing Britisli from foreign, from 1840 to 1850, both years inclusive 546
riods 5.53
Table exhibiting tiie description, quantity, and vahie oftlio various articles of domestic production exported from twenty-three Atlantic ports of tho United States to the cdIdiiIcs of New Brunswick. Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, and Prince Fidward island, during the year 1851 554
1H51 557
Table of whipping, inward and outward, during 1851, to and from nine ports of the United States only, and the colonies of New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, and Prince J-klward island, distinguishing Anierican from British 558
during the same period 569
Statement of pickled tisli warehoused in the district of Boston and Charlestown, from June 30, 1847, to Juno 30, 1851 ; also, pickled fish withdrawn from warehouse during the game period 569
Abstract of bounty allowances to fishing vessels, paid by the collector and disbursing agent of the treasury at the port of Ikxiton, for the fishing seasons of the years 1^<41 to 1850, inclusive .^84
niiiritiino diHtrirtg of Franco, from tlio year 1^40 to tlio your IHM, incluHivo. OO.l— G07 ilcturn of tlio ()iiuntily of dried cod ('.tpoitt'tl direct from tlic pliico wlic.ro caught to tho cuIunicH of Franco, with tho rnto and amount of Imunty paid thuroon,
Return of tho ciuantity of dried cod exported from llio placcH wlicro caujrlit, by fishermen of F'rance, to foreign countricH, in tho yearH 1843 to 1850, incluHivo, with tho amount of bounty paid thuroon in each your GIO
Statement exhiliitinfr the value of foreign merehandisio imported, re-exportod, and cunsiimed, annually, trom l^'.M to H5I , inclusive, and also tlii^ estimati-d population and rate of eonsuiiiptioii |ier eapila during' the Maine period , . , (I-J.'i
Statement cd" the total number of persons who arrived at and departed from tho principal port of each cidleclioii distrii-l of the interior, by steamers, railroad cars, slajre-coachcs, canal b.jats.aiul steam I'erry boats, duriiij? tlio year
Comparative statement of tlie number and toiinagcof the steamboats on the northern lakes of tlio United States, tiio Mississippi valley, and tho Ohio basin.. W)!i Statement of the niimi>cr of steam and sail vessels enrolled, registered, orJicensfd, in the several collection districts of tho United States, that were lost on tiio lakes and rivers of the interior, in the year ending June 30, IbTtl, with the cause and manner of lo^s, and the number of persons who perished thereby 6(i(i
Statement exhibiting the number of American and foreign vessels, and also tlieir tonnaiff!, eiiiployed in foreign trade in the district of New Orleans, which entcrud and cleared, annually, from 18'JG to 1851, inclusive H7(>
Statement exhibiting the number of Anieriean and lijreign vessi In, and also their tonnage, employed in foreign trade in the district of Mobih;, which entered and ( learod annuully, from 182G tti 1p5I, inclusive 680
Charleston, annually, from 1834 to 1851, inclusive, direct trade 770
Statement of the receipts into tiie treasury, on account of duties collected, at the ports of Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Baltimore, from 1835 to the 30th of June, 1853, inclusive 770
Statement exhibiting the number of American and foreign vessels, and also their tonnage, employed in foreign trade in the district of Boston, which entered and cleared, annually, from 1826 to 1851 , inclusive 771
Statement exhibiting tiie number of American and foreign vessels, and also their tonnage, employed in foreign trade in the district of New York, which entered and cleared, annually, from 182G to 1851, inclusive 77i2
Statement exhibiting the numl>er of American and foreign vessels, and also their tonnage, employeu in foreijin trade in the district, of riiiladclphin, which entered and cleared, annually, from 1826 to 1851 , inclusive 773
Statement exhibiting the number of American and tbrcign vessels, and also their tonnage, employed in foreign trade in the district of llaltiniore, which entered and cleared, annually, from 1826 tu 1851, inclusive 774
Statement exhibiting the number of American and foreign vessels, and also their tonnage, employed in foreign trade in the district of Portland, which entered and cleared, annually, trom 1826 to 1851, inclusive 775
Statement exhibiting the number of American and foreign vessels, and also their tonnage, which entered from and cleared for (i>reign countries, including their repeated voyagt.--, from 1821 to 1851, inclusive 776, 777
Statement exhibiting the American and foreign tonnage entered and cleared at ports of the I'nited States during the years ending June 30, froni 1842 to 1851, inclusive, with per cent, increase 777
Tonnage entered and cleared at Albany during a scries of yearj 797
Table of the value of the commerce of all the tide-water ports for a series of years. 798 Table cxliibiting tlie proportion of each class of property coming to tide-water. . . 798 Table showing tiie character, quantity, and value of the property coming to tidewater on the State canals during the year 1851 799, 800
| 292,838 | common-pile/pre_1929_books_filtered | cihm_47988 | public_library | public_library_1929_dolma-0013.json.gz:1310 | https://archive.org/download/cihm_47988/cihm_47988_djvu.txt |
9cR44w-6v3KnsWtj | Self-Assessment Scenarios for Health Care Assistant Students | Primary Navigation
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Book Contents Navigation
Introduction
Acknowledgements
About Communicating with the Health Care Team
Video Scenario: Communicating with the Health Care Team
About Isolation Precautions
Video Scenario: Isolation Precautions
About Lifts and Transfers
Video Scenario: Lifts and Transfers
About Morning Care
Video Scenario: Morning Care
About Roles and Responsibilities of the HCA
Video Scenario: Roles and Responsibilities of the HCA
Versioning History
Previous/next navigation
Self-Assessment Scenarios for Health Care Assistant Students Copyright © 2022 by Province of British Columbia is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted. | 143 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://opentextbc.ca/hcascenarios/chapter/video-scenario-communicating-with-the-health-care-team/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:3955 | https://opentextbc.ca/hcascenarios/chapter/video-scenario-communicating-with-the-health-care-team/ |
xKEXKivypDsmatK1 | Open Music Theory - Fall 2023 | I. Fundamentals
10 Compound Meter and Time Signatures
Chelsey Hamm and Mark Gotham
Key Takeaways
- Compound meters are meters in which the beat divides into three and then further subdivides into six.
- Duple meters have groupings of two beats, triple meters have groupings of three beats, and quadruple meters have groupings of four beats. You can determine these groupings aurally by listening carefully and tapping along to the beat.
- There are different conducting patterns for duple, triple, and quadruple meters; these are the same in both compound and simple meters.
- Time signatures in compound meters express two things: how many divisions are contained in each measure (the top number), and the division unit—which note gets the division (the bottom number).
- Rhythms in compound meters get different counts based upon their division unit. Beats that are not articulated (because they contain more than one beat or because of ties, rests, or dots) receive parentheses around their counts.
In the previous chapter, Simple Meter and Time Signatures, we explored rhythm and time signatures in simple meters—meters in which the beat divides into two and further subdivides into four. In this chapter, we will learn about compound meters—meters in which the beat divides into three and further subdivides into six.
Listening to and Conducting Compound Meters
Compound meters can be duple, triple, or quadruple, just like simple meters. In other words, the beats of compound meters group into sets of either two, three, or four. The difference is that each beat divides into three divisions instead of two, as you can hear by listening carefully to the following examples:
-
“End of the Road” (1992) by Boyz II Men is in a duple meter—the beats group into a two pattern. Tap along to the beat and notice how it divides into three parts instead of two. If you further divide the beat (by tapping twice as fast), you will feel that the beat subdivides into six parts.
- The second movement (Minuet) of Franz Joseph Haydn’s Sonata no. 42 in G Major (1784) is in a compound triple meter. Listen for the groupings of three beats, each of which divides into three.
- Finally, a compound quadruple meter contains four beats, each of which divides into three. Listen to “Exogenesis Symphony Part III” (2010) by the alternative rock band Muse. This is in a compound quadruple meter; in other words, the beats are grouped into a four pattern.
In general, it is less common for music to be written in compound meters. Nonetheless, you must learn how to read music and perform in these meters in order to master Western musical notation.
Review the conducting patterns for simple meters in the previous chapter, as they are the same for compound meters.
Time Signatures
Measures in compound meters are equivalent to one beat grouping (duple, triple, or quadruple), just as they are in simple meters. However, the two numbers in the time signature express different information for compound meters. The top number of a time signature in compound meter expresses the number of divisions in a measure, while the bottom number expresses the division unit—which note value is the division. shows a common compound-meter time signature.
Just like in simple meter, compound-meter time signatures are not fractions (and there is no line between the two numbers), and they are placed after the clef on the staff. In
, the top number (6) means that each measure will contain six divisions; the bottom number (8) means that the eighth note is the division. This means that each measure in this time signature will contain six eighth notes, as you can verify by examining .In compound meters, the top number is always a multiple of three. Divide this number by three to find the corresponding number of beats in simple meter: top numbers of 6, 9, and 12 correspond to duple, triple, and quadruple meters respectively. In compound meters, the bottom number is usually one of the following:
- 8, which means the eighth note receives the division.
- 4, which means the quarter note receives the division.
- 16, which means the sixteenth note receives the division.
The following table summarizes the six categories of meters that we have covered so far:
[table “36” not found /]
Counting in Compound Meter
While counting compound meter rhythms, it is recommended that you conduct in order to keep a steady tempo. Because beats in compound meter divide into three, they are always dotted. Beats in compound meter are as follows:
- If 8 is the bottom number, the beat is a dotted quarter note (equivalent to three eighth notes).
- If 4 is the bottom number, the beat is a dotted half note (equivalent to three quarter notes).
- If 16 is the bottom number, the beat is a dotted eighth note (equivalent to three sixteenth notes).
In simple meters, the beat divides into two parts, the first accented and the second non-accented. In compound meters, the beat divides into three parts, the first accented and the second and third non-accented. The counts for compound meter are different from simple meter, as demonstrated in
, which is in [latex]\mathbf{^6_8}[/latex].https://musescore.com/user/32728834/scores/8394558/embed
In this time signature, each measure has two beats (6÷3=2), indicating duple meter. Each dotted quarter note (the beat) gets a count, which is expressed in Arabic numerals, like in simple meter. For notes that are longer than one beat (such as the dotted half note in the fourth measure of
), the beats that are not counted out loud are still written in parentheses. Divisions are counted using the syllables “la” (first division) and “li” (second division). As the final measure of shows, further subdivisions at the sixteenth-note level are counted as “ta,” with the “la” and “li” syllables on the eighth-note subdivisions remaining consistent.The third measure of
presents two of the most common compound-meter rhythms with divisions, so make sure to review this measure carefully if you are not familiar with compound meter.Please note that your instructor may employ a different counting system. Open Music Theory privileges American traditional counting, but this is not the only method.
(a) duple, (b) triple, and (c) quadruple meter. Just as with simple meters, compound duple meters have only two beats, compound triple meters have three beats, and compound quadruple meters have four beats.
gives examples of rhythms inhttps://musescore.com/user/32728834/scores/8394447/embed
Like in simple meters, beats that are not articulated because of rests and ties are written in parentheses and not counted out loud, as shown in
. However, because dotted notes receive the beat in compound meters, dotted rhythms do not cause beats to be written in parentheses the way they do in simple meters.https://musescore.com/user/32728834/scores/6296091/embed
Counting with Division Units of 4 and 16
So far, we have focused on meters with a dotted-quarter beat. In compound meters with other beat units (shown in the bottom number of the time signature), the same counting patterns are used for the beats and subdivisions, but they correspond to different note values (
).https://musescore.com/user/32728834/scores/8394456/embed
Each of these rhythms sounds the same and is counted the same. They are also all considered compound triple meters. The difference in each example is the bottom number—which note gets the division unit (eighth, quarter, or sixteenth), which then determines the beat unit.
Beaming, Stems, and Flags
In compound meters, beams still connect notes together by beat; beaming therefore changes in different time signatures. In the first measure of , sixteenth notes are grouped into sets of six, because six sixteenth notes in a [latex]\mathbf{^6_8}[/latex] time signature are equivalent to one beat. In the second measure of , sixteenth notes are grouped into sets of three, because three sixteenth notes in a [latex]\mathbf{^{\:6}_{16}}[/latex]time signature are equivalent to one beat.
https://musescore.com/user/32728834/scores/8394474/embed
When the music involves note values smaller than a quarter note, you should always clarify the meter with beams, regardless of whether the time signature is simple or compound.
shows twelve sixteenth notes beamed properly in two different meters. The first measure is in simple meter, so the notes are grouped by beat into sets of four; in the second measure, the compound meter requires the notes to be grouped by beat into sets of six.The same rules of stemming and flagging that applied in simple meter still apply in compound meter. For notes above the middle line, stems and flags point downward on the left side of the note, and for notes below the middle line, stems and flags point upward on the right side of the note. Stems and flags on notes on the middle line can point in either direction, depending on the surrounding notes.
Like in simple meters, partial beams can be used for mixed rhythmic groupings. If you aren’t yet familiar with these conventions, pay special attention to how the notes in
are beamed.https://musescore.com/user/32728834/scores/6296096/embed
- Compound Meter Tutorial (musictheory.net) (compound meter starts about halfway through)
- Video Tutorial on Compound Meters and Beats (YouTube) (start at 1:49 for compound meter)
- Compound Meter Counting and Time Signatures (John Ellinger)
- Compound Meter Counting (YouTube)
- Compound Meter Rhythmic Practice (YouTube)
- Compound Meter Beaming (Michael Sult)
- Meter Identification (Simple and Compound) (.pdf,), and with Bar Lines (.pdf)
- Meter Beaming (Simple and Compound) (.pdf), and pp. 4 and 5 (.pdf)
- Time Signatures (Simple and Compound) (.pdf)
- Counting in 6/8 (.pdf, .pdf, .pdf)
- Time Signatures (.pdf, .pdf, .pdf)
- Bar Lines (.pdf), and p. 2 (.pdf)
A meter that divides the beat into three parts.
A meter with two beats per measure.
A meter with three beats per measure.
A meter with four beats per measure.
An indication of meter in Western music notation, often made up of two numbers stacked vertically.
The note value that divides the beat into two or three parts (in simple or compound meters, respectively); for example, the eighth note in 4/4 or 6/8.
A meter that divides the beat into two parts.
Created by bar lines, a measure (or bar) is equivalent to one beat grouping.
The horizontal lines that connect certain groups of notes together. | 2,190 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://pressbooks.nebraska.edu/openmusictheory/chapter/compound-meters-and-time-signatures/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:53266 | https://pressbooks.nebraska.edu/openmusictheory/chapter/compound-meters-and-time-signatures/ |
ew9mDN_wYJKCgoLO | Introductory Biology: Evolutionary and Ecological Perspectives | 106 Demographics and Population Growth
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Describe how ecologists measure population size and density
- Describe three different patterns of population distribution
- Use life tables to calculate mortality rates
- Describe the three types of survivorship curves and relate them to specific populations
Populations are dynamic entities. Their size and composition fluctuate in response to numerous factors, including seasonal and yearly changes in the environment, natural disasters such as forest fires and volcanic eruptions, and competition for resources between and within species. The statistical study of populations is called demography: a set of mathematical tools designed to describe populations and investigate how they change. Many of these tools were actually designed to study human populations. For example, life tables, which detail the life expectancy of individuals within a population, were initially developed by life insurance companies to set insurance rates. In fact, while the term “demographics” is sometimes assumed to mean a study of human populations, all living populations can be studied using this approach.
Population Size and Density
Populations are characterized by their population size (total number of individuals) and their population density (number of individuals per unit area). A population may have a large number of individuals that are distributed densely, or sparsely. There are also populations with small numbers of individuals that may be dense or very sparsely distributed in a local area. Population size can affect potential for adaptation because it affects the amount of genetic variation present in the population. Density can have effects on interactions within a population such as competition for food and the ability of individuals to find a mate. Smaller organisms tend to be more densely distributed than larger organisms (Figure 1).
VISUAL CONNECTION
As this graph shows, population density typically decreases with increasing body size. Why do you think this is the case?
Answer:
Smaller animals require less food and others resources, so the environment can support more of them per unit area.
Estimating Population Size
The most accurate way to determine population size is to count all of the individuals within the area. However, this method is usually not logistically or economically feasible, especially when studying large areas. Thus, scientists usually study populations by sampling a representative portion of each habitat and use this sample to make inferences about the population as a whole. The methods used to sample populations to determine their size and density are typically tailored to the characteristics of the organism being studied. For immobile organisms such as plants, or for very small and slow-moving organisms, a quadrat may be used. A quadrat is a wood, plastic, or metal square that is randomly located on the ground and used to count the number of individuals that lie within its boundaries. To obtain an accurate count using this method, the square must be placed at random locations within the habitat enough times to produce an accurate estimate. This counting method will provide an estimate of both population size and density. The number and size of quadrat samples depends on the type of organisms and the nature of their distribution.
For smaller mobile organisms, such as mammals, a technique called mark and recapture is often used. This method involves marking a sample of captured animals in some way and releasing them back into the environment to mix with the rest of the population; then, a new sample is captured and scientists determine how many of the marked animals are in the new sample. This method assumes that the larger the population, the lower the percentage of marked organisms that will be recaptured since they will have mixed with more unmarked individuals. For example, if 80 field mice are captured, marked, and released into the forest, then a second trapping 100 field mice are captured and 20 of them are marked, the population size (N) can be determined using the following equation:
Using our example, the population size would be 400.
These results give us an estimate of 400 total individuals in the original population. The true number usually will be a bit different from this because of chance errors and possible bias caused by the sampling methods.
Species Distribution
In addition to measuring density, further information about a population can be obtained by looking at the distribution of the individuals throughout their range. A species distribution pattern is the distribution of individuals within a habitat at a particular point in time—broad categories of patterns are used to describe them.
Individuals within a population can be distributed at random, in groups, or equally spaced apart (more or less). These are known as random, clumped, and uniform distribution patterns, respectively (Figure 2). Different distributions reflect important aspects of the biology of the species; they also affect the mathematical methods required to estimate population sizes. An example of random distribution occurs with dandelion and other plants that have wind-dispersed seeds that germinate wherever they happen to fall in favorable environments. A clumped distribution, may be seen in plants that drop their seeds straight to the ground, such as oak trees; it can also be seen in animals that live in social groups (schools of fish or herds of elephants). Uniform distribution is observed in plants that secrete substances inhibiting the growth of nearby individuals (such as the release of toxic chemicals by sage plants). It is also seen in territorial animal species, such as penguins that maintain a defined territory for nesting. The territorial defensive behaviors of each individual create a regular pattern of distribution of similar-sized territories and individuals within those territories. Thus, the distribution of the individuals within a population provides more information about how they interact with each other than does a simple density measurement. Just as lower density species might have more difficulty finding a mate, solitary species with a random distribution might have a similar difficulty when compared to social species clumped together in groups.
Demography
While population size and density describe a population at one particular point in time, scientists must use demography to study the dynamics of a population. Demography is the statistical study of population changes over time: birth rates, death rates, and life expectancies. These population characteristics are often displayed in a life table.
Life Tables
Life tables provide important information about the life history of an organism and the life expectancy of individuals at each age. They are modeled after actuarial tables used by the insurance industry for estimating human life expectancy. Life tables may include the probability of each age group dying before their next birthday, the percentage of surviving individuals dying at a particular age interval (their mortality rate, and their life expectancy at each interval. An example of a life table is shown in Table 1 from a study of Dall mountain sheep, a species native to northwestern North America. Notice that the population is divided into age intervals (column A). The mortality rate (per 1000) shown in column D is based on the number of individuals dying during the age interval (column B), divided by the number of individuals surviving at the beginning of the interval (Column C) multiplied by 1000.
For example, between ages three and four, 12 individuals die out of the 776 that were remaining from the original 1000 sheep. This number is then multiplied by 1000 to give the mortality rate per thousand.
As can be seen from the mortality rate data (column D), a high death rate occurred when the sheep were between six months and a year old, and then increased even more from 8 to 12 years old, after which there were few survivors. The data indicate that if a sheep in this population were to survive to age one, it could be expected to live another 7.7 years on average, as shown by the life-expectancy numbers in column E.
| A | B | C | D | E |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Age interval (years) | Number dying in age interval out of 1000 born | Number surviving at beginning of age interval out of 1000 born | Mortality rate per 1000 alive at beginning of age interval | Life expectancy or mean lifetime remaining to those attaining age interval |
| 0–0.5 | 54 | 1000 | 54.0 | 7.06 |
| 0.5–1 | 145 | 946 | 153.3 | — |
| 1–2 | 12 | 801 | 15.0 | 7.7 |
| 2–3 | 13 | 789 | 16.5 | 6.8 |
| 3–4 | 12 | 776 | 15.5 | 5.9 |
| 4–5 | 30 | 764 | 39.3 | 5.0 |
| 5–6 | 46 | 734 | 62.7 | 4.2 |
| 6–7 | 48 | 688 | 69.8 | 3.4 |
| 7–8 | 69 | 640 | 107.8 | 2.6 |
| 8–9 | 132 | 571 | 231.2 | 1.9 |
| 9–10 | 187 | 439 | 426.0 | 1.3 |
| 10–11 | 156 | 252 | 619.0 | 0.9 |
| 11–12 | 90 | 96 | 937.5 | 0.6 |
| 12–13 | 3 | 6 | 500.0 | 1.2 |
| 13–14 | 3 | 3 | 1000 | 0.7 |
Survivorship Curves
Another tool used by population ecologists is a survivorship curve, which is a graph of the number of individuals surviving at each age interval versus time. These curves allow us to compare the life histories of different populations (Figure 3). There are three types of survivorship curves. In a type I curve, mortality is low in the early and middle years and occurs mostly in older individuals. Organisms exhibiting a type I survivorship typically produce few offspring and provide good care to the offspring increasing the likelihood of their survival. Humans and most mammals exhibit a type I survivorship curve. In type II curves, mortality is relatively constant throughout the entire life span, and mortality is equally likely to occur at any point in the life span. Many bird populations provide examples of an intermediate or type II survivorship curve. In type III survivorship curves, early ages experience the highest mortality with much lower mortality rates for organisms that make it to advanced years. Type III organisms typically produce large numbers of offspring, but provide very little or no care for them. Trees and marine invertebrates exhibit a type III survivorship curve because very few of these organisms survive their younger years, but those that do make it to an old age are more likely to survive for a relatively long period of time.
Footnotes
- Data Adapted from Edward S. Deevey, Jr., “Life Tables for Natural Populations of Animals,” The Quarterly Review of Biology 22, no. 4 (December 1947): 283-314.
Glossary
- demography
- the statistical study of changes in populations over time
- life table
- a table showing the life expectancy of a population member based on its age
- mark and recapture
- a method used to determine population size in mobile organisms
- mortality rate
- the proportion of population surviving to the beginning of an age interval that dies during that age interval
- population density
- the number of population members divided by the area being measured
- population size
- the number of individuals in a population
- quadrat
- a square within which a count of individuals is made that is combined with other such counts to determine population size and density in slow moving or stationary organisms
- species distribution pattern
- the distribution of individuals within a habitat at a given point in time
- survivorship curve
- a graph of the number of surviving population members versus the relative age of the member
Access for free at https://openstax.org/books/concepts-biology/pages/1-introduction | 2,550 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://pressbooks.umn.edu/introbio/chapter/popdemographics/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:81117 | https://pressbooks.umn.edu/introbio/chapter/popdemographics/ |
6vxBWkqTLA9l5zll | 7.1: Adaptive Strategies | 7.1: Adaptive Strategies
People all over the world rely on modes of production, distribution, and consumption in order to provide food and other commodities necessary in life. These modes differ based on culture in the ways that humans relate to and make use of the natural environment, how humans relate to each other, and how the institutions of society and federal states cause change. Production is the various forms of transformation of nature's raw materials into a form more suitable for human use. Distribution is the transport of produced goods whether that be by land, air, or sea to the consumer. Consumption is the buying or use of a good, food, material or service that has been previously produced and distributed. This section discusses specific aspects of the different strategies for these concepts that have been used over time and that continue to be used in different cultures worldwide. | 193 | common-pile/libretexts_filtered | https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Anthropology/Cultural_Anthropology/Cultural_Anthropology_(Wikibook)/7%3A_Production_Inequality_and_Development/7.1%3A_Adaptive_Strategies | libretexts | libretexts-0000.json.gz:21327 | https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Anthropology/Cultural_Anthropology/Cultural_Anthropology_(Wikibook)/7%3A_Production_Inequality_and_Development/7.1%3A_Adaptive_Strategies |
jx_bhgYAewvNDd4X | 13.2: Olfaction (Smell) | 13.2: Olfaction (Smell)
Like taste, the sense of smell, or olfaction , is also responsive to chemical stimuli. The olfactory receptor neurons are located in a small region within the superior nasal cavity (Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\) ). This region is referred to as the olfactory epithelium and contains bipolar sensory neurons. Each olfactory sensory neuron has dendrites that extend from the apical surface of the epithelium into the mucus lining the cavity. As airborne molecules are inhaled through the nose, they pass over the olfactory epithelial region and dissolve into the mucus. These odorant molecules bind to proteins that keep them dissolved in the mucus and help transport them to the olfactory dendrites. The odorant–protein complex binds to a receptor protein within the cell membrane of an olfactory dendrite. These receptors are G protein–coupled, and will produce a graded membrane potential in the olfactory neurons.
The axon of an olfactory neuron extends from the basal surface of the epithelium, through an olfactory foramen in the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone, and into the brain. The group of axons called the olfactory tract connect to the olfactory bulb on the ventral surface of the frontal lobe. From there, the axons split to travel to several brain regions. Some travel to the cerebrum, specifically to the primary olfactory cortex that is located in the inferior and medial areas of the temporal lobe. Others project to structures within the limbic system and hypothalamus, where smells become associated with long-term memory and emotional responses. Smell is the one sensory modality that does not synapse in the thalamus before connecting to the cerebral cortex. This intimate connection between the olfactory system and the cerebral cortex is one reason why smell can be a potent trigger of memories and emotion.
The nasal epithelium, including the olfactory cells, can be harmed by airborne toxic chemicals. Therefore, the olfactory neurons are regularly replaced within the nasal epithelium, after which the axons of the new neurons must find their appropriate connections in the olfactory bulb. These new axons grow along the axons that are already in place in the cranial nerve. | 457 | common-pile/libretexts_filtered | https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Human_Biology/Human_Anatomy_Lab/13%3A_The_Somatic_Nervous_System_(Special_Senses)/13.02%3A_Olfaction_(Smell) | libretexts | libretexts-0000.json.gz:10104 | https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Human_Biology/Human_Anatomy_Lab/13%3A_The_Somatic_Nervous_System_(Special_Senses)/13.02%3A_Olfaction_(Smell) |
EZ3yLkDNzGMsiYkq | The strand flora of the Hawaiian Archipelago. II. Ecological relations. | GEOGRAPHICAL RELATIONS
For a long time botanists have manifested particular interest in the strand vegetation of various countries. The floras of many continental and insular strands have alike * yielded significant material. There is, however, absolutely no comprehensive account of the Hawaiian littoral. Fragmentary and uncoordinated notes concerning various Hawaiian strand plants are given by Hillebrand, Wawra, Gray, Chamisso, Heller, Mann, Schauinsland, Forbes, and other botanists, who at various times during the past century have studied the Hawaiian flora. In the works of none of these investigators is the littoral flora given any special prominence or consideration. This is somewhat surprising, as much of the Hawaiian coast line is readily accessible by boat or trail, whereas the montane districts present innumerable difficulties to the explorer and collector.
Guppy ( ’06),* in connection with his suggestive studies of plant dispersal in the Pacific, visited the Hawaiian Archipelago and studied the strand flora with reference to the general problems of evolution and distribution. Frequent references are made to Guppy’s work in the present paper. His brilliant theories will undoubtedly require more or less revision as data concerning the Pacific flora become more comprehensive and standardized.
MacCaughey: The strand flora
The unique position of the Hawaiian Islands, as the most northern group of the great Polynesian island series, and as a region of extreme isolation, gives particular significance to its strand flora. The absences from this flora are as important criteria as are the species actually present, and in many ways contribute as effectively to our knowledge of the origin and history of Hawaii’s strand flora.
The attempt is here made to present a salient account of the Hawaiian littoral flora, both from the standpoint of content and dispersal, and also from the ecological viewpoint. In the latter phases of the subject the author has been particularly interested. During a residence of nine years in the islands he has made hundreds of excursions along Hawaiian strands, including the principal islands of the archipelago. The present papers incorporate the important data of these field studies.
A noteworthy feature of the littoral floras of the tropical Pacific islands is their remarkable similarity . As Hedley (’15) expresses it: “The same species are repeated from atoll to atoll over enormous distances across the Pacific Ocean. The identity of the vegetation possessed by tiny islets separated by thousands of miles of deepest ocean is very striking, since paradoxically they present a greater continuity of life range than any continent can show." Many of the more common Hawaiian littoral plants occur on practically all the islands of the archipelago, along an axis of nearly two thousand miles, whereas the montane species are highly localized.
Just as the interior mountainous districts of a high Pacific island contain the majority of the endemic species, so the strand regions are characterized by a majority of the cosmopolitan or wide-ranging species. Tansley and Fritsch (’05) find two main causes for “the striking uniformity of strand plants through the tropics — first, the great similarity of life conditions prevailing on tropical coasts, and secondly, tropical strand plants are mostly adapted for distribution by ocean currents.” These factors will be considered in detail in later sections of this paper.
As will be shown later, the Hawaiian littoral flora comprises many species that occur in other parts of the Pacific, and in many other parts of the world. The mountain flora, on the contrary,
of the Hawaiian Archipelago
is highly endemic and precinctive, and each island possesses an array of peculiar forms. The Hawaiian Islands therefore obey the general law of the cosmopolitanism of littoral constituents.
The geographic situation of the Hawaiian Islands is unique, and has a very important bearing upon the character of the strand flora. There is no other land area of equal magnitude on the earth that is so far removed from continental land areas. The Hawaiian Islands are the most isolated islands, of their size, in the world, and their flora strikingly and faithfully registers this profound and prolonged isolation. An examination of a map of the North Pacific Ocean will show the nature of this isolation. Using the island of Oahu, which is situated in the eastern part of the archipelago, as a base point, the distances to adjacent landmasses, in terms of nautical miles, to ports specified, are as follows:
The isolation is further emphasized by an examination of the deep-sea soundings in the vicinity of the Hawaiian Islands, which show that the islands rise from abyssal depths. The great deeps of the Pacific Ocean, which lie between the Hawaiian Archipelago and the continents, are:
The isolation of the Hawaiian flora is reflected in the vegetation of the littoral zone by the high proportion of endemic species, 32 out of a total of no, or 30 per cent. Nine of these belong to endemic genera. This is a remarkable showing, since littoral floras, in all parts of the world, are usually comprised almost wholly of cosmopolitan and non-endemic constituents.
South Pacific equivalents of Hawaii
In the comparisons which are likely to be made of the Hawaiian flora with those of the South Pacific islands it is important to recognize the geologic and topographic status of the various island groups. Guppy (’06, p. 14) makes the following significant observationt :
The Hawaiian Islands, standing alone in the North Pacific, form a floral region in themselves, a region that is the equivalent not of one group in the South Pacific, such as that of Fiji or of Tahiti, but of the whole area comprising all the groups extending from Fiji to the Paumotu Archipelago.
For the purposes of this paper the islands and continental coasts of the Pacific region may be roughly divided into the following great phyto-geographic provinces, listed clockwise in and around this greatest of marine basins. These provinces are not presented as of equal biological value or range, but merely for purposes of convenience in description.
Melanesia, such as Ticopia.
Extent of the Hawaiian littoral The great length of the archipelago gives the littoral zone a much larger significance and extent than if the archipelago consisted of but a few islands situated close together. The Hawaiian littoral, ranging for nearly two thousand miles, contrasts sharply with the compact littoral of such groups as Samoa, Tonga, New Caledonia, Ellice and Phoenix. Other Pacific island groups which are extended over long axes, similar to Hawaii, are the Aleutian, Kurile, Paumotu, Marshall, Caroline, and Solomon Islands.
The Hawaiian strand occupies an island series extending from 1 8° 54' to 220 15' north latitude, and between 1540 50' and 160° 30' of longitude west of Greenwich. This range should greatly increase the mathematical probability of plant dispersal, and in some measure tend to neutralize the powerful isolation-factor. The east-and-west range of the littoral naturally results in a much greater homogeneity of flora than would be the case in an archipelago with a dominant north-and-south axis. In this respect the Hawaiian Islands may be contrasted with such archipelagofes as the Philippines, and the Mariana and Maidive groups.
The great variation in the size and elevation of the several islands markedly influences the extent of the littoral. In general, the low islands have strands that extend further back into the interior than do those of the high islands; the small islands have a larger proportion of strand, relative to their total area, than do the large islands. The small, low coral islets that predominate in the western end of the archipelago are littoral throughout practically all their area; the large, high islands of Maui and Hawaii, at the eastern extremity of the archipelago, have a narrow and closely defined strand.
7. Small isles along the coasts of Oahu, most of them formerly connected with the
island; sparse vegetation: Kihewamoku, Mokuaia; Pulemoku; Kukuihoolua; Mokualai; Mokolii; Kapapa; Ahuolaka; Kekepa; Mokuoloe; Mokolea Mokulua; Kaonikaipu; Mokauea; Mokuoeo; Onini; Moku Umaume; Laulaunui.
A number of the smaller islands of the Hawaiian Archipelago rise very abruptly from the sea, and are characterized by steep or precipitous coasts. The following are of this type:
bight on the west side of the island.
The largest strand areas on any single island occur on the island of Hawaii; the smallest strands are those of the tiny islets in the westward end of the archipelago. On the whole, the Hawaiian strand, as a phytogeographic province, is poorly developed when compared with the Indo-Malayan or West Indian strands, or with those of numerous other archipelagoes.
Subsidence and elevation
A factor of far-reaching importance in any biological studies in the Hawaiian Archipelago is that of subsidence, i. e., the islands are but the apices of lofty and slowly-sinking submarine mountains. Physiographical evidence is accumulating to show that during previous stages in the history of the central Pacific, these islands undoubtedly stood thousands of feet higher than they do at present. Many stages of subsidence and erosion may be found today within the group, ranging from the large, actively volcanic island of Hawaii (nearly 14,000 feet in elevation), at one end of the chain, to the tiny coral atolls, but a few feet above sea-level, which are scattered along the other extremity.
Considering the strand zone of any given island, it is evident that through a long period of time this zone has been slowly creeping up the slopes of the island, and the terrestrial vegetation has been crowded into steadily diminishing areas. In other words, the total mileage of strand was formerly much greater than at present, other things being equal. Granting slow subsidence as the prevalent condition of Pacific islands (see, in this connection, an important contribution by Bryan, ’16), the great strand mileage
of an island like Hawaii steadily decreases until ultimately the condition exhibited by the tiny strand of Laysan or Midway is reached. In this manner the subsidence-factor, although not of especial force at any one time, has been through long periods of time a powerful influence on the strand flora.
Although subsidence has been the dominant note in Hawaii’s geological history, there have been minor elevations within recent times. Raised coral reefs and beaches occur at various points along the coasts, e. g., along the southern and western shores of Oahu. The highest reef known is on the southwestern end of Mailiilii, elevated 120 feet above the sea. Just as local elevation at such points as Mokapu, Kalihi, and the Coral Plain has pushed the littoral zone seaward, so at Hanalei, Kahana, Kaneohe, and Pearl Harbor the drowning or submergence of valley-mouths has developed deep embayments, and the littoral flora extends deep into the lowland zone which surrounds it on three sides. It is evident that sufficient study and emphasis has not been given to the ecological effects of these gradual changes of land- and sealevel.
In his illuminating studies of the New Zealand flora, Aston (’12) concludes that the raised marine beaches at Cape Turakirae show that there has occurred comparatively recently, and perhaps within historic times, rapid elevation of the coast line. Violent earthquakes have so altered the physiography of the littoral as to result in some unusual ecological features.
OF PLANTS OF THE HAWAIIAN LITTORAL
The importance of ocean currents as agencies for the distribution of plants, and more particularly for the wide dissemination of beach species, has long been recognized. In a vast body of water, like the Pacific, dotted with thousands of scattered islands, the surface currents assume special significance in relation to the migrations of plants, animals, and man.
The surface circulation of the Pacific is, on the whole, notably less active than that of the Atlantic. The vertices of the rotational movements are marked by “Sargasso Seas” in the north and
Ocean.
Reference should here be made to the Northern Equatorial Current, which receives important contributions from the great stream that sweeps down the North Pacific coast of America. Many of the largest and most famous of the Hawaiian double canoes were hewn from Douglas spruce ( Pseudotsuga taxifolia) which had been carried to the shores of Niihau, Kauai, and other islands by the currents. It is a well-known fact that the natives of the Alaska islands obtain much of their fire-wood as drift from the Asiatic coast. Japanese fishing-boats, at various times in history, have drifted to the Hawaiian Islands and to the northwest coast of America.
Between the two great equatorial currents flowing westward on either side of the equator there is a narrow counter-equatorial current flowing to the east. This stream is largely assisted during the latter half of the year by the southwest monsoon, and from July to October the southwest winds prevailing east of 150° E. further strengthen the current, but later in the year the easterly winds weaken or even destroy it. The currents of the South Pacific are well shown in Schimper’s (’91) monograph of the IndoMalayan strand flora.
A feature of ocean currents as seed carriers that has not been sufficiently emphasized is the definiteness of their courses. This fact is well illustrated by the large number of tree trunks and logs from the North Pacific coast that are annually cast upon the Hawaiian coasts. These trees occur in a relatively small and welldefined region, and evidently follow a definite course across the North Pacific. Wood-Jones (T2) performed an interesting experiment to determine the course of drift material in the Indian Ocean. He cast adrift, in the Cocos-Keeling Islands, bottles containing messages. One was picked up on the beach of Brava, Italian Somaliland, after a journey of three thousand miles across the Indian Ocean, and a second one, sent out nearly a year later, was washed ashore at precisely the same place. This definiteness of course gives to the ocean currents a high potential cumulative effect as carriers, that merits more than passing mention.
Currents in the vicinity of Hawaii
The United States Coast Pilot contains data concerning the local island currents, which may be summarized as follows. The strong northeast trades begin early in March, blowing well from the northward until May, and from then until October they are more easterly. During October the trades are light with frequent calms, and occasionally a west southwest swell sets in. During November and December the trades are strong and variable, occasionally being interruped by light southerly winds. During January and February southerly and southwesterly gales often prevail. These are konas and are from a few hours to two or three days duration, followed by rain.
Hawaii. — Generally the currents follow the trades but occasionally they set against the wind. A current follows the coast north of Cape Kumukahi around Upolu Point; another one follows the trend of the coast offshore southwestward from Cape Kumukahi around Kalae and northward as far as Upolu Point. There is an inshore current that sets southward from Okoe Landing along the west coast around Kalae, and thence northeastward along the shore as far as Keauhou.
Maui. — Generally the currents set with the trades. A current follows the north shore of Maui westward from Kauiki Head and draws down through Pailolo Channel; the current is stronger on the Molokai side of the channel. A strong current follows the coast southward of Kauiki Head until past Kahoolawe. In the vicinity of Lahaina the current generally sets northwestward.
an easterly current prevails.
Oahu. — The currents around Oahu are variable in strength and direction, but the general movement of the water along the coast is westward or northwestward, the direction being modified by the trend of the coast.
Kauai. — Currents are very uncertain as to direction but they generally follow the winds, though frequently setting in the opposite direction during the first calms after strong trades.
rents of the North Pacific Ocean will graphically show that the Hawaiian Archipelago is practically outside the zone of influence of the great currents that would naturally bring the seeds of tropical plants to her shores. Guppy’s statements (’06, pp. 75, 64) are pertinent in this connection:
The currents of the Pacific have failed to establish the numerous beach-trees (possessing buoyant fruits) of the Pacific Islands, not only in the Hawaiian group, but also on the coast of America; and it is therefore argued that we should expect the Hawaiian group to have received through the currents its shore-plants with buoyant seeds or fruits from the tropical west coasts of America.
In support of this contention it is pointed out that most of the Hawaiian strandplants that are dispersed by the currents are found in America, and some indeed in America to the exclusion of the Old World.
The arrangement of the currents in the North Pacific also favours the view that the Hawaiian Islands are more likely to receive plants by the agency of the currents from America than from the Asiatic side of the Pacific.
Speaking generally of the extension eastward of the Indo-Malayan strand-plants over the Pacific, Professor Schimper ([’91] page 195) remarks that they become fewer and fewer in number as they extend farther from their original home, their number shrinking to a very few in the most remote groups of the Marquesas and the Hawaiian Islands. . . . The number actually introduced through the currents into Hawaii in all likelihood, therefore, does not exceed ten.
Importance of drift material
Drift material is much more abundant along the Hawaiian windward shores than on the leeward shores. Nowhere does it attain the proportions that characterize many other regions elsewhere on the globe. Certain districts, for example, the southeast coast of Hawaii, between Honuapo and Kalae, particularly the Kamilo beach near Kaluwalu, seem to be much more favorably situated for the reception and accumulation of drift than do others.
fragments, fruits, and seeds:
The thickest masses of drift were very moist and quite warm to the hand, and in this natural forcing bed many different plants had germinated. The thick line of brown-black humus with the fresh green leaves of the seedlings arising from it at intervals was a most striking sight. Of these the most conspicuous were Cerbera odollam, Calophyllum inophyllum, Bruguiera gymnorhiza, Crinum asiaticum, and Colocasia antiquorum (from bits of old rhizome).
the beach and growing. He states:
We passed large quantities of leaves, fruits, and flowers, and branches of trees floated off from the shores. ... I was astonished at the large quantities of fresh vegetable matter thus seen floating on the sea. ... Not only are large quantities of fruits [containing seeds] capable of germinating thus transported from island to island, but entire living plants, even trees, are washed from island to island and transplanted by the waves.
Hooker (’47, p. 253) states that the majority of the littoral species of the Galapagos Islands have reached the islands through oceanic and aerial currents. There are about twenty such plants, mostly species common to warm latitudes. Some of these are: Cissampelos Pariera, Tribulus cistoides, Tephrosia littoralis, Verbena littoralis, Avicennia tomentosa , Scaevola Plumieri , Ipomoea maritima, Calystegia Soldanella, and Heliotr opium curas savicum. Hooker attributes the following plants of the Peruvian and Chilean littoral, which occur on the Galapagos strand, to ocean currents: Vigna oahuensis, Acacia Cavenia , Nicotiana glutinosa, Dictyocalyx Miersii, Ly coper sicum peruvianum, Verbena littoralis, V. polystacha, and Plantago tomentosa.
Flotation adaptations of strand plant seeds
In his monograph on the Indo-Malayan strand flora Schimper (’91, pp. 163-178) makes the following classification of strand plants, based upon the flotation characters:
1. Driftfriichte und Driftsamen mit grossen luftfiihrenden Hohlraumen. Examples:
fruits of Heritiera littoralis, Thespesia populnea, Pongamia glabra, and Derris uliginosa; seeds of Mucuna species, Caesalpinia Bonducella, Vigna lutea. Hibiscus tiliaceus, Dodonea viscosa, Euphorbia Atoto, Suriana maritima, Ipomoea pes caprae, Pangium edule (?), Colubrina asiatica (?), Morinda citrifolia.
minalia Katappa, Conocarpus erecta, Lumnitzera racemosa , L. coccinea, Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea, Guettarda speciosa, Tournefortia argentea, Wollastonia \glabra, Scaevola Koenigii, Clerodendron inerme , Cynometra cauliflora, Cordia subcordata; seeds of Carapa moluccensis, C. obovata, Sonneratia species, Pemphis acidula.
B. Das Schwimmgewebe befindet sich innerhalb einer harten Stein- oder Samenschale. Examples : fruits of Calophyllum inophyllum and Ximemia americana; seeds of Cyas circinalis and Excoecaria Agallocha.
Guppy (’06, p. 531) enumerates the following seeds or seed vessels that remained afloat after a year’s flotation in sea-water: Thespesia populnea , Mucuna gigantea , Dioclea sp., Strongylodon lucidum, Sophora tomentosa, Caesalpina Bonducella, Entada scan dens , Morinda citrifolia , Scaevola Koenigii , Cordia subcordata , Tournefortia argentea , Ipomoea grandiflora, and Tacca pinnatifida.
In Helmsley’s classification of the Bermudian flowering plants (’85, p. 48) the following indigenous genera, chiefly littoral forms, are listed as having probably been conveyed to the island by ocean currents: Cakile, Hibiscus, Suriana , Elaeodendron, Sapindus,
Dodonaea, Cardiospermum , Rhus, Sophora, Vigna, Canavalia, Centrosema, Conocarpus, Rhizophora, Opuntia, Sesuvium, Rhachicallis, Chiococca, Morinda, Solidago, Borrichia, Scaevola, Tournefortia, Heliotropium, Ipomoea, Convolvulus , Avicennia, Coccoloba, Atriplex, Salicornia, Euphorbia, Croton, Ruppia, Zostera, Cenchrus, Spartina, Stenotaphrum, Sporobolus, Chloris.
Helmsley (’84, p. 304) has also recorded the actual germination of various drifted seeds after being cast ashore. He lists Hibiscus tiliaceus, Vitis vinifera, Sapindus Saponaria,Anacardiumoccidentale, Aleurites moluccana, Ricinus communis, Cocos nucifera, and Sagus sp. Of Vitis vinifera he records the foundering of a vessel laden with a cargo of white Lisbon grapes, off the south shore of Bermuda. Many of the grapes were washed ashore, and the seeds germinated at high-water mark. Numbers of plants were taken up, out of curiosity, and transplanted, and bore fruit. Martins raised plants from seeds of Ricinus communis that had been floating for ninetythree days upon the surface of the sea.
Shull’s (’14) extensive experiments show that the seeds of many species will germinate after four years of continuous submergence in fresh water, and that the seeds of three species were viable after seven years of continuous submergence.
Guppy (’06, p. 529) shows that of the littoral plants of Fiji and Tahiti, 75-80 per cent, have seeds or fruits that will float unharmed for two months or more, and that about 30 per cent, of this number are legumes. He says:
In the course of the ages the plants with buoyant seeds or seed vessels have been gathered at the coast. This is indicated: (1) By the far 'greater proportion of species with buoyant seeds and seed vessels amongst the shore plants than among the inland plants. (2) By the circumstance that almost all the seeds or seed vessels that float unharmed for long periods belong to shore plants. (3) By the fact that when a genus has both inland and littoral species, the seeds or fruits of the coast species as a rule float for a long time, while those of the inland species either sink at once or float only for a short period.
Guppy (’06, p.563) makes the following list of “ Hawaiian plants with buoyant seeds and fruits known to be dispersed by the currents either exclusively or, as in a few species, with the assistance of frugivorous birds”: Colubrina asiatica, Dioclea violacea , Mucuna gigantea, M. mens , Strongylodon lucidum , Vigna lutea , Caesalpinia Bonducella, Scaevola Koenigii, Ipomoea glaberrima, I. Pes-caprae, Vitex trifolia and Cassytha fdiformis. Although many strand plants possess seeds or fruits that can float for long periods, other widely distributed species possess feeble or no flotation power. It is necessary to recognize other agencies.
Trees and logs as disseminators
Logs and tree-trunks of various coniferous species from the Puget Sound region are commonly cast ashore upon the Hawaiian windward coasts. It is a matter of common observation that on all windy coasts, small seeds, like sand, are blown into every available cranny. In this way many lodge in the holes and cracks in drift-wood, which is floated off at high tide or during storm time, and thus the seeds or fruits may be carried to new localities. Strand seeds or fruits which do not possess special flotation devices may be carried to new shores. Moreover, the seeds of inland species may be carried by trees which have been uprooted by inundations or storms, either in the soil around the roots, or in the bark, etc.
Ernst (’08, p. 56) states that “ tree stems and branches played an important part in the colonization of Krakatau by plants and animals.” Hedley (T5) records a log of Dammara australis
the New Zealand Kauri, as stranding on the windward reef of Funafuti. Wood-Jones (’05) gives an excellent account of tree-trunks and “floating islands” of storm -washed vegetation as carriers of seeds, animals, etc., to the Cocos-Keeling group. He emphasizes the importance of trees with buttressed bases as disseminators :
These buttresses are in the form of large thin wings, which taper to the trunk above, and below form a series of compartments like stalls in a circular stable. Within these stalls much earth is held fast by the interlacing of smaller roots, and when such a tree is uprooted, and set adrift to sea, it carries its earth with it. It may carry it for very great distances, and I have seen a buttressed tree come ashore in the atoll, from whose base a wheelbarrow-load of fine red earth might have been collected.
The idea of floating rocks as disseminators of littoral plants might be met with incredulity, were it not for the testimony of many reliable observers. Among the volcanic islands of the East Indies large blocks of pumice float for many weeks, and are carried many hundred miles from their points of origin. The salient points — prolonged flotation of the blocks; presence of numerous kinds of seeds in the crevices and pores of the pumice; and the germination of these seeds when the block is cast upon a favorable beach-situation — have all been corroborated by careful investigators. Ernst (’08, p. 56) states that floating blocks of pumice constitute an important dispersal agency in the Sunda-S traits region.
Although there is very little pumice to be found on the Hawaiian coasts at the present time, there is abundant evidence that in earlier periods in the geologic history of the islands, repeated volcanic explosions, resulting in pumice production, have taken place. There are today extensive pumice beds around the volcano Kilauea. Therefore, although pumice blocks play little or no part in the dispersal of plants in the Hawaiian group at present, it is entirely possible that they had a more important role in earlier times, at least in distributing seed from island to island.
Floating masses of dead coral may also be ranked as possible seed-carriers. Wood-Jones (’15) found numerous instances of this in the Cocos-Keeling group. The innumerable air-cavities in certain kinds of coral render it buoyant. The block is cast upon a beach at storm time; it lies there for an indefinite period;
earth, sand, and seeds lodge in its many crevices; another storm sets it again adrift ; and it may be cast ashore upon a distant strand . Coral blocks of this sort are infrequent on Hawaiian shores, owing to the relative paucity of fringing reef, and have probably been of minor significance in seed dispersal. They constitute, however, a possible factor, particularly on Oahu, Kauai, and the leeward isles.
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xWpCGW4eKRDzk6ej | 10.2: Getting Involved | 10.2: Getting Involved
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Introduction
“What did you do this weekend?” Britt asks as you walk into Professor Schmidt’s 8 a.m. class. Smiling, you grab a seat in the third row and shuffle papers from your bag.
Nothing much. Nothing much?
Do you ever feel as though life is just passing you by? Are you caught in the daily grind of work and school, wondering at the end of the weekend where the time has gone and what you have to show for it?
A successful college experience is about more than academic achievement. Your college years— whether you are young or old—can be a time of immense personal enrichment.
What do you enjoy doing in your free time? Do you have any hobbies? Many colleges and universities offer clubs and student organizations to fit a variety of interests. Whether you are interested in team activities or solo ventures, school is a great place to find out about opportunities to network and connect with people who enjoy similar things.
Your academic journey can also provide opportunities for volunteering in your local community and even the chance to turn those hours into course credits through Service Learning. By using your time as a student to participate in activities outside of the classroom, you’ll explore new possibilities and make valuable connections in the process.
In this lesson, you’ll learn about some of the many opportunities for extracurricular involvement— both on and off campus—as a college student. Let’s examine ways you can use the resources and connections of your campus to find new ways to connect and engage with your community.
Extracurricular Activities: Reap the Benefits
As you enter higher education, you may find that you are busier than you’ve ever been before. Often, that’s due to the variety of extracurricular activities available to you: athletics, fraternities and sororities, student newspapers and literary journals, debate teams, study groups, service learning or volunteer projects, internships, mentorships, student government, and political action groups, to name just a few. Your school might also offer free admissions or discounted tickets to conferences, films, plays, concerts, comedy shows, museums, games or sporting events, art galleries, and speaking engagements. Student organizations help to make these activities possible, and you can join any of them.
People who participate in extracurricular activities gain many benefits. They bridge the worlds inside and outside the classroom. They expand their learning styles by testing theories in action and gaining concrete experiences. Through student organizations, they explore possible careers, make contacts for jobs, and build a lifelong habit of giving back to their communities. They make new friends among both students and faculty and work on teams composed of people from different cultures.
Getting involved in such organizations also comes with some risks. When students don’t balance extracurricular activities with class work, their success in school can suffer. They can also compromise their health by losing sleep, neglecting exercise, skipping meals, or relying on fast food. These costs are easier to avoid if you keep a few suggestions in mind:
Make conscious choices about how to divide your time between schoolwork and extracurricular activities. Decide up front how many hours each week or month you can devote to a student organization. Leave room in your schedule for relaxing and for unplanned events.
Look to the future when making commitments. Write down three or four of the most important goals you’d like to achieve in your lifetime. Then, choose extracurricular activities that directly support those goals.
Create a career plan that includes a list of skills needed for your next job. Choose extracurricular activities that will help you develop those necessary skills. If you’re unsure of your career choice, then get involved in campus organizations to explore your options.
Whenever possible, develop leadership experience by holding an office in an organization.
If that’s too much of a commitment, then volunteer to lead a committee or plan a special event.
Get involved in a variety of extracurricular activities. Varying your activities demonstrates to future employers that you can work with a diverse group of people in a range of settings.
Recognize your own reluctance to follow through on a commitment. You might agree to attend meetings and find yourself forgetting them or consistently showing up late. If that happens, write a Discovery Statement about the way you’re using time. Follow that with an Intention Statement about ways to keep your agreements—or consider renegotiating those agreements.
Say no to activities that fail to create value for you. Avoid joining groups only because you feel obligated to do so or feel guilty for not doing so.
Check out the rules before joining any student organization. Ask about dues and attendance requirements.
What Is Service Learning?
As part of a service learning project for a sociology course, students volunteer at a community center for older adults. For another service learning project, history students interview people in veterans’ hospitals about their war experiences. These students share their interview results with a psychiatrist on the hospital staff.
Meanwhile, business students provide free tax-preparation help at a center for low-income people. Students in graphic arts classes create free promotional materials for charities. Other students staff a food cooperative and a community credit union.
These examples of actual projects from the National Service-Learning Clearinghouse demonstrate the basic premise of service learning: Volunteer work and other forms of service can be a vehicle for higher education.
Think of service learning as a way to find new tools and new ideas. In fact, see service learning as a tool based on one of the core values behind this course—making a positive contribution to the lives of other people.
Many of the resources in this course are about filling yourself up, taking care of yourself, being “selfish,” and meeting your needs. The strategies and tips suggested here focus on how to get what you want out of school, work, and the rest of your life. One result of these lessons in successful selfishness is your immense capacity to contribute. This means giving back to your community in ways that enhance the lives of other people.
Many schools offer service learning programs. Look up service learning in the index of your school catalog or search your school’s website using those key words. There might be a service learning office on your campus.
When you design a service learning project, consider the following suggestions:
Follow your interests. Think of the persistent problems in the world—illiteracy, hunger, poverty, racial and gender inequality, addiction, climate change, corruption and abuse of power, to name just a few. Which of them generate the strongest feelings in you? Which of them link to your possible career plans and choice of major? The place where passion intersects with plan (see the six levels of powerful speaking discussed in an earlier module) often creates an opportunity for service learning.
Choose your community partner carefully. Work with a community organization that has experience with students. Make sure that the organization has liability insurance to cover volunteers.
Learn about your community partner. Once you connect with a community organization, learn everything you can about it. Find its mission statement and explore its history. Find out what makes this organization unique. If the organization partners with other entities in the community, learn about them as well.
Handle logistics. Integrating service learning into your schedule calls for detailed planning. If your volunteer work takes place off campus, arrange for transportation and allow for travel time.
Build long-term support for the project. One potential pitfall of service learning is that the programs are often short-lived. After students pack up and return to campus, the programs can deteriorate and die because of lack of staffing and support. To prevent this outcome, recruit other students or community members willing to step in and take over for you when the semester ends.
Connect service learning to critical thinking . To think critically and creatively about your service learning project, ask questions such as these:
- What service did you perform?
- What roles did your service project include, and who filled those roles?
- What knowledge and skills did you bring to this project?
- After being involved in this project, what new knowledge and skills did you gain?
- What did you learn from this experience that can help another service learning project succeed?
- Will this project affect your choice of a major? If so, how?
- Will this project affect your career plans? If so, how?
Service learning provides an opportunity to combine theory and practice, reflection and action, book learning and real-world experience. Education takes place as we reflect on our experiences and turn them into new insights and intentions. Use service learning as a way to elevate your thinking skills to the critical level. | 1,913 | common-pile/libretexts_filtered | https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Counseling_and_Guidance/OpenNow_College_Success_(Cengage)/10%3A_Developing_Meaningful_Relationships/10.02%3A_Getting_Involved | libretexts | libretexts-0000.json.gz:28215 | https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Counseling_and_Guidance/OpenNow_College_Success_(Cengage)/10%3A_Developing_Meaningful_Relationships/10.02%3A_Getting_Involved |
je20rBdmGZF0pDBG | 8.5: Diverse and Inclusive Workforce | 8.5: Diverse and Inclusive Workforce
- Predict the benefit of a more diverse and inclusive workforce
Understanding and responding to changing societal expectations is necessary when running a retail organization. When HR management sets out to build their workforce it is important to practice good corporate social responsibility. “Corporate social responsibility is the responsibility of an organization for the impacts of its decisions and activities on society through transparent and ethical behavior.” [1] Now more than ever, today’s society takes notice when a company’s hiring practices include the hiring of diverse employees.
In order to build a diverse workforce for a retail organization it is imperative that HR management writes an initial job posting that does not use language which is discriminatory or offensive. This will limit your potential candidate pool and possibly scare off candidates from diverse backgrounds. “Remove subconscious biases from the hiring process. Write a job spec making sure it doesn’t only appeal to one group of people, such as men. Think about the words you use. “Dominant” and “competitive” are seen as positive traits for men, but as negative attributes for women.” [2] This carries over into the interviewing and assessment process as well. Retail businesses have an obligation to offer all individual employees a work atmosphere where everyone can contribute and succeed. Therefore, hiring regardless of gender, disability, race or religious background is beneficial for retail companies.
Benefits of an Inclusive and Diverse Workforce
Retail companies are obligated to follow the laws governing labor and management relations. One such act is the Civil Rights Act of 1967. Title VII of this act prohibits employers from discriminatory actions when building and developing their workforce. The passing of this act eventually lead to the implementation of another act called the Equal Employment Opportunity Act (EEOA) passed by Congress which will be addressed further in this module. Retail stores are obligated to follow the laws against bias as set forth by statute in order to avoid costly claims and lawsuits filed against them.
Corporate citizenship is a term used to describe how a company exercises its overall obligations and corporate social responsibility. For retail stores to build a positive corporate citizenship they need to go past just complying with laws and regulations, they should also be aware of what society anticipates from them. “Diversity and inclusion is all about creating shared values by working together for a common mission… the members of tomorrow’s workforce are ready to be more purpose-driven than their predecessors, and it is for the companies to harness their positive and creative energy into executable actions” [3]
Beyond the benefit of hiring a diverse workforce just because it is morally and ethically the right thing to do, there are other benefits as well. Employees with disabilities have higher retention rates. [4] This means that they are more likely to continue their employment with a company even after having had a significant amount of time to build work experience. Having higher retention rates leads to having reduced turnover rates.
Being socially responsible and building positive corporate citizenship drives profitability for a retail organization. Comprising a diverse and inclusive retail workforce promotes a sense of belonging which will draw in customers of all backgrounds. Diversity within a retail company also promotes innovation. Employees feeling that they are valued regardless of their differences will initiate increased productivity and employee engagement. This sentiment drives progress and growth for a retail store.
-
Ishak, S., & Mohamad Naimi Mohamad Nor. (2017). Corporate social responsibility.
SHS Web of Conferences
, 34
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Webb, M. (2017). How To Alter Your Hiring Practices To Increase Diversity.
Forbes
, Web. Retrieved from
https://www.forbes.com/sites/maynardwebb/2017/10/29/how-to-alter-your-hiring-practices-to-increase-diversity
.
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Parikh, N. (2018). Diversity And Inclusion Matters To The Workforce Of The Future.
Forbes
, Web. Retrieved from
https://www.forbes.com/sites/forbeshumanresourcescouncil/2018/05/09/diversity-and-inclusion-matters-to-the-workforce-of-the-future
.
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United States Department of Labor. (n.d.). Changing Attitudes, Web. Retrieved from
https://www.dol.gov/odep/topics/ChangingAttitudes.htm
↵
Contributors and Attributions
- Diverse and Inclusive Workforce. Authored by : Freedom Learning Group. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution | 873 | common-pile/libretexts_filtered | https://biz.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Marketing/Retail_Management_(Lumen)/08%3A_Retail_Human_Resources/8.05%3A_Diverse_and_Inclusive_Workforce | libretexts | libretexts-0000.json.gz:6114 | https://biz.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Marketing/Retail_Management_(Lumen)/08%3A_Retail_Human_Resources/8.05%3A_Diverse_and_Inclusive_Workforce |
B3pbuVD_rnFRbK2T | Hymns and Spiritual Songs | M. C. Day
TEN thousand thanks to Jesus,
Whose life our ransom paid,
Whose blood a full atonement
For all the world has made:
Let every heart adore Him;
Let every creature sing
Ten thousand thanks to Jesus,
Our Saviour and our King.
Ten thousand thanks, ten thousand thanks,
We’ll praise Him o’er and o’er;
And for the life with Him to live,
Ten thousand thousand more.
2
Ten thousand hearts to Jesus
How gladly would we give;
Ten thousand lives to Jesus,
Had we so long to live:
Ten thousand tongues shall praise Him,
Ten thousand songs ascend
To Him, our blest Redeemer,
To Him, our dearest Friend.
3
Ten thousand thanks to Jesus
For blessings every hour;
Ten thousand times ten thousand,
For love’s redeeming power:
And when we hear His welcome
Beyond the rolling sea,
His love through endless ages
Our sweetest song shall be. | 192 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://pressbooks.pub/hymnbook/chapter/ten-thousand-thanks-to-jesus/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:96201 | https://pressbooks.pub/hymnbook/chapter/ten-thousand-thanks-to-jesus/ |
5zVKDq4suwibWCoa | Cultural Anthropology | 28 Virtual Field Trip: Indigenous Dances of North and South America
Virtual Field Trip: Indigenous Dances of North and South America
Music and dance have always been essential to the spiritual, cultural, and social lives of Native peoples. Unique forms of ritual, ceremonial, and social dancing remain a vital part of contemporary community life. Everywhere dance is found, it is accompanied by distinctive Native musical styles. Rich music and dance traditions create strong ties that bind American Indian communities to all living things, to the earth, spirit world, and—when people have deep ancestral claims to their dances—to the past. (National Museum of the American Indian: Circle of Dance)
Your Field Guide
Start Here
Use the suggested websites below to get a broad view of your desitnation, or select another scholarly resource to get started:
- Website: Smithsonian, National Museum of the American Indian: Circle of Dance
Circle of Dance presents Native dance as a vibrant, meaningful, and diverse form of cultural expression. Featuring ten social and ceremonial dances from throughout the Americas, the exhibition illuminates the significance of each dance and highlights the unique characteristics of its movements and music. - Article: An Evolving Ritual, Smithsonian,
The National Powwow showcases a mixture of tradition and competition.
Pow Wow
- Website: Powwows.com
Online community for Native American Tribes, Native American History, Pow Wows,Native American Culture, Native American Music and Native American Art.Pow Wows are the Native American people’s way of meeting together, to join in dancing, singing, visiting, renewing old friendships, and making new ones. This is a time method to renew Native American culture and preserve the rich heritage of American Indians. - Video: Community Members Tell Why We Dance
- Video: Oglala Lakota Nation Powwow, National Geographic
- Video: Making Regalia
It’s the premier edition of Making Regalia with your host, Juaquin Lonelodge. Juaquin is a former national Men’s Fancy Dance champion and master regalia craftsman. Join him as he takes you step by step through the processes of Making Regalia! - Article: Nelly Furtado’s “Big Hoops” Video: Native Dancers Represent! | 444 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://pimaopen.pressbooks.pub/culturalanthropology/chapter/virtual-field-trip-indigenous-dances-of-north-and-south-america/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:77025 | https://pimaopen.pressbooks.pub/culturalanthropology/chapter/virtual-field-trip-indigenous-dances-of-north-and-south-america/ |
SDpJrg_qIvxT-hn1 | 5.2: Sound and Audio, Image and Graphics, Animation and Video | 5.2: Sound and Audio, Image and Graphics, Animation and Video
Introduction
The following sections describe various types of data that you might find, in addition to static graphics data, in multimedia files.
Activity Details
Computer animation lies somewhere between the motionless world of still images and the real-time world of video images. All of the animated sequences seen in educational programs, motion CAD renderings, and computer games are computer-animated (and in many cases, computer-generated) animation sequences.
Traditional cartoon animation is little more than a series of artwork cells, each containing a slight positional variation of the animated subjects. When a large number of these cells is displayed in sequence and at a fast rate, the animated figures appear to the human eye to move.
A computer-animated sequence works in exactly the same manner, i.e a series of images is created of a subject; each image contains a slightly different perspective on the animated subject. When these images are displayed (played back) in the proper sequence and at the proper speed (frame rate), the subject appears to move.
Computerized animation is actually a combination of both still and motion imaging. Each frame, or cell, of an animation is a still image that requires compression and storage. An animation file, however, must store the data for hundreds or thousands of animation frames and must also provide the information necessary to play back the frames using the proper display mode and frame rate.
Animation file formats are only capable of storing still images and not actual video information. It is possible, however, for most multimedia formats to contain animation information, because animation is actually a much easier type of data than video to store.
The image-compression schemes used in animation files are also usually much simpler than most of those used in video compression. Most animation files use a delta compression scheme, which is a form of Run-Length Encoding that stores and compresses only the information that is different between two images (rather than compressing each image frame entirely). RLE is relatively easy to decompress on the fly.
Storing animations using a multimedia format also produces the benefit of adding sound to the animation (what’s a cartoon without sound?). Most animation formats cannot store sound directly in their files and must rely on storing the sound in a separate disk file which is read by the application that is playing back the animation.
Animations are not only for entertaining kids and adults. Animated sequences are used by CAD programmers to rotate 3D objects so they can be observed from different perspectives; mathematical data collected by an aircraft or satellite may be rendered into an animated fly-by sequence. Movie special effects benefit greatly by computer animation.
Digital Video
One step beyond animation is broadcast video. Your television and video tape recorder are a lot more complex than an 8mm home movie projector and your kitchen wall. There are many complex signals and complicated standards that are involved in transmitting those late-night reruns across the airwaves and cable. Only in the last few years has a personal computer been able to work with video data at all.
Video data normally occurs as continuous, analog signals. In order for a computer to process this video data, we must convert the analog signals to a non-continuous, digital format. In a digital format, the video data can be stored as a series of bits on a hard disk or in computer memory.
The process of converting a video signal to a digital bitstream is called analog-to-digital conversion (A/D conversion), or digitizing. A/D conversion occurs in two steps:
- Sampling captures data from the video stream.
- Quantizing converts each captured sample into a digital format.
Each sample captured from the video stream is typically stored as a 16-bit integer. The rate at which samples are collected is called the sampling rate. The sampling rate is measured in the number of samples captured per second (samples/second). For digital video, it is necessary to capture millions of samples per second.
Quantizing converts the level of a video signal sample into a discrete, binary value. This value approximates the level of the original video signal sample. The value is selected by comparing the video sample to a series of predefined threshold values. The value of the threshold closest to the amplitude of the sampled signal is used as the digital value.
A video signal contains several different components which are mixed together in the same signal. This type of signal is called a composite video signal and is not really useful in high- quality computer video. Therefore, a standard composite video signal is usually separated into its basic components before it is digitized.
The composite video signal format defined by the NTSC (National Television Standards Committee) color television system is used in the United States. The PAL (Phase Alternation Line) and SECAM (Sequential Coleur Avec Memoire) color television systems are used in Europe and are not compatible with NTSC. Most computer video equipment supports one or more of these system standards.
The components of a composite video signal are normally decoded into three separate signals representing the three channels of a color space model, such as RGB, YUV, or YIQ. Although the RGB model is quite commonly used in still imaging, the YUV, YIQ, or YCbCr models are more often used in motion-video imaging. TV practice uses YUV or similar color models because the U and V channels can be downsampled to reduce data volume without materially degrading image quality.
Once the video signal is converted to a digital format, the resulting values can be represented on a display device as pixels. Each pixel is a spot of color on the video display, and the pixels are arranged in rows and columns just as in a bitmap. Unlike a static bitmap, however, the pixels in a video image are constantly being updated for changes in intensity and color. This updating is called scanning, and it occurs 60 times per second in NTSC video signals (50 times per second for PAL and SECAM).
A video sequence is displayed as a series of frames. Each frame is a snapshot of a moment in time of the motion-video data, and is very similar to a still image. When the frames are played back in sequence on a display device, a rendering of the original video data is created. In real- time video the playback rate is 30 frames per second. This is the minimum rate necessary for the human eye to successfully blend each video frame together into a continuous, smoothly moving image.
A single frame of video data can be quite large in size. A video frame with a resolution of 512 x 482 will contain 246,784 pixels. If each pixel contains 24 bits of color information, the frame will require 740,352 bytes of memory or disk space to store. Assuming there are 30 frames per second for real-time video, a 10-second video sequence would be more than 222 megabytes in size! It is clear there can be no computer video without at least one efficient method of video data compression.
There are many encoding methods available that will compress video data. The majority of these methods involve the use of a transform coding scheme, usually employing a Fourier or Discrete Cosine Transform (DCT). These transforms physically reduce the size of the video data by selectively throwing away unneeded parts of the digitized information.
Transform compression schemes usually discard 10 percent to 25 percent or more of the original video data, depending largely on the content of the video data and upon what image quality is considered acceptable.
Usually a transform is performed on an individual video frame. The transform itself does not produce compressed data. It discards only data not used by the human eye. The transformed data, called coefficients, must have compression applied to reduce the size of the data even further. Each frame of data may be compressed using a Huffman or arithmetic encoding algorithm, or even a more complex compression scheme such as JPEG. This type of intraframe encoding usually results in compression ratios between 20:1 to 40:1 depending on the data in the frame. However, even higher compression ratios may result if, rather than looking at single frames as if they were still images, we look at multiple frames as temporal images.
In a typical video sequence, very little data changes from frame to frame. If we encode only the pixels that change between frames, the amount of data required to store a single video frame drops significantly. This type of compression is known as interframe delta compression, or in the case of video, motion compensation. Typical motion compensation schemes that encode only frame deltas (data that has changed between frames) can, depending on the data, achieve compression ratios upwards of 200:1. This is only one possible type of video compression method. There are many other types of video compression schemes, some of which are similar and some of which are different.
Digital Audio
All multimedia file formats are capable, by definition, of storing sound information. Sound data, like graphics and video data, has its own special requirements when it is being read, written, interpreted, and compressed. Before looking at how sound is stored in a multimedia format we must look at how sound itself is stored as digital data. All of the sounds that we hear occur in the form of analog signals. An analog audio recording system, such as a conventional tape recorder, captures the entire sound wave form and stores it in analog format on a medium such as magnetic tape.
Because computers are now digital devices it is necessary to store sound information in a digitized format that computers can readily use. A digital audio recording system does not record the entire wave form as analog systems do (the exception being Digital Audio Tape [DAT] systems). Instead, a digital recorder captures a wave form at specific intervals, called the sampling rate. Each captured wave-form snapshot is converted to a binary integer value and is then stored on magnetic tape or disk.
Storing audio as digital samples is known as Pulse Code Modulation (PCM). PCM is a simple quantizing or digitizing (audio to digital conversion) algorithm, which linearly converts all analog signals to digital samples. This process is commonly used on all audio CD-ROMs.
Differential Pulse Code Modulation (DPCM) is an audio encoding scheme that quantizes the difference between samples rather than the samples themselves. Because the differences are easily represented by values smaller than those of the samples themselves, fewer bits may be used to encode the same sound (for example, the difference between two 16-bit samples may only be four bits in size). For this reason, DPCM is also considered an audio compression scheme.
One other audio compression scheme, which uses difference quantization, is Adaptive Differential Pulse Code Modulation (ADPCM). DPCM is a non-adaptive algorithm. That is, it does not change the way it encodes data based on the content of the data. DPCM uses the sample number of bits to represent every signal level. ADPCM, however, is an adaptive algorithm and changes its encoding scheme based on the data it is encoding. ADPCM specifically adapts by using fewer bits to represent lower-level signals than it does to represent higher-level signals. Many of the most commonly used audio compression schemes are based on ADPCM.
Digital audio data is simply a binary representation of a sound. This data can be written to a binary file using an audio file format for permanent storage much in the same way bitmap data is preserved in an image file format. The data can be read by a software application, can be sent as data to a hardware device, and can even be stored as a CD-ROM.
The quality of an audio sample is determined by comparing it to the original sound from which it was sampled. The more identical the sample is to the original sound, the higher the quality of the sample. This is similar to comparing an image to the original document or photograph from which it was scanned.
The quality of audio data is determined by three parameters:
- Sample resolution
- Sampling rate
- Number of audio channels sampled
The sample resolution is determined by the number of bits per sample. The larger the sampling size, the higher the quality of the sample. Just as the apparent quality (resolution) of an image is reduced by storing fewer bits of data per pixel, so is the quality of a digital audio recording reduced by storing fewer bits per sample. Typical sampling sizes are eight bits and 16 bits.
The sampling rate is the number of times per second the analog wave form was read to collect data. The higher the sampling rate, the greater the quality of the audio. A high sampling rate collects more data per second than a lower sampling rate, therefore requiring more memory and disk space to store. Common sampling rates are 44.100 kHz (higher quality), 22.254 kHz (medium quality), and 11.025 kHz (lower quality). Sampling rates are usually measured in the signal processing terms hertz (Hz) or kilohertz (kHz), but the term samples per second (samples/ second) is more appropriate for this type of measurement.
A sound source may be sampled using one channel (monaural sampling) or two channels (stereo sampling). Two-channel sampling provides greater quality than mono sampling and, as you might have guessed, produces twice as much data by doubling the number of samples captured. Sampling one channel for one second at 11,000 samples/second produces 11,000 samples. Sampling two channels at the same rate, however, produces 22,000 samples/second.
The amount of binary data produced by sampling even a few seconds of audio is quite large. Ten seconds of data sampled at low quality (one channel, 8-bit sample resolution, 11.025 samples/second sampling rate) produces about 108K of data (88.2 Kbits/second).
Adding a second channel doubles the amount of data to produce nearly a 215K file (176 Kbits/ second). If we increase the sample resolution to 16 bits, the size of the data doubles again to 430K (352 Kbits/second). If we now increase the sampling rate to 22.05 Ksamples/second, the amount of data produced doubles again to 860K (705.6 Kbits/second). At the highest quality generally used (two channels, 16-bit sample resolution, 44.1 Ksamples/second sampling rate), our 10 seconds of audio now requires 1.72 megabytes (1411.2 Kbits/second) of disk space to store.
Consider how little information can really be stored in 10 seconds of sound. The typical musical song is at least three minutes in length. Music videos are from five to 15 minutes in length. A typical television program is 30 to 60 minutes in length. Movie videos can be three hours or more in length. We’re talking a lot of disk space here.
One solution to the massive storage requirements of high-quality audio data is data compression. For example, the CD-DA (Compact Disc-Digital Audio) standard performs mono or stereo sampling using a sample resolution of 16 bits and a sampling rate of 44.1 samples/ second, making it a very high-quality format for both music and language applications. Storing five minutes of CD-DA information requires approximately 25 megabytes of disk space--only half the amount of space that would be required if the audio data were uncompressed.
Audio data, in common with most binary data, contains a fair amount of redundancy that can be removed with data compression. Conventional compression methods used in many archiving programs (zoo and pkzip, for example) and image file formats don’t do a very good job of compressing audio data (typically 10 percent to 20 percent). This is because audio data is organized very differently from either the ASCII or binary data normally handled by these types of algorithms.
Audio compression algorithms, like image compression algorithms, can be categorized as lossy and lossless. Lossless compression methods do not discard any data. The decompression step produces exactly the same data as was read by the compression step. A simple form of lossless audio compression is to Huffman-encode the differences between each successive 8-bit sample. Huffman encoding is a lossless compression algorithm and, therefore the audio data is preserved in its entirety.
Lossy compression schemes discard data based on the perceptions of the psychoacoustic system of the human brain. Parts of sounds that the ear cannot hear, or the brain does not care about, can be discarded as useless data.
An algorithm must be careful when discarding audio data. The ear is very sensitive to changes in sound. The eye is very forgiving about dropping a video frame here or reducing the number of colors there. The ear, however, notices even slight changes in sounds, especially when specifically trained to recognize audial infidelities and discrepancies. However, the higher the quality of an audio sample, the more data will be required to store it. As with lossy image compression schemes, at times you’ll need to make a subjective decision between quality and data size.
Audio
There is currently no “audio file interchange format” that is widely used in the computer-audio industry. Such a format would allow a wide variety of audio data to be easily written, read, and transported between different hardware platforms and operating systems.
Most existing audio file formats, however, are very machine-specific and do not lend themselves to interchange very well. Several multimedia formats are capable of encapsulating a wide variety of audio formats, but do not describe any new audio data format in themselves.
Many audio file formats have headers just as image files do. Their header information includes parameters particular to audio data, including sample rate, number of channels, sample resolution, type of compression, and so on. An identification field (“magic” number) is also included in several audio file format headers.
Several formats contain only raw audio data and no file header. Any parameters these formats use are fixed in value and therefore would be redundant to store in a file header. Stream- oriented formats contain packets (chunks) of information embedded at strategic points within the raw audio data itself. Such formats are very platform-dependent and would require an audio file format reader or converter to have prior knowledge of just what these parameter values are.
Most audio file formats may be identified by their file types or extensions. Some common sound file formats are:
- .AU Sun Microsystems
- .SND NeXT
- HCOM Apple Macintosh
- .VOC SoundBlaster
- .WAV Microsoft Waveform
- AIFF Apple/SGI
- 8SVX Apple/SGI
A multimedia format may choose to either define its own internal audio data format or simply encapsulate an existing audio file format. Microsoft Waveform files are RIFF files with a single Waveform audio file component, while Apple QuickTime files contain their own audio data structures unique to QuickTime files.
MIDI Standard
Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI) is an industry standard for representing sound in a binary format. MIDI is not an audio format, however. It does not store actual digitally sampled sounds. Instead, MIDI stores a description of sounds, in much the same way that a vector image format stores a description of an image and not image data itself.
Sound in MIDI data is stored as a series of control messages. Each message describes a sound event using terms such as pitch, duration, and volume. When these control messages are sent to a MIDI-compatible device (the MIDI standard also defines the interconnecting hardware used by MIDI devices and the communications protocol used to interchange the control information) the information in the message is interpreted and reproduced by the device.
MIDI data may be compressed, just like any other binary data, and does not require special compression algorithms in the way that audio data does.
Conclusion
The activity introduced the various data formats that are possible in a multimedia, it also explained the conversions possible, e.g. sampling, quantization and animations
Assessment
1.What is digital conversion? is a very useful feature that converts an analog voltage on a pin to a digital number. By converting from the analog world to the digital world, we can begin to use electronics to interface to the analog world around us.
e.g. Analog-to-digital conversion is an electronic process in which a continuously variable (analog) signal is changed, without altering its essential content, into a multi-level (digital) signal.
The input to an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) consists of a voltage that varies among a theoretically infinite number of values. Examples are sine waves, the waveforms representing human speech, and the signals from a conventional television camera. The output of the ADC, in contrast, has defined levels or states. The number of states is almost always a power of two -- that is, 2, 4, 8, 16, etc. The simplest digital signals have only two states, and are called binary. All whole numbers can be represented in binary form as strings of ones and zeros.
2.Explain MIDI
MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface) is a protocol designed for recording and playing back music on digital synthesizers that is supported by many makes of personal computer sound cards. Originally intended to control one keyboard from another, it was quickly adopted for the personal computer. Rather than representing musical sound directly, it transmits information about how music is produced. The command set includes note-ons, note-offs, key velocity, pitch bend and other methods of controlling a synthesizer. The sound waves produced are those already stored in a wavetable in the receiving instrument or sound card. | 4,652 | common-pile/libretexts_filtered | https://workforce.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Information_Technology/Information_Technology_Hardware/Advanced_Computer_Organization_Architecture_(Njoroge)/05%3A_The_Peripheral_Devices/5.02%3A_Sound_and_Audio_Image_and_Graphics_Animation_and_Video | libretexts | libretexts-0000.json.gz:42168 | https://workforce.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Information_Technology/Information_Technology_Hardware/Advanced_Computer_Organization_Architecture_(Njoroge)/05%3A_The_Peripheral_Devices/5.02%3A_Sound_and_Audio_Image_and_Graphics_Animation_and_Video |
ie5GCq0n9lllUTBd | 3.4: Lipids | 3.4: Lipids
By the end of this section, you will be able to do the following:
- Describe the four major types of lipids
- Explain the role of fats in storing energy
- Differentiate between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids
- Describe phospholipids and their role in cells
- Define the basic structure of a steroid and some steroid functions
- Explain how cholesterol helps maintain the plasma membrane's fluid nature
Lipids include a diverse group of compounds that are largely nonpolar in nature. This is because they are hydrocarbons that include mostly nonpolar carbon–carbon or carbon–hydrogen bonds. Non-polar molecules are hydrophobic (“water fearing”), or insoluble in water. Lipids perform many different functions in a cell. Cells store energy for long-term use in the form of fats. Lipids also provide insulation from the environment for plants and animals (Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\)). For example, they help keep aquatic birds and mammals dry when forming a protective layer over fur or feathers because of their water-repellant hydrophobic nature. Lipids are also the building blocks of many hormones and are an important constituent of all cellular membranes. Lipids include fats, oils, waxes, phospholipids, and steroids.
Fats and Oils
A fat molecule consists of two main components—glycerol and fatty acids. Glycerol is an organic compound (alcohol) with three carbons, five hydrogens, and three hydroxyl (OH) groups. Fatty acids have a long chain of hydrocarbons to which a carboxyl group is attached, hence the name “fatty acid.” The number of carbons in the fatty acid may range from 4 to 36. The most common are those containing 12–18 carbons. In a fat molecule, the fatty acids attach to each of the glycerol molecule's three carbons with an ester bond through an oxygen atom (Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\)).
During this ester bond formation, three water molecules are released. The three fatty acids in the triacylglycerol may be similar or dissimilar. We also call fats triacylglycerols or triglycerides because of their chemical structure. Some fatty acids have common names that specify their origin. For example, palmitic acid, a saturated fatty acid , is derived from the palm tree. Arachidic acid is derived from Arachis hypogea, the scientific name for groundnuts or peanuts.
Fatty acids may be saturated or unsaturated. In a fatty acid chain, if there are only single bonds between neighboring carbons in the hydrocarbon chain, the fatty acid is saturated. Saturated fatty acids are saturated with hydrogen. In other words, the number of hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon skeleton is maximized. Stearic acid is an example of a saturated fatty acid (Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\)).
When the hydrocarbon chain contains a double bond, the fatty acid is unsaturated . Oleic acid is an example of an unsaturated fatty acid (Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\)).
Most unsaturated fats are liquid at room temperature. We call these oils. If there is one double bond in the molecule, then it is a monounsaturated fat (e.g., olive oil), and if there is more than one double bond, then it is a polyunsaturated fat (e.g., canola oil).
When a fatty acid has no double bonds, it is a saturated fatty acid because it is not possible to add more hydrogen to the chain's carbon atoms. A fat may contain similar or different fatty acids attached to glycerol. Long straight fatty acids with single bonds generally pack tightly and are solid at room temperature. Animal fats with stearic acid and palmitic acid (common in meat) and the fat with butyric acid (common in butter) are examples of saturated fats. Mammals store fats in specialized cells, or adipocytes, where fat globules occupy most of the cell’s volume. Plants store fat or oil in many seeds and use them as a source of energy during seedling development. Unsaturated fats or oils are usually of plant origin and contain cis unsaturated fatty acids. Cis and trans indicate the configuration of the molecule around the double bond. If hydrogens are present in the same plane, it is a cis fat. If the hydrogen atoms are on two different planes, it is a trans fat . The cis double bond causes a bend or a “kink” that prevents the fatty acids from packing tightly, keeping them liquid at room temperature (Figure \(\PageIndex{5}\)). Olive oil, corn oil, canola oil, and cod liver oil are examples of unsaturated fats. Unsaturated fats help to lower blood cholesterol levels; whereas, saturated fats contribute to plaque formation in the arteries.
Trans Fats
The food industry artificially hydrogenates oils to make them semi-solid and of a consistency desirable for many processed food products. Simply speaking, hydrogen gas is bubbled through oils to solidify them. During this hydrogenation process, double bonds of the cis - conformation in the hydrocarbon chain may convert to double bonds in the trans - conformation.
Margarine, some types of peanut butter, and shortening are examples of artificially hydrogenated trans fats. Recent studies have shown that an increase in trans fats in the human diet may lead to higher levels of low-density lipoproteins (LDL), or “bad” cholesterol, which in turn may lead to plaque deposition in the arteries, resulting in heart disease. Many fast food restaurants have recently banned using trans fats, and food labels are required to display the trans fat content.
Omega Fatty Acids
Essential fatty acids are those that the human body requires but does not synthesize. Consequently, they have to be supplemented through ingestion via the diet. Omega -3 fatty acids (like those in Figure \(\PageIndex{6}\)) fall into this category and are one of only two known for humans (the other is omega-6 fatty acid). These are polyunsaturated fatty acids and are omega-3 because a double bond connects the third carbon from the hydrocarbon chain's end to its neighboring carbon.
The farthest carbon away from the carboxyl group is numbered as the omega ( ω ) carbon, and if the double bond is between the third and fourth carbon from that end, it is an omega-3 fatty acid. Nutritionally important because the body does not make them, omega-3 fatty acids include alpha-linoleic acid (ALA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), all of which are polyunsaturated. Salmon, trout, and tuna are good sources of omega-3 fatty acids. Research indicates that omega-3 fatty acids reduce the risk of sudden death from heart attacks, lower triglycerides in the blood, decrease blood pressure, and prevent thrombosis by inhibiting blood clotting. They also reduce inflammation, and may help lower the risk of some cancers in animals.
Like carbohydrates, fats have received considerable bad publicity. It is true that eating an excess of fried foods and other “fatty” foods leads to weight gain. However, fats do have important functions. Many vitamins are fat soluble, and fats serve as a long-term storage form of fatty acids: a source of energy. They also provide insulation for the body. Therefore, we should consume “healthy” fats in moderate amounts on a regular basis.
Waxes
Wax covers some aquatic birds' feathers and some plants' leaf surfaces. Because of waxes' hydrophobic nature, they prevent water from sticking on the surface (Figure \(\PageIndex{7}\)). Long fatty acid chains esterified to long-chain alcohols comprise waxes.
Phospholipids
Phospholipids are major plasma membrane constituents that comprise cells' outermost layer. Like fats, they are comprised of fatty acid chains attached to a glycerol or sphingosine backbone. However, instead of three fatty acids attached as in triglycerides, there are two fatty acids forming diacylglycerol, and a modified phosphate group occupies the glycerol backbone's third carbon (Figure \(\PageIndex{8}\)). A phosphate group alone attached to a diacylglycerol does not qualify as a phospholipid. It is phosphatidate (diacylglycerol 3-phosphate), the precursor of phospholipids. An alcohol modifies the phosphate group. Phosphatidylcholine and phosphatidylserine are two important phospholipids that are in plasma membranes.
A phospholipid is an amphipathic molecule, meaning it has a hydrophobic and a hydrophilic part. The fatty acid chains are hydrophobic and cannot interact with water; whereas, the phosphate-containing group is hydrophilic and interacts with water (Figure \(\PageIndex{9}\)).
The head is the hydrophilic part, and the tail contains the hydrophobic fatty acids. In a membrane, a bilayer of phospholipids forms the structure's matrix, phospholipids' fatty acid tails face inside, away from water; whereas, the phosphate group faces the outside, aqueous side (Figure \(\PageIndex{9}\)).
Phospholipids are responsible for the plasma membrane's dynamic nature. If a drop of phospholipids is placed in water, it spontaneously forms a structure that scientists call a micelle, where the hydrophilic phosphate heads face the outside and the fatty acids face the structure's interior.
Steroids
Unlike the phospholipids and fats that we discussed earlier, steroids have a fused ring structure. Although they do not resemble the other lipids, scientists group them with them because they are also hydrophobic and insoluble in water. All steroids have four linked carbon rings and several of them, like cholesterol, have a short tail (Figure \(\PageIndex{10}\)). Many steroids also have the –OH functional group, which puts them in the alcohol classification (sterols).
Cholesterol is the most common steroid. The liver synthesizes cholesterol and is the precursor to many steroid hormones such as testosterone and estradiol, which gonads and endocrine glands secrete. It is also the precursor to Vitamin D. Cholesterol is also the precursor of bile salts, which help emulsifying fats and their subsequent absorption by cells. Although lay people often speak negatively about cholesterol, it is necessary for the body's proper functioning. Sterols (cholesterol in animal cells, phytosterol in plants) are components of the plasma membrane of cells and are found within the phospholipid bilayer.
Link to Learning
Link to Learning
For an additional perspective on lipids, watch the video below about different types of lipids.
Contributors and Attributions
Remixed and/or curated from the following works:
Clark, M. A., Douglas, M., & Choi, J. (2018). 1.3.4 Lipids . In Biology 2e . OpenStax (CC BY 4.0; Access for free at https://openstax.org/books/biology-2e/pages/1-introduction ). | 2,119 | common-pile/libretexts_filtered | https://bio.libretexts.org/Courses/Citrus_College/Citrus_College_General_Biology_Textbook/03%3A_Biological_Macromolecules/3.04%3A_Lipids | libretexts | libretexts-0000.json.gz:25117 | https://bio.libretexts.org/Courses/Citrus_College/Citrus_College_General_Biology_Textbook/03%3A_Biological_Macromolecules/3.04%3A_Lipids |
wsYUUh7nsj3leYsS | English Literature: Victorians and Moderns | 192 Brave New World: Chapter 17
Aldous Huxley
ART, SCIENCE—you seem to have paid a fairly high price for your happiness,” said the Savage, when they were alone. “Anything else?”
“Well, religion, of course,” replied the Controller. “There used to be something called God—before the Nine Years’ War. But I was forgetting; you know all about God, I suppose.”
“Well …” The Savage hesitated. He would have liked to say something about solitude, about night, about the mesa lying pale under the moon, about the precipice, the plunge into shadowy darkness, about death. He would have liked to speak; but there were no words. Not even in Shakespeare.
The Controller, meanwhile, had crossed to the other side of the room and was unlocking a large safe set into the wall between the bookshelves. The heavy door swung open. Rummaging in the darkness within, “It’s a subject,” he said, “that has always had a great interest for me.” “You’ve never read this, for example.”
The Savage took it. “The Holy Bible, containing the Old and New Testaments,‘ he read aloud from the title-page.
“Nor this.” It was a small book and had lost its cover.
“The Imitation of Christ.”
“Nor this.” He handed out another volume.
“The Varieties of Religious Experience. By William James.”
“And I’ve got plenty more,” Mustapha Mond continued, resuming his seat. “A whole collection of pornographic old books. God in the safe and Ford on the shelves.”
“But if you know about God, why don’t you tell them?” asked the Savage indignantly. “Why don’t you give them these books about God?” “For the same reason as we don’t give them Othello: they’re old; they’re about God hundreds of years ago. Not about God now.”
“But God doesn’t change.”
“Men do, though.”
“What difference does that make?”
“All the difference in the world,” said Mustapha Mond. He got up again and walked to the safe. “There was a man called Cardinal Newman,” he said. “A cardinal,” he exclaimed parenthetically, “was a kind of Arch-Community-Songster.”
‘”I Pandulph, of fair Milan, cardinal.[1] I’ve read about them in Shakespeare.”
“Of course you have. Well, as I was saying, there was a man called Cardinal Newman. Ah, here’s the book.” He pulled it out. “And while I’m about it I’ll take this one too. It’s by a man called Maine de Biran. He was a philosopher, if you know what that was.”
“A man who dreams of fewer things than there are in heaven and earth,”[2] said the Savage promptly.
“Quite so. I’ll read you one of the things he did dream of in a moment. Meanwhile, listen to what this old Arch-Community-Songster said.” He opened the book at the place marked by a slip of paper and began to read. ‘”We are not our own any more than what we possess is our own. We did not make ourselves, we cannot be supreme over ourselves. We are not our own masters. We are God’s property. Is it not our happiness thus to view the matter? Is it any happiness or any comfort, to consider that we are our own? It may be thought so by the young and prosperous. These may think it a great thing to have everything, as they suppose, their own way—to depend on no one—to have to think of nothing out of sight, to be without the irksomeness of continual acknowledgment, continual prayer, continual reference of what they do to the will of another. But as time goes on, they, as all men, will find that independence was not made for man—that it is an unnatural state—will do for a while, but will not carry us on safely to the end …'”[3] Mustapha Mond paused, put down the first book and, picking up the other, turned over the pages. “Take this, for example,” he said, and in his deep voice once more began to read: “‘A man grows old; he feels in himself that radical sense of weakness, of listlessness, of discomfort, which accompanies the advance of age; and, feeling thus, imagines himself merely sick, lulling his fears with the notion that this distressing condition is due to some particular cause, from which, as from an illness, he hopes to recover. Vain imaginings! They say that it is the fear of death and of what comes after death that makes men turn to religion as they advance in years. But my own experience has given me the conviction that, quite apart from any such terrors or imaginings, the religious sentiment tends to develop as we grow older; to develop because, as the passions grow calm, as the fancy and sensibilities are less excited and less excitable, our reason becomes less troubled in its working, less obscured by the images, desires and distractions, in which it used to be absorbed; whereupon God emerges as from behind a cloud; our soul feels, sees, turns towards the source of all light; turns naturally and inevitably; for now that all that gave to the world of sensations its life and charms has begun to leak away from us, now that phenomenal existence is no more bolstered up by impressions from within or from without, we feel the need to lean on something that abides, something that will never play us false—a reality, an absolute and everlasting truth. Yes, we inevitably turn to God; for this religious sentiment is of its nature so pure, so delightful to the soul that experiences it, that it makes up to us for all our other losses.'” “One of the numerous things in heaven and earth that these philosophers didn’t dream about was this” (he waved his hand), “us, the modern world. ‘You can only be independent of God while you’ve got youth and prosperity; independence won’t take you safely to the end.’ Well, we’ve now got youth and prosperity right up to the end. What follows? Evidently, that we can be independent of God. ‘The religious sentiment will compensate us for all our losses.’ But there aren’t any losses for us to compensate; religious sentiment is superfluous. And why should we go hunting for a substitute for youthful desires, when youthful desires never fail? A substitute for distractions, when we go on enjoying all the old fooleries to the very last? What need have we of repose when our minds and bodies continue to delight in activity? of consolation, when we have soma? of something immovable, when there is the social order?”
“Then you think there is no God?” “No, I think there quite probably is one.” “Then why? …”
Mustapha Mond checked him. “But he manifests himself in different ways to different men. In pre-modern times he manifested himself as the being that’s described in these books. Now …” “How does he manifest himself now?” asked the Savage. “Well, he manifests himself as an absence; as though he weren’t there at all.”
“That’s your fault.”
“Call it the fault of civilization. God isn’t compatible with machinery and scientific medicine and universal happiness. You must make your choice. Our civilization has chosen machinery and medicine and happiness. That’s why I have to keep these books locked up in the safe. They’re smut. People would be shocked it …”
The Savage interrupted him. “But isn’t it natural to feel there’s a God?” “You might as well ask if it’s natural to do up one’s trousers with zippers,” said the Controller sarcastically. “You remind me of another of those old fellows called Bradley[4] He defined philosophy as the finding of bad reasons for what one believes by instinct. As if one believed anything by instinct! One believes things because one has been conditioned to believe them. Finding bad reasons for what one believes for other bad reasons—that’s philosophy. People believe in God because they’ve been conditioned to.
“But all the same,” insisted the Savage, “it is natural to believe in God when you’re alone—quite alone, in the night, thinking about death …” “But people never are alone now,” said Mustapha Mond. “We make them hate solitude; and we arrange their lives so that it’s almost impossible for them ever to have it.”
The Savage nodded gloomily. At Malpais he had suffered because they had shut him out from the communal activities of the pueblo, in civilized London he was suffering because he could never escape from those communal activities, never be quietly alone.
“Do you remember that bit in King Lear?” said the Savage at last. ‘”The gods are just and of our pleasant vices make instruments to plague us; the dark and vicious place where thee he got cost him his eyes,’ and Edmund answers—you remember, he’s wounded, he’s dying—’Thou hast spoken right; ’tis true. The wheel has come full circle; I am here.’[5] What about that now? Doesn’t there seem to be a God managing things, punishing, rewarding?”
“Well, does there?” questioned the Controller in his turn. “You can indulge in any number of pleasant vices with a freemartin and run no risks of having your eyes put out by your son’s mistress. ‘The wheel has come full circle; I am here.’ But where would Edmund be nowadays? Sitting in a pneumatic chair, with his arm round a girl’s waist, sucking away at his sex-hormone chewing-gum and looking at the feelies. The gods are just. No doubt. But their code of law is dictated, in the last resort, by the people who organize society; Providence takes its cue from men.”
“Are you sure?” asked the Savage. “Are you quite sure that the Edmund in that pneumatic chair hasn’t been just as heavily punished as the Edmund who’s wounded and bleeding to death? The gods are just. Haven’t they used his pleasant vices as an instrument to degrade him?”
“Degrade him from what position? As a happy, hard-working, goods-consuming citizen he’s perfect. Of course, if you choose some other standard than ours, then perhaps you might say he was degraded. But you’ve got to stick to one set of postulates. You can’t play Electromagnetic Golf according to the rules of Centrifugal Bumble-puppy.”
“But value dwells not in particular will,” said the Savage. “It holds his estimate and dignity as well wherein ’tis precious of itself as in the prizer.”[6]
“Come, come,” protested Mustapha Mond, “that’s going rather far, isn’t it?”
“If you allowed yourselves to think of God, you wouldn’t allow yourselves to be degraded by pleasant vices. You’d have a reason for bearing things patiently, for doing things with courage. I’ve seen it with the Indians.”
“I’m sure you have,” said Mustapha Mond. “But then we aren’t Indians. There isn’t any need for a civilized man to bear anything that’s seriously unpleasant. It would upset the whole social order if men started doing things on their own.”
“What about self-denial, then? If you had a God, you’d have a reason for self-denial.”
“But industrial civilization is only possible when there’s no self-denial. Self-indulgence up to the very limits imposed by hygiene and economics. Otherwise the wheels stop turning.”
“You’d have a reason for chastity!” said the Savage, blushing a little as he spoke the words.
“But chastity means passion, chastity means neurasthenia. And passion and neurasthenia mean instability. And instability means the end of civilization. You can’t have a lasting civilization without plenty of pleasant vices.”
“But God’s the reason for everything noble and fine and heroic. If you had a God …”
“My dear young friend,” said Mustapha Mond, “civilization has absolutely no need of nobility or heroism. These things are symptoms of political inefficiency. In a properly organized society like ours, nobody has any opportunities for being noble or heroic. Conditions have got to be thoroughly unstable before the occasion can arise. Where there are wars, where there are divided allegiances, where there are temptations to be resisted, objects of love to be fought for or defended—there, obviously, nobility and heroism have some sense. But there aren’t any wars nowadays. The greatest care is taken to prevent you from loving any one too much. There’s no such thing as a divided allegiance; you’re so conditioned that you can’t help doing what you ought to do. And what you ought to do is on the whole so pleasant, so many of the natural impulses are allowed free play, that there really aren’t any temptations to resist. And if ever, by some unlucky chance, anything unpleasant should somehow happen, why, there’s always soma to give you a holiday from the facts. And there’s always soma to calm your anger, to reconcile you to your enemies, to make you patient and long-suffering. In the past you could only accomplish these things by making a great effort and after years of hard moral training. Anybody can be virtuous now. You can carry at least half your mortality about in a bottle. Christianity without tears—that’s what soma is.”
“But the tears are necessary. Don’t you remember what Othello said? ‘If after every tempest came such calms, may the winds blow till they have wakened death.’ [7] There’s a story one of the old Indians used to tell us, about the Girl of Mataski.[8]. The young men who wanted to marry her had to do a morning’s hoeing in her garden. It seemed easy; but there were flies and mosquitoes, magic ones. Most of the young men simply couldn’t stand the biting and stinging. But the one that could—he got the girl.”
“Charming! But in civilized countries,” said the Controller, “you can have girls without hoeing for them, and there aren’t any flies or mosquitoes to sting you. We got rid of them all centuries ago.”
The Savage nodded, frowning. “You got rid of them. Getting rid of everything unpleasant instead of learning to put up with it. Whether ’tis better in the mind to suffer the slings and arrows of outrageous fortune, or to take arms against a sea of troubles and by opposing end them … But you don’t do either. Neither suffer nor oppose. You just abolish the slings and arrows. It’s too easy.”
He was suddenly silent, thinking of his mother. In her room on the thirty-seventh floor, Linda had floated in a sea of singing lights and perfumed caresses—floated away, out of space, out of time, out of the prison of her memories, her habits, her aged and bloated body. And Tomakin, ex-Director of Hatcheries and Conditioning, Tomakin was still on holiday—on holiday from humiliation and pain, in a world where he could not hear those words, that derisive laughter, could not see that hideous face, feel those moist and flabby arms round his neck, in a beautiful world …
“What you need,” the Savage went on, “is something with tears for a change. Nothing costs enough here.”
(“Twelve and a half million dollars,” Henry Foster had protested when the Savage told him that. “Twelve and a half million—that’s what the new Conditioning Centre cost. Not a cent less.”) “Exposing what is mortal and unsure to all that fortune, death and danger dare, even for an eggshell. Isn’t there something in that?” he asked, looking up at Mustapha Mond. “Quite apart from God—though of course God would be a reason for it. Isn’t there something in living dangerously?”
“There’s a great deal in it,” the Controller replied. “Men and women must have their adrenals stimulated from time to time.” “What?” questioned the Savage, uncomprehending. “It’s one of the conditions of perfect health. That’s why we’ve made the V.P.S. treatments compulsory.” “V.P.S.?”
“Violent Passion Surrogate. Regularly once a month. We flood the whole system with adrenalin. It’s the complete physiological equivalent of fear and rage. All the tonic effects of murdering Desdemona and being murdered by Othello, without any of the inconveniences.”
“But I like the inconveniences.”
“We don’t,” said the Controller. “We prefer to do things comfortably.”
“But I don’t want comfort. I want sin.”
“In fact,” said Mustapha Mond, “you’re claiming the right to be unhappy.”
“All right then,” said the Savage defiantly, “I’m claiming the right to be unhappy.”
“Not to mention the right to grow old and ugly and impotent; the right to have syphilis and cancer; the right to have too little to eat; the right to be lousy; the right to live in constant apprehension of what may happen to-morrow; the right to catch typhoid; the right to be tortured by unspeakable pains of every kind.”
There was a long silence.
“I claim them all,” said the Savage at last.
Mustapha Mond shrugged his shoulders. “You’re welcome,” he said.
- King John 3.1.64. ↵
- See Hamlet 1.5.168-9: “There are more things in heaven and earth, Horatio,/Than are dreamt of in our philosophy.” ↵
- Newman, Sermons, “Remembrance of Past Mercies.” ↵
- Frances Herbert Bradley (1846-1924). Appearance and Reality: a metaphysical essay: “Metaphysics is the finding of bad reasons for what we believe upon instinct, but to find these reasons is no less an instinct.” (4). ↵
- King Lear 5.3. 169-173. ↵
- Troilus and Cressida 2.2.53-55. ↵
- Othello 2.1.183-84. ↵
- Huxley read this account in Frank Hamilton Cushing, Zuñi Folk Tales (1901) http://www.sacred-texts.com/nam/zuni/zft/zft03.htm ↵ | 3,705 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/englishliterature/chapter/brave-new-world-chapter-17/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:43820 | https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/englishliterature/chapter/brave-new-world-chapter-17/ |
0tfxHiJmhWuTRQ9K | 1.4: The Meaning of Black Freedom | 1.4: The Meaning of Black Freedom
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Land was one of the major desires of the freed people. Frustrated by responsibility for the growing numbers of freed people following his troops, General William T. Sherman issued Special Field Order No. 15, in which land in Georgia and South Carolina was to be set aside as a homestead for the freedpeople. Sherman lacked the authority to confiscate and distribute land, so this plan never fully took effect. 13 One of the main purposes of the Freedmen’s Bureau, however, was to redistribute lands to former slaves that had been abandoned and confiscated by the federal government. Even these land grants were short-lived. In 1866, land that ex-Confederates had left behind was reinstated to them.
Freedpeople’s hopes of land reform were unceremoniously dashed as Freedmen’s Bureau agents held meetings with the freedmen throughout the South, telling them the promise of land was not going to be honored and that instead they should plan to go back to work for their former owners as wage laborers. The policy reversal came as quite a shock. In one instance, Freedmen’s Bureau commissioner General Oliver O. Howard went to Edisto Island to inform the black population there of the policy change. The black commission’s response was that “we were promised Homesteads by the government. . . . You ask us to forgive the land owners of our island. . . .The man who tied me to a tree and gave me 39 lashes and who stripped and flogged my mother and my sister . . . that man I cannot well forgive. Does it look as if he has forgiven me, seeing how he tries to keep me in a condition of helplessness?” 14
In working to ensure that crops would be harvested, agents sometimes coerced former slaves into signing contracts with their former masters. However, the bureau also instituted courts where African Americans could seek redress if their employers were abusing them or not paying them. The last ember of hope for land redistribution was extinguished when Thaddeus Stevens and Charles Sumner’s proposed land reform bills were tabled in Congress. Radicalism had its limits, and the Republican Party’s commitment to economic stability eclipsed their interest in racial justice.
Another aspect of the pursuit of freedom was the reconstitution of families. Many freedpeople immediately left plantations in search of family members who had been sold away. Newspaper ads sought information about long-lost relatives. People placed these ads until the turn of the twentieth century, demonstrating the enduring pursuit of family reunification. Freedpeople sought to gain control over their own children or other children who had been apprenticed to white masters either during the war or as a result of the Black Codes. Above all, freedpeople wanted freedom to control their families. 15
Many freedpeople rushed to solemnize unions with formal wedding ceremonies. Black people’s desires to marry fit the government’s goal to make free black men responsible for their own households and to prevent black women and children from becoming dependent on the government.
Freedpeople placed a great emphasis on education for their children and themselves. For many, the ability to finally read the Bible for themselves induced work-weary men and women to spend all evening or Sunday attending night school or Sunday school classes. It was not uncommon to find a one-room school with more than fifty students ranging in age from three to eighty. As Booker T. Washington famously described the situation, “it was a whole race trying to go to school. Few were too young, and none too old, to make the attempt to learn.” 16
Many churches served as schoolhouses and as a result became central to the freedom struggle. Free and freed black southerners carried well-formed political and organizational skills into freedom. They developed anti-racist politics and organizational skills through antislavery organizations turned church associations. Liberated from white-controlled churches, black Americans remade their religious worlds according to their own social and spiritual desires. 17
One of the more marked transformations that took place after emancipation was the proliferation of independent black churches and church associations. In the 1930s, nearly 40 percent of 663 black churches surveyed had their organizational roots in the post-emancipation era. 18 Many independent black churches emerged in the rural areas, and most of them had never been affiliated with white churches.
Many of these independent churches were quickly organized into regional, state, and even national associations, often by brigades of northern and midwestern free blacks who went to the South to help the freedmen. Through associations like the Virginia Baptist State Convention and the Consolidated American Baptist Missionary Convention, Baptists became the fastest growing post-emancipation denomination, building on their antislavery associational roots and carrying on the struggle for black political participation. 19
Tensions between northerners and southerners over styles of worship and educational requirements strained these associations.
Perhaps the most significant internal transformation in churches had to do with the role of women—a situation that eventually would lead to the development of independent women’s conventions in Baptist, Methodist, and Pentecostal churches. Women like Nannie Helen Burroughs and Virginia Broughton, leaders of the Baptist Woman’s Convention, worked to protect black women from sexual violence from white men. Black representatives repeatedly articulated this concern in state constitutional conventions early in the Reconstruction era. In churches, women continued to fight for equal treatment and access to the pulpit as preachers, even though they were able to vote in church meetings. 20
Black churches provided centralized leadership and organization in post-emancipation communities. Many political leaders and officeholders were ministers. Churches were often the largest building in town and served as community centers. Access to pulpits and growing congregations provided a foundation for ministers’ political leadership. Groups like the Union League, militias, and fraternal organizations all used the regalia, ritual, and even hymns of churches to inform and shape their practice.
Black churches provided space for conflict over gender roles, cultural values, practices, norms, and political engagement. With the rise of Jim Crow, black churches would enter a new phase of negotiating relationships within the community and the wider world. | 1,331 | common-pile/libretexts_filtered | https://human.libretexts.org/Courses/Diablo_Valley_College/Hist_121%3A_History_of_the_United_States_after_1865_(Conrad)/01%3A_Reconstruction/1.04%3A_The_Meaning_of_Black_Freedom | libretexts | libretexts-0000.json.gz:28956 | https://human.libretexts.org/Courses/Diablo_Valley_College/Hist_121%3A_History_of_the_United_States_after_1865_(Conrad)/01%3A_Reconstruction/1.04%3A_The_Meaning_of_Black_Freedom |
GWdkSzTALqwdeO_I | Communication @ Work Seneca Edition | Unit 11: Choosing an Organizational Pattern
Learning Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to recognize and apply standard patterns of message organization.
Introduction
The shape of your message depends on the purpose. As discussed previously, business communications can have three purposes: to inform, to persuade, or promote goodwill. Without a clear plan to achieve the intended purpose, readers can get lost and confused. That is why business writing has standard patterns of organization to structure thoughts and messages to make them understandable to the receiver.
Most business messages follow a three-part structure that accommodates the three-part division of our attention spans and memory:
Attention-grabbing opening: The opening hooks the reader in to keep reading by capturing their attention. In longer messages, the opening includes an introduction that establishes the framework in which the reader can understand everything that follows.
Detail-packed body: The message body supports the opening with further detail supporting the main point. Depending on the type of message and organizational structure that suits it best, the body may involve:
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- Evidence in support of the main point/idea
- Background for better understanding
- Detailed explanations or instructions
- Convincing rationale in a persuasive message
This information is crucial to the audience’s understanding of and commitment to the message. Our memory typically blurs these details, however, so having them written down for future reference is important. The message body is a collection of important subpoints in support of the main point, as well as transitional elements that keep the message coherent and plot a course towards its completion.
Wrap-up and closing: The closing completes the coverage of the topic and may also point to what’s next, such as cues to what action should follow the message (e.g., what the reader is supposed to do in response to a letter, such as a reply by a certain date). Depending on the size, type, and organizational structure of the message, the closing may also offer a concluding summary of the major subpoints made in the body to ensure that the purpose of the message has been achieved. In a persuasive message, for instance, this summary helps prove the opening thesis by confirming that the body of evidence and argument supported it convincingly.
The effective writer loads the message with important points both at the opening and closing of a document because the reader will focus on and remember what they read first and last.
Organizing Patterns
Business communications use two main message patterns: Direct Messages, Indirect Messages, while bearing in mind to follow the general three-part structure discussed above. Learning these patterns is valuable to reduce confusing and disorganized messages. Anyone can become a clearer and more coherent thinker by learning to organize messages consistently according to well-established patterns.
Direct Messages
The direct approach frontloads the main point, which means getting right to the point in the first or second sentence of the opening paragraph. The direct approach is used when you expect the audience to be pleased, mildly interested, or have a neutral response to the message. Positive, day-to-day, and routine messages use the direct organizing pattern. The explanation and details follow in the body paragraph. Getting to the main idea saves the reader time by immediately clarifying the purpose of communication and thus reduces receive frustration.
Since most business messages have a positive or neutral effect, business writers should become very familiar with this organizing pattern. Frontloading a message accommodates the reader’s capacity for remembering what they see first, as well as respects their time in achieving the goal of communication, which is understanding the writer’s point.
Indirect Messages
While the direct approach leads with the main point, the indirect approach strategically moves the main idea deeper in the message. The indirect approach is used for delivering bad, unwanted, or sensitive news. When you expect the reader will be resistant, displeased, upset, shocked, or even hostile towards the message, the direct approach would come off as overly blunt, tactless, and even cruel.
The goal of indirect messages is to use the opening paragraph and some of the body area to ease the reader towards an unwanted or upsetting message. Thus, the indirect approach will first provide an explanation or justification, before delivering the main idea. This organizing pattern allows the reader to become interested enough to read the whole message. This organizational pattern is ideal for two main types of messages: those delivering bad news or addressing a sensitive subject, and those requiring persuasion such as marketing messages pitching a product, service, or even an idea.
Persuasive Messages: All persuasive message follows the so-called AIDA approach:
- Attention-grabbing opener
- Interest-generating follow-up
- Desire-building details
- Action cue
Nearly every commercials follow this general structure, which is designed to keep you interested while enticing you towards a certain action such as buying a product or service. Marketing relies on this structure because it effectively accommodates our attention spans’ need to be hooked in with a strong first impression and told what to do at the end so that we remember those details best, while working on our desires—even subconsciously—in the body paragraphs.
Negative Messages: Likewise, a bad-news message starts by presenting the bad news after an explanation or justification of the bad news is presented. The typical organization of a bad-news message is:
- Buffer offering some good news, positives, goodwill, or any other reason to keep reading
- Reasons for the bad news about to come
- Bad news buried and quickly deflected towards further positives or alternatives
- Action cue
Delaying the bad news softens the blow by surrounding it with positive or agreeable information that keeps the audience reading so that they miss neither the bad news nor the rest of the information they need to understand it. If a doctor opened by saying “You’ve got cancer and probably have six months to live,” the patient would probably be reeling so much in hopelessness from the death-sentence blow that they wouldn’t be in the proper frame of mind to hear important follow-up information about life-extending treatment options. If an explanation of those options preceded the bad news, however, the patient would probably walk away with a more hopeful feeling of being able to beat the cancer and survive. Framing is everything when delivering bad news.
Consider these two concise statements of the same information taking both the direct and indirect approach:
Table 11.1.: Comparison of Direct and Indirect Messages
| Direct Message | Indirect Message |
| Global Media is cutting costs in its print division by shutting down several local newspapers. | Global Media is seeking to improve its profitability across its various divisions. To this end, it is streamlining its local newspaper holdings by strengthening those in robust markets while redirecting resources away from those that have suffered in the economic downturn and trend towards fully online content. |
Here we can see at first glance that the indirect message is longer because it takes more care to frame and justify the bad news, starting with an opening that attempts to win over the reader’s agreement by appealing to their sense of reason. In the direct approach, the bad news is delivered concisely in blunt words such as “cutting” and “shutting,” which get the point across economically but suggest cruel aggression with violent imagery. The indirect approach, however, makes the bad news sound quite good—at least to shareholders—with positive words like “improve,” “streamlining,” and “strengthening.” The good news that frames the bad news makes the action sound more like an angelic act of mercy than an aggressive attack. The combination of careful word choices and the order in which the message unfolds determines how well it is received, understood, and remembered as we shall see when we consider further examples of persuasive and bad-news messages later in the textbook.
Organizing Principles
Several message patterns are available to suit your purposes for writing both direct and indirect-approach messages, so choosing one before writing is essential for staying on track. Their formulaic structures make the job of writing as easy and routine as filling out a form. By using such organizing principles as chronology (a linear narrative from past to present to future), comparison-contrast, or problem-solution, you arrange your content in a logical order that makes it easy for the reader to follow your message.
These organizing principles are identified, explained, and exemplified in Table 11.2 below. Checking out a variety of websites to see how they use these principles effectively will provide a helpful guide for how to write them. These basic structures can provide readers with a recognizable form that will enable them to find the information they need.
Table 11.2: Ten Common Organizing Principles
| Organizing Principle | Structure & Use | Example |
| 1. Chronology & 5W+H |
|
Wolfe Landscaping & Snowblowing began when founder Robert Wolfe realized in 1993 that there was a huge demand for reliable summer lawncare and winter snow removal when it seemed that the few other available services were letting their customers down. Wolfe began operations with three snow-blowing vehicles in the Bridlewood community of Kanata and expanded to include the rest of Kanata and Stittsville throughout the 1990s.
WLS continued its eastward expansion throughout the 2000s and now covers the entire capital region as far east as Orleans, plus Barrhaven in the south, with 64 snow-blowing vehicles out on the road at any one time. WLS recently added real-time GPS tracking to its app service and plans to continue expanding its service area to the rural west, south, and east of Ottawa throughout the 2020s. |
| 2. Comparison & Contrast |
|
Wolfe Snowblowing goes above and beyond what its competitors offer.
If you go with the “Don’t Lift a Finger This Winter” deluxe package, Wolfe will additionally clear and salt your walkway, stairs, and doorstep. With base service pricing 10% cheaper than other companies, going with Wolfe for your snow-removal needs is a no-brainer. |
| 3. Pros & Cons |
|
Why would you want a snow-removal service?
Advantages include:
The disadvantages of other snow-removal services include:
As you can see, the advantages of WLS outweigh the disadvantages for any busy household. |
| 4. Problem & Solution |
|
Are you fed up with getting all geared up in -40 degree weather at 6 a.m. to shovel your driveway before leaving for work? Fed up with finishing shoveling the driveway in a hurry, late for work in the morning, and then the city plow comes by and snow-banks you in just as you’re about to leave? Fed up with coming home after a long, hard day at work only to find that the city plow snow-banked you out?
Well, worry no more! Wolfe Landscaping & Snowblowing has got you covered with its 24-hour snow removal service that follows the city plow to ensure that you always have driveway access throughout the winter months. |
| 5. Cause & Effect |
|
As soon as snow appears in the weather forecast, Wolfe Landscaping & Snowblowing reserves its crew of dedicated snow blowers for 24-hour snow removal. When accumulation reaches 5 cm in your area, our fleet deploys to remove snow from the driveways of all registered customers before the city plows get there. Once the city plow clears your street, a WLS snowblower returns shortly after to clear the snowbank formed by the city plow at the end of your driveway. |
| 6. Process & Procedure |
|
Ordering our snow removal service is as easy as 1 2 3:
|
| 7. General to Specific |
|
Wolfe Landscaping & Snowblowing provides a reliable snow-removal service throughout the winter. We got you covered for any snowfall of 5 cm or more between November 1st and April 15th. Once accumulation reaches 5 cm at any time day or night, weekday or weekend, holiday or not, we send out our fleet of snow blowers to cover neighbourhood routes, going house-by-house to service registered customers. At each house, a loader-mount snowblower scrapes your driveway and redistributes the snow evenly across your front yard in less than five minutes. |
| 8. Definition & Example |
|
A loader-mount snowblower (LMSB) is a heavy-equipment vehicle that removes snow from a surface by pulling it into a front-mounted impeller with an auger and propelling it out of a top-mounted discharge chute. Our fleet consists of green John Deere SB21 Series and red M-B HD-SNB LMSBs. |
| 9. Point Pattern |
|
Wolfe Landscaping & Snowblowing’s “Don’t Lift a Finger This Winter” deluxe package ensures that you will always find your walkway and driveway clear when you exit your home after a snowfall this winter! It includes:
|
| 10. Testimonial |
|
According to Linda Sinclair in the Katimavik neighbourhood, “Wolfe did a great job clearing our snow this past winter. We didn’t see them much because they were always there and gone in a flash, but the laneway was always scraped clear by the time we left for work in the morning if it snowed in the night. We never had a problem when we got home either, unlike when we used Sherman Snowblowing the year before and we always had to stop, park on the street, and shovel the snowbank made by the city plow whenever it snowed while we were at work. Wolfe was the better service by far.” |
Though shorter documents may contain only one such organizing principle, longer ones typically involve a mix of different organizational patterns used as necessary to support the document’s overall purpose.
Key Takeaways
Before beginning to draft a document, let your purpose for writing and anticipated audience reaction determine whether to take a direct or indirect approach and choose an appropriate organizing principle to help structure your message.
Exercises
1. Consider some good news you’ve received recently (or would like to receive if you haven’t). Assuming the role of the one who delivered it (or who you would like to deliver it), write a three-part direct-approach message explaining it to yourself in as much detail as necessary.
2. Consider some bad news you’ve received recently (or fear receiving if you haven’t). Write a four-part indirect-approach message explaining it to yourself as if you were the one delivering it.
3. Draft a three-paragraph email to your boss (actual or imagined) where you recommend purchasing a new piece of equipment or tool. Use the following organizational structure:
i. Frontload your message by stating your purpose for writing directly in the first sentence or two.
ii. Describe the problem that the tool is meant to address in the follow-up paragraph.
iii. Provide a detailed solution describing the equipment/tool and its action in the third paragraph.
4. Picture yourself a few years from now as a professional in your chosen field. You’ve been employed and are getting to know how things work in this industry when an opportunity to branch out on your own presents itself. To minimize start-up costs, you do as much of the work as you can manage yourself, including the marketing and promotion. To this end, you figure out how to put together a website and write the content yourself. For this exercise, write a piece for each of the ten organizing principles explained and exemplified in Table 11.2 above and about the same length as each, but tailored to suit the products and/or services you will be offering in your chosen profession.
References
Baddeley, A. (2000). Short-term and working memory. In E. Tulving & F. I. M. Craik (Eds.) The Oxford Handbook of Memory (pp. 77-92). New York: Oxford University Press. Retrieved from https://books.google.ca/books?id=DOYJCAAAQBAJ
Houng, D. (2019). Direct and indirect approaches [Video file]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L-uB33AfqMo | 3,417 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://pressbooks.nscc.ca/buscomm/chapter/4-1-choosing-an-organizational-pattern/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:61906 | https://pressbooks.nscc.ca/buscomm/chapter/4-1-choosing-an-organizational-pattern/ |
yNt9BCU3QjnC7ecm | Railroad valuation / by Homer Bews Vanderblue. | PREFACE
THIS series of books owes its existence to the generosity of Messrs. Hart, Schaffner & Marx, of Chicago, who have shown a special interest in trying to draw the attention of American youth to the study of economic and commercial subjects. For this purpose they have delegated to the undersigned committee the task of selecting or approving of topics, making announcements, and awarding prizes annually for those who wish to compete.
In Class B, which included any who were at the time undergraduates of an American college, a first prize of $300, and a second prize of $200.
THE present volume is a study in the Economics of Railroads. But it is also a study in the Economics of the Distribution of Income. To this circumstance is due the frequent abbreviation of the argument through the use of the terminology peculiar to that field of the science. The meaning of such terms as differential returns, economic rent, capital goods, and capitalization of income, should, however, be readily apparent from the context. I have aimed to conform my usage to that of Professor F. W. Taussig, in his Principles of Economics.
In other directions, as well, I am greatly indebted to Professor Taussig. It was under his direction that the study was brought into its present form. I am also indebted to Professor F. S. Deibler, who directed a preliminary investigation made when I was an undergraduate at Northwestern. Professor J. M. Clark, of the University of Chicago, has given me helpful suggestions in the final preparation of the paper; and my colleagues, Professors F. E. Richter and W. E. Lagerquist,have read the proofs, and aided me with their criticism.
The "expert" method, 38. — The "sales" method, 40. — The "sales and assessment" method, 41. —The Minnesota Rate Cases, and land valuation, 41. — The railroad appraisals, 45.
Courts and Commissions, 97. — The engineers, 97. — The private interest, 101. — " Cost of reproduction" and the "long run" cost of producing transportation service, 102.
Depreciation and replacement, 110. — "Maintenance" as the creation of capital goods, 111. — Charging plant to operating expense, 114. — The surplus, 115.
II. Depreciation as an operating cost, 117.
The depreciation reserve not a fund for replacements, 1 17. — ^ The permanent depreciation reserve, 119. — Deduction for i accrued depreciation, 120. — Innocent holders and vested interests, 121. — The "simple" and "composite" property theory, 122.
III. Land, the indestructible element, 124.
Original cost, and the "unearned increment," 125. — The Supreme Court opinions, 126. — The alienation argument, 129. — The discrimination argument, 130. — Unearned income j essential for an "unearned increment," 130.
IV. Appraisal of unimpaired investment, 135.
Depreciated cost of the units in place, 136. — Experience of the Interstate Commerce Commission, 136. — Inability to measure unimpaired investment not a reason to use "cost of reproduction," 138. — Possible usefulness of the Federal Valuation challenged, 139.
III. Going value, 159.
"Going value" and "good-will," 159. — The comparative plant, 160. — The rule of C.C.C. & St.L. Ry. Co. c. Backus, 163. — Appraisal of "going value," 164.
IV. The Wisconsin theory of cost, 166.
Deficits below a fair return, 166. — The Western Advance Case of 1910, 167. — The surplus, 171. — " Reasonable " deficits, 174. — The assumption of risk, 175.
CHAPTER VII. THE RETURN TO THE RAILROAD ... 188
The rate of return as considered by the Commission, 188. — By the courts, 190. — The legal rate of interest, 191.— Willcox v. Consolidated Gas Co., 191. — The "risk element," 192. — The incidence of a shifting price level, 194. — Railroad credit, 194. — "Unproductive" improvements, 195. — The creation of economic rent, 200. — The differential element in profits, 202. — The "unearned increment" once more, 203.
"ALL charges for any service rendered, or to be rendered, in the transportation of passengers or property shall be just and reasonable." In this language the Interstate Commerce Act restates the doctrine of the English Common Law.1 But no standard of reasonableness is stated, still less, imposed. The Act leaves with the Interstate Commerce Commission the duty of developing a body of principles governing the reasonableness of rates.
The Commission feels this responsibility in two distinct ways. An individual charge may be in question, or the reasonableness of the return to the carrier upon the total business done. The latter aspect of the problem is the one here to be considered. Though the Commission has, on occasion, protested that its authority is "limited to inquiring into the reasonableness of a particular rate or rates, and establishing the rate or practice which is found lawful in place of the one condemned as unlawful," 2 the adequacy of the total return to the railroad has been an issue under two sets of circumstances: when reduction of groups of rates
been filed by the carriers.2
An alleged insufficiency of income has, indeed, been the principal ground on which the railroads have attempted to justify general advances sought. In the Five Per Cent Case, a difference of opinion developed within the Commission because of this fact, though all members agreed that the net operating revenue of the roads in Official Classification Territory, "considered as a whole," was smaller than was demanded in the public interest 3 — a finding which, however, cannot be said to have furnished the key to the original decision. For, though the insufficiency of revenue was determined by a study of the conditions of the Trunk Line, as well as of the Central Freight Association roads, advances were permitted only within the latter Territory. The explanation for this discrimination rested in other considerations than those of revenue. " No effort was made on the part of any of the lines in Official Classification Territory to show by what may be denominated rate testimony that the scale of through rates is unduly low, or that higher through rates would be just and reason-
1 See especially the series of " Intermountain Cases": Spokane v. N.P. Ry. Co., 15 I.C.C. 376; 19 I.C.C. 162, 173; Commercial Club of Salt Lake City v. A.T. & S.F. Ry., 19 I.C.C. 218; Railroad Commission of Nevada v. S.P. Co., 19 I.C.C. 238.
The same problem appeared, though in slightly different form, since only singlecom modities were concerned, in Boileau v. P. & L.E. R.R. Co., 22 I.C.C. 640 (coal); Pittsburgh Vein Operators Association v. Penn. Co., 24 I.C.C. 280 (coal); Sheridan C. of C. v. C.B. & Q. R.R. Co., 28 I.C.C. 250 (coal); Lum v, G.N. Ry. Co., 33 I.C.C. 541 (iron ore); Pulp & Paper Mfrers. Association v. C.M. & St.P. Ry., 34 I.C.C. 500 (pulp wood).
2 In the Matter of Advances, etc., 9 I.C.C. 382; Central Yellow Pine Association v. I.C.C. R.R. Co., 10 I.C.C. 505; Morgan Grain Co. ». A.C.L. R.R. Co., 19 I.C.C. 460; Eastern Advance Case of 1910, 20 I.C.C. 243; Western Advance Case of 1910, 20 I.C.C. 307; The Five Per Cent Case, 31 I.C.C. 350; 32 I.C.C. 325; The 1915 Western Advance Case, 35 I.C.C. 497; Western Passenger Fare Case, 37 I.C.C. 1.
presented.
The character of this testimony illustrates what an elusive problem is attacked when a definition of a reasonable rate is attempted. The Commission was convinced that the class rates controlled by the Central Freight Association scale were "lower than comparable rates prevailing in any part of the country," the level being "indeed so low that an increase of 5 per cent would clearly not be unreasonable." And the class rates affording "a reasonable test for measuring the general level of the commodity rates," the Commission thought that the carriers operating in that territory had sustained the burden of showing that the rates were unduly low, and that an increase in them of 5 per cent would be reasonable. These rough comparisons, supplemented with the testimony that the rate structure was "honeycombed with inconsistencies," "not logical," "unscientific," that the Central Freight Association scale was a "relic of barbarism," constituted the "rate testimony" on which the changes were approved.2
At the time the original opinion was handed down, dissents were written by Commissioners McChord and Daniels. For the purpose of the present discussion two important lines of reasoning were developed in these dissenting opinions, the one taking up the relation of needed revenue to advances; the other the relations of rates in Official Classification Territory, inter se. Both opinions objected that the majority, in confining approval to ad-
2 31 I.C.C. 350, 400, 401, 402. As to brick, tile, clay, coal, coke, starch, cement, iron ore, and plaster, the testimony was such as to constrain the Commission from holding that the carriers had sustained their burden under the statute (page 403). In the Supplemental Opinion, the permission was granted to increase rates except on coal, coke, and iron, 32 I.C.C. 325, 331.
4 RAILROAD VALUATION
vances within a limited area, had broken down the established relationship of rates. Commissioner McChord indicated that, as he saw the dictates of public policy, the aim of the Commission should be to preserve the existing structure. That no other expedient could be used had been assumed quite as a matter of course by Commissioner Prouty in 1910. l But a general increase of rates within only the Central Freight Association Territory meant a change in the rate relationship as between cities in that Territory and cities in Trunk Line Territory:
"For many years the rates between these cities have borne a fixed and well-understood relation to each other. ... If the rate from Pittsburgh to Chicago were increased and no change made in the rate from New York to Chicago, it is obvious that the latter city would obtain an advantage over the former, with respect to the rates in question, which it has never sought or claimed as a matter of right, and which would perhaps be unwarranted from the standpoint of geographical position. . . . The transportation conditions in the two territories are not so unlike as to indicate the wisdom of dissimilar treatment of the rates proposed." *
forth:
"There exists a presumption in favor of interrelations in a rate fabric that have long continued undisturbed. . . . With a demonstration of inadequate revenues, and with a presumption in favor of the propriety of the interrelation between rates long in effect, an advance moderate in amount, calculated to produce but a reasonable increment in earnings, and affecting all trade in the same proportionate degree, is the plain dictate of law and of common sense in the premises." *
* Ibid., page 450. Commissioner Daniels would here seem to be using reasonable in a sense implying that the advances were not great. Or is his reference to an intrinsic reasonableness ?
advances to the Trunk Lines.
Commissioners Harlan and Clements dissented from the Supplemental Opinion. In substance the same ground for objection was expressed by both men. Commissioner Clements saw in the majority opinion "a new and radical departure, and a most serious and portentous step." He was not aware of any case in which the Commission or any court had held " that the need by a carrier of money was of itself proof of the reasonableness of a specific rate, or body of rates, increased to meet such need." l The first record had contained no evidence seeking to prove that the proposed increases, except in Central Freight Association Territory, were "just and reasonable" in themselves; and what Commissioner Harlan had originally thought a " deficiency in proof" had not been supplied at the later hearing.2
But with the merits of a controversy involving the extent of discretionary power delegated by Congress to the Commission, there is no present concern. The issue involves legal not economic considerations. Certainly, however, the problem of determining upon the reasonableness of the return to the carrier is not one to which may be applied the "tests or factors heretofore deemed pertinent and necessary to the determination of the reasonableness of a rate."3 It is impossible to leave a reading of the Five Per Cent Case without the feeling that Commissioners Clements and Harlan (in point of service, the senior members of the Commission) had come to look upon reasonableness as intrinsic, that they had failed to recognize the importance of the production of transportation service at joint cost.4 Reasonableness is an uncertain quantity when
4 Aside from the general tone of Commissioner Harlan's opinion, there is his use of figures, submitted by the Pennsylvania, apportioning investment, and returns, freight and passenger, etc., 31 I.C.C. 350, 389.
applied to the individual charges contained in the railroad schedules. But however non-discriminatory and nonpreferential a body of rates may be, it can hardly be called reasonable unless the normal return accrues in the normal case. From the economic point of view, Commissioner Daniels' conclusion that "proof of inadequate revenue suffices to meet the burden cast by the statute on carriers seeking the advance,*5 can therefore be accepted.1
An analogous problem has been presented to the Supreme Court. The Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution has been held to protect, from regulation by the States, "the right of the railroads to receive just compensation for the service given the public.'* 2 But a clear distinction has
1 31 I.C.C. 350, 451, Commissioner Daniels' dissent (original opinion); see also pages 435-36. The opinions by the Commission in the 1910 Cases would seem, however, to uphold the contention of Commissioners Harlan and Clements; see especially Commissioner Prouty's opinion in the Eastern Case, 20 I.C.C. 243, 249; and Commissioner Lane's discussion of the "American System of Railroad Rate-Making," 20 I.C.C. 307, 349.
In the 1915 Western Rate Advance Case, the carriers based their claims to additional revenue upon the grounds of their financial needs and the downward tendency of their net revenues in the Western Trunk Line Territory, and contended that the commodities singled out by them to bear the proposed advances were not carrying their equitable part of the costs of transportation. 35 I.C.C. 497, 500.
2 Minnesota Rate Cases, 230 U.S. 352, 434.
For a history of the doctrine of judicial review, see "The Regulation of Railway Rates under the Fourteenth Amendment," by Justice F. J. Swayze, of New Jersey, Quarterly Journal of Economics, volume 26, page 389.
The courts have taken jurisdiction on the ground that "due process of law" necessarily involves consideration of reasonableness by the judiciary (C.M. & St.P. Ry. Co. v. Minnesota, 134 U.S. 418). The Fifth Amendment, which restrains the Federal Government, has, however, been interpreted not to demand judicial interference, or regular court proceedings (Murray's Lessee p. Hoboken Land & Improvement Co., 18 Howard 272), though this opinion was handed down in 1855, forty-five years before the opinion in C.M. & St.P. Ry. Co. c. Minnesota. That the strength of the more recent precedent would result in the rejection of the older reasoning is perhaps a fair presumption.
Yet to permit a court to put aside orders of the Interstate Commerce Commission establishing reasonable rates would apparently run directly counter to the doctrine of Texas & Pacific Ry. Co. c. Abilene Cotton Oil
VALUATION AND REGULATION 7
been drawn between the legislative and judicial points of view. The Court can only insist that the return under schedules established under legislative order, or through the agency of a commission, shall not be "so unreasonably low" as to deprive the carrier of its property " without due process of law." l The confiscation doctrine therefore sets a minimum. How much more the rate of return may be, rests within the range of "legislative discretion." 2
But both the Court, seeking a measure of confiscation, and the Commission, seeking a measure of reasonableness, especially since the Court may have occasion to pass upon the decision of the Commission, should, it would seem, use the same standard of measurement. The incidence of the viewpoint of the distinct and different bodies should be upon the rate of return. A reasonable return may well be something other than a non-confiscatory return. In other respects the economic problem seems identical.
It was Justice Harlan who first generalized that "the basis of all calculations as to the reasonableness of rates must be the fair value of the property being used for the public." 3 But his contribution was merely to put in clearer
Co., 204 U.S. 426. Especially is this true since the Supreme Court, in Northern Pacific Ry. Co. v. North Dakota, 236 U.S. 585, applied the confiscation doctrine to rates established by State Governments, applying on a single commodity. Can the rate on say lignite coal be at once "reasonable" and "confiscatory" ?
1 Minnesota Rate Cases, 230 U.S. 352, 433. See also the fuller discussion in Knoxville v. Knoxville Water Co., 212 U.S. 1, 16; Willcox v. Consolidated Gas Co., 212 U.S. 19, 41; Ex parte Young, 209 U.S. 123, 166; Louisville ». Cumberland T. & T. Co., 225 U.S. 430, 436. Even as early as Smyth v. Ames, Supplemental Opinion, 171 U.S. 361, the phrase "so unreasonably low," was used (page 364).
language conclusions already deduced by Justice Brewer.1 There was nothing in the career of either of these men which promised peculiar aptitude for the theoretical and technical issues necessarily involved in determining upon reasonable railroad rates. In 1894, the date of his decision in Ames v. Union Pacific, Justice Brewer had spent over thirty years upon the bench, substantially his whole mature lifetime. Justice Harlan, who four years later wrote the opinion for the Supreme Court, had then been a member of that Court for twenty years. As a result both men had been shielded from participation in the discussion of rate regulation which persisted in the period after 1870. So, when the problem was thrust upon them by the reversal of the Granger Cases, it raised especially the question of the sacredness of private property. Accordingly, technical and economic considerations gave way to precedents taken from those aspects of judicial experience where the issue of vested interests was seen.2
1 Indeed, there is peculiar irony in finding these words coming from Justice Harlan. Some years previously he had gone out of his way to condemn a proposed valuation test. The Mississippi statute of 1884, which came before the Court in Stone v. Farmers' Loan & Trust Co., 116 U.S. 307, directed the State Railroad Commission to revise the carriers' tariffs, permitting "a fan* and just return on the value of such railroad, its appurtenances, and equipments" (page 309). Chief Justice Waite ignored the clause entirely in his majority opinion; not so, Justices Harlan and Field who dissented. Both rejected the proposed test flatly, though its adequacy was not in question before the Court, since the State Commission had been enjoined from establishing rates. It is clear that they were following the briefs for the railroads, that of E. L. Russell, at page 56, that of James Fentrees at page 27. See dissenting opinions: Justice Field, page 343; Justice Harlan, page 340, 116 U.S. 307.
The "valuation" test had previously been presented to Justice Woods of the Supreme Court, in the case of Tilley v. S.F. & W. Ry. Co., 5 Fed. 641, 662. Justice Woods, however, refused to depart from the doctrine of judicial non-interference set up in the Granger Cases (94 U.S. 113). See also L. & N. R.R. Co. ». Railroad Commission of Tennessee, 19 Fed. 679, 683.
1 C.M. & St.P. Ry. Co. v. Minnesota, 134 U.S. 418. In Chicago & Grand Trunk Ry. Co. v. Wellman, 143 U.S. 339, 346, Justice Brewer emphasized the responsibility of the Court, "While the protection of
The result was an attempt to draw an analogy between condemnation and rate regulation, the terms of which were never clearly stated. In Reagan v. Farmers' Loan and Trust Company, where for the first time a schedule of rates was condemned as confiscatory by the Supreme Court, Justice Brewer introduced this line of reasoning. Both rate regulation and exercise of the power of eminent domain represent interference by the public with the undisturbed enjoyment of private property. In the one event, the income is affected, though the title remains undisturbed; in the other, title itself is taken. Now if the State were to condemn the railroad, "is there any doubt that constitutional provisions would require the payment to the corporation of just compensation, — that compensation being the value of the property as it stood in the markets of the world and not as prescribed by an act of the legislature? Is it any less a departure from the obligations of justice to seek to take not the title, but the use for the public benefit at less than its market value?" l The question is confusing. What shall determine the market value of the "use"? Or is it the "value" of the "property" to which reference is made? From the discussion no definite answer could be made with assurance. But in Ames v. Union Pacific, Justice Brewer referred to the analogy which he here hinted, and, without declaring regulation pro tanto condemnation, proceeded to argue upon that basis.
1 Reagan v. Farmers' Loan & Trust Co., 154 U.S. 362, 410. The Supreme Court has never declared regulation and condemnation analogous. Justice Brewer merely argued as though they were analogous. The lower courts (e.g., Spring Valley W.W. v. San Francisco, 124 Fed. 574, 594; Kings County Lighting Co. v. Willcox, 156 App. Div. N.Y. 603, 606) have, however, gone the full way. See Brief of Messrs. Dunlap, Norton and Lathrop for the Santa Fe, Evidence, In the Matter of Proposed Advances (1910). Senate Document 725, 61st Congress, 3d Session, page 3602, hereafter cited simply as "Evidence, 1910 Advances."
"Property invested in railroads," he declared, "is as much protected from appropriation as any other. If taken for public uses, its value must be paid for. Constitutional guaranties to this extent are explicit. . . . The value of property cannot be destroyed by legislation depriving the owner of adequate compensation. . . . The protection of property implies the protection of its value." Indeed, "if the public was seeking to take title to the railroad by condemnation, the present value is that which it would have to pay. In like manner, it may be argued that, when the legislature assumes the right to reduce, the rates so reduced cannot be adjudged unreasonable if under them there is earned a fair interest on the actual value of the property." l This train of reasoning Justice Harlan did not repeat. Instead he simply declared the railroad entitled to earn a "fair return" upon the "fair value" of the property, provided this could be secured from rates reasonable to the public.2 This holding, like Justice Brewer's "that which
8 Smyth v. Ames, 169 U.S. 466, 547.
A supplementary opinion, seldom cited, held: "The general question argued before us on the original hearing was whether the rates ... as an entirety, were so unreasonably low as to prevent the railroad companies from earning such compensation as would be just, having due regard both to the rights both of the public and of the companies. . . . We did not intend ... to adjudge that the railroad companies should not, if they saw proper, reduce the rates, or any of them, under which they were conducting business . . . nor that the State Board . . . should not reduce rates. ... It may well be that on some particular article railroad companies may deem it wise to make a reduction of the rate, and it may be that the public interests will justify the State Board of Transportation in ordering such reduction. We have not laid down any castiron rule covering each and every separate rate. ... If the State should by statute, or through its board of transportation, prescribe a new schedule of rates covering substantially all articles and which would materially reduce those charged by the companies respectively, or should, by reduction of rates on a limited number of articles, make its schedule of rates as a whole, produce the same result, the question will arise whether such rates, taking into consideration the rights of the public, as well as the rights of the carriers, are consistent with the principles announced by this court in the opinion heretofore delivered." Smyth ». Ames, 171 U.S. 361, 364, 365.
whole question.
These guarded statements may be taken as indicating the reluctancy of the mood in which the Court approached the problem over which it had taken jurisdiction so tardily. The Court was feeling its way, careful always to announce that each case must be considered by itself.2 Indeed, had there been attempt at careful formulation and application of the "valuation" standard, — or need for it, — the doctrine must have been abandoned long before reaching the dignity of a precedent. For a "fair value" test of reasonableness (if by "value" is meant "exchange value," which, it would seem, is what Justice Brewer had in mind) involves arguing in a circle.3 The analogy between condemnation and regulation is premised upon the condition that lower rates will reduce earning power, and, pari passu, the value of the property. How else justify the analogy at all? But to test rates by the value of the property before the act of regulation is made effective means the abandonment of regulation. And to test them by the value of the property, once the new schedules are in effect, means the approval of any schedule that may be established. The vicious circle is clearly present.4
Yet it cannot be said that Justice Brewer appeared to appreciate the difficulty. In part this was due to the general tone of his argument; in part it was due to the
352, 434.
3 The Commission has recognized this fact. In the Matter of Advances, etc., 9 I.C.C. 382, 403 (1903). Justice Brewer's theory of valuing fixed capital involved a capitalization of earning power, though he nowhere made a clean-cut statement of principle. Monongahela Navigation Co. v. U.S., 148 U.S. 312; C.C.C. & St.L. Ry. Co. v. Backus, 154 U.S. 439; The Express Cases, 166 U.S. 185.
4 The "circle" in the "valuation" test was noticed in Cotting v. Kansas City S.Y. Co., 82 Fed. 850, 854. It was also cited by J. D. Works in San Diego L. & T. Co. v. Jasper, 174 U.S. 739, Brief for the Company, page 10.
peculiar facts of the cases in which he conceived of the analogy, and suggested the "value" test. In the Reagan Case, the road concerned, the International and Great Northern, was in the receiver's hands. It had never paid a dividend and the stockholders had even been assessed to meet the charges on the bonds. The bondholders had been forced to fund accrued and defaulted interest in junior securities. Yet the stocks and bonds originally issued ($25,000,000), according to the figures which the Court accepted, "represented value." The Supreme Court opinion simply held that rates already insufficient should not be further reduced. There was no discussion of how the "value" of the road was determined, or what was the relationship of rates to that "value." In fact, though reductions in rates were assumed to reduce "value" in one portion of the decision, elsewhere the Court reasoned as if "value" were intrinsic.1
Similarly the "facts" accepted by Justice Brewer in Ames v. Union Pacific, which, from one viewpoint, might have been expected to indicate the circle in the "value" test, in fact eliminated the necessity of fixing upon " the actual value." For it was held by both Justices Brewer and Harlan that the reduction in rates would generally have meant no contribution by intrastate traffic to payments of interest on bonds, or dividends on stock.2
The unpreparedness of the Court to sift the evidence critically is indicated by the quality of that evidence. Calculations offered were accepted without that spirit of challenging skepticism found in the decisions of a later day.3 But the onus must rest less upon the Court than upon
U.S. 466, 543.
8 The best expression of this critical attitude is found in Justice Holmes' opinion in the Louisville Telephone Case, 225 U.S. 430, 436. See, however, Northern Pacific Ry. Co. v. North Dakota, 236 U.S. 585; Norfolk & Western Ry. Co. t;. Conley, 236 U.S. 605.
the attorneys for the State, and their "expert" witness, "a gentleman," in Justice Brewer's phrase, "whose competency and credibility" were "unchallenged." "From the labyrinth of tables, figures, and estimates presented in the testimony" the Court selected tables prepared by the Secretary of the Nebraska Board of Transportation, as "the basis for some fair calculations." l The amount of income received from local freight business in the three years, 1891, 1892, and 1893, was accepted as reported by the carriers to the State Board, and the reduction, had the rates prescribed by law been in effect during those years, was determined by deducting 29.5 per cent from these amounts.2
This 29.5 per cent was the unweighted arithmetical average of the percentage reductions in each of the ten classes of traffic, for which rates were prescribed by law. Not only was there a wide spread in the figures which were averaged (the deduction in Class E rates being the lowest, 19 per cent, that in Class 5 being the highest, 35 per cent), but the witness testified that the reduction in rates on live stock, wheat, flour, and grain, "locally the principal items," had been only 14 per cent, etc.3 In the face of this testimony the "average reduction" was made for all roads in each year, though the distribution of traffic from year to year on each road, even assuming that all traffic was handled under the class rates, could hardly have been uniform. This erroneous analysis was followed by the
1 64 Fed. 165, 179.
2 64 Fed. 165, 187. For a discussion of the expedient of making calculations on the basis of previous business, see H. S. Smalley, Railroad Rate Control, page 60. Professor Smalley did not, however, indicate the remarkable process by which the figure of 29.5 per cent was secured.
8 Testimony of Mr. Dilworth, the Secretary of the State Board, Record, Ames v. Union Pacific (Smyth v. Ames, 169 U.S. 466), page 398; see page 637. The figures which were averaged were the following percentage reductions: First Class, 30; Second, 27; Third, 26; Fourth, 29; Fifth, 35; Class A, 32; B, 34; C, 32; D, 31; E, 19; — an average (ten classes), of 29.5 per cent.
by both Justices Brewer and Harlan.1
That the assumed reduction of 29.5 per cent in the rates would have lessened the "value" of the railroad seems not to have been considered. There was no attempt to bring together the analogy between regulation and condemnation, and the hypothesis which insisted upon the effect of reductions as lessening earnings, since the volume of traffic was not conceived of as increased.
Justice Holmes, indeed, once barely avoided the logical trap set by the "valuation" doctrine, when, in Knoxville Water Company v. Knoxville, the complainants alleged that a rate reduction had been made in order to cut down the value of the plant preliminary to public purchase.2 If this plea were accepted, and "value" maintained as a test for both purposes of regulation and condemnation,
No more sound was the calculation of expenses. Justice Brewer took the Nebraska operating ratio, which covered both passenger and freight operations; assumed that the ratio on Nebraska intrastate business would exceed the general operating ratio on all business " probably 10 per cent up to 20 per cent" — possibly higher, though this amount was "not like" the calculation of the effect of reduction of rates on earnings, "where the figures and per cents" were "accurate and certain," etc. 64 Fed. 165, 182-86.
Justice Harlan insisted on adding 10 per cent to the operating ratio to show "due regard" to the testimony (that of Mr. Dilworth, and of Mr. Henry Fink), the Court's only "basis for judgment." He then drew up a table to show "at a glance" the effect of the rates under consideration. For example, the Burlington road in 1892 had an operating ratio of 64.23 per cent (this figure appears also in the Statistics of Railways for that year, page 385). Adding 10 per cent to cover the extra cost of doing intrastate business, though both interstate and intrastate business were handled on the same trains, and though the intrastate rates were on a higher level, a cost figure of 74.23 per cent was secured. Since earnings had been reduced to 70.50 per cent of their former level, an operating loss equal to 3.73 per cent of the former intrastate earnings was calculated. 169 U.S. 466, 530-36. Similar calculations are found in N.P. Ry. Co. v. Keyes, 91 Fed. 47, 55.
regulation must cease. Any reduction in rates, other things remaining the same, would lower the value of the property which must be the measure of reasonableness. Consciously or unconsciously the Court begged the question: "We may assume with the Supreme Court of Tennessee that if the rates were reduced unreasonably, a judicial remedy would be found. We may assume further that an attempt to affect the price of the company's plant in that way, if the city should elect to purchase, would not be allowed to succeed." 1 And later, in a rate case, referring to this passage Justice Holmes added, "of course, as we indicated the other day ... if an attempt were made to cut down values, by the reduction of rates, the courts would know how to meet it." 2 These two citations, which, it would seem, evade the issue, can hardly be explained except on the ground that the Court was reasoning (unknowingly, to be sure) without regard to the vicious circle. At all events, in the Minnesota Rate Cases, Justice Hughes, in an opinion otherwise remarkable for its original and cleancut thinking, could pass over the difficulty with the use of citations.3
8 230 U.S. 352, 434. The perpetuation of the "valuation" test by the Supreme Court can in part be ascribed to the accident that a California statute directed certain local bodies having control over water rates to "estimate as nearly as may be the value," etc. In San Diego L. & T. Co. v. Jasper, 189 U.S. 439, Justice Holmes identified this provision with the "value" rule of the Supreme Court (page 442). See also San Diego L. & T. Co. v. National City, 174 U.S. 739, 757; and Stanislaus County v. S.J. & K.R. Canal Co., 192 U.S. 201, 215. This series of cases Justice Hughes cited, together with Knoxville v. Knoxville Water Co., 212 U.S. 1, and Willcox v. Consolidated Gas Co., 212 U.S. 19, which were based upon the Smyth v. Ames decision and the California cases.
— "the ascertainment of that value is not controlled by artificial rules. It is not a matter of formulas, but there must be a reasonable judgment ... of all relevant facts." With these words Justice Hughes took up the problem in the Minnesota Rate Cases.1 Yet so long as "reasonable" qualifies the scope of judgment, as well as the "value" sought for, it can hardly be said that the Supreme Court has ever committed itself to the "valuation" test in unequivocal language. Certainly "exchange" value is not meant.
"In order to ascertain that value the original cost of construction, the amount expended in permanent improvements, the amount and market value of its bonds and stock, the present as compared with the original cost of construction, •the probable earning capacity under particular rates prescribed by statute, and the sum required to meet operating expenses, are all matters for consideration, and are to be given such weight as may be just and right in each case. We do not say that there may not be other matters to be regarded in estimating the value of the property. What the company is entitled to ask is a fair return upon the value of that which it employs for the public convenience. On the other hand, what the public is entitled to demand is that no more be exacted from it for the use of a public highway than the services rendered by it are reasonably worth." 2
Clearly this, the "rule," "the judgment of the Supreme Court of the United States," 3 has been received too seriously. Whoever shall make a "reasonable judgment" of the "fair value" must take into account a series of irreconcilable forces: investment, "cost of reproduction," the
1 230 U.S. 352, 4345 In the fifteen years 1898-1913, no railroad case involving "value" as an issue had come to the Supreme Court. Thus the Minnesota Rate Cases looked back to Smyth v. Ames.
commercial valuation, the probable net earnings — even any other facts which he may believe relevant. The resultant is the "reasonable value." * The impossibility of making practical use of the "rule" appeared when first such attempt was made. In Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway v. Tompkins, Judge Garland quoted Justice Harlan, continuing: "Here is the rule, and the only question for the Court now to ascertain is, what is the fair value of the railroad property." After hearing a mass of contradictory testimony on " cost of reproduction," which was "not less than cost," the amount and the market value of the stocks and bonds, etc., the Court found that the only way to fix the " reasonably fair value " of the complainant's property was "by estimating, by guessing." So Judge Garland made his "guess." 2
Instead of stating a "rule," expressing a "judgment," the truth is rather that Justice Harlan, to avoid committing the Court to a single standard of "value," — it must be remembered that the task of determing upon "fair value" was not faced in Smyth v. Ames and that the "rule" represents mere dicta, — included every element which entered into the record of the case at any point. The amount of the investment had been urged by the attorneys of the Union Pacific as the basis upon which to calculate a "fair return." 3 Or as an alternative they suggested the amount of the outstanding capitalization.4 "Cost of re-
1 "The reasonable value of the property is not determined by the amount of outstanding bonds, the amount of stock, the replacement value, nor by the earning capacity, but is determined by a consideration of these elements in the evidence when their bearing on the question of value is fairly considered." Judge Clark, Knoxville Water Co. v. Knoxville, page 296, Record, Knoxville v. Knoxville Water Co., 212 U.S. 1.
2 90 Fed. 363, 369. The Brief of G. R. Peck and A. B. Kittredge on appeal, objecting to the lower court's " guess," spoke of the " rule laid down by this court in Smyth v. Ames." Brief for the railroad, page 12, C.M. & St.P. Ry. v. Tompkins, 176 U.S. 167.
production" (which was below the "values'* suggested by the roads) was the standard proposed by the State. "There is only one true rule to go by," it was urged; "railroad property must be valued as all other kinds of property, at what it would cost to reproduce the road, or one similarly situated." The burden of "injudicious contracts, poor engineering, rascality " should rest upon the railroad. l No evidence bearing on the market value of the securities appeared in the record, and its inclusion is an addition made by Justice Harlan. The inquiry concerning probable earning capacity and operating expenses may be fairly assumed to have led the Court to identify, for the moment, the process of determining the amount of net earnings with that of fixing upon a standard by which to measure the reasonableness of those earnings.
There is one other ground, besides that of the intricacy and novelty of the problem, on which the inclusion of earnings and of the market value of securities can be explained. In a tax case decided some years previously, both Justices Brewer and Harlan quoted a statement of the Indiana Tax Commission, that it had "considered the cost of the construction and equipment, the market value of the stocks and bonds, and the gross and net earnings, and all other matters appertaining thereto that would assist the board in arriving at a true cash value." 2 To this series of items add the amount (par) of the securities, and the "cost of reproduction," both of which were introduced into the Smyth v. Ames record, and the "rule" is complete. It is quite within the realm of possibilities that Justice Harlan referred to this earlier opinion in which he had taken up the subject of "valuation." At all events, the similarity of language, even to the "all other matters," which as "other
1 Brief of J. L. Webster, page 165, Smyth v. Ames, 169 U.S. 466. See also Brief of W. J. Bryan, in the same case, page 6; and Ames v. Union Pacific, 64 Fed. 165, 177, 178; and Smyth v. Ames, 169 U.S. 466, 549.
practice been discarded.
Market value, the value of the railroad as registered in stock and bond quotations — the exchange value, in the phrase of the economist — has seldom appeared in the findings of fact upon which the courts have based the determination of "fair value." The reason assigned for thus passing over the figures with scant courtesy has, however, usually been that of impracticability. There has been no notice of the theoretical difficulty, the necessary dependence of the value of securities upon the regularity and amount of the income paid. Instead tables showing quotations, usually averages over a period of years,1 have been introduced, commented upon briefly; and, be it said, unfavorably, then rejected with no apparent notice of the presence of the vicious circle. The stock and bond valuation has been held "unreliable" because including property not devoted to railroad purposes,2 or because "subject to great fluctuation from causes wholly foreign to the intrinsic values of the properties." 3 Are not stocks especially subject to the "vagaries of speculation," reflecting the necessities of borrowers on collateral and not
1 Record, Minnesota Rate Cases, 230 U.S. 352. Complainant's Exhibit 17 — Gray (N.P.); Complainant's Exhibit 67— Drew (G.N.); Complainant's Exhibit 7 — Scott (M. & St.L.).
The Masters in the Alabama Cases were directed to report the "average market value" of securities during the years ending June 30, 1907, 1908, 1909. See Reports of W. S. Thorington, Special Master, Central of Georgia Case, page 75; Western Railway of Alabama Case, page 48; Reports of W. A. Gunter, Special Master; South and North Alabama Case, page 17; and Louisville and Nashville Case, page 48.
2 Report of Chas. E. Otis, Special Master, page 240. Record (N.P.), Minnesota Rate Cases, 230 U.S. 352. Hereafter references to the Record in the Minnesota Rate Cases will be cited simply as: Minnesota Rate Cases, Record (N.P.); Record (G.N.); Record (M. & St.L.).
facts useful in an investigation aiming to establish "fair value "? 1 The Master in the Minnesota Rate Cases found it "impossible to determine with any degree of certainty the particular elements which from time to time cause such fluctuations." 2
Whether he realized the presence of a logical difficulty is very doubtful. For, after quoting Henry C. Adams to the effect that a commercial valuation could not be of service in a rate case, because of its dependence upon apparent income (the earning of interest on bonds and dividends), he said: "Valuation of properties for taxation would include all the properties of the corporation whether devoted to the public service or not, and in such case the market value of stocks and bonds issued by it would be an important element of value.'* 3 And with this obvious non sequitur the whole difficulty was waved aside. Justice Hughes merely commented that the Master was "undoubtedly right" in rejecting figures which included non-operating properties.4
In the Missouri Rate Cases, the lower court had accepted tax assessments (multiplied by three) as a measure of " fair value " 5 over the protest of the attorneys for the State. Among other things it was alleged that the Tax Board was required to take into account " the income of the property, and the income might be unduly high, and upon that basis give an unduly high valuation to the property." 6 In the Arkansas Cases, where the basis of taxation (doubled) was
1 Consolidated Gas Co. v . New York, 157 Fed. 849, 870.
The report of the Special Master (Record, page 211, Willcox v. Consolidated Gas Co., 212 U.S. 19) declared also that it was impracticable " to determine with any degree of accuracy what proportion of its outstanding capitalization represents its assets invested in the gas business."
also used, upon agreement of the parties,1 District Judge Trieber had said : " The value of a railroad for taxation, it has been uniformly held by the courts, may properly be determined by the value of its bonds and stocks." 2 Since here the parties to the suit, the railroads and the State, had made formal stipulation that the calculations should be based upon the assessment for taxation, — the reasonableness of which was "of course conceded by the defendants," 3 — the validity of such method of determining "fair value " was not an issue before the Supreme Court.4 But in the Missouri Cases, where no such formal stipulation had been made, Justice Hughes in specific language rejected the taking of tax valuations as "too general and inconclusive to be regarded as sufficient proof to sustain the values as found . . . when the principles governing the assessments may have rested upon methods which would be inadmissible in ascertaining the reasonable value of the property as a basis for charges to the public." What such methods would have been, the Court did not say.5
The Interstate Commerce Commission has, however, expressed the opinion that the market value of the stocks and bonds may be useful evidence in fixing "value." Said Commissioner Prouty in the Eastern Advance Case of 1910, " We are not fixing the value of a collection of ties and rock and steel rails, but of a railroad equipped and doing business. What is that railroad worth as a railroad for the transaction of a railroad business ? . . . Now the market value of the stocks and bonds of each of these carriers represents the sum which that property will bring in the open market. ... It is the only way in which the value of these properties can be determined by the test of bargain and sale." (20 I.C.C. 243, 259.) Too much emphasis should not be placed upon what may well have been meant simply as a passing comment. As Commissioner Prouty later frankly stated, the discussion assumed the reasonableness of existing rates. He spoke also of this " value," being that " worked out in the actual operations of recent years in competition with its rivals," as " at least a
Nor has emphasis attached to the par value of the stocks and bonds. It was thought "fortunate" by the Railroad Securities Commission that the volume of securities was but one among many matters to be considered in a determination of "value." The "dictates of precedent" were thus made to "coincide with those of business sense." For "the attempt to make the face value of securities issued the determining factor in rates would result in putting a premium on roads which had been speculatively, not to say dishonestly, built or managed, by allowing them to charge higher rates on account of the inflated capital thus produced." l Indeed, the Supreme Court has now expressed entire skepticism of the usefulness of the amount of the capitalization as bearing upon the reasonableness of the return.2
The cost figures which have been presented to fulfill the demand of the "rule" have sought to measure the proceeds of securities. The Master in the Minnesota Rate Cases merely took the figures for the entire systems, as introduced by the company witnesses, and assigned the proportion to
strong index of the value of that property in comparison with other properties in this [Official Classification] territory." It would seem, however, that Mr. Prouty was thinking of the old problem of recognizing vested interests, involving ethical rather than economic considerations. Once the plant is built, investment in the securities of the company continues, though the creation of no new "capital goods" is thereby insured. Such transactions take place entirely apart from the operations of the railroad whose earnings simply accrue to new shareholders, who join the enterprise after the success of the enterprise is assured. The same income regularly accruing (in dollars) is capitalized at a lower rate with partial elimination of risk. The market value of the securities is greater. And it is at these higher prices that the purchases are made for "widows and orphans" seeking conservative investments, and for the institutions for which the "widows and orphans" may be said to stand. See the testimony of President McCrea, of the Pennsylvania, quoted, Evidence, 1910 Advances, page 5039.
Minnesota which the total mileage in that State bore to the system mileage. This figure was "considerably less than the valuation of the physical properties as found," since it made "no allowance for appreciation of property incident to the growth or prosperity of the country in which the company is entitled to share." He recognized, however, that division on a mileage basis was "for the most part arbitrary and unreliable."1 The lower court turned to the argument that cost five to forty years ago might be "evidence" of value in 1908, though it was "certainly no criterion." 2 The attorneys for the State insisted that this decision by the Master and Court meant "ignoring" original cost, not "considering" it. If the original cost be a "material element" in "fair value" — they too held to the "rule" in Smyth v. Ames, — "each of the complainants has failed to sustain the burden resting upon him, and the findings are insufficient to support the ultimate conclusion." 3
1 Report of Chas. E. Otis, page 241. There was no mention of improvements from earnings; nor was the character of the Minnesota lines as compared with the mountain construction considered. Even Justice Hughes did not challenge these figures. (230 U.S. 352, 441.) The testimony bearing on this aspect of the case is found in the Record (N.P.), page 259 and following, page 592 and following; Record (G.N.), page 1910 and following; Record (M. & St.L.), page 1.
In the Spokane Case, Commissioner Prouty discussed at length the "original cost," as shown by the accounts, as well as the cost of reproduction estimates. 15 I.C.C. 376, 398 (N.P.); 403 (G.N.).
In the Knoxville Case, a figure of "invested value," purporting to indicate the cost of the various units of plant, was introduced by the company. This estimate, however, was purely an exploit of the imagination. "The books were not consulted at any time for prices of materials" (Record, page 838) ; the maker of the estimate " carefully avoided making use of, or referring to account books," but made his analysis upon "information and experience as engineer and expert " (page 635). The work of making this estimate (it purported to be accurate to the final cent) was done in Boston (page 811). Knoxville v. Knoxville Water Co., 212 U.S. 1.
By an amendment to the Act to Regulate Commerce, passed in 1913, the Interstate Commerce Commission is assigned the task of "valuing" the railroads. A "physical valuation," supplemented by accounting investigation7, is provided, the purpose being to examine the history and organization of each railroad, without emphasis upon the amount of the capitalization. Otherwise the Act of Congress follows the language and spirit of Smyth v. Ames in entirely orthodox fashion. The Commission is directed to "ascertain and report in detail as to each piece of property owned or used by such common carrier, the original cost to date, the cost of reproduction new, the cost of reproduction less depreciation, and an analysis of the methods by which these several costs are obtained, and the reason for their differences, if any "; in like manner, to " ascertain and report separately other values, and elements of value, if any, of the property of such common carrier, and an analysis of the methods of valuation employed, and of the reasons for any difference between such value and each of the foregoing cost values." * In this language the bill aims to cover "going value, good- will value, and franchise value" — "intangible values." 2
But the statute commits Congress to no theory of "valuation." The entire burden of weighing "the elements of value" is thrown upon the Commission, which presumably possesses the technical knowledge to cope with the problem. Before a "tentative valuation" can become "final," however, the Commission must notify the carrier concerned, the Attorney General of the United States, the
chusetts, "The Middlesex and Boston Rate Case," where it was held that under Massachusetts law the honest and reasonably prudent investment, represented under normal conditions by the capitalization, must be taken as the basis of reckoning fair and reasonable rates. Second Annual Report, Public Service Commission of Massachusetts, volume 1, page 99.
Governor of any State in which the road's property may lie, and even " such additional parties as the Commission may prescribe," stating the amount of this "valuation." If no protest is lodged within thirty days, the "said valuation" becomes "final." But where protest is filed, the Commission must hold hearings, to consider any relevant matter presented in support of the protest; and, if of the opinion that the "tentative" valuation should not be made "final," may "make such changes as may be necessary." Altogether the task of the Commission would not seem a happy one. To apply Smyth v. Ames in a way that shall satisfy the railroads, the Attorney General of the United States, and above all the Governors of forty-eight States, with their local railroad commissions, is difficult enough. But what of the courts?
The act is framed to limit the judicial interference with the independent determination of "fair value" by the Commission. All "final valuations" fixed under the provisions of the statute ("and the classification thereof," i.e., cost, "cost of reproduction," etc.) "shall be prima facie evidence of the value of the property in all proceedings under the Act to regulate commerce . . . and in all judicial proceedings brought to enjoin, set aside, annul, or suspend, in whole or in part, any order of the Interstate Commerce Commission." Where evidence is introduced "different from that offered upon the hearing before the Commission or additional thereto and substantially affecting said value, the Court before proceeding to render judgment shall transmit a copy of such evidence to the Commission, and shall stay further proceedings in said action for such time as the Court shall determine from the date of such transmission." But the Commission is not required to rescind or alter the original figure of "final value." It must consider the new evidence, and it may report an "altered, modified, or amended" order, upon which "judgment shall be rendered, as though made by
the Commission in the first instance." But if the original order is not rescinded or changed by the Commission, judgment will be rendered upon the original order. The theories of "valuation" of the1 Interstate Commerce Commission are those which shall govern.1
The decisions of the Commission do not, however, indicate a reasoned theory of " valuation." The " judgment " of the Supreme Court has been quoted; there has even been discussion under each of the several heads; but there has been an expressed realization of the " indefiniteness" of the "law " Commissioner Prouty (the Eastern Advance Case of 1910) had only to repeat a complaint he had voiced eight years previously :
"It is plain that until there be fixed, either by legislative enactment or judicial interpretation, some definite basis for the valuation of railroad property and some limit up to which that property shall be allowed to earn upon that valuation, there can be no exact determination of these questions. In the absence of such a standard the tribunal, whether court or commission, which is called upon to consider this matter, can only rely upon the exercise of its best judgment." 2
Congress, however, when the opportunity to establish a "definite basis" was before it, was guilty of the same lack of explicitness which has characterized the decisions of the courts. The burden of responsibility has been shifted to the Commission. That body, overworked before, must fix "final valuations" and "the classification of the elements that constitute the ascertained value." The evidence it shall consider includes "the original cost to date, the cost
1 Section 19a, the Act to Regulate Commerce.
* Eastern Advance Case of 1910, 20 I.C.C. 243, 261. The quotation is from the Advance Case of 1903, 9 I.C.C. 382, 404; and, considering the seriousness with which conjectural "valuation" figures were discussed by the Interstate Commerce Commission in the Spokane Case, and in the Western Advance Case of 1910, it cannot be said that that body has treated the problem with scientific rigor. See discussion, below, pages 53-54.
of reproduction new, the cost of reproduction less depreciation . . . other values and elements of value." * It is difficult to see wherein, if at all, the Valuation Act represents an advance over the "rule" in Smyth v. Ames.
The "expert" method, 38. — The "sales" method, 40. — The "sales and assessment" method, 41. — The Minnesota Rate Cases, and land valuation, 41. — The railroad appraisals, 45.
STUDY of "physical valuation," from the point of view of economics, cannot concern itself with the technical engineering problems. The measurement and count of the properties and the classification of the various units of quantity must be left with the engineer. The economist is interested in the result as set forth in the total for the appraisal. He can insist, in the first place, that the figures finally presented shall not set claim to an accuracy that is specious; and, in the second place, that figures secured on fallacious hypotheses shall not be introduced as a basis for an attempted solution of an economic problem. But with the engineering aspects, per se, he is not concerned.
The appraisals made have sought to determine, not the volume of the unimpaired investment (of "unripened" savings) represented by the plant, but " cost of reproduction," with deduction made to take account of accrued depreciation. The consideration of the theoretical justification for this basis, or the lack of such justification, is a matter of subsequent discussion. In this, and the succeeding chapter, the accuracy of the figures secured will be considered.
PHYSICAL VALUATION 29
"Cost of reproduction" may be defined as the estimated investment necessary to duplicate an existing railroad, not to create a substitute plant equally effective.1 This definition, itself simple, involves certain vigorous hypotheses. The road bed is assumed to disappear, and in place of the smoothed and well-tended grade the conditions met at the time of construction are restored. The right of way and terminal properties pass into private hands to be devoted to the same use as adjoining tracts. The equipment vanishes, the working force is scattered. The very corporate existence ceases.
But the process of reversion stops here. Any other railroad serving the same section, either as a parallel and competing line, or as a terminal connection, remains untouched, available to transport materials of "reconstruction." And these materials are drawn, not from the sources originally used, but from those now available. The population, rural and urban, does not desert the line of the road; busy factories and warehouses stand at the edge of a primeval right of way, which is overgrown with trees and underbrush. Everything awaits the advent of the courageous promoter who shall place surveying parties in the field, secure a charter, arrange financial matters: in short, set out to restore the plant of the road which in imagination has been made to disappear, yet which in fact exists. ^ What will it cost? And, having the "cost of reproduction new," how much of this "investment" would be existing at a period in the future with the new hypothetical units as old
1 See James E. Allison, "Ethical and Economic Elements in Public Service Valuation," Quarterly Journal of Economics, volume 27, page 27; the Brief filed with the Interstate Commerce Commission, on behalf of the railroads represented in the Presidents' Conference Committee, hereafter cited, as the "Valuation Brief of 1915"; and statement of Pierce Butler, Valuation Conference of September 30, 1915, Proceedings, page 12 and following.
and in the same physical condition as those now in place? The answer to this question is the engineer's "present value," the "cost of reproduction less depreciation." l
The Interstate Commerce Commission, which is directed to determine the "cost of reproduction new," and the "cost of reproduction less depreciation," does not enter upon an untouched field. Entirely aside from the appraisals made by individual carriers to furnish evidence in rate cases, " as the Supreme Court in the case of Smyth v. Ames " has told them " to do," 2 no less than eight States have made
1 This definition of the "cost of reproduction" is based upon the necessary assumptions made in order to account for the items included in the appraisals made. See testimony of D. C. Morgan, the Chief Engineer of the Minnesota Commission, Minnesota Rate Cases, Record (N.P.), page 1762; of W. L. Darling, the Chief Engineer of the Northern Pacific, ibid., page 5 and following; of A. H. Hogeland, of the Great Northern, Record (G.N.), page 2 and following; and of J. F. Stevens, ibid., page 466. See also, Proceedings, Valuation Conference of May 27-29, 1915; the Valuation Brief of 1915; and the Reply Brief filed on behalf of the National Association of Railway Commissioners, page 18 and following.
2 Quoted from Mr. Jared How, of counsel for the railroads, Minnesota Rate Cases, Record (N.P.), page 14. The railroads here introduced " cost of reproduction" estimates for the Minnesota mileage and those for the entire Northern Pacific which had been presented in the Spokane Case (Spokane v. N.P. Ry. Co., 15 I.C.C. 376, 395) by W. L. Darling, the Chief Engineer of the Northern Pacific, Record (N.P.), pages 5-121, 534-90, 936-1023, 3207-47 ; and by J. B. Berry, then Chief Engineer of the Rock Island, ibid., pages 718-904 ; of the Great Northern, by A. H. Hogeland, its Chief Engineer, Record (G.N.), pages 2-162; 990-1077; 1557-1734; of the M. & St.L., by A. S. Cutler, Record (M. & St.L.), pages 909-52.
The Alabama lines of the Central of Georgia, the Western of Alabama, the South and North Alabama, and the Louisville & Nashville were "valued" by their engineers for the Alabama Rate Cases. Report of W. S. Thorington, Special Master, in the Central of Georgia Case, page 109; in the Western of Alabama Case, page 56; Report of W. A. Gunter, Special Master, in the South & North Alabama Case, page 46; in the Louisville & Nashville Case, page 83.
J. F. Stevens, then Vice-President of the New Haven, had charge of an appraisal of that road as of the year 1907. See his testimony, Minnesota Rate Cases, Record (G.N.), page 462. This "valuation" was subjected to what would appear to be a perfunctory check by G. F. Swain, acting for the Massachusetts "Validation" Commission. Report of
similar investigations. The very existence of these figures automatically refutes the skeptic who is satisfied that to establish the "cost of reproduction" is an attempt to do the impossible. l How reliable the results of such appraisals have been, and how much worth while any such figures promise to be, are, however, entirely different questions.
Massachusetts Joint Commission on the N.Y.N.H. & H., 1911. (The New Haven Validation Report.) W. J. Wilgus made an appraisal of the Lehigh Valley, introduced in Lehigh Valley v. U.S., 204 Fed. 986, 988.
At the conferences between the engineers representing the Interstate Commerce Commission and the railroads, it developed that other lines had made "valuations" of portions of their plant; Valuation Conference of September 4 and 5, 1913, Proceedings, page 3 (H. C. Phillips, of the Santa Fe); page 9 (E. Holbrook, of the Southern Pacific); page 11 (G. W. Kittredge, of the New York Central); page 21 (J. B. Berry, of the Rock Island); page 23 (C. H. Smith, of the Missouri Pacific).
The C.B. & Q. was the only road to make formal attempt to introduce a "cost of reproduction" estimate into the record of the 1910 Advance Case (Evidence, 1910 Advances, page 978 and following, the testimony of F. E. Ward, the General Manager). See, however, the testimony of Wm. Ellis, who "conservatively" appraised the entire line of the C.M. & St.P. by using the State appraisal figures for Wisconsin, Minnesota, and South Dakota, calculating Illinois on the Wisconsin basis; Iowa on the Minnesota basis, etc., securing a "net total of $293,318,963.02" (pages 658 and 5786); of E. P. Ripley, who testified, "not stating it merely as an opinion " (he had "reasons for believing and knowing it "), that the Santa Fe "could not be reproduced, to-day, for its capitalization" (page 21); etc.
1 The official State appraisals have been made in Texas (see paper by R. A. Thompson, Chief Engineer, Transactions, Am. Soc., C.E., volume 52, pages 328, 360); in Michigan (Bulletin 21, Bureau of the Census, Commercial Valuation of Railway Operating Property, page 76, the report by M. E. Cooley who made the appraisal); in Wisconsin (ibid., page 82, the report of W. D. Taylor, Chief Engineer); in Minnesota (Supplement, Report, Minnesota Railroad & Warehouse Commission, 1908); in South Dakota (Twenty-first Annual Report, Board of Railroad Commissioners) ; in Nebraska (Fourth Annual Report, State Railway Commission) ; in New Jersey (Report on Revaluation of Railroads and Canals, 1911); and in Washington (Second and Third Annual Reports, published as a single volume by the State Railroad Commission). The less important lines have been appraised in Oregon and California, while Kansas has discontinued work in view of the Federal appraisal, though an appraisal of the lines of the Union Pacific had been made. (First Report, Kansas Public Utilities Commission, 1912.) The valuations in Michigan, Wisconsin, and New Jersey were for taxation.
Three general groups of items may be considered as they would appear in the inventory: land, covering the right of way and terminals; the permanent way, structures and equipment; and the " overhead " or general expenses. Logically the appraisal of the railroad site may be separated from the appraisal of the plant made by man — the economist's "capital goods." Its acquisition is an essential first step; and the considerations of principle presented are necessarily different in character, since land is not, like the items of plant, freely reproducible. Neither does it "wear out." Moreover, here the measurement of quantities is relatively simple. It is a problem in two dimensions, where the degree of error due to inaccurate surveying promises to be negligible. And, in addition, the holdings of land are, it may be assumed, largely a matter of record, in the offices of the railroads, or in the public files. The number of acres and square feet of land occupied by the railroad may, therefore, be considered as determined within a relatively narrow range of error.
But though land cannot be "reproduced," it can be reacquired. Keep clearly in mind the details of the hypothesis which bear upon this aspect of the problem. Title has passed from the railroad company to private owners, who are supposed to devote the land to the same purpose as that for which the adjacent land is used. This holds true, even though, for the purpose of "reproducing" the "clearing and grubbing,", it be necessary to assume the presence of the forest long since cleared away. In the country the land is used for farming (where available for tillage or pasture) ; and in the cities there is insistence that the sites be devoted to trading, warehouse, factory — even residence purposes. l Thus the land needed by the railroad
does not stretch in a long vacant tract through country and city. By the same token that the existing line is conjured out of sight, buildings are conjured into its place. Making these assumptions, which, to the lay mind, may seem strenuous, the investigator has courageously set about to estimate what it would cost the railroad to reacquire the land it already possesses.1
The presence of imaginary buildings has only in part been the justification of the use of a multiple of the "true market value " of the land in order to determine its "cost of reproduction." The multiple has been justified also on the ground that it is a matter of "common knowledge'* that the railroad buying land in a narrow strip pays more for it than the "true value," the "market value" for farming,
establish is the value of the Northern Pacific Railway System as the base upon which we are entitled to a fair return, if we are entitled to anything. The Supreme Court, in the case of Smyth v. Ames, the utterance being by Mr. Justice Harlan, says that one of the elements to be considered is the present cost of construction of the property as it exists in operation for the public use. Some other courts have said that that was the sole element to be considered. Now, the present cost of construction of the Northern Pacific Railway may be established only, of course, by considering that the railway property does not now exist. In establishing the present cost of construction of the railway, the first element, manifestly, is the cost of acquisition of the railway right of way; if no railway property now exists, manifestly the right of way must be first acquired, and the only method of computing the present cost of construction is to start upon the proposition that the property does not exist, because, if it does, you can't presently construct it. Now, that being the fact, we must, of course, establish the present cost of acquisition of the railway property, not upon the hypothesis that the Indians infest St. Paul, but on the hypothesis of the present conditions of St. Paul and all other points of contact." Record (N.P.), page 1067.
1 The testimony of Thomas Cooper, of the Northern Pacific, — Minnesota Rate Cases, Record (N.P.), pages 196-97, — - illustrates well the significance of this thesis. Probably the most extreme instance of conjuring up buildings, however, came before the New York Public Service Commission, 1st District, in Re Metropolitan Street Ry. Reorganization, 3 P.S.C. 1st D. N.Y. 113, where it was assumed that modern buildings would be torn down to make way for a one-story car barn covering the city block bounded by Fourth and Lexington Avenues, and 32d and 33d Streets (pages 139-40).
business, or residence purposes, since an element of damage attaches to the division of a tract into two portions, etc.1 A higher price paid by the railroad would seem, moreover, an invariable concomitant of the use of the jury in condemnation cases. Whether the damage be real or imaginary, the result is certainly the same. The company acquiring land does usually pay more than its value in the service in which the land was formerly used. Indeed, the railroads, having this knowledge born of long experience, resort to condemnation only when forced to do so. It is more economical to make purchases at agreed terms.2
Multiples, then, were used in both the Michigan and Wisconsin appraisals, the first of the series of "valuations" made since 1900. And the precedent there established has persisted in the subsequent appraisals whether made by State or corporation employees. In no case, however, has there been attempt to attach the railroad land to specific adjoining tracts, and to measure the business shrewdness of the individual landowner by estimating how much or how little he would demand; or to gauge that of
1 "The proper construction of the road often makes access from the land on one side to the land on the other more difficult. . . . The natural drainage is interfered with. Roads and streets may be closed or changed. The noise, smoke, danger, and inconvenience from the operation of railroads. . . . These considerations always make the right of way value more, oftentimes much more, than its market value for other purposes." Instructions to right of way appraisers, Wisconsin Appraisal; Report, Wisconsin Tax Commission, 1907, page 274.
mony of C. C. Witt, Chief Engineer of the South Dakota valuation.
* Thomas Cooper, Minnesota Rate Cases, Record (N.P.), pages 136-38; 244-46; Charles Hayden, Record (G.N.), pages 208-17. Mr. I have gone as high as twice what I was satisfied in my own mind was a good liberal price, and if the party will not accept the increased price, we reluctantly resort to condemnation." See discussion by D. C. Morgan, the Minnesota State Engineer, in his report, page 17, Supplement, Report, Minnesota Railroad & Warehouse Commission, 1908; the Valuation Brief of 1915, pages 320-23; and Argument of Thomas W. Hulme, at the Valuation Conference of May 27-29, 1915, Proceedings, page 120 and following: containing a series of interesting instances.
the railway right of way agent. Nor has there been necessity to reproduce the appraising process of an endless series of juries. Prophecy has not been attempted where the personal element would vary so widely.1 Instead the practice has been to take "average" figures, to use multiples of the "value of the land for other purposes," the size of the multiple being based upon investigation of the ratio of the amount paid by railroads in a given district as compared with what D. C. Morgan, the Chief Engineer of the Minnesota Commission, called "the true value" of the land. Since an "average" figure which could be applied generally has been sought, the necessity to consider the probable multiple in each acquisition has been eliminated. Some variation has, however, appeared. In Texas, 25 to 50 per cent was added; in Wisconsin, 10 to 150 per cent; 2 in Washington, 0 to 500 per cent (surely a vague "finding of fact");3 in Nebraska, the Chief Engineer added "a minimum of 50 per cent, and a maximum of 225 per cent," for rural right of way, and " a minimum of 25 per cent and a maximum of 100 per cent" for "town property." 4 In
1 Mr. Cooper — Minnesota Rate Cases, Record (N.P.), page 137 — declared that when he ran across a man unpopular with his neighbors, the road "got off" with less. However, in condemnations "you run across reasons that increase the award against you that you never dreamed of. You will find sentimental reasons — an old home or associations, births, deaths, and marriages. The woman will get on the stand and she will tell her story and weep over it, and every tear costs us money; therefore condemnations I dread. ..."
2 Mr. R. A. Thompson (Texas), discussing the Wisconsin figures, declared that the multiple used in Wisconsin for country lands (250 per cent — an addition of 150 per cent) appeared " quite fair," but in cities . . . "too high," especially for the Southwest. Transactions, Am. Soc., C. E., volume 72, page 205. See discussion by Mr. Taylor, of Wisconsin, on a paper by Mr. Thompson, on " Valuation of Railroad Property," Transactions, Am. Soc., C. E., volume 52, page 353.
* Second and Third Annual Reports, Railroad Commission of Washington, page 157 (N.P.); "findings of fact" covering each parcel of real estate are given in terms of dollars, so that the exact multiple used does not appear for each item.
South Dakota, where the multiple was found "to range from 2 to 5, the average being about 3 outside of towns," a multiple of 2j was used for all lands, town or country. A similar general average was used in Minnesota, though in the three "terminal cities," lower multiples were applied than in the country.1 The railroad appraisals, presented in the Minnesota Rate Cases, used the multiple of 3 for country right of way; but this the Master cut to 2j. In the cities he allowed an addition of 5 per cent, over the insistence of the railroads that 5 per cent was only a minimum, that the actual extra cost was 5 to 40 per cent.2 In the Western Advance Case of 1910 the General Manager of the Burlington testified that his estimate of the "cost of reproducing" the land included a multiple of 3 over the whole line, except in principal cities.3
Thus, entirely aside from the method of securing the " market value" or "true value," to which the multiple or percentage has been applied, considerable variation in practice has appeared. There has been unanimity only in the insistence that the multiple be used. How large it should be, to which classes of land it should be applied — these are factors which, it must be clear, have depended entirely upon the judgment of the individual appraiser. The use of a general average, or of a series of such averages, moreover, has constituted resort to approximation, an expedient which will often appear in the subsequent discussion.
Justice Hughes in the Minnesota Rate Cases condemned the use of multiples, in part upon the technical ground that it was impossible to assume, "in making a
1 Supplement, Report, Minnesota Railroad & Warehouse Commission, 1908, page 15; in St. Paul, the multiple was If; in Minneapolis, If; in Duluth, 1^; ibid., page 17. The country "multiple" was 3.
judicial finding of what it would cost to acquire the property, that the company would be compelled to pay more than its market value"; in part upon the ground that such a multiplier covered a " hypothetical outlay." Accordingly Justice Hughes pronounced the opinion of the Court that "the allowances made below for a conjectural cost of acquisition and consequential damages must be disapproved."1 This action, of course, meant a wrench to the "cost of reproduction" theory, in fact a significant departure from the regulation-condemnation analogy. It was intended as such: "The conditions of ownership of the property and the amounts which would have to be paid in acquiring the right of way, supposing the railroad to be removed, are wholly beyond reach of any process of rational determination. The cost of reproduction method is of service in ascertaining the present value of the plant when it is reasonably applied and when the cost of reproducing the property may be ascertained with a proper degree of certainty. But it does not justify the acceptance of results which depend upon mere conjecture." 2
Turn now to the problem of determining the "true value " of the railroad lands. Resort has been made to court practice in condemnation cases : to reliance upon the prices paid for adjoining tracts, or upon the opinion of experts. Sometimes, indeed, a "sales and assessment" formula has been evolved, reference being made to taxation records. But every one of these expedients has proposed that the measure of the cost of reacquiring the railroad land be the
2 Ibid., page 452. What would seem to be positive language has, however, not been accepted as final by the attorneys representing the railroads in the Federal valuation. They have insisted that "cost of reproduction" which the Commission is directed to determine can be estimated in no other way. Valuation Brief of 1915, pages 315-70.
value of adjacent tracts. The logical complication due to the relation of the presence of the railroad — its effect upon economic rent, and therefore upon the value of the adjacent tracts — has been ignored.
In Michigan special inspectors, "experts in land values," submitted reports "so complete as to leave no doubt of the thoroughness of their investigation." This investigation depended upon the information submitted by "a large number of citizens who very courteously entered upon the task of filling out the blanks requesting information as to the value of properties in their respective localities"; supplemented by "as much personal inspection as it was possible for a few men to give in a limited time." The result was a series of average "values" for various classes of land — farm land, barren land, land in villages of less than 500, etc. It then became necessary to classify the amounts of each kind belonging to the several roads. "In this much assistance was received from the local engineers (i.e., locomotive engineers), who, on account of their familiarity with their runs, were able to give, with considerable accuracy, the extent of the lands of different grades on their respective lines." * Prices established, the acreage of each classification determined upon in this hitor-miss method, it was a simple task to figure a cost of reacquiring land, set down as if correct to the last dollar. To the totals here secured were added expert appraisals, based upon investigation of sales records, of lands in the principal cities.2
Transactions, Am. Soc., C.E., volume 72, page 52.
In the Alabama Rate Cases, too, the largest dependence was placed upon the appraisals of "experts." Says Mr. Thorington, the Special Master in the Central of Georgia Case: " The right of way agents went over each mile of all the Alabama lines of the road, and from personal inspection of the right of way and adjoining property . . . and full conference with the owners of property adjacent to the road and with business
The Washington Commission also employed experts, "following the same general lines that would be pursued in court in an ordinary condemnation action." Men experienced in buying land for railroads made a personal inspection of "every line of road within the State, and every piece of property owned by the roads." In the larger cities the Commission hired "expert real estate men of high standing" who investigated all the holdings of the railroads in the cities, and subsequently testified before that body. The railroads introduced equally reliable (or unreliable) expert testimony: the Commission made "findings of fact" — probably no better nor worse than the Michigan figures, but certainly hardly more conclusive or serviceable. Unless, of course, it be assumed that the Washington Commission made its "findings of fact" with infallible insight, and that it hired a peculiarly infallible brand of real estate expert.1
men in towns and with real estate agents, and in some instances after examination of the records of conveyances for the county, fixed the value of the right of way property, the ultimate valuation in every instance being fixed after acquiring information as above stated, and also based on their experience." Report, page 117. See also his Report in the Western of Alabama Case, pages 62-63.
ington, page 49.
The following figures introduced by fourteen "experts," testifying to the value of the same piece of land, in a suit by a railroad company to condemn right of way in Minnesota indicate some of the extreme possibilities of expert testimony:
In order to avoid this dependence upon expert testimony and "opinion," the "sales" method of appraising land has been used. When, in 1902, Michigan desired a check on the computations made two years before, employees were sent to the offices of the Registers of Deeds " in ten or twelve counties. ... A careful abstract of all railway transfers for a period of ten years was taken off, the acreage determined, the average price for different classes of land computed, and then a careful study of transfers of adjacent improved and unimproved lands was made." l The results of this investigation were presumed to be better than those secured two years earlier. It is difficult to see how a tenyear average covering various classes of lands was necessarily more conclusive than the "average" value computed from the opinions of bankers as applied to a classification made by locomotive engineers. In the Wisconsin appraisal, Mr. Taylor placed dependence upon similar investigation of records of transfer, made under the direction, not of an economist or statistician, but of a professor of mathematics in the state university.2 This method, with the subsequent addition of the assessment check, has since been generally used by the Wisconsin Commission.
The theory behind the use of the sales method is very well expressed in a report of the former Engineer of that body, Mr. W. D. Pence, later upon the staff of the Interstate Commerce Commission:
"The sales method may be defined as a plan or process for the systematic collection and comparison of data relating to real estate transfers for the purpose of estimating true
There were two figures of approximately twelve millions, and one of over fourteen. Report of Special Master, A. H. Masten, page 157. Willcox c. Consolidated Gas Co., 212 U.S. 19.
1 H. E. Riggs, from whom this is quoted, was one of the investigators. "Valuation of Public Service Corporation Property," Transactions, Am. Soc., C.E., volume 72, page 54.
market realty values. It consists in a study of the transfers of neighboring property having conditions or characteristics similar to the land whose value is to be determined, and is intended to duplicate, as nearly as may be, the mental or judicial processes ordinarily employed by the so-called 'local real estate expert,' with a view to arriving at results approximating those which would be reached by such local expert acting without bias or suggestion."
The sales and assessment method, on the other hand, is designed to introduce, "as far as may be, the judicial processes of the assessor who, at least in theory, serves on behalf of the public as an unbiased expert." The sales method attempts to duplicate "the mental process" of the expert; the sales and assessment method, the "judicial process of the assessor" — in neither case a promising recommendation.1
The Minnesota Rate Cases presented the problem of appraising lands as a significant issue. Here the companies based their claims upon expert testimony, and the State upon the sales method, except in the three cities of Duluth, St. Paul, and Minneapolis, where the sales and assessment method was used. In the record of this case, therefore, the relative advantages and disadvantages of the different methods can be sought out. In no instance does it seem that a degree of accuracy was promised which would warrant acceptance of the results in a scientific analysis, quite apart from any challenge of the premises, themselves.
The "valuation" of 1907 made for the Minnesota Railroad and Warehouse Commission was for the ostensible purpose of using the figures secured as the basis of measuring the reasonableness of the return to the railroads from intrastate business.2 In all essential aspects, however, the
1 State Journal Printing Co. v. Madison G. & E. Co., 4 W.R.C.R. 501, 528-33; also Hill r. Antigo Water Co., 3 W.R.C.R. 623, 670; and Buffalo Gas Co v. City of Buffalo, 3 P.S.C. 2d D. N.Y. 553, 643.
appraisal was upon the same basis as the Michigan and Wisconsin appraisals, which had been made for taxation purposes. The "valuation" of the lands outside the cities is hardly significant for the present discussion.1 Chief Engineer Morgan's letter of instruction to the special land agents directed an examination of the record of transfers of real estate subsequent to January 1, 1900 (though the appraisal was as of June 30, 1907), "obtaining therefrom all transfers within one and one half miles on each side of the center line . . . and in such instances as the records do not show sufficient activity in the sale of property to enable intelligent and fairly complete data," extending the inquiry to sales beyond the one and one hah* mile line. Besides this examination of the records, "inquiry among real estate men, bankers and business men" was directed "to enable confirmation of the data obtained from the county records." 2 These instructions reflect two weaknesses. Prices of 1900 signified nothing regarding real estate values of 1907; the value of land a mile and a hah* away was not a conclusive index of the value of the land immediately adjacent to the railroad. Though, of course, with a multiple of three to be applied — chosen as an approximation — it was hardly necessary to bother with minor difficulties. It should be enough that more than 55,000 sales, representing more than 1,300,000 acres, and "involving considerations approximating $100,000,000," were "taken into consideration." 3 Regardless of the validity of the premises, surely this represented painstaking research.
1 In some of the smaller towns, Mr. Morgan used his own "judgment" (ibid., page 2083); or compared the "values" given, with "values" of other towns of similar size (page 2129). It seems that in general he merely decreased the company estimates by 20 per cent, 50 per cent, etc. See testimony of Thomas Cooper (pages 3055-57). Mr. Cooper had some independent appraisals made by local "experts" in those towns (page 3060 and following).
In making his appraisal of the terminal properties in the Twin Cities and Duluth, Mr. Morgan found his work in applying the sales and assessment method much simplified by certain investigations made by the State Tax Commission, and in St. Paul, by the Tax Committee of the City Council. These investigations aimed to determine the ratio of the selling price of land and the assessed valuation. The figure which Mr. Morgan actually used, however, while found in the report of the City Council Committee, first appeared in a newspaper article late in 1906. During the year 1905, 2654 transfers of St. Paul real estate had been made by deed; these were listed by assessment districts, the consideration in one column, the assessed valuation in another. For each district the ratio of assessment to the consideration was then calculated. This ranged from 50.25 per cent to 65.72 per cent. For the total 2654 transfers the ratio was approximately 60 per cent. This figure of 60 per cent, therefore, Mr. Morgan chose as a reliable index of the ratio of assessed value to "true value" — and made it the basis of estimating the cost of reproducing the terminal properties in St. Paul.1 In Minneapolis the figure was 54.7 per cent.2
Even had he possessed assessments of railroad property made through the same judicial process on which the assessment ratio was based, Mr. Morgan would have been presuming in attempting to apply any such general average to that assessed valuation, in order to determine the "true value " of the land. The figure itself meant nothing; it was simply a general average which served to bulk a large number of varying ratios. In fact, as Mr. Morgan himself testified, the report of the Council Committee in St. Paul, presenting a table of actual transactions, showed a range of percentages from 33 to over 130.3 So, while he did not
claim that the ratio of 60 per cent, applied to a single tract would indicate a "true result," l nevertheless he "didn't undertake to take into account the individual inequalities.*' 2 When investigations were confined to a small area, "there might perhaps be only one or two sales in that locality, and they might not represent anything like the correct condition." The figure of 60 per cent therefore was chosen on the theory that it "would compensate one way and another" and that the appraisal would thus reach "fairly equal ground." 3
In Minnesota, however, the railroads paid a gross earnings tax, and no "reliable" assessments of the railroad lands were at hand to which to apply the convenient ratio. For this reason it was "necessary" to measure the "cost of reproduction" from the "average value of contiguous and surrounding property." Accordingly, therefore, Mr. Morgan divided the terminal lands of each railroad into sections — the length of each section varying in accordance with his "best judgment." An "arbitrary" 4 area on either side of the center line in each of these sections was marked out, and investigation was made to determine the "market value" of land within each area.5 The first step was to determine the assessed valuation of all real estate not owned by the railroad; assuming this amount to be 60 per cent of the "true value" of the land, the latter figure was determined. It was then a simple problem in division to determine the "value" per acre; and of multiplication to apply this "value" to the acreage in the rail-
contains the data on which the 60 per cent was calculated.
4 The size and shape of these sections depended upon Mr. Morgan's judgment as to the equality of the value of the non-railroad land adjacent to the railroad lands to be valued. He was forced to acknowledge that, changing the sections, different results would, of course, accrue. Ibid.t page 2345.
road property. Increasing this figure by the approved multiple, Mr. Morgan arrived at the "cost of reproduction" of the railroad terminals.
The Master in this case, Mr. Otis, was not impressed that Mr. Morgan's appraisal was "entitled to much weight." l Did not the sales-assessment method ignore the fact that "real estate values are necessarily and largely a matter of opinion when applied to any particular tract or parcel of land"? 2 Mr. Otis therefore looked to the expert appraisals of the witnesses for the railroads, though professedly keeping in mind "that witnesses are necessarily and unconsciously influenced by the interests of those at whose instance they are called." 3 And his conclusions, passed on in perfunctory fashion by Judge Sanborn, came to the Supreme Court.
The Master's valuation, for he soon translated the estimated cost of reacquiring the land into "value," represented his own judgment as measured against that of the railroad witnesses. For, though not himself an expert, he presumed to find that the estimates of the railroad right of way agents were "too expansive" and fixed upon figures which were 75 per cent of their appraisals for land outside of the terminal cities. In essence this meant a multiple of two and a quarter, instead of three, that applied by the railroad right of way men. Mr. Otis presumed to make this change in the face of a protest from these experts that even three was too low, Mr. Hayden of the Great Northern having explained that "about three times" had been fixed
1 Report of Chas. E. Otis, page 222. Expert witnesses for the railroads considered the assessment figures "wholly unreliable" and "entitled to no practical consideration." Minnesota Rate Cases, Record (G.N.), pages 367-68, 569, 580; (N.P.), page 3092.
Indeed Mr. Morgan was forced to acknowledge that their use was only admissible on the theory that applied to the whole it would "work out" what he thought "to be the truth," though "applied to the parts separately," — i.e., the sections into which he divided the line, and the area on either side, — he "would not say that." Record (N.P.), page 1996.
upon as "reasonably fair" by a conference of right of way men — in which " there were no two persons hardly that had the same ideal of that percentage." l
Mr. Hayden confessed that in making the "valuation" of right of way between stations, he used " principally his own judgment," to determine what it would cost the railroad; and arrived at a "market value" of the lands by dividing this figure by three.2 In the villages he took the information available as to the value of building sites, divided the station ground "up into so many town lots," etc. His figure for "market value," however, he conceived to be the value "for purposes generally, not for railroad purposes," both in the villages and in the open country.3 The basis of Mr. Cooper of the Northern Pacific, however, was something more. In his judgment the value of railroad land was always higher than that of adjacent land. But exactly how this additional amount was to be measured, except in the judgment of an expert, his testimony did not make clear. The figures to which he testified, therefore, represented his judgment, fortified by investigation of the value of adjacent tracts in the few cases where any doubt existed in his mind.
Specious accuracy, 84.
THE inclusion of a generous allowance for "contingencies " has thus far been the nearest approach to a frank acknowledgment of the wide range of error necessarily attaching to the work of appraisal. Such allowance being made, totals have been presented purporting to show results accurate to the final cent. No doubt use of the "contingencies" allowance has represented simply the application of an expedient used in estimates of construction work to the task of determining cost of reproduction.1 Indeed the justification of its use in the New Haven appraisal, was less that it was meant to cover omissions of items in the existing plant, than to include " many elements which would enter into the cost," though "not represented in the inventory." 2 The engineers who testified in the Minnesota
1 Howard Elliott, Minnesota Rate Cases, Record (N.P.), page 1240; the Valuation Brief of 1915, pages 85-94; and Valuation Conference of May 27-29, 1915, Proceedings, pages 45-49.
Rate Cases indicated that to them the chief ground for inclusion of "contingencies" was the necessity to allow for "all those items which it was impossible to see in making an approximate estimate of work already done," as well as "any items that may be overlooked." l One of the railroad counsel even interjected the statement, "There always ought to be put at the foot of one of these statements 'e. and o.e.' — errors and omissions excepted." 2 But his brief later insisted that the figures, which he here so qualified, were "accurate and comprehensive." 3
The allowance which the railroad engineers testified to as "customary" was ten per cent of the amounts spent for the permanent way and structures. Yet opinion was unanimous that this was low. Experience showed, they declared, that unforeseen costs ran " over rather than under ten per cent, and much greater than ten per cent." 4 The
with a farmer's water supply or cutting off access to his land; temporary structures which have been built in the progress of the work, but which are afterwards removed; . . . quicksand, . . . expenses incident to ... reducing grades, involving lowering cuts while maintaining traffic, in which case, especially if the cut is in rock, the expense is enormously greater than it would be to construct the line in its final form in the first instance," etc. See testimony of A. H. Hogeland, Minnesota Rate Cases, Record (G.N.), pages 42-46; and the Valuation Brief of 1915, pages 94102, " some concrete illustrations."
1 W. L. Darling, Minnesota Rate Cases, Record (N.P.), page 549. See also his testimony at pages 12 and 69; that of J. B. Berry, ibid., pages 739, 743; that of D. C. Morgan, ibid., page 2043; that of J. F. Stevens, Record (G.N.), page 445. Mr. Darling testified (page 12): "We are very apt to leave out things and forget things that should be included, and for that reason I have allowed this item of contingencies which is generally allowed."
The Valuation Brief of 1915 (page T03) divides "contingencies" into two classes: (1) of construction; (2) of inventory; and (page 105) asserts, " It is more difficult to make an accurate estimate of the cost of reproduction new than the cost of actual construction about to be undertaken."
panies, page 311.
4 J. B. Berry, Minnesota Rate Cases, Record (N.P.), pages 739-43; also testimony, J. F. Stevens, Record (G.N.), page 445; Howard Elliott. Record (N.P.), pages 1242-45. Ten per cent was used in the Michigan
engineer for the Minnesota Commission, however, insisted that a five per cent allowance was adequate, since the estimate was prepared "in the light of known conditions." l G. F. Swain, in the New Haven appraisal, though "personally " believing that the charge should be more than five per cent, used that figure.2 In the Wisconsin and South Dakota appraisals five and a hah* per cent was used; in Nebraska, four per cent.3 In Washington no allowance at all was made, the Chief Engineer of the State Commission alleging that " anybody that made up or included that item showed his ignorance." Or at least the Chief Engineer of the Northern Pacific, Mr. Darling, so testified, and then continued: "Well, the next day we discovered that the engineer had left out two items, one of a million and a quarter dollars and the other of a million for work done in Seattle and Tacoma. Now that took nearly half of the ten per cent; so you can see that that is one item that that ten per cent covers. And, right in my own estimate, I left out a million and a half dollars of equipment." It was here that Mr. How suggested his "errors and omissions excepted." 4
The "contingencies" allowance like the land multiple is, then, an " average " figure. Generally it has been calculated upon the "cost of reproducing" the land as well as
appraisal. G. F. Swain (the New Haven Validation Report, page 86) said that "while this has by some been considered as excessive, those in charge of the work believe, in the light of their subsequent experience, that it has been fully justified." In the Michigan appraisal the ten per cent allowance was opposed as too large by the railroads, the "valuation" being for taxation purposes.
1 D. C. Morgan, Minnesota Rate Cases, Record (N.P.), page 1852 and following; see, however, the Valuation Brief of 1915, pages 104-06, citing testimony to the contrary by M. E. Cooley and H. E. Riggs in the Duluth, South Shore & Atlantic Passenger Rate Case of 1913.
the other items of the permanent way,1 and sometimes the cost of "engineering" has been included. The variation from the practice of determining the contingencies charge, by taking a percentage of the entire "cost of reproducing" the permanent way and structures, has not, however, been significant; and for the purpose of the present discussion, it is enough to point out that the factor of .judgment and opinion has here had the fullest scope. No attempt has been made, therefore, to determine what percentage should be allowed for "contingencies" upon each set of items. Individual cases might show cost running fifty, even a hundred per cent above the estimate.2 But though the percentage would not apply uniformly to all, the "total contingencies," it has been assumed, would equal the amount found by applying an "average" figure to the "total of the items . . included." 3
The work of the engineer in making the inventory of the plant necessarily involves dependence upon individual judgment, even upon the intelligent use of the imagination at every step. Before the task of measurement and computation can be taken up, the natural conditions met at the time of original construction must be conceived of as restored. This is necessary that the actual engineering task faced in the beginning may be "reproduced." To measure the acreage of "clearing and grubbing," the areas
1 The Valuation Brief of 1915 (page 103) declares: "While all engineers agree that a substantial allowance must be made to cover contingencies, it may be said that the engineering valuation practice is not definitely settled as to the amount of the item, or the manner of adding the allowance."
3 J. B. Berry, ibid., page 894. Here the figure was ten per cent. See testimony of J. F. Stevens, Record (G.N.), page 446. Mr. Stevens here spoke of the " percentage of contingency ... an allowance . . . for the ignorance of the profession."
covered with trees and underbrush must be determined. The original contour of the land must be restored in order that the yardage of cut and fill may be measured. Swamps long since drained, or streams turned from their original beds, must present the difficulties surmounted by the constructing engineers. Given this setting for his work, the engineer's task is to determine what would be the cost of duplicating the road.1 Assuming preliminary and location surveys made (their cost has universally been measured, like the "contingencies" charge, on a percentage basis), the work of inventory is begun.
In the "valuations" made by the States it has not been the practice of the engineer to take his instruments onto the right of way, and there to make detailed measurements. Field work of this nature has been resorted to only in the entire absence of office records in the engineering departments of the roads. Instead figures have been drawn from the records, and subjected to the more or less superficial
Question: " Shall an allowance be made for clearing and grubbing, and if so, shall it be allowed where the road runs through what is now tillage land, but what was at the time of construction, a forest? "
State Commissioners: " No, if adjacent land is tillage land; yes, if adjacent land is now forest land and is so valued; no, if adjacent land has been cleared and grubbed and now valued as such; wherever allowance is made for clearing and grubbing, the value of the wood should be offset. If adjacent land is cleared and not grubbed, allowance should be made for grubbing only."
Question: "Are present geological and topographical conditions to be taken, or is inquiry to be made as to what these conditions were at the time of original construction? "
Railroads: " In considering the structural features of reproduction . . . conditions should be assumed to be as of the time of the original construction, except where they have subsequently been altered over areas entailing considerable additional construction difficulties which were met by the railroad from time to time as they arose."
check of "expert" inspection. In Michigan and Washington the inspection of records was made by State employees ; in other cases, following the precedent set in Wisconsin, the railroads themselves furnished the preliminary figures. Were the engineering records to be accepted as correct, even perfunctory field work could be eliminated. The measurement would be a clerical, not an engineering, task. The very fact that records are so concededly inadequate as to compel resort to other authority demands, it would seem, the most careful and painstaking measurements.1
These State appraisal figures, though, like those presented by the railroads as "evidence" in rate cases, offering results set down as if accurate, have never been determined by resurvey. Mr. Morgan, the Minnesota Chief Engineer, testified that the essential distinction between his work and that of Mr. Taylor in Wisconsin, and of Mr. Cooley in Michigan, lay in the " thoroughness of the work." 2 Description of his plan — in essentials followed in
1 J. F. Stevens, who, at the time of testifying in the Minnesota Rate Cases, was Vice-President of the New Haven (he had been Chief Engineer of the Great Northern, of the Rock Island, and of the Panama Canal), declared that the Great Northern had " probably the.best set of engineering records in the United States, or among the best." Record (G.N.), page 426. As regards grading quantities these records showed 73 per cent of the yardage; and of the remaining 27 per cent of the total as estimated, 23 per cent was estimates from profiles; and 4 per cent was determined from the "knowledge of the lines" possessed by the Chief Engineer, Mr. Hogeland. See his testimony, ibid., page 15. If these are records, " superior to any in the United States," it would seem that entire dependence on records would be quite out of the question. The incomplete character of the railroad records was generally certified to at the Valuation Conferences between the Engineers representing the Commission and those representing the railroads, held September 4-5, and October 14-15, 1913.
2 Minnesota Rate Cases, Record (N.P.), page 1975. Mr. Morgan described some work which he did as an employee of the C. St.P.M. & O. : " We divided the line into some seventeen sections in the State of Wisconsin, and the authorities, after receiving the report, shook up the numbers of the sections in a hat and picked out a number, and that was the number of the section which they went out to examine; and if they found the conditions right on that section, they assumed that it was right on the entire system."
South Dakota and Nebraska — indicates that "thorough" was still a relative term in Mr. Morgan's mind. The railroads furnished figures of quantities based upon their records, and these were checked by Mr. Morgan and several assistants. This official inspection was made from a train " moved at a low rate of speed, so that observation could be had of the character and standards of construction and maintenance." To be sure, "stops were made every mile in places, but usually every two miles, and sometimes every five miles. ... A day's work of ten hours enabled an average inspection of about one hundred miles." l Strange as it may seem, even this almost casual inspection did show some gross inaccuracies in the railroad figures.2
Nor would covering twelve miles a day on foot, or twenty-five miles on a hand car, "stopping for occasional measurements," promise results necessarily conclusive.3 Perhaps a greater degree of accuracy is attained than where entire dependence is placed upon the " judgment," " knowledge," "experience" of the chief engineer of a large railroad. But it would be difficult to generalize. When Mr. Darling, of the Northern Pacific, was directed to determine the "cost of reproduction" of that road for use in the Spokane Case, he increased the quantities appearing on the records by twenty per cent to take account of changed construction standards. The figure used as a basis did not
1 Supplement, Report, Minnesota Railroad & Warehouse Commission, 1908, page 23. Inspection from a slow-moving train had been used by Mr. Morgan's father, R. P. Morgan, in the appraisal for the Pacific Railway Commission. See Senate Executive Document 51, 50th Congress, 1st Session, page 4469. See testimony of J. J. Hill, Minnesota Rate Cases, Record (G.N.), pages 1251-52; of A. H. Hogeland, ibid., page 1647; and the Brief for the Companies, pages 306-07.
2 See testimony of D. C. Morgan, Minnesota Rate Cases, Record (G.N.), pages 1389-90; of W. L. Darling, Record (N.P.), page 91; and Mr. Morgan's letter addressed to President Elliott, Defendant's Exhibit B. Mr. Darling testified that the report submitted the State had not been "checked or edited."
represent a resurvey, but was based on profiles, etc.1 And the arbitrary twenty per cent was chosen in "probably an hour." It was "a mere matter of calculation," "simply a matter of judgment," 2 "just as accurate as anybody can possibly get it with the very best of judgment." 3 In the Spokane Case, too, the Chief Engineer of the Great Northern testified that the records of the Company showed quantities in the case of 82 per cent of the entire system, and that a "very close estimate could be made of the remaining 18 per cent."4 Commissioner Prouty could therefore speak of the Northern Pacific "valuation" as "by no means a guess," 5 though that of the Great Northern was "more satisfactory." He was "impressed" that this estimate had been prepared in good faith and with great care.6 It would here seem difficult to draw the line between "guessing" and making an expert judgment.7
That such inconclusive figures — inconclusive from the viewpoint of statistical accuracy — should have passed through the hands of the Interstate Commerce Commission without severe condemnation would seem almost incredible. But how much more worth while a check made from the platform of a slowly moving train would have been must necessarily be difficult to say. Mr. Darling insisted that the only way a more accurate measurement
1 The figures used as a base were simply estimates made at the time of the reorganization of 1898. Spokane ». N.P. Ry. Co., 15 I.C.C. 37C, 395. See Mr. Darling's testimony, Minnesota Rate Cases, Record (N.P.), pages 80-81.
4 Spokane v. N.P. Ry. Co. 15 I.C.C. 376, 402. The 18 per cent refers to mileage. How large a proportion of this lay in a mountain country is a significant detail, here untouched.
6 Spokane v. N.P. Ry. Co., 15 I.C.C. 376, 402.
7 Mr. Melcher, of the Rock Island, "guessed in his judgment" — his guess being "analogous to judgment " — that it would cost $404,000,000 to reproduce that road in 1910. Evidence, 1910 Advances, pages 265-67.
could be secured than that accorded by his twenty per cent allowance was by the slow process of measurement.1 Perhaps he was right. It is for the engineering profession to give the verdict.
Yet it cannot be said that engineers have appeared willing to accept resurvey figures as in any sense insuring accuracy. Mr. Gillette, the engineer in charge of the Washington appraisal, expressed himself in the following vigorous language: "An attempt to estimate by field survey should be the last resort, not only on account of the greater cost of field work, but because of its greater inaccuracy, and finally — but not to be ignored — because, in a legal dispute as to the estimated cost, field surveys and estimates made by different engineers are likely to differ widely ... a field survey should be used only as a last resort." 2 Asked in the Minnesota Rate Cases whether construction did not sometimes so destroy the original conditions that it was now impossible to estimate what work had been done, Mr. Morgan answered in the affirmative, " unquestionably." 3 Without records, a larger percentage for contingencies would be necessary. The engineers of the railroads and Mr. J. J. Hill testified to the same conclusions. Equally unanimous were they as to the inadequacy of estimates made from profiles.4 A profile " simply shows a vertical section through the roadbed, the ground line and the grade line both showing, so as to determine where the
The Valuation Brief of 1915 insists that " original records, when corroborated, furnish better evidence than present measurements." (Discussed at length, pages 54-61.)
4 W. L. Darling, Minnesota Rate Cases, Record (N.P.), page 49; J. F. Stevens, Record (G.N.), page 429; J. J. Hill, ibid., page 1252. Mr. Stevens testified, Record (G.N.), page 429, " as a rule you underestimate always with a profile estimate." Mr. Hogeland, ibid., page 1650, showed that his figures based on profiles had been increased ten per cent.
cuttings and fills exist." But it does not show "the width of roadbed" or "the nature of the ground." Where the records are incomplete, such information "generally comes from personal knowledge." l
If the problem be one of measurement alone, therefore, it can hardly be said that the determination of grading quantities is one permitting more than the broadest approximation. The burden of restoring the difficulties met at the time of construction necessarily involves this limitation. Even with the physical contour restored, it would still be necessary to estimate the amount of earth "lost" in building an embankment across a swamp; the cost of extra labor occasioned by the falling of tunnel walls — unless, to be sure, these are to be allowed for in the "contingencies" charge. Even with accurate figures of yardage the responsibility would remain of determining how the work would be handled, whether by steam shovel or by team; of calculating the amount of overhaul, of "waste," of "borrow."2
And there would be the final task of "classifying" the materials, as earth, loose rock, solid rock, etc. Even in construction work this is recognized as "estimating." What must it be when the attempt is to determine the "cost of
1 A. H. Hogeland, Minnesota Rate Cases, Record (G.N.), pages 1644-45. See Mr. Darling's testimony: "Those things you have got to have judgment for, you have got to know the conditions under which the line was built." Record (N.P.), page 50.
2 In the New Haven Appraisal, conducted under the direction of G. F. Swain (where J. F. Stevens' appraisal made for the New Haven was checked), " the inspection of the lines owned occupied a period of twelve days with a special train." New Haven Validation Report, page 78. The work was largely one of checking profiles, and changes were effected by calculating that different methods of handling the construction work would be used from those assumed by Mr. Stevens. The Swain report, eliminating overhaul and train-haul entirely, increased the amount of "borrow," etc. That significant changes in result could be effected through this process is indicative of a further dependence upon " judgment." See the New Haven Validation Report, page 76, and also the testimony of D. C. Morgan, Minnesota Rate Cases, Record (N.P.), page 2113, on steam-shovel work, etc.
reproducing" cuts and fills where the work was done ten, twenty, fifty years ago 1 — when the sides of cuts are overgrown, when rock has slid from place ? Can inspection expose quicksand, which to-day appears no different from "straight earth"? Is there wonder that Mr. Darling testified : " You can't get at the classification "(accurately) ? Equal elements of uncertainty attach upon much the same grounds to the estimates of the amount of rock in protection work, tunnel linings, bridge piers, etc.; or, if construction be of later date, the quality and quantity of concrete. In the case of pile bridges, the length of piling and of bridge timbers must be estimated; or, where temporary trestles have been built in order to cross a low stretch of ground where dirt was later hauled in, the amount so used must be approximated. And there are the small culverts and drain pipes.
But assume the measurement of the roadbed and bridges completed. The amount of track laying and "surfacing" (labor costs, in large degree, usually estimated by the mile) is yet to be determined; the number and weight of rails; the number and quality of ties; the track fastenings; the ballast. Even in the case of ties, rails, frogs, track fastenings, where the task might seem to be one of mere counting, the problems of classification are complicated.2 But to
Yet he made a classification, relying upon his " judgment " and " general knowledge of the situation." Ibid., page 86. As good a case as any of classification based on casual inspection is shown in the New Haven Validation Report, pages 76 and 78. Here the volume of solid rock was increased over a million yards, — from 7,277,677 to 8,380,408 cubic yards, — on the basis of inspection from a train, etc. Yet the figures were, as usual, set down as though accurate. See also the Valuation Brief of 1915, pages 48, 49, 98.
2 For example, ties must be classified according to the kind of wood, the grade in each case (the standards of the American Railway Engineers, for example, specify the measurement of No. 1, No. 2, culls, etc.); whether treated or untreated, and if the former, by what process; while really
indicate these in detail would encroach upon the engineering aspects of the subject. It is enough to notice that more is needed than a mere count; that "judgment" is essential in establishing the specifications for various grades, whatever the "unit" considered, and in seeing that the inventory represents an intelligent grouping of these items. Some of the most difficult problems are met in an estimate of the amount of grading; but the element of uncertainty extends beyond this.1 The same complications appear, too, in appraisal of the permanent structures. These include such different buildings as freight and passenger stations, office buildings, signal towers, engine houses, shops, power plants, water tanks, coal stations, etc. Here the task of inventory demands an estimate of materials and of the amount of labor necessary for the work of construction in each individual case. Unless, to be sure, the practice of Mr. Darling in his "valuation" for the Spokane Case be adopted of idealizing an "average" structure, and permitting this task of inventory to degenerate to one of mere counting.2
accurate classification would include also whether the ties were hewn, or sawed, and whether made from a whole tree-trunk (pole ties); from a half, or a quarter, etc. Rails do not present so complicated a group of detail factors, the standard for each material (iron, steel, titanium, etc.) being in terms of pounds per lineal yard; but frogs, track fastenings, spikes, tie plates, switches are of numerous varieties (some patented), etc.
1 See testimony of W. L. Darling, Minnesota Rate Cases, Record (N.P.), pages 3207-47, a comparison of his figures for the Minnesota lines with those used by Mr. Morgan.
2 " I had to get an average water station " (ibid., page 41). For roundhouses, he made a count of "stalls" (page 42). On shop buildings, however, the unit of count was in terms of square feet, not of board measure, or the volume of brick. It may be said, of course, that on most roads, if not all, there are standard station house plans which are used over the line; definite specifications for water stations, and section houses, etc. But a considerable number of the structures (one could not venture to estimate how many) stand in a class alone. Engine terminals have been expanded to meet growing needs; additions have been built to office buildings; a station has been designed to meet peculiar conditions. To determine upon the quantities of materials contained in these structures (in the absence of the detailed plans) would call for eyes of supernatural power.
Turn now to the equipment items: locomotives, passenger and freight cars, work trains. It is here that the railroad records are most complete, and the work is largely one of checking. Even the fact that there are a large number of different locomotive types used side by side (or classes of cars) simply means a more detailed grouping.
This brief sketch of the wide scope of the appraisal serves to indicate only the broadest outlines of a problem requiring technical skill of the highest order. Many of the details lie peculiarly in the domain of the civil engineer,1 many in that of the mechanical engineer,2 not a few in that of the electrical engineer.3 Necessarily any inventory based entirely upon expert opinion — "judgment" — is subject to a significant range of error even in the work of measurement and count. When the further requirement of classification is seen as a prerequisite to any intelligent attempt at inventory, the degree of this error promises to be much greater. In the case of the permanent way dependence upon expert knowledge appears most strikingly, since it is here that the great work of "imagining" (there is no other word) the conditions met at the time of construction appears. But that results more conclusive are secured by measurements of all structures (including bridges) is doubtful. And though, in the case of ties, rails (and every item of the track superstructure except ballast), the imagination is relieved of its burden, a premium is placed upon accurate judgment and painstaking measurement in the choosing and grouping of classifications.4 But as between fixing upon the amount of seventy-pound or eighty-
1 The permanent way and structures, etc. See, for example, " Instructions for Building Field Parties," for the " Field Work of the Roadway and Track Department," and for the "Bridge Field Parties," issued by the Division of Valuation, I.C.C.
pound rail in a stretch of track, and determining what portion of a cut of fifty thousand cubic yards should be paid for as earth, as loose rock, or as solid rock, there is no question of the relative simplicity of the former. In either case, — in any case, — everything must be placed entirely in the hands of experts, with the hope that engineering practice will give the best it has.
That such has not been given in the past, there can hardly be doubt. The engineering work of the State appraisals, to the layman at least, would seem almost perfunctory when the extent of the issues involved is realized. Whether the work of resurvey, etc., can promise results necessarily more significant than those secured by the States, or those presented by railroad engineers as based upon their experience or judgment, is an issue which must be left with the engineering profession to decide. If not, we are at the point where in frankness we should say of the results: they are an engineering guess; nothing else can be hoped for. The Wisconsin Commission, it would seem, bowed to the inevitable when it admitted that "in appraisals . . . there are many points upon which the facts are not clear, and which of necessity are matters of judgment," where the appraisers are "often justified in giving their clients the benefit of the doubts." l How such a policy could be expected to work out were one set of witnesses only "moderately expert'* while another set possessed qualifications which were " indisputable and of the highest order," must remain a matter of speculation.2 It is enough for the purpose of the present discussion to indicate that no appraisal results can profess to represent accuracy. And this holds true entirely aside from any consideration of the unit prices which are applied to the "quantities" in order to translate these into terms of dollars and cents.
It must be emphasized that, in a study of "physical valuation'* from the economic point of view, there cannot be a detailed consideration of the "unit" prices for each item of the inventory. It is principle, and not detail, that is significant. The work of defining the specifications for the "units of cost" demands expert engineering ability.1 So also does that of fitting prices to these specifications as chosen. In fact, the unit prices necessarily vary with a change in specifications covering the "units of cost." In the hands of a second engineer, though the same piece of plant be under view, a different set of specifications (and the different set of unit prices thereby made inevitable) might be used. It is even conceivable that both men should get the same final total, though using a different basis of calculation — however improbable such a result would appear.2 At all events, the weakness attaching to expert opinion (or call it "knowledge," "judgment," "intuition") is always present, whether the degree of error be conceived as large or small.
For unit prices depend entirely upon the personal judgment of the expert who chooses them. No matter how detailed an examination of cost data may be made, the fact remains that, since the unit prices and classification stand-
1 "Units of cost" are the physical units for which the unit "prices'* or unit "costs" are fixed. Testimony of D. C. Morgan, Minnesota Rate Cases, Record (N.P.), page 1780.
2 For example, assume a cut containing 50,000 cubic yards. One engineer, using a "rock" price of $1 per yard, a "loose rock" price of 50 cents, and an "earth price" of 25 cents, "classifies" the contents as 50 per cent "solid rock"; 30 per cent "loose rock"; 20 per cent " earth." This gives him a total of $35,000 for the cost of excavation. Another engineer, using only "rock" prices and "earth" prices (under "earth" grouping everything except "solid rock"), classifying the quantities 50-50 would get the same total cost by using an "earth" price of 40 cents. For further illustrations, see testimony of W. L. Darling, Minnesota Rate Cases, Record (N.P.), page 3209; the New Haven Validation Report, page 78; and the Valuation Brief of 1915, page 129.
ards (as well as the methods of work) must be correlated, every price ultimately depends upon expert opinion. The question is not one of relatively accurate or inaccurate results, as is the case with measurements, but one of the entire adequacy of the figures finally presented.' Though an accurate inventory of physical quantities were secured, a different choice of unit prices would cause variation in the "valuation" figure.1 Three distinct bases for "cost of reproduction" have been proposed: (1) prices presumably obtaining through a future construction period; (2) "present prices"; (3) average prices over a period of years.
In view of the large variety of "units" in the inventory of a railroad, and the large number of standards and classifications under each, it is clear that an extremely difficult technical problem is here presented. One can be very skeptical of the validity of the assertion (though made by an "expert") that "the determination of the proper prices ... is not a very complicated matter," since "an average figure based on proper experience and judgment may prove as satisfactory as a figure laboriously worked out from a mass of varying data." Though perhaps there may always be "opportunity for abbreviating the work by due consideration of this matter by a competent expert," 2 the difficulty in the past has been to get experts able to " average " qualities, prices, and judgment, with any degree of unanimity. "Proper experience," "due consideration," "competency," are noncommittal phrases. The situation should be frankly faced. Unit prices used in making "cost of reproduction " estimates have been based upon personal opinion. The error always attaching to work of such character attaches to any unit prices adopted upon that
1 "Two engineers may undertake the appraisal of the same property, use methods which seem perfectly fair to each, and arrive at results differing as much as 20 per cent or 30 per cent." W. D. Taylor, Chief Engineer of the Wisconsin Appraisal, Transactions, Am. Soc., C.E., volume 52, page 354.
it is not one to be glossed over by resort to generality.
"Cost of reproduction" presuming to prophesy the probable course of future prices has been the exceptional basis. Yet the "valuation" which Commissioner Prouty, accepting a volume of detail as evidence of accurate and careful work, called "by no means a guess," — that presented by the Northern Pacific in the Spokane Case, — was predicated upon such attempt at prophecy. We have already seen that the "quantities" came from records confessedly incomplete, an arbitrary allowance of twenty per cent having been added in the case of grading (the choice of this figure, rather than ten per cent or thirty, being dependent entirely on the judgment of Mr. Darling, the Chief Engineer). The unit costs, used in connection with these grading figures, were such as Mr. Darling thought would be paid through a period of ten years supposing "a certain amount of plant available for the work." The prices were "about" those that would be paid the contractors, plus allowance for the work which the company would itself do after "accepting" the grading done by the contractors.1 At the time of his testimony in the Minnesota Rate Cases, these figures were over two years old, and the interim had seen the panic of 1907. There was on this account, in July of 1908, "a temporary depression in prices below what they were in 1906 and 1907." However, "if the Northern Pacific were to start to build its something over 8000 miles of track . . . within ten years," Mr. Darling felt that "it would have an influence in stiffening prices back to their highest level." 2 It would not be worth while, however, to
2 Examination by Mr. How for the company, ibid., page 584. Mr. Darling also explained the importance of supposing "a certain amount" of plant available: " Why the price of grading, the cost to us of work, depends entirely upon the available plant of contractors, and on what we have ourselves. When we have a lot of idle plant, more than enough to keep the work going, the price would not go up. ... When labor is plen-
continue through the inventory, item by item. For present purposes, it is the point of view that is significant, the underlying hypothesis. Though the prices used were in many instances "very close" to those being paid in June, 1908, all were chosen on the basis that the work could be done in ten years. l The prices were " future " prices, not " present " prices, even in 1906 when the estimate was first made.
In his appraisal of the Minnesota lines, especially prepared for the Minnesota Rate Cases, Mr. Darling abandoned all attempt at prophecy, however, and based his figures upon "present prices." 2 By express provision of the statute directing the making of the Nebraska valuation, the same basis was prescribed for the work there; the bill even providing for periodic "revaluations." 3 The Washington Commission prided itself that, having a full inventory of unit quantities, it could at any time secure another cost of reproduction estimate by applying "present prices." 4 And the South Dakota Commission, using in-
The Valuation Brief of 1915 (page 139) says: "It is the common experience of all railroad companies that prices of labor and materials tend to rise whenever a construction enterprise of any considerable size is undertaken, and it therefore follows that prices existing when there is stagnation in railroad building should be given little if any weight as a guide to normal unit prices. It also follows that the announcement of an undertaking, comparable to the reproduction of any of the railroads of the United States, would at once tend to increase the prices of labor and materials, and the shorter the time allotted to the reproduction programme, the more intense would be the increase in the prices of such labor and materials. Prices of labor and materials at a time when there is little or no demand should, therefore, not be taken; and on the other hand, there should not be assumed a demand in excess of a supply reasonably available within the time required for a proper reproduction programme."
8 Commission Regulation (National Civic Federation), pages 196-97. 4 Second and Third Annual Reports, Railroad Commission of Washington, page 129. To the same effect, see Report of W. D. Taylor, Chief
terchangeably the phrases, "cost of reproduction" and "value," declared that, since cost of reproduction is "changing constantly ... in order to be of any practical use, the physical valuation should be continued from year to year, so that in each year the valuation of the property will reflect the actual conditions during that year." l
Average prices over a period of years immediately preceding the date of the appraisal, though resorted to in part by M. E. Cooley in the Michigan valuation,2 have received their widest use in the hands of the Wisconsin engineers.5 In Minnesota Mr. Morgan consoled the Commission over the refusal of the roads to accept a five-year average, with the statement that a review of prices for the five years prior to June 30, 1907, the effective date of his appraisal, showed that in most respects the prices used were as near the five-year average as was "practicable" for the purpose of his inquiry.4 The figures used in the appraisal of the New Haven System made under Mr. Swain's direction were based "upon the average ruling price for the various elements during the past few years" — hardly a very definite explanation.5
volume 72, page 13.
* The expedient of using five-year averages, first adopted by W. D. Taylor for his Railroad Appraisal of 1901, has been used in the subsequent public utility appraisals. See, especially, State Journal Publishing Co. 9. Madison G. & E. Co., 4 W.R.C.R. 501; and Milwaukee v. M.E.R. & L. Co., 10 W.R.C.R. 1.
6 The New Haven Validation Report, page 88. "In some cases they were based upon the figures given by the chief engineer of the railroad company as to the actual prices which the company has been paying.". ,
In order to avoid using figures affected by conditions of the moment the Wisconsin Commission has resorted to "average prices." The expressed desire has been to secure "a reasonable middle ground, neither high nor low/' guarding "against extreme fluctuations." 1 Applying such an average cost, to an "average" or typical unit (as, for example, attempting to get a unit price for "earth" over the whole State) has piled approximation on approximation. An average is never more than a rough measurement, depending for its value entirely upon the care with which the data are chosen, and the accuracy with which they are handled. That an "average" price should be worth more than a price fixed only by " expert opinion " is very doubtful. On the grounds of statistical significance, a large percentage of error must be reckoned with in either case. And why, if five years is a desirable period over which to consider data, should not the period be extended to six, or ten, or even twenty years? There is always
of the Wisconsin appraisals:
" Current prices are the most easily obtained, and they offer the fewest complications, but the results obtained under them may not always be fair to all concerned. Average prices are more difficult to secure, and they also imply that in selecting them, there must be choice of periods or quotations, upon which choice many disputes may hang. To secure prices, however, that approximately represent normal conditions is by no means impossible, and it is likely that such prices would, in most cases, be the fairest of all. . . .
" Rates based upon valuations that rest on current prices would necessarily have to be changed with all changes in these prices. This would manifestly be impracticable, and perhaps unjust both to the plant and its customers. Prices of practically every element are moving up and down so often that under no known method could the rates be changed and applied with equal frequency . . . desired stability in the valuation can usually be obtained by carefully computing it upon the average prices for a term of years. . . . Just how long a period should be chosen cannot be stated offhand. But a little investigation will readily disclose the usual or normal -price in each case," etc. 3 W.R.C.R. 623, 638-40.
danger, when averages are used and a large volume of material handled, that tabulations, mechanically ingenious, will be accepted as scientifically valid. An "average" cost is an especially dangerous tool. In a period of rising or falling prices and wages, the length of the period used must of necessity materially affect the results secured. For the purpose of the Wisconsin Commission a five-year "average" price may be satisfactory. But the appraisal figures secured have been only approximations, neither more nor less significant than if secured on a "present" or "future" price basis.
The railroads have urged, in the conferences held to establish bases for determining unit prices for the Federal Valuation, that averages should be " weighted " with judgment. Two sets of factors should be considered:
"Actual prices (weighted average) and conditions affecting labor and material markets during a period of ten years preceding June 30, 1914, with appropriate consideration to the existence or non-existence of actual railroad construction in that period." *
"The contractor who is about to bid for the construction of any of these railroads . . . would consider averages . . . trends . . . present prices . . . conditions of the labor and material markets, and many other factors; having taken all
1 The Valuation Brief of 1915, page 141: " The prices to be used in the valuation should be arrived at by a consideration of prevailing prices, price tendencies and conditions and material markets during a reasonable period of time next preceding, and at the date as of which the valuation is to be made, due consideration being given the existence or non-existence of active railroad construction during that period" (page 134).
into consideration he would arrive at a conclusion infinitely more accurate than any mere automatic or mechanical determination. The average which he would consider, and which we urge should be considered, is the ' weighted average.' . . . If the contractor finds that the trejnd is level, he comes out pretty safely in taking prices which will approximate . . . the weighted average. If he finds the trend is definitely upward, he will not care so much about an average of prices made years ago, below the lowest of the present, but will consider almost exclusively present prices, disregarding the unusual and the bulges caused by periods of great boom, and the drops caused by temporary flurries and panics. So, if he finds the trend is definitely downward, he will not pay much attention to a high average, or high past prices when all the recent prices have been low.'* l
"The particular prices to be employed for a particular carrier will vary from average prices as conditions require. After all phases and conditions surrounding the work have been digested, a decision must be reached by the exercise of sound judgment, and frank discussions between representatives of the Government and the carriers." 2
Especially intricate would be the task of fixing a unit price for a commodity no longer on the market in significant quantities. Departure from the use of ten-year averages, and the use of "price tendencies for an appropriate period," has here been suggested by the railroads.3 An example will readily serve to illustrate the difficulty. Oak ties, comprising over an eighth of the ties in the Minnesota lines of the Great Northern, had originally been cut along the right of way by the farmers. But in 1909, the supply of oak ties in that State was practically exhausted; and, if oak ties were to be "reproduced," it would be necessary to draw on Southern forests. Accordingly the Great Northern Engineer, A. H. Hogeland, used the unit price of 85 cents a tie, a price which J. F.
1 Valuation Conference of September 30, 1915, statement of Sanford Robinson, of counsel for the railroads, Proceedings, pages 31-33. 3 The Valuation Brief of 1915, page 128. * Ibid., page 142.
Stevens, who "had a pretty intimate knowledge of the oak tie situation throughout Missouri and Arkansas and Indian Territory," agreed would be the cost of oak ties bought in St. Louis, and delivered in Minnesota. As a matter of fact no such price was being paid; and, as might be expected, oak ties were not being used by the Great Northern. Any advantages which such ties might possess, and these advantages were set forth in detail by Mr. Stevens, were compensated by the lower prices for cedar and other ties.1 Instead of determining a "reasonable" unit price for oak ties on the Great Northern, the Master avoided this difficulty by applying the unit prices testified to by Mr. Darling of the Northern Pacific. But he did not take Mr. Darling's price for oak ties of 75 cents and transfer it to the case of the Great Northern. Instead he took the average "cost of reproducing" ties, a weighted average of 67.2 cents per tie, and applied it to the number of ties estimated to be in the Great Northern line, with an entirely different distribution as between oak, cedar, tamarack, etc. The price of 55.5 cents which had been applied in the State appraisal to all ties, and to all roads alike, was rejected on two grounds: "the rapidly increasing price of ties," and the failure to allow for inspection and handling.2 This illustration of the determination of "unit costs" for ties thus serves to emphasize three difficulties involved in choosing "unit costs": (1) lack of data for certain items of the inventory; (£) the tempta-
1 A. H. Hogeland, Minnesota Rate Cases, Record (G.N.), pages 101-02; J. F. Stevens, ibid., pages 431-36; D. C. Morgan, Record (N.P.), page 1930. See also G. F. Swain, the New Haven Validation Report, page 80: "Additional ties would ... be procured from other parts of the country, at higher prices [than those paid for ties cut along the right of way], so this item might easily be increased by a million dollars or more."
2 Report of Chas. E. Otis, page 226. The Brief for the Companies, page 305, complained that this expedient unduly reduced the present cost of Great Northern ties as established by its current expenditures.
dependence upon experts.1
These difficulties are closely related. The lack of data necessarily means reliance upon experts; and the fact that experts do not agree serves to emphasize the dependence upon "judgment" — though if the experts did agree it would not furnish any conclusive proof one way or the other. Then the use of an idealized unit of cost, an "average" tie, an "average" mile of track, an "average" yard of earth, an "average" water station, etc., indicates resort to a short cut which at once shuts off the possibility of securing more than the most uncertain approximation.2 The Master's use of such an "average" for ties was simply adoption of an expedient used by all the engineers testifying before him. In South Dakota,
1 Operating in the same general territory, it might be expected that the Northern Pacific and Great Northern figures of cost would be very close together. While undoubtedly standards might not be the same in both cases, yet it might well be expected that for rails, ties, grading, lumber, labor, etc., the unit prices would be approximately the same. As a matter of fact, the prices varied considerably, now the N.P. price being the greater, now the G.N. Sometimes the Master applied the G.N. price to the N.P. quantities and sometimes, as in the case of ties, an average N.P. price to G.N. quantities. For example, the G.N. ballast price of 62 cents was used for the N.P. which had claimed a price of 66 cents, though an aggregate of 1,548,332 cubic yards of ballasting had been done in the years 1906, 1907, and 1908 at an average cost of 81.69 cents per cubic yard. See Minnesota Rate Cases, Record (N.P.), page 3221, and Brief for the Companies, page 286 and following.
2 The appraisal of the Northern Pacific made by J. B. Berry, Chief Engineer of the Rock Island, and presented to the Interstate Commerce Commission, was based upon a series of " unit miles," designated A, B, C, D, etc. As Mr. Berry's train passed over a mile of track, he " simply looked" from a post of vantage in his private car, and made note as to whether it belonged in A, B, C, or whether he should not take one half of each of the costs for grade A and B — i.e., AB, etc. His car was attached to regular trains, he completed his examination of about one half of the system in approximately three weeks, covering about 250 miles per day, and classified some of the unimportant branches without this inspection. But his figure was duly presented to the Commission as " expert " testimony. He estimated the cost of reproducing the Northern Pacific as $395,376,749.40(1). Minnesota Rate Cases, Record (N.P.), page 718 and following; and Complainant's Exhibit 25.
the Commission's Chief Engineer even found such an "average" for all land in the State.1 Mr. Taylor, in Wisconsin, was "anxious" to secure the agreement of the various engineers that 20 cents a cubic yard for earthwork excavation without overhaul was a reasonable price all over the State.2 Mr. Hogeland, of the Great Northern, used a classification of grading quantities that included seven distinct categories; Mr. Darling "bunched" all grades except solid rock, thus simplifying his arithmetical task.3 Similarly, in the Spokane Case "valuation," he had fixed upon a price for "an average water station," for roundhouse stalls, for fencing (using a figure of $150 per mile, though the price, due to different specifications, varied from $130 to $300 per mile). "Clearing" he put in at $80 per acre, though the prices varied "all the way from $35 to $250 an acre." Even the tunnels were grouped, and "average costs" used.4 Just as interesting was the Minnesota appraisal of locomotives, by the pound. Mr. Morgan had "never bought any locomotives," but he was able to say that none of the locomotive company representatives with whom he talked seemed 'to be embarrassed in the slightest when he talked to them of the cost of locomotives by the pound. They had in their
1 " The average value of the State worked out $32 an acre approximately. Taking the acreage of 16,138.6, multiplying that by $32, and by the multiple 2£, gives a value of $1,292,483." Testimony of C. C. Witt, quoted, C. & N.W. Ry. t>. Smith, 210 Fed. 632, 639.
mercial Valuation of Railway Operating Property, page 86.
3 Mr. Hogeland listed earthwork under four headings: 18 cents a cubic yard; 23 cents; 31 cents; 39 cents; in addition he had the classifications: hard pan, 45 cents; loose rock, 55 cents; solid rock, $1.25. Mr. Darling, however, used only the figures for solid rock, $1.25, and " earth," including everything except solid rock, 33 cents. In the Spokane Case, he had made use of four classes: earth, 28 cents; hard pan, 42 cents; loose rock, 50 cents; solid rock, $1.10. In all cases these figures were intended to include work done by the company, as well as the amounts paid the contractors. See testimony of A. H. Hogeland, Minnesota Rate Cases, Record (G.N.), page 13; of W. L. Darling, ibid. (N.P.), page 3212.
pockets all of the data on the pound basis. So that he had a right to assume that as an intelligent basis upon which to consider locomotives, because locomotives vary in weight. . . . He did not know of a more convenient unit to apply than that.' l In short, Mr. Morgan adopted the rule-of -thumb measure (a figure used by railroad men to gauge, very roughly, relative costs, as new and bigger engines are built) as the basis of an estimate of the "cost of reproducing" locomotives. This, in the case of the Northern Pacific, he reported to the Commission as $3,230,790.51, etc. And, it must be remembered, the distinguishing feature of his appraisal was its "thoroughness."
The figures for all "cost of reproduction" estimates, though immediately depending upon the expert opinion of engineers, have, of course, been based to a greater or less degree on prices paid by the railroads. Even Mr. Darling's attempt at a prophecy over a period of ten years used prices which approximated those currently paid. But there is a difficulty even in the use of present prices which forces resort to approximation : this is the fact that similarity of problem does not exist upon all lines of railroad. Were all other things equal, a "present price" appraisal might take prices paid currently in one section of the country or upon one road, even upon one branch of the same road. But the fact remains that all other things are not equal, that rates of wages vary over the country, that construction materials (lumber, concrete, steel) likewise vary, that different construction problems are presented. Moreover, prices do not remain stable throughout a year. There is necessarily difficulty in picking out figures not vitiated by some peculiar set of circumstances. A general approximation may, perhaps, be made, but that is all.
1 Minnesota Rate Cases, Record (N.P.), pages 1781-82. See Report of W. S. Thorington, Special Master, Central of Georgia Case, page 138, where "pound" prices were also applied to cars (page 139). Mr. Morgan took the car as the unit, however.
Conceivably allowance might be made for the "overhead" charges by including cost of engineering, promotion, etc., in the unit prices. In practice there has been no resort to this expedient. Freight charges, fixed for "average" distances, have sometimes been so included, though practice here has not been uniform.1 Cost of handling rails and other materials has likewise been swallowed up in the unit price.2 But for the items covering cost of general supervision, financial and legal as well as technical, practice has resorted to the use of "average" percentages, applied to all roads alike, as was the "contingencies" allowance.3 In these instances, too, some variation has appeared in the case of different appraisals, as to the items which should be included in the totals. But the policy has in general been to determine the allowance for engineering and legal expenses by multiplying the "cost of reproducing" the permanent way and structures (including land) by the percentage chosen ; and that for organization through using the entire total. These expedients, first used by M. E. Cooley in the Michigan appraisal, therefore represent the approved "valuation" practice.4
1 In figures presented in the Minnesota Rate Cases, Mr. Darling, of the Northern Pacific, included the cost of freight, roughly estimated, in his "unit prices." Record (N.P.), pages 945-52 and 3219-20. Mr. Hogeland, of the Great Northern, introduced a separate item for "Freight on Construction." Record (G.N.), pages 48-51 . Mr. Morgan followed the latter practice, using a lower basis for his calculation than either Mr. Darling, or Mr. Hogeland, Record (N.P.), pages 1942, 1950; (G.N.), pages 1381, 1464; see testimony of J. F. Stevens, Record (G.N.), page 459.
2 The Minnesota Rate Cases, Brief for the Companies, pages 305, 307.
8 An exception to this rule was the "valuation" of the Northern Pacific made by Mr. Berry, of the Rock Island, using the "unit mile" system of appraisal (see note 2, page 70, above). He estimated "legal expenses" at $50 per mile, "general expenses" at $100 per mile, etc. For "engineering," however, he used the percentage method. Minnesota Rate Cases, Record (N.P.), Complainant's Exhibit 26 — Berry.
Though the method of calculation has been essentially the same for all appraisals, the percentages used have varied according to the personal opinion of the engineer making the appraisal. This would be the normal expectation when it is recognized that the percentage allowance is only an "average" figure. But in each of the State appraisals, the same percentage has been applied generally to all roads. Mr. Morgan's charge for engineering and superintendence was four per cent.1 This figure he used for all roads in the State: main lines and branch lines; roads of high physical standards, and those of low; terminal companies as well as the transcontinental. There was no attempt to differentiate between the Great Northern, with over two thousand miles of main track, and the Mason City and Fort Dodge with twenty-seven, or between these and the Minnesota Transfer Railroad, etc.2 Nor has there been attempt at intelligent discrimination in any of the other State "valuations." The percentages have been adopted to cover engineering, legal expenses, organization, and applied to all cases quite automatically. Detailed consideration, therefore, need not hold us here.
It is worth while, however, to pause for the moment to show the method by which the percentages adopted have been chosen. To the uninitiated it might appear that the figures chosen were "expert" guesses. If we are to accept the assurance of the engineer who made the South Dakota appraisal, Mr. C. C. Witt (later on the staff of the Interstate Commerce Commission), the contrary is true: "Extensive research has demonstrated that the cost of this item [engineering] ... is equivalent to four per cent of
1 On all items exclusive of equipment, legal expense, freight on construction material, stores and supplies, contingencies, and interest during construction, Senate Report on Valuation, page 172. See Supplement, Report, Railroad & Warehouse Commission of Minnesota, 1908, page 71.
the roadway and right of way." 1 This, as a matter of fact, has been the percentage used in Minnesota, Michigan, South Dakota, Nebraska, and Wisconsin. In Wisconsin and Minnesota the allowance for engineering was combined with that for legal expense, one half per cent — a total of four and one half per cent.2 The adequacy of the "research" seems doubtful, if the method by which the percentage allowance for engineering and legal expenses was chosen in Minnesota can be taken as at all typical. It is Mr. Morgan testifying :
" A. There are some of these things that have been done deductively. Probably no one can estimate with mathematical exactness what the percentages should be, but in order to arrive at this in an intelligent way, I listed the percentages on this item that had been turned in by the various railway companies that had submitted reports for this appraisal. I found one railroad that showed .88 of one per cent; one railroad ... 1.3 per cent; eleven railroads, 4J per cent; four ... 5 per cent; one . . . 5i per cent; one . . . 5.7 per cent; one ... 6 per cent; four ... 10 per cent; and two ... 15 per cent. The consensus of opinion seemed to show that 4$ per cent for engineering, superintendence and legal expenses was a fair rate to apply, and for that reason we adopted that rate." 3
1 First Report, Public Utilities Commission of Kansas, page 29. Mr. Witt had begun an appraisal in Kansas when the work of the Federal Valuation halted his activities. A "cost of reproduction" estimate of the Union Pacific was completed. Ibid., page 33.
"Research" of the same general character was outlined in the testimony of W. L. Darling, ibid., pages 13 and 3239; and of J. B. Berry, of the Rock Island, ibid., page 744; of A. H. Hogeland, Record (G.N.), page 52. See remarks of G. F. Swain (the New Haven Validation Report, page 85), and especially his comparative table (page 123), where four sets of "overhead" charges are listed on the same property varying (in total) from 16 per cent to 33 per cent.
Testimony of this character indicates an entire absence of "research." The figure chosen was a guess, necessarily an "average" figure, intended to apply indiscriminately. In any case only an estimate could be made; and, by and large, four and a half per cent was perhaps just as near the truth as would have been seven per cent, or three. For the present purpose it is enough to indicate that any accuracy claimed for an estimate of "valuation" which includes such percentage allowances is specious.1 Without pausing to consider in detail promotion, organization expenses (the so-called "general expenses"), it is possible, therefore, to turn to the item of "interest during construction."
Any allowance for interest is a function of two variables, a rate and a period of time. The rate used has been the usual guess of the engineer, who, it might seem, would be more at home in fixing upon unit prices for construction quantities than in attempting solution of so difficult a statistical task as determining a "normal" interest rate. Be that as it may, four per cent was used in Minnesota, three per cent in Michigan and Wisconsin, six per cent in Nebraska and South Dakota, five per cent in Washington.2 G. F. Swain, in the New Haven appraisal, used six per cent, "a rate a new company intending to build a road would have to estimate upon." 3 In discussion of the subject by railroad men an allowance of a "fair and reasonable return" on the investment has been suggested.4
1 The New York Public Service Commission, First District, has broken away from the percentage method of fixing the "cost of reproducing" overhead costs, using a lump sum allowance instead. For a discussion of this attitude in detail, see "Valuation Decisions of the New York Public Service Commission, First District," by R. H. Whitten, Proceedings, National Association of Railway Commissioners, 25th Annual Meeting, page 400.
Once a rate has been fixed upon, no attempt to vary that rate, as between different roads, has been made by the State engineers. Like the percentage allowance for "overhead" charges, the same rate has been regularly applied to all of the lines appraised. The period of time has usually been made to vary; but not always. In Michigan and Wisconsin the allowance of three per cent was blanketed to cover all roads, without regard to any hypothetical construction period. In Minnesota, South Dakota, Nebraska, and Washington, the construction period was made to vary, though a most curious underlying assumption was made.
It has generally been assumed that "on the average" the rate of interest (itself an arbitrary rate) l should be charged against the total cost of reproduction for hah* of the construction period. In Minnesota, having assumed a construction period of four years, Mr. Morgan added eight per cent to his cost of reproducing the Northern Pacific, four per cent to that of the Burlington, the Rock Island, Chicago Great Western, etc. His " idea was that it would not be necessary to borrow all of the money or to raise all of the money at once, but it would be raised in such a way that it would be all in use for practically half of the time required to construct the line." 2 Mr. Morgan assumed that his roads would be constructed all at once, and that no one portion would be placed in operation before any other portion, an assumption in which he was followed by the railroad witnesses.3 In South Dakota, each line was divided into sections of one hundred miles, which, by the
cal suggested ten per cent, a rate "corresponding to the reasonable return which the carrier is entitled in law to realize." Railway Age Gazette, volume 46, page 221. See also the Valuation Brief of 1915, pages 108-114.
1 D. C. Morgan, Minnesota Rate Cases, Record (N.P.), pages 2048 and 2049. See his report, Supplement, Report, Railroad & Warehouse Commission of Minnesota, 1908, page 28. W. L. Darling,Record (N. P.), page 577, described his allowance as " simply arbitrary."
hypothesis, could each be reproduced in one year. Accordingly interest was figured for one half year at six per cent.1 In Nebraska, however, a "working section" of only sixtyfive miles was chosen as the unit, and the interest charge of six per cent allowed for one and a half years, a construction period of three years being assumed, etc.2 To cite further illustrations of the entirely arbitrary practice in this respect would only serve to encumber an argument already conclusive. The allowance for interest has been determined by use of the expedient now so familiar — resort to an "average," an assumed normal, or "fair," or representative figure.
In the Minnesota Rate Cases, the Master and Judge Sanborn failed to make deduction for accrued depreciation, though they had before them the decision of Justice Moody in the Knoxville Case, insisting that such failure "would lead to obviously incorrect results." 3 When the case came to Justice Hughes, he simply relied upon the earlier conclusion of the Court without supplementing this with his own reasoning. "When particular physical items are estimated as worth so much new, if in fact they are depreciated, this amount should be found and allowed for. If this is not done the physical valuation is manifestly incomplete." 4 But how the amount to be deducted should be determined, Justice Hughes nowhere intimated.
The process of calculating the amount of the accrued depreciation is much complicated by the fact that obsolescence is so important a consideration in railroad operations.
"Progress of the arts" has quickened the force of the inevitable physical wasting. "The whole conduct of the business has changed so that many cars are put out of use, not because they are worn out, but because they become unprofitable or antiquated in form. Powerful engines are required; the old draft-rigger wouldn't hold a train together." 1 Change in the weight of trains and cars has meant the rebuilding of bridges, the use of heavier rails, the enlargement of side tracks. Not infrequently considerable portions of the road bed have been abandoned, in grade revision, and curvature elimination. The passenger station, fully adequate to serve the business of twenty years ago, has become inadequate, "out of date," and replacement has been made. The experienced railroad man can cite examples of "obsolescence" almost without end.2
The effect of obsolescence upon the task of appraising accrued depreciation is twofold. In the first place, the data upon which to base calculations for the future are rendered slender. To what extent does treating ties extend their life? Can experience with a Prairie type locomotive be taken as indicating the length of life of a modern Mallet Compound? There is substantially no information upon which to gauge the probable working period of the new steel passenger or freight equipment. Experience with wooden cars indicates nothing conclusive about the newer productions. What is the effect upon rails of the use of this heavier equipment? The railroad business is essentially in a "dynamic" state. This weakens the possibility of securing really reliable data upon which to base estimates of depreciation.
come in the past, must not change be expected in the
1 J. J. Hill. Minnesota Rate Cases, Record (G.N.), page 1301. See testimony of E. P. Ripley, Evidence, 1910 Advances, page 24; and that of Daniel Willard, ibid., page 2360.
future? Who is to say how much longer a given station building will remain adequate for the use of patrons, however much the presence of an old building may gall local pride? Can it be assumed that no heavier locomotives are to be built; that still stronger bridges may not be needed? That realignments are to stop, that no new tunnels will be built, or old ones abandoned? Before an "expert" can judge, however gross be the approximation, the proportion of the original investment used up, he must know (or guess) the probable total length of life of the "physical asset" being appraised, as well as its present age.1 Will electricity be used more widely for motive power, displacing steam? Or if steam persists in use, will larger engines be built, or will there be a swing back to smaller types? Will the Grand Central Terminal in New York last fifty or a hundred years, or a thousand?
One of two possible expedients (or a use of both combined) has been the general plan. Inspection has been depended upon, subject to all the vagaries of expert judgment; or, life tables, based on "averages," have been applied, where sufficient data have existed to afford a basis of calculation, however uncertain. In either case the limitations governing the final figures are significant. Where inspection is depended upon, a tendency to minimize the amount of the deduction can be expected.2 And when en-
1 In the New York Gas Case, the witness for the Public Service Commission testified that his estimate of the depreciation was based on an assumed life for the plant that included allowance for probable future changes in the arts. The Master declined to approve a mere " theoretical deficiency." Accordingly he included plant that, it was alleged, was to be scrapped in the near future, " valued " on the basis of a detailed examination. Report of A. H. Masten, Special Master, page 175. Willcox v. Consolidated Gas Co., 212 U.S. 19. Portions of the line, included in the Minnesota valuations at undepreciated "cost of reproduction," were soon to be abandoned. Testimony of W. L. Darling, Minnesota Rate Cases, Record (N.P.), page 559. See the Valuation Brief of 1915, page 211.
2 See Report of the St. Louis Public Service Commission on Rates for Electric Light and Power, page 59. " In depreciating, to arrive at the present value of the depreciable property, the Commission does not con-
tire dependence is placed upon " average " figures, the special conditions governing the individual plant (weather, volume of business, care in maintenance, etc.) are automatically thrown aside. But to contrast a deduction "based upon certainly ascertained inspection or investigation," with one based "upon the more or less conjectural allowances estimated by tables," is not valid.1 The result is only a rough approximation in either case.
But here, as elsewhere, the "valuations" made by the States have presented figures purporting to be accurate to the final cent. The Washington "valuation" applied the use of "life tables" to parts of the depreciation problem. This expedient rendered "useless" any field inspection of equipment and structures. The life tables drawn up were not, however, based upon study of any "mortality" records of the roads whose property was appraised. Instead Mr. Gillette, the Chief Engineer, simply referred to the "well-established fact" that a freight car has a useful life exceeding twenty or twenty-five years. So, "if the average car has a life of twenty-five years it loses four per cent of its life every year. Hence by multiplying its age in years by four per cent, its lost life or depreciation is ac-
sider it fair to make deductions for anything but the present physical condition, and for items where it is plainly apparent that the property has become obsolete or inadequate. The usual estimate of the life of different parts of a public service property, so far as they deal with obsolescence or inadequacy, are extremely problematical and these elements should not be generally taken into account in determining present value."
The Valuation Brief of 1915 (page 256): "In the past many items of property have been retired because of obsolescence and inadequacy. The causes of the replacements do not appear in the records of the carriers, and it is impossible to ascertain therefrom what replacements were due to age and use. As obsolescence and inadequacy are not to be considered in the ascertainment of cost of reproduction less depreciation, there are no statistics, either in the carriers' records, or elsewhere, which furnish reliable information as a guide to determine the average life, when use and age alone are considered, upon which to make mortality tables."
curately ascertained." 1 Making an allowance of ten per cent of original cost for salvage, and assuming a life of twenty-five years, he secured a rate of 3.6 per cent per year.
The purely arbitrary basis of this assumption is further emphasized by the fact that the same figure (3.6 per cent) was applied to all roads alike, and to freight and passenger cars indiscriminately, and to locomotives.2 But the "findings" of the Washington Commission are so incomplete that the exact method of calculation of the amount of accrued depreciation does not appear. It seems certain, however, that average was piled on average. For example, the freight cars of the Northern Pacific (the " cost of reproduction" being calculated as $8,040,254.90) had been in use "an average of 8.2 years, with an annual depreciation of approximately 3.6 per cent." Accordingly "the present depreciated value of such freight equipment" was found to be $5,668,379.72. This same equipment had cost new (so the report found) $5,665,563.95, or about $3000 less than the "present value," calculated on the "cost of reproduction less depreciation" hypothesis. Since the latter figure is exactly 70.5 per cent of the "cost of reproduction new," the conclusion seems not unwarranted that the amount of the accrued depreciation was determined by using the "average life" as a multiplier.3 Yet this manipulation of averages and approximations brought results which, as reported, assumed entire accuracy. By substantially similar methods Mr. Gillette found the amount of accrued depreciation in buildings.4 Enough has been said, however, to
4 Ibid., page 45. See page 289 where the " value " of the Great Northern shops, roundhouses, and turntables is shown as " approximately 84 per cent " of the " value new " (cost of reproduction). Throughout the report the phrase "cost of reproduction" is assumed as equivalent to "value," and is used indiscriminately with it.
sions.
When it is realized that inspection seeking to measure depreciation has been similar to that used in checking inventories taken from the records, the entire lack of accuracy is again readily apparent. Yet Mr. C. C. Witt, the South Dakota Chief Engineer (his inspection like that in Minnesota and Nebraska was made from a slowly moving train), could report to that Commission: "The present actual condition of each item due to use or decay was noticed and a condition per cent based on a new or one hundred per cent condition was placed opposite each item on the inventory." 1 In the New Haven Validation appraisal, though the entire mileage was covered in twelve days, it was " the unanimous testimony of every one " that the road was " maintained in remarkably good condition." The depreciation percentages were "fixed accordingly," with but three exceptions, on a figure which was a multiple of five.2 In the Michigan and Wisconsin appraisals everything was left to the judgment of the individual inspectors. Mr. Cooley's report to the Michigan Tax Commission did show that "about 33,000 freight cars were inspected," that "experienced railroad engineers . . . made a personal inspection of all the separate items . . . ties, rails, frogs, switches, etc., . . . the condition," etc.3 If this inspec-
See Report of W. S. Thorington, Special Master, Central of Georgia Case, pages 138-41. Here different rates of depreciation were used for different classes of locomotives, for wood and steel cars, etc.
page 9.
2 These percentages were applied to the total for each group of the inventory; e.g., cost of reproduction new (Mr. Swain called this "value") of rails was $8,775,985; their condition, 80 per cent; etc. The summary is found in the New Haven Validation Report, page 133; the discussion, page 91. Mr. Swain felt that the figures submitted over his signature (they had been made "with as much care as the time would permit") were "exceedingly fair and reliable," "low," "conservative" (page 91); "safe and reliable" (page 127).
tion was really made, it is difficult to see how Mr. Morgan, of Minnesota, justified his claim to greater thoroughness. For, let it be recalled, the most that he did was to stop his train "every mile in places, but usually every two miles and sometimes every five miles." l Except as making possible a determination of the standards of "maintenance" without reliance upon reports of subordinates, it is difficult to see that this process was necessarily more accurate than that in the New Haven appraisal.2 In neither case was the accuracy warranted which the completeness of the figures reported would imply. Mr. Swain reported a "present valuation new," for the New Haven of $304,601,824, a "present valuation depreciated," of $263,601,136; Mr. Morgan, a "cost of reproduction new," of $69,397,954.87 for the Minnesota lines of the Northern Pacific, a "present value" of $61,099,563.40. The corresponding figures for the Great Northern were $107,074,102.18 and $94,415,342.69,3 etc., etc.
the Wisconsin Chief Engineer.
1 Supplement, Report, Railroad & Warehouse Commission of Minnesota, 1908, page 23. In the Washington appraisal, where inspection was used for properties other than structures and equipment, the estimates were prefaced by "approximately." Thus the "present value" of bridges, trestles, etc., on the Northern Pacific was "approximately 84.7 per cent." Second and Third Annual Reports, Railroad Commission of Washington, page 155.
2 The most absurd performance of all — no milder phrase is adequate — was that of the Wisconsin Commission in Milwaukee v. M.E.R. & L. Co., 10 W.R.C.R. 1 (1910). An appraisal made in 1897 had omitted to estimate any accrued depreciation. "It is probable, however," said the Commission, "that the property was in what may be regarded as about a 77.62 per cent condition" (page 87).
1 The New Haven Validation Report, page 134. Mr. Swain called "cost of reproduction," "value." Supplement, Report, Railroad & Warehouse Commission of Minnesota, 1908, pages 82 and 91. Mr. Morgan's figures are all given with the same fullness, pages 36 to 158. See also the reports cited above, page 31.
Agricultural land, 86. — Urban land, 87. — Terminals, 89. — The Minnesota Rate Cases, 90. — Capital goods, 94. II. "Cost of reproduction" and reasonableness, 96.
Courts and Commissions, 97. — The engineers, 97. — The private interest, 101. — "Cost of reproduction" and the " long run" cost of producing transportation service, 102.
To this discussion of "cost of reproduction" can now be brought a significant passage from the Minnesota Rate Cases: "The cost of reproduction method is of service in ascertaining the present value of the plant, when it is reasonably applied, and when the cost of reproducing the property may be ascertained with a proper degree of certainty." l This sentence standing alone is quite characteristic of the guarded manner in which the Court has always treated the valuation problem. The range of discretion is necessarily wide. What is a "reasonable" application of the "cost of reproduction" method? What is a "proper degree of certainty"? So far as Justice Hughes may be said to have voiced a standard it is found in his refusal to accept "results which depend upon mere conjecture." 2
Justice Hughes* criticism went to the heart of the "cost of reproduction" hypothesis, and especially as that hypothesis has been applied to the "valuation" of land.
The expedient used by both parties, it will be recalled, had been a "valuation" of the railroad land based upon the value of adjacent tracts. That the House draft of the Valuation Law provided for the determination of the "present value of all lands, rights of way, and terminals . . . ascertained by comparison with adjoining lands,'* is testimony to the strength of the tradition.1 And this tradition is, of course, a simple corollary of the condemnation analogy, and its concomitant, the "cost of reproduction" hypothesis. For this hypothesis assumes that the value of the adjacent land, due in part to the presence of the railroad, shall persist even though the railroad is conjured away. To what extent, if at all, is the hypothesis valid?
Take first the situation of agricultural land: eliminate the railroad; what would the land be worth, deprived of a mode of transporting to market? Or take the case of a railroad built into a virgin territory: land formerly not worth cultivating can at once be tilled. Or if the road brings transportation facilities nearer to areas already
1 Amended in the Senate. See Senate Report on Valuation, page 20.
The scope of the Federal investigation is outlined in the following quotation from an address of Director of Valuation Prouty before the National Association of Railway Commissioners (Proceedings, 26th Annual Meeting, page 136). No originality of method is apparent in the investigation here outlined: a combination of tax ratio, and opinion and sales "value" — and judgment! "Now there are a great many questions in reference to land which are very difficult and delicate questions, and which must be passed upon by the Commission finally. Those questions have not been reached by us up to the present time, and the work which we are doing now merely concerns the collection of facts with respect to land. In other words, we are attempting to ascertain, and we are only attempting to ascertain, what is the value of similar adjacent and adjoining lands. In doing that we look into the tax assessment of similar lands, endeavoring to ascertain the relation between that assessment and the actual value of the land. We look into the actual sale of similar lands, comparing them with one another. We take the opinions of people who are qualified to judge, and our land appraiser, from all those sources, makes up his mind and so reports as to the value of similar adjacent lands." The italics are the writer's.
served, a parallel increase in value appears, with the lessening of cost of haulage to the railroad. In either case wider markets are made available; normally "economic rent" must increase; the adjacent lands are more valuable. So much is commonplace history of the American West.
Or consider the value of land in villages and the smaller towns served by a single road. Not infrequently the railroad itself, especially when extending into relatively unsettled areas, has plotted the town sites, and sold single lots for sums which, before the coming of the road, would have bought acres. Sometimes an enterprising promoter has done the work of exploitation. But in either case, depriving the town of the railroad would destroy the site rent. The land would become valueless (except where available for agriculture). Again the value of lands adjacent to the railroad is seen to depend directly upon the presence of the railroad.1
Nor is the situation different where a number of roads have centered, and a city — large or small — has grown up. Even where location on a navigable waterway originally
here pertinent :
"Q. Now, it has been suggested that the location of a railroad in the different towns and cities and villages through which it passes has a great deal to do in considering the value of the property; if the location is central and convenient to the business, it is one thing, and if it is remote and on the outskirts of a town, it is another thing. Now, how is the Great Northern Road, in the State of Minnesota, generally speaking, located in the different towns and cities and villages through which it passes ?
marked out a spot for settlement — typical illustrations are the "fall line" cities in the South, and the cities at strategic points on the Mississippi — the coming of the railroad has meant increasing population in the city itself, and in the surrounding country.1 A navigable waterway has not been essential; "railroad " towns have developed at junction points. Perhaps the most conspicuous case of the railroad center, per se, is Atlanta, where converge the lines into the Southeast from the North and West. A great industrial and commercial city has been the result. And varying only in degree, the same is true of nearly every American town. The "cost of reproduction" hypothesis as applied to land simply closes its eyes to this relationship. The value of urban land — in city or town — is itself dependent upon the presence of the railroad. "If there were no railroads in Chicago, there would be no Chicago." 2
the influence of railroad building upon city growth.
2 Evidence, 1910 Advances, page 1002; testimony of Mr. Ward, General Manager of the C. B. & Q.; Mr. Lyon, the attorney for the Commission, cross-examined Mr. Ward (pages 1001-10) :
"Mr. Lyon. And therefore do you consider the fact that there is an operating railroad there makes the value of the adjoining property to a large extent? That is true to a large extent, is it not? . . .
Especially strained is the theory which within a given city measures the value of terminals by the value of adjacent lands devoted to business purposes. Sites near the railroads are sought after for business purposes, because such location means more economical handling of goods in and out of the plant. The possession of a side track where delivery to the road can be made without team hauling is an advantage for which the industry is ready to bid. For elevator and warehouse purposes such ready access is all essential.1 And even where delivery must be made to a
' Mr. Lyon. That is another case in which land at the station becomes more valuable because the railroad is there, and therefore it should be capitalized and rates paid on it?
See also testimony of L. B. Elwood in the Minnesota Rate Cases, Record (N.P.), page 1046, and of J .F. Stevens, ibid. (G.N.), pages 473-74; and the Report of W. A. Gunter, in the Louisville & Nashville Case, page 84, which indicates that the issue was there raised; also Shepard v. N.P. Ry. Co., 184 Fed. 765, 803.
1 J. J. Watson, one of the St. Paul appraisers, Minnesota Rate Cases, Record (N.P.), page 524 and following, especially page 527; and Charles Hayden, the Assistant Right of Way Commissioner of the Great Northern, Record (G.N.), page 276.
" Q. It would be impossible for you to say whether the railroads had given the value to the wholesale property or the wholesale property had given the value to the railroad property, wouldn't it — - you can't tell that?
freight house, land nearer the terminal normally possesses a differential advantage measured by the difference in teaming costs. Competition for these desirable locations consequently means valuations measured by the capitalization of the differential in terms of dollars and cents. Except for the presence of the railroad in the river bottom the business district of St. Paul would hardly have concentrated in its present position. And the fact that the Northern Pacific secured high rents for sites located along its tracks proved nothing about the value of the same lands were the road removed. This is again the most elementary economic theory.1
Justice Hughes did not hesitate to challenge the "speculative" nature of the "cost of reproduction" hypothesis as applied to the conjectured cost of reacquiring land. "The railroad," he said, "has long been established; to it have been linked the activities of agriculture, industry, and trade. Communities have long been dependent upon its service, and their growth and development have been conditioned upon the facilities it has provided. . . . The assumption of its non-existence, and at the same time that the values that rest upon it remain unchanged, is impossible and cannot be entertained." 2
" Q. And when you come to the point of one eliminated and the other existing, you are getting into a range of speculation which a hard-headed real estate man like yourself doesn't indulge in, isn't that so?
1 See Brief of J. M. Woolworth, page 59. Smyth v. Ames, 169 U.S. 466. Similar reasoning can be applied in essential particulars to the case of passenger terminals, though the relationship is here one to the entire business section as contrasted with the factory and warehouse section.
2 Minnesota Rate Cases, 230 U.S. 352, 452. This, of course, directly overruled Judge Sanborn, Shepard v. N.P. Ry. Co., 184 Fed. 765, 803. See, however, a circular issued by the General Secretary of the Presidents' Conference, dated May 14, 1915.
of the adjacent land test, the decision in the Minnesota Rate Cases would constitute a more helpful guide to a discussion of the problem of land "valuation." But apparently seeking to protect the Court from too positive a statement overthrowing the tradition of practice, he introduced a new complication. Making certain assumptions (but without committing the Court to the assumptions), he suggested a programme for land appraisal which aimed to set the maximum, should the assumptions be held valid. His words are, therefore, from the point of view of judicial authority, mere dicta, — "Assuming that the company is entitled to a reasonable share in the general prosperity of the communities which it serves, and thus to attribute to its property an increase in value, still the increase so allowed . . . cannot extend beyond the fair average of the normal market value of land in the vicinity having a similar character. Otherwise we enter the realm of mere conjecture." l
" The fair average of the normal market value of land in the vicinity having a similar character'9 — what does it mean? Does this in any sense eliminate the element of speculation and conjecture? On the contrary, there is no such thing as a "normal" market value of land. The value of land is dependent upon the capitalization of the economic rent of that land. A. fair average of a series of unrelated real estate values is quite as speculative as Mr. Morgan's attempt to group lands of similar character in order to apply his salesassessment method. Not infrequently, too, the railroad occupies land which is the only land of that character for miles around. How apply Justice Hughes' test to the possession of the river-bank, or of the mountain pass? For any purpose, except for that of transportation, these sites might conceivably be quite valueless. Or in the village, is a line to be surveyed away from the existing line, and the value of lands located in the path of this substitute line applied to the acreage in the right of way? And take
the case of the terminal in the city. Who is to say which of a series of locations is suitable for a railroad — assuming that there is similar land in the city, that the railroads are not confined to a water front, again in many cases a conjecture contrary to fact? In a city there is by no possible stretch of truth such a thing as "similar land," as applied to large areas.
The value of a piece of land, the physical characteristics of which may be the same as that owned by the railroad, is determined by the "rent " which it will yield used for business or residence purposes. And the amount of this rent depends upon a series of complicated factors. Of these the presence of the railroad, as Justice Hughes himself pointed out, is one. Urban site rent does not depend upon fertility; it depends upon availability for other than railroad purposes. Urban land (including land in the smallest village as well as the great city) no more possesses a normal market value than does land in the agricultural country. It has no cost of production; its value is dependent upon the income which it will yield; and the amount of that income, even in the case where land of similar physical characteristics might be found, is dependent upon the presence of the railroad. The influence of the transportation facilities upon land values in city or country is not confined to the land immediately adjacent. Justice Hughes' proposed solution must fail, therefore, upon the two grounds on which he rejected the "adjacent land" test: conjecture and interdependence. The use of the phrase "fair average of the normal market value of land having similar character*' simply served to hide a failure to continue economic reasoning in treating this portion of the problem.1 It is
1 J. E. Baker, "Valuation of Terminal Lands," suggests that the "values" allotted to terminals be what would be their value, if devoted to business purposes, the railroad removed, but the city remaining. " It is not difficult," he says, " for observers of population movements and urban conditions to determine quite accurately to what purpose a given location would be devoted if another hypothetical condition be assumed.
The Court's assurance that " otherwise we enter the realm of mere conjecture" is not conclusive. Who but the expert is to say what land possesses a "similar character," especially in view of the peculiar need of the railroad for a site which conforms to standards for maximum grade and curvature? Justice Hughes' substitute for the "adjacent land" test must simply be written down as a resort to generality. It does not avoid the very difficulty which it purports to seek to avoid: the dependence of land values upon the presence of the railroad. The effect of the presence of transportation facilities upon land values is not limited to a strip immediately adjacent to the right of way.1 To base a decision involving broad questions of public policy upon the opinions of "experts" testifying both as to "average value" and "similarity" of character would throw down the bars to a revelry in conjecture.
Justice Hughes also rejected "hypothetical outlays," including not only the "conjectural cost of acquisition and consequential damages" (covered by the land multiple), but also the sums calculated "on the amount taken as the present value of the lands," which were embraced in the items of engineering, superintendence, legal expenses, contingencies, and interest during construction.2 These amounted in the case of the Northern Pacific to $4,099,790. In answer to Justice Hughes, it might well be
... If a Marshall Field store would be built upon it, use a Marshall Field price. But if a lot would be used for storing rags and old iron, mark it down to a remnant figure." Journal of Accountancy, volume 8, pages 246, 247.
1 Thus Justice Hughes' proposal is seen to be no less conjectural than the so-called "sales and assessment" method which is based entirely upon the hypothesis of a "judicial process" working subconsciously; or upon the "sales" method which purports to check the "mental process" of the local real estate expert. See State Journal Printing Co. t>. Madison G. & E. Co., 4 W.R.C.R. 501, 528.
asserted that he did not meet the issue fairly, since there had been no claim that the percentage figures were more than "average" allowances. The very hypothesis upon which the engineers made their estimates of cost for the "overhead," including "contingencies," was that the percentages, as calculated against the totals, were "fair" — not that they applied equally to each item of the inventory. l That the "contingencies" item, the "engineering" and "legal" items, and "interest" were dependent upon conjecture for their amount, and that to varying degree they covered "hypothetical outlays," is, however, true.
But for what item of "the cost of reproduction" is this not true? In the particular case which Justice Hughes was considering, the figures were not even "expert" guesses, being simply the arbitrary figures picked out of a maze of conflicting testimony by an attorney, entirely new to his task. But even had the Master simply accepted without change the estimates of the railroad engineers or those of Mr. Morgan for the State, the previous discussion has shown that conjecture was perhaps the largest source of information used by these authorities. The entire estimates represented "hypothetical outlays." The "cost of reproduction" is all hypothesis.
It hardly needs a summary of the conjectural factors to fortify this conclusion. The making of an inventory of physical units (or quantities) simply as such, without attempt to classify by standards of quality, of material, even of age (since allowance must be made for accrued depreciation), is necessarily tainted with a "large measure of error." Even "subordination of personality to system" can hardly eliminate those " individual errors of judgment . . . frequent in any work of magnitude." 2 But the task is not one of measurement and count alone, even where
well-defined specifications are imposed upon the engineer. The physical units, before they can serve a useful purpose, must be translated into terms of the monetary unit. Everywhere is found reliance upon expert knowledge, judgment, "acquaintance with the property," guessing, where guessing is "analogous" to a use of the judgment, — in short, reliance upon "railroad intuition."
The complication arising from inadequate inventory figures of unit quantities, in the records of the companies, and that due to lack of knowledge of the probable length of life of the railroad plant,1 introduce the first elements of uncertainty into the appraisal. The measurement, count, and classification of the units (the last perhaps the most significant factor, since here "judgment" is supreme), and the estimate of the depreciation accrued, present the same inevitable resort to "average" figures, to approximation. The use of percentages for "overhead" charges is but further extension of the "average" short cut. And these difficulties are all met entirely aside from any determination of "unit prices."
Yet, were every other element determined within so narrow a range that the error was negligible, the necessity of providing "unit prices" would throw the entire "valuation" into the field of conjecture. "Unit prices" must be set by the same "experts" who draw up specifications. Resort to bulking, "averaging," the assumption of a similarity of condition which does not exist, etc., — these sources of error appear entirely apart from the general hypothesis. The latter determines whether the "prices" shall be "present" prices, "future" prices (the only basis true to a reproduction ideal), or "average" prices. Now add to these complications the necessity to appraise the accrued depreciation, and the task of the "valuation" engineer is presented in full.
In hypothesis, everything is simple enough; determine the construction (and equipment) quantities, so subdivided and graded as to make possible the application of "fair unit costs," were the road to be "reproduced." With "cost of reproduction new" determined, how much of an investment made now would be unimpaired at a date when the "reproduced" unit should be depreciated to the condition of the existing unit? The task that this programme proposes is one which must be fruitless of significant results — simply from the point of view of statistical accuracy. The large degree of error, necessarily attaching, must vitiate the results for use in scientific inquiry, or for inquiry involving so broad a question of public policy as the return to the railroads, when that inquiry purports to use scientific methods. That the legal profession, with unreasoned dependence upon the "rule" in Smyth v. Ames, and the engineering profession, with optimism unwarranted by the degree of accuracy actually attained, have used such figures is evidence only of the hopelessness of the task. At best all that "physical valuation" — "cost of reproduction " — can do is to offer a very rough and uncertain approximation upon the hypothesis assumed. Figures asserting accuracy are as dangerous as they are fallacious. We need not marvel at Justice Holmes' protest against "delusive exactness." l
We turn now from the consideration of the large degree of error inherent in the "cost of reproduction" appraisal to that of the place of such an appraisal in a scientific (as
1 Louisville t>. Cumberland T. & T. Co., 225 U.S. 430, 436. The lower court had, however, recognized that " in a case like this, there is no possibility of scientific accuracy." Cumberland T. & T. Co. v. Louisville, 187 Fed. 637, 649. See Spring Valley Water Co. v. San Francisco, 165 Fed. 667, 685; citing eleven appraisals of the same plant, ranging from twenty-two to seventy millions of dollars.
* "A fundamental, though not necessarily a controlling element in value, is cost of reproduction. This," declared the Railroad Securities Commission, " is true of property in general; it has been specifically affirmed of railroad property by the Supreme Court of the United States. Eminent railroad men who have appeared before this Commission have stated that in their opinion cost of reproduction or physical value was the most important single element in determining the true value of the railroad as a whole." 1 In this language is briefly summarized the point of view which the lower courts have generally adopted in their treatment of the valuation problem.
Resort to "cost of reproduction" can, in considerable measure, be accounted for on the ground that the engineers have consistently defined "present value" as "cost of reproduction, less depreciation." The State appraisals have here been at one with those made by private interests,
1 Report, Railroad Securities Commission, 1911, page 18. The Commission continued: " Indeed, we believe it to be in the interest of railroads, no less than of those who use them, that the Interstate Commerce Commission should be given broad powers and adequate means for valuation of the physical property of railroads as one element in determining fair value, whenever, in the judgment of that Commission, this is of sufficient importance to warrant such action. This will give the public information which it is entitled to demand, and which can, in our judgment, be better and more economically obtained in this way than in any other."
Commissioner Prouty called "cost of reproduction, . . . one and perhaps the most important element in determining 'fair value.' " Eastern Advance Case of 1910, 20 I.C.C. 243, 261.
See, however, the incisive testimony of Mr. Frank Trumbull, of the Chesapeake & Ohio, before the Senate Committee, Senate Report on Valuation, page 38; likewise, J. F. Stevens, Minnesota Rate Cases, Record (G.N.), page 463; and J. J. Hill, ibid., page 1351. Mr. Stevens thought "cost of reproduction . . . perfectly useless." Mr. Hill did not "want to testify absolutely" that to estimate "cost of reproduction" was to suppose "an impossibility." He recognized, however, that "the reproduction of a railway of 2000 miles is something that has never been done. . . . It is very hard to testify as to what would be accurate in a case that has never been done."
whether railroads or local public utilities.1 The courts, finding the "experts'* (who, be it remembered, have always been men of high professional standing) ready with a definition, seem never to have challenged the validity of their figures. There is no less an authority than a decision of the Supreme Court holding that "the cost of reproduction is one way of ascertaining the present value of the
1 See Bulletin 21, Bureau of the Census, Commercial Valuation of Railway Operating Property, page 78 (Michigan) ; page 83 (Wisconsin) ; Supplement, Annual Report, Railroad & Warehouse Commission of Minnesota, 1908, page 30; Second and Third Annual Reports, Railroad Commission of Washington, page 41; the New Haven Validation Report, pages 152, 153; Sixth Annual Report, Nebraska State Railway Commission, page 522. See also Reports of the Masters in the Alabama Rate Cases; and the cases cited in Whitten, Valuation of Public Service Corporations, pages 67, 70.
WTien cross-examined by the attorneys for the State, A. H. Hogeland declared that his "valuation" of the Great Northern represented not "value," but "cost of reproduction." Minnesota Rate Cases, Record (G.N.), page 67. To the same effect, see testimony of W. L. Darling, Record (N.P), pages 3241-43. The following excerpt indicates the tenor of both examinations: t
"Q. You have assumed, in giving this statement, that the method pursued by you for ascertaining the cost of reproduction under the circumstances described by you, is the proper method of ascertaining the value to be arrived at in this case?
"Q. Well, in preparing these tables, do you mean that you did not proceed upon the theory that the cost of reproduction as given by you would show the value of the road, or that you simply adopted the theory which you were instructed to adopt?
"Q. But as I understand it, you don't present your tables and testimony with the claim that they do establish the actual value of the Northern Pacific System, either in Minnesota or outside of Minnesota, as it exists at the present time?
plant." * The lower court in the New York Gas Case could not observe "the continued use of the present tense in the decisions of the highest court, without feeling that the actual or reproductive value at the time of inquiry was the first and foremost figure to be ascertained." 2 Or, to take the holding in the Alabama Rate Cases: "After finding the original cost the question would still have to be solved as to whether such original cost is the same as the present value." This would "involve the determination of the present value for such comparison independent of original cost, and in no other or better way than on reproduction value."* It was sufficient for the Master in the Minnesota Rate Cases that the public, rather than dispense with the service of any of the roads concerned, could well afford to pay such rates as would "produce a full and fair return on their cost of reproduction." Indeed, the public would gladly pay such rates, since abandonment would be a great "calamity." If the roads were "suddenly obliterated, their immediate reconstruction would follow in response to the public necessity." This, to his mind, demonstrated that the roads "must be worth what it would cost to reproduce them," and that a return on such cost would not be "oppressive." 4
Cases, 230 U.S. 352, 452.
2 Judge Hough therefore accepted a "cost of reproduction less depreciation" estimate of one of the company experts. See Record, Willcox v. Consolidated Gas Co., 212 U.S. 19, Master's Report, page 170; testimony, page 1313; also Consolidated Gas Co. v. New York, 157 Fed. 849, 855. The italics are the writer's.
* L. & N. R.R. v. R.R. Commission of Alabama, 196 Fed. 800, 820. The Court regarded "the reproduction cost as the final test of present value" (page 821). See Western Railway of Alabama v. R.R. Commission of Alabama, 197 Fed. 954, 961; Cumberland T. & T. Co. v. City of Louisville, 187 Fed. 637, 642; State Journal Printing Co. v. Madison G. & E. Co., 4 W.R.C.R. 501, 579.
4 Report of Chas. E. Otis, page 244. Mr. Otis here developed an original line of argument. His authority for the choice of "cost of reproduction" was B. H. Meyer, now of the I.C.C., who contributed to Bulletin 21, Bureau of the Census, on Commercial Valuation of Railway Operating Property, pages 19 and 51. Mr. Otis spoke of an "undepreciated value."
Thus "cost of reproduction," though ostensibly but a means toward an end, — the determination of "fair value," — has become confused with the end itself. The hypothesis, once adopted, has been applied with relentless consistency. The Master in the Minnesota Cases included bridges over the Minneapolis & St. Louis tracks in Minneapolis, because, though built by the city, " their repair and renewal must be borne by the company, and the city could not have been compelled to construct them if the law had been properly interpreted and observed." 1 The land "multiple" and the conjuring up of unbuilt structures have already been discussed.2 Mr. J. F. Stevens, to whom a price of $1.25 a cubic yard for excavating solid rock seemed "at first glance ... to be high," was reconciled to the price when he "found that a very large part of the 440,000 yards was located in the city of Minneapolis," where "it couldn't be done for any reasonable price." 3 Or, to take an illustration from .the New York Gas Case, there is the imaginary expense of tearing up and replacing the street pavement, even though the present pavement was laid long after the pipes had been put in place, etc.4
Mr. Meyer was, however, discussing "valuation," and the division of "value" between the States, for taxation purposes. Even here his argument hardly seems entirely convincing.
4 See cases cited and discussed in Whitten, Valuation of Public Service Corporations, pages 148-60; 970-89; and R. E. Heilman, "Principles of Public Utility Valuation," Quarterly Journal of Economics, volume 28, page 279.
The Master in the New York Gas Case, Report, page 177, Willcox p. Consolidated Gas Co. (212 U.S. 19), and the lower Court (157 Fed. 849, 855) both included in "fair value," not only this "cost" of pavement, but also the extra "cost" due to the fact that the subsurface of the street was now more crowded than when the mains were laid, and that a more expensive engineering task was presented.
The Chief Engineer of the Washington Commission omitted the cost of exploring surveys, which had cost the Northern Pacific some $300,000, because, in the event of reproduction,' such "elaborate exploration" would not be needed. The best route was known.1 But in no case has the possibility been faced that were a road "instantaneously obliterated," grants of right of way and donations of terminals might again be made by communities so suddenly deprived of their transportation facilities.
Emphasis upon "replacement value" has furthermore been to the advantage of the local public utility companies (and probably, also, to that of the railroads) because of the present high level of prices and wages. The fact that the company in the San Diego Water Cases pleaded for actual cost as a legitimate basis — the plant having been built at boom prices — suggests that had the interest of the companies prompted gathering cost figures, the hopelessness of the task might have appeared less appalling. But the rise in construction costs has simply made possible a claim of another "unearned increment." 2
transfer from a willing vendor to a willing buyer, and it can make no difference that such value is affected by the efforts of himself, or others, by whim or fashion, or (what is really the same thing) by the advance of land value in the opinion of the buying public. It is equally immaterial that such value is affected by difficulties of reproduction. If it be true that a pipe line under the New York of 1907 is worth more than a pipe line under the city of 1827, then the owner thereof owns that value, and that such advance arose from difficulties of duplication created by the city itself is a matter of no moment." To the Court "investment" became meaningless if construed to mean what the thing invested in cost generations ago. 157 Fed. 849, 855. (The italics are the writer's.)
2 In Steenerson v. Great Northern Ry. Co., 72 Northwestern 713, 715, decided in 1897 when the level of prices was lower than when the roads had been built, the railroad did plead for a "valuation" on the basis of cost. The Minnesota Supreme Court, however, used cost of reproduction: "If a railroad was built thirty years ago at a cost of $40,000 per mile, and another one equally as good was built within a year through the same territory at a cost of $12,000 per mile, on what principle should it be held that the old road was entitled to 3^ times as much income as the
To what extent there has been a conscious understanding of this element of self-interest must necessarily be difficult to say. Certainly the witnesses for the railroads in the Minnesota Rate Cases were not blind to the circumstance that the unit prices used were in many cases considerably above the amounts actually expended, even in the face of important technical improvements.1
But it was in terms of the investment (i.e., actual cost) that the calculations of the enterpriser and investor were made.2 Of this amount, no inconsiderable portion was
new road? No guaranty was ever made by the State to the old road that the price of materials and the cost of construction would not decline, or that capital invested in railroads should not be subject to like vicissitudes as capital invested in other enterprises. Modern improvements and other causes have continued to reduce the cost of construction of all kinds of new plants, and to reduce the value of old plants or to render them wholly worthless, and the State did not guaranty that those causes should not in like manner affect the capital invested in railroads. Then the material question is not what the railroad cost originally, but what it would now cost to reproduce it."
Nevertheless, such claims have been specifically upheld. For example, the South Dakota Board of Railroad Commissioners has said: "The railway company is entitled to any increase ... in the price of rails, ties, or other physical item." Twenty-First Annual Report, page 28. In Pioneer Telephone and Telegraph Co. v. Westenhaver, the Oklahoma Supreme Court expressed itself as follows: "Where the market price of the physical units or of the labor entering into the construction of the plant has advanced since its construction, the original cost must be much lower than the present value; and for that reason be to the owner of the plant an unfair determination of its present value." 118 Pacific 854, 356.
2 The language of Justice Field in the Railroad Commission Cases, where he, with Justice Harlan, dissented, and condemned the "value" test as set up in the Mississippi statute before the Court, is here interesting, as showing that an entirely different line of reasoning might have been subsequently developed by a different set of facts governing the cases, from those which came to the Court in the California Water Cases. (Above, page 8 and note 3, page 15.)
sunk, once for all. The grade, the tunnels, the concrete abutments and retaining walls, etc., can never be used except in the place where originally built. The result of this initial investment (in the great multitude of cases a permanent investment) is the large importance of the element of the return to investors in the cost of transportation. For the moment, this element may be ignored, since it is advantageous to operate the railroad which is built, even though less than the return necessary to tempt investment is secured. But, in the long run, the reward for investing, assuming risk, directing enterprise, must be met in the case of the railroad which could justify the building. Not less than this return can be " reasonable " where railroad enterprise is left to private initiative. Analyzing the problem in this light, is the "cost of reproduction" a logical basis by which to measure the "long run," — the "reasonable" return?
they should be allowed to receive compensation having some relation to its cost. But the act of Mississippi allows only such compensation as parties appointed by the legislature, not interested in the property, or required to possess any knowledge of the intricacies and difficulties of the business, shall determine to be a fair return on the value of the road and its appurtenances, though tljat may be much less than the original cost. Within the last few years, such have been the improvements in machinery, and such the decline in the cost of materials, that it is probably less expensive by one third to build and equip the road than it was when the constructors completed it. Does anybody believe that they would have undertaken the work or proceeded with it, had they been informed that notwithstanding their vast outlays, they should only be allowed, when it was finished, to receive a fair return upon its value, however much less than cost that might be?" 116 U.S. 307, 343. Justice Field -very evidently thought of "value" in terms of "cost of reproduction."
Justice Harlan said to the same effect: "Does any one believe that private capitalists would have supplied the money necessary to establish and maintain these enterprises had the charters contained a provision making rates depend . . . not on the amounts expended in constructing and maintaining these roads, but on their value?" Ibid., page 340. In Covington & Lexington Turnpike Co. v. Sandford, Justice Harlan referred to " the amount that may have been really and necessarily invested in the enterprise." 164 U.S. 578, 597.
tion" is to introduce into the standard of measurement a factor quite divorced from the business of furnishing transportation — the effect of a shifting level of prices and wages. Here is a place where the justice of the "give-and-take** argument can be fairly tested. If the drop in the level of prices seen through the early nineties had continued, would it have represented justice to investors to insist that their plants were "depreciating," solely because the "cost of reproduction*' was falling? No. Nor, because the reverse tendency has appeared, should an "appreciation** be recognized.1 The conclusion is inevitable that attorneys in directing rate cases have been more intent upon uncertain precedents and "rules'* than upon securing a valid answer to the problem hi the solution of which their efforts were presumably being directed.
Certainly were "cost of reproduction" to be accepted as a settled test there would be no such thing as stability in rates. How often should adjustment be made? If every year, why not every month? Surely the figures must be fixed at regular periods to conform to changes in costs. "It is commonly assumed," says one writer, "that once a valuation has been made, it can be kept up to date and
" It would ... be highly unjust to permit the consumers to avail themselves of the plea that at the present time, similar works could be constructed at a less cost as a pretext for reducing the rates. . . . Nor would it, on the other hand, be just to the consumers to require them to pay an enhanced price for the water, on the ground that it would cost more now to reconstruct similar works. Such a contingency may well happen, but to allow an increase of rates for such reason would be to allow the water company to make a profit, not as a reward for its expenditures and service, but for the fortuitous occurrence of a rise in the price of materials or labor. The law does not intend that this business shall be a speculation in which the water company or the consumers shall respectively win or lose upon the castings of a die, or upon the equally unpredictable fluctuations of the markets. For the money which the company has expended for the public benefit, it is to receive a reasonable reward." Three of seven members of the Court dissented from the conclusion. 50 Pacific 633, 636.
available for rate cases merely by adding to it from time to time the additional investments made in the property. It is questionable if this is correct. After a valuation has been made, there may be not only additional investment, but also changes in the unit costs of labor and of materials and supplies, in the value of land. ... It would seem therefore that if valuation is to be used for the regulation of rates, there must be complete revaluations from time to time." 1 Indeed the total secured by adding the cost of betterments to the "cost of reproduction" estimate would be devoid of real significance. Either "cost of reproduction" must be rejected, or periodic "revaluations" must be made; unless there be resignation to the use of a standard which measures neither cost nor "cost of reproduction." Only if the "valuation" purports to establish the amount of the unimpaired investment, the cost of the units in place, with deduction to measure accrued depreciation, can the subsequent figures of cost be added. Otherwise there is only a heterogeneous combination of totals made on two distinct hypotheses.2
1 S. O. Dunn, "The Valuation of Railways," Atlantic Monthly, volume 113, page 413. See T. S. Adams, " Valuation of Railway Properties," etc., Journal of Political Economy, volume 23, page 16. In Mr. Dunn's argument "value" and "cost of reproduction" appear as practically equivalent terms. See also his American Transportation Question, chapters 5 and 6.
" Prices will change. Theories of valuation will change; but if you once have the quantities which enter into this inventory substantially agreed upon between the railroads and the people, you have there a basis of calculation to which you can subsequently apply different prices and different theories." Proceedings, 26th Annual Meeting, page 135.
2 Yet it would seem that enthusiasm over the possibilities of "valuation" led even so keen a critic as Henry C. Adams to pass over an incongruity which is readily made apparent, when analyzed in these terms. And on this account, it is not surprising that the Commission should be found to have followed the promptings of its Statistician. See Mr. Adams' letter to former Chairman Knapp, dated May 24, 1906, quoted, Senate Report on Valuation, page 218, citing at length the Michigan Appraisal;
But what of the courts? Has it not been reiterated that " the thing to be ascertained is the value of the property at the time it is being used for the public service"? 1 Did not Justice Hughes declare that the property is held in private ownership, and that it is "that property and not the original cost of it, of which the owner may not be deprived"? 2 Can an "unimpaired investment" standard be reconciled with the doctrine of the courts? So long as assertion is made that "value" is not a matter of formulas, that a series of unrelated items must be considered in making a "reasonable judgment," etc., a valuation theory based upon economic principles is out of the question. The "unimpaired investment" standard is simply a reasoned attempt to meet the conditions implied by the following language of the Court in Knoxville v. Knoxville Water Company:
"The company ... is entitled to see that from the earnings the value of the property invested is kept unimpaired, so that at the end of any given terms of years, the original investment remains as it was in the beginning. It is not only the right of the company to make such a provision, but it is its duty to its bond and stockholders, and in the case of a public utility corporation, at least, its plain duty to the public." 3
So, if the investment represents stored-up "value," unimpaired investment — the cost of the existing units minus accrued depreciation measured in dollars — represents, in a very real sense, "present value." From this viewpoint, the discussion does indicate the way to a possible reconciliation with the judicial dicta.
1 The Valuation Brief of 1915, page 469.
2 Minnesota Rate Cases, 230 U.S. 352,454. It would be useless to attempt an exact interpretation of this sentence. In regulation there is no question of "taking"; a measure of income is sought.
But the verdict for unimpaired investment — a cost standard — does not mean that where " the money actually paid into a railway property represents all manner of waste and extravagance, the public ought to pay on this." l The argument that an investment test (in terms of actual cost) would of necessity imply a guarantee (or its equivalent) upon unwise or dishonest expenditure fails to take account of the character of the rate of return as a variable.2 Discrimination is necessary in the exceptional case in any event. No guarantee has been made by the public. None is implied. Where there are successful enterprises, there may also be failures.
2 "If a plant is built, as probably this was, for a larger area than it finds itself able to supply, or, apart from that, if it does not, as yet, have the customers contemplated, neither justice nor the Constitution requires that, say, two thirds of the contemplated number should pay a full return. ... If the original company embarked upon a speculation which has not turned out as expected, more modest valuations are a result to which it must make up its mind." Justice Holmes, San Diego L. & T. Co. v. Jasper, 189 U.S. 439, 446. The italics are the writer's.
To the same effect, see Stanislaus County v. San Joaquin and Kings River C. & I. Co., 192 U.S. 201, 214. A peculiar twist was given the reasoning by the fact that these cases concerned a statute which provided that 6 to 18 per cent should be allowed on the "value" of the property.
I. Investment and the creation of capital goods, 110.
Depreciation and replacement, 110. — "Maintenance" as the creation of capital goods, 111. — Charging plant to operating expense, 114. — The surplus, 115. II. Depreciation as an operating cost, 117.
The depreciation reserve not a fund for replacements, 117. — The permanent depreciation reserve, 119. — Deduction for accrued depreciation, 120. — Innocent holders and vested interests, 121. — The "simple" and "composite" property theory, 122.
Original cost, and the "unearned increment," 125. — The Supreme Court opinions, 126. — The alienation argument, 129. — The discrimination argument, 130. — Unearned income essential for an "unearned increment," 130.
Depreciated cost of the units in place, 136. — Experience of the Interstate Commerce Commission, 136. — Inability to measure unimpaired investment not a reason to use "cost of reproduction," 138. — Possible usefulness of the Federal Valuation challenged, 139.
"PROPERTY INVESTMENT," the first item on the assets side of the railroad balance sheet, purports to indicate the amount of the investment which the railroad devotes to the public service. That the account is quite devoid of such significance is a matter of common knowledge. Too often, as originally set up, it has been hardly more than the journal entry necessary to balance the par value of securities. Even had the first figures been substantially accurate, conservative management, preferring to err on the side of safety, if at all, has swelled the actual investment through charges of net additions to operating expense. Or less efficient management, perhaps less honest management, or even less fortunate management, has per-
the accounts.
Maintenance of the investment means something other than maintenance in a state of working efficiency. It has reference to a standard measured in dollars. That a fiveyear-old box car in good repair will earn as much per mile as a perfectly new box car of the same type is beside the point.1 As between the five-year-old car and the one "perfectly new," there is this significant difference of position: if the life of such a car be twenty years "on the average," twenty-five per cent of the life is spent in the one case; nothing at all in the other. Unless, during this five years, earnings have been put back into the plant equal to the volume of income representing the using-up of the car, the investment has by so much been impaired. If the car were to be scrapped at the end of this fifth year, there would be no hesitation in recognizing that the investment was entirely gone. The principle is the same (though the task of measurement be difficult) when the item of plant is still in working condition, but with a shortened expectation of life.2 The question always is: How much unimpaired investment — "unripened savings" — does the plant represent?
1 J. F. Stevens, Minnesota Rate Cases, Record (G.N.), page 551; see testimony of J. J. Hill, ibid., page 1330 and following. Typical of this point of view (not unusual with railroad men) are three articles by Wm. Mahl, Railroad Gazette, volume 43, page 418; Railway Age Gazette, volume 48, pages 440, 1249. Two prominent engineers, speaking at the annual meeting of the American Society of Civil Engineers, indicated their acceptance of a similar argument: W. J. Wilgus, Proceedings, Am. Soc., C.E., volume 40, page 366; G. F. Swain, ibid., page 1413 and following. Mr. Swain took the same stand in his New Haven Validation Report, page 59 and following.
2 See Allyn A. Young, "Depreciation and Rate Control," Quarterly Journal of Economics, volume 28, pages 634-35, for what seems to be a contrary point of view; and especially the answer by J. S. Davis, ibid.t volume 29, page 362. The discussion was continued in the same journal by John Bauer, volume 29, page 651, and by J. C. Bonbright, volume 30, page 546.
An appraisal on the basis of the cost of the units in place, with deduction to take account of accrued depreciation, seeks to determine what has in fact taken place. Unimpaired investment measured in this manner can coincide with "cost" as determined from reference to the amount of the contributions made by security-holders to the company treasury, only if the management previous to the appraisal has been successful in maintaining the "investment" at exactly the original level — the cost of improvements, etc., balancing the accrued depreciation, in terms of dollars. If the level of investment has not been kept up, or if net additions have been charged to operating expenses, there can be no such coincidence. The result of an appraisal (assuming accuracy possible) would indicate which had actually occurred.
Where, as railroad men seem so unanimous in their belief, "maintenance" has resulted in widening the grade, deepening ditches, etc., it has been insisted, even with the "cost of reproduction" hypothesis, that a creation of "capital goods," of plant, has taken place. "A railroad property is not a finished product when the construction forces have put its parts together and turned it over to the operating department. Many expenditures are still required to be made in resurfacing, in opening up clogged waterways, and in bringing about an improved condition of roadbed, right of way, and station grounds." The conspicuous item is the roadbed, where "solidification and seasoning " take place, " under the action of the elements, through use and the running of trains, through the skillful direction of labor in checking wastes on the slopes of the embankments and encouraging the growth of vegetation thereon, ditching the cuts, and kindred work." l Significant, of course, is the expenditure of labor in correcting 1 The Valuation Brief of 1915, pages 157-158.
UNIMPAIRED INVESTMENT 111
the first wastes due to the elements, and in improving the physical plant as lapse of time develops unforeseen weakness. The high cost of maintenance in the early days of operation is, in no small measure, due to the fact that such expenditures must be made. But the "appreciation" is not due to the fact that smaller maintenance charges are later necessary. It exists because amounts charged to operating expense have resulted in a net addition to the "capital goods" of the railroad.1
For the work of maintenance is always a creation — or a "re-creation" — of capital goods, though the accountant conceives of it only as "expense." And the reason he does not recognize that the maintenance cost represents making of plant (not in toto a net addition, since deduction must first be made to cover the "depreciation" which the "maintenance" seeks in part to overcome) has been the difficulty of measuring the amount of the depreciation; as well, perhaps, as the general insufficiency of practice. Adherence to the accounting categories has, it would seem, served to hide the facts which, from the point of view of economic theory, are most significant.
Take the case of the locomotive. When it has been shopped, the cost of the new wheel, or piston rod, or driving axle constitutes the existing investment, not the cost
1 The Valuation Brief of 1915 defines "appreciation" as "in every case, an increase in value which may or may not be represented by an expenditure" (page 146). The amount of such uncertain "appreciation" is recognized as difficult of ascertainment (pages 158, 161). The methods used in the appraisals to measure the "appreciation" of the grade have been the usual bulk allowance and percentage short cuts.
The allowance for "impact and adaptation" was made by R. P. Morgan, in his Report to the Pacific Railway Commission (Senate Executive Document 51, 50th Congress, 1st Session, page 4454); no formal allowance was made in the Michigan or Wisconsin appraisals; but D. C. Morgan here, as in many other details, followed the precedent set by his father; Minnesota Rate Cases, Record (N.P.), pages 1863, 2037; see testimony of Howard Elliott, ibid., page 1250; of W. L. Darling, ibid., page 3227; and of J. F. Stevens, Record (G.N.), page 509; and Whitten, Valuation of Public Service Corporations, chapter xvi, page 310.
of the original part which has become worn out and useless for productive purposes. The Superintendent of Motive Power of the Great Northern cited, in the Minnesota Rate Cases, the instance of an engine, purchased "say thirtyseven years" before, which was still in service, though possibly not ten per cent of the original locomotive remained intact. "A limit" was placed "for all working parts — all reciprocating, revolving, and frictional parts"; and when the parts reached " this certain limit," they were renewed. "The same thing" held true "in connection with a boiler," and with parts of cars.1 The accountant would conceive of the cost of such repairs as "maintenance," therefore solely as "operating expenses." 2 Business practice does not coincide with the refinement of economic theory, which is important for the course of the present reasoning.
contended for:
"If a company has included in its operating expenses, items which it now asserts are part of its capital investment, it is in error. An expenditure cannot be an operating expense one day and a capital charge another according to the thesis which the company at that moment is attempting to maintain. Certainly if it has included an item among operating expenses, it is incumbent upon the company to show wherein such act was wrong, and why the Commission should in any rate case be compelled to allow it a return upon property paid for out of operating expenses. . . ."
Mr. Maltbie illustrated his meaning:
"In the case of a car which originally did not have air brakes, but has been equipped with modern appliances, cost to date means the original cost of the car plus the cost of the
2 But see the suggestive diagrams, in F. A. Delano, "The Application of a Depreciation Charge in Railway Accounting," Journal of Political Economy, volume 16, page 585 and following.
air brakes; but it does not include the cost of replacing the old equipment with new equipment of the same character, or of new equipment slightly different in form, but not increasing the carrying capacity or durability of the car."
It would seem that this language fails to meet the important issue. Car capacity, efficiency, etc., are beside the point. Investment — unimpaired investment — alone is significant. To illustrate; assume that a car costing $800 is equipped with air brakes at a cost of $35. Later the air brake equipment is replaced in toto at a cost of $60, the extra $25 being charged to operating expenses. Mr. Maltbie would place the "cost to date" at $835; the present reasoning (leaving aside the question of depreciation) would set the investment at $860. The accounting practice would have nothing to do with the fundamental issue.1
The validity of the present contention is seen most clearly, perhaps, when the old property has been totally destroyed. An excellent illustration is afforded by the flood damage which was suffered by the Ohio and Indiana lines in 1913. The old station houses, grade, bridges, track, etc., were practically wiped out. The cost of the roadbed and structures which were built in repairing the damage was charged to operating expense in that year. But the accounting practice does not hide the fact that the cost in 1913 — the cost of replacing destroyed units — constitutes the investment in existing plant, subject to changes from depreciation and "maintenance." The original roadbed and the structures built thirty or fifty years ago were destroyed by the flood. Their cost, therefore, has nothing whatever to do with the existing units of
1 This discussion is based upon Mr. Maltbie's Report to the National Association of Railway Commissioners, Proceedings, 26th Annual Meeting, page 183. In apparent accord with him are John H. Gray, "The Vagaries of Valuation," American Economic Review, volume 4, Supplement, page 32; and E. W. Bemis, Proceedings, National Association of Railway Commissioners, 25th Annual Meeting, page 318.
railroad plant.1 If the destruction was only partial, some units of the original plant and some of the new now exist side by side. Investment has been made at separate dates.
One cannot be sure that the Interstate Commerce Commission has conclusively disposed of the policy of charging plant to operating expense. In the absence of depreciation charges, or when charges based upon an expected life of fifty to a hundred years have been made on equipment which will probably last less than thirty,2 the fact that extensions or realignments have been paid for out of earnings does not of itself prove that net additions to investment have been made. In Central Yellow Pine Association v. Illinois Central Railroad Company,3 an advance in rates was justified by the carriers on the plea that their net returns were insufficient, due to increased cost of operation. Commissioner Clements found that considerable sums spent for new equipment and for improvements to roadbed had been charged to operating expenses. These items were held to be improperly charged in this manner, since "the shipper of to-day could not be properly required to pay the entire cost of an improvement or addition which was to be of permanent use." 4 Suit was brought to enforce the order of the Commission that the roads desist from making the advance, and the Supreme Court sustained the order. "It would seem," said Justice McKenna, "as if expenditures
were discussed in the Five Per Cent Case, 31 I.C.C. 350, 371.
An example of property destroyed in war times (the Atlanta & West Point), and subsequently "rebuilt" from earnings, was cited by Commissioner Clements in his testimony before the House Committee on Interstate Commerce, in 1912. Senate Report on Valuation, page 206.
4 Eastern Advance Case of 1910, 20 I.C.C. 243, 265. See Cattle Raisers' Association v. M.K. & T. Ry. Co., 13 I.C.C. 418, 432; Receivers and Shippers Association v. C.N.O. & T.P. Ry. Co., 18 I.C.C. 440, 462.
for additions to construction and equipment, as expenditures for original construction and equipment, should be reimbursed by all the traffic they accommodate during the period of their duration, and that improvements that will last many years should not be charged against the revenues of a single year." 1 This argument fails to recognize that the income spent for fixed improvement may be that which is received in reimbursement for the wearing out of fixed capital where investment has been made in the past. Unless " instrumentalities which are to be used for years " are paid for "by the revenues of a single day or year," the investment cannot be kept intact. The same principle is involved whether replacement in kind is effected or additional units of plant are added. Both represent expenditures made for a future day. But it is only if the amount of the maintenance cost in any one year, plus the amount spent for new plant, exceeds the accruing depreciation that there is any net addition to the investment in plant. The Commission may well have reached a correct answer in the Central Yellow Pine Case, but the argument used to justify that answer is not necessarily convincing. It would seem that the Commission itself forgot that maintenance in a state of efficiency does not necessarily signify maintenance of the volume of investment in terms of dollars.
The possible inadequacy of the charges to operating expenses where no depreciation reserve has been established, or where an improbable lifetime has been assumed for equipment, directs attention to the railroad " surplus " accounts. If, in the past, net earnings have been actually overstated through failure to charge the amount necessary
1 Illinois Central R.R. Co. v. I.C.C., 206 U.S. 441, 462. The Commission's holding in the Central Yellow Pine Case and the Supreme Court's approval of the doctrine are the basis for Commissioner Prouty's argument refusing to permit earnings which should pay for the "unproductive improvements." Eastern Advance Case of 1910, 20 I.C.C. 243, 265.
to take account of the depreciation — either through neglect or maintenance, or failure to set up a reserve, or both — any addition to surplus in that year has by so much been unreal. On the other hand, when net additions to "investment" have been made through charges to operating expenses (in substance, where a "secret reserve" has been created) the surplus has been understated. In view of the haphazard mode of handling railroad accounts, therefore, the fact that a "surplus" account is carried on the books of itself signifies nothing.1
This fact, too, it would seem, the Commission has overlooked. Neither in the Spokane Case, nor in the 1910 Advance Cases, was challenge directed at the reality of the surplus. The nearest approach to a searching criticism is Commissioner Lane's assertion that the surplus depends " upon the nature of a railroad's capitalization, the policy of the road with respect to charges for maintenance, the volume of the dividend, and other factors entirely within
1 Commissioner Prouty, discussing the railroad claim "that there is an item of obsolescence in the development of a railroad which should be recognized in the surplus," approached a statement of this problem, but that is all. He assumed the case of the building of a railroad over a mountain, "it being more economical to haul the traffic up and down the steep grades than to incur the great outlay which would be required by constructing a tunnel. With the development of traffic the time comes when this mountain must be pierced, and a tunnel is accordingly constructed at a large expenditure. . . .
"Now, it had been certain from the day of the original construction of that railroad that in time the tunnel must be built. Each year the day drew nearer when the line over that mountain would no longer be used, and therefore each year subtracted from the value of that line. It may well be said that the railroad should be allowed to accumulate a fund out of its revenues from operation against the time when this piece of railroad must be entirely thrown away. Under our present system of accounting railways are required to make a depreciation charge with respect to their equipment for the purpose of providing against contingencies of this sort; but they make no such charges with respect to their way and structures, and it seems proper that the accumulation of a surplus should be allowed in this view." The Eastern Advance Case of 1910, 20 I.C.C. 243, 271. See testimony of President Ripley of the Santa Fe, Evidence, 1910 Advances, page 24.
Failure to understand the nature of the depreciation reserve, and the purpose of making the annual charge to depreciation, has led to further confusion. Depreciation is a necessary operating cost, whether or not it is given formal recognition in the accounts. The formal allowance simply seeks to insure that, when any unit of plant is retired, its cost shall have been charged against the expense of producing the commodity or service to which it has contributed during its working lifetime. In this sense, necessity for replacement may be said to account for the insistence upon the charge to depreciation. "Capital goods" wear out. But the reserve, created through a series of annual charges as plant nears the day of scrapping, and the investment "ripens" into product, is in no sense of the word a "fund" for the provision of new units of plant.2 The total accumu-
1 The Western Advance Case of 1910, 20 I.C.C. 307, 332. See the Eastern Case, page 269, summarizing the testimony of President McCrea, of the Pennsylvania, who had said that since 1887 the amount expended on the property of the lines east of Pittsburgh out of surplus earnings and from other sources than the proceeds of the sale of securities had aggregated $262,000,000, the largest amount being provided by surplus earnings. Evidence, 1910 Advances, page 2287; also page 2315; see testimony of W. C. Brown, of the New York Central Lines, page 2489; of Frank Ward, of the C.B. & Q., page 1014; and of M. P. Blauvelt, of the Illinois Central, pages 507, 530. But at no point did a challenge appear to indicate the inconclusive nature of this testimony. To what extent, if at all, does the addition of property costing some $262,000,000 represent a net addition to investment (not to physical units of plant)? — That is the significant point for the economist. But this difficulty, the Commission, and its attorney, Mr. Lyon, did not consider. See Brief of the latter, Evidence, 1910 Advances, page 3527.
2 In Railroad Commission of Louisiana v. Cumberland T. & T. Co., Justice Peckham apparently failed to see the real significance of the depreciation reserve. In the lower court the counsel for the Louisiana Commission had argued that a part of the company's plant had been paid for out of earnings, "the surplus or reserve or depreciation fund, which was
lation at any one time (assuming the accounting records to measure, with all practicable accuracy, the real economic facts) measures the amount by which the investment has been used up. The usual practice of diminishing the reserve through a series of journal entries, as new units of equipment are added, does not mean that the depreciation reserve is established in order to provide a fund for replacements. That many accountants, including even those of the Interstate Commerce Commission, may have been guilty of this confusion, does not in any sense alter the fundamental problem of economics.1
accumulated by the complainant from the receipts . . . and was then invested, not in repairs and maintenance, but in extensions and property." To this theory (which looks upon the depreciation reserve as a source for repairs and maintenance, and not as a measure of accrued depreciation) Justice Peckham subscribed.
"It was obligatory upon the complainant," he said, in reversing the opinion of the lower court, " to show that no part of the money raised to pay for depreciation was added to capital, upon which a return was to be made to stockholders in the way of dividends for the future. ... It certainly was not proper for the complainant to take the money, or any portion of it, which it received as a result of the rates under which it was operating, and so to use it, or any part of it, as to permit the company to add it to its capital account, upon which it was paying dividends to shareholders. If that were allowable, it would be collecting money to pay for depreciation of the property and, having collected it, to use it in another way, upon which the complainant would obtain a return and distribute it to its stockholders. That it was right to raise more money to pay for depreciation than was actually disbursed for the particular year there can be no doubt, for a reserve is necessary in any business of this kind, and so it might accumulate; but to raise more than money enough for the purpose, and place the balance to the credit of capital upon which to pay dividends, cannot be proper treatment." 212 U.S. 414, 424. For similarly uncertain language, see quotations from cases given in the Valuation Brief of 1915, pages 167-88.
The elusive character of the depreciation reserve, as contrasted with the depreciation fund, has also, as it seems to the writer, deceived J. E. Allison, Should Public Service Properties be Depreciated? etc., though Mr. Allison's conclusions are diametrically opposed to those of Justice Peckham (pages 17, 26).
1 For what seems to be a contrary conclusion, see Professor Young's "Concluding Comments" on Dr. Davis* criticism of Professor Young's article in the Quarterly Journal of Economics, volume 28, page 630; vol-
As a matter of fact, in a business possessing a large and varied plant, the "depreciation reserve" is usually permanent. The plant is maintained in a state of "average depreciation." Some writers, looking upon this phenomenon alone, as it would seem, and thinking of the cause of establishing the reserve as the creation of a source of replacements, and not as a measure of used-up investment (used-up "savings") have thereupon emphasized the "uselessness" of the "depreciation reserve." 1 The proposed application of this conception is most easily given in the words of Professor Allyn A. Young. His conclusions, and their bearing on the problem of measuring reasonableness, are thus summarized:
returned to the proprietors.
"2. In valuation for purposes of rate control no deduction should be made on account of the depreciation of large and varied properties, except for depreciation allocated to a period in which depreciation accruals were regularly charged to operating expenses." a
In the case of the railroads this would generally mean deduction for accrued depreciation of rolling stock accruing since 1908. All other items of inventory (and equipment, prior to 1908), rails, ties, fences (whether nearly new, half worn out or ready for the scrap heap), should be appraised as though new. The proposal, to say the least, is startling.
clusive. See the Valuation Brief of 1915, page 240 and following.
1 This concept of the "useless" depreciation reserve apparently originated with J. E. Allison. See the Valuation Brief of 1915, page 196, where counsel say, "Such funds serve the purpose of disclosing and analyzing operating costs."
2 Quarterly Journal of Economics, volume 28, page 663. A third conclusion, which need not here be considered, is: "If depreciation charges have not been required by public authority, it cannot be assumed that the proprietors of a large public service undertaking should have accumulated a reserve for accrued depreciation."
The basis for these conclusions is the insistence that deduction for accrued depreciation in the absence of reserves is a regulation of "past profits." Professor Young's argument is, briefly, that the "expectations, plans, and estimates" of "proprietors" did not take into account accruing depreciation as a cost of operation, since the reserve would have been a permanent account, and therefore "useless" as a source of replacements. The failure to charge depreciation increased the "profits" which the company apparently had earned. It was therefore entitled (or thought itself entitled) to declare this amount in dividends. To deduct now for the accrued depreciation would scale down the investment which was being "maintained" in a state of working efficiency.
So long as Professor Young attempts to uphold this contention by economic reasoning, he seems on dangerous ground. The omission of the charge against the inevitable wasting of capital goods serves, it is true, to swell nominal profits. But to insist that these nominal profits represent real net income (as he and Mr. Allison appear to do) is to close one's eyes to the nature of "business profits." Profits cannot be defined in terms of the "expectations, plans, and estimates" of proprietors. They are the residual share of income after all expenses of production (and the cost of the plant which has "ripened " into a commodity or a service is a very real part of this cost) have been deducted from gross income. Some one may have been deceived into thinking that profits were greater than in fact they were. He may even have deceived himself . But the using up of machinery goes on quite apart from expectation or opinion. To omit a charge for depreciation may exaggerate the amount of profit; but the real net income does not accrue until total cost is met. To deduct for accrued depreciation cannot therefore represent a regulation of "past profits." On economic principles the failure to deduct for accrued depreciation cannot be justified.
Nor does the absence of the formal reserve mean that the investment may not have been kept intact, even increased. It is possible to accept the first of Professor Young's conclusions as quoted without accepting his argument. The reason why there may have been no return of a part of the investment to the proprietors does not lie in the fact that a reserve would be a permanent account, and hence " useless " for replacement purposes. The reason lies in the fact that though depreciation reserves have not been set up, the investment, especially in the case of the railroads, has frequently been kept up through " money put back into the property." 1 In an entirely haphazard manner the level of "unimpaired savings" embodied in the plant may even have been increased, though a state of working efficiency (ability to turn out ton-miles in a given period) has, it would seem, been the ideal actually sought. And it is because of this practice that the failure to establish a depreciation reserve has not necessarily meant a return of investment to the owners, or its wasting, with the realization of a business risk.
When the argument is put upon considerations of protecting "innocent holders," of protecting "vested interests," rather than upon those of economic principles, there is perhaps more to be said for Professor Young's contention. The difficulty presented in these terms is always a real one. Professor Young would say that had these "proprietors" conceived of depreciation as a "cost" regularly accruing, rates might have been higher. In the case of railroad rates, such consequences of a lack of charges to depreciation may probably be discounted. Rate wars and treaties account for the schedules main-
1 See Illinois Central R.R. Co. v . I.C.C., 206 U.S. 441, 462, where making improvements out of earnings was cited by the railroad as an "axiom." The argument of Walker D. Hines, in the 1910 Advance Cases (Evidence, page 5290), is also here pertinent.
tained, and, whatever the accounting tradition of the day, competition must have been the force most effective in determining the general level of rates.
But frank recognition of the actual economic situation (the depreciation of the plant) does not prevent attending to an "ethical" element; and upon logical, not artificial, premises. That there is a difficulty which is not to be swept aside by a formula may be granted. The presence of a depreciation reserve or its absence is not, however, the important economic issue. The present reasoning points clearly enough that, unless the amount of the unimpaired investment is to be overstated, the deduction for accrued depreciation must be made. If any allowance shall be granted to "vested interests," based on expectations, and a definition of "profits," which are not "profits" at all, it can be made in the rate of return calculated on the depreciated " value." The deviation from the normal policy can in this way consciously focus on the abnormal case without the danger of setting up an illogical precedent.
The confusion involved in the assumption that the " depreciation allowance, wherever made, is for the purpose of accumulating a fund with which to cover the cost of replacements," 1 accounts for a denial that existing plant is depreciated so long as replacements and repairs are made as needed and charged to operating expenses — the policy of the railroads prior to the accounting amendment of the Interstate Commerce Act in 1906. An obvious distinction has been drawn between a "composite" and a "simple" property:
"A simple property may be defined as one which cannot be economically renewed piecemeal, but must be renewed as a whole. A composite property may be defined as one composed of two or more simple properties, which simple properties can be renewed independently. A railroad property may be described as a composite property made up of
a great number of simple properties of varying ages and conditions of usefulness. Examples of a composite property are a car, a locomotive, the track, i.e., composed of rails, ties, ballast, fastenings, etc., and the railroad." *
What is the attempted application of these definitions? There is no denial that the simple properties deteriorate from age and use. But "while physical deterioration in a simple property, whereby the service life of that property is shortened, is depreciation in it, such physical deterioration in the simple properties composing a railroad does not at all necessarily mean that the railroad as a whole is depreciated." 2 And why? Take the case of the track:
"The track must be, and is, indefinitely maintained, and never comes to the end of its service life, and never requires replacement as a unit. Not coming to the end of its service life, depreciation due to a loss of service life does not exist in the track . . . the accrued depreciation in these parts (ties, rails, fixtures, etc.) is not depreciation of the track. The track itself cannot be depreciated unless repairs and replacements on it are neglected." 3
8 Ibid., page 166.
8 Ibid., pages 23 land 234. At page 237, counsel continue in terms which indicate a failure, or an unwillingness, for strategic reasons, to recognize the lack of logic in their concept of depreciation:
"To deduct . . . the accrued depreciation in the ties, rails, etc., . . . would lead to the absurdity of finding that the same class of tie, of the same age, costing the same money in place, is worth more in one road than in the other, because its service is longer in the one road than in the other. The life of the same character of tie will vary on different roads due to the difference in use. Assuming that the life of such a tie is six years on one road, and nine years on another road, and that it has been in place three years on each road, it will be found that it has three years of life remaining on one road, or 50 per cent of its value new, and six years of life on the other road, or 66§ per cent of its value new; all of which shows that the length of service life of the various units composing the track is not a factor in determining the value of the track, but is only a factor in determining its cost of maintenance. The only service life that is involved in depreciation is the service life of the track, and this life being continuous and indefinite, depreciation due to service life is not to be considered."
The answer to this train of discussion can be briefly summarized. The argument not only assumes that the whole can be something more than the sum of its parts, but it harks back to the error of assuming that maintenance in a state of working efficiency is maintenance of the investment. Investment is made in terms of dollars, and can only be measured in terms of dollars, and the maintenance of the investment is only attained through "putting earnings back into the property'* equal to the amount of the original investment in capital goods used up in furnishing current services. The railroad argument fails to recognize the place of capital goods in the productive process.
And what of the indestructible item in the inventory — the railroad site — land? Consideration must pass to the assumption that the railroad is entitled to a "reasonable share" — whatever that may be interpreted to mean — "in the general prosperity of the communities which it serves, and thus to attribute to its property an increase in value." l If the "adjacent land test" and the "similar" land test, as proposed in the Minnesota decision, be barred on logical grounds, what expedient is left? The argument turns at each step to original cost, to investment.
Original cost, applied to land, would, prima facie, seem to deny the possibility of an "unearned increment." It has therefore been attacked on three grounds:
I. "As the company may not be protected in its actual investment, if the value be plainly less, so the making of a just return for the use of property involves the recognition of its fair value, if it be more than its cost." 2
1 Minnesota Rate Cases, 230 U.S. 352, 455. Justice Hughes merely said, "assuming that the company is entitled," etc. He did not say that the company is entitled, etc. See discussion, above, page 91.
EC. "Inasmuch as the land is used in serving the public; and if not so used could be realized upon by the company at its present value, it seems only fair that this present value should be the basis for estimating the amount of return. . . . This appreciated value is in the nature of a profit invested for the public." l
III. "Not to permit owners of the railroads ... to get any benefit from the unearned increment is to place this class in the community at a disadvantage as compared with other classes." 2
The question, it should be emphasized, is not whether the railroads should be permitted to receive the benefit of the increased value of land which is to be taken from the railroad service and devoted to another entirely different purpose: as, for example, when the building of a union terminal causes several railroads to place the sites of abandoned stations upon the market.3 In such a case as this, the land is no longer railroad land. It is business land, and its value is dependent upon the capitalized site rent which it will command for business purposes. When the railroad made its purchase years ago it withdrew the land from business use. Now after a period in railroad service the land is to be returned to commercial or industrial use. In the mean time the community has built up, and a site perhaps originally costing only a few hundred dollars can be sold for thousands. An "unearned incre-
1 The following testimony of J. J. Hill, Minnesota Rate Cases, Record (G.N.), page 1345, passes over this fact: "I think that a railroad going into a new country and building it up and furnishing the facilities to open it up and doing all their share of the work, is entitled even to more consideration than the man who went out and bought the land and let it lay and did nothing whatever. If the land went from $1.50 an acre to $3.00 or $5.00, or from $10.00 up to $25.00 or $30.00, as in many cases it has in this State, nobody would challenge his right to sell it at a profit; I don't know why the railroad should not have the same advantage, because they have done something in making it possible for people to live where they could not live before."
ment" thereby arises, and it arises because the amount of the "economic rent" which that site will command has increased over that of the day when the railroad made its purchase. In such a case, while the public permits the private individual to profit by the increase in value, there appears no reason even to question the parallel right of the railroad. But this is not the fundamental issue now under discussion, however much it may have been confused with that issue.
Undoubtedly the first argument cited, that based upon "give and take," upon consistency, has appealed most strongly to the judicial mind. The public does not underwrite losses; therefore any "unearned increment" should accrue to the company. This conclusion has been assumed as axiomatic. In no case has a reasoned explanation appeared. It would appear, in fact, that the argument was used first to justify, not an appreciated "value," but one below the amount of the original cost. Here, then, the premises were reversed, from those assumed to apply to the railroad; where, indeed, it could be only in the most exceptional case that an "unearned increment" would not appear, using the "adjacent land" test. The effect of the coming of the railroad is to increase at once the value of the land in the tributary territory. But, in the case of " land depreciation," it was decided that not cost but " value " should govern; the argument in the lower court being that, if the land became more valuable, the company was "justly entitled to the benefit of the increased value"; therefore "those who invested their money in it and took the chance of an increase in value, should bear the burden of the decrease." l When, the "value" test accepted by the Supreme Court, the land owned by the company whose
1 San Diego L. & T. Co. v. National City, 74 Fed. 79, 83; see Same v. Jasper, 110 Fed. 702, 714. It must be remembered that these cases arose under a California statute establishing a "value" test.
rates were being considered showed an increase in value (according to the evidence), the argument was soon turned around. The San Diego Land and Town Company had asked that the original cost be considered, since, with the collapse of the boom in Southern California, the "value" was less.1 In the railroad cases, as in the local utility cases, where the sites occupied by plants have been surrounded by business blocks, etc., and an "appreciation" has been claimed, the representatives of the public have insisted upon cost, and those of the private interests have talked of "present value."2
The Supreme Court has, therefore, had occasion to pass upon the issue. In the New York Gas Case the land used by the Consolidated Gas Company had been "valued" by Judge Hough as general business property, and the "unearned increment" allowed over the protest of the attorneys in opposition. Justice Peckham, passing upon this question, announced the doctrine that "if the property which legally enters into the consideration of the question
1 Brief of J. D. Works for the Company, 174 U.S. 739 (National City Case); and 189 U.S. 439 (Jasper Case). The Wisconsin Commission in the Superior Case (10 W.R.C.R. 704, 739) also used a "depreciated" value for land bought in "boom" times.
U.S. 19.
In opposition it was alleged that the plea for the cost basis in " valuing " land was, "in its last analysis, pure socialism." Brief of James M. Beck for the Company, page 98. Mr. Beck also called the proposal one "for the legislative equalization of fortunes," which "if addressed to a Single Tax Society," etc. He even invited "the earnest consideration" of the Court to the "irreparable damage which would be done to investments in this country, if the doctrine for which the appellant contended" were sanctioned. "Billions of dollars are invested in railroad properties, and there is insistent public demand for a revaluation of railroad properties as the basis of determining the reasonableness of their charges. Most of these railroads have been built for many years, and some, like the Baltimore and Ohio, for nearly three quarters of a century. Many of them occupy a part of their original road-beds, and still use in part their original terminal facilities. If these are to be valued on a basis of their original cost, there will be a destruction of values which may justly be compared to the San Francisco earthquake." Ibid., page 103.
of rates has increased in value since it was acquired, the company is entitled to the benefit of such increase. That is at least the general rule." Then, lest he might seem to have committed the Court in too positive terms, he continued, "We do not say that there may not possibly be an exception to it, where the property may have increased so enormously in value as to render a rate permitting a reasonable return upon such increased value, unjust to the public." l And in these words, it is clear, Justice Peckham begged the whole question.
Justice Hughes in part already quoted:
"It is clear that in ascertaining the present value we are not-limited to the consideration of the amount of the actual investment. If that has been reckless or improvident, losses may be sustained which the community does not underwrite. As the company may not be protected in its actual investment, if the value of its property be plainly less, so the making of a just return for the use of the property involves the recognition of its fair value if it be more than its cost. The property is held in private ownership and it is that property, and not the original cost of it, of which the owner may not be deprived, without due process of law." 2
1 Willcox v. Consolidated Gas Co., 212 U.S. 19, 52.
In Appleton v. Appleton Water Works Co., the Wisconsin Commission said : " If real estate has enhanced to such an extent that a return upon its value [determined on sales method] would be in excess of the reasonable value of the use for the purpose to which it is devoted, the excess value should be treated as surplus, and not as a part of the investment." 5 W.R.C.R. 215, 224.
* Minnesota Rate Cases, 230 U.S. 352, 454. See Cotting v. Kansas City S.Y. Co., 82 Fed. 850, 854, and Brief of C. M. Dawes for the C.B. & Q., Evidence, 1910 Advances, page 3634.
In Reagan v. Farmers' Loan & Trust Co., Justice Brewer, speaking of a circumstance when "cost" might not govern, said: "The construction may have been at a time when material and labor were at the highest price, so that the actual cost far exceeds the present value." 154 U.S. 362, 412.
not the company be protected in its actual investment? Take the case of a railroad which buys land and builds a plant to furnish transportation. The inducement for buying the land is the expectation that, over and above the interest on the plant itself, — over and above any return ascribable as profits, etc., — the going rate of return will be earned upon the cost of the site. Without the expectation of earning this amount, the investment will not be made. From this point of view, a return upon the original cost of the real estate is seen as a necessary part of the long-run cost of furnishing transportation. At least this amount must be allowed in order to induce private individuals to furnish funds for construction. The "give-and-take " argument fails to meet this significant issue. The basic premise is invalid.
Pass, therefore, to the second argument for the allowance of an "unearned increment." The following from The New Haven Validation Report presents the essential steps :
"If an individual or a corporation buys a piece of property, the investment is not the price of it, but the property itself. If the property appreciates in value, the concern should legitimately expect and be allowed to earn a proper income upon its appreciated value. If it is not able or allowed to do this, it would naturally sell the property for its increased value, and put the money into something which would bring the proper income upon that value." l
This language, like most reasoning upon economic subjects which insists upon the "naturalness" of a result, does not constitute adequate analysis. What is here portrayed as a "natural" phenomenon would be a most "unnatural" one. And this is because the permanent way represents a
Investment, however, refers to the amount of "savings" which are put into the purchase of a given site, to cost. Investment can only increase with added expenditure; an "unearned increment" in land value means an increase in value, without an increase in investment. Why else "unearned"?
large fixed investment, which would be lost with the abandonment of any portion of the right of way. If the railroad were to discontinue operations (and this would constitute an acknowledgment that the investment in plant was lost anyway), the land could be sold. But where operations are to be continued, where the amounts spent in grading, tracklaying, etc., are not given up as lost for all time, one can be very skeptical of the "naturalness" of the railroad policy which would abandon an existing line in order to buy land at a higher price. All of the advantages which the original line possesses — favorable operating conditions, track connections, convenient station locations, etc. — would hardly be abandoned through any semi-automatic process. What would the railroad gain? The new site is costly, buildings must be wrecked, grading expense must be incurred, etc. And all the differential advantages possessed by the old site are lost. It indeed seems difficult to believe that such fanciful reasoning should have had serious consideration.
The third argument for allowance of an unearned increment, "that the owners of railroad property are entitled to any increase in the value of their property that may accrue from the progress of the territory in which it lies, and that they have as much right to the natural increments in the physical value of their property as the owners of any other property," * raises an issue distinctly involving broad questions of public policy. With these, however, the present discussion is not concerned.2 Here it is sufficient to indicate that a logical discussion cannot
1 Buell v. CM. & St.P. Ry. Co., 1 W.R.C.R. 324, 479. In State Journal Printing Co. v. Madison G. & E. Co., 4 W.R.C.R. 501, 579, the Wisconsin Commission spoke of rents increasing with the "natural increase in the value of the land," etc. See San Diego L. & T. Co. v. National City, 74 Fed. 79, 83; and L. & N. R.R. Co. v. R.R Commission of Alabama, "intrinsic worth " of the land, 196 Fed. 800, 822; Consolidated Gas Co. v. New York, 157 Fed. 849, 855.
be maintained from the point of view of "fair value." Before an "unearned increment "in land values can ever appear, there must be (other things remaining the same) an increase in the "economic rent" accruing upon that land. Under these circumstances an increase in the annual income which can be earned upon the site means an increase in its value. Now the moment that railroad income extends beyond the point necessary to reward the skill and judgment exercised in its building, an " unearned increment" appears. But how large this "unearned increment" shall be necessarily depends upon the level of rates.
But if there cannot be any "unearned increment" in railroad land, apart from one dependent upon earnings, and consequently dependent upon rates, — the adjacent land test in its various phases being rejected — the original cost would still seem to constitute the only available test of reasonableness. Original cost measures investment. The amount of any " unearned increment " must be allowed for in the rate of return.
Immediately, however, another difficulty appears : What of the lands which cost the railroad nothing? This question, though urged upon Justice Hughes, was not considered in his opinion, since "defects" in the proof made it unnecessary to pass upon the further point.1 Unwarranted dependence upon the analogy between condemnation and regulation, and upon the rule governing condemnation that "no inquiry is permitted as to how the owners have acquired the property, provided only it be legally held by them," 2 has led to the conclusion that the value of
2 Ames v. Union Pacific, 64 Fed. 165, 176. Justice Brewer also declared, "No inquiry is open as to whether the owner has received gifts." See Minnesota Rate Cases, Record (N.P.), pages 428-36; also Evidence, 1910 Advances, Brief of C. M. Dawes for the C.B. & Q., page 3634; and that of Messrs. Hanson and Ellis for the C.M. & St.P., page 4062.
donated land is "just as much to be considered for rate purposes as is the value of any other property devoted by the railway company to the use of the public." "Where property is given to a railway for a right of way, such property becomes as much a part of the property of the railway company ... as property purchased. ..." Indeed, it is " necessary not to be misled by the fact either that the railroad company on its original acquirement gave too much or nothing for the property." 1 In short, the problem is simply one in the determination of "present value." 2
Indeed, since Justice Hughes left the issue until such time as it is necessarily raised, the inclusion of donated property must be conceded as the practice approved in the lower courts. Judge Hough in the New York Gas Case even made, not title, but occupancy, the test. To him it was conclusive that if the company were not occupying certain streets, "it would have been occupying lands of substantially similar value in the vicinity of its plants." 3 The Master in the Minnesota Rate Cases also argued that, in case of reproduction, public streets " would cost practically as much as private property." 4 But in general these subtleties have not been indulged in by the attorneys for the railroad companies. Instead they have seized on the bigger question of the status of the right of way and terminal lands which were granted by the Government to the railroads at the time of construction. Quite worthless then, the lands are, it is insisted, "valuable" now, when the
2 Western Railway of Alabama v. R.R. Commission of Alabama, 197 Fed. 954, 959. Mr. Thorington did express some skepticism of the validity of using multiples, but included them on the authority of the decision of the lower court in the Minnesota Rate Cases. See his Report in the Central of Georgia Case, pages 122-23.
tributary territory is populated, when cities and towns have grown up. The Spokane terminals which the Northern Pacific "valued" (by the "adjacent land" and "multiple" test) at $7,000,000, and which had in large measure been donated, serve to illustrate the situation. But along the entire line of the donated right of way, the same phenomenon exists. Adjacent land is more valuable.
This, of course, brings up the old question of measurement. Let it be granted that the donated right of way "belongs to the donee in the same fullness as if it had been paid for." l How fix upon a " value " ? The " adjacent land" test, with which, it would seem, dependence on "railroad intuition" 2 has in such large measure been combined, is fallacious. To value railroad land as other land is valued, by the capitalization of the "economic rent," means vicious reasoning. Only the use of original cost can eliminate the fallacies. Does this mean that, the cost being nothing at all, the donated land is to be eliminated from consideration by virtue of the nature of the economic problem which the test of reasonableness seeks to solve? Yes, subject to only one possible qualification : it would not be contrary to economic reasoning to include the lands at their value at the time they were donated to the railroad. But this would constitute small comfort to the railroad which built across public lands which, in the absence of transportation facilities, it was not worth while to cultivate.
Nor does either programme mean injustice to the railroad investor. The donation of right of way was made in order to render attractive the investment of funds in grading, structures, and equipment. A part of the usual expense attendant in building was saved, since it was unnecessary for the road to make expenditure for the land
needed for its service. The same earnings would mean a larger rate of return on the smaller investment. And, at the same time, the road receiving the free right of way secured a differential advantage over any subsequently constructed competitor which would be forced to buy its right of way and terminal sites, at prices representing the capitalization of an economic rent dependent on the presence of the first road. The building of the Great Northern, or more recently of the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul, competing with the pioneer Northern Pacific, is here a case in point. The St. Paul met the rates set by the pioneer lines, but its fixed charges include a payment of interest upon purchases of lands which the Northern Pacific was in large measure spared.
And this differential advantage, possessed by the Northern Pacific, is one necessarily permanent. The traffic now exists in sufficient volume to have tempted the building of a new transcontinental railroad. But at the time the landgrant roads were built, the promise of profit was not so certain. It was necessary to tempt investment by free right of way (which meant that the same volume of earnings would net a greater return upon the investment made), and by "land grants." 1
1 The status of these land grants has not been questioned in the discussion of rate regulation. Nor should it be. These grants were a part of the inducement for investment, but their disposition in no sense of the word necessarily concerned operations in the furnishing of transportation. The companies were free to keep the lands, as has the Northern Pacific to so considerable an extent; or to dispose of them, diverting the proceeds to payments to stockholders, or to the purchase of railroad plant. If the latter policy has been followed, the plant so created became a part of the investment of the company. But the grants were of land which it was never intended should be devoted to railroad purposes. They were a part of the bait which tempted the assumption of great pioneer risks, which otherwise would not have been assumed.
The Valuation Act (Section 19a of the Act to Regulate Commerce) provides for an investigation of "any aid, gift, grant of right of way, or donation, made ... by the Government of the United States, or by any state, county, or municipal government, or by individuals," etc.
No "actual cost" appraisal of a railroad property has been made. Even Mr. Hammond V. Hayes, who was one of the first to suggest the possibility of making such appraisal, expressed entire skepticism of the applicability of the expedient to the case of the railroad.1 Very probably he is entirely right, for the St. Louis Commission has found great difficulty even in the case of a local public service company.2 It is none the less worth while to in-
1 "Original Cost versus Replacement Costs," Quarterly Journal of Economics, volume 27, page 628. Mr. Hayes is satisfied with the refinement arrived at by securing a unit price for "all elements for each year in the past," though, obviously enough, the cost of materials and labor are by no means constant through a year. But it is sufficient for our purpose (remembering this qualification) to accept his description of the engineering problem: "An inventory is prepared showing all plant units now in useful service. Such an inventory is identical with that required for ascertaining replacement cost. The age of each unit is ascertained and entered in the inventory . . . this figure for age is necessary for a determination of the loss in value of the investment arising from depreciation. From this age figure it is possible to find how many units of each class of elements were constructed in each year in the past. The sum of the products of the number of units constructed each year by the unit costs for that year will give the original cost. Overhead charges can be found for each year. . . . Thus it is seen that the method of determining original cost is practically the same as replacement cost, except that in the case of the original cost there are several unit costs, one for each year in the past for each element, whereas for replacement cost there is but one unit cost applicable to all units of the same kind." Hammond V. Hayes, Public Utilities ; Their Cost New and Depreciation, page 108.
2 The expressed intention of the St. Louis Commission was to arrive at figures representing fairly what those costs should have been " under all existing circumstances." Even on this basis it was not always easy to secure unanimity of opinion on unit costs; and for the older parts of the work, "through lack of reliable data," the Commission's engineers used "present prices." However, "having made a complete detailed inventory of the entire physical property . . . the Commission assigned to each item, as nearly as possible, its original cost in place and ready for service. These costs were, when possible, taken from actual signed contracts in the files of the company, and where such contracts did not exist, cost estimates were made from data for similar work, collected by the engineering staff of the Commission." Report, St. Louis Public Service Commission, on Rates, Union Electric Light & Power Co., pages 27, 28, 29.
dicate the scope of such an investigation. For it presents the only appraisal which is in accord with the trend of the previous reasoning. The programme is simple : the problem is to determine the amount of the " unimpaired investment." Take each unit of the plant (no matter how minute must be the classification of items), determine the amount of its original cost (including any "overhead"), appraise and deduct the accrued depreciation.1 But this extended analysis, presumably made, even for "reproduction," involves endless detail. It is subject to all the sources of error in measurement and calculation which render the cost of reproduction figures inconclusive from the point of view of statistical significance. Mr. Hayes* verdict seems conclusive : attempt to make a cost appraisal of a railroad — excluding land, where everything depends on the state of records — would be in large measure fruitless. Perhaps the same conclusion would hold for land.2
The experience of the Interstate Commerce Commission in its attempt to secure figures satisfying the requirement of the Valuation Law, calling for "original cost to date," upholds this judgment. The Commission's accountants have sought to tie up entries on the books with the physical units of plant. The Texas Midland and the New Orleans, Texas & Mexico, the one a line of 112 miles, the other of 175 miles, were selected for experimental investigations. The results can be given in Director Prouty's own words:
1 To a total determined on this basis, the cost of plant acquired through " maintenance," etc., could be added in the future, and deduction for accruing depreciation or abandonment made without destroying the meaning of the figures. Always they would measure the volume of "savings" (in dollars) still embodied in the railroad property.
"We found that, with respect to certain things that could be done, and with respect to certain things it could not be done at all. As to the roadway and the tracks and everything which went into them, we could not tell anything about the place where the expenditures had been made. We could not tell to what part or what section of that road the expenditure should be assigned. With structures it was somewhat different. We could say that a certain amount of the expenses had gone to bridges, and we could say within certain limits that a certain expenditure had been made upon a particular bridge. For instance, $100,000 had been expended in one year on bridges. Now we could locate the particular bridges to the amount of $75,000 out of the $100,000, but there was still left $25,000 which could not be located, which simply meant bridges wherever the bridges might be.
"Not only that, we found it was impossible to tell whether the amount which had been expended upon a particular bridge completed that bridge. Here is a minute which shows that there has been paid out at different times upon a particular bridge $10,000, but you cannot see from the books of the company whether that $10,000 completed that bridge or whether there was some other expenditure for labor or materials which also went into that bridge." l
Mr. Prouty summarized his discussion by calling the figure found in this investigation a "practical nullity." It was his conviction that the work involved was " absolutely thrown away." He even expressed his hope that the Commission, seeing the uselessness of the task, would relieve the accounting office of the Division of Valuation of further attempt to secure "cost to date." 2 In so far as
for appraisal purposes:
" Now you see that that is a tremendous undertaking. It is a tremendous undertaking with respect to a little railroad like the Texas Midland. You have got to handle every item. You have got to examine it, analyze it, and assign it. That was done, with the conclusion that when your invest-
the policy of the Division of Valuation may be expected to direct the course of determining "final valuations" by the Interstate Commerce Commission, the largest emphasis would thus seem destined to fall upon "cost of reproduction." 1
ment account had been rewritten it was good for nothing. In the first place, it is absolutely impossible to-day, as the books of account of the railroads in this country have been kept, to correct errors which may have been made in the original distribution of those items. Take a voucher for a pay-roll and a voucher for supplies. Here is a bill of timber. You cannot pass upon the question whether it was used for an addition and a betterment of that property, or whether it was used for a renewal which should properly be charged to operation. But, worse than that, there is no way in which you can tell what retirement has been made, and what retirement should therefore be taken out of that investment account. So that we felt that the investment account when rewritten was not much better than it was before we attacked it, and it is my own feeling that if you were to treat the books of every carrier in this country in that way, while you might detect and would detect many instances of mistakes, the general result would add very little to the knowledge which you now have, and it might be a source of misinformation rather than of more accurate information."
1 Writing at a later date, however, Mr. Prouty recognized that "the value of a railroad for rate-making purposes has never yet been clearly defined." Still, are not "courts, commissions, and economists, one in the opinion that for the determination of this question, certain facts must be marshaled, of which the principal are, cost of reproduction new, cost of reproduction less depreciation, original investment in the property and the history of that investment"? Mr. Prouty then reverted to the "legal principle ": "A railroad is entitled under the Constitution to a fair return upon the fair value of the property." C. A. Prouty, "Why the Valuation should not be discontinued," Railway Age Gazette, volume 58, pages 7-8 (January 1, 1915).
See also Mr. Prouty's address on " Valuation," reprinted in the Railway Library for 1913, page 215 and following. The notable cases handled by Mr. Prouty while on the Commission were the Advance Case of 1903, 9 I.C.C. 382; the Spokane Case, 15 I.C.C. 376; and the Eastern Advance Case of 1910, 20 I.C.C. 243. See also the testimony of B. H. Meyer, before the Senate Committee; and of Judson Clements, before the House Committee, Senate Report on Valuation, etc. It would seem that all three members of the Commission looked upon "cost of reproduction" as in itself an end.
with any usable degree of accuracy does not justify the use of "cost of reproduction" figures.1 Even were "cost of reproduction" desired, not as an end in itself, but only as a rough measure of investment (i.e., actual cost), the result would be quite inconclusive. The most that could be expected from such figures would be a rough standard that might indicate, within very broad limits, the relative level of investment in different lines. If one road had a "cost of reproduction" of $30,000 a mile, and another of $60,000, there would perhaps be some rough indication that one line represented about twice the investment of the other. But the figures of "cost of reproduction" would not measure a "value" (i.e., an unimpaired investment in tangible property) of $30,000, or $60,000.
A challenge is thus directed at the possible usefulness of the present Federal "physical valuation" which seeks to determine the "cost of reproduction new" and the "cost of reproduction less depreciation" of the railroads. The figures can be only the grossest estimates, bearing no real relation to the problem of determining a reasonable longrun cost of producing transportation service. However detailed may be the field investigation, — and the Division of Valuation, though apparently committed to the illogical "adjacent land" test, plans also a thorough resurvey,2 — a large element of error is inevitable. Dependence upon "judgment," "imagination," and "expert opinion," in measuring, in classifying, in choosing unit prices, in appraising depreciation, will render the figures
1 See the discussion by G. F. Swain, Proceedings, Am. Soc., C.E., volume 40, pages 1418-19, an extreme example of this attitude; also the paper by W. J. Wilgus, presented at the meeting of October 1, 1913; and the discussion thereon by members of the society, Transactions, Am. Soc., C.E., volume 77, pages 203-345.
devoid of real usefulness in scientific calculation. This conclusion must hold quite apart from the unsoundness inherent in "cost of reproduction" as a measure of the reasonableness of income.
And there is always the danger that such figures, falling into uncritical hands, may have a meaning attached to them which they do not possess. It will be easy enough to translate totals gathered by a Government agency into terms of "value," though the figures actually represent at best only an engineering guess of "reproduction cost," a purely forced conception. Even the worthless State figures have been quoted as indicating that the gross capitalization of the roads appraised did not exceed the "investment." *
1 See S. O. Dunn, American Transportation Question, page 113, and "The Valuation of Railways," Atlantic Monthly, volume 113, pages 411-12; Professor F. H. Dixon's paper on "Valuation and Capitalization," published by the Bureau of Railway Economics, 1911; and an address by Howard Elliott, of the New Haven, before the Alumni Association of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, January 9, 1915. Mr. Elliott used the Washington figures, the South Dakota figures ("cost of reproduction new"), the Minnesota figures ("depreciation deducted"), without regard to the statistical premises on which the figures were gathered. He even ascribed weight to the New Haven Validation Report. See also Professor William Z. Ripley, Railroads, Finance and Organization (page 341), a series of tabulations based upon the State figures.
THE assumed analogy between condemnation and regulation which led to the original suggestion of the "valuation" test has never been subjected to a reasoned analysis by the judiciary. The lower courts, where the point has been raised (and this has been infrequently) have seldom perceived "any difference in the principles applicable to the two cases." * Justice Swayze, of the New Jersey Supreme Court, however, drew a sharp line of distinction: in the case of condemnation, an "exchange
1 Spring Valley W.W. c. San Francisco, 124 Fed. 574, 594; San Diego Water Co. v. San Diego, 118 Cal. 556, 567; Kings County Lighting Co. v. Willcox, 156 App. Div. N.Y. 603, 606. See Brief of Messrs. Dunlap, Norton and Lathrop for the Santa Fe, Evidence, 1910 Advances, page 3601; The Valuation Brief of 1915, pages 273-314; and Pierce Butler, of the railroad counsel, "Valuation of Railway Property," Journal of Political Economy, volume 23, page 23 and following.
value" is sought; in the case of rate regulation, "the question is what valuation and rate will tempt investment." 1 The United States Supreme Court has implied in condemnation suits that it does not now look upon the two sets of cases as raising the same issue.2 But there has been no attempt to bring together this apparent denial and the original condemnation-regulation analogy, where consideration of regulation, as pro tanto condemnation, led to the voicing of the valuation doctrine. In point of fact, the presence of the word "value" in the opinions has not infrequently caused indiscriminate application, to one set of cases, of expedients developed to meet quite different problems. The uncertainty of treatment has, however, been most pronounced in the case of the intangible elements : " franchise value " ; " market value " ; " strategic value"; "good-will"; "the cost of building up the business"; " going value." And it is with these that the present chapter is concerned.
The franchise of a railroad represents simply the power to build the line, to operate it, and to collect rates. Without these rights, the railroad property would be so much scrap. The franchise, therefore, insures the investor that, so long as his interest warrants operating the road, the State will not refuse him permission. The railroad can continue as a going concern subject only to its public obligations.3
2 Omaha Water Works Co. v . Omaha, 218 U.S. 180, 202, a purchase case.
* "The franchise has added no producing power to the realty or personalty; it has but authorized their employment in a particular way, and protected the owners while so employing them." Consolidated Gas Co. v. New York, 157 Fed. 849, 874.
INTANGIBLES 143
the determination of "franchise value." The dependence of this " value " upon earnings has been generally recognized. In Monongahela Navigation Company v. United States, the Supreme Court specifically ordered payment for the franchise of a company which owned a lock condemned by the National Government. There had been an appraisal of the tangible property, but no allowance had been made for the value of the franchise : the right to collect tolls, and to earn a maximum return of eight per cent. Justice Brewer held that, before the owners could be deprived of their property, "the whole value must be paid; and that value depends largely upon the productiveness of the property. . . . When by the taking of the tangible property, the owner is actually deprived of the franchise to take tolls, just compensation requires payment, not merely of the / value of the tangible property itself, but also of the franchise of which he is deprived." 1 This argument is of course weak in assuming the value of a permanent investment to be something intrinsic, and in attempting to divorce the value of the franchise from the value of the plant. Strict reasoning would indicate that the franchise permits the operation as a going concern, and thereby brings it about that the plant (here, a lock) is to be valued by the process 'of capitalizing the earnings. True, the franchise is essential in order that there may be earnings. But the source of revenue is the service which only the plant can provide. Without a plant there can be no earnings. Attempt to insist upon a value of the franchise, apart from j the value of the plant to which it gives life, is clearly impossible.2
1915, page 514 and following.
2 This reasoning reverts to the whole process of "valuing" capital goods; the dependence of their exchange value upon the value of their services, etc. See F. W. Taussig, Principles of Economics, volume 1, page 151.
Taxation methods as developed have, however, come to insist upon drawing a line between the "value" of the plant and the "value" of the franchise. And these "values" have not been exchange values, the subject of the discussion in the preceding paragraph, but "values" as determined by appraisal. Fixing upon a "physical value" of the plant, a rate of return has been calculated upon this. Then the amount of the net earnings, after deducting this "fair return," has been calculated and capitalized, the resulting figure being the "value "of the franchise. The basis for this insistence upon "franchise value" has been the fact that assessing railroad and public utility plants, under the general property tax, had failed to secure an amount as large as would be fixed were earnings capitalized. Insistence that the franchise was property, " taxable, inheritable, alienable," soon led to an attempt to tax its " value." The only way in which such a sum could be determined, was by the process of isolating a part of the net earnings.1
But to include the result of such a calculation in the basis used for measuring the reasonableness of the return is to step again into the vicious circle of reasoning. The amount of this "franchise value" is reflected in earnings once for all. These earnings cannot possibly be treated as
1 The first conspicuous attempt to determine upon the "value" of "non-physical elements of railway property," for taxation purposes, was made by Henry C. Adams, in connection with the Michigan Appraisal of 1901. The appraised value of the physical properties which he used was the "valuation" based on "cost of reproduction less depreciation" made by M. E. Cooley, the inadequacy of which has been demonstrated. Further indication that Professor Adams has looked upon this "valuation" as worthy of serious consideration is found in his letter to former Chairman Knapp, of the Interstate Commerce Commission, quoted, Senate Report an Valuation, page 216. See Bulletin 21, Bureau of the Census, Commercial Valuation of Railway Operating Property, page 80.
E. R. Johnson has approved of the use of such a "valuation" in measuring the reasonableness of rates, as "equitable to all parties in interest — the public, the investor, and the railroad company." American Railway Transportation, pages 93, 94.
independent of the level of charges. To test the reasonableness of the return from earnings upon a "valuation " itself dependent upon the volume of earnings is, of course, to estop regulation.
Attempt to hold to the doctrine that regulation is pro tanto condemnation led Judge Hough, of the United States District Court, into this very difficulty. He had before him figures purporting to show the "present value" of the plants of the Consolidated Gas Company, determined by an "expert" appraisal. He was endeavoring to decide whether an amount should be added to this " value " to take account of the franchise which the company insisted was "property" from which an income could be "justly and lawfully demanded." l Refusing "to minimize and distinguish" the decisions which had assumed that condemnation and regulation were in spirit identical proceedings, it was left " to the higher tribunals to make distinctions which, if drawn by the lower court, would . . . savor of presumption." 2 Accordingly Judge Hough set about to determine the valuation of a franchise, which his common sense led him to believe should not be "valued."
Immediately he became hopelessly involved. "If its earning power be reduced by regulation, the value of the property is pro tanto reduced, and since the franchise is property, the value of the franchise is also reduced. . . . It is obviously true that if franchises have inherent value, and yet may be disregarded in regulating rates, it would be an easy matter to regulate profits as near the vanishing point as might be necessary, and then condemn property whose franchises had been so practically destroyed by regulation, at a price far below its worth." 3 Next pointing
out that the method of assessment for taxation involved a capitalization of earnings (above a "fair return on the assessed value of the plant"), he indicated that, while this was "undoubtedly an easy and convenient method of ascertaining the value of the franchise," it failed to recognize that "as long as the tangible property earns anything, and the franchise exists, the franchise contributes to the earning power, because it is only by virtue of the franchise that anything at all is earned." There is even a candid recognition of the existence of the fallacy, followed almost immediately after with the statement that "the value of a franchise depends wholly upon what is earned under it," l whether regulation or condemnation be under consideration.2 The result of this wavering and contradiction was the assignment of an arbitrary sum as the value of the franchises.3
Hough introduced this reasoning in order to bring the issue to the attention of the Supreme Court. If so, he failed completely to secure the result desired. See Consolidated Gas Co. v. Mayer, 146 Fed. 150, 157, the decision at the time the temporary injunction was granted. The argument here influenced the Master, A. H. Masten, who reported to Judge Hough. See Report of the Master, pages 186, 200, 204, 210, Willcox t>. Consolidated Gas Co., 212 U.S. 19.
2 The Brief of John A. Garver, on "Franchises" for the Company, Willcox v. See especially pages 20-23. At page 23 he cited Smyth v. Ames, 169 U.S. 466, declaring, "In Smyth v. Ames, the Court, in considering the method of ascertaining the value of the property, employed language which necessarily included special franchises, stating (page 547) that there should be included the amount and market value of its stocks and bonds . . . the probable earning capacity of the property."
3 On appeal, Justice Peckham took refuge behind a technicality, and, though indicating that he understood the connection between "franchise value" and earnings, made an allowance for the franchise at the amount at which it had been capitalized when the company was formed; though using an appraisal of the existing "physical " assets. But he made the clear reservation that his decision could form no precedent where similar facts did not exist. (212 U.S. 19, 44-48.) Whitten, Valuation of Public Service Corporations, pages 594-612, is devoted to an extended discussion of the facts peculiar to this case.
But, entirely aside from the analogy which has been assumed to exist between regulation and condemnation proceedings, is there not "force" in "the argument that the franchise ought to be worth something for rate-fixing purposes, if it is worth millions for taxation"? * So long . as the railroad pays a "franchise tax," should not the *^ "value" of the franchise be included in the measure of reasonableness? An affirmative answer to this question was secured by the Masters in the Alabama Rate Cases through invoking -a theory of estoppel. And Judge Jones, to whom their Reports were submitted, accepting the conclusion without the formality of examining the premises on which it was based, was content merely to "cite the authorities." 2 The Reports of the Masters, therefore, contain the essential steps in the argument.3 Mr. Gunter's Report in the South and North Alabama Case includes the portions germane to the present discussion.4
The State Tax Commission had determined the "true value, for taxation, of franchises or intangible property " by deducting "the assessed value of the tangible, real and personal property" from the market value of the stocks
and especially Public Service Gas Co. v. Board of Public Utility Commissioners, 87 Atlantic 651, a decision of Justice Swayze, of the New Jersey Supreme Court. The latter opinion was overruled by the New Jersey Court of Errors and Appeals, which, citing taxation and condemnation cases, reversed the Supreme Court, because the "value" of the franchise had been ignored in determining the basis for measuring the reasonableness of the return. Public Service Gas Co. v. Board of Public Utility Commissioners, 92 Atlantic 606. This opinion was then overruled in 94 Atlantic 634.
1 Spring Valley Water Co. v. San Francisco, 165 Fed. 649, 667, 696. See Consolidated Gas Co. v. Mayer, 146 Fed. 150, 157; and G. F. Swain, the New Haven Validation Report, page 57.
3 Report of W. A. Gunter, Special Master, South & North Alabama Case, page 42; Louisville & Nashville Case, page 98; Report of W. S. Thorington, Special Master, Central of Georgia Case, page 105; Western of Alabama Case, page 51.
and bonds . l Surely " corporate property, highly rated and taxed by the State through an official commission having such matters in charge, should be represented in the rates allowed by the State." 2
/ That this " franchise value " was found by a capitalization ^of earnings (through the medium of the securities market) troubled neither of the Masters; nor, for that matter, the Court to which they reported.3 The danger seems at one time to have been realized, at least by Mr. Gunter: " When the question is one of the reasonableness of rates, the value which determines the rates should not be determined by the rates themselves, or revenues based on them."4 But when the attorneys for the State protested, alleging that the value of the franchise was based upon earnings ("the capacity to earn profits"), they were met with the answer that the same objection would apply to "almost all" the railroad property. "The value of its structure is based on the capacity to earn profits, and in large part would be worthless without this feature, and would become more valuable as profits increased." 5 Mr. Thorington spoke in similar vein: "This argument goes too far; the proposition is equally true of the physical properties of a railroad; then* value depends on the earning capacity of the road, and fluctuates with the earning ca-
1 See General Laws of Alabama, 1907, pages 342, 348. The Masters' Reports give figures, but do not indicate the process of their determination. The amounts, of course, vary from year to year.
2 Report of W. A. Gunter, South & North Alabama Case, page 43; Louisville & Nashville Case, page 99; Report of W. S. Thorington, Central of Georgia Case, page 106; Western of Alabama Case, page 52.
a L. & N. R.R. Co. v. R.R. Commission of Alabama, 196 Fed. 800, 822; Western of Alabama Ry. Co. v. Same, 197 Fed. 954. Both cases are cited in the Valuation Brief of 1915, page 527.
6 Ibid., page 42; Report, Louisville & Nashville Case, page 98. It is this argument which commended itself to Mr. Thorington as "being sound" (Report, Western of Alabama Case, page 55); and to Judge Jones as representing "able" treatment (L. & N. R.R. Co. v. R.R. Commission of Alabama, 196 Fed. 800, 822).
parity." l These rulings clearly work into the circle. And this taint must bar, once for all, any "valuation*' of the franchise which is not entirely independent of earnings. In other words, has the franchise a "cost"?
What has been meant by "strate^cjvalue" can be best shown by a discussion of the "market value" test of the Washington Commission. The Washington Commission fell into the error of attempting to capitalize the differential gains accruing to the better situated railroads in the State, and to use a figure so determined as a measure of the reasonableness of rates. But, since everything was done through the "exercise of judgment," the vicious reasoning is not readily apparent. The difficulty with the Washington Commission originated in a conscious effort to apply the "rule" in Smyth v. Ames.2 But the "market value" as "found" by the Commission had no reference to selling price. It was a "true market value," fixed "as a fact" by members of a Commission "attempting" to act as would "intelligent business men." The Commission assumed that the considerations governing a "prudent business man" in the purchase of the property, or those of the owners in fixing a selling price, were "the same considerations that should govern a railroad commission in determining the market value of a railroad property." 3
8 Report of the Committee on Railroad Taxes, etc., Proceedings, 22d Annual Meeting, National Association of Railway Commissioners, discussion, pages 146, 147, 148. This Report (a paraphrase of Reasonable Railway Rates, by 3. C. Lawrence, of the Washington Commission) was apparently written by Mr. Lawrence, to describe the Washington method, which, the Report declared, solved "impossible problems." At any rate, he alone took up the burden of its defense, although the
"The amount and market value of the stocks and bonds issued, with a full financial history of the road. "The density of population and traffic. "The nature and permanence of population and traffic. "Facilities for doing business. "Physical characteristics.
For the Great Northern, for the Northern Pacific, and for the Oregon Railroad and Navigation Company, the three principal lines, the "findings "were in large measure parallel. There was a high density of traffic combined with a permanent population, "adding value to the>said lines." Similarly, the presence of grain elevators, flour mills, sawmills, promised the continuance of traffic which could be economically handled. This insurance of traffic and the possession of adequate terminals, warehouses, and docks,
mission, and others.
1 "All of the facts . . . are pertinent . . . but none are controlling." Report of the Committee on Railroad Taxes, etc., ibid., page 139. See also First Annual Report, Railroad Commission of Washington, page 315; and J. C. Lawrence, Reasonable Railway Rates, page 3. Also the Interstate Commerce Commission, In the Matter of Advances, etc. (1903), 9 I.C.C. 382, 402: "Moreover, the value of a railway system does not depend upon the mere cost of its embankment or its equipment. It is rather a question of its location, of connections, of terminal facilities, of enterprises, along its line; and shall nothing be allowed to the foresight and ability which have marked out and perfected that system?"
added "a value." * These elements were important particularly because of their effect upon gross earnings. Favorable gradients and curvature (the "physical characteristics"), on the other hand, were reflected in low operating costs.2 And so, at tedious length, the Commission accounted for every mile of curvature (never the degree, the really significant item), and every foot of rise and fall, though omitting the important factor in tonnage rating, the ruling grade. And where, as with the Oregon Railroad and Navigation Company, the haul was almost entirely
1 Second and Third Annual Reports, Railroad Commission of Washington (N.P.), page 165; (G.N.), page 287; (O.K. & N. Co.), page 421. See testimony of Frank Nay, Comptroller of the Rock Island, Evidence, 1910 Advances, page 365; of C. J. McPherson of the Missouri Pacific, ibid., page 846, and of Howard Elliott, Minnesota Rate Cases, Record (N.P.), page 1257 and following. Also the Valuation Brief of 1915; pages 483-86, 512-14.
The following summary of the testimony of Howard Elliott, on the elements on the Northern Pacific property "adding value in addition to the mere physical values of its component parts," is here pertinent:
Mr. Elliott "described the location of the lines, the character of the country, towns and cities, through which they run, the terminal facilities owned at points where traffic is received or delivered, the growing character of the country and the nature of the tonnage tributary to the road, demonstrating how all of these elements create values in the property. He analyzed the grades, showing that they are favorable and calculated to permit the Northern Pacific lines to meet competition; demonstrated that the property has been well cared for and is widely known; that it possesses an efficient organization; that it reaches from the Great Lakes to tide-water on the Pacific Ocean, and that, it being the pioneer line in many of the communities through which it runs, industries have been built up about it and are, therefore, naturally tributary to it. This creates a constant current of traffic toward it and in a country where population is growing and commerce increasing, it demonstrates that the property has future prospects for growth in business. He finally summed up all of the elements of intangible values thus referred to by saying, that while it is impossible to measure by any sum the amount of such values, in his judgment the property, as a commercial enterprise for doing a transportation business, is worth at least fifteen per cent more than the same system newly constructed." Brief for the Companies, page 359, Minnesota Rate Cases, 230 U.S. 352.
result.1
The Northern Pacific even had "great value" added to its lines through the possession of control of the Northwestern Improvement Company, from which it bought coal at a price considerably under that paid by the other Washington roads.2 Similarly, a value was added "where a road had electrified its operations over mountain grades by use of water power which it owns, cheapening and safeguarding operations."3 And the road, so located that it could not be paralleled and made to suffer from competition, occupied a "strategic position" to be recognized in a determination of "market value." 4
This "market value" was fixed by the Commission "as a fact." A market value determined by consideration of security quotations " would be a good deal like lifting ourselves by our bootstraps." 5 Yet a circuitous resort to "judgment" in no sense evades the circle in reasoning, which looks to exchange value as a test of reasonableness. The factors, which the Washington Commission insisted "added" a "value," are significant only because of their relation to earnings. Clearly they bear no relation to cost or investment. The Commission was insisting upon a capitalization of the net earnings which accrue through the
1 Proceedings, 22d Annual Meeting, National Association of Railway Commissioners, page 147. The same point was made in 1886 by James Fentrees, one of the counsel in Stone v. Farmers' Loan and Trust Co., Brief, page 26, 116 U.S. 307; likewise by R. E. T. Riggs, "Problems of Railroad Valuation," Columbia Law Review, volume '13, page 685.
8 J. C. Lawrence, Reasonable Railway Rates, page 9.
4 Proceedings, 22d Annual Meeting, National Association of Railway Commissioners, page 148, and page 144, referring to the O.R. & N. Co. See L. & N. Ry. Co. v. R.R. Commission of Alabama, 196 Fed. 800, 820, where competition is indicated as lowering "value."
the economic rent of the site.1
The same fundamental problem appeared in the Minnesota Rate Cases, though presented in a slightly different light. A large part of the railroad holdings in the Twin Cities lay along the Mississippi, and in Duluth, along the harbor front, an entirely typical situation. In St. Paul, for example, the peculiar topography (the city rising high above the river bottom where the yards lay) restricted very materially the area available for railroad terminals possessing easy access to the business district.2 (It would have been contrary to the hypothesis to assume the business district elsewhere than in the location near the existing yards, where it had grown due to the very presence of the yards!) Accordingly the experts hired by the railroads to make a "valuation" took into consideration the fact that the most available use of the bottom and "plateau" lands would be for railroad purposes. Railroad use representing one of the "highest uses of land," it was possible to fix prices per square foot considerably above what the value of the land would be if occupied by broken-down hovels — the other great "use" for the bottom lands in American
1 Nowhere is the entire failure of the Washington Commission to grasp the problem better illustrated than in the following statement of Mr. Lawrence: "The Chicago, Milwaukee and Pi^get Sound started the construction of its line through the State of Washington, almost paralleling the Northern Pacific, and we asked the question: which is worth more, costing the same, the Milwaukee paralleling the Northern Pacific, new roadbed, no facilities for doing business, not established as a going concern, or the Northern Pacific, long in business, warehouses, factories, industries of all kinds built up, with the facilities for doing business, and actually doing a profitable business as a going concern; which is worth the more? Would not the Milwaukee pay the Northern Pacific far more than the cost of its property now rather than expend a similar sum, and then wait for the business to come?" Proceedings, 22d Annual Meeting, National Association of Railway Commissioners, pages 173-74. All of this, however true, is of course simply beside the point. It is sufficient to ask: what of it?
cities.1 The same general method was followed in Minneapolis. In Duluth, however, in the Master's phrase, "the appraisers were much more moderate in fixing values and seemed to have adjusted the same with reference to the adaptability of the property for general business enterprises, and not to have taken into account their special and increased value for railroad purposes." This error the Master corrected by increasing their figures by twenty-five per cent to cover both the "railroad value" and an allowance for acquisition and consequential damages. In the other cities he made an allowance of five per cent to cover the latter factors.2
Judge Sanborn accepted the land " valuations " reported by the Master; Justice Hughes in the Supreme Court rejected them unceremoniously. The grounds for his rejection were two in number; the one looking simply to the precedents cited from the field of condemnation, the other looking more deeply into the economic problem. In the
"A. In the first place, it is put to a different use; the value as based on that use is different. In the second place, it becomes an entire and completed creation; it ceases to be a commodity that is offered in the general market; it is not dependent on the little fluctuations, the temporary stringency of money, the individual necessity of sale, and the various elements that go to make the prices of real estate viewed as an ordinary salable commodity.
event of condemnation proceedings, it was held, an owner would not be entitled to demand payment of an amount which property might be deemed worth to the company; nor payment of an enhanced value by virtue of the purpose for which it was taken. There was no sound basis, therefore, for allowance of such imaginary amounts in the case of appraisal for measuring reasonableness. And these conclusions Justice Hughes supported by citation of authorities: "Supposing the railroad to be obliterated, and the lands to be held by others, the owner of each parcel would be entitled to receive, on its condemnation, its fair market value for all its available uses and purposes," declared Justice Hughes. Indeed, "if in the case of any such owner, his property had a peculiar value, or special adaptation for railroad purposes, that would be an element to be considered." It is not easy to harmonize these citations with the conclusion drawn:
"But still the inquiry would be as to the fair market value of the property; as to what the owner had lost, and not what the taker had gained. The owner would not be entitled to demand payment of the amount which the property might be deemed worth to the company; or of an enhanced value by virtue of the purpose for which it was taken; or of an increase over its fair market value, by reason of any added value supposed to result from its combination with tracts acquired from others so as to make it a part of a continuous railroad right-of-way held in one ownership." l
This mode of handling, of course, represented a mere maintenance of the condemnation analogy; an extension of principles developed to cover an entirely different fundamental issue. The holding of the Court standing alone, therefore, is hardly final for the economist.
Nor have the railroad attorneys accepted the doctrine as
1 Minnesota Rate Cases, 230 U.S. 352, 451, citing Boom Company v. Patterson, 98 U.S. 403; Shoemaker v. U.S., 147 U.S. 282; U.S. v. ChandlerDunbar Water Power Co., 229 U.S. 53.
conclusive.1 The failure to reject outright the condemnation analogy has resulted in a return to the attack. The Valuation Brief of 1915 cited the cases used by Justice Hughes (and the Minnesota Rate Cases as well), in support of the contention urged:
"In the case of right of way, station grounds and terminals, as in the case of other lands of considerable area, the value of the whole is greater than the sum of the values of the parcels comprising the same, and there are elements, such as continuity, shape, suitableness for railroad use, etc., which must be taken into account and allowed for." 2
Unless there shall be a clean-cut enunciation of the principle that regulation is not condemnation, and that different considerations govern the two sets of cases, a consistent argument based on citations may be maintained in these terms, however inadequate the analysis.
But Justice Hughes' further discussion went straight to the basis of the difficulty: "For the purpose of making rates is land devoted to the public use to be treated (irrespective of improvements) not only as increasing in value by reason of the activities and general prosperity of the community, but as constantly outstripping in this increase, all neighboring lands of like character, devoted to other uses?" No. And why? Because "the railway value of land" — "a large body of land in continuous ownership," representing one of the "highest uses of land" — is "an increment which in the last analysis must rest on an estimate of the value of the railroad use as compared with other business use; it involves an appreciation of the returns from rates, which rates themselves are in
1 The Valuation Brief of 1915, page 273: "The present value of each piece of land used for transportation, must be determined upon the same principles which govern in case of condemnation of private property for public use"; citing Reagan v. Farmers' Loan & Trust Co., 154 U.S. 362; Ames v. Union Pacific, 64 Fed. 165.
dispute." 1 In other words, "railway value," at a date subsequent to the time of original purchase, means a capitalization (surely a hazy procedure in the minds of the appraisers anyway) of the differential advantages possessed by the site. The reason why a railroad company is ready to pay high prices for land which it can use for yards and depot grounds, without considerable grading, is because of the necessity of conforming to construction standards. The low land, therefore, possesses a differential advantage over tracts where large amounts of excavation or fill would be needed. It is this fact which accounts for the presence of the railroad in river valleys everywhere. Not because the use for railroad purposes represents a higher use does land, valueless, or nearly valueless, for other purposes acquire value, but because the possession of level land means a saving in building and a saving in operation. The "higher use" is a result, not a cause. So much is commonplace analysis in terms of the theory of rent.2
very unsure language:
"A. But, you take the property going up Trout Brook or Phalen Creek gorges, it has almost no value from a residence point of view — down in a gulley, subject under normal conditions to overflow, deprived of proper ventilation, and almost wholly unfit for ordinary purposes of dwellings; and yet, offering a unique and ideal situation for a railroad, escaping grade crossings, coming into the city on the level of the river, and having any number of very unusual and valuable features from a railroad point of view; but for all ordinary real estate purposes, having next to no value.
"Q. Yes. If there were going to be no railroads, the fact that it was in the gully, the fact that it is barren, as well as the fact that there is no proper ventilation, would practically deprive it of any value, wouldn't it?
Yet the railroad appraisers, the railroad attorneys, and the Master, in insisting upon the concept of the "railroad value of land,'* however uncertain their statement, were entirely right if the problem be conceived of as one in the determination of "value." For the value of land in any case depends upon the capitalization of the rent which accrues on that land.1 This is true of agricultural land; and it is true of urban sites. It is equally true of land devoted to the railroad service, once for all. Much land, indeed, worthless for agriculture, and far from urban centers, is extremely "valuable" when sought for railroad construction. The possession of a canyon pass, a riverbank, or a sloping hillside may well mean saving in original outlay and in operating costs through all time. Such land is in a position essentially similar to that occupied by rich land located close to a market, or to the site on the busiest corner of a city. Lands peculiarly suited for the use of a railroad are in demand because they do offer differential advantages; but the extent of these advantages can be measured only through the effect on income.2 Strategic
"A. Not the curving of the gorge, but the general topographical situation; the fact of its being below the grade renders it of just the value that it would cost to cut that out.
2 See argument of T. W. Hulme, Valuation Conference of May 27-29, 1915, Proceedings, pages 120-27; and especially the classic discussion in Wellington, Economic Theory of Railway Location, chapters in-v.
situation, adaptability, "railway value," mean nothing until that advantage is realized in terms of income. How otherwise " value " the Royal Gorge occupied by the Denver and Rio Grande Railroad, or the Delaware "Water Gap"? l
That there can be a substantial difference between " good- will " and " going value " from the economic point of view is difficult to see. The courts have insisted that such a difference exists. But the basis for this insistence has been purely technical. Good-will, in the standard definition of the American courts, is " all that disposition which customers entertain toward the house of business identified by the particular name or firm, and which may induce them to continue giving their custom to it." 2 What has since come to be known as "going value" was described by Justice Brewer, in a case involving the taking over of a water plant, as "the value which flows from the established connections between the pipes and the buildings of the city." s Now, since the customer who deals with a monopoly must resort to the old stand or go without, his disposition toward such a company can count for naught. Good-will is a characteristic of competitive industry.4
W.W. v. San Francisco, 192 Fed. 137, 168.
The following, from the testimony of Commissioner B. H. Meyer before the House Committee on Interstate Commerce, in 1913, seemingly reflects, on the part of all speakers, a neglect of the economic as distinguished from the legal concept:
But the economic significance is the same in either case; and there is, consequently, no present responsibility to attempt classification of the railroad business as competitive or monopolistic. Good-will depends upon the assurance of earnings; so does "going value," "connected value." They represent the same kind of costs (if any) : the expense of establishing permanent business relations. That in the one case poor service may mean a loss of custom, and that in the other no usable alternative is at hand, does not destroy this fact of cost, which, for our purpose, is the significant one. Neither good- will nor "going value" can here be measured as a function of earning power.
Members of the engineering profession have, nevertheless, used a capitalization of earning power to determine upon the amount of the "going value." But their process of capitalization is a very complicated one, representing the results of a series of hypotheses governed entirely by "expert" judgment. In the first place, the present plant is assumed to disappear, a new "phantom" plant, without any business, being erected in its place.1 For a period
value that enter into a fair valuation, the Commission can, when necessary, inquire into the other elements of value. What, for instance, if anything, shall be allowed as going value?
"I assume a railway, because of the monopolistic character of its business cannot claim value under the head of good-will, as a gas company might conceivably, but I believe the Supreme Court has held even a gas company may not include good- will as an element of value; but such claims have been made. Now, whatever justice there may be in such claims is a matter of inquiry in each specific case.
"Mr. Meyer. When that question was first urged, before I came to Washington, I remember asking attorneys, who were urging it, if, in their judgment, regulating authorities would consider good-will as an asset, whether by the same process of reasoning they should not also consider ill-will as a liability; and the argument was not pressed.
(the length of this period being dependent upon the will and judgment of the appraiser), the earnings of the hypothetical plant are assumed to be below those of the existing plant. Then, "the sum of the present worths of the annual excess in net return" received by the existing plant, until such time as the earnings of the comparative plant catch up, "represents the amount which a purchaser could afford to pay for the existing property with its established income in excess of the value of its bare physical plant " (as fixed by appraisal).1
Quite aside from the validity of the premises, a discussion of which is postponed for the moment, it is clear that the proposed scheme places a premium on conjecture. And this conjecture is in a field where there is no possible check through even the roughest measurement. How rapidly will the "phantom" plant, the "comparative" plant, acquire earnings? What shall be the rate of capitalization for determining the " present worth " of the hypothetical excess in revenue? How great will be the annual operating expenses? etc., etc.2 The man who would presume to make such a calculation for an American railroad system would prove himself truly courageous. The scheme can only be described f*s a revelry of conjecture which presents "expert opinion" a the worst possible light.
But there is the logical bar to the use of such a method of calculation when rates are in question. The revenue accrues from rates already in effect, and there can be no
1 Leonard Metcalf and John W. Alvord, "The Going Value of Water Works," Transactions, Am. Soc., C.E., volume 73. Discussed at length in Whitten, Valuation of Public Service Corporations, chapter xxiu, pages 500-19. Mr. Alvord presented computations based upon these hypotheses in Green Bay v. Green Bay Water Co., 12 W.R.C.R. 236; and in Milwaukee v. Milwaukee Gas Light Co., 12 W.R.C.R. 441, both rate cases.
2 See Milwaukee v. M.E.R. & L. Co., 10 W.R.C.R. 1, 152-53. These two pages are devoted to the fourteen hypotheses involved in making a "comparative plant " estimate of the "going value" of the company. -
measure of reasonableness, which is dependent for its amount upon the level of charges. It is extraordinary that this difficulty has appeared "only imaginary" to the expert who was one of the originators of the scheme.1 But the commissions to whom the calculations on this basis have been presented, have usually, but not always, been of another mind. And rightly so.2
There have been few calculations purporting to measure the "going value" of a railroad.3 Nor have the State appraisals made attempt to secure such figures. The railroad attorneys have been content to cite the conclusion of Justice Brewer and have urged that "there should be added something in addition to the cost of reproducing the property." 4 Their aim has been simply to set the "cost of
1 Benezette Williams and C. B. Williams, Report to the Mayor and City Council on Water Rates for Peoria, Illinois, page 27. The essentials of the "comparative plant" hypothesis were worked out by the former, who persistently talks in a circle when discussing the subject. See quotations from his remarks and report on the Peoria situation, in WTiitten, Valuation of Public Service Comporations, page 502 and following. The reason why the difficulty in so basing "going value" is, in his mind, "imaginary," lies in the assertion that the " discriminating appraiser can determine from the revenue, within small limits, whether the rates are too high as a whole, to give a proper basis for computing going value, and he can always correct the going value to conform to the proper revenue after it has been determined." Peoria Report, page 27; Whitten, page 512.
2 See Hill v. Antigo Water Co., 3 W.R.C.R. 623, 716, and the decisions outlined in Whitten, Valuation of Public Service Corporations, page 1280 and following (volume u). It would seem that in Milwaukee v. M.E.R. & L. Co., 10 W.R.C.R. 1, 151-55, 159, the Wisconsin Commission did accord serious attention to the scheme. And Former Chairman Erickson, in an address before the Western Society of Engineers, failed to frown upon a use of the "comparative plant" method: "This reproductive cost and the actual original cost of the business can then be compared, and the determination of the going value, or cost of the business, then depends upon the exercise of a sound judgment, based upon these two costs." Railway Age Gazette, volume 54, page 756. (Italics, the writer's.)
reproduction " as a lower limit. These tactics were pursued by some of the attorneys for the railroads in the 1910 Advance Cases,1 and by the railroad counsel in the Minnesota Rate Cases.2
This argument has been supported by citations from quite another series of decisions, handed down during the period when the "valuation" doctrine was unfolding — opinions also written by Justice Brewer. In Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago and St. Louis Railway Company v. Backus, the "unit rule" of taxation was developed. The "value" of the road as a whole was determined, and the "value" of the line within the State was apportioned on a mileage basis.3
than an aggregation of the values of separate parts of it,
1 Brief of Burton Hanson for the C.M. & St.P., Evidence, 1910 Advances, page 3713; Brief of C. M. Dawes for the C.B. & Q., page 3635; Brief of G. W. Seevers for the M. & St.L., page 3921. See also, Brief for the Companies, Minnesota Rate Cases, page 334.
2 Here it was stated "as a rule" that the true value of a property "efficiently located, constructed, and maintained," where the results of operations "show volume of traffic and earnings sufficient to support the property, pay reasonable dividends, and leave something in addition, is in excess of the mere cost of reproduction of the physical or tangible property."
Brief for the Companies, Minnesota Rate Cases, page 160. This " rule " was supported by a series of citations from tax, condemnation, and rate decisions, of which only three (Smyth v. Ames, Knoxville v. Knoxville Water Co., and Willcox v. Consolidated Gas Co.) were Supreme Court decisions. There is nothing in these cases as decided to warrant the unqualified statement of the "rule." The attorneys might have said, with equal truth, that the value (i.e., exchange value, which they apparently had in mind) bore no relation whatever to anything but earnings, realized and prospective.
See the testimony of W. L. Darling, Minnesota Rate Cases, Record (N.P.), pages 29-30; that of Howard Elliott, page 1257 and following; and of J. J. Hill, Record (G.N.), page 1290.
operated separately. It is the aggregate of those values plus that arising from a connected operation of the whole, and each part of the road contributes not merely the value arising from its independent operation, but its mileage proportion of that flowing from a continuous and connected operation of the whole. This is no denial of the mathematical proposition that the whole is equal to the sum of all its parts, because there is a value created by and resulting from the combined operation of all its parts as one continuous line."
Central Railroad:
"Immediately upon the consolidation . . . the value of the property was recognized in the market as largely in excess of the aggregate of the values of the separate properties." l
But Justice Brewer was speaking of market value, and the increase in this value could only come through a realized, or anticipated, increase in net earnings, or through a change in the rate of capitalization. Indeed, his language had no connection whatever with "value" as determined by appraisal. Because of a parallel in phraseology, counsel have apparently attempted to correlate opinions upon quite detached subjects.2
"After much discussion, comparison of figures, and readjustment," the Court in the National Water Works Case fixed upon $3,000,000 as the "fair and equitable value " which should be paid by the city. This was " some-
In Adams Express Co. v. Ohio (also a taxation case) Justice Brewer wrote in similar vein: "Now, whenever separate articles of tangible property are joined together, not simply by a unity of ownership, but in a unity of use, there is not infrequently developed a property, intangible though it may be, which in value exceeds the aggregate of the value of the separate pieces of tangible property." 166 U.S. 185, 219.
2 Brief for the Companies, Minnesota Rate Cases, pages 334-35; Brief of Burton Hanson, Evidence, 1910 Advances, page 3714; Brief of Messrs. Dunlap, Norton and Lathrop, pages 3601, 3603; and the Valuation Brief of 1015, pages 494-96.
thing in excess of the cost of reproduction" (which by appraisal had been placed at $2,714,000); but the additional $286,000 represented simply an arbitrary allowance. No reason appears in the decision to indicate why the figure was not placed above (or below) that chosen, except perhaps that $3,000,000 was the par of a bond issue.1 That the Court had any clean-cut conception of the nature of this "value which flows from the established connections" is doubtful. The conclusion was simply that the city was to secure a property which not only had " the pledge to earn," but was "in fact earning." The argument is, then, quite typical of the reasoning on the subject of "value" found in the judicial opinions. Certainly there is nothing to indicate that Justice Brewer had in mind what may be called the "cost of production" of a "going business." 2
Nor has there been unanimity among the "experts," or even clarity, either, for that matter. What could be more noncommittal than the assertion that " going value " included "practically all the elements of value which the company may possess outside of its actual structural value, and the tangible worth of value of its quick assets"? This product of a "very wide expert experience" impressed the New Jersey Commission with its "solidity." 3 Or there is the definition of M. E. Cooley, who speaks of "the value lying in the property by virtue of its kinetic or dynamic character, as distinguished from the value in the property by virtue of its potential or static character." 4 One is forced to the opinion that the idea of value as something independent of earnings is by no means confined to the members of the legal profession.
tive plant" method) proposed by the "experts," has generally been the safe method (safe, since devoid of principle) of measuring the allowance for the "going concern" in terms of a percentage of the "value" of the plant as determined by appraisal.1 For the present purpose it is sufficient to cite a single instance. In one Wisconsin Commission case, the two experts for the company placed this figure, one at ten per cent, the other at twenty per cent.2 Had another set of experts been at hand the figures could have been placed at fifteen per cent 3 — at thirty per cent; even at one third the "structural value."4 Resort to such rough approximation (based on no logical relationship) can hardly set claim to being a serious contribution to the problem of regulation.5
The Wisconsin Commission has, however, invoked what it has called a doctrine of "cost," having as a major premise the assumption that the company in the public service is "entitled" to the same "fair return v from the
1 The failure of the Minnesota Master to deduct "depreciation" was justified in part on the grounds of "adaptation to the needs of the country," "knowledge derived from experience," and "readiness to serve," marking his acceptance of testimony of J. J. Hill, Minnesota Rate Cases, Record (G.N.), page 1299; of Howard Elliott, Record (N.P.), page 1249. See Minnesota Rate Cases, 230 U.S. 352, 457-58.
« Knoxville v. Knoxville Water Co., 212 U.S. 1, Record, page 2137. Here the president of the company attempted to justify the figure of fifteen per cent which rested "very largely" on his judgment, as a "single, convenient . . . conservative basis."
4 See State Journal Printing Co. v. Madison G. & E. Co., 4 W.R.C.R. 501, 571, an amusing comment on the testimony of President Humphreys, of Stevens Institute, who testified as an "expert." He testified with equal vagueness, but in a positive tone, in the New York Gas Case, Record, pages 1688-89, Willcox v. Consolidated Gas Co., 212 U.S. 19.
6 In Pioneer T. & T. Co. v. Westenhaver, the Oklahoma Supreme Court accepted one of these expert "opinions," which was "not contradicted by the State." 118 Pacific 354, 361.
beginning of its operations. The general experience of new enterprises shows during the preliminary years of operation a return less than the normal going rate on investments in established enterprises. Does not the sum of these "deficits" measure "the cost of building up the business"? l The Wisconsin Commission has so assumed; and this "continuous property" theory is one of the working tools of that body, its use now justified by reference to precedent.2 Professor J. R. Commons, appearing before the Senate Committee working upon the Valuation Bill, could testify at length in its favor.3
The same general line of thought is found in Commissioner Lane's opinion in the Western Advance Case of 1910, where he broke from the "rule" in Smyth v. Ames, which Commissioner Prouty used as the guide for his discussion in the Eastern Case. In summing up, Mr. Lane said:
" The nearest approximation to the fair standard is that of bona fide investment — the sacrifice made by the owners of the property — considering as part of the investment any shortage of return that there may be in the early years of the enterprise. Upon this, taking the life history of the road through a number of years, its promoters are entitled to a reasonable return." *
possibly the original source of inspiration.
8 This doctrine was first clearly expressed in Hill v. Antigo Water Co., 3 W.R.C.R. 623, 711 (1909). See Milwaukee v. M.E.R. & L. Co., 10 W.R.C.R. 1, 122, and cases there cited. In Spring Valley W.W. ». San Francisco, 124 Fed. 574 (1903), a similar calculation had been introduced by the company, page 577; also, 165 Fed. 667, 696; 192 Fed. 137, 166.
The Antigo Case, though not referred to by Commissioner Lane, was cited in the Brief of Messrs. Dunlap, Norton and Lathrop for the Santa F6. Evidence, 1910 Advances, pages 3567, 3609. The attorneys for the State in the Minnesota Rate Cases, seeking to throw discredit on the "cost of reproduction," quoted the passage in Commissioner Lane's opinion. Brief for the State, page 80.
The Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe was the only carrier which presented figures purporting to measure this "shortage of return." The late Mr. James Peabody, the company's Statistician, testified that since 1896, when the company was reorganized, this amount had grown to $154,568,319.69. These figures had been worked out by his chief clerk in "two or three hours," and were introduced under the formidable caption, "account current of the A.T. & S.F. Ry. Co. with the public on the basis of 6 per cent return on the property investment." l Since this table was presented with all the completeness of a " cost of reproduction" estimate, it is worth while to indicate the process by which the pretentiously accurate total was determined.
The calculations began with the "property investment of January 1, 1896," as shown on the books of the reorganized corporation. This original figure was $371,669,326.78. To this was added one half of the cost of the additions made during the first six months of operation, procedure entailed because of the non-coincidence of calendar and fiscal year. The total was a "mean investment" of $371,886,794.77. Three per cent of this total was $11,156,603.84; the "income available for return on investment" was only $2,432,870.06. Therefore a "deficiency in return to be carried to investment" appeared of $8,723,733.78. The "total investment at the end of fiscal year" was consequently the sum of this "deficit," the original "total investment," and the total cost of additions. To this amount was added one half the cost of improvements made in the next fiscal year, etc., and the train of calculations was duly concluded to 1911. A series of "deficits" resulted, ranging from nearly five million dollars, in the boom year, 1906-07, to seventeen millions in the first full year of operation (1896-97). Even in 1910 the
amount ran above ten millions. Over the period of years "the deficiency in return to be carried to investment" amounted to the exact total which was presented to the Commission — $154,568,319.69. l
The first concern is with the statistical adequacy of this calculation. It began with an item, the Investment account of the reorganized company, which, if not in some degree fictitious, was of uncertain validity. To balance the increased par of securities, it had been "written up "some $40,000,000 without any additions to physical assets.2 How much or how little the total represented "water" before that time is entirely conjectural.
In the second place, had the income been accurately stated during the period ; was the property being " milked " ; or, what is more probably true, were net additions being made out of earnings? If so, to what extent had the " squeezing-out " process been operative in any one year? These questions obviously cannot now be answered. Yet on the basis of figures which were, on this ground, quite inconclusive, an "account current" against the public was drawn up, which one of the foremost railroad statisticians of the country declared "was made out in harmony" with his views.3 The truth is simply that the
1 Evidence, 1910 Advances, pages 1098, 5563.
Mr. Peabody here spoke of this as the amount "that the public owe the Santa Fe road on the basis of six per cent return on property investment;" the Brief for the company, as the "absolute inadequacy of earnings," page 3567.
The detailed method used by the Wisconsin Commission is described in full in State Journal Printing Co. t>. Madison G. & E. Co., 4 W.R.C.R. 501, 580. The same general hypotheses are there used, as those assumed by Mr. Peabody.
2 See the detailed discussion of Santa Fe accounting methods prior to the administration of President Ripley, W. M. Cole, Accounts, page 196. Mr. Peabody testified that he made "no analysis of the original amount whatever," Evidence, 1910 Advances, page 1107.
8 Evidence, 1910 Advances, page 1107. Nor have the computations made by the Wisconsin Commission&een more scientific. Rejecting book accounts and reverting to the meaningless "average price" appraisal, it has never-
cedure.
An equally compelling criticism can be brought against the validity of another of the premises. Why should the rate of six per cent be used instead of eight, or nine, or ten per cent? l The rate of six per cent may have represented simply gravitation to a rate, which, at least, in the public mind, bears the earmarks of "fairness." At all events, the Wisconsin Commission's computations have usually been based upon higher rates, seven and seven and a half per cent, not infrequently eight.2
That in a business involving a greater or less degree of risk (the extent of risk is not our present concern) such rates might well not be excessive may be granted at once.3 But though the Wisconsin scheme as applied by the Santa Fe would not insist on payment out of hand to the stock-
theless used these same accounts in order to measure the "cost of building up the business." And the totals, like those of Mr. Peabody, have been presented as though accurate to the final cent. See Milwaukee v. M.E.R. & L. Co., 10 W.R.C.R. 1, 151; and cases cited at page 123.
Though Mr. Peabody assumed sole responsibility for his figures, it would seem that G. O. May, an accountant who testified for the Santa Fe", may have been the one suggesting the compilation of the table. Evidence, 1910 Advances, page 1052.
2 In the Antigo Case, which was the precedent to which the Santa Fe" attorneys looked, one set of calculations was made on the six per cent basis; another set on the seven per cent basis. 3 W.R.C.R. 623, 744-50. See In re Menominee & Marinette L. & T. Co., 3 W.R.C.R. 778, 792; State Journal Printing Co. v. Madison G. & E. Co., 4 W.R.C.R 501, 577; City of Appleton v. Appleton W.W. Co., 5 W.R.C.R. 215, 276; Cunningham et al. v. Chippewa Falls W. & L. Co., 5 W.R.C.R. 302, 315.
3 It should be noted that where a portion of the funds invested are secured by bonds bearing a lower rate than the rate on which the calculations are made, the result is to increase the rate of return on the investment by shareholders.
holders of fifteen years ago, it would, in substance, permit them (or the persons to whom they have sold) to consider the " deficits " as investment. In other words, these stockholders are placed in exactly the same position as the investor whose enterprise began as an immediate success, who received dividends, made savings, and reinvested in this or in another enterprise.1 The compounding of annual "deficits" perhaps stops short of a formal guarantee of return to the company. But in effect one risk element is removed: there can be no legislation affecting rates unless previous "deficits" are included as "investment."
A corollary of the proposal to "capitalize the deficit" says: "the surplus should be deducted." This, at least, is the doctrine to which Professor Commons subscribed.2 The issue was raised in the Spokane Case. The counsel for the city insisted that the "physical value" should be reduced by the amount of the accumulated surplus. In the face of the dividends paid, its existence indicated, they declared, that excessive rates had been charged. The railroad is an agent of the Government, and as such is entitled only to "reasonable compensation." This the dividends had constituted. Therefore the surplus represented exploitation, and its amount should be conceived of as a fund held by the railroad as trustee for the public. So ran the indictment and the argument. In refusing to approve this
1 The fact that a former holder made this "investment" (entirely unconsciously since the Antigo scheme is a modern invention) does not change the character of this conclusion. On the contrary, the former holder sold, and bore the loss, the present holder purchasing for the income of the future. To him the bonus accrues as a gratuity. But if the fact that "deficits" were incurred under other than present owners, and borne by them, is to constitute a bar to such allowance, because the "deficits" have "been wiped out in the various transfers of ownership," the claim would seem in a precarious state. See State Journal Printing Co. v. Madison G. & E. Co., 4 W.R.C.R. 501, 586, where the point is raised.
reasoning the Commission indicated points of insufficiency. In the first place the Government had supplied no absolute test of a reasonable rate; in the second place, accumulation of a surplus by a particular road might be accounted for by reason of "cheaper construction and easier operation." l The fact that the company had the choice of distributing the income to its owners as dividends, but instead chose to add to its plant (in short, forced the shareholders to add to their investment in the railroad, rather than allowing them to invest elsewhere), the opinion did not consider; though this, it would seem, should be the vital issue. That the "saving" had been done by a corporation, rather than by individuals, should not hide the economic significance of the omission to distribute the volume of earnings. The risk was assumed; the venture proved profitable; part of the earnings were put back into the property.2 Certainly to
1 Spokane v. N.P. Ry. Co., 15 I.C.C. 376, 410, 415. See Commissioner Lane's discussion in the Western Advance Case of 1910, 20 I.C.C. 307. The arguments of the attorneys for the city of Spokane were similar to those used by E. B. Whitney in Willcox v. Consolidated Gas Co., 212 U.S. 19. Mr. Whitney's Brief reads as follows: "Properties purchased out of surplus earnings, over and above high dividends, the facts not being disclosed to the consumer, should be regarded as having been contributed by the consumer, and not by the company, and hence should not be treated as capital for the purpose of fixing rates" (page 244). This reasoning is called "socialistic" by J. M. Beck, in his Brief (page 100), though Mr. Whitney in his reply insisted that to hide "further profits which the public does not know that it is making, by paying them out in what the public believe to be operating expenses, but which are really additional construction, the purpose of the whole thing being to prevent the public from knowing how much money the company is really making, and then capitalize this additional construction against the public, and collect tolls thereon for the rest of eternity" meant "the permanent capitalization of an original fraud " (pages 47-48).
See Evidence, 1910 Advances, page 4338, Argument of L. D. Brandeis; and page 5288, that of Walker D. Hines in reply; where both men assert that high earnings do not necessarily indicate "excessive rates."
2 This problem has never come to the Supreme Court as an issue. In Louisiana Railroad Commission v. Cumberland T. & T. Co., 212 U.S. 414, 425, Justice Peckham, though discussing the property presumably representing reinvestment of the charges to depreciation, indicated that the Court was not "considering a case where there are surplus earnings
declare at this time that the "surplus" accumulated in the past represents extortion, and that extensions, etc., in effect offset on the balance-sheet by the " surplus," should not be considered as investment by the company for the benefit of its owners, but instead as a "trust fund" for the public, involves a very real regulation (confiscation?) of "past profits." The company which has conserved its resources would be penalized for careful management. But if the successful railroad shall keep the fruits of its extraordinary gains, the unsuccessful must expect to bear its losses. Such consistent application of the reasoning has not, however, been required by the attorneys for the railroads. The one has insisted that the past "losses" should in effect be capitalized. His colleague, representing another interest, has vigorously protested against a deduction on account of earnings made in excess of a "fair return." " Heads we win, but tails, you lose." 1 And all this, be it remembered, assumes that the surplus is real.
It is easy enough to reduce to an absurdity the programme which would conceive of "deficits" as "investment." The more unsuccessful a project has been, the greater has been "the cost of building up the business";
after providing for a depreciation fund, and the surplus is invested in extensions and additions." That problem could be dealt with as it might arise. See also Whitten, Valuation of Public Service Corporations, page 176 and cases cited. Mr. Whitten writes: "If a company has charged rates, not alone adequate to pay a fair and reasonable profit to the stockholders, . . . but also to permit the building out of earnings of extensions, there is some justice in the argument that unless this has been done for the benefit of consumers it represents pure extortion."
1 Brief of Messrs. Dunlap, Norton and Lathrop, for the Santa Fe, Evidence, 1910 Advances, page 3609; that of C. M. Dawes for the C.B. & Q., page 3634; that of E. M Hyzer for the C. & N. W.. pages 3751-54; and argument of Walker D. Hines, page 5289.
The Wisconsin Commission, when a "negative" figure would develop, has been content to indicate that no "going value" should be allowed. See State Journal Printing Co. v. Madison G. & E. Co., 4 W.R.C.R. 501, 582, 583. Clearly this is a failure to face the logical issue.
the greater is its "value " as a going concern. A protracted preliminary deficit might, in the long run, be as substantial a goal for efficient management (in the sense that the test of management is the securing of returns for the owners) as an unbroken record of dividend payments, or the creation of a surplus. But Commissioner Lane qualified his approval of the doctrine that a "shortage of return" be considered as "bonafide investment." Such conclusion "manifestly" is limited; for a return should not be given upon wastefulness, mismanagement, or poor judgment.1 The Wisconsin Commission has held that "deficits due to abnormal conditions, bad management, poor judgment, extravagance, lack of ordinary care and foresight . . . should receive very little attention." 2 Professor Commons insisted that "the deficit must be reasonable." 3
These qualifications are obviously more plausible than capable of practical use. They assume the existence of a "representative firm" with "reasonable" and honest direction. But what test shall be applied to determine "slipshod, careless, unprogressive management" of a generation ago; what of "competition"; "the collapse of the boom "? 4 The one convincing test is the very ability or inability of the venture to net its owners the normal return which might have accrued from investment in another direction, assuming that its operations have not been squeezed or irrationally hampered by restrictive legislation.
8 Senate Report on Valuation, page 95.
4 See Application Oconto City Water Co., 7 W.R.C.R. 497, 516; Application La Crosse G. & E. Co., 8 W.R.C.R. 138, 184; Superior Commercial Club v. Superior W.L. & P. Co., 10 W.R.C.R. 704, 742; in which these points are raised.
first years of operation, allowance might not equitably be made for "deficits" presents entirely different considerations from those which are presented when rates of charge are concerned. Condemnation deprives the enterprise of the power to make such profits through a period of years as had been contemplated when the investment was first made. There can be valid reason for the allowance in the one case, and not in the other. Rate regulation does not contemplate taking the property from the owner. What is a "fair return" depends upon the risk assumed, and the degree of skill and judgment exercised in planning the enterprise. The normal return must accrue in the "representative case" — the case, indeed, where it would seem the Wisconsin Commission and Mr. Lane have sought to apply the " deficit " theory.
The fundamental error of principle in the Wisconsin doctrine is that it seeks to measure an "investment," not in terms of "saving," of effort, of sacrifice, but by results. It has been insisted that "going value," as calculated on the "deficit" plan, is a "true cost"; that "it is a true investment on the part of the owners" — "an investment in the sense that the company might have invested its money in other business which would have given it a fair rate of return." l Passing over this matter of fact assumption of a justum pretium assured to investors outside of the railroad business (how this insurance operates is left unsaid), does the sense here attached to the word
1 J. R. Commons, Senate Report on Valuation, page 94: "Now, notice that this involves the addition of an intangible value, not based on future earning power like a franchise or good-will, but based on a past investment or cost, as compared with other investments; that is, not only what they actually paid for cost of construction is investment, but the income they could have secured, but did not secure, in comparison with others who received a fair return, is also a cost, and therefore an investment."
"investment" accord with economic usage, or current economic reasoning? Investment requires saving, the putting aside of income, and its subsequent use in production. Is any saving involved in the "deficit" theory? On the contrary, it would measure investment in terms of a failure to earn, in terms of a failure to provide a source of investment. No choice of spending or saving appears. There is only assumption of investment, with nothing to invest; of sacrifice, with nothing to forego. The hardship outlined by referring to an assured "fair return" (whatever that may mean) from investment in another direction which did not accrue from the investment in a railroad is not real. There is no assurance in any business of a "fair" (meaning here a "normal," or "representative") return. Risks are assumed, with the expectation that in the long run the return received will compensate the investor. There are failures, as well as successes, in any line of business activity. The railroad, or the local public service corporation, offers here no peculiar economic characteristics.
Thus the Wisconsin Commission has run far afield from a cost of producing "going value." Analyzed in these terms, the scheme which received the approval of Commissioner Lane is seen to have passed over the point in controversy. The "supply price" of business relations cannot be measured by past "deficits," which are dependent upon earnings, and can have no logical place in the measurement of the reasonableness of the return. The period during which effort is expended (and funds diverted) toward the creation of these relations may in large measure coincide with an early " starvation period." But by no means necessarily. And it is also true that the source of earnings aptly termed "business organization and connection " l is built up by all firms alike. The venture which has surpassed the "representative " mark, and the venture which has failed to reach that mark, have 1 Alfred Marshall, Principles of Economics, page 625.
both met these costs. "Going value" is not confined to the enterprise which can point to "representative " management. But how shall it be measured?
No case better illustrates the uncertainty with which the "going value" problem has been treated than the decision of the New Jersey Commissioners in the Public Service Gas Case. They first accepted the testimony of an "expert" who, hesitating "to name an exact figure for an intangible figure of this kind," was finally prevailed upon to place the "going value" at thirty per cent of the "structural value." The actual allowance made, however, was $1,025,000, the "approximate average" of $1,102,789 (the thirty per cent), and $950,000.1 This $950,000 was "the medium" of the "upper and lower estimates" of another "expert." The latter was understood to define "going concern value" as "what a property would fetch from a buyer in excess of the cost of the physical property." His calculation assumed that " such a concern could be financed by five per cent bonds, selling at 90, whose interest would be two thirds of the anticipated earnings." The remaining capitalization would be represented by stock bearing ten per cent. The excess of capitalization over the cost of the physical plant gave "going concern value" of between $900,000 and $1,000,000. So, when the Commission took the "medium" of these "higher and lower estimates," $950,000, and secured an arithmetical average of this amount and the "thirty per cent" guess, $1,025,000 was fixed as a "fair value." 2
2 The New Jersey Court of Errors and Appeals, in Public Service Gas Co. v. Board of Public Utility Commissioners, 92 Atlantic 606, upheld this "quotient method." "Findings of this character by juries are so common" (page 608).
But the Commission did not intend to imply that this figure was meant to cover "bond discount," which, as a mere adjustment of the rate of interest, can have no legitimate place in an appraisal of "investment." l The convenient figures were, it would seem, adopted without critical analysis of their validity. The aim of the Commission was simply to make a bulk allowance to cover a series of unrelated elements, which were called to its attention by the company "experts." Not only were items included which we have already indicated as claiming no place in "fair value": depreciation unearned, and the "dearth of adequate returns"; but also " the cost of soliciting business, the cost of advertising, the cost of inducing customers to take the service, the cost of exhibiting appliances, the cost of occasional free installation." 2 So, though an "average" calculation was resorted to in order to fix upon a "going value," it was not in fact assumed that bond discount was to be measured.
The case was appealed to the New Jersey Supreme Court, and the elements which the Court approved as properly allowed in "going value" were substantially those recognized by the Commission. Interest during construction and "deficits" below the "fair return" were first cited; "the obsolescence of the plant apart from that calculable depreciation which may be charged to currrent expenses instead of being capitalized; the expense that
1 See Whitten, Valuation of Public Service Corporations, chapter xm, page 268 and following, especially pages 281-82, indicating the contradictory and illogical treatment of the subject by the Wisconsin Commission.
2 In re Rates Public Service Gas Co., 1 N. J.B.P.U.C. 433, 469. These elements of "going value" do not represent the fruits of original reasoning on the part of the Commission. In fact, they are as complete an acceptance of the pretensions of the public utility operators as is conceivable. See State Journal Printing Co. v. Madison G. & E. Co., 4 W.R.C.R. 501, 570, where the testimony of the same group of experts, making the same assertions, failed to receive sympathetic reception. However, the New Jersey Commission was apparently new to the ways of expert witnesses.
must attend, and the additional value that arises from the uniting of separate concerns, and the organization of a great industry with the view to economical production." l Then, though like the Commission, protesting that " goodwill" was not to be considered, Justice Swayze added the other elements included: "The cost of securing and retaining customers, of encouraging the greater use of gas for fuel and for light by the introduction of new and improved appliances." 2
The Court insisted that the "practical business questions," presented by this series of considerations, were different from the legal questions. The business questions concerned the mode of handling upon the books; but the legal question was "whether these items constitute a going value upon which the company is entitled to a return." To this question, the Court gave an affirmative answer. For "if by value we mean what the economists call exchange value, then a buyer would undoubtedly give more for a plant already doing a profitable business than for a plant of equal cost, capacity, and future possibilities but without the established business." 3 This argument is inconclusive when the mode of measurement and the purpose are considered. Even where an exchange value is sought, to use Justice Swayze's premise, the amounts spent for advertising, etc., would not be important. Their results, as reflected in the total earnings, would be the vital concern. But the " value " to be considered in a rate case is not an exchange value (as the opinion later indicates?). Seemingly the Court unconsciously worked into the very circle against which specific warning was given. One reason, apparently
the significant reason, why the established concern (if its operations have proved successful) will sell for a higher price is because the degree of risk is readily ascertainable. The earnings (actual and prospective) are in larger degree capable of estimate and are capitalized at a lower rate. The new concern must face greater and unknown risks.
The series of items included in the scope of the Court's definition of "going value" are so varied, bearing no apparent relation to each other, that the same reasoning cannot be made to apply to each set of items. Obsolescence may be "capitalized" — upon what grounds? The argument for such allowance is not to be found in the Court's opinion; yet the idea is not a new one. Railroad men have contended that in the case of the abandonment of permanent structures, made necessary by "progress in the arts," the cost of the discarded property should be considered as the "cost of progress" and added to any appraisal of physical assets.1 The instances have been cited of the Grand Central Station in New York which " involved the wiping-out of an enormous expenditure by the New York Central lines," of "abandonments along the whole line of the Pennsylvania Railroad Company," and of the Union Pacific which " General Dodge would have built . . . just where it is to-day if he had had the money to do it." 2 Or, " in the development of a railroad it not infrequently happens that a portion of the original line is abandoned.
1 This idea seems to have been developed by W. H. Williams, of the Delaware & Hudson. At least it is ascribed to him in discussions by railroad men. See, for example, testimony of Mr. Frank Trumbull, chairman of the Board of the Chesapeake & Ohio, Senate Report on Valuation, page 36.
* Testimony of Mr. Trumbull. Mr. Trumbull was urging inclusion in the Federal Valuation Bill of the clause permitting the Commission (when the fact was deemed "pertinent") to "ascertain and report . . . the cost of property not worn out, but abandoned to aid .in the development of better or more economical service to the public. " Senate Report on Valuation, page 32. He would leave the "consideration" of property abandoned "on account of the necessity of progress" with the Commission (page 37).
The interests of the public justify the reconstruction of a certain portion of the old line reducing grades and perhaps serving new localities, and in the end the old line is abandoned." l
The fallacy in the contention that plant, no longer in the productive process, should be included in an appraisal rests in the failure to recognize that the abandonments have been made in the interest of the railroads, not in the interest of the public. Spending "millions and millions of dollars" in building the new Union Pacific was justified that the road "might haul freight cheaper, which would augment the net earnings." 2 If the public gained by way of improved service, that gain was quite secondary to the possibility of financial gain to the company, which from the business standpoint (and the economic) justified the improvements. The reason why the old Grand Central Station, entirely adequate in its day, was torn down and replaced by the new, was because the concentration of population and business in New York so increased the density of traffic that the volume of earnings accruing was thought to justify the change. Otherwise the scrapping of the old and the building of the new meant conscious economic waste. And the changes of line, the elimination of curvature, the lowering of grades, can only be justified by parallel reasoning. The immediate reason why General Dodge did not locate the Union Pacific in its present site
1 G. F. Swain, the New Haven Validation Report, page 57. See E. P. Ripley, "The Railroads and the Public," Atlantic Monthly, volume 107, page 19. The following is from an earlier opinion of the Interstate Commerce Commission (In the Matter of Advances, 9 I.C.C. 382, 402), the opinion being by Commissioner Prouty: "In the development of that industry they [the railroads] have been reconstructed and improved, the first outlay has perhaps been rendered practically worthless. . . . Those who originally invested their money in this enterprise and have kept pace with the public necessities ought not to be required to bear the entire burden of this shrinkage."
may have been lack of funds. But the funds were not forthcoming because there was general doubt whether even the low-standard line could be made to pay. The traffic possibilities, as seen, and, for a long time, as realized, of the tributary territory did not warrant greater expenditure in construction. With increase in traffic density, and necessity for longer trains to secure economical handling, elimination of curvature and lowering of the ruling grade were essential. The old line had then, in economic analysis, come into exactly the same situation as any other plant, or machinery, abandoned as unworkable.
That the grade itself does not disappear cannot hide the essential fact. The labor (and therefore the "investment") spent in building the grade, the bridge, the tunnel, has been used up. There is no longer possibility of future contribution to the productive process. The grading of a railroad is simply a specialized case of " capital sunk in the soil." When it ceases to be workable, the investment has been used up. One of two things has happened: either the earnings of the plant as a whole have included a return of the investment originally made hi the plant now abandoned, or a risk of the business has materialized. No other conclusion is, it is submitted, tenable. "A more complete depreciation than that which is represented by a part of the original plant that through destruction or obsolescence has actually perished as useful property, it would be difficult to imagine." 1
The difficulty brought up by the inclusion of "the expense that must attend, and the additional value that arises from the uniting of separate concerns," raises again a point already indicated. Seemingly, in spite of the mention of "expense," the Court did not have in mind the cost of bringing about the consolidation, including in "cost" such reward as might be necessary to stimulate the incep1 Kansas City Southern Ry. Co. v. U.S., 231 U.S. 423, 448.
this conclusion is in another passage of the opinion:
"We think the counsel for the company right in their contention that the value of an assembled and united plant may be greater than the total value of the separate parts. The examples given of the increased value of the New York Central Railroad over the value of its consitutent parts, Cleveland, etc. Ry. Co. v. Backus, . . . suffice to illustrate the difference between the value of a whole plant, and the value of its parts. The advantage of large scale production over small scale at several plants is too well known to require more than mention, and the getting together of property sufficient for the purpose no doubt may create a real value, which may be allowed for in going value." l
But since the advantage of large-scale production is only reflected through earnings, and therefore through market value ("exchange value"), the argument here reproduced is beside the point. The " expense," the " cost," but not the "additional value" can demand consideration in regulation proceedings.
Final attention turns to the proposal which would set up selling costs as "investment." Here, though the conclusion of the Commission and of the New Jersey Court cannot be accepted, a possible analysis of the problem is suggested by the argument, which must itself be rejected. The Court understood the Commission to have intended that the bulk allowance for "going value" should cover all costs of soliciting business, and attracting new customers. "No doubt fair-minded men may differ," said Justice Swayze, " but as the Commission seems to have allowed the actual expenses proved, and permitted the whole to be capitalized, even when paid out as current expenses from current rates ... no injustice was done in this respect" (i.e., to the company).2
Indeed, in order to avoid "injustice," the company was, in substance, permitted to capitalize against the public certain parts of the cost of its products furnished in the past. The difficulty which led to the confusion arose because the customer secured by the initial expenditure, in the general run of cases, continued to be a purchaser of service (in the New Jersey Case, gas,) through a long period of years. The expense of attaching the customer to the business was incurred once for all at the beginning. Business practice had not set up any part of this first cost as a " deferred asset," presumably aiming in the interest of conservatism to overstate rather than run the risk of understating current operating expenses. But, from the point of view of economic analysis, there is no reason why such a "deferred asset" account might not have been set up, to measure the amount of any cost properly spread over the future. Such an account would not, however, measure a permanent level of "investment." It would be necessary each year to charge off a pro rata share. The situation is parallel with that presented by the charge against current earnings to compensate the depreciation of fixed assets.
The New Jersey Commission had not bothered with such refinements; nor did the Court. All advertising and soliciting expenses (in the case of the railroad all "traffic expenses") were, according to their doctrine, simply investment in that "property" which is in the shape of "exclusive patronage." The argument used to justify this conclusion can best be given in the Commission's own language:
"If in the past, this company out of the rates exacted from consumers had met its operating expenses and depreciation, and in addition thereto had obtained enough to pay returns to investors and to build an actual structure used in the business, would this structure be the lawful property of the company?" l
The affirmative answer given this query is entirely in line with our own previous analysis. Now, said the Commission, suppose that the company, instead of buying plant, spends a part of its income in advertising and soliciting campaigns. Does not the company thereby "acquire an intangible property in the shape of exclusive patronage"? It was on this ground that the sums spent for soliciting were held to represent investment, "for the business thus acquired must be regarded as a legitimate part of the property of the company." l But the real difficulty was glossed over by the Commission. The attempt to compare the expense of distribution with amounts diverted to the purchase of new plant (the calling of both, " investment ") failed to recognize that it must be entirely a matter of conjecture how much gross income would have been in the absence of such expenditures. It cannot be assumed that the amount charged to soliciting, etc., would have been available for further investment in plant had the expense of securing business been omitted. The volume of gross earnings annually accruing has been dependent in part on the amount spent for soliciting, etc., in that year.
Some part of the expense of selling the product, whether it be coal, or gas, or ton-miles, consists of the cost of making the particular sale. How much, it would be difficult, if not impossible to say. Some of the effort fails entirely of result, like the effort expended in making a machine which proves useless.2 There may also be some very real investment. But in the absence of records, or attempt by the companies to carry such accounts, the task of "appraising" the "intangible" appears a baffling one. Even having the amount of an original entry (which might have been made),
how much of this first "cost" can, at a given date, be said to remain "undepreciated"? In short, how long will the customer continue to buy service, and to what extent will the volume of his consumption expand, etc.? The measurement of the accrued depreciation in the physical plant appears as child's play compared with this.
Consider an attempt to make use of the analysis here outlined hi "railroad valuation," when the competition of carriers for business is so keen over wide areas. The expense of bringing settlers to the tributary country, of securing an industry to locate along the line of the railroad, etc., might be such an expense as would be chargeable against income subsequently accruing. But, in the face of active competition, it would seem that the largest part of " traffic expenses " are not to be spread over a period of years. What would be the effect of discontinuing the solicitation of traffic cannot even be conjectured. Present solicitation, present effort to get business, is probably hi largest measure chargeable against the returns from that business. That some amounts might be recognized as "costs" of securing the permanent relations may, nevertheless, be granted. But how fix upon the "undepreciated" volume of this figure of "value," within limits of accuracy useful for a standard of "reasonableness"?
The "cost of building up the organization" also demands an attempt to measure effort and sacrifice made once for all, usually in the beginning.1 But its determina-
1 See Argument of Burton Hanson, for the C.M. & St.P., Evidence, 1910 Advances, page 3713. Parallel language was used by the attorneys for the Companies in the Minnesota Rate Cases: "Value which is reflected by added earning power derived from the . . . possession of an efficient organization, a past record of prompt and efficient operation, giving the property and its organization a standing in the commercial communities it serves." Brief, page 159.
Henry C. Adams' appraisal of the "intangible" elements of value in Michigan, determined through capitalizing earnings, included a "value" on account of the "organization and vitality" of the railroad. Bulletin 21, Bureau of the Census, Commercial Valuation of Railway Operating
tion is equally elusive. Neither for "good- will" ("connected value"), nor for this "cost" of creating an organization does there seem a possibility of indicating any figures which should distinguish between expenses chargeable in the past against income from current operations, and the income from future operations. Such a differentiation must have been difficult in the past. It does not seem at all feasible now.
The present economic structure functions more effectively because effort has been expended, not in the making of machines ("capital goods") alone, but in the creation of "good- will," and of well coordinated business organizations. The costs of these efforts are the "expenses of production " of the going concern. " Going value " would seem, therefore, more properly applied to these two costs, rather than to the cost of business relations alone. The business man generally conceives of his return on such amounts, if indeed he gives them a thought, simply in terms of a higher return on the cost of his tangible assets, his investment in plant. It is a part of the return for skillful management, a part of the differential return appearing in " business profits."
Certainly data are not available for a measurement that would carry with it any assurance of reliability. The conjectural nature of the "valuation" of tangible assets has already been indicated. For an appraisal of "going value," here comprehending both "business organization and connection," this uncertainty is multiplied many fold. No usable solution appears possible.
THE RETURN TO THE RAILROAD
The rate of return as considered by the Commission, 188. — By the courts, 190. — The legal rate of interest, 191. — Willcox v. Consolidated Gas Co., 191. — The "risk element," 192. — The incidence of a shifting price level, 194. — Railroad credit, 194. — "Unproductive" improvements, 195. — The creation of economic rent, 200. — The differential element in profits, 202. — The "unearned increment" once more, 203.
THE nature of the problems presented to the Interstate Commerce Commission, in the cases where "valuation" has been discussed as a measure of reasonableness, accounts for the uncertain and inconclusive treatment of the rate of return in those decisions. Where reductions have been in contemplation, a circumstance which, it would seem, would force a discussion of the "fair" rate of return, "valuation" has proved secondary to the considerations governing the reasonableness of the individual charge, and the removal of discrimination. In the Advance Cases, on the other hand, no affirmative stand has been required. It has been sufficient for the Commission to hold that the revenue received by the carriers under the old schedules has been inadequate.1 In this respect, the position of the Commission has been comparable to that of the judiciary when attempting to determine whether rates have been "so unreasonably low" as to be confiscatory.
The task of determining a reasonable rate of return demands recognition, at a given moment, of forces the operation of which can be distinguished only in the long run. Though it be true that the road once built will be continued in operation while it nets but little, perhaps nothing, on
the "fixed" investment, the prospect of the return which would be received in enterprises requiring equal assumption of risk, equal foresight in planning, equal efficiency in management, must be held out to the investor at the beginning of construction. This does not mean that the public should in effect say to every promoter of a railroad: build the line, and it will be permitted to make such charges as net the going rate of return on the investment. Though there be conspicuous successes in the railroad business, there may be here, as in other lines of economic activity, dismal failures. The risk of failure the public has not borne; instead it has left the field open to private enterprise. If the risk shall materialize, if the venture prove ill-founded, a reasonable rate of return will be less than when the venture has been wisely conceived.1 For the rate of return must consider not alone payment for present risk, but a payment of past risks assumed; and, above all, for skill and judgment exercised. At the present moment, therefore, though risk must be compensated in the rate of return, the payment is, in largest degree, a payment for risk assumed in the past. Not the insurance element in profits, but the payment for business sagacity (or the penalty for its lack) is now the more significant factor.
1 In the 1910 Advance Cases the Commission based its discussion upon calculations covering the situation of the Baltimore & Ohio, the New York Central, and the Pennsylvania, which were chosen as " typical " lines (Eastern Case, 20 I.C.C. 243, 274); and of the C.B. & Q. and Santa Fe in the Western Case. In the Eastern Case the roads considered were those which had been discussed in the Advance Case of 1903. (9 I.C.C. 382, 425.) The Railway Age Gazette in its editorial columns attacked the choice of roads taken as "typical," volume 50, page 464. Indeed the attorney for the Commission had called the C.B. & Q., " one of the best operated and most prosperous." (Evidence, 1910 Advances, page 3522.) The idea ;of an "average road" was advanced at various points in the hearings, however, usually by railroad men. - (Evidence page 5038, W. C. Brown; page 5038, James McCrea; page 2625, Jos. Ramsey, Jr.; and page 4130, Brief for the Illinois Manufacturers Association.)
The American railroad net was created without government guarantee. It was almost solely the product of private initiative, the roads built as competitive enterprises. The pioneer railroad (and few even of the roads most recently built have not, to some extent, been pioneers), like the pioneer settler who followed in its path, exercised no exclusive privilege. On the contrary, in order to tempt men of ability to take up these highly speculative ventures (and imagination and courage were elements in this ability), it was necessary to offer land grants, and even opportunities of making gains which, in this day of more settled industrial conditions, are sometimes looked upon as piratical. There was always the risk that the venture would fail, that population could not be attracted to the new country. From the nature of the case it was recognized that the road could not be made "to pay" at once. But the income which it was expected would accrue as the country became settled, as cities grew, etc., necessarily entered into the calculations of the investor who participated in the building of the road.1
So far as there has been discussion of the rate of return by the judiciary, hi the fixing of the minimum level, the risk aspect has, indeed, been emphasized. This has been due hi largest degree to the character of the cases presented, and to the peculiar twist given the reasoning through building
1 Alfred Marshall, Principles of Economics, pages 429-30: "The early settler . . . undergoes many hardships, if not personal dangers; and perhaps he runs some risk that the land may turn out badly, and that he may have to abandon his improvements. On the other hand his venture may turn out well; the flow of population may trend his way, and the value of his land may soon give as large a surplus over the normal remuneration of his outlay on it as the fishermen's haul does when they come home with their boat full. But in this there is no surplus above the rewards needed for his venture. He has engaged in a risky business which was open to all, and his energy and good fortune have given him an exceptionally high reward: any one else might have taken the same chance as he did. Thus the income which he expects the land to yield in the future enters into the calculations of the settler, and adds to the motives which determine his action when in doubt as to how far to carry his enterprise."
on judicial dicta in opinions subsequent to the opinion of the Supreme Court in the New York Gas Case. The lower court, fixing upon the rate of six per cent, the legal rate in New York, had made careful reservation that this was done, not because six per cent happened "to be the interest rate by law," but because it was "the return ordinarily sought and obtained on investments of that degree of safety." * When the case came to the Supreme Court, Justice Peckham hi substance accepted the doctrine of the lower court: "There is no particular rate of compensation which must in all cases and in all parts of the country be regarded as sufficient for capital invested in business enterprises. Such compensation must depend greatly upon circumstances and locality . . . the amount of risk » . . other matters might also be properly taken into account." The opinion, however, did not point out what might constitute such "other matters." Investment in the gas business in New York representing a minimum of risk, it was held that the company was "entitled to six per cent upon the total value of the property." 2
This is the most explicit definition of the amount of a " non-confiscatory " return given by the Supreme Court. But, if six per cent constituted the lowest limit in the case of "the most favorably situated gas business in America," the lower courts possessed a bench-mark from which to measure. Accordingly seven, seven and a hah*, and even
Gas Co., 212 U.S. 19.
The legal rate was established as a minimum in: L. & N. R.R. Co. v. Brown, 123 Fed. 946, 951; Pennsylvania Railroad v. Philadelphia County, 220 Pa. 100, 115; Central of Georgia Ry. Co. v. Railroad Commission of Alabama, 161 Fed. 925, 996; Western Railway of Alabama c. Railroad Commission of Alabama, 197 Fed. 954.
eight per cent l have been established as the line between a "confiscatory" return to a railroad, and one "not so unreasonably low." And the factors which make for greater risk in the railroad business than in that of furnishing gas to New York City have, on the whole, been treated with insight. The possibility of invasion of territory by competitors, and the position which the railroad occupies in relation to general business and crop conditions, especially in an agricultural community, were emphasized in the Arkansas Case.2 Judge Sanborn, in the Minnesota Case, also indicated the dependence of the railroad prosperity upon crop conditions.3 One of the Alabama Masters went so far as to declare that railroad dividends are " subject to all the disasters of trade and to none of its extraordinary profits," 4 happily, an obvious exaggeration.
obligation of the railroad to operate even in the face of
1 St. L. & S.F. Ry. Co. v. Hadley (Missouri Case), 168 Fed. 317, 354 (6 per cent); In re Arkansas Rates, 187 Fed. 290, 347 (7f per cent); L. & N. R.R. Co. v. Railroad Commission of Alabama, 197 Fed. 954, 958 (8 per cent); Shepard v. N.P. Ry. Co. (Minnesota Case), 184 Fed. 765, 815 (7 per cent).
8 Shepard v. N.P. Ry. Co., 184 Fed. 765, 815.
4 "Railroad business is confessedly more than an ordinarily risky one. The roads seldom have escaped receiverships and bankruptcy proceedings. The business is subject to the seasons, to wars, panics, pestilences, quarantines, and the general prosperity of the country." Report of W. A. Gunter, Special Master, South & North Alabama Case, page 84. To the same effect, see Western Railway of Alabama v. Railroad Commission of Alabama, 197 Fed. 954, 959.
6 Judge Sanborn's discussion at pages 815-16 of his opinion, 184 Fed. 765, simply paraphrases testimony of J. J. Hill, Record (G.N.), pages 1319 and 1341-42. The rate which he approved (seven per cent) had been suggested by C. F. Staples, a member of the Minnesota Railroad & Warehouse Commission, as a minimum for the "best and most favorably situated railroad." The railroads on appeal to the Supreme Court by the State urged that a rate of return to be "reasonably adequate must be higher than seven per cent." Brief for the Companies, page 828 and following, Minnesota Rate Cases, 230 U.S. 352.
failure to make a "profit" — a phrase not defined. Investment in a factory, for example, was "substantially free from regulation by the Government and exempt from any obligation to the public, except that of paying taxes. If the business in which such an investment is made is unprofitable, its owners may promptly discontinue its operation until more prosperous days come and then return to their undertaking." Not so the poor railroad: "Its owners owe the duty to the governments and to the public to operate then* railroad continually in days when its operation is unprofitable as well as when it is remunerative, a duty they must discharge under the penalty of the forfeiture of their property if they fail." 1 The extent of the burden which the Court saw placed upon the carrier is exaggerated. Only if the return received from operation is less than the cost of operating and maintaining the roadbed is there any hardship imposed by reason of the public calling. If a company is ready to forfeit its charter it has the privilege of stopping operations entirely. For a time it may be necessary to operate at actual operating expense greater than the income. During such a period the railroad's public obligation may actually constitute a hardship. But the same possibility is faced by any industrial enterprise which employs a large fixed capital and which seeks to keep its working force together. Its plant will not close down so long as the product can be marketed at a price which covers the prime cost and contributes something to the overhead charges, including interest on the investment. Thus the necessity to operate for less than "full" cost does not, of itself, exist as a burden present only in the railroad business. The public obligation simply enforces operation which economic interest would impel,
1 Shepard v. N.P. Ry. Co., 184 Fed. 765. 815. Here as elsewhere Judge Sanborn followed Mr. Hill's testimony. The same " burden " resting upon the railroad was the subject of sympathetic comment by Justice Brewer in Ames t>. Union Pacific, 64 Fed. 165, 177.
therefore not convincing.
Extremely intricate considerations are imposed by the phenomenon of a changing price level. A change in this level affects the railroad, and therefore the railroad owner, in twofold fashion. A rising course of prices means a mounting cost of operation, imperiling the ability of the railroad to maintain an established rate of dividend, without considerable increase in the volume of business. If the reverse process sets in, larger dividend payments may be made. In the second place, the same rate of dividend means, when prices are advancing, that the actual purchasing power of the security-holder's income has grown less. In the period of falling prices, the same rate means a greater purchasing power, a larger "real income." Where, as in the course of the first years of the present century, a rising level of prices has been accompanied by a rise in the rate of interest, a further complication is added. The burden in the case of long-term securities has been shifted to the bondholders; but, where new issues have been put out, either to refund old issues or to pay for new plant, the result has been to imperil, or at least to threaten, the safety of railroad securities. Failure to correlate these various aspects of the complicated economic problem has, it would seem, weakened the presentation of the railroad pleas for advances.1
These have usually been handled by lawyers, or by executives who, for the most part, have been operating and financial officers. Their plea has consistently been that "railroad credit" was endangered, and not that the railroad security-holder was bearing a burden which should be
1 Were the reverse process to ensue, and were the rate of interest and the general level of prices and wages to fall, the opposite aspects of these same considerations would demand careful investigation. It is enough now simply to indicate the intricacy of the issues involved.
shared by the whole railroad-using public. But the fundamental question of justice would seem to concern the security-holder. In the 1910 Advance Cases the relationship of the "high cost of living" to the problem was barely mentioned.1 The emphasis was upon the rate of income necessary to induce new investors to furnish funds, not upon the rate of income which should reward those investors who had previously borne risks, etc. And when the parties most interested have failed to present perhaps the strongest argument for their contention, it is easier to explain the unsatisfactory treatment of the problem in the decisions of the Interstate Commerce Commission.2
The same general emphasis upon "credit" led to the reference to certain classes of capital expenditures as "unproductive," by the Commission as well as by the railroad representatives. The narrowing margin between fixed charges and the amount available for distribution in dividends has not been due to the rise in the general level of prices and wages alone. The expanding volume of traffic which has sought transportation has meant the crowding of existing facilities to the point of requiring double tracking, larger yards, heavier equipment, etc.
Though "increasing returns" accrue during the period in which business is "growing up" to the plant (the phenomenon is analogous to the increase of urban site rent), a point is ultimately reached where there is a neces-
2 See the Eastern Advance Case of 1910, 20 1.C.C. 243, 286-304; Commissioner Prouty's discussion of the Baltimore & Ohio, the New York Central, and the Pennsylvania; and the testimony of President McCrea, Evidence, pages 2329, 2337; of President Ripley, page 86.
Commissioner Daniels' dissent in the Five Per Cent Case, though recognizing that the "rise in price level must eventually be reckoned with in railroading," did not turn to the relationship between the rate of return and the "real income" of the security-holder, 31 I.C.C. 350, 454. Confusion of the temporary with the "long-run" rate of interest is reflected in Chairman Harlan's dissent in the Supplemental Case, 32 I.C.C. 325, 336.
sity for extending facilities.1 Take this "practical example": The business handled over the Central Pacific between Reno, Nevada, and Sacramento, — a piece of line with heavy grades and costly construction, where doubletracking would require "a large outlay," — increased between 1896 and 1907 to the crowding point. (In fact, testimony before the Commission was to the effect that additional traffic beyond the 1907 mark would have been at the expense of economical management.) Now assume "that the Southern Pacific had begun in 1907 to doubletrack this piece of road and had completed the work in 1910 at an expense of $100,000 a mile. The amount of traffic would not have materially increased. The cost of maintaming the road would be greater. The cost of operation would perhaps be somewhat less, since the business could be handled to better advantage. The net result would be practically the same, but the cost of the plant would have been increased by an amount requiring on a four per cent basis additional earnings of $4000 a mile." Commissioner Prouty, in the Eastern Advance Case of 1910, drew the conclusion from this discussion (in terms of "there is some reason to believe") that the railroads in Official Classification territory were probably in the same condition as the Central Pacific line of the Southern Pacific. A point of diminishing returns had been reached after twelve years of " rapid and constant development of business. The business of 1907 was, in fact, handled, but not in a way satisfactory to the public." 2
Other factors which slow down the tendency to the increase of returns are less directly, though hardly less surely, related to increase in traffic. They depend rather upon the increased density of population making necessary certain classes of improvements which do not immediately afford additional net revenue either through increasing gross
income or decreasing operating expenses. But that these improvements are made only in those centers of population which afford large traffic, both passenger and freight, indicates that, looking at the operations over a period of years, the "improvement" is productive, as truly as any other portion of the plant. Take the illustration of track elevation:
"Years ago, when the railway was constructed, there were no buildings along its line, but in process of time a town has grown up, streets cross the track at frequent intervals, and the municipality requires that the tracks be raised, and this is done at a very considerable outlay. Now, the railroads urge that this improvement does not add to the earning capacity of the road. It may save a trifle in the way of gatemen at crossings, and may somewhat reduce the casualties for which the railroad is liable, but, on the whole, it is an expenditure which adds nothing to the net income of the railway." *
Considered solely as of a single year, or of a relatively short period of years, the conclusion of this paragraph may be accepted. But it overlooks the reasons which justify the expenditure. Traffic has become so dense, trains are so frequent, the town is so large, that conditions of public safety demand track elevation. And the same forces which make necessary the improvement normally bring larger gross earnings. The change in income is, however, one spread over time, and is less directly traceable, and less quickly seen, than where, for example, improvements to motive power at once bring lower operating cost.
In the case of " unproductive improvements," the underlying economic situation is not greatly different from that when a new railroad invades a territory as a competitor. Not the immediate but the ultimate prospect furnishes the inducement to invest. Indeed, if there was never expectation that the advantage secured would ultimately compen-
sate the Pennsylvania for the cost of the Pennsylvania Terminal in New York City (through being in position to compete with the New York Central on Manhattan Island), it is difficult to justify the project.1 Even the "local pride" or the "aesthetic ambition" of New York does not warrant such economic waste as, in substance, it was testified the New York tunnels and station were believed to represent.2
Nor can the conclusion of the Railroad Securities Commission be accepted, that the carriers should be permitted to create "reserves" to provide "improvements which add nothing to the earning capacity of the property and ought not to be the basis of increased capital liability." 3 This argument overlooks the manner in which the return normally accrues on fixed investments. That conservative business policy may indicate the desirability of making such improvements without adding to fixed charges, is not per se ground for insisting that the public shall be asked to advance rates above a level compensatory for the old investment. The economic justification for such improvements is that the return from the business shall in the long run warrant the expenditure made.
And yet the mutual dependence of railroad and public interests is very real. So long as private enterprise is looked to for the development of transportation facilities, the railroads must be permitted to earn sufficient to make
1 The "strategic" importance of adequate terminals was discussed in the Minnesota Rate Cases, testimony of Thomas Cooper, Record (N.P.)» pages 134-36, 256-58. See also Manufacturers Ry. Co. ». St.L.I.M. & S. Ry. Co., 21 I.C.C. 304, 308; 32 I.C.C. 100, 108, 109; United States ». Terminal Association of St. Louis, 224 U.S. 383, covering the St. Louis Terminal situation.
2 Testimony of President McCrea, Evidence, 1910 Advances, pages 2296-98. See testimony of President Ripley, of the Santa Fe, ibid., pages 23-25. On the same point, see also the testimony of President Willard, of the Baltimore & Ohio, page 2359.
3 Report, Railroad Securities Commission, page 30. The argument and conclusion suggest that the Commission is following Commissioner Prouty's opinion in the Eastern Advance Case of 1910, 20 I.C.C. 243, 267.
railroad investment attractive. It is this fact which would seem to invalidate any proposal that the rates be set'at a level aiming to hew as close to the line of confiscation as would stand the test of court review. Though the return under a schedule of rates might not be "so unreasonably low" as to warrant putting them aside through process of injunction, the return might well fall short of being " reasonable."
The public is peculiarly interested in the future development of railroad facilities. Though the additions to the railroad net will probably not be as significant in the future as they have been, even in the more recent past, large expenditures must undoubtedly be made in the improvement of existing lines.
"As our population grows denser, we shall need more and more to approximate European standards of construction by the increased amount of double track, the abolition of grade crossings, the development of station facilities both for passengers and for freight, and many other improvements scarcely less fundamental. While our railroads are perhaps even better equipped than those of Europe for the economical handling of large masses of long distance freight, they are far from being adequately provided with appliances to secure the convenience of the public or the safety of passengers and employees." l
The public body which regulates rates must therefore look to the adequacy of the railroad revenue, with an eye to making investment in railroad securities attractive to the investor in future years. An uncertain minimum level of charges is thus established.
But promise of a profit greater than that now needed in order to attract investment in a well-established railroad was originally necessary in order to attract investors of an earlier day who undertook pioneer risks. Once the enterprise has become profitable, and the risk in part eliminated 1 Report, Railroad Securities Commission, page 35.
for future investors, shall it be conceived that a return sufficient to attract this future investment is reasonable, that anything more than this amount represents excessive profit? l Less than this would mean a check to railroad enterprise and to the further development of facilities. But can it be said that this minimum, so broadly stated, represents a reasonable return under the set of circumstances to be considered, that anything in excess represents extortion — "monopoly profit"? On the contrary, there are circumstances when a reasonable return is something more than "one which under honest accounting and responsible management will attract the amount of investors* money needed for the development of our railroad facilities." More than this is not always "an unnecessary public burden," even though it be granted, with the Securities Commission, that "less than this means a check to railroad construction." 2 And the conclusion follows because so considerable a portion of railroad investment represents pioneer risks.
The issue can be illustrated also by reference to that passage in Marshall's Principles of Economics where the "creation" of "economic rent" is discussed: "Sometimes the settlement of a whole town, or even district, is planned on business principles, and carried out as an investment at the expense and risk of a single person or company." Such a case was the founding of Pullman which he cites, or of Gary, Indiana, the great steel town. The business executives who planned these industrial centers "foresaw that the land, which they could purchase at its value for agricultural purposes," — the site of Gary was practically worthless sandy lake shore, — " would obtain the special
cussion in the Eastern Advance Case of 1910, 20 I.C.C. 243, 263.
2 Report, Railroad Securities Commission, page 36. See, however, testimony of President Willard of the Baltimore & Ohio, Evidence, 1910 Advances, pages 2398, 2399; illustrating that the railroads did not, as it would seem, make the most of the logic of their position.
situation value which town property derives from the immediate neighborhood of a dense population. ... In all such cases, the yearly income derived from the land (or at all events that part of it which is in excess of the agricultural rent) is for many purposes to be regarded as profits rather than rent. . . . For in such cases great risks have to be run; and hi all undertakings in which there are risks of great losses, there must also be hope of great gains." 1
Apply this same general line of reasoning to the railroad. It owns a site, which its purchase withdrew from agricultural or other business use. A considerable "fixed investment" has been made once for all in grading a suitable roadbed. If the railroad fails to warrant construction — if abandonment follows (sometimes even this occurs) — the investment is lost for all time. Or, in the case of lesser illsuccess, when it is found that operation nets something above operating expenses, though less than the anticipated return, the company must bear the burden of loss. The volume of traffic seeking transportation determines whether the railroad shall pay, or shall stand as a financial failure. But, at the beginning of the venture, the prospect of return must be sufficiently attractive to tempt the investor to assume the risk and responsibility of planning, constructing, operating. In the long run, and over the whole field of railroad enterprise, there must be successful ventures in order that a continuous flow of capital and business ability may be directed toward transportation.
"The normal expenses of production of a commodity must include payment for the ventures required for producing it, sufficient to cause those who are on the margin of doubt whether to venture or not, to regard the probable net amount of their gains — net, that is, after deducting the probable amount of their losses — as compensating them for their trouble and their outlay." 2
One further point: existing railroads do not represent the same exercise of judgment in original planning, the same efficiency in creating and maintaining an organization, in establishing relations with shippers and passengers, in solving operating problems. Clearly focused are seen the forces which make for the differential element in "business profits." The mode in which this differential accrues to the better located, better managed roads can be readily indicated.1 Location is important from two points of view: from that of ability to secure large gross earnings, and from that of economical transportation of the traffic secured. The latter refers simply to the physical characteristics: to "strategic location" in a river gorge, to
nize the return to the investor as entering into the long-run cost of producing transportation service accounts for the frequent insistence that there is no relation between "valuation" and rates. The following is a typical utterance:
"It is perfectly obvious that the railroad rates of this country are not based on the value of railroad property. No railroad has ever undertaken to base rates on the value of its property, and no railroad man has ever attempted to make rates according to the value of the railroad." From the statement of R. S. Lovett, before the Railroad Securities Commission, 1910, in "Sayings and Writings about the Railroads," published by the Railway Age Gazette, page 109. See testimony of F. A. Delano, before the Senate Committee on Interstate Commerce, Senate Report on Valuation, page 45; and that of E. P. Ripley, Evidence, 1910 Advances, page 58.
1 See discussion of "market value," above, page 150. The failure to see that the reasonable return could be a variable was undoubtedly at the basis of the "market value" test. Witness the following from Mr. Lawrence's Report to the National Association of Railway Commissioners, Proceedings, 22d Annual Meeting, page 144:
" The determination of market value as a basis for rate-making solves impossible problems. Take, for instance, two competing roads between the same terminals, one on a direct line and the other circuitous, the latter costing very much more to construct, or reproduce. It is apparent that competition will force an equality in rates. How, under the theory of actual cost or cost of reproduction, can the rates be fixed without allowing an excess on the one hand, or a deficiency on the other? Apply the theory of market value. The road with the direct line, lower cost of reproduction, and relatively lower operating expenses is of a higher market value under the circumstances."
the possession of a water-level route — which mean a lower ruling grade, less curvature, and therefore, other things being equal, a larger margin between operating expenses and revenue than would be possible were the road operated through the hills or mountains. It is the old question of the New York Central and the Pennsylvania, the one operating through river valleys and along the lake shore, going around the mountains, the other cutting through. An extra gain comparable to a site rent appears, as a reward for skill in original location, — perhaps even for the one company having first dared risk the cost of building.
Location has also an important bearing upon the quantity and classification of freight transported, and upon the density of the passenger traffic; and, consequently, upon the amount of the gross earnings. Much necessarily depends upon the natural resources of the tributary country, but not everything. In considerable degree the presence of industries is the result of active management which has secured the location of industries along the line of the road. Once an industrial community has been started, the gregariousness of industry has made itself felt by further grouping of similar plants in the same district. But efficient management in seeking out businesses for locations, and locations for businesses, and in establishing favorable rates has been a not inconsiderable factor in increasing the "traffic density" of the railroads. Similarly the policy of bringing settlers to a new country, inaugurated on a large scale by the Illinois Central, has been followed as other lines have been built into the newer West. Populations have been built up, in part the direct result of efforts by the railroad management, in part the result of "social" and economic forces.
The railroad in a country increasing in population and in "diversity" of the business afforded (and this is not necessarily a "new" country, though the phenomenon is there most strikingly seen) finds the swelling prosperity
of the tributary country reflected in the volume of its own gross earnings. Once the net earnings extend beyond the point which was necessary to induce the original investment, an element of "unearned increment" appears comparable to the "unearned increment" accruing on sites devoted to other than railroad purposes. From the nature of the case, it is difficult to say when the volume of net earnings exceeds the rate necessary to tempt investment. In those enterprises hi which there are risks of great losses — surely railroad history would seem to bear out the inclusion of railroads in this category of ventures — there must be hope of great gain. Even though the source of the differential may be indicated as due to natural conditions (a "water grade," or the possession of a canyon pass, for example), to "social" causes (the increasing of population, the clustering together of allied branches of industry), or primarily as due to superior management, the actual income is a resultant of these forces. The "legitimate" differential return in profits, whether due to judgment in picking an original line which possesses superior operating conditions, or to subsequent active management in building up an efficient organization, or in establishing satisfactory relations with the shipping and traveling public, is intermingled with any return above the costs necessary to induce promotion and management of high grade. To bring American railroad service to its present preeminent place has required courage, imagination, skill of the highest order. The emphasis upon the important investments in railroad plant which are now being made — track elevation, passenger terminals — as "unproductive" indicates the presence still of a considerable risk element. In the light of the composite nature of the railroad return, it would, therefore, appear well-nigh impossible to isolate an element of "unearned increment." l
disassociating an element of "unearned increment'* in the return to the railroad, is a broader challenge which looks to the validity of appropriating this increment either through taxation or reduction of charges. The power of regulation, alone, hardly warrants reduction of rates simply because the tendency exists for railroad net earnings to increase in proportion to the investment.1 That the railroad is a common carrier, that the furnishing of transportation is a "public" business, only accounts for regulation. By itself it does not justify a deliberate attempt to capture the "unearned increment" on one class of sites. To appropriate the "unearned increment" (if any) which accrues to the railroad with the increase of traffic may represent a desirable policy for the community to adopt. But that it is more desirable than the appropriation of the "unearned increment" which accrues in the rent of lands devoted to other purposes one may well be skeptical.
1 See William Z. Ripley, Railroads, Finance and Organization, pages 361-62, a discussion of this subject from a different standpoint; also Professor Ripley's article in the Political Science Quarterly, volume 22, page 606 and following.
Henry C. Adams, long the Commission's Statistician, the man to whom, perhaps more than any other, the force of the "valuation" movement is due, has expressed his conclusion that "equity as between various classes of roads can never be attained until all the excess of revenue over the constitutional limit be made a contribution to the public treasury." Papers and Discussions, 22d Annual Meeting American Economic Association, 1909, page 193. (The italics are the writer's.) See his annual recommendations to the Commission, Statistics of Railways, 1906, page 140; 1907, page 147, etc.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
THE principal sources for a study of Railroad Valuation are the reports of cases, since it is as a legal problem that the subject has crystallized. Whitten's Valuation of Public Service Corporations, though containing some of the author's own reasoning, is substantially a source book on the subject, composed of short excerpts from cases, articles, and reports upon controverted points. Naturally, therefore, the book is uneven in the quality of the material which it affords the student. The point of view of the original material is very like that of the Public Service Commission of New York, First District. The Transactions and Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers indicate the quality and direction of the engineering discussion of the subject.
On the Federal Valuation, the various briefs filed with the Commission should be consulted, especially that filed on behalf of the railroad companies represented by the Presidents' Conference Committee, here cited as the Valuation Brief of 1915. The publications of the Division of Valuation are also important, and those of the General Secretary of the Presidents' Conference Committee, especially the Proceedings of the various valuation conferences between representatives of the carriers, the State commissions, and the Interstate Commerce Commission.
Science Quarterly, volume 29, page 569.
Robinson, M. H., "The Legal, Economic, and Accounting Principles involved in the Judicial Determination of Railway Passenger Rates," Yale Review, volume 16, page 355.
Boom Co. v. Patterson, 98 U.S. 403 (1878). Budd r. New York, 143 U.S. 517 (1892). Cedar Rapids G.L. Co. v. Cedar Rapids, 223 U.S. 655 (1912). Chicago & G.T. Ry. Co. v. Wellman, 143 U.S. 339 (1892). Chicago, B. & Q. R.R. Co. v. Iowa, 94 U.S. 155 (1876). Chicago, M. & St.P. Ry. Co. v. Minnesota, 134 U.S. 418 (1890). ^Chicago, M. & St.P. Ry. Co. v. Tompkins, 176 U.S. 167 (1900). Cleveland, C.C. & St.L. Ry. Co. v. Backus, 154 U.S. 439 (1894). Cotting t?. Kansas City S.Y. Co., 183 U.S. 79 (1901). Covington & Lexington T.P. Co. v. Sandford, 164 U.S. 578 (1896). Dow v. Biedelman, 125 U.S. 680 (1888). Ex parte Young, 209 U.S. 123 (1908).
Georgia Banking Co. ». Smyth, 128 U.S. 174 (1888). Granger Cases, 94 U.S. 113 (1876). Illinois Central R.R. Co. v. I.C.C., 206 U.S. 441 (1907). Interstate Commerce Commission v. C.N.O. & T.P. Ry. Co., 167
Kansas City Southern Ry. Co. v. U.S., 231 U.S. 423 (1913). Knoxville v. Knoxville Water Co., 212 U.S. 1 (1909). KnoxviUe Water Co. v. KnoxvUle, 189 U.S. 434 (1903). Lake Shore & M.S. Ry. Co. v. Smith, 173 U.S. 684 (1899). Lincoln G. & E. Co. v. Lincoln, 223 U.S. 349 (1912). Louisiana R.R. Commission v. Cumberland T. & T. Co., 212
Minnesota Eastern Ry. Co. v. Minnesota, 134 U.S. 467 (1890). Minnesota Rate Cases, 230 U.S. 352 (1913). Missouri Rate Cases, 230 U.S. 474 (1913). Monongahela Navigation Co. v. U.S., 148 U.S. 312 (1893). Munn v. Illinois, 94 U.S. 113 (1876).
Norfolk & Western Ry. Co. v. Conley, 236 U.S. 605 (1915). Northern Pacific Ry. Co. v. N.D., 216 U.S. 579 (1910). Northern Pacific Ry. Co. v. N.D., 236 U.S. 585 (1915). Northern Pacific Ry. Co. v. Townsend, 190 U.S. 267 (1903). Omaha v. Omaha Water Co., 218 U.S. 180 (1910). Peik v. C. & N.W. Ry. Co., 94 U.S. 164 (1876). Pittsburgh, C.C. & St.L. Ry. Co. v. Backus, 154 U.S. 421 (1894), Prentis et al. v. A.C.L. R.R. Co., 211 U.S. 210 (1908). Railroad Commission Cases, 116 U.S. 307 (1886). Reagan v. Farmers' Loan & Trust Co., 154 U.S. 362 (1894). Reagan v. Mercantile Trust Co., 154 U.S. 413 (1894). St. Louis & S.F. Ry. Co. v. Gill, 156 U.S. 649 (1895). San Diego L. & T. Co. v. Jasper, 189 U.S. 439 (1903). San Diego L. & T. Co. v. National City, 174 U.S. 739 (1899). Smyth v. Ames, 169 U.S. 466 (1898). Smyth v. Ames, 171 U.S. 361 (1898). Stanislaus County v. San J. & K.R. Canal Co., 192 U.S. 201
The full Record was consulted in the following cases: Knoxville 9. Knoxville Water Co., 212 U.S. 1. Minnesota Rate Cases, 230 U.S. 352.
720 (1909); 187 Fed. 290 (1911). Ball v. Rutland R.R. Co., 93 Fed. 513 (1899). Central of Georgia Ry. Co. v. McLendon, 157 Fed. 961 (1907). Central of Georgia Ry. Co. v. R.R. Commission of Alabama,
Chicago & N.W. Ry. Co. v. Dey, 35 Fed. 866 (1888). Chicago, M. & St.P. Ry. Co. v. Tompkins, 90 Fed. 363 (1898). Clyde v. Richmond & Danville R.R. Co., 57 Fed. 436 (1893). Consolidated Gas Co. v. City of New York, 157 Fed. 849 (1907). Cotting v. Kansas City S.Y. Co., 79 Fed. 679 (1897); 82 Fed. 839
Lehigh Valley Railroad 9. U.S., 204 Fed. 986 (1913). Louisville & Nashville R.R. Co. v. Brown, 123 Fed. 946 (1903). Louisville & Nashville R.R. Co. 9. R.R. Commission of Alabama,
LouisviUe & Nashville R.R. Co. f. Siler, 186 Fed. 176 (1911). Love v. A.T. & S.F. Ry. Co., 185 Fed. 321 (1911). Matthews v. Board of Corporation Commissioners, 106 Fed. 7
Milwaukee E.R. & L. Co. ». Milwaukee, 87 Fed. 577 (1898). Minnesota Rate Cases, 184 Fed. 765 (1911). Missouri, Kansas & Texas Ry. Co. 9. 1.C.C., 164 Fed. 645 (1908). Missouri, Kansas & Texas Ry. Co. 9. Love, 177 Fed. 493 (1910). National Water Works Co. 9. Kansas City, 62 Fed. 853 (1894). Northern Pacific Ry. Co. v. Keyes, 91 Fed. 47 (1898). Northern Pacific Ry. Co. v. Lee, 199 Fed. 621 (1912). Oregon R. & N. Co. 9. Campbell, 173 Fed. 957 (1909).
San Diego L. & T. Co. v. Jasper, 110 Fed. 702 (1901). San Diego L. & T. Co. v. National City, 74 Fed. 79 (1896). Shepard v. Northern Pacific, 184 Fed. 765 (1911). Spring Valley Water Co. v. San Francisco, 165 Fed. 657 (1904). Spring Valley Water Works Co. v. San Francisco, 124 Fed. 574
were consulted as follows:
Gunter, W. A., The Alabama Rate Cases: South & North Alabama R.R. Co. v. R.R. Commission of Alabama; Louisville & Nashville R.R. Co. v. Same (1911).
Brymer v. Butler Water Co., 179 Penn. 231 (1897). Coal & Coke Ry. Co. v. Conley, 67 Southeastern 613 (1910). Kennebec Water District v. City of WaterviUe, 97 Maine 185
Pioneer T. & T. Co. v. Westenhaver, 118 Pacific 354 (1911). Public Service Gas Co. v. Board of Public Utility Commissioners, 87 Atlantic 651 (1913); 92 Atlantic 606 (1914); 94 Atlantic 634 (1915).
Five Per Cent Case, 31 I.C.C. 350; 32 I.C.C. 325 (1914). Lum v. Great Northern Ry. Co., 33 I.C.C. 541 (1915). Morgan Grain Co. v. Atlantic Coast Line R.R. Co., 19 I.C.C. 471
I.C.C. 162 (1910); 21 I.C.C. 402 (1911). Tift et al. v. Southern Ry. Co., 10 I.C.C. 548 (1905). Western Advance Cases of 1915: Freight, 35 I.C.C. 497; Passenger, 37 I.C.C. 1.
V. State Commissions
Buell v. CM. & St.P. Ry. Co., 1 W.R.C.R. 324 (1907). Cashton Light & Power Co., In re, 3 W.R.C.R. 67 (1908). Gately & Hurley v. Delaware & Atlantic T. & T. Co., 1 N.J.B.P. U.C. 519 (1912).
Milwaukee v. M.E.R. & L. Co., 10 W.R.C.R. 1 (1912). Oconto City Water Supply Co., In re, 7 W.R.C.R. 497 (1911). Public Service Gas Co., In re Rates, 1 N.J.B.P.U.C. 433 (1912). Queensborougb G. & E. Co., In re, 2 P.S.C. 1st D. N.Y. 544 (1911). State Journal Publishing Co. v. Madison G. & E. Co., 4 W.R.C.R.
Railroad Securities Commission, Report to the President, 1911. "" Valuation of the Several Classes of Property of Common Carriers, Report of the Committee on Interstate Commerce, Senate Report No. 1290, 62d Congress, 3d Session. Senate Report on Valuation.
Minnesota, Report, Railroad & Warehouse Commission, 1908. Nebraska, Annual Report, State Railway Commission, 1911-13. New Jersey, Report on the "Revaluation of Railroads," 1911. South Dakota, Annual Report, Railroad Commission, 1910.
Brief filed on behalf of the Railroad Companies, by Pierce Butler, W. G. Brantley, Herbert S. Hadley, G. S. Patterson, and Sanford Robinson, September 1, 1915. The Valuation Brief of 1915.
Federal Valuation, 139.
Alabama Rate Cases: tax values, 21; valuations, 30; land, 38; depreciation, 83; reproduction, 99; land multiple, 132; franchise,
147-49; par value, 22; proceeds of securities, 22-23; franchise value, Alabama Rate Cases, 14749.
spection, 80; life tables, 81-84; replacement, 110; operating cost, 117; depreciation reserve, 11721; unimpaired investment, 136; Minnesota Rate Cases, 166; cost of progress, 180-82.
Going value: Valuation Act of 1913, 24; good will, 159; comparative plant, 160; reproduction cost as a minimum, 164; definition, 165;
Knoxville v. Knoxville Water Co.: rule in Smyth v. Ames, 17; capitalization, 22; invested value, 23; expert appraisal, 60; depreciation, 78; unimpaired investment, 106; going value, 166.
Land: reproduction hypothesis, 29, 32; multiple, 33-37; " true value," 35-37; adjacent land test, 32-46, 86-90, 124, 131-33, 139; expert appraisal, 38-39; sales and salesassessment method, 40-45; Min-
Hughes, "fair average," etc., 9193; donations, 131-33; unearned increment, 124-31; Federal Valuation, 139.
preciation, Washington, 82.
Long run: cost of reproduction as a test of reasonableness, 103; original cost of land, 129; the return to the railroad, 188-89; unproductive improvements, 198.
Maintenance: working efficiency, 109, 115, 120, 124; creation of capital goods, 110-15; simple and composite property theory, 12224.
Michigan: valuation, 31; multiples, 34; land valuation, experts and locomotive engineers, 38; check of 1902, 40; average prices, 65; engineering, 75; inspection for depreciation, 83; cost of reproduction as value, 98; intangibles, 186.
reproduction as value, 98.
Minnesota Rate Cases: confiscation doctrine, 7; rule in Smyth v. Ames, 16; stocks and bonds, 19-20; proceeds of securities, 22-23; reproduction hypothesis, 32; land multiples, 35-37; state land valuations, 41-46; contingencies, 4750, 93; appraisal of plant (D. C. Morgan), 52-59; future prices, 63; present prices, 64; average prices, 65; tie prices, f68-70; locomotives, 71; freight charges, 73; interest, 77; depreciation, 7880; the test of certainty, 85-90; "fair average of normal market
New Haven Validation: valuation, 81; contingencies, 47, 49; inspection, 56; classification, 57, 61; average prices, 65; overhead, 75; interest, 76; depreciation, 83; road crossings, 100; cost of progress, 181.
tion, locomotives, 71.
Present value: rule in Smyth c. Ames, 7-10, 106, 124, 138; cost of reproduction as value, 28, 98100; land, Minnesota Rate Cases, 124, 128.
Prices: unit prices and judgment, 61-63; future prices, 63; present prices, 64; average prices, 65; Valuation Brief of 1915, 67-68; commodity off the market, 68;
Prouty, C. A.: Eastern Advance
Case of 1910, 4, 6, 26, 115, 189, 198; rule in Smyth t>. Ames, 16, 138; capitalization, market value, 20-21; need for valuation, 26;
Valuation, land, 86; prices, 105; unproductive improvements, 115, 195-96; obsolescence, 116; cost to date, 136-38; typical rail-
Rent, economic: dependent on the presence of the railroad, 92; railroad site, 131, 153-59; railway value of land, 153-59; creation of economic rent, 200-01.
Representative railroad: Wisconsin deficit theory, 174-76; relation to the rate of return, 189, 195.
tingencies, 47-50; imagination, 50; prices, 63-72; overhead, 7378; depreciation, 78-84; the test
Solidification: roadbed, 110.
South Dakota: valuation, 31; contingencies, 49; inspection, 53; average prices, 65; land valuation, 70-71; engineering, 78; depreciation, 83.
Spokane Case: valuation of Northern Pacific and Great Northern, 54; average structures, 58, 71; future prices, 63; surplus, 116, 171.
State Appraisals: Kansas, 31, 75; Michigan, 31, 38, 40, 49, 52, 65, 75, 83, 98, 111, 186; Minnesota, 31, 34, 36, 42, 53, 65, 74, 75, 84, 98, 140; Nebraska, 31, 53, 75, 78, 98; New Jersey, 31; Oregon, 31; South Dakota, 31, 49, 53, 65, 70, 75, 78, 83, 102, 140; Texas, 31; Washington, 31, 35, 39, 49, 52, 55, 64, 82, 84, 98, 101, 140,
Unimpaired investment: definition, 28, 105-06; Knoxville v. Knoxville Water Co., 106; appraisal, 13539.
regulation analogy, 9-11; Valuation Act of 1913, 24-27; Federal Valuation, cost to date, 136-40.
Holmes, 14; capitalization, 19, 148; taxation, 20, 144-49; land, 133, 156-57; franchise, 144-46; Washington Commission, J152 ;
tive plant, 162.
Washington: valuation, 31; land, 35, 39; contingencies, 49; checking of records, 52; resurvey, 55; revaluation, 64; depreciation,
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KLjB9enel3uZPHxi | Naval Warfare | Produced by Chris Curnow, Graeme Mackreth and the Online
The Cambridge Manuals of Science and
Literature
NAVAL WARFARE
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
London: FETTER LANE, E.C.
C.F. CLAY, MANAGER
Edinburgh: 100 PRINCES STREET
Berlin: A. ASHER AND CO.
Leipzig: F.A. BROCKHAUS
New York: G.P. PUTNAM'S SONS
Bombay and Calcutta: MACMILLAN AND CO., LTD.
_All rights reserved_
NAVAL
WARFARE
BY
JAMES R. THURSFIELD
M.A.
Hon. Fellow of Jesus College, Oxford
WITH AN INTRODUCTION
by Rear-Admiral
SIR CHARLES L. OTTLEY
K.C.M.G., C.B., M.V.O.
Sometime Director of Naval Intelligence
and Secretary to the Committee of
Imperial Defence
Cambridge:
at the University Press
New York:
G.P. Putnam's Sons
1913
_With the exception of the coat of arms at the foot, the design on the
title page is a reproduction of one used by the earliest known Cambridge
printer, John Siberch, 1521_
CONTENTS
PAGE
INTRODUCTION BY SIR CHARLES OTTLEY vii
PREFACE xiii
CHAP.
I. INTRODUCTORY 1
II. THE COMMAND OF THE SEA 11
III. DISPUTED COMMAND--BLOCKADE 20
IV. DISPUTED COMMAND--THE FLEET IN BEING 30
V. DISPUTED COMMAND IN GENERAL 49
VI. INVASION 68
VII. COMMERCE IN WAR 93
VIII. THE DIFFERENTIATION OF NAVAL FORCE 111
IX. THE DISTRIBUTION AND SUPPLY OF NAVAL FORCE 129
INDEX 147
INTRODUCTION
The title chosen by its author for this little volume would assuredly
commend it to the Naval Service, even if that author's name were not--as
it is--a household word with more than one generation of naval officers.
But to such of the general public as are not yet familiar with Mr
Thursfield's writings a brief word of introduction may perhaps be
useful. For the matters herein dealt with are by no means of interest
only to the naval profession. They have their bearing also on every
calling and trade. In these days when national policy is at the mercy of
the ballot-box, it is not too much to say that a right understanding of
the principles of maritime warfare is almost as desirable amongst
civilians as amongst professional sailors.
Regrettable indeed would it be if the mere fact that this little book
bears a more or less technical title should tempt the careless to skip
its pages or pitch it to that dreary limbo which attends even the best
of text-books on subjects which we think do not concern us. The fruits
of naval victory, the calamities attendant on naval defeat are matters
which will come home--in Bacon's classic phrase--to the business and the
bosoms of all of us, landsmen and seamen alike. Most Englishmen are at
least dimly aware of this. They realise, more or less reluctantly
perhaps, that a decisive British defeat at sea under modern conditions
would involve unspeakable consequences, consequences not merely fatal to
the structure of the Empire but destructive also of the roots of our
national life and of the well-being of almost all individuals in these
islands.
Elementary prudence insists on adequate safeguards against evils so
supreme, and amongst those safeguards the education of the people to-day
occupies a foremost place. Our Empire's destinies for good and evil are
now in the hands of the masses of the people. Sincerely as all lovers of
ordered freedom may rejoice in this devolution of political power to the
people, thoughtful men will be apt to reflect that an uninstructed crowd
is seldom right in its collective action. If Ministerial responsibility
has dwindled, _pro tanto_ that of each one of His Majesty's lieges has
enormously increased; and it is more incumbent on the nation's rank and
file to-day than ever in the past to equip themselves with the knowledge
necessary to enable them to record their votes aright.
It is from this point of view that this Manual should be read. It
epitomises the principles upon which success in naval warfare depends.
It shows how the moral factor in all cases and at every epoch dominates
and controls the material; how the "_animus pugnandi_," as Mr Thursfield
calls it, the desire to get at the enemy in "anything that floats,"
transcends every other weapon in a nation's armoury; how if that spirit
is present, all other difficulties can be surmounted, and how without it
the thickest armour, the biggest all-shattering guns shrivel in battle
to the measure of mere useless scrap iron.
This is the message of the book for the seaman. But--and this is of the
essence of the whole matter--for the landsman it has also a lesson of a
very different kind. His responsibility is for the material factor in
naval war. Let him note the supreme value of the moral factor; let him
encourage it with all possible honour and homage, but let him not limit
his contribution to the nation's fighting capital to any mere empty
lip-service of this kind. The moral factor is primarily the sailor's
business. The landsman's duty is to see to it that when war comes our
sailors are sent to sea, not in "anything that floats" but in the most
modern and perfect types of warship that human ingenuity can design.
How can this fundamental duty be brought home to the individual
Englishman? Certainly not by asking him to master the niceties of
modern naval technique, matters on which every nation must trust to its
experts. But, the broad principles of naval warfare are to-day precisely
as they were at Salamis or Lepanto; and to a people such as ours, whose
history from its dawn has been moulded by maritime conditions, and which
to-day more than ever depends upon free oversea communications for its
continued existence, these broad principles governing naval warfare have
so real a significance that they may wisely be studied by all classes of
the community.
Tactics indeed have profoundly altered, and from age to age may be
expected to change indefinitely. But so long as the sea remains naval
warfare will turn upon the command of the sea; a "Fleet in Being" will
not cease to be as real a threat to its foe as it was in the days of
Torrington; invasion of oversea territory will always be limited by the
same inexorable factors which for centuries have told in favour of the
British race and have kept the fields of England inviolate from the
tread of a conqueror.
There are indications that still more heavy sacrifices will be demanded
from the British taxpayer for the upkeep of the Fleet in the future than
has been the case even in the recent past. Nothing but iron necessity
can justify this unfruitful expenditure, this alienation of the
national resources in men and money to the purposes of destruction.
Even as it is, naval administrators are finding it increasingly
difficult to carry all sections of politicians and the whole of the
masses of this country with them in these ever-increasing demands. The
best way of ensuring that future generations of Englishmen will rise to
the necessary height of a patriotic sense of duty and will record their
votes in support of such reasonable demands is to prepare their minds by
an elementary knowledge of what naval warfare really means.
No Englishman, so far as the writer is aware, is better fitted than Mr
Thursfield to undertake this task, and this little book is a very
excellent example of the way in which that task should be fulfilled. It
unites--very necessarily--a high degree of condensation with a
simplicity of language and a lucidity of exposition both alike
admirable. And Mr Thursfield's right to be heard on naval questions is
second to that of no civilian in these islands. His relations with the
British Navy have been for more than a quarter of a century of the
closest kind. His reputation in the particular field of literary
endeavour which he has made his own ranks high amongst writers as
celebrated as Admiral Mahan, Sir George Sydenham Clarke (Lord Sydenham),
the late Sir John Colomb, and his brother the late Admiral P.H. Colomb,
Sir J.K. Laughton, Admiral Sir Cyprian Bridge, Admiral Sir R.N.
Custance, Mr Julian Corbett, Mr David Hannay, Mr Archibald Hurd, and
others. In the domain of naval history, its philosophy and its
literature, he has done brilliant work. When it is added that Mr
Thursfield is known to have been, for many years, one of the chief naval
advisers of _The Times_, enough will probably have been said to ensure a
sympathetic attention for this the veteran author's latest publication.
C.L. OTTLEY
_24th July 1913_
PREFACE
Intelligent readers of this little Manual will perceive at once that it
pretends to be nothing more than an introduction, quite elementary in
character, to the study of naval warfare, its history, and its
principles as displayed in its history. As such, I trust it may be found
useful by those of my countrymen who desire to approach the naval
problems which are constantly being brought to their notice and
consideration with sound judgment and an intelligent grasp of the
principles involved in their solution. It is the result of much study
and of a sustained intimacy with the sea service, both afloat and
ashore, such as few civilians have been privileged to enjoy in greater
measure. Even so, I should have thought it right, as a civilian, to
offer some apology for undertaking to deal with so highly technical and
professional a subject, were I not happily relieved of that obligation
by the kindness of my friend Rear-Admiral Sir Charles L. Ottley, who
has, at the instance of the Editors of this series, contributed to this
volume an Introduction in which my qualifications are set forth with an
appreciation which I cannot but regard as far too flattering. It would
ill become me to add a single word--unless it were of deprecation--to
credentials expounded on such high authority.
I should hope that readers who have found this volume useful to them
will not confine their studies to it. Abundant materials for a deeper
and more comprehensive study of the subject will be found in the several
works incidentally mentioned or quoted in my text, and in the writings
of those other contemporary authors with whom Sir Charles Ottley has
done me the high honour to associate myself. In these several works
further guidance to a still more sustained study of the subject will be
found, and in this regard I would specially mention the admirable _Short
History of the Royal Navy_, by Mr David Hannay--two volumes which, in
addition to their other and more conspicuous merits, contain a
well-selected list of authorities to be consulted prefixed to each
chapter. These references, which in truth cover the whole subject, will,
I trust, better serve the purpose of the advanced or advancing student
than any such Bibliography as I could compile on a scale commensurate
with the form and purpose of the present Manual.
Readers of my other writings on naval topics will, perhaps, observe that
in one or two cases, where the same topics had to be discussed, I have
not hesitated to reproduce, with or without modification, the language I
had previously employed. This has been done deliberately. The topics so
treated fell naturally and, indeed, necessarily within the scope of the
present volume. To exclude them because I had discussed them elsewhere
was impossible. Wherever I found I could improve the language previously
employed in the direction of greater lucidity and precision I have done
so to the best of my ability, so that the passages in question are close
paraphrases rather than mere transcripts of those which occur elsewhere.
But I have not attempted to disguise or weaken by paraphrase any
passages which still seemed to me to convey my meaning better than any
other words I could choose.
Changes in the methods, though not in the principles, of naval warfare
are in these days so rapid and often so sudden that one or two topics
have emerged into public prominence even since the present volume was in
type. I desire therefore to take this opportunity of adding a few
supplementary remarks on them. The first, and possibly in the long run
the most far-reaching of these topics, is that of aviation, which I have
only mentioned incidentally in the text. That aviation is still in its
infancy is a truism. But to forecast the scope and direction of its
evolution is as yet impossible. For the moment it may perhaps be said
that its offensive capacity--its capacity, that is, to determine or even
materially to affect the larger issues of naval warfare--is
inconsiderable. I say nothing of the future, whether immediate or
remote. Any day may witness developments which will give entirely new
aspects to the whole problem. In the meanwhile the chief functions of
aircraft in war will probably be, for some time to come, those of
scouting, observation, and the collection and transmission of
intelligence not obtainable by any other means. Offensive functions of a
more direct and formidable character will doubtless be developed in
time, and may be developed soon; but as I am no prophet I cannot attempt
to forecast the direction of the evolution, to determine its limits, or
to indicate its probable effects on the methods of naval warfare as
expounded in the following pages. I will, however, advance two
propositions which will not, I believe, be gainsaid by competent
authorities. They are true for the moment, though how long they may
remain true I do not know. One is that no aircraft yet constructed can
take or keep the air in all conditions of weather. The number of days in
the year in which it can do so in safety can only be represented by the
formula 365-_x_, in which _x_ is as yet an unknown quantity, though it
is no doubt a quantity which will diminish as the art of aviation is
developed. The other is that there is as yet no known method of
navigating an aircraft with accuracy and precision out of sight of land.
The air-currents by which it is affected are imperceptible to those
embarked, variable and indeterminate in their force and direction, and
quite incapable of being charted beforehand. In these conditions an
airman who sought to steer by compass alone, say, from Bermuda to New
York, might perchance find himself either at Halifax, on the one hand,
or at Charleston on the other.
In my chapter on "Invasion" no mention is made of those subsidiary forms
of military enterprise across the sea which are known as raids. I have
treated invasion as an enterprise having for its object the subjugation
of the country invaded, or at least the subjection of its people and
their rulers to the enemy's will. As such it requires a force
commensurate in numbers with the object to be attained, and it stands to
reason that this force must needs be so large that its chances of
evading the vigilance of an enemy who is in effective command of the sea
must always be infinitesimal. A raid, on the other hand, is an
enterprise of much lesser magnitude and much smaller moment. Its method
is to elude the enemy's naval guard at this or that point of his
territory; and, having done so, its purpose is to land troops at some
vulnerable point of the territory assailed, there to create alarm and
confusion and to do as much harm as they can--which may be considerable
before their sea communications are severed by the defending naval force
assumed to be still in effective command of the sea affected. If that
command is maintained, the troops engaged in the raid must inevitably be
reduced sooner or later to the condition of a forlorn hope which has
failed. If, on the other hand, that command is overthrown, then the
troops aforesaid may prove to be the advanced guard of an invasion to
follow. Thus, although a successful raid may sometimes be carried out in
the teeth of an adverse command of the sea, yet it cannot be converted
into an invasion until that adverse command has been assailed and
overthrown. It is thus essentially fugitive in character, possibly very
effective as a diversion, certain to be mortifying to the belligerent
assailed, and not at all unlikely to cause him much injury and even more
alarm, but quite incapable of deciding the larger issues of the conflict
so long as his command of the sea remains unchallenged. It is perhaps
expedient to say this much on the subject, because the programme of the
Naval Manoeuvres of this year is known to have included a series of
raids of this fugitive character. Whether, or to what extent, any of
these operations were adjudged to have been successful I do not know. I
am only concerned to point out that, whether successful or not, their
utmost success can throw little or no light on the problem of invasion
unless in the course of the same operations the defenders' command of
the sea was adjudged to have been overthrown.
In my chapter on "The Differentiation of Naval Force" I endeavoured to
define the functions of the so-called "battle-cruiser" and to forecast
its special uses in war. At the same time I pointed out that "it is held
by some high authorities that the battle-cruiser is in very truth a
hybrid and an anomaly, and that no adequate reason for its existence can
be given." It would appear that the views of these high authorities have
now been adopted, in some measure at least, by the Admiralty. Since the
chapter in question was in type it has been officially announced that
the battle-cruiser has been placed in temporary, and perhaps permanent,
abeyance. Its place is to be taken by a special type of fast battleship,
vessels in every way fit to lie in a line and yet, at the same time,
endowed with qualities which, without unduly increasing their size and
displacement, will enable them to discharge the special functions which
I assigned to the battle-cruiser in the line of battle. This is done by
employing oil instead of coal as the source of the ship's motive power.
The change thus adumbrated would seem to be in the natural order of
evolution, and at the same time to be in large measure one rather of
nomenclature than of substance. The battle-cruiser, as its name implies,
is itself essentially a fast battleship in one aspect and an exceedingly
powerful cruiser in another. In the fast battleship which is to replace
it, the battle function will be still further developed at the expense
of the cruiser function. But its speed will still qualify it to be
employed as a cruiser whenever occasion serves or necessity requires,
just as the battle-cruiser was qualified to lie in a line and do its
special work in a fleet action. The main difference is that the fast
battleship is much less likely to be employed as a cruiser than the
battle-cruiser was; but I pointed out in the text that the employment
even of the battle-cruiser in cruiser functions proper was likely to be
only occasional and subsidiary.
The decision to use oil as the exclusive source of the motive power of
fast battleships, and of certain types of small cruisers of exceptional
speed, is undoubtedly a very significant one. It may be taken to point
to a time when oil only will be employed in the propulsion of warships
and coal will be discarded altogether. But that consummation can only be
reached when the internal combustion engine has been much more highly
developed for purposes of marine propulsion than it is at present. At
present oil is only employed in large warships for the purpose of
producing steam by the external combustion of the oil. But it may be
anticipated that a process of evolution, now in its initial stages in
the Diesel and other internal combustion engines, will in course of time
result in the production of an internal combustion engine capable of
propelling the largest ships at any speed that is now attainable by
existing methods. When that stage is reached oil will, for economic
reasons alone, undoubtedly hold the field for all purposes of propulsion
in warships. It is held by some that this country will then be placed at
a great disadvantage, inasmuch as it possesses a monopoly of the best
steam coal, whereas it has no monopoly of oil at all, and probably no
sufficient domestic supply of it to meet the needs of the Fleet in time
of war. But oil can be stored as easily as coal and, unlike coal, it
does not deteriorate in storage. To bring it in sufficient supplies from
abroad in time of war should be no more difficult for a Power which
commands the sea than to bring in the supplies of food and raw material
on which this country depends at all times for its very existence.
Moreover, even if we continued to depend on coal alone, that coal,
together with other supplies in large quantities, must, as I have shown
in my last chapter, be carried across the seas in a continuous stream
to our fleets in distant waters, and one of the great advantages of oil
over coal is that it can be transferred with the greatest ease to the
warships requiring it at any rendezvous on the high seas, whether in
home waters or at the uttermost ends of the globe, which may be most
conveniently situated for the conduct of the operations in hand. For
these reasons I hold that no serious apprehension need be entertained
lest the supply of oil to our warships should fail so long as we hold
the command of the sea. If ever we lost the command of the sea we should
not be worrying about the supply of oil. Oil or no oil, we should be
starving, destitute and defenceless.
It only remains for me to express my gratitude to my friend Sir Charles
Ottley, not merely for an Introduction in which I cannot but fear that
he has allowed his friendship to get the better of his judgment, but
also for his kindness in devoting so much of his scanty leisure to the
reading of my proofs and the making of many valuable suggestions
thereon. I have also to thank my friend Captain Herbert W. Richmond,
R.N., for his unselfish kindness in allowing me to make use of his notes
on the Dunkirk campaign which he has closely studied in the original
papers preserved at the Admiralty and the Record Office. To my son,
Lieutenant H.G. Thursfield, R.N., I am also indebted for many valuable
suggestions. Finally, my acknowledgments are due to the Editors of this
series and the Syndics of the Cambridge University Press for their
uniform courtesy and consideration.
J.R.T.
_4th September 1913._
NAVAL WARFARE
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTORY
War is the armed conflict of national wills, an appeal to force as
between nation and nation. Naval warfare is that part of the conflict
which takes place on the seas. The civilized world is divided into
separate, independent States or nations, each sovereign within its own
borders. Each State pursues its own ideas and aims and embodies them in
a national policy; and so far as this policy affects only its own
citizens, it is subject to no control except that of the national
conscience and the national sense of the public welfare. Within the
State itself civil war may arise when internal dissensions divide the
nation into two parties, of which either pursues a policy to which the
other refuses to submit. In this case, unless the two parties agree to
separate without conflict, as was done by Sweden and Norway a few years
ago, an armed conflict ensues and the nation is divided into two
belligerent States which may or may not become, according to the
fortune of war, separate, independent, and sovereign in the end. The
great example of this in our own time was the War of Secession in
America, which, happily for both parties, ended without disruption, in
the surrender of the weaker of the two, and after a time in a complete
reconciliation between them.
Thus war may arise between two parties in a single State, and when it
does the two parties become, to all intents and purposes, separate,
independent, and sovereign States for the time being, and are, for the
most part, so regarded and treated by other independent States not
taking part in the conflict. For this reason, though the origin of a
civil war may differ widely in all its circumstances and conditions from
that of a war between two separate States, sovereign and independent _ab
initio_, yet as soon as a state of war is established, as distinct from
that of a puny revolt or a petty rebellion, there is, for a student of
war, no practical difference between a civil war and any other kind of
war. Both fall under the definition of war as the armed conflict of
national wills.
Between two separate, sovereign, independent nations a state of war
arises in this wise. We have seen that the internal policy of an
independent State is subject to no direct external control. But States
do not exist in isolation. Their citizens trade with the citizens of
other States, seeking to exchange the products of their respective
industries to the advantage of both. As they grow in prosperity, wealth,
and population, their capital seeks employment in other lands, and their
surplus population seeks an outlet in such regions of the earth as are
open to their occupation. Thus arise external relations between one
State and another, and the interests affected by these relations are
often found--and perhaps still more often believed--by one State to be
at variance with those of another. In pursuit of these interests--which,
as they grow and expand, become embodied in great consolidated kingdoms,
great colonial empires, or great imperial dependencies, and tend to be
regarded in time as paramount to all other national interests--each
State formulates and pursues an external policy of its own which may or
may not be capable of amicable adjustment to the policy of other States
engaged in similar enterprises. It is the function of diplomacy to
effect adjustments such as these where it can. It succeeds much more
often than it fails. Conflicting policies are deflected by mutual
agreement and concession so as to avoid the risk of collision, and each
State, without abandoning its policy, modifies it and adjusts it to the
exigencies of the occasion. Sometimes, however, diplomacy fails, either
because the conflicting policies are really irreconcilable, or because
passion, prejudice, national ambition, or international misunderstanding
induces the citizens of both States and their rulers so to regard them.
In that case, if neither State is prepared so to deflect its policy as
to avert collision, war ensues. The policy remains unchanged, but the
means of further pursuing it, otherwise than by an appeal to force, are
exhausted. War is thus, according to the famous definition of
Clausewitz, the pursuit of national policy by other means than those
which mere diplomacy has at its command--in other words by the conflict
of armed force. Each State now seeks to bend its enemy's will to its own
and to impose its policy upon him.
The means of pursuing this policy vary almost indefinitely. But inasmuch
as war is essentially the conflict of armed force, the primary object of
each belligerent must in all cases be to subdue, and, in the last
resort, to destroy the armed forces of the adversary. When that is done
all is done that war can do. How to do this most speedily and most
effectively is the fundamental problem of war. There is no cut-and-dried
solution of the problem, because although war may be considered, as it
has been considered above, in the abstract, it is the most concrete of
all human arts and, subject to the fundamental principle above
enunciated, its particular forms may, and indeed must, vary with the
circumstances and conditions of each particular war. Many commentators
on war distinguishing, with Clausewitz, between "limited" and
"unlimited" war, would further insist that the forms of war must vary
with its objects. I cannot follow this distinction, which seems to me to
be inconsistent with the fundamental proposition of Clausewitz, to the
effect that war is the pursuit of policy by means of the conflict of
armed force. If you desire your policy to prevail you must take the best
means that are open to you to make it prevail. It is worse than useless
to dissipate your energies in the pursuit of any purpose, however
important in itself, which does not directly conduce, and conduce better
than any other purpose you could pursue, to that paramount end. The only
limitation of your efforts that you can tolerate is that they should
involve the least expenditure of energy that may be necessary to make
your policy prevail. But that is a question of the economics of war; it
is not a question of "limited war" or of "war for a limited object."
Your sole object is to bend the enemy to your will. That object is
essentially an unlimited one, or one that is limited only by the extent
of the efforts which the enemy makes to withstand you. The only sure way
of attaining this object is to destroy his armed forces. If he submits
before this is done it is he that limits the war, not you. Bacon's
unimpeachable maxim in this regard is often misinterpreted. "This much
is certain," he says, "he that commands the sea is at great liberty and
may take as much or as little of the war as he will." That is
indisputable, but its postulate is that the belligerent has secured the
command of the sea; that is, as I shall show hereafter, that he has
subdued, if not destroyed, the armed forces of the enemy afloat. Having
done that he may, in a certain sense, take as much or as little of the
war as he chooses; but he must always take as much as will compel the
enemy to come to terms.
Naval warfare is no essential part of the armed conflict between
contending States. In some cases it exercises a decisive influence on
the conduct and issue of the conflict, in others none at all or next to
none. But sea power, that is, the advantage which a nation at war
derives from its superiority at sea, may largely affect the issue of a
war, even though no naval engagements of any moment may take place. In
the Crimean War the unchallenged supremacy of England and France on the
seas alone made it possible for the Allies to invade the Crimea and
undertake the siege of Sebastopol; while the naval campaigns of the
Allies in the Baltic, although they resulted in no decisive naval
operation, yet largely contributed to the success of the Allied arms in
the Crimea by compelling Russia to keep in the north large bodies of
troops which might otherwise have turned the scale against the Allies in
the South. In the War of 1859, between France and Austria, with the
Sardinian kingdom allied to the former, the superiority of the Allies at
sea enabled considerable portions of the French army to be transported
from French to Piedmontese ports, and by threatening the flank of the
Austrian line of advance, it accelerated the concentration of the Allies
on the Ticino. It also enabled the Allies to maintain a close blockade
of the Austrian ports in the Adriatic, and might have led to an attack
from the sea on the Austrian rear in Venetia had not the military
reverses of Austria in Lombardy brought the war to an end. In the War of
Secession in America the issue was largely determined, or at least
accelerated, by the close but not impenetrable blockade established by
the North over the ports and coasts of the South, and by the
co-operation of Farragut on the Mississippi with the Federal land forces
in that region. On the other hand, in the War of 1866 there was no naval
conflict worth mentioning between Austria and Prussia, because Prussia
had no navy to speak of; but as Italy, a naval Power, was the ally of
Prussia, and as Austria had a small but very efficient naval force led
by a great naval commander, the conflict between these two Powers led
to the Battle of Lissa, in which the Italian fleet was decisively
defeated, though the triumph of Prussia over the armies of Austria saved
Italy from the worst consequences of defeat, and indeed obtained for
her, in spite of her military reverses on land, the coveted possession
of Venetia. In the War of 1870 again, although the supremacy of France
on the seas was never seriously challenged by Prussia, yet her collapse
on land was so sudden and complete that her superiority at sea availed
her little or nothing. The maritime trade of Prussia was annihilated for
the time, but it was then too insignificant a factor in the economic
fabric of Prussia for its destruction to count for much, and the fleets
of France rode triumphant in the North Sea and the Baltic; but finding
no ships to fight, having no troops to land, and giving a wide berth to
fortifications with which they were ill-equipped--as ships always are
and always must be--to contend without support from the military arm,
their presence was little more than an idle and futile demonstration. In
the Boer War the influence of England's unchallenged supremacy at sea,
albeit latent, was decisive. The Boers had no naval force of any kind;
but no nation not secure in its dominion of the seas could have
undertaken such a war as England then had to wage, and it was perhaps
only the paramount sea power of this country that prevented the
conflict taking a form and assuming dimensions that would have taxed
British endurance to the uttermost and must almost certainly have
entailed the loss of South Africa to the Empire. Certain naval features
of the Cuban War between Spain and the United States, and of the War in
the Far East between Russia and Japan, will be more conveniently
considered in subsequent chapters of this manual.
The normal correlation and interdependence of naval and military forces
in the armed conflict of national wills is sufficiently illustrated by
the foregoing examples. In certain abnormal and exceptional cases each
can act and produce the desired effect without the other. In a few
extreme cases it is hard to see how either could act at all. If, for
instance, Spain and Switzerland were to fall out, how could either
attack the other? They have no common frontier, and though Spain has a
navy, Switzerland has no seaboard. Cases where naval conflict alone has
decided the issue are those of the early wars between England and
Holland. Neither could reach the other except across the sea, there was
no territorial issue directly involved, and the object of both
combatants was to secure a monopoly of maritime commerce. But as
territorial issues, and territorial issues involving the sea and
affected by it directly or indirectly, are nearly always at stake in
great wars, history affords few examples of great international
conflicts in which sea power does not enter as a factor, often of
supreme importance.
It must of course enter as a factor of paramount importance in any war
between an insular State and a continental one--as in the war between
Russia and Japan--or between two continental States which--as in the war
between Spain and the United States--have no common frontier on land.
War being the armed conflict of national wills, it is manifest that the
opposing wills cannot in cases such as these be brought into armed
conflict unless one State or the other is in a position to operate on
the sea. The first move in such a conflict must of necessity be made, by
one belligerent or the other, on the sea. This involves the conception
of "the command of the sea," and as this is the fundamental conception
of naval warfare as such, our analysis of naval warfare must begin with
an exposition of what is meant by the command of the sea.
CHAPTER II
THE COMMAND OF THE SEA
We have seen that when two States go to war the primary object of each
is to subdue and if possible to destroy the armed forces of the other.
Until that is done either completely, or to such an extent as to induce
the defeated belligerent to submit, the conflict of wills cannot be
determined, and the two States cannot return to those normal relations,
involving no violence or force, which constitute a state of peace. If
they have a common frontier this circumstance indicates what is, as a
general rule, the best and most efficient way of securing the object to
be attained. The armed forces of both belligerents lie at the outset
within their respective frontiers. If those of either can be constrained
by the superior strategy of the other to keep within their own
territory, the initial advantage lies with the belligerent who has so
constrained them, and the war has in common parlance been carried into
the enemy's country. In other words, the invasion of the enemy's
territory has begun, and pressure has been brought to bear on his will
which, if maintained without intermission and with an intensity duly
proportioned to its growing extent, must in the end subdue it. To this
there is no alternative. To invade the enemy's territory at all is to
inflict a reverse on his armed forces, which would assuredly have
prevented the invasion if they could. The territory in the rear of the
invading army is in greater or less degree brought under the control of
the invader and thereby temporarily lost to the invaded State. If this
process is continued the authority and the resources of the invaded
State are progressively diminished, until at last when the capital is
occupied and the remainder of the invaded country lies open to the
advance of the invader, the defeated State must sue for peace on such
terms as the invader may concede, because it has nothing left to fight
for, and no force wherewithal to fight. This is of course merely an
abstract and generalized description of the course of a war on land, but
I need not consider its concrete details nor analyse any of the
conditions which may, and in the concrete often do, impede or deflect
its course, because my sole purpose is to show how armed force operates
in the abstract to subdue the will of the belligerent who is worsted in
the conflict. It operates by the destruction of his armed forces, by the
occupation of his territory, and by the consequent extinction of his
authority and appropriation of his resources. He can only recover the
latter and liberate his territory by submitting to such terms as the
invader may dictate or concede.
Naval warfare aims at the same primary object, namely, the destruction
of the enemy's armed forces afloat; but it cannot by itself produce the
same decisive effect, because there is no territory which naval force,
as such, can occupy and appropriate. The sea is not territory. It is not
nor can it be made subject to the authority of an enemy in the same
sense that the land can, nor does it possess any resources in itself
such as on the land can be appropriated to the disadvantage and ultimate
discomfiture of a belligerent whose territory has been invaded. The sea
is the common highway of all nations, and the exclusive possession of
none. Apart from its fisheries, which, outside the territorial waters of
any particular State, are open to all nations, it is of no use, except
as a highway, to any State. But its use as a highway is the root of all
sea power, the foundation of all naval warfare. It is only by this
highway that an island State can be invaded, only by this highway that
an island State, or a State having no common frontier with its
adversary, can encounter and subdue the armed forces of the enemy,
whether on sea or on land.
Moreover, the sea as a highway differs in many important respects from
such highways or other lines of communication as serve for the transit
and transport of armed forces and their necessary supplies on land. In
one sense it is all highway, that is, it can be traversed in every
direction by ships, wherever there is water enough for them to float.
For military purposes land transit is confined to such highways as are
suitable to the march of an army accompanied by artillery and heavy
baggage and supply trains, or to such railways as can more expeditiously
serve the same purpose. Hence an army advancing in an enemy's country
cannot advance on a very broad front, nor can it outmarch its baggage
and other supplies except for a very limited time and for some
exceptional purpose. Sea transport is subject to no such limitations.
Ships carry their own supplies with them, and a fleet of ships, whether
of transports or of warships, can move on as broad a front as is
compatible with the exercise of due control over their combined
movements. Moreover, within certain limits and with certain exceptions,
where the waters to be traversed are narrow, ships and fleets can vary
their line of transit and advance to such an extent as to render the
discovery of their whereabouts a matter of some difficulty. The same
conditions affect the transit of such merchant vessels as, carrying the
flag of one belligerent, are liable to capture by the other. Hence the
primary aim of all naval warfare is and must be so to control the lines
of communication which traverse the seas affected, that the enemy
cannot move his warships from one point to another without encountering
a superior force of his adversary, and that his merchant ships cannot
prosecute their voyages without running extreme risk of capture by the
way. This is called, in time-honoured phraseology, securing the command
of the sea, and the true meaning of this phrase is nothing more nor less
than the effective control of all such maritime communications as are or
can be affected by the operations of either belligerent. This control
may extend, according to circumstances, to all the navigable seas of the
globe, or it may be confined, for all practical purposes, to the waters
adjacent to the respective territories of the two belligerents. In
theory, however, its effect is unlimited, and so it must be in practice,
where the territories of one belligerent or the other are widely
scattered over the globe. That is the sense in which "the sea is all
one."
It is important to note that the phrase "command of the sea" has no
definite meaning except in war. In time of peace no State claims to
command the sea or to control it in any way. But in any war in which
naval force is engaged each belligerent seeks to secure the command of
the sea for himself and to deny it to his enemy, that is to close the
highway which the sea affords in time of peace to his warships and his
merchant vessels alike. As regards the enemy's warships, moreover, he
seeks to secure his own command by their destruction or capture. This is
not always possible, because if the naval forces of the two belligerents
are very unequally matched, it is always open to the weaker of the two
to decline the conflict by keeping his main fleets in ports unassailable
by naval force alone, and seeking to reduce the superiority of his
adversary by assailing him incessantly with torpedo craft. He may also
attempt the hazardous enterprise of sending out isolated cruisers to
prey upon his adversary's commerce afloat. But in the case supposed,
where the superiority of one side is so great as to compel the main
fleets of the other to seek the protection of their fortified ports,
such an enterprise is, as I shall show in a subsequent chapter, not only
extremely hazardous in itself, but quite incapable of inflicting such
loss on the superior adversary as would be likely to induce him to
abandon the conflict.
Nevertheless the command of the sea is not established, or at best it is
only partially, and it may be only temporarily, established by driving
the main fleets of the enemy into ports which are inaccessible to naval
force alone. They must not only be driven there but compelled to remain
there. This has generally been done in the past, and according to many,
but not all, naval authorities, it will generally have to be done in the
future by the operation known as blockade, whereby the enemy is
prevented from coming out, or is compelled if he does come out to fight
a superior force lying in wait outside. As a matter of fact, inasmuch as
a blockade to be really deterrent must be conducted by a blockading
force superior to that which is blockaded--for otherwise the latter need
not shun an engagement in the open with the former--it can rarely be the
interest of the blockader to prevent the exit of his adversary, since by
the hypothesis if he could get him out he could beat him. But the
blockade must nevertheless be maintained, because, although the
blockaded fleet cannot by that means be destroyed, it can, at any rate,
be immobilized and wiped off the board so long as it remains where it
is.
The situation in which a blockade is set up by one belligerent and
submitted to by the other is not identical with an effective command of
the sea, though in certain circumstances it may approximate very closely
to it. The blockaded forces may not be so thoroughly intimidated by the
superior forces of the blockaders that they could not or would not, if
they could, seek a favourable opportunity for breaking or evading the
blockade imposed upon them. They may merely be waiting in a position
unassailable by naval force alone until the blockading forces are so
weakened through incessant torpedo attack, through the wear and tear
inflicted on them by the nature of the service on which they are
engaged, through stress of weather, through the periodical necessity
which compels even the best found ships to withdraw temporarily from the
blockade for the purposes of repair, refit, and replenishment of their
stores, and through the fatigue imposed on their officers and crews by
the incessant vigilance which a blockade requires as to afford them a
favourable opportunity of challenging a decision in the open. Or, again,
if the forces of the blockaded belligerent are distributed between two
or more of his fortified ports, he may attempt an evasion of the
blockade at two or more of them for the purpose of combining the forces
thus liberated and attacking one or more of the blockading fleets in
superior force before they can re-establish their own superiority by
concentration. Broadly speaking, this was the plan of operations
adopted, or rather attempted, by Napoleon in the memorable campaign
which ended at Trafalgar. It was frustrated by the persistent energy of
Nelson, by the masterly dispositions of Barham at the Admiralty, by the
tenacity with which Cornwallis maintained the blockade at Brest, and by
the instinctive sagacity with which other commanders of the several
blockading and cruising squadrons nearly always did the right thing at
the right moment, divined Barham's purpose, and carried it out almost
automatically. Practically, Napoleon was beaten and his projected
invasion of England was abandoned many weeks before Trafalgar was won.
But the command of the sea was not thereby secured to England. It needed
Trafalgar and the destruction of the French and Spanish Fleets there
accomplished to effect that consummation. England thenceforth remained
in effective and almost undisputed command of the sea, and the
Peninsular campaigns of Wellington were for the first time rendered
possible. The contrasted phases of the conflict before and after
Trafalgar are perhaps the best illustration in history of the vast and
vital difference between a command of the sea in dispute and a command
of the sea established. Trafalgar was the turning-point in the long
conflict between England and Napoleon.
DISPUTED COMMAND--BLOCKADE
I have so far treated blockade as the initial stage of a struggle for
the command of the sea. That appears to me to be the logical order of
treatment, because when two naval Powers go to war it is almost certain
that the stronger of the two will at the outset attempt to blockade the
naval forces of the other. The same thing is likely to happen even if
the two are approximately equal in naval force, but in that case the
blockade is not likely to be of long duration, because both sides will
be eager to obtain a decision in the open. The command of the sea is a
matter of such vital moment to both sides that each must needs seek to
obtain it as soon and as completely as possible, and the only certain
way to obtain it is by the destruction of the armed forces of the enemy.
The advantage of putting to sea first is in naval warfare the equivalent
or counterpart of the advantage in land warfare of first crossing the
enemy's frontier. If that advantage is pushed home and the enemy is
still unready it must lead to a blockade. It is, moreover, quite
possible that even if both belligerents are equally ready--I am here
assuming them to be approximately equal in force--one or other, if not
both, may think it better strategy to await developments before risking
everything in an attempt to secure an immediate decision. In point of
fact, the difference between this policy and the policy of a declared
blockade is, as I am about to show, almost imperceptible, especially in
modern conditions of naval warfare. It is therefore necessary to
consider the subject of blockade more in detail. Other subjects closely
associated with this will also have to be considered in some detail
before we can grasp the full purport and extent of what is meant by the
command of the sea.
There are two kinds of blockade--military and commercial. The former
includes the latter, but the latter does not necessarily involve the
former, except in the sense that armed naval force is necessary to
maintain it. By a commercial blockade a belligerent seeks to intercept
the maritime commerce of the enemy, to prevent any vessels, whether
enemy or neutral, from reaching his ports, and at the same time to
prevent their egress to the same extent. This in certain circumstances
may be a very effective agency for bending or breaking the enemy's will
and compelling his submission, but I reserve its consideration for more
detailed treatment hereafter. It is with military blockade that I am
here more especially concerned.
We have seen that the paramount purpose of all naval warfare, and,
indeed, of all warfare, is the destruction of the armed forces of the
enemy. His armed forces are in the last resort the sole instrument of
his will, and their destruction to such an extent as is necessary to
subdue his will is the sole agency by which peace can be restored.
Whatever the extent of the war, whether it is limited or unlimited, in
the sense assigned to those words by Clausewitz and his followers, the
conflict of national wills out of which the quarrel arose must in some
way be composed, either by concessions on both sides or by the complete
subjection of one side to the other, before it can come to an end. It
follows that the main object of a military blockade can rarely be to
keep the enemy's forces sealed up, masked, and to that extent
immobilized in the blockaded ports. Its real object is to secure that if
they do come out they shall be observed, shadowed, and followed until
such time as they can be encountered by a superior force, and if
possible destroyed. The classical text on this topic is a letter written
on August 1, 1804, by Nelson to the Lord Mayor of London, acknowledging
a vote of thanks passed by the Corporation, and addressed to Nelson as
commanding the fleet blockading Toulon. Nelson said in his reply: "I beg
to inform your Lordship that the port of Toulon has never been blockaded
by me: quite the reverse--every opportunity has been offered to the
enemy to put to sea, for it is there that we hope to realize the hopes
and expectations of our country, and I trust that they will not be
disappointed." What Nelson here meant was that the so-called blockade of
the port--it was a common, but, as he held, an erroneous expression--was
merely incidental to the operation he was conducting. His main objective
was the armed forces of the enemy lying unassailable within the
blockaded port. He could not make them put to sea but he gave them every
opportunity of doing so. So far from wishing to keep them in, his one
desire was to get them out into the open, "for it is there that we hope
to realize the hopes and expectations of our country"--that is to get a
decision in favour of the British arms.
Now, this being the object of a military blockade, its methods will be
subordinated to that object. In the days of sailing ships the method
which commended itself to the best naval authorities of the time was to
have an inshore squadron, consisting mainly of frigates and smaller
craft, but strengthened if necessary by a few capital ships, generally
two-deckers, closely watching the entrance to the port, but keeping
outside the range of its land defences. This was supported at a greater
distance in the offing by the main blockading fleet of heavier ships of
the line, cruising within narrow limits and keeping close touch with the
inshore squadron. Such a method is no longer practicable owing to the
development of steam navigation, and to the introduction into naval
warfare of the locomotive torpedo, and of special vessels designed to
make the attack of this weapon extremely formidable and extremely
difficult to parry. The inshore squadron of the old days was liable to
no attack which it could not parry if in sufficient force, and if too
hardly pressed it could always fall back on the main blockading fleet,
which was unassailable except by a corresponding force of the enemy. The
advent of the torpedo and of its characteristic craft has changed all
this. No naval Power can now afford to place its battleships at a fixed
station, or even in close touch with a fixed rendezvous, which is within
reach of an enemy's torpedo craft. The torpedo vessel which operates
only on the surface is, it is true, formidable only at night; in the
daytime it is powerless in attack and extremely vulnerable. But the
submarine is equally formidable in the daytime, and its attack even in
the daytime is far more insidious and difficult to parry than that of
the surface torpedo vessel is at night. The effective range of the
surface torpedo vessel is thus, for practical purposes, half the
distance which it can traverse in any given direction from its base
between dusk and dawn--say from one hundred to two hundred miles,
according to its speed and the season of the year. The speed of the
submarine is much less, but it can keep the sea for many days together,
sinking beneath the surface whenever it is threatened with attack. It
can also approach a battleship or fleet of battleships in the same
submerged condition, and experience has already demonstrated that its
advance in that condition to within striking distance is extremely
difficult to detect. Moreover, even if its presence is detected in time,
the only certain defence against it is for the battleship to steam away
from it at a speed greater than any submarine has ever attained or is
likely to attain in the submerged condition. It should further be noted
that torpedo craft engaged in offensive operations of this character are
not confined to the blockaded port as a base. Any sheltered anchorage
will serve their purpose, provided it is sufficiently fortified to
resist such attacks from the sea as may be anticipated.
Thus, in the conditions established by the advent of the torpedo and its
characteristic craft, there would seem to be only two alternatives open
to a fleet of battleships engaged in blockade operations. Either it must
be stationed in some sheltered anchorage outside the radius of action of
the enemy's surface torpedo craft, and if within that radius adequately
defended against torpedo attack--as Togo established a flying base for
the use of his fleet, first at the Elliot Islands and afterwards at
Dalny, for the purpose of blockading Port Arthur; or it must cruise in
the open outside the same limits, keeping in touch with its advanced
cruisers and flotillas by means of wireless telegraphy, and thereby
dispensing with anything like a fixed rendezvous. It is not, perhaps,
imperative that it should always cruise entirely outside the prescribed
radius, because experience in modern naval manoeuvres has frequently
shown that it is a very difficult thing for torpedo craft, moving at
random, to discover a fleet which is constantly shifting its position at
high speed, especially when they are at any moment liable to attack from
cruisers and torpedo craft of the other side.
Thus a modern blockade will, so far as battle fleets are concerned, be
of necessity rather a watching blockade than a masking or sealing up
blockade. If the two belligerents are unequal in naval strength it will
probably take some such form as the following. The weaker belligerent
will at the outset keep his battle fleet in his fortified ports. The
stronger may do the same, but he will be under no such paramount
inducement to do so. Both sides will, however, send out their torpedo
craft and supporting cruisers with intent to do as much harm as they can
to the armed forces of the enemy. If one belligerent can get his
torpedo craft to sea before the enemy is ready, he will, if he is the
stronger of the two, forthwith attempt to establish as close and
sustained a watch of the ports sheltering the enemy's armed forces as
may be practicable; if he is the weaker, he will attempt sporadic
attacks on the ports of his adversary and on such of his warships as may
be found in the open. If the enemy is so incautious as to have placed
any of his capital ships or other important craft in a position open to
the assault of torpedo craft--as Russia did at Port Arthur at the
opening of the war with Japan--or if he has been so lacking in vigilance
and forethought as not to have taken timely and adequate measures for
meeting sporadic attacks of the kind indicated, such attacks may be very
effective and may even go so far to redress the balance of naval
strength as to encourage the originally weaker belligerent to seek a
decision in the open. But the forces of the stronger belligerent must be
very badly handled and disposed for anything of the kind to take place.
The advantage of superior force is a tremendous one. If it is associated
with energy, determination, initiative, and skill of disposition no more
than equal to those of the assailant, it is overwhelming. The
sea-keeping capacity, or what has been called the enduring mobility, of
torpedo craft, is comparatively small. Their coal-supply is limited,
especially when they are steaming at full speed, and they carry no very
large reserve of torpedoes. They must, therefore, very frequently return
to a base to replenish their supplies. The superior enemy is, it is
true, subject to the same disabilities, but being superior he has more
torpedo craft to spare and more cruisers to attack the torpedo craft of
the enemy and their own escort of cruisers. When the raiding torpedo
craft return to their base he will make it very difficult for them to
get in and just as difficult for them to get out again. He will suffer
losses, of course, for there is no superiority of force that will confer
immunity in that respect in war. But even between equal forces, equally
well led and handled, there is no reason to suppose that the losses of
one side will be more than equal to those of the other; whereas if one
side is appreciably superior to the other it is reasonable to suppose
that it will inflict greater losses on the enemy than it suffers itself,
while even if the losses are equal the residue of the stronger force
will still be greater than that of the weaker. It is true that the whole
art of war, whether on sea or on land, consists in so disposing your
armed forces, both strategically and tactically, that you may be
superior to the enemy at the critical point and moment, and that success
in this supreme art is no inherent prerogative of the belligerent whose
aggregate forces are superior to those of his adversary. But this is
only to say that success in war is not an affair of numbers alone. It is
an affair of numbers combined with hard fighting and skilful
disposition.
CHAPTER IV
DISPUTED COMMAND--THE FLEET IN BEING
We have seen that blockade is only a means to an end, that end being the
destruction or surrender of the armed forces of the enemy. We have seen
also that that end cannot be obtained by blockade alone. All that a
military blockade can do is by a judicious disposition of superior
force, either to prevent the enemy coming out at all, or to secure that
if he does come out he shall be brought to action. The former method is
only applicable where the blockader's superiority of force is so great
that his adversary cannot venture at the outset to encounter his main
fleets in the open, and in that case the establishment of a blockade of
this character is for many purposes practically tantamount to securing
the command of the sea to the blockader so long as the blockade can be
maintained. Such a situation, however, can very rarely arise. There are
very few instances of it in naval history, and there are likely to be
fewer in the future than there have been in the past. The closest
blockade ever established and maintained was that of Brest by Cornwallis
from 1803 to 1805, when Napoleon was projecting the invasion of
England. Yet it would be too much to say that during those strenuous
years Ganteaume never could have got out, had he been so minded, and it
is not to be forgotten that for some time during the crisis of the
campaign he was forbidden by Napoleon to make the attempt. Moreover,
such a situation, even when it does arise, amounts at best to a
stalemate, not to a checkmate. It leaves the enemy's fleet "a fleet in
being," immobilized and wiped off the board for the moment, but
nevertheless so operating as to immobilize the blockading fleet in so
far as the chief effort of the latter must be concentrated on
maintaining the blockade.
It is necessary to dwell at some length on this conception of "a fleet
in being." Admiral Mahan, the great historian of sea power--whose high
authority all students of naval warfare will readily acknowledge and
rarely attempt to dispute--speaks of it in his _Life of Nelson_ as a
doctrine or opinion which "has received extreme expression ... and
apparently undergone extreme misconception." On the other hand, Admiral
Sir Cyprian Bridge tells us in the _Encyclopædia Britannica_ (_s.v._
"Sea-Power") that "the principle of the 'fleet in being' lies at the
bottom of all sound strategy." Of a principle which, according to one
high authority, lies at the bottom of all sound strategy, and according
to another has received extreme expression and undergone misconception
equally extreme, it is plainly essential that a true conception should
be obtained before it can be applied to the elucidation of any of the
problems of naval warfare. Now what is this much-debated principle? It
is best to go to the fountain-head for its elucidation. The phrase "a
fleet in being" was first used by Arthur Herbert, Earl of Torrington, in
his defence before the Court Martial which tried and acquitted him for
his conduct of the naval campaign of 1690, and especially of the Battle
of Beachy Head, which was the leading event--none too glorious for
British arms--of that campaign. "Both as a strategist and as a
tactician," says Admiral Bridge, "Torrington was immeasurably ahead of
his contemporaries. The only English admirals who can be placed above
him are Hawke and Nelson." Yet he was regarded by many of his
contemporaries, and has been represented by many historians, merely as
the incapable seaman who failed to win the Battle of Beachy Head, and
thereby jeopardized the safety of the kingdom at a very critical time.
The situation was as follows. The country was divided between the
partisans of James II. and the supporters of William III. James was in
Ireland, where his strength was greatest, and William had gone thither
to encounter him, his transit having been covered by a small squadron of
six men-of-war, under the command of Sir Cloudesley Shovel. The army
was with William in Ireland, and Great Britain could only be defended on
land by a hastily levied militia. Its sole effective defence was the
fleet; and the fleet, although reinforced by a Dutch contingent, was,
for the moment, insufficient to defend it. The chief reliance of James
was upon the friendship and forces, naval and military, of Louis XIV.
Here was a case in which the security of England against insurrection at
home and invasion from abroad depended on the sufficiency and capacity
of her fleets to maintain the command of the sea--that is, either to
defeat the enemy's naval forces or to keep them at bay, and thereby to
deny freedom of transit to any military forces that Louis might attempt
to launch against British territory. The French king resolved to make a
determined attempt to wrest the command of the sea from his adversaries,
and by overpowering the allied fleets of England and Holland in the
Channel, to open the way for a successful invasion and a successful
insurrection to follow. A great fleet was collected at Brest, under the
supreme command of Tourville, and a squadron from Toulon under
Château-Renault was ordered to join him in the Channel, so as to enable
him to threaten London, to foment a Jacobite insurrection in the
capital, to land troops in Torbay, and to occupy the Irish Channel in
such force as to prevent the return of William and his army.
Now, of course, none of these objects could be attained unless the
allied fleets in the Channel and adjacent waters could be either
decisively defeated in the open or else so intimidated by the superior
forces of the enemy as to decline a conflict and retire to some place of
safety. On the broad principle that the paramount object of all warfare
is the destruction of the armed forces of the enemy, Tourville, if he
felt himself strong enough, was bound to seek out the allied fleet and
challenge it to a decisive combat. On the same principle, Torrington, if
he felt himself strong enough, was bound to pursue the same aggressive
strategy, and by thoroughly beating the French to frustrate all their
objects at once. But Torrington was not strong enough and knew that he
was not strong enough. He had foreseen the crisis and warned his
superiors betimes, entreating them to take adequate measures for dealing
with it. They took no such measures. On the contrary, the dispositions
they made were calculated rather to aggravate the danger than to avert
it. Early in the year a fleet of sixteen sail of the line under
Killigrew had been sent in charge of a convoy to Cadiz with orders to
prevent, if possible, the exit of the Toulon fleet from the
Mediterranean and to follow it up should it make good its escape. This
strategy was unimpeachable if only Killigrew could make sure of
intercepting Château-Renault and defeating him, and if the naval forces
left in home waters when Killigrew was detached were sufficient to give
a good account of the fleet that Tourville was collecting at Brest. But
in its results it was disastrous, for Killigrew, delayed by weather and
by the many preoccupations, commercial and strategic, entailed by his
instructions was unable either to bar the passage of the Toulon fleet or
to overtake it during its progress towards the Channel. Hence
Château-Renault was able to effect his junction with Tourville
unmolested, while Killigrew did not reach Plymouth until after the
battle of Beachy Head had been fought, when, Tourville being victorious
in the Channel, he was obliged to carry his squadron into the Hamoaze so
as to be out of harm's way. Shovel, having escorted the king and his
troops to Ireland, was equally unable to carry out his orders to join
Torrington in the Channel, since Tourville stood in the way. Hence,
although fully alive to the strategic value, in certain contingencies,
of the forces under Killigrew and Shovel, Torrington was compelled to
rely mainly on the force under his immediate command, the insufficiency
of which he had many months before pointed out and vainly implored his
superiors to redress.
The result of all this was that no adequate steps were, or could be,
taken, to prevent the advance of Tourville in greatly superior force
into the Channel. Torrington hoisted his flag in the Downs at the end of
May, and even then the Dutch contingent had not joined in the numbers
promised. Hence it was impossible to keep scouts out to the westward as
the Dutch had undertaken to do, and the first definite intelligence that
Torrington received of the advance of the French was the information
that on June 23 they were anchored in great force to the westward of the
Isle of Wight. Three days later, having in the meanwhile received a
Dutch reinforcement bringing his force up to fifty-five sail of the line
and twenty fire-ships, he offered them battle in that position, but it
was declined. His own comment on this hazardous adventure may here be
quoted: "I do acknowledge my first intention of attacking them, a
rashness that will admit of no better excuse than that, though I did
believe them stronger than we are, I did not believe it to so great a
degree.... Their great strength and caution have put soberer thoughts
into my head, and have made me very heartily give God thanks they
declined the battle yesterday; and indeed I shall not think myself very
unhappy if I can get rid of them without fighting, unless it may be upon
equaller terms than I can at present see any prospect of.... A council
of war I called this morning unanimously agreed we are by all manner of
means to shun fighting with them, especially if they have the wind of
us; and retire, if we cannot avoid it otherwise, even to the Gunfleet,
the only place we can with any manner of probability make our account
good with them in the condition we are in. We have now had a pretty good
view of their fleet, which consists of near, if not quite, eighty
men-of-war fit to lie in a line and thirty fire-ships; a strength that
puts me beside hopes of success, if we should fight, and really may not
only endanger the losing of the fleet, but at least the quiet of our
country too; for if we are beaten they, being absolute masters of the
sea, will be at great liberty of doing many things they dare not attempt
while we observe them and are in a possibility of joining Vice-Admiral
Killigrew and our ships to the westward. If I find a possibility, I will
get by them to the westward to join those ships; if not, I mean to
follow the result of the council of war."
The strategy here indicated is plain, and, in my judgment, sound. It may
be profitably compared with that of Nelson as explained to his captains
during his return from the West Indies whither he had pursued
Villeneuve. Villeneuve was on his way back to European waters and Nelson
hoped to overtake him. He had eleven ships of the line in his fleet and
Villeneuve was known to have not less than eighteen. Yet, though Nelson
did not shrink from an engagement on his own terms, he was resolved not
to force one inopportunely. "Do not," he said to his captains, "imagine
I am one of those hot-brained people who fight at immense disadvantage
without an adequate object. My object is partly gained"--that is,
Villeneuve had been driven out of the West Indies. "If we meet them we
shall find them not less than eighteen, I rather think twenty, sail of
the line, and therefore do not be surprised if I do not fall on them
immediately; we won't part without a battle. I think they will be glad
to leave me alone, if I will let them alone; which I will do, either
till we approach the shores of Europe, or they give an advantage too
tempting to be resisted." Torrington's attitude was the same as
Nelson's, except perhaps that he lacked the ardent faith to say with
Nelson, "We won't part without a battle." He would not think himself
very unhappy if he could get rid of Tourville without a battle. But the
situations of the two men were different. Nelson knew, as he said
himself, that "by the time that the enemy has beat our fleet soundly,
they will do us no harm this year." If, that is, by the sacrifice of
eleven ships of his own he could wipe out eighteen or twenty of the
enemy, destroying some and disabling as many as he could of the rest, he
would leave the balance of naval force still strongly in favour of his
country, more strongly in fact than if he fought no action at all.
Torrington, on the other hand, knew that "if we are beaten they, being
absolute masters of the sea, will be at great liberty of doing many
things they dare not attempt while we observe them and are in a
possibility of joining Vice-Admiral Killigrew and our ships to the
westward." Killigrew and Shovel had twenty-two sail of the line between
them, and Torrington, in the dispatch above quoted, had requested that
they should be ordered to advance to Portsmouth, whence, if the French
pursued him to the eastward, they might be able to join him "over the
flats" of the Thames. As he had fifty-five sail of the line himself,
with a possibility of reinforcements from Chatham, the concentration off
the Thames of the whole of the forces available would have enabled him
to encounter Tourville on something like equal terms; and from that,
assuredly, he would not have shrunk. Meanwhile he would wait, watch,
observe, and pursue a defensive strategy. If Tourville should withdraw
to the westward he would follow him and get past him if he could, and in
that case, having picked up Killigrew and Shovel, he would be in a
position to take the offensive on no very unequal terms and not to part
from Tourville without a battle.
But the strategy of Torrington--admirable and unimpeachable as,
according to such high authorities as Admiral Bridge and the late
Admiral Colomb, it was--did not at all commend itself to Mary and her
Council, who, during William's absence in Ireland, were left in charge
of the kingdom. They wanted a battle, although Torrington had plainly
told them that it could not be a victory and might result in a
disastrous and even fatal defeat. "We apprehend," they said in a
dispatch purporting to come from Mary herself, "the consequences of your
retiring to the Gunfleet to be so fatal, that we choose rather you
should, upon any advantage of the wind, give battle to the enemy than
retreat further than is necessary to get an advantage upon the enemy."
Torrington, of course, never intended to retire to the Gunfleet--which
was an anchorage protected by sandbanks off the coast of Essex to the
north of the Thames--if he could avoid doing so. But unless he went
there, there was no advantage to be got upon the enemy by retreating to
the eastward, because there alone could he get reinforcements from
Chatham and possibly be joined by Killigrew and Shovel "over the flats";
which is what he meant by saying that the Gunfleet was "the only place
we can with any manner of probability make our account with them in the
position we are in." On the other hand, if the French gave him an
opportunity he would, if he could, get past them to the westward and
there join Killigrew and Shovel in a position of much greater
advantage. But in his actual situation, not being one of "those
hot-brained people who fight at immense disadvantage without an adequate
object," he knew that a battle was the last thing which he ought to risk
and the first that the French must desire. However, as a loyal seaman,
who knew how to obey orders, he did as he was told. The French had
pressed him as far as Beachy Head and there he gave battle, taking care
so to fight as to risk as little as possible. He was beaten, as he
expected to be, and the Dutch, who had been the most hotly engaged, were
very severely handled by the French. But though his losses were
considerable, for he had to destroy some of his ships to prevent their
falling into the hands of the enemy, he saved his fleet from the
destruction which must have befallen it had he fought otherwise than he
did. As the day advanced and the battle raged, the wind dropped and the
tide began to ebb. Torrington, taking advantage of this, anchored his
fleet, while the French drifted away to the westward. When the tide
again began to flow he again took advantage of it and retreated to the
eastward. The French made some show of pursuit, but Torrington made good
his retreat into the Thames, where, the buoys having been taken up, the
French could not follow him. Finally, the French withdrew from the
Channel, having accomplished nothing beyond an insignificant raid on
Teignmouth. Torrington was tried by Court Martial and acquitted, though
he was never again employed afloat. But the fact remains that, as
Admiral Bridge says, "most seamen were at the time, have been since, and
still are in agreement with Torrington." As to his conduct of the
battle, which has so unjustly involved him in lasting discredit with the
historians, though not with the seamen, he said in his defence before
the Court Martial: "I may be bold to say that I have had time and cause
enough to think of it, and that, upon my word, were the battle to be
fought over again, I do not know how to mend it, under the same
circumstances." Again, as to his general conduct of the campaign, he
said: "It is true that the French made no great advantage of their
victory though they put us to a great charge in keeping up the militia;
but had I fought otherwise, our fleet had been totally lost, and the
whole kingdom had lain open to an invasion. What, then, would have
become of us in the absence of his Majesty and most of the land forces?
As it was, most men were in fear that the French would invade; but I was
always of another opinion; for I always said that, _whilst we had a
fleet in being_, they would not dare to make an attempt."
This is the first appearance of the phrase "a fleet in being" in the
terminology of naval warfare. Its reappearance in our own day and its
frequent employment in naval discussion are due to the masterly analysis
of Torrington's strategy and tactics which the late Admiral Colomb gave
in his illuminating work on _Naval Warfare_. In order to avoid giving it
the extreme expression which, according to Admiral Mahan, it has
received from some writers, and involving it in that extreme
misconception which he thinks it has undergone at the hands of
others--or it may be of the same--I have thought it worth while to
examine at some length the campaign which gave rise to it so as to
ascertain exactly what was in the mind of Torrington when he first used
it. It is plain that Torrington held, as all great seamen have held,
that the primary object of every belligerent is to destroy the armed
forces of the enemy. He was so circumstanced that he could not do that
himself, because the forces which might have been at his disposal for
the purpose, had the circumstances been other than they were, were so
divided and dispersed that the enemy might overcome them in detail. That
the enemy would do this, if he could, he did not doubt, and it was
equally certain that it must be his immediate object to prevent his
doing it. His own force being by far the strongest of the three opposed
to Tourville, it must be upon him that the brunt of the conflict would
fall. Nothing would suit him better than that Tourville should turn
back and attempt to force a battle on either Killigrew or Shovel to the
westward, because in that case he could hang upon Tourville's rear and
flanks and take any opportunity that offered to get past him and
concentrate the British forces to the westward of him. But Tourville
gave him no such opportunity. He pressed him hard and might have pressed
him back even to the Gunfleet if Torrington had not been ordered by Mary
and her advisers to give battle "upon any advantage of the wind." But
even in fighting the battle, which his own judgment told him ought not
to be fought, he never lost sight of the paramount necessity of so
fighting it as to give Tourville no decisive advantage. The victory was
a barren one to Tourville. It gave him no command of the sea and for
that reason he was unable to prosecute any enterprise of invasion. The
command of the sea remained in dispute, and unless the dispute could be
decided in Tourville's favour he would have fought and won the battle of
Beachy Head in vain, as the event showed that he did. Torrington held
that his "fleet in being," even after the reverse at Beachy Head, was a
sufficient bar to the further enterprises of Tourville, nor can
Tourville's subsequent action be explained on any other hypothesis than
that he shared Torrington's opinion and acted on it.
The truth is, that the doctrine of the fleet in being, as understood
and illustrated by Torrington, is in reality the counterpart and
complement of the doctrine of the command of the sea as expounded above.
"I consider," said the late Sir Geoffrey Hornby, a strategist and
tactician of unrivalled authority in his time, "that I have command of
the sea when I am able to tell my Government that they can move an
expedition to any point without fear of interference from an enemy's
fleet." This condition cannot be satisfied so long as the enemy has a
fleet in being, that is a fleet strategically at large, not itself in
command of the sea, but strong enough to deny that command to its
adversary by strategic and tactical dispositions adapted to the
circumstances of the case. Thus command of the sea and a fleet in being
are mutually exclusive terms. So long as a hostile fleet is in being
there is no command of the sea; so soon as the command of the sea is
established there is no hostile fleet in being. Each of these
propositions is the complement of the other.
Nevertheless, the mere statement of these abstract propositions solves
none of the concrete problems of naval warfare. War is not governed by
phrases. It is governed by stern and inexorable realities. The question
whether a particular fleet in any particular circumstances is or is not
a fleet in being is not a question of theory, it is a question of fact.
The answer to it depends on the spirit, purpose, tenacity, and
strategic insight of those who control its movements. No fleet is a
fleet in being unless inspired by what may be called the _animus
pugnandi_, that is, unless, if and when the opportunity offers, it is
prepared to strike a blow at all hazards. For this reason the Russian
fleet in Sebastopol at the time of the invasion of the Crimea was not a
fleet in being, although it had a splendid opportunity, which a Nelson
would assuredly have found too tempting to be resisted, of showing its
mettle when the French warships were employed as transports; and the
allies might have been made to pay heavily for their neglect to blockade
it had it been inspired by an effective _animus pugnandi_. On the other
hand, the four ill-fated Spanish cruisers which crossed the Atlantic to
take part in the Cuban war were a true fleet in being, however inferior
and forlorn, and were so regarded by the United States authorities so
long as they remained strategically at large. Even when two of them and
two destroyers were known to be in Santiago, the Secretary of the United
States Navy telegraphed to Admiral Sampson, "Essential to know if all
four Spanish cruisers in Santiago. Military expedition must wait this
information." The same thing happened in the war between Russia and
Japan. The first act of Japan in that war was by a torpedo attack on the
Russian fleet at Port Arthur, so to depress the _animus pugnandi_ of
the latter as practically to deprive it for a time of the character of
a fleet in being--a character which it only partially recovered
afterwards under the brief influence of the heroic but ill-fated
Makaroff. This being accomplished, the invasion of Manchuria ensued as a
matter of course. The ascendency thus established by the Japanese fleet
at the outset, though assailed more than once, was nevertheless
maintained throughout the subsequent operations until the Russian fleet
at Port Arthur, deprived of the little character it ever possessed as a
true fleet in being, was reduced to the condition of what Admiral Mahan
has aptly called a "fortress fleet," and was surrendered at the fall of
the fortress. Many other illustrations of the principle of the fleet in
being might be given. The history of naval warfare is full of them. But
they need not be multiplied as they all point the same moral. That moral
is, that a fleet in being to be of any use must be inspired by a
determined and persistent _animus pugnandi_. It must not be a mere
"fortress fleet." Torrington can never have imagined for a moment that
the fleet which, in spite of the disastrous orders of Mary and her
council, he had saved from destruction, would by its mere existence
prevent a French invasion. He had kept it in being in order that he
might use it offensively whenever occasion should arise, well knowing
that so long as it maintained that disposition Tourville would be
paralysed for offence. "Whilst we observe the French," he said, "they
cannot make any attempt on ships or shore without running a great
hazard." Such hazards may be run for an adequate object, and to
determine rightly when they may be run and when they may not is perhaps
the most searching test of a naval commander's capacity and insight. It
is a psychological question rather than a strategic one. Such a
commander must know whether his adversary's _animus pugnandi_ is so keen
and so unflinching as to invest his fleet, albeit inferior, with the
true character of a fleet in being, or whether, on the other hand, it is
so feeble as to turn it into a mere fortress fleet. But that is only to
say that in war the man always counts for far more than the machine,
that the best commander is a man "with whom," as Admiral Mahan says of
Nelson, "moral effect is never in excess of the facts of the case, whose
imagination produces to him no paralysing picture of remote
contingencies." _Bene ausus vana contemnere_, as Livy says of
Alexander's conquest of Darius, is the eternal secret of successful
war.
CHAPTER V
DISPUTED COMMAND IN GENERAL
The condition of disputed command of the sea is the normal condition at
the outbreak of any war in which operations at sea are involved between
two belligerents of approximately equal strength, or indeed between any
two belligerents, the weaker of whom is sufficiently inspired by the
_animus pugnandi_--or it may be by other motives rather political than
strategic in character--to try conclusions with his adversary in the
open. This follows immediately from the nature of command of the sea,
which is, it will be remembered, the effective control over the maritime
communications of the waters in dispute. I must here repeat, that the
phrase command of the sea has no definite meaning in time of peace. No
nation nowadays seeks in time of peace to control maritime
communications, that is, to exercise any authority or constraint over
any ships, whether warships or merchant vessels--other than those flying
its own flag--which traverse the seas on their lawful occasions. There
was, indeed, a time when England claimed what was called the
"sovereignty of the seas," that is, the right to exact at all times
certain marks of deference to her flag, in the form of certain salutes
of ceremony, from all ships traversing the seas surrounding the British
Islands, the narrow seas as they were called. But that is an entirely
different thing from the command of the sea in a strategic sense, and
has in fact no connection with it. It has long been abandoned and it
need only be mentioned here in order to be carefully distinguished from
the latter. Any nation seeking to exercise or secure the command of the
sea in this sense would in so doing engage in an act of war, and would
be regarded as so engaging by any other nation whose rights and
interests were in any way affected by the act. Hence the difference
between the two is plain. The claim to the sovereignty of the seas and
the exaction of the ceremonial observance--the lowering of a flag or a
sail--which symbolized it, was not in itself an act of war, though it
might lead to war if the claim were resisted. An attempt to assert or
secure the command of the sea is, on the other hand, in itself an act of
war and would never be made by any nation not prepared to take the
consequence in the instant outbreak of hostilities.
For what is it that a nation seeks to do when it attempts to exercise or
secure the command of the sea? It seeks to do nothing more and nothing
less than to deny freedom of access to the waters in dispute to the
ships, whether warships or merchant ships, of some other nation. It
denies the common right of highway, which is the essential attribute of
the sea, to that other nation, and seeks to secure the monopoly of that
right for itself. In other words, it seeks to drive its adversary's
warships from the sea, and either by the capture of his merchant vessels
to appropriate the wealth they contain or by destroying them to deprive
the adversary of its enjoyment. This is all that naval warfare as such
can do. If the enemy is not constrained by the destruction of his
warships and the extinction of his maritime commerce to submit to his
victorious adversary's will, other agencies, not exclusively naval in
character, must be employed to bring about that consummation. This means
that military force must be brought into operation, either for the
invasion of the defeated adversary's territory or for the occupation of
some of his possessions lying across the seas, if he has any. If he has
none, or if such as he has are not worth taking or holding--either as a
permanent possession or as what is called a material guarantee to be
used in the subsequent negotiations for peace--then the only alternative
is invasion. But that is a subject which demands a chapter to itself.
It rarely happens, however, that a great naval Power is devoid of
transmarine possessions altogether, or that such as it holds are
esteemed by it to be of so little value or importance that their
seizure by an enemy would leave matters _in statu quo_. Sea power is, as
a rule, the outcome of a flourishing maritime commerce. Maritime
commerce as it expands, tends, even apart from direct colonization, to
bring territorial occupation in its train. The origin and history of the
British rule in India is a signal illustration of this tendency. There
are other causes of territorial expansion across the seas, as Admiral
Mahan has pointed out in his latest work on _Naval Strategy_, but it is
a rule which admits of no exceptions that territorial possessions across
the seas, however they may have been acquired, compel the Power which
holds them to develop a navy which, in the last resort, must be capable
of defending them. It was not, indeed, the needs of maritime commerce
which induced the United States to acquire Puerto Rico and the
Philippines. Their acquisition was, as it were, a by-product of
victorious sea power. But the vast expansion of the United States Navy
which the last dozen years have witnessed is the direct result and the
logical consequence of their acquisition.
Applying these principles to the defence of the British Empire we see at
once that the command of the sea, in the sense already defined, is
essential to its successful prosecution. The case is not merely
exceptional, it is absolutely unique. The British Isles might recover
from the effects of a successful invasion, as other countries have done
in like case. But the destruction of their maritime commerce would ruin
them irretrievably, even if no invasion were undertaken. Half the
maritime commerce of the world is carried on under the British flag. The
whole of that commerce would be suppressed if an enemy once secured the
command of the sea. The British Isles would be starved out in a few
weeks. Whether an enemy so situated would decide to invade or
invest--that is, so to impede our commerce that only an insignificant
fraction of it could by evasion reach our ports--is a question not so
much of strategy as of the economics of warfare. But really it hardly
matters a pin which he decided to do. We should have to submit in either
case. What would happen to our Dominions, Dependencies, and Colonies is
plain. Those which are defenceless the enemy would seize if he thought
it worth his while. In the case supposed they could obtain no military
assistance from the mother-country. But those which could defend
themselves he would have to overcome, if he could, by fighting. The
great Dominions of the Empire would not fall into an enemy's lap merely
because he had compelled the United Kingdom to sue for peace. To subdue
them by force of arms would be a very formidable undertaking.
Such are the tremendous effects of an adverse command of the sea on an
insular kingdom and an oceanic empire, which carries on--not by virtue
of any artificial monopoly, but solely by virtue of its hardly won
ascendency in the economic struggle for existence--half the maritime
commerce of the world. On the other hand, its effects on any nation
which does not depend on the sea for its existence can never be so
overwhelming and may even be insignificant. Germany was very little
affected by the command of the sea enjoyed by France in the War of 1870.
But in view of the enormous growth of German maritime commerce in recent
years, a superiority of France at sea equal to that which she enjoyed in
1870 would now be a much more serious menace to Germany. In all such
cases the issue must be decided by military operations suitable to the
circumstances and the occasion--operations in which naval force may take
an indispensable part even though it may not directly decide the issue.
It was, for example, the United States army that captured Santiago and
secured the deliverance of Cuba; but it was the United States Navy alone
that enabled the troops to be in Cuba at all and to do what they did
there. Again, in the war between Russia and Japan it was the capture of
Port Arthur and the final overthrow at Tsu-Shima of all that remained of
Russia's effective naval forces that induced Russia to entertain
overtures for peace. But the reduction of Port Arthur was mainly the
work of the military arm and the continued successes of the Japanese
armies in Manchuria must have contributed largely to Russia's surrender.
These successes were, it is true, rendered possible by the Japanese Navy
alone. It cannot be said that the Japanese ever held the undisputed
command of the sea until after Tsu-Shima had been fought and won. But at
the very outset of the war they established such an ascendency over the
Russian naval forces in Far Eastern waters that the latter were in the
end reduced to something less than even a "fortress fleet." At Port
Arthur, writes Admiral Mahan, the fleet was "neither a fortress fleet,
for except the guns mounted from it, the fleet contributed nothing to
the defence of the place; nor yet a fleet in being, for it was never
used as such." Its _animus pugnandi_ was fatally depressed on the first
night of the war, and finally extinguished after the action of August
10.
The truth is, that in all the larger achievements of sea power--those,
that is, to which a combination of naval and military force is
indispensable--it is impossible to disengage the influence of one of
these factors on the final issue from that of the other, and perhaps
idle to attempt do to so. They act, as it were, like a chemical
combination, not like the resultant of two separate but correlated
mechanical forces, and their joint effect may be just as different from
what might be the effect of either acting separately as water is
different from the oxygen and hydrogen of which it is composed. But
their operation in this wise can only begin after the command of the sea
has been secured, or at least has been so far established as to reduce
to a negligible quantity the risk of conducting military operations
across seas of which the command is still nominally in dispute. Now
there are several phases or stages in the enterprise of securing the
command of the sea; but they all depend on the power and the will to
fight for it. There is no absolute command of the sea, except in the
case of hostilities between two belligerents, separated by the sea, one
of whom has no naval force at all. The solitary case in history of this
situation is that of the War in South Africa. A similar situation would
arise if one of two belligerents had completely destroyed all the
effective naval force of the other. But that is a situation of which
history affords few, if any, examples. Between these two extremes lies
the whole history of naval warfare.
There is, moreover, one characteristic of naval warfare which has no
exact counterpart in the conduct of military enterprises on land. This
is the power which a naval belligerent has of withdrawing his sea-going
force out of the reach of the sea-going force of the enemy by placing it
in sheltered harbours too strongly fortified for the enemy to reduce by
naval power alone. The only effective answer to this which the superior
belligerent can make is, as has already been shown, to establish a
blockade of the ports in question. This procedure is analogous to, but
not identical with, the investment by military forces of a fortress in
which an army has found shelter in the interior of the enemy's country.
But the essential difference is that the land fortress can be completely
invested so that no food or other supplies can reach it, whereas a sea
fortress cannot, unless it is situated on a small island, be completely
invested by naval force alone. In the one case, even if no assault is
attempted, starvation must sooner or later bring about the surrender of
the fortress together with any military force it contains, whereas in
the other the blockaded port being, as a rule, in open communication
with its own national territory, cannot be reduced by starvation.
Moreover, for reasons already explained, a maritime fortress cannot
nowadays be so closely blockaded as to prevent the exit of small craft
almost at all times or even to prevent the exit of squadrons of
battleships in circumstances favourable to the enterprise. Now the exit
of small craft equipped for torpedo attack is a much more serious threat
to the blockader than the exit of small craft, not so equipped, was in
the old days of close blockade. In those days small craft could do no
harm to ships of the line or even to frigates, whereas a torpedo craft
is nowadays in certain circumstances the equal and more than the equal
of a battleship. For these reasons the escape from a blockaded port of a
squadron of battleships might easily be regarded by the blockading enemy
as a less serious and even much more welcome incident of the campaign
than the frequent issue of swarms of torpedo craft skilfully handled,
daringly navigated, and sternly resolved to do or die in the attempt to
reduce the battle superiority of the enemy.
It follows from these premisses that a naval blockade--or a connected
series of blockades--can never be regarded as equivalent to an
established command of the sea. At its best it can only achieve a
temporary command of the sea in a state of unstable and easily disturbed
equilibrium. At its worst, that is when it is least close and least
effective, and when the _animus pugnandi_ of the enemy is unimpaired and
not to be intimidated, and is therefore ready at all times to take
advantage of "an opportunity too tempting to be resisted," it amounts to
a state of things in which the "fleet in being" becomes the dominant
factor of the situation. It is mainly a psychological problem and
scarcely a strategic problem at all to determine when the actual
situation approximates to either of these extremes, and the principle
embodied in the words _bene ausus vana contemnere_ is the key to the
solution of this problem. If the blockaded fleet is merely a fortress
fleet, or not even that, as was the Russian fleet at Port Arthur for
some time after the first night of the war, and even more after the
critical but indecisive conflict of August 10, then it is legitimate, as
Togo triumphantly showed, to regard the situation so established as so
far equivalent to a temporary command of the sea that military
operations, involving the security of oversea transit and the continuity
of oversea supply, might be undertaken with no greater risk than is
always inseparable from a vigorous initiative in war. But had the
Russian naval commanders been inspired--as, perhaps, the ill-fated
Makaroff alone was--with a genuine _animus pugnandi_, they might have
perceived that their one chance of bringing all the Japanese
enterprises, naval and military, to nought, was by fighting Togo's fleet
"to a frazzle," even if their own fleet perished in the conflict. Then
the Baltic Fleet, if it had any fight in it at all, must have made short
work of what remained of Togo's fleet, and the Japanese communications
with Manchuria being thereby severed, Russia might have dictated her own
terms of peace. The real lesson of that war is not that a true fleet in
being can ever be safely neglected, but that a fleet which can be
neglected with impunity is no true fleet in being. It should never be
forgotten that the problems of naval warfare are essentially
psychological and not mechanical in their nature. Their ultimate
determining factors are not material and ponderable forces operating
with measurable certainty, but those immaterial and imponderable forces
of the human mind and will which can be measured by no standard other
than the result. By the material standard so popular in these days, and
withal so full of fallacy, Nelson should have been defeated at Trafalgar
and Rozhdestvensky should have been victorious at Tsu-Shima.
It is, of course, idle to press the doctrine of the command of the sea
and the principle of the fleet in being so far as to affirm that no
military enterprise of any kind can be prosecuted across the sea unless
an unassailable command of the sea has first been established. Such a
proposition is disallowed by the whole course of naval history, which
is, in truth, for the most part, the history of the command of the sea
remaining in dispute, often for long periods, between two belligerents,
the balance inclining sometimes to one side and sometimes to the other,
according to the fortune of war. The whole question is in the main one
of degree and of circumstances. Broadly speaking, it may be said that
the larger the military enterprise contemplated the more complete must
be the command of the sea before it can be prosecuted with success and
the more certain the assurance of its continuance in unimpaired
efficiency until the objects of the enterprise are accomplished.
Conversely, the strength, even if inferior, of the fleet in being, its
strategic disposition, its tactical efficiency, and, above all, its
_animus pugnandi_ must all be accurately gauged by a naval commander
before he can safely decide that a military expedition of any magnitude
can be undertaken without fear of interference from an enemy's fleet. It
was the neglect of these principles that ruined the Athenian expedition
to Syracuse. It was equally the neglect of the same principles that
entailed the failure of Napoleon's expedition to Egypt and the ultimate
surrender of the army he had deserted there. It was the politic
recognition of them that, as Admiral Mahan has shown in a brilliant
passage, compelled Hannibal to undertake the arduous passage of the Alps
for the purpose of invading Italy instead of transporting his troops by
sea.
The limits of legitimate enterprise across seas of which the command
although firmly gripped is not unassailably established, are perhaps
best illustrated by the story of Craig's expedition to Malta and Sicily
towards the close of the Trafalgar campaign. This remarkable episode,
which has received less attention than it deserves from most historians,
has been represented by Mr Julian Corbett in his instructive work on
_The Campaign of Trafalgar_ as the masterly offensive stroke by which
Pitt hoped to abate, and, if it might be, to overthrow the military
ascendency which Napoleon had established in Europe. That view has not
been universally accepted by Mr Corbett's critics, but the episode is
entitled to close attention for the light it throws on the central
problem of naval warfare. Pitt had concluded a treaty with Russia, which
involved not merely naval but military co-operation with that Power in
the Mediterranean. Craig's expedition was the shape which the military
co-operation was to take. It consisted of some five thousand troops, and
when it embarked in April 1805 it was convoyed by only two ships of the
line in its transit over seas which, for all the Government which
dispatched it knew, might be infested at the time by more than one fleet
of the enemy.
Here, then, is a case in which the doctrine of the command of the sea
and the principle of the fleet in being might seem to be violated in a
crucial fashion. But the men who directed the arms of England in those
days knew what they were about. Long before they allowed the expedition
to start they had established a close and, as they thought, an effective
blockade of all the Atlantic and Mediterranean ports in which either
French or Spanish warships ready for sea were to be found. Nevertheless
we have here a signal illustration of the essential difference between a
command of the sea which has been made absolute by the destruction of
the enemy's available naval forces--as was practically the case after
Trafalgar--and one which is only virtual and potential, because,
although the enemy's fleets have for the time been masked or sealed up
in their ports, they may, should the fortune of war so determine, resume
at any time the position and functions of a true fleet in being. On the
strength of a command of the sea of this merely contingent and potential
character Pitt and his naval advisers had persuaded themselves that the
way to the Mediterranean was open for the transit of troops. Craig's
transports, accordingly, put to sea on April 19. But a week before
Villeneuve with his fleet had left Toulon for the last time, had evaded
Nelson's watch, and passing rapidly through the Straits, had called off
Cadiz, and picking up such Spanish ships as were there had disappeared
into space, no man knowing whither he had gone. He might have gone to
the East Indies, he might have gone to the West Indies, as in fact he
did, or he might be cruising unmolested in waters where he could hardly
fail to come across Craig's transports with their weak escort of two
ships of the line. It was a situation which no one had foreseen or
regarded as more than a contingency too remote to be guarded against
when Craig's expedition was allowed to start. How Nelson viewed the
situation may be seen from his reply to the Admiralty, written on his
receipt of the first intimation that the expedition was about to start.
"As the 'Fisgard' sailed from Gibraltar on the 9th instant, two hours
after the enemy's fleet from Toulon had passed the Straits, I have to
hope she would arrive time enough in the Channel to give their Lordships
information of this circumstance _and to prevent the Rear-Admiral and
Troops before mentioned_"--that is Craig's expedition--"_from leaving
Spithead_." In other words, Nelson held quite plainly that had the
Admiralty known that Villeneuve was at sea outside the Straits they
would not have allowed Craig to start. That Nelson was right in this
assumption is proved by the fact that acting on the inspiration of
Barham--perhaps the greatest strategist that ever presided at
Whitehall--the Admiralty, as soon as they had grasped the situation,
sent orders to Calder off Ferrol, that if he came in contact with the
expedition he was to send it back to Plymouth or Cork under cruiser
escort and retain the two ships of the line which had so far escorted it
under his own command. The fact was that if Craig's expedition once
passed Finisterre it would find itself totally without the naval
protection on which the Admiralty relied when it was dispatched.
Villeneuve was outside the Straits no one knew where, and had been
reinforced by the Spanish ships from Cadiz. Nelson, whose exact
whereabouts was equally unknown to the Admiralty, was detained in the
Mediterranean by baffling winds and also by the necessity of making
sure before quitting his station that Villeneuve had not gone to the
Levant. Orde, who had been blockading Cadiz with a weak squadron which
had to retire on Villeneuve's approach, had convinced himself, on
grounds not without cogency, that Villeneuve was making for the
northward, and had, quite correctly on this hypothesis, fallen back on
the fleet blockading Brest, being ignorant of the peril to which Craig
was exposed. Thus Craig's expedition seemed to be going straight to its
doom unless Calder could intercept it and give it orders to return.
However, Craig and Knight, whose flag flew in one of the ships of the
line escorting the expedition, passed Finisterre without communicating
with Calder, and having by this time got wind of their peril, they
hurried into Lisbon, there to await developments in comparative safety,
though their presence caused great embarrassment to the Portuguese
Government and raised a diplomatic storm. It was not until Craig and
Knight had ascertained that Villeneuve was out of the way and that
Nelson had passed the Straits that they put to sea again and met Nelson
off Cape St Vincent. Nelson had by this time satisfied himself, after an
exhaustive survey of the situation, that Villeneuve had gone to the West
Indies, and resolved to follow him there as soon as he had sped the
expedition on its appointed way. But so apprehensive was he of the
Spanish ships remaining at Carthagena, that, inferior to Villeneuve as
he was, he detached the "Royal Sovereign" from his own squadron, and
placed her under Knight's command. It only remains to add that the
expedition reached its destination in safety and that its result was the
Battle of Maida, fought in the following year--the first battle in which
Napoleon's troops crossed bayonets with British infantry and were beaten
by an inferior force. The expedition was also the indirect cause of the
Battle of Trafalgar itself, for it was in order to frustrate the
coalition with Russia of which it was the instrument that Napoleon had
ordered Villeneuve to make for the Mediterranean when he finally left
Cadiz to encounter Nelson on his path. Thus was it, as Mr Corbett says,
"to prove the insidious drop of poison--the little sting--that was to
infect Napoleon's empire with decay and to force his hand with so
tremendous a result."
Yet it very nearly miscarried at the outset. Nelson and Barham--between
them a combination of warlike energy and strategic insight, without a
parallel in the history of naval warfare--both realized the tremendous
risks it ran. It may be argued that had Villeneuve gone to the north he
would have found himself in the thick of British squadrons closing in on
Brest and vastly superior in force. Yet Allemand, who had escaped a few
weeks later from Rochefort, was able to cruise in these very waters for
over five months without being brought to book. It is true that the
destruction or capture of five thousand British troops would not
seriously have affected the larger issues of the naval campaign, but it
would have broken up the coalition with Russia by which Pitt set so much
store, and which Mr Corbett at any rate represents as having exercised a
decisive influence on the ultimate fortunes of Napoleon. The moral of
the whole story seems to be that competent strategists--for the world
has known none more competent and none more intrepid than Nelson and
Barham--will not risk even a minor expedition at sea unless its line of
advance is sufficiently controlled by superior naval force to ensure its
unmolested transit. The principle thus exhibited in the case of a minor
expedition manifestly applies with immensely increased force to those
larger expeditions which assume the dimensions of an invasion. It was
not until long after Trafalgar had been fought, and the command of the
sea had been secured beyond the possibility of challenge, that the
campaigns in the Peninsula were undertaken--campaigns which ended and
were always intended to end, should the fortune of war so decree, in the
invasion of France and the overthrow of Napoleon. This opens up the
whole question of invasion, which will be discussed in the next
chapter.
CHAPTER VI
INVASION
England has not been invaded since A.D. 1066, when, the country having
no fleet in being, William the Conqueror effected a landing and
subjugated the kingdom. During the eight centuries and more that have
since elapsed, every country in Europe has been invaded and its capital
occupied, in many cases more than once. It is by no means for lack of
attempts to invade her that England has been spared the calamity of
invasion for more than eight hundred years. It is not because she has
had at all times--it may indeed be doubted if she has had at any
time--organized military force sufficient to repel an invader, if he
could not be stopped at sea. It is because she can only be invaded
across the sea, and because whenever the attempt has been made she has
always had naval force sufficient to bring the enterprise to nought. It
is merely a truism to say that the invasion of hostile territory across
the sea is a much more difficult and hazardous enterprise than the
crossing of a land frontier by organized military force. But it is no
truism to say that the reason why it is so much more difficult and more
hazardous is that there is no real parallel between the two cases. I
assume a vigorous defensive on the part of the adversary assailed in
both cases--a defensive which, though commonly so called, is really
offensive in its nature. The essential difference lies in this, that two
countries which are separated by the sea have no common frontier. Each
has its own frontier at the limit of its territorial waters, but between
these two there lies a region common to both and from which neither can
be excluded except by the superior naval force of the other.
For the moment an expeditionary force emerges from its own territorial
waters--which may be any distance from a few miles up to many thousands
of miles from the territorial waters of the adversary to be assailed--it
must be prepared to defend itself, and naval force alone can afford it
an adequate measure of defence. Military forces embarked in transports
are defenceless and practically unarmed. They cannot defend themselves
with their own arms, nor can the transports which carry them be so armed
as to afford adequate defence against the smallest warship afloat, least
of all against torpedo craft. Hence, unless the sea to be traversed has
been cleared of the naval forces of the enemy beforehand, the invading
military force must be covered by a naval force sufficient to overcome
any naval force which the enemy is able to bring against it. If the
latter can bring a fleet--as he must be able to do if the invasion is
to be prevented--the covering fleet must be able to beat any fleet that
he can bring. That condition being satisfied, however, it is clear that
the covering fleet must be terribly hampered and handicapped in the
ensuing conflict by the presence of a huge and unwieldy assemblage of
unarmed transports filled with disarmed men, and by the consequent
necessity of defending it against the attack of those portions of the
enemy's naval force to which, albeit not suitable for engaging in the
principal conflict, the transports would offer an otherwise defenceless
prey. Hence the escorting fleet must be stronger than its adversary in a
far larger proportion than it need be if naval issues pure and simple
were alone at stake--so strong indeed that, if the transports were out
of the way, its victory might be taken as certain. But if that is so it
is manifest that the prospects of successful invasion would be
immeasurably improved by seeking to decide the naval issue first--as
Tourville very properly did in the Beachy Head campaign--and keeping the
transports in hand and in port until it had been decided in favour of
the intending invader. This is the eternal dilemma of invasion across a
sea of which the command has not previously been secured. If you are not
strong enough to dispose of the enemy's naval force you are certainly
not strong enough to escort an invading force--itself helpless
afloat--across the sea in his teeth. If you are strong enough to do this
you will certainly be wise to beat him first, because then there will be
nothing left to prevent the transit of your troops. In other words,
command of the sea, if not absolutely and in all cases indispensable to
a successful invasion, is at any rate the only certain way of ensuring
its success.
Naval history from first to last is full of illustrations of the
principles here expounded. I will examine one or two of them, and I must
take my illustrations mainly from the naval history of Britain, first,
because Britain, being an island, is the only country in Europe which
cannot be invaded except across the sea, and secondly, because Britain
for that very reason has often been subjected to attempts at invasion
and has always frustrated them by denying to her adversary that
sufficiency of sea control which, if history is any guide, is essential
to successful invasion. But first I will examine two cases which might
at first sight seem to militate against the principles I have
enunciated. The brilliant campaign of Cæsar which ended in the overthrow
of Pompey and his cause at Pharsalus, was opened by Cæsar's desperate
venture of carrying his army across the Adriatic to the coast of Epirus,
although Pompey's fleet was in full command of the waters traversed.
This is one of those exceptions which may be said to prove the rule.
Cæsar had no alternative. Pompey was in Illyria, and if Cæsar could not
overthrow Pompey on that side of the Adriatic it was certain that Pompey
would overthrow Cæsar on the other side. For this reason, and perhaps
for this reason alone, Cæsar was compelled to undertake a venture which
he must have known to be desperate. How desperate it was is shown by the
fact that, not having transports enough to carry more than half his army
at once, he had to send his transports back as soon as he had landed,
and they were all destroyed on their way back to Brundusium. Antony his
lieutenant did, indeed, succeed after a time in getting the remainder of
his army across, but not before Cæsar had been reduced to the utmost
straits. The whole enterprise moreover was not, strictly speaking, an
invasion of hostile territory. The inhabitants of the territory occupied
by both combatants were neutral as between them, and were willing to
furnish Cæsar with such scanty supplies as they had. Again, an army in
those days needed no ammunition except the sword which each soldier
carried on his person, and that kind of ammunition was not expended in
fighting. Hence Cæsar had no occasion to concern himself with the
security of his communications across the sea--a consideration which
weighs with overwhelming force on the commander of a modern oversea
expedition. "A modern army," as the late Lord Wolseley said, "is such a
complicated organism that any interruption in the line of communications
tends to break up and destroy its very life." An army marches on its
belly. If it cannot be fed it cannot fight. After the Battle of Talavera
Wellington was so paralysed by the failure of the Spanish authorities to
supply his troops with food that he had to abandon the offensive for a
time and to retreat towards his own line of communication with the sea.
Cæsar on the other hand abandoned the sea, which could not feed him, and
trusted to the resources of the country. The difference is vital. The
one risk that Cæsar ran was the destruction of his army afloat, and that
he ran not because he chose but because he must. The risk of destruction
on land he was prepared to run, and this, at any rate, was, as the event
proved, a case of _bene ausus vana contemnere_.
Again, Napoleon's descent on Egypt is another exception which proves the
rule, and proves it still more conclusively. Napoleon evaded Nelson's
fleet and landed his army in Egypt. The army so landed left Egypt in
British transports, having laid down its arms and surrendered just
before the conclusion of the Peace of Amiens; and but for the timely
conclusion of that short-lived armistice, every French soldier who
survived the Egyptian campaign might have seen the inside of a British
prison. This was because Napoleon, who never fathomed the secrets of the
sea, chose to think that to evade a hostile fleet was the same thing as
to defeat it. He managed for a time to escape Nelson's attentions by the
skin of his teeth, and fondly fancied that because he had done so the
dominion of the East was won. He was quickly undeceived by the Battle of
the Nile. That victory destroyed the fleet which had escorted his army
to Egypt and thereby made it impossible for the army ever to return
except by consent of the Power which he never could vanquish on the sea.
The Battle of the Nile, wrote a Frenchman in Egypt, "is a calamity which
leaves us here as children totally lost to the mother country. Nothing
but peace can restore us to her." Nothing but the so-called Peace of
Amiens did restore them. If it be argued, as it often has been, that
Napoleon's successful descent on Egypt proves that military enterprises
of large moment may sometimes be undertaken without first securing the
command of the sea to be traversed, surely the Battle of the Nile and
its sequel are a triumphant refutation of such an argument. Such
enterprises are merely a roundabout way of presenting the belligerent
who retains the command of the sea with as many prisoners of war as
survive from the original expedition.
I need not labour the point which the unbroken testimony of history
from the time of the Norman Conquest has established, that all attempts
to invade England have been made in the past and must be made in the
future across a sea not commanded by the intending invader. If he has
secured the command of the sea beforehand, there is nothing to prevent
the invasion except the consideration that he can attain his end--that
is, the subjugation of the nation's will--at less cost to himself. That
being premised, let us consider how the intending invader will set about
his task. There are three ways, and three ways only. First, he may seek
to overpower the British naval defence on the seas, that is to obtain
the command of the sea. If he can do that, the whole thing is done. Or
secondly, he may collect the military forces destined for the invasion
in ports suitable for the purpose, and when all is ready he may cover
their embarkation and transit by a naval force sufficient to overcome
any naval force which this country can direct against it. I have already
shown, however, that a force sufficient to do this with any certainty,
or even with any reasonable prospect of success, must needs be more than
sufficient to overpower the British naval defence and thereby to secure
the command of the sea, if the enemy were freed from the entangling and
wellnigh disabling necessity of providing for the safe conduct of an
unwieldy host of otherwise defenceless transports. In other words he is
putting the cart before the horse, a procedure which has never yet
succeeded in getting the cart to its destination. This second
alternative is then merely a clumsy and extremely inefficient way of
attaining the same end as the first, and need only be mentioned in order
to exclude it from further consideration.
There remains only a third alternative. This is to assemble the invading
military force at suitable ports as before, and to attempt to engage the
attention of the defending naval force by operations at a distance for a
time sufficient to secure the unmolested transit of the military
expedition. This is the method which has nearly always been employed by
an enemy projecting an invasion of this country. It has never yet
succeeded, because it always leads in the end to a situation which is
practically indistinguishable from that involved in the second
alternative, which I have already discussed and excluded. The naval and
the military elements in the enterprise of invasion being now, by the
hypothesis, separated in space and for that reason incapable of being
very exactly combined in time, a whole series of highly indeterminate
factors is thereby introduced into the problem to be solved by the
invader. There are elements of naval force, to wit, all manner of small
craft, which are not required for the main conflict of fleets--and it
is this conflict which alone can secure the command of the sea--but
which are eminently adapted for the impeachment and destruction of
unarmed transports. These will be employed in the blockade of the ports
in which the military forces are collecting. If the assailant employs
similar craft to drive the blockaders away, the defender will bring up
larger craft to stiffen his blockading flotillas. The invading force
will therefore still be impeded and impeached. The process thus goes on
until, if it is not otherwise decided by the conflict of the main fleets
at a distance, the contending naval forces of both sides are attracted
to the scene of the proposed embarkation, there to fight it out in the
conditions involved in the second alternative considered above,
conditions which I have already shown to be the least favourable to the
would-be invader. In a masterly analysis Mr Julian Corbett has shown
that the British defence against a threatened invasion has always been
conducted on these lines, that the primary objective of the defence has
been the troops and their transports, and that the vigorous pursuit of
this objective has always resulted in a decision being obtained as
between the main fleets of the two belligerents. That the decision has
always been in favour of the British arms is at once a lesson and a
warning--a lesson that immunity from invasion can only be ensured by
superiority at sea, a warning that such superiority can only be secured
by the adequate preparation, the judicious disposition, and the skilful
handling of the naval forces to be employed, as well as by an
unflinching _animus pugnandi_. But no nation which goes to war can hope
for more or be content with less than the opportunity of obtaining a
decision in these conditions. The issue lies on the knees of the gods.
A few illustrations may here be cited. We have seen how in the Beachy
Head campaign Tourville, having failed to force a decision on
Torrington's fleet in being, could not turn aside with Torrington at his
heels and Killigrew and Shovel on his flank to bring over an invading
force from France. He was paralysed by that abiding characteristic of
French naval strategy which impelled the French naval commanders to fix
their eye on ulterior objects and blinded them to the fact that the best
way to attain those objects was to destroy the naval forces of the enemy
whenever the opportunity offered of so obtaining a decision. Hence their
preference for the leeward position in action, their constant reluctance
to fight a decisive action, their habitual direction of their fire at
the masts and sails of the enemy rather than at his hulls, and in
Tourville's case his failure to annihilate Torrington's fleet in being,
resulting in the total miscarriage of the schemes for invasion, to be
followed by internal insurrection, which, as Admiral Colomb has shown,
were the kernel of the French plan of campaign. In the case of the
Armada in the previous century, the task of invasion was entrusted to
Parma, who had collected troops for the purpose, and vessels for their
transport, in the ports of the Spanish Netherlands. But Justin of Nassau
kept a close watch outside, and Parma could not move. He summoned Medina
Sidonia with the Armada to his assistance, but he summoned him in vain,
for the Armada, harassed throughout the Channel, and, as it were, smoked
out of Calais, was finally shattered at Gravelines. Precisely the same
thing happened in the eighteenth century during the Seven Years' War.
Troops and transports were being collected in the Morbihan, but their
exit was blocked by a British naval force stationed off the ports.
Conflans with the French main fleet was at Brest, and there he was
blockaded by Hawke. Evading the blockade, Conflans put to sea and
straightway went to release the troops and transports, hopelessly
blockaded in the Morbihan. But Hawke swooped down on him and destroyed
him in Quiberon Bay, Boscawen having previously destroyed at Lagos the
fleet which De La Clue was bringing from Toulon to effect a junction
with Conflans.
One more illustration may be cited, and I will treat it at some length,
because it presents certain features which give it peculiar
significance in relation to current controversies. This is the projected
invasion of England by France in 1744. It is, so far as I know, the
solitary instance in our naval history which shows the enemy framing his
plans on the lines of what is now known as "a bolt from the blue"--that
is, he projected a surprise invasion, at a time when the two countries
were nominally at peace, in the hope that the first overt act of the war
he was contemplating might be the landing of his troops on British soil.
In 1743, when this project was conceived, England and France were, as I
have said, nominally at peace, but troops belonging to both had fought
at Dettingen, not in any direct quarrel of their own, but because
England was supporting Maria Theresa and France was supporting her
enemies. The fleets of both Powers were jealously watching each other in
the Mediterranean, a situation which led early in 1744 to the too
notorious action of Mathews off Toulon. Nevertheless, until the very end
of 1743 no direct conflict with France was anticipated by the English
Government.
Yet France was already secretly preparing her "bolt from the blue." She
had resolved to support the Pretender's cause and to prepare an invasion
of England in which the Pretender's son was to take part, and on landing
in England to rally his party to the overthrow of the Hanoverian
dynasty. The bolt was to be launched from Dunkirk and directed at the
Thames, the intention being to land the invading force at Blackwall.
Some ten thousand French troops to be employed in the expedition were
sent into winter-quarters in and around Dunkirk, but this aroused no
suspicion in England, because this region was the natural place for the
left flank of the French army to winter in, and Dunkirk contained no
transports at the time. Transports were, however, being taken up under
false charter-parties at French ports on the Atlantic and in the
Channel, and were ordered as soon as ready to rendezvous secretly and
separately at Dunkirk. At first the intention was for the expeditionary
force to make its attempt without any support from the French fleet. But
Marshal Saxe, who was to command it and knew that the Thames and its
adjacent waters were never denuded of naval force sufficient to make
short work of a fleet of unarmed transports, flatly declined to
entertain this project and demanded adequate naval support for the
enterprise. Accordingly a powerful fleet, held to be sufficient to
contain or defeat any British fleet that was thought likely to be able
to challenge it, was fitted out with all secrecy at Brest and placed
under the command of De Roquefeuil. Even he was not told its
destination, and false rumours on the subject were allowed to circulate
among those who were concerned in its preparation.
So far everything seemed to be going well. The blow was timed for the
first week in January, but the usual delays occurred, and for a month or
more after the date originally fixed, the expeditionary force and its
escort were separated by the whole length of northern France. Yet even
before the date originally fixed, England had got wind of the
preparations. From the middle of December Brest had been kept under
watch, and orders had been issued to the dockyards to prepare for sea as
many ships of the line as were available. These preparations were
continued, without intermission, until the end of January, the purpose
and destination of the armament at Brest still being unknown. Then two
alarming pieces of intelligence reached England at the same time. One
was that Roquefeuil had put to sea on January 26 (O.S.) with twenty-one
sail of the line, and before being lost sight of by the British cruiser
told off to watch him, had been seen to be clearly standing to the
northward. The other was that Prince Charles, the son of the Pretender,
had left Rome and had landed without hindrance in France. This, being a
direct violation of the Treaty of Utrecht, was naturally held to give to
the sailing of the Brest fleet the complexion of a direct hostile
intent. It was on February 1 that these facts were known, and on
February 2, Sir John Norris, a veteran of Barfleur and La Hogue, who was
now well over eighty years of age, but as the event showed was still
fully equal to the task entrusted to him, was ordered to hoist his flag
at Portsmouth and to "take the most effectual measures to prevent the
making of any descent on the Kingdoms." Norris hoisted his flag on the
6th, and by the 18th he had eighteen sail of the line under his command.
Subsequently his force was increased to twenty. Nothing was known of the
movements of the French fleet since January 29, when the frigate set to
watch it had finally lost sight of it. It was in fact still off the
mouth of the Channel, baffled by adverse winds and gales and vainly
seeking to make headway against them. If it had gone to the
Mediterranean, Mathews off Toulon would be placed in grave jeopardy, and
there were some projects for detaching a powerful squadron of Norris's
ships to his support. If, on the other hand, it was aiming at the
Channel, Norris with his whole force would be none too strong to
encounter and defeat it. This was Norris's dilemma, and it was not until
February 9 that he learned from the Duke of Newcastle that an embargo
had been laid on all shipping at Dunkirk, where some fifty vessels of
one hundred and fifty to two hundred tons had by this time assembled.
These might at a pinch and for a short transit be estimated to be
capable of transporting some ten thousand troops. But an embargo,
although clear proof of hostile intent, was not necessarily a sign of
impending invasion. It was a common expedient, preliminary to war,
whereby you deprived your enemy of ships and men very necessary to his
purposes and secured ships and men equally necessary to your own. Hence
no strategic connexion could with any certainty be held to exist between
the embargo at Dunkirk and the sailing of the French fleet from Brest.
On the other hand it was clearly dangerous to uncover the Channel so
long as the destination of the Brest fleet was unknown, and, although
Newcastle had suggested to Norris that he should divide his fleet and
send the major part of it to reinforce Mathews in the Mediterranean, yet
Norris strongly demurred to the suggestion, and before the time came to
act on it the situation had so far developed as to disallow it
altogether. On February 11, Norris received information that a French
fleet of at least sixteen sail of the line had been seen the day before
off the Start. This convinced him that the French had some scheme to the
eastward in hand; and as he had frigates watching the Channel between
the Isle of Wight and Cape Barfleur he was equally convinced that the
French had so far no appreciable armed force to the eastward of him.
Newcastle, however, did not share this conviction. He had received
numerous reports of movements of French ships in the Channel to the
eastward of the Isle of Wight and other information which pointed to a
concentration at Dunkirk. As a matter of fact no French men-of-war were
at this time east of the Isle of Wight, and the vessels reported to
Newcastle must have been transports making for Dunkirk and magnified
into ships of the line by the fog of war. Newcastle, accordingly,
ordered Norris to go forthwith to the Downs. Foul winds prevented Norris
from sailing at once from St Helen's, and on the 13th, the day before he
did sail, he received further information which confirmed his conviction
that the French were still to the westward. But Newcastle's orders
remained peremptory, and on the 14th he sailed with eighteen ships, and
anchored in the Downs on the 17th. There he found two more ships
awaiting him, while two others were on their way to join him from
Plymouth.
I pause here for a moment to point out that Norris's desire, over-ruled
by Newcastle, to remain at Portsmouth was thoroughly well advised. He
knew that there was naval force enough in the Thames and the Downs to
dispose of any expedition coming from Dunkirk unless it were escorted by
the Brest fleet, or by a very considerable detachment therefrom. He was
well assured that no such detachment could have eluded the vigilance of
his frigates, and he felt that in these circumstances he could better
impeach Roquefeuil by lying in wait for him at Spithead or St Helen's
than by preceding him to the Downs. How right he was in this
appreciation will be seen from a closer consideration of the movements
of the French fleet. It was not until February 13 that Roquefeuil
received his final orders off the Start. He was directed to detach De
Baraille, his second in command, with five ships. These were to go
forthwith to Dunkirk and escort Saxe's expedition, while he himself with
the remainder of his fleet was to blockade Norris at Portsmouth and
defeat him if he could. But Roquefeuil and his council of war found
these orders too hazardous for execution. They resolved not to divide
the fleet until at least Norris, presumed to be at Portsmouth, had been
disposed of. On the 17th, the day on which Norris had anchored in the
Downs, they looked into Spithead and persuaded themselves that they had
seen Norris there with eleven sail of the line. Judging that the weather
was too bad for a successful blockade, Roquefeuil then passed on up the
Channel, convinced that Norris was now behind him with too weak a force
to be of any effect. Baraille was then sent on with his detachment to
Dunkirk, but by this time Saxe had lost heart and declined to sail
until Roquefeuil's whole fleet was at hand to escort him.
It never was at hand to escort him, and the expedition never sailed.
Roquefeuil, with his fleet now greatly reduced, anchored off Dungeness
on the 22nd, and never got any further. What had happened in the
meanwhile was this. Norris remained in the Downs, being held there for
some time by a gale. He was not unaware of what was going on at Dunkirk,
but he hesitated to proceed thither lest the French fleet behind him
should be covering another expedition coming from some French port in
the Channel. He sent to reconnoitre, however, and on the 21st received
information that four sixty-gun ships--these were, no doubt, Baraille's
detachment--were at anchor off Gravelines, and there covering the
transports at Dunkirk. On the 22nd, Roquefeuil appeared off Dungeness
and anchored there. As soon as he knew Roquefeuil's whereabouts, Norris
resolved to attack him without delay. The wind, being N.W., was
favourable to his enterprise, and at the same time made it impossible
for the expedition to leave Dunkirk. Should the wind change before
Roquefeuil was brought to action and defeated, Norris held that he was
strong enough to detach a force to impeach Saxe and Baraille, and at the
same time to give a good account of Roquefeuil. But matters did not
exactly turn out in this wise. On the 24th Norris left the Downs, with a
light wind from the N.W., and an ebb tide in his favour, making for
Dungeness, where Roquefeuil was still lying. His appearance in the
offing was Roquefeuil's first information that Norris was to the
eastward of him in superior force, and it greatly disconcerted
Roquefeuil. He held a hasty council of war and decided to cut and run.
By this time the tide had turned and the wind had fallen, so that he
could not stir until the tide again began to ebb. Norris, similarly
disabled, had anchored some few miles to the eastward, intending to make
his attack as soon as wind and tide allowed. But during the night a
furious gale from the N.E. sprang up, which drove most of Norris's ships
from their anchors, and when daylight came the French were nowhere to be
seen. Roquefeuil had slipped his cables, and with the gale behind him
was hurrying back to Brest. Norris went after him as far as Beachy Head,
but there gave up the chase and returned to the Downs, to make sure that
Saxe and Baraille, for whom the wind was now favourable, might find
their way barred should they attempt to set sail. The transports,
however, were by now in no position to move, nor was either Saxe or
Baraille in any mind to allow them to move. They both realized that the
game was up. The troops were in the transports, and they suffered
greatly in the gale that frustrated Norris' attack on Roquefeuil. But
that was merely an accident of warfare. It was not the gale that
shattered the expedition, nor did it save England from invasion. On the
contrary, while it played havoc with the transports and troops at
Dunkirk, it also saved Roquefeuil's fleet from destruction at Dungeness.
But, gale or no gale, the transports and troops never could have crossed
so long as Norris held on to the Downs. Nor could they have crossed had
Norris been allowed to remain at Portsmouth as he desired; for in that
case Baraille could not have been detached.
To point the moral of this memorable story, I cannot do better than
quote Mr Julian Corbett's comment on it. "The whole attempt, it will be
seen, with everything in its favour, had exhibited the normal course of
degradation. For all the nicely framed plan and perfect deception, the
inherent difficulties, when it came to the point of execution, had as
usual forced a clumsy concentration of the enemy's battle fleet with his
transports, and we on our part were able to forestall it with every
advantage in our favour by the simple expedient of a central mass on a
revealed and certain line of passage." We were certainly taken at a
disadvantage at the outset, for the "bolt from the blue" was preparing
some time before any one in England got wind of it. The country had
been largely denuded of troops for foreign enterprises, Scotland was
deeply disaffected, the Jacobites were full of hope and intrigue, the
Ministry was supine and feeble, the navy was deplorably weak in home
waters, and such ships as were available had been dispersed to their
ports for refit. Nevertheless with all these conditions in its favour
the projected "bolt from the blue" was detected and anticipated--tardily,
it is true, and with no great sagacity except on the part of Norris--long
before the expedition was ready to start. Surely the moral needs no
further pointing.
By these instances, and others which might be quoted, the law seems to
be established that in default of an assured command of the sea the
fleet which seeks to cover an invasion is drawn by irresistible
attraction towards the place of embarkation, and that the same
attraction brings it there--if not earlier--into conflict with the
superior forces of the enemy. If in the Trafalgar campaign, which I have
no space to examine in detail, the law does not seem to operate to the
extent that it did in the other cases examined, that is only because the
disposition of the British fleets was so masterly that Napoleon never
got the opportunity he yearned for of bringing his fleets to the place
of embarkation. They were outmanoeuvred beforehand and finally
overthrown at Trafalgar.
There is indeed a fourth alternative which has been advanced by some
speculative writers, though history lends it no countenance, and it has
never, I believe, been taken seriously by any naval authority of repute.
I cannot take it seriously myself. It assumes that some naval Power,
suitably situated as regards this country, might without either
provocation or overt international dispute, clandestinely take up
transport--either a comparatively small number of very large merchant
vessels or a very large number of barges, lighters, or what not to be
towed by steam vessels--might clandestinely put an army with all its
necessary _impedimenta_ on board the transports so provided and then
clandestinely, and without either notice or warning, send them to sea,
with or without escort, with intent to effect a landing at some suitable
point on the English coast. The whole theory seems to me to involve at
least three monstrous improbabilities: first, a piratical intent on the
part of a civilized nation; secondly, a concealment of such intent in
conditions wellnigh incompatible with the degree of secrecy required;
and thirdly, a precision and a punctuality of movement in the operations
of embarkation, transit, and landing of which history affords no
example, while naval opinion and experience scoff at them as utterly
impracticable. Of course the future may not resemble the past, and naval
wars of the future may not be conducted on a pattern sealed by the
unbroken teaching of over eight hundred years. But that is an assumption
which I cannot seriously entertain.
CHAPTER VII
COMMERCE IN WAR
The maritime trade of a nation at war has always been regarded by the
other belligerent as his legitimate prey. In the Dutch Wars the
suppression of the enemy's commerce was the main objective of both
parties to the conflict. In all wars in which either belligerent has any
commerce afloat worth considering one belligerent may always be expected
to do all that he can for its capture or suppression, while the other
will do as much as he can for its defence. In proportion to the volume
and value of the national trade afloat is the potency of its destruction
as an agency for bringing the national will into submission. If, for
example, the maritime trade of England could be suppressed by her
enemies, England would thereby be vanquished. Her commerce is her
life-blood. On the other hand there are nations, very powerful in war,
which either by reason of their geographical position, or because their
oversea trade is no vital element in their national economy, would
suffer comparatively little in like circumstances. It thus appears that
the volume and value of the national trade afloat is the measure of the
efforts which an enemy is likely to make for its suppression. But it is
not directly the measure of the efforts which a nation so assailed must
make for its defence. The measure of these efforts is determined not by
the volume and value of the trade to be protected but by the amount and
character of the naval force which the enemy can employ in assailing it.
In the Boer War British maritime commerce was unassailed and
uninterrupted in all parts of the world, and yet not a single ship of
the British Navy was directly employed in its protection. If on the
other hand England were at war with a naval Power of the first rank, she
might have to employ the whole of her naval resources in securing the
free transit of her maritime commerce. So long as she can do this with
success she need give no thought to the menace of possible invasion. A
command of the sea so far established as to secure freedom of transit
for the vast and ubiquitous maritime commerce of this country is also,
of necessity, so far established as to deny free transit to the
transports of an enemy seeking to invade. The greater includes the less.
It may at first sight seem to be an anomaly--some, indeed, would
represent it as a mere survival of barbarism--that whereas in war on
land the private property of an enemy's subjects is, by the established
law and custom of civilized nations, not liable to capture or
destruction without compensation to its owners, the opposite rule still
prevails in war at sea. But a little consideration will, I think, show
that the analogy sought to be established between the two cases is a
very imperfect one. War on land does _ipso facto_ suspend in large
measure the free transport of commerce in transit. As between the two
belligerents it interrupts it altogether. Moreover, throughout the
territory occupied by the enemy, the railways, and in large measure the
roads, are practically monopolized for the movements of his troops and
the transport of his supplies--in a word for the maintenance of his
communications. There can have been little or no consignment of goods
from Paris to Berlin or _vice versa_ during the war of 1870, and even
though at certain stages of the war goods might have been consigned,
say, from Lyons to Geneva, or from Lille to Brussels, yet such cases are
really only the counterparts of the frequent failure of one
belligerent's cruisers to intercept the merchant vessels of the other on
the high seas. Again, in the case of a beleaguered fortress, the
besiegers would never dream of allowing a convoy of food or of munitions
of war--or for the matter of that of merchandise of any kind--to enter
the fortress. They would intercept it as a matter of course, and if
necessary they would appropriate it to their own use. The upshot of it
all is that even in war on land the transit of all commerce, albeit the
private property of some one, is practically suspended within the area
of the territory occupied, and very seriously impeded throughout the
whole country subject to invasion. It is not, therefore, true to say
without many qualifications that in war private property is respected on
land and not respected at sea. The only difference that I can discern is
that by the law and custom of nations private property cannot be
appropriated on land, whereas at sea it can. But this difference is not
really essential. The essential thing in both cases is that the wealth
of the enemy is diminished and the credit of his traders destroyed--a
far more important matter in these days than the destruction of this or
that cargo of his goods--by the suspension of that interchange of
commodities with other nations which is the chief element of national
prosperity, and may be, as in the case of England, the indispensable
condition of national existence. Indeed, although private property on
land is exempt from capture, and at sea it is not, yet there are many
nations which would suffer far more from the interruption of their
mercantile communications which war on land entails than they would from
the destruction of their commerce at sea.
For these reasons I hold that the proposed exemption of private property
from capture or molestation at sea is a chimerical one. War is
essentially an act of violence. It operates by the destruction of human
life as well as by all other agencies which are likely to subdue the
enemy's will. Among these agencies the capture or destruction of
commerce afloat is by far the most humane since it entails the least
sacrifice of life, limb, or liberty, and at the same time its coercive
pressure may in some cases, though not in all, be the most effective
instrument for compelling the enemy's submission. Moreover, it is not
proposed to exempt from capture or destruction such merchant vessels of
the enemy--or even of a neutral for that matter--as attempt to break a
blockade. Now the modern conditions of blockade are such that the
warships conducting it may be stationed hundreds of miles from the
blockaded port or ports, and their outlying cruisers, remaining in touch
with each other and with the main body, may be much further afield.
Within the area of the organized patrol thus established, every vessel
seeking to enter a blockaded port or to issue from it will still be
liable to capture. In these conditions the proposal to exempt the
remainder of the enemy's private property afloat from capture would be a
mockery. There would not be enough of such property afloat to pay for
the cost of capture.
It is an axiom of naval warfare that an assured command of the sea is at
once the best defence for commerce afloat and an indispensable
condition for any such attack on it as is likely to have any appreciable
effect in subduing the enemy's will. War is an affair not of pin-pricks
but of smashing blows. "The harassment and distress," says Admiral
Mahan, "caused to a country by serious interference with its commerce
will be conceded by all. It is doubtless a most important secondary
operation of naval war, and is not likely to be abandoned until war
itself shall cease; but regarded as a primary and fundamental measure
sufficient in itself to crush an enemy, it is probably a delusion, and a
most dangerous delusion, when presented in the fascinating garb of
cheapness to the representatives of a people." Here again we may discern
some of the larger implications of that potent and far-reaching agency
of naval warfare, the command of the sea. If a belligerent not aiming at
the command of the sea, and having no sufficient naval force wherewithal
to secure it, thinks to crush his enemy by directing sporadic attacks on
his commerce, he will, if history is any guide, soon find out his
mistake. His naval forces available for this purpose, are, by the
hypothesis, inferior to those of the enemy. It is certain that they will
sooner or later be hunted down and destroyed. Moreover, the mercantile
flag of the weaker belligerent will, as I have shown, disappear from the
sea from the very outset of the conflict; and the maritime commerce of
such a belligerent must be of very insignificant volume if the loss
entailed by its suppression is not greater than that likely to be
inflicted by such a belligerent on the enemy's commerce which crosses
the seas under the _ægis_ of a flag which commands them. Admiral Mahan
has estimated that during the whole of the war of the French Revolution
and Empire the direct loss to England "by the operation of hostile
cruisers did not exceed 2-1/2 per cent. of the commerce of the Empire;
and that this loss was partially made good by the prize ships and
merchandise taken by its own naval vessels and privateers." It should be
noted, however, that the Royal Commission on Food Supply was of opinion
that 4 per cent. would be a more accurate estimate. It is also well
known that during the same period the maritime commerce of England was
doubled in volume while that of France was annihilated. In point of fact
the risks run in war by commerce afloat are measured very exactly by the
degree in which the flag which covers it has secured the command of the
sea--that is, be it always remembered, the control of the maritime
communications affected. During the War of American Independence, when
British supremacy at sea was seriously challenged and at times was in
grave jeopardy--owing quite as much to faulty disposition as to
inferiority of force--premiums of fifteen guineas per cent. were paid in
1782 on ships trading to the Far East; whereas from the spring of 1793
until the close of the struggle with Napoleon no premiums exceeding half
that rate were paid. Yet to the very end of the war British merchant
vessels were being seized even in the Channel almost every day. There
is, however, good reason to think that many of these seizures were in
reality collusive operations undertaken for the purpose of carrying on
clandestinely the direct trade with the Continent which Napoleon sought
in vain to suppress. The full history of the memorable conflict between
the Berlin Decrees of Napoleon and the British Orders in Council, is
still to be written. Some very illuminating side-lights are thrown on it
by Mr David Hannay in a volume entitled _The Sea-Trader, His Friends and
Enemies_.
It would seem to follow from these premisses--fortified as they are by
other historical examples that might be cited--that of two belligerents
in a naval war, that one which establishes and maintains an effective
command of the sea will be absolute master of the maritime commerce of
the other, while his own maritime commerce, though not entirely immune,
will suffer no such decisive losses as will determine or even materially
affect the course and issue of the war; and that he may indeed emerge
from the war much stronger and more prosperous than he was at the
beginning. Such is assuredly the teaching of history, and although vast
changes have taken place alike in respect of the methods, opportunities,
implements, and international conventions of naval war and in respect of
the conditions, volume, and national importance of maritime commerce,
yet I think it can be shown that the sum total of these changes has made
on the whole rather for the advantage of the superior belligerent than
otherwise. In the first place privateering--formerly a very effective
weapon in the hands of the weaker belligerent--is now abolished. It is
true that the Declaration of Paris, which recorded and ratified its
abolition, has not been formally accepted by all the naval Powers of the
world; but it is also true that since its promulgation no naval Power
has sought to revive privateering. It is indeed held by some that the
right claimed by certain maritime Powers to convert merchant ships of
their own nationality into warships by arming and commissioning them on
the high seas is, or may be, equivalent to the revival of privateering
in its most dangerous and aggressive form. But those who argue thus
appear to overlook the fact that this process of conversion on the high
seas is by the Seventh Convention of the Second Hague Conference hedged
round with a series of restrictions which differentiate the warship thus
improvised very sharply from the privateer of the past. The following
are the leading provisions of this Convention:--
1. A merchant ship converted into a warship cannot have the rights and
duties appertaining to vessels having that status unless it is under the
direct authority, immediate control, and responsibility of the Power the
flag of which it flies.
2. Merchant ships converted into warships must bear the external marks
which distinguish the warships of their nationality.
3. The commander must be in the service of the State and duly
commissioned by the proper authorities. His name must figure on the list
of the officers of the fighting fleet.
4. The crew must be subject to military discipline.
5. Every merchant ship converted into a warship is bound to observe in
its operations the laws and customs of war.
6. A belligerent who converts a merchant ship into a warship must, as
soon as possible, announce such conversion in the list of its warships.
This Convention has been accepted and ratified by all the great maritime
Powers. It is true that it gives the converted merchant ship what may be
called the dog's privilege of taking a first bite with impunity, but it
makes it very difficult for any second bite to be taken. Such a vessel
may as a merchant ship have obtained coal and other supplies in a
neutral port before conversion, but she cannot after conversion return
to the same or another neutral port and repeat the process; nor can she
easily play the game which some have attributed to her of being a
merchant ship one day, a warship the next, and a merchant ship again on
the third. Further, as a weapon to be employed against England in
particular, the method of conversion here prescribed would seem to be
largely discounted by the fact that this country could, if it were so
disposed, convert as many merchant ships into warships in this way as
all the rest of the world put together.
It will be argued, perhaps, that a belligerent when hard pressed will
not respect the provisions of a mere paper Convention, but will, if it
suits him, treat them as non-existent. In that case it is not easy to
see why he should ever have accepted and ratified them. The preamble of
this very Convention recites that "whereas the contracting Powers have
been unable to come to an agreement on the question whether the
conversion of a merchant ship into a warship may take place upon the
high seas, it is understood that the question of the place where such
conversion is effected remains outside the scope of this agreement, and
is in no way affected by the following rules." In other words some of
the very Powers which have ratified the Convention as it stands
categorically declined to add to it a provision forbidding altogether
the conversion of a merchant ship into a warship on the high seas. If
this does not mean that, while reserving their freedom of action in this
respect, they are prepared to abide by the provisions of a Convention
which they have not less categorically accepted and ratified we are
driven to the absurd conclusion that all International Law is a nullity.
Secondly, the practical disappearance of the sailing ship from the seas
has profoundly modified all the pre-existing conditions affecting the
attack and defence of commerce afloat. In the days of sailing, all
vessels were compelled to sail according to the wind, that is, to take
devious courses whenever the wind was adverse, so that some of them
might at all times be found scattered over very wide areas of the seas
connecting the ports of departure with those of arrival. Accordingly the
sporadic attack on commerce by isolated warships cruising at large
within the limits of trade routes, which might be hundreds of miles in
width, was often productive of very appreciable results. There were few
blank coverts on the seas to be drawn. Nowadays a steamer can always
take the most direct course to her destination. As a consequence, trade
routes have now been narrowed down to what may more fittingly be called
lines of communication, and these lines possess the true characteristic
of all lines, namely, that they have practically no breadth. Thus the
areas bounded by these lines are nowadays all blank coverts. Any one who
happens to cross the Atlantic, as I have crossed it more than once, by
one of the less frequented routes, will know that the number of vessels
sighted in a voyage quite as long as any warship could take without
coaling may often be counted on the fingers of one hand. Another
characteristic of these lines is that though their points of departure
and destination are fixed, yet the lines joining these points may be
varied if necessary to such an extent that any warship hovering about
their ordinary direction would be thrown entirely off the scent. On the
other hand their ports of departure and destination being fixed, the
lines of communication must inevitably converge as they approach these
points. There are other points also more in the open at which several
lines of communication may intersect. At these "terminal and focal
points," as Mr Corbett has aptly called them, the belligerent, being by
hypothesis inferior to his adversary, must needs endeavour to
concentrate his attack on his enemy's commerce, because at any other
points the game would not be worth the candle. But it is precisely at
these points that the superior adversary will concentrate his defence,
and being superior, will take care to do so in force sufficient for the
purpose. So far as the remaining portions of the lines of communication
need any direct defence at all this can be afforded, if and when
necessary, by collecting the merchant ships about to traverse them into
convoys and giving them an escort sufficiently powerful to deal
effectually with attacks which from the nature of the case can only be
sporadic and intermittent. Be it remembered that the last thing a
warship bent on commerce destruction wants is to encounter an enemy in
superior or even in equal force. The moment she does so her game is up.
Thirdly, the substitution of steam for sails has very largely reduced
the enduring mobility of the commerce-destroying warship. In time of war
no warship will ever go further from the nearest available supply of
coal than is represented by considerably less than half of the distance
that she can steam at full speed with her bunkers full. If she does so
she runs the risk, if chased, of burning her last pound of coal before
she has reached shelter. Coaling at sea is only possible in exceptional
circumstances, and is in any case a very tedious operation. A warship
which attempts it will be taken at a great disadvantage if an enemy
catches her in the process. Colliers, moreover, are exposed to capture
while proceeding to the appointed rendezvous, and if they fail to reach
it the warship awaiting them will be placed in extreme danger. All these
difficulties and dangers may be surmounted once and again, but they must
needs put a tremendous handicap in the long run on the commerce-destroying
efforts of a belligerent who is not superior to his adversary at sea.
Of course if he is superior at sea the enemy's commerce will be at his
mercy, and nothing can prevent its destruction or at least its total
suppression. But that is not the hypothesis we are considering.
Fourthly, the power of the modern warship to send her prizes into court
for adjudication, or to destroy them off-hand on capture is much more
limited than was that of her sailing predecessor. If she sends them into
port she must either put a prize crew on board or escort them herself.
In the former case the prizes, and in the latter case both prizes and
their captors are liable to recapture, a liability which becomes the
greater in proportion as the enemy is superior at sea. As to the former
alternative, moreover, the crew of a modern man-of-war is highly
specialized, and in particular its engine-room complement, which must
furnish a portion of every prize crew, is at the outset no greater than
is required for the full fighting efficiency of the ship. It is
probable, therefore, that the captor would in nearly all cases adopt the
alternative of destroying his prizes at sea. In that case there will be
no prize money for any one concerned, but that is perhaps a minor
consideration. A far more important consideration is that before
destroying the prize the captor must take its crew on board and provide
food and accommodation for them. Any other course would be sheer piracy
and would inevitably lead to drastic reprisals. Now, before the captor
had destroyed many prizes in this fashion--especially if even one of
them happened to be a passenger steamer well filled with passengers--she
would find herself gravely embarrassed by the number of her prisoners,
and the need of providing for them even in the roughest fashion. A
captain having to fight his ship even with a few hundreds of prisoners
on board would be in no very enviable position.
The foregoing are the leading considerations which appear to me to
govern the problem of the attack and defence of maritime commerce in
modern conditions of naval warfare. I have discussed the question in
greater detail in a work entitled _Nelson and Other Naval Studies_, and
as I have seen no reason to abandon or substantially to modify the
conclusions there formulated, I reproduce them here for the sake of
completeness:--
1. All experience shows that commerce-destroying never has been, and
never can be, a primary object of naval war.
2. There is nothing in the changes which modern times have witnessed in
the methods and appliances of naval warfare to suggest that the
experience of former wars is no longer applicable.
3. Such experience as there is of modern war points to the same
conclusion and enforces it.
4. The case of the "Alabama," rightly understood, does not disallow this
conclusion but rather confirms it.
5. Though the volume of maritime commerce has vastly increased, the
number of units of naval force capable of assailing it has decreased in
far greater proportion.
6. Privateering is, and remains abolished, not merely by the fiat of
International Law, but by changes in the methods and appliances of
navigation and naval warfare which have rendered the privateer entirely
obsolete.
7. Maritime commerce is much less assailable than in former times,
because the introduction of steam has confined its course to definite
trade routes of extremely narrow width, and has almost denuded the sea
of commerce outside these limits.
8. The modern commerce destroyer is confined to a comparatively narrow
radius of action by the inexorable limits of her coal supply. If she
destroys her prizes she must forgo the prize money and find
accommodation for the crews and passengers of the ships destroyed. If
she sends them into port she must deplete her engine-room complement and
thereby gravely impair her own efficiency.
9. Torpedo craft are of little or no use for commerce destruction except
in certain well-defined areas where special measures can be taken for
checking their depredations.
Of course all this depends on the one fundamental assumption that the
commerce to be defended belongs to a Power which can, and does, command
the sea. On no other condition can maritime commerce be defended at
all.
CHAPTER VIII
THE DIFFERENTIATION OF NAVAL FORCE
A warship, considered in the abstract, may be defined as a vessel
employed, and generally constructed, for the purpose of conveying across
the seas to the place of conflict, the weapons that are to be used in
conflict, the men who are to use them, and all such stores, whether of
food or other supplies, as will give to the vessel as large a measure of
enduring mobility as is compatible with her displacement. If we confine
our attention to the period posterior to the employment of the gun on
shipboard as the principal weapon of offence, and if we regard the
torpedo as a particular kind of projectile, and the tube from which it
is discharged as a particular kind of gun, we may condense this
definition into the modern formula that a warship is a floating
gun-carriage. With the methods and implements of sea warfare anterior to
the introduction of the gun we need not concern ourselves. They belong
to the archæology of the subject. It suffices to point out that in all
periods of naval warfare the nature of the principal weapon employed,
and to some extent that of the motive power available, have not only
governed the structure of the ship and determined the practicable limit
of its displacement, but have also exercised a dominant influence over
the ordering of fleets and their disposition in action. Sea tactics have
never been more elaborate than they were in the last days of the galley
period which came to an end with the Battle of Lepanto in 1571, less
than a score of years before the defeat of the Armada in 1588. But the
substitution of sails for oars as the motive power of the warship and
the more general employment of the gun as the principal weapon of
offence necessarily entailed radical changes in the tactical methods
which had been slowly evolved during the galley period. At first all was
confusion and a sea-fight was reduced for a time to a very disorderly
and tumultuous affair. "We went down in no order," wrote an officer who
was present at Trafalgar, "but every man to take his bird." This is a
very inaccurate and even more unintelligent account of the tactics
pursued at Trafalgar; but it might very well stand for a picturesque
summary of the tactical confusion which prevailed at the period of the
Armada and for half a century afterwards.
Gradually, however, order was again evolved out of the prevailing chaos.
But it was not the old order. It was a new order based on the
predominance of the gun and its disposition on board the ship. To go
down in no order and for each man to take his bird would mean that each
ship, whether large or small, would be free as far as circumstances
permitted to select an adversary not disproportioned in strength to
herself, so that there was no very pressing need for the fleet to
consist of homogeneous units, nor for the elimination of comparatively
small craft from a general engagement. But in the course of the Dutch
Wars the practice was slowly evolved of fighting in a compact or
close-hauled line, the ships being ranged in a line ahead--that is, each
succeeding ship following in the wake of her next ahead--in order to
give free play to the guns disposed mainly on the broadside, and being,
for purposes of mutual support, disposed as closely to each other as was
compatible with individual freedom of evolution and manoeuvre. This
disposition necessarily involved the exclusion from the line of battle
of all vessels below a certain average or standard of fighting strength,
since it was no longer possible for "every man to take his bird" and a
weak ship might find herself in conflict with an adversary of
overpowering strength in the enemy's line. Hence the main fighting
forces of naval belligerents came in time to be composed entirely of
"ships fit to lie in a line," as Torrington phrased it, of "capital
ships," as they were frequently called in former days, of "line of
battle ships" or "ships of the line," as afterwards they were more
commonly called, or of "battleships" as is nowadays the accepted
appellation. Other elements of naval force not "fit to lie in a line"
were also required, as I am about to show, and took different forms at
different times, but the root of the whole evolution lies in the
elimination of the non-capital ship from the main fighting line. In a
very instructive chapter of his _Naval Warfare_, Admiral Colomb has
traced the whole course of this gradual "Differentiation of Naval
Force." But for my purpose it suffices to cite the briefer exposition of
a French writer quoted by Admiral Mahan in his _Influence of Sea Power
upon History_:--
"With the increase of the power of the ship of war, and with the
perfecting of its sea and warlike qualities, there has come an equal
progress in the art of utilizing them.... As naval evolutions become
more skilful, their importance grows from day to day. To these
evolutions there is needed a base, a point from which they depart and to
which they return. A fleet of warships must always be ready to meet an
enemy; logically, therefore, this point of departure for naval
evolutions must be the order of battle. Now since the disappearance of
galleys, almost all the artillery is found upon the sides of a ship of
war. Hence it is the beam that must necessarily and always be turned
toward the enemy. On the other hand it is necessary that the sight of
the latter must never be interrupted by a friendly ship. Only one
formation allows the ships of the same fleet to satisfy fully these
conditions. That formation is the line ahead. The line, therefore, is
imposed as the only order of battle, and consequently as the basis of
all fleet tactics. In order that this line of battle, this long thin
line of guns, may not be injured or broken at some point weaker than the
rest, there is at the same time felt to be the necessity of putting in
it only ships which, if not of equal force, have at least equally strong
sides. Logically it follows, at the same moment in which the line ahead
became definitely the order for battle, there was established the
distinction between the 'ships of the line' alone destined for a place
therein, and the lighter ships meant for other uses."
But the need for other and lighter ships "meant for other uses" and not
"fit to lie in a line," is equally demonstrable. The function of
battleships is to act in concert. They must therefore be concentrated in
fleets sufficiently strong to give a good account of the enemy's fleets
opposed to them. This does not necessarily mean that all the fleets of a
belligerent must be concentrated in a single position. But it does mean
that if disposed in accordance with the dispositions of the enemy they
must be so disposed and connected, that, moving on interior lines, they
can always bring a superior force to the point of contact with the
enemy. Subject to this paramount condition, that of being able to
concentrate more rapidly than the enemy can, dispersal of naval
force--not of units but of organized fighting fleets--is generally a
better disposition than extreme concentration. But it is a fatal error
in strategy so to disperse your fleets as to expose them to the risk of
being overpowered by the enemy in detail.
The fleets of capital ships thus organized, and disposed as occasion may
require and sound strategy dictate, are not, however, by any means to be
regarded as autonomous and self-sufficing organisms. They are rather to
be regarded as the moving base of a much larger organization, much more
widely dispersed, consisting of lighter vessels not fit to lie in a
line, but specially adapted to discharge functions which capital ships
cannot as such discharge, yet which are indispensable either to the full
efficiency of the latter or to the maintenance of an effective command
of the sea. The first of these functions is the collection and rapid
transmission of intelligence as to the enemy's dispositions and
movements over as wide an area of the waters in dispute as is compatible
with communication rapid enough to allow of counter-movements being made
before it is too late. The development of wireless telegraphy has
largely extended this area, but it is not without limits in practice,
and those limits are already narrower than the extreme range of a single
transmission by wireless telegraphy. For example, a warship in the
Levant might, if the conditions were exceptionally favourable,
communicate by direct wireless with another warship in the Orkneys. But
the information thus transmitted would hardly be likely directly to
influence the movements and dispositions of the latter. If it did it
would probably not be through the immediate initiative of the Admiral
commanding in the North Sea, but through the supreme control of all the
naval forces of the belligerent affected, exercised through the General
Staff of the Navy at the seat of Government. It may here be remarked in
passing that the development of wireless telegraphy will probably be
found in war to strengthen this supreme control and to weaken to that
extent the independent and isolated initiative of individual
Commanders-in-Chief. But that is not necessarily a disadvantage, and
even so far as it is disadvantage at all it is more than balanced by the
immense corresponding advantage of keeping the War Staff at all times in
direct touch with every part of the field of naval operations, and
thereby making it the focus of all available information, and the
directing authority for all the larger strategy of the campaign. Except
in degree, moreover, there is nothing new in this. When Nelson was
returning across the Atlantic, after chasing Villeneuve out of the West
Indies, his only way of informing the Admiralty of the nature of the
situation was to send on Bettesworth in the brig "Curieux" with his
news. Nowadays a modern "Curieux" would be able to send on the news as
soon as she came within fifteen hundred or possibly two thousand miles
from the British Isles, and Nelson at the same distance might have
received his orders direct from the Admiralty. But the special point to
note is that as soon as Bettesworth's information was received at the
Admiralty, Barham, the First Lord of the Admiralty, instantly issued
orders which profoundly modified the dispositions of the fleets engaged
in blockading the French ports and led directly to Calder's action off
Finisterre, and in the sequel to the abandonment by Napoleon of all his
projects of invasion and the destruction of the allied fleets at
Trafalgar. There were giants in those days both afloat and ashore. But
the giants afloat did not resent the interference of the giants ashore,
and, as Mr Corbett has shown, the Trafalgar campaign was conducted with
consummate sagacity by Barham, who embodied in himself the War Staff of
the time.
Such is the transcendent importance of intelligence, and of its
collection, transmission, collation, interpretation, and translation
into supreme executive orders. Its collection and transmission is mainly
the function of cruising ships disposed either individually or in small
groups for the purpose, and at such a distance from the main body of
battleships as is not incompatible with the movements of the latter
being controlled and directed, either by their immediate commanders, or
by the War Staff at the centre, according to the information received
from the outlying cruisers. Such cruising vessels may vary in size and
strength from the modern battle-cruiser, so heavily armed and armoured
as to be not incapable of taking a place, on occasion, in the line of
battle, down to the smallest torpedo craft which is endowed with
sufficient enduring mobility to enable her to keep the sea and to cruise
as near as may be to the enemy's ports. I have already indicated the
other collateral functions which will have to be discharged by torpedo
craft in case of a blockade and pointed out the vital distinction which
differentiates them from the small craft of the past in that in certain
circumstances they are capable of taking a formidable part in a fleet
action even as against the most powerful battleships. But we are here
considering them solely from the point of view of their cruising
functions, whether as guarding their own shores or watching those of the
enemy with a view to fighting on occasion and to observation at all
times. Their supports will be cruisers of larger size, disposed at
suitable distances in the rear, and themselves supported in like manner
by successive cordons or patrols of cruisers increasing in size and
power, until we come to the battle fleet as the concentrated nucleus of
the whole organization. This is merely an abstract or diagrammatic
exposition of such an organization, and it is of course liable to almost
infinite variation in the infinite variety of warlike operations at sea,
but it serves to exhibit the _rationale_ of the differentiation of naval
force into battleships, cruisers, and small craft.
It has sometimes been argued that, inasmuch as the torpedo craft is, or
may be, in certain conditions, more than a match for even the biggest
battleship, battleships together with all intermediate ships between the
battleship and the torpedo vessel, are not unlikely to be some day
regarded as superfluous and in consequence to be discarded altogether
from the naval armament of even a first-class maritime Power. It is true
that the range and accuracy of the torpedo have latterly undergone an
immense development, so that a range of even ten thousand yards or five
sea-miles is no longer beyond its powers. It is true that the
development of the submarine vessel has vastly intensified the menace of
the torpedo and it may soon be true that the development of aircraft
will add a new and very formidable menace to the supremacy of the
battleship. But except for this last consideration, which is at present
exceedingly speculative, a little reflection will disclose the
underlying fallacy of arguments of this kind. The enduring mobility of
the torpedo craft is necessarily limited. It is incapable of that wide
range of action which is required of warships if they are to establish
and maintain any effective command of the sea. It is exceedingly
vulnerable to ships of a larger size, and of more ample enduring
mobility. These again will be vulnerable in their turn to ships of a
still larger size and thus the logic of the situation brings us back to
the battleship once more with its characteristic functions. It may
perhaps be urged that this chain of argument takes too little account of
the submarine vessel which is at present singularly invulnerable because
for the most part invisible to any vessels, whether big or little, which
operate only on the surface and even if discovered betimes by the
latter, is not very readily assailable by them. But of two things one.
Either the submarine vessel will remain small and therefore weak, and
lacking in enduring mobility, in which case it can never establish and
maintain an effective command of the sea. Or it will grow indefinitely
in size, in which case it will fall under the inexorable stress of the
logic which brings us back once more to the battleship. It may be that
the battleship of the still distant future will be a submersible
battleship. But many exceedingly complex problems of construction and
stability will have to be solved before that consummation is reached.
Lastly, the specific function of the so-called battle-cruiser would seem
to need some further elucidation. At first sight this hybrid type of
vessel might seem to be an anomalous intrusion into the time-honoured
hierarchy of battleship, cruiser, and small craft, which the ripe
experience of many wars, battles, and campaigns had finally established
in the last golden days of the sailing ship period. It is indeed held by
some high authorities that the battle-cruiser is in very truth a hybrid
and an anomaly, and that no adequate reason for its existence can be
given. In face of these opinions I cannot presume to dogmatize on the
subject. But some not wholly irrelevant considerations may be advanced.
The battle-cruiser is, as its name implies, a vessel not only fitted by
the nature of its armour and armament "to lie in a line," whenever
occasion may require, but also exceedingly well qualified by its armour
and armament, and still more by its speed, to discharge many of the
functions of a cruiser either alone or in company with other cruisers.
In this latter capacity, it can overhaul nearly every merchant ship
afloat, it can scout far and wide, it can push home a vital
reconnaissance in cases where a weaker and slower cruiser would have to
run away if she could, it can serve as a rallying point to a squadron of
smaller cruisers engaged in the defence of this or that vital line of
communication, and alone or in company with a consort of the same type
it can hold the terminal and focal points of any such line against
almost any number of hostile cruisers inferior in defensive and
offensive powers to itself. Such are its powers and capacities when
acting as a cruiser proper. But it may be thought that in the stress of
conflict it will have very little opportunity of displaying these very
exceptional powers because an admiral in command of a fighting fleet
will never, when anticipating an engagement with the enemy, consent to
weaken his fighting line by detaching so powerful a unit for scouting or
other cruising purposes. That is as it may be. It will depend on many
circumstances of the moment not to be clearly anticipated or defined
beforehand; on the strength of the enemy's force, on the personality,
sagacity, and fortitude of the admiral--whether he is or is not a man of
the mettle and temper ascribed to Nelson by Admiral Mahan in a passage
already quoted--on the comparative need as determined by the
circumstances of the moment of scouting for information, of cruising
for the defence of trade, or of strengthening the battle line for a
decisive conflict to the uttermost extent of the nation's resources. It
is unbecoming to assume that in the crisis of his country's fate an
admiral will act either as a fool or as a poltroon. It is the country's
fault if a man capable of so acting is placed in supreme command, and
for that there is no remedy. But it is sounder to assume that the
admiral selected for command is a man not incapable of disposing his
force to the best advantage. "We must," said Lord Goschen, on one
occasion, "put our trust in Providence and a good admiral." If a nation
cannot find a good admiral in its need it is idle to trust in
Providence.
It remains to consider the function of the battle-cruiser in the line of
battle. The lines of battle in former times were often composed of ships
of varying size and power. There was a legitimate prejudice against
ships of excessive size, although their superior power in action was
recognized--we have the unimpeachable testimony on that point of
Nelson's Hardy, a man of unrivalled fighting experience to whom Nelson
himself attributed "an intuitive right judgment"--because they were
unhandy in manoeuvre and slow in sailing as compared with ships of more
moderate dimensions. But except for difficulties of docking--a very
serious consideration from the financial point of view--hardly any
limit can be assigned to the size of the modern warship on these
particular grounds. Quite the contrary. Other things being equal, the
bigger the ship the higher the speed, and it is well known that ships of
the Dreadnought type are as handy to steer as a torpedo boat. For
tactical reasons, moreover, it is not expedient to lengthen the line of
battle unduly. Hence there is a manifest advantage in concentrating
offensive power, as far as may be, in single units. On the other hand,
the experience and practice of the eighteenth century showed
conclusively that there was also a distinct advantage in having in the
line of battle a certain number of ships which, being smaller than their
consorts, were more handy and faster sailing than the latter. The enemy
might not want to fight. Very often he did not, and by crowding all
possible sail he did his best to get away. In this case the only way to
bring him to action was for the pursuing admiral to order "a general
chase"--that is, to direct his ships, disregarding the precise line of
battle, to hurry on with all possible sail after the enemy so that the
fastest ships of the pursuing fleet might bring individually to action
the laggards of the retreating fleet and hold them until the main body
of the pursuing fleet came up. In this case the retreating admiral must
either return to the succour of his ships astern and thereby accept the
general action which he sought to avoid, or abandon his overtaken ships
to the enemy without attempting to rescue them. Hawke's action in
Quiberon Bay and Duncan's action off Camperdown are two of the most
memorable examples of this particular mode of attack, and their
brilliant results are a striking testimony to its efficacy. If ever in
the naval battles of the future it becomes expedient for an admiral to
order a general chase, it stands to reason that ships of the
battle-cruiser type will be invaluable for the purpose. Their speed will
enable them to hold the tail of the enemy's line, and their power will
enable them to crush it unless the retreating admiral who seeks to avoid
a decisive action turns back to succour such of his ships as are
assailed and thereby renders a decisive action inevitable.
There is, moreover, another function to be assigned to the
battle-cruiser in a general action, and that is a function which was
defined once for all by Nelson himself in the immortal memorandum in
which he explained to his captains the mode of attack he proposed to
carry out at Trafalgar. "I have," wrote Nelson, "made up my mind to keep
the fleet in that position of sailing ... that the order of sailing is
to be the order of battle, placing the fleet in two lines of sixteen
ships each, with an advanced squadron of eight _of the fastest sailing
two-decked ships_ which will always make, if wanted, a line of
twenty-four sail, on whichever line the Commander-in-Chief may direct."
Owing to the lack of ships this disposition was not adopted on the day
of Trafalgar, but the principle involved is not affected by that
circumstance. That principle is that a squadron of the fastest sailing
ships in the fleet was to be detached from the two fighting lines
entrusted with the initial attack, and reserved or "refused" until the
development of the main attack had disclosed to the Commander-in-Chief
the point at which the impact of this "advanced squadron" would by
superior concentration on that point secure that the enemy should there
be decisively overpowered. The essence of the matter is that the ships
so employed should by virtue of their superior speed be endowed with a
tactical mobility sufficient to enable them to discharge the function
assigned to them. I need hardly insist on the close analogy which
subsists between Nelson's "advanced squadron" and a modern squadron of
battle-cruisers similarly employed, and although the conflict of modern
warships must needs differ in many essential respects from the conflicts
of sailing ships in Nelson's days, yet I think a clear and authoritative
exposition of one at least of the uses and functions of the
battle-cruiser in a fleet action may still be found in what I have
called elsewhere "the last tactical word of the greatest master of sea
tactics the world has ever known, the final and flawless disposition of
sailing ships marshalled for combat."
CHAPTER IX
THE DISTRIBUTION AND SUPPLY OF NAVAL FORCE
The measure of naval strength required by any State is determined mainly
by the naval strength of its possible adversaries in the event of war,
and only in a secondary degree by the volume of the maritime interests
which it has to defend. Paradoxical as the latter half of this
proposition may seem at first sight, it can easily be shown to be sound.
The maritime interests, territorial and commercial, of the British
Empire are beyond all comparison greater than those of any other State
in the world; but if no other State possessed a naval force strong
enough to assail them seriously, it is manifest that the naval force
required to defend them need be no greater than is sufficient to
overcome the assailant, and would not therefore be determined in any
degree by the volume of the interests to be defended. Each State
determines for itself the measure of naval strength which it judges to
be necessary to its security. No State expects to have to encounter the
whole world in arms or makes its provision in view of any such
chimerical contingency. The utmost that any State can do is to adjust
its naval policy to a rational estimate of all the reasonably probable
contingencies of international conflict, due regard being had to the
extent of its financial resources and to such other requirements of
national defence as circumstances impose on it. Germany, for example,
has proclaimed to all the world in the preamble to the Navy Law of 1900
that--
"In order to protect German trade and commerce under existing
conditions, only one thing will suffice, namely, Germany must possess a
battle fleet of such strength that even for the most powerful naval
adversary a war would involve such risks as to make that Power's own
supremacy doubtful. For this purpose it is not absolutely necessary that
the German fleet should be as strong as that of the greatest naval
Power, for, as a rule, a great naval Power will not be in a position to
concentrate all its forces against us."
I am not concerned in any way with the political aspects of this
memorable declaration. But its bearing on the naval policy of the
British Empire is manifest and direct. England is beyond all question
"the greatest naval Power" in the world. The declaration of Germany thus
lays upon England the indefeasible obligation of taking care that by no
efforts of any other Power shall her "own supremacy"--that is her
capacity to secure and maintain the command of the sea in all reasonably
probable contingencies of international conflict--be rendered doubtful.
There is no State in the world on which decisive defeat at sea would
inflict such irretrievable disaster as it would on England and her
Empire. These islands would be open to invasion--and if to invasion to
conquest and subjugation--the commerce of the whole Empire would be
annihilated, and the Empire itself would be dismembered. I need not
attempt to determine what measure of naval strength is required to avert
this unspeakable calamity. It suffices to say that whatever the measure
may be it must be provided and maintained at all hazards. That is merely
the axiomatic expression of the things that belong to our peace.
It will be observed that the German declaration assumes that "a great
naval Power will not, as a rule, be in a position to concentrate all its
forces against" a single adversary. This raises at once the question of
the distribution of naval force, or of what has been called the peace
strategy of position. I shall endeavour to discuss the problem with as
little reference as may be to an actual state of war between any two
individual and specific naval Powers. I shall merely assume that of two
possible belligerents one is so far stronger than the other as to look
with confidence to being able in the event of war to secure and maintain
its own command of the sea; and in order not to complicate the problem
unduly I shall include in the term "belligerent" not merely a single
Power but an alliance of one or more separate Powers, while still
adhering to the assumption that the relative strength of the two
belligerents is as defined above. If England is one of the Powers
affected it is manifest from what has already been said that this
assumption is a legitimate one.
In such a situation it stands to reason that the concentration of the
whole force of the stronger belligerent against the whole force equally
concentrated of the weaker belligerent would not be necessary and would
very rarely be expedient. The stronger belligerent would of course seek,
in time of war, so to dispose his forces as to make it impossible for
the weaker fleets of his adversary to take the sea without being brought
to a decisive action, and he would so order his peace strategy of
position as to further that paramount purpose. But it does not follow
that being superior in the measure above defined he would need to
concentrate all his available forces for that purpose. He would
concentrate so much of his forces as would ensure victory in the
encounters anticipated--so far as mere numbers apart from fighting
efficiency can ensure victory--and the residue would be available for
other and subsidiary purposes. If there were no residue, then the
required superiority would not have been attained, and the belligerent
who has neglected to attain it must take the consequences. One of these
consequences would certainly be that the other and subsidiary purposes
above mentioned would have to be neglected until the main issue was
decided, and if these purposes were of any moment he would have so far
to pay the penalty of his neglect. Nothing is more fatal in warfare than
to attempt to be equally strong everywhere. If you cannot do everything
you desire at once you must concentrate all your energies on doing the
most important and the most vital things first. When the tree is cut
down the branches will fall of themselves. The history of the War of
American Independence is full of illustrations of the neglect of this
paramount principle. England was worsted much more by faulty
distribution than by insufficiency of force.
At the same time it must be observed that the outlying and subsidiary
purposes of the conflict cannot be of vital moment so long as the
superior belligerent is at firm grips with the central forces of his
adversary. We are dealing with the assumption that of two belligerents
one is so far superior to the other that he may entertain a reasonable
confidence of being able to deny the command of the sea to his adversary
and in the end to secure it for himself. It is an essential part of this
assumption that the forces of the superior belligerent will be so
disposed as to make it exceedingly difficult and, subject to the fortune
of war, practically impossible for any considerable portion of the
enemy's forces to act on a vigorous offensive without being speedily
brought to book by a superior force of his adversary, and that the peace
strategy of the latter will have been ordered to that end. So long as
this is the case the virtual command of the sea will be in the hands of
the superior belligerent, even though his forces may be so concentrated,
in accordance with the dispositions of the enemy, as to leave many
regions of the sea apparently unguarded. They are adequately guarded by
the fact that the enemy is _ex hypothesi_ unable to reach them--or if by
a successful evasion of his adversary's guard he manages to send a
detachment, large or small, to aim at some outlying objective, the
initial superiority of force possessed by his adversary will always
enable the latter to send a superior force in pursuit of the fugitive.
Much harm may be done before the fugitive is brought to book, but no
State, however strong, need ever expect to go to war without running
risks and suffering occasional and partial reverses.
It is thus a pure delusion to assume, as loose thinkers on the subject
too often assume, that the command of the sea must be either surrendered
or imperilled by a superior belligerent who, apparently neglecting
those regions of the sea which are not immediately assailed or
threatened, concentrates his forces in the positions best calculated to
enable him to get the better of his adversary, or who in time of peace
so orders his strategy of position as to secure that advantage at once
should war unhappily break out. Not long ago the Leader of the
Opposition in the House of Commons used the following words:--"Ten years
ago we not only had the command of the sea, but we had the command of
every sea. We have the command of no sea in the world except the North
Sea at this moment." Those who have followed and assimilated the
exposition of the true meaning of the command of the sea given in these
pages will readily discern how mischievous a travesty of that meaning is
contained in these words. There is, as I have shown, no such thing as a
command of the sea in time of peace. The phrase is merely a definition
of the paramount objective of naval warfare as such. Ten years ago we
had no command of any sea because we were not at war with any naval
Power. The concentration of a large portion of our naval forces in the
North Sea is no surrender of our command of the sea in any part of the
world, because that command does not exist, never has existed in time of
peace, and never can exist even in time of war until we have fought for
it and secured it. The concentration in question is, together with the
simultaneous disposition of the residue of our naval forces in different
parts of the world, merely the expression of that peace strategy of
position which, in the judgment of those who are responsible for it, is
best calculated in the more probable, yet possibly quite remote,
contingencies of international conflict, to enable our fleets to get the
better of our enemies and thereby ultimately to secure the command of
the sea in any and every part of the world in which we have maritime
interests to defend. There are, it is true, some disadvantages involved
in a close and sustained concentration of naval forces, especially in
home waters. Naval officers lose in breadth and variety of experience
and in the self-reliance which comes of independent command, while the
prestige of the flag is in some measure diminished by the infrequency of
its appearance in distant seas. But these, after all, are subsidiary
considerations which must be subordinated to the paramount needs of a
sound strategy, whether offensive or defensive.
It follows from the foregoing exposition of the principles which govern
the strategic distribution of naval force in peace and war that a great
naval Power must often maintain fleets of considerable strength in
distant seas. England has for many generations maintained such a fleet
in the Mediterranean, and it is hard to see how any reasonably probable
change in the international situation could absolve her from that
obligation. There are other and more distant stations on which she has
maintained and still does maintain squadrons in a strength which has
varied greatly from time to time in accordance with the changing phases
of international relations and of strategic requirements as affected
thereby. The measure of these requirements is determined from time to
time by the known strength of the hostile forces which would have to be
encountered in any reasonably probable contingencies of international
conflict. But there is one antecedent requirement which is common to all
considerable detachments of naval force in distant waters. In order to
maintain their efficiency and mobility they must have a naval base
conveniently situated within the limits of their station to which they
may resort from time to time for repair, refit, and supply. The need for
supply at the base is less paramount than that for refit and repair,
because it is manifest that the control of maritime communications which
has enabled the requisite stores to reach the base will also enable them
to reach the ships themselves, wherever they may be at the moment. But
for all refit and repair which cannot be effected by the ships'
companies themselves, with the aid of an attached repair ship, the
ships must go to the base, and that base must be furnished with docks
capable of receiving them.
It is essential to note that the base is there for the sake of the
ships. The ships are not there for the sake of the base. It is a fatal
inversion of all sound principles of naval strategy to suppose that the
ships owe, or can afford, to the base any other form of defence than
that which is inherent in their paramount and primary task of
controlling the maritime communications which lead to it. So long as
they can do this the base will be exposed only to such attacks as can be
delivered by a force which has evaded but not defeated the naval guard,
and to this extent the base must be fortified and garrisoned; for, of
course, if the naval guard has been decisively defeated, the control of
maritime communications has passed into the hands of the enemy, and
nothing but the advance of a relieving naval force, too strong for the
enemy to resist, can prevent the base being invested from the sea and
ultimately reduced. It will be seen from this how absurd it is ever to
speak of a naval base as commanding the adjacent seas. As such it does
not command, and never can command, any portion of the sea which lies
beyond the range of its own guns. All that it ever does or can do is, by
its resources for repair, refit, and supply, to enable the fleet based
upon it constantly to renew its efficiency and mobility, and thereby to
discharge its appointed task of controlling the maritime communications
entrusted to its keeping. But such command is in all cases exercised by
the fleet and not by the base. If the fleet is not there or not equal to
its task, the mere possession of the base is nearly always a source of
weakness and not of strength to the naval Power which holds it.
It is held by some that the occupation of naval bases in distant seas by
a Power which is not strong enough to make sure of controlling the
maritime communications which alone give to such bases their strategic
value and importance is a great advantage to such a Power and a
corresponding disadvantage to all its possible adversaries in war. It
will readily be seen from what has been said that this is in large
measure a delusion. As against a weaker adversary than itself the
occupation of such bases may be an appreciable advantage to the Power
which holds them, but only if the adversary in question has in the
waters affected interests which are too important to be sacrificed
without a struggle. On the other hand, as against an adversary strong
enough to secure the command of the sea and determined to hold it at all
hazards, the occupation of such distant bases can very rarely be of any
advantage to the weaker belligerent and may very often expose him to
reverses which, if not positively disastrous, must always be
exceedingly mortifying. Of two things one. Either the belligerent in
such a plight must detach a naval force sufficient to cover the outlying
base, and thus, by dispersing naval forces which he desired to keep
concentrated, he must expose his detachment to destruction by a stronger
force of the enemy, or he must leave the base to its fate, in which case
it is certain to fall in the long run. In point of fact the occupation
of distant bases by any naval Power is merely the giving of hostages to
any and every other Power which in the day of conflict can establish its
command of the sea. That is the plain philosophy of the whole question.
It only remains to consider very briefly the question of the supply of
fleets operating in distant waters. In a very interesting and suggestive
paper on the "Supply and Communications of a Fleet," Admiral Sir Cyprian
Bridge has pointed out that "in time of peace as well as in time of war
there is a continuous consumption of the articles of various kinds used
on board ship, viz., naval stores, ordnance stores, engineers' stores,
victualling stores, coal, water, etc." Of these the consumption of
victualling stores is alone constant, being determined by the number of
men to be victualled from day to day. The consumption of nearly all the
other stores will vary greatly according as the ship is more or less at
sea, and it is safe to say that for a given number of ships the
consumption will be much greater in time of war, especially in coal,
engineers' stores, and ordnance stores, than it is in time of peace. But
in peace conditions Admiral Bridge estimated that for a fleet consisting
of four battleships, four large cruisers, four second-class cruisers,
thirteen smaller vessels of various kinds, and three torpedo craft,
together with their auxiliaries, the _minimum_ requirements for six
months--assuming that the ships started with full supplies, and that
they returned to their principal base at the end of the period--would be
about 6750 tons of stores and ammunition, and 46,000 tons of coal,
without including fresh water. The requirements of water would not be
less than 30,000 tons in the six months, and of this the ships could
distil about half without greatly increasing their coal consumption; the
remainder, some 15,000 or 16,000 tons, would have to be brought to them.
In time of war the requirements of coal would probably be nearly three
times as great as in time of peace, and the requirements of
ammunition--estimated in time of peace at 1140 tons--might easily be ten
times as great. Thus in addition to the foregoing figures we have 16,000
tons of water, and in war time a further _minimum_ addition of some
90,000 tons of coal and 10,260 tons of ammunition, making in all a round
total of 170,000 tons for a fleet of the size specified, which was
approximately the strength of the China Fleet, under the command of
Admiral Bridge, at the time when his paper was written.
All these supplies have to be delivered or obtained periodically and at
convenient intervals in the course of every six months. They are
supplies which the ships must obtain as often as they want them without
necessarily going back to their principal base for the purpose, and even
the principal base must obtain them periodically from the home sources
of supply. There are two alternative ways of maintaining this continuous
stream of supply. One is that in advance of the principal base, what is
called a secondary base should be established from which the ships can
obtain the stores required, a continuous stream of transports bringing
the stores required to the secondary base from sources farther afield,
either from the principal base or from the home sources of supply. The
other method is to have no secondary base--which, since it contains
indispensable stores, must be furnished with some measure of local
defence, and which, as a place of storage, may turn out to be in quite
the wrong place for the particular operations in hand--but to seize and
occupy a "flying base," neither permanent nor designated beforehand, but
selected for the occasion according to the exigencies of the strategic
situation, and capable of being shifted at will in response to any
change in those exigencies. History shows that the latter method has
been something like the normal procedure in war alike in times past and
in the present day. The alternative method is perhaps rather adapted to
the convenience of peace conditions than to the exigencies of war
requirements. During his watch on Toulon Nelson established a flying
base at Maddalena Bay, in Sardinia, and very rarely used the more
distant permanent base at Gibraltar. Togo, as I have stated in an
earlier chapter, established a flying base first at the Elliot Islands
and afterwards at Dalny, during the war in the Far East. Instances might
easily be multiplied to show in which direction the experience of war
points, and how far that direction has been deflected by the possibly
deceptive teaching of peace. I shall not, however, presume to pronounce
_ex cathedrâ_ between two alternative methods each of which is
sanctioned by high naval authority. I will only remark in conclusion
that though the establishment of permanent secondary bases may, in
certain exceptional cases, be defensible and even expedient, yet their
multiplication, beyond such exceptional cases of proved and acknowledged
expediency, is very greatly to be deprecated. The old rule
applies--_Entia non sunt præter necessitatem multiplicanda._
My task is now finished--I will not say completed, for the subject of
naval warfare is far too vast to be exhausted within the narrow compass
of a Manual. I should hardly exaggerate if I said that nearly every
paragraph I have written might be expanded into a chapter, and every
chapter into a volume, and that even so the subject would not be
exhausted. All I have endeavoured to do is to expound briefly and in
simple language the nature of naval warfare, its inherent limitations as
an agency for subduing an enemy's will, the fundamental principles which
underlie its methods, and the concrete problems which the application of
those methods presents. Tactical questions I have not touched at all;
strategic questions only incidentally, and so far as they were
implicated in the discussion of methods. Political issues and questions
of international policy I have eschewed as far as might be, and so far
as it was necessary to deal with them I have endeavoured to do so in
broad and abstract terms. Of the many shortcomings in my handling of the
subject no one can be more conscious than I am myself. Yet I must
anticipate one criticism which is not unlikely to be made, and that is
that I have repeated and insisted on certain phrases and ideas such as
"command of the sea," "control of maritime communications," "the fleet
in being," "blockade," and the like, until they might almost be
regarded as an obsession. Rightly or wrongly that has, at any rate, been
done of deliberate intent. The phrases in question are in all men's
mouths. The ideas they stand for are constantly misunderstood,
misinterpreted, and misapplied. I hold that, rightly understood, they
embody the whole philosophy of naval warfare. I have therefore lost no
opportunity of insisting on them, knowing full well that it is only by
frequent iteration that sound ideas can be implanted in minds not
attuned to their reception.
INDEX
Aircraft, 121
Alabama, the, 109
Alexander, his conquest of Darius, 48
Allemand, his escape from Rochefort, 66, 67
Amiens, Peace of, 73
_Animus pugnandi_, 46, 47, 48, 49, 55, 58, 59, 61, 78
Antony, Mark, 72
Armada, the, 79, 112
Bacon, quoted, 6
Baraille, De, his part in the Dunkirk campaign, 87, 88
Barham, Lord, 18, 64;
and Nelson, 66, 67;
his conduct of the Trafalgar campaign, 118
Base, flying, 142;
naval, 137
Battle-cruiser, its functions, 122-128
Beachy Head, Battle of, 32, 35;
campaign of, 70, 78
Berlin Decrees, 100
Bettesworth, 118
Blockade, 17;
a form of disputed command, 20-29;
military, its methods, 23;
military and commercial, 21
Bolt from the blue, 80, 89
Boscawen, at Lagos, 79
Brest, 33, 35;
blockaded by Cornwallis, 30;
blockaded by Hawke, 79;
De Roquefeuil at, 81, 82
Bridge, Admiral Sir Cyprian, on a fleet in being, 31;
on supply and communications of a fleet, 140;
his estimate of Torrington, 32, 40;
on Torrington's trial, 42
Brundusium, Cæsar at, 72
Cadiz, Killigrew at, 34
Cæsar, his Pharsalian campaign, 71, 72
Calais, the Armada at, 79
Calder, his action off Finisterre, 118;
Barham's instructions to, 64
Camperdown, Duncan at, 126
Cape St Vincent, meeting of Nelson with Craig and Knight off, 65
Capital ships, 113
Carthagena, Spanish ships at, 66
Charles, Prince, 82
Château-Renault, 33, 35
Clausewitz, his definition of war, 4;
on limited and unlimited war, 5, 22
Colomb, Admiral, on differentiation of naval force, 114;
on Torrington's strategy, 40, 43, 79
Command of the sea, 6, 10, 11-19, 20, 21, 50, 52, 54, 71, 94, 98, 121,
133, 134, 135;
its true meaning, 15, 135;
no meaning except in war, 15, 135
Command of the sea, disputed, in general, 49-67
Commerce, maritime, extent of British, 53;
in war, 93-110;
its modern conditions, 101-110
Concentration of naval force, its conditions, 132
Conflans, at Brest, 79
Corbett, Mr Julian, 62, 67;
on the Dunkirk campaign, 89;
on commerce in war, 105;
on Craig's expedition, 61, 66;
on projects of invasion, 77;
on the Trafalgar campaign, 118
Cornwallis, and the blockade of Brest, 18, 30
Craft, small, 57, 76
Craig, his expedition to the Mediterranean, 61-67
Cuba, its deliverance by the United States, 54
Dalny, Togo at, 26, 143
Dettingen, 80
Downs, the, Norris ordered to, 85
Duncan, at Camperdown, 126
Dungeness, Roquefeuil anchors at, 87;
Norris at, 88;
Norris and Roquefeuil at, 89
Dunkirk, troops collected at, 81;
embargo at, 83;
Saxe and Baraille at, 88
Egypt, Napoleon's descent on, 73
Elliott Islands, Togo at, 26, 143
Embargo, at Dunkirk, 83
Farragut, 7
Fleets, and base, their true relation, 138
Fleet in being, phrase first used by Torrington, 42;
defined, 45, 58;
a form of disputed command, 30-48
Fleets, supply of, 140
Food Supply, Royal Commission on, 99
Fortress fleet, 48, 58;
Admiral Mahan on, 47, 55
Ganteaume, at Brest, 31
General chase, 125
General Staff, the, 117
Germany, Navy Law of 1900, 130
Goschen, Lord, quoted, 124
Gravelines, 79, 87
Gunfleet, the, 37, 40, 44
Hague Conference, 102
Hannay, Mr David, 100
Hannibal, his passage of the Alps, 61
Hardy, Nelson's, on big ships, 124
Hawke, 32;
blockades Brest 79;
at Quiberon Bay, 126
Hornby, Sir Geoffrey, on the command of the sea, 45
Invasion, 51, 68-92;
dilemma of, 70
Invasion over sea, three ways of, 75
James II., 32
Justin of Nassau, and the Armada, 79
Killigrew, Vice-Admiral, 34, 37, 39, 40, 44, 78;
his expedition to Cadiz, 34;
his return to Plymouth, 35.
Knight, Rear-Admiral, escorts Craig, 65
Lagos, Boscawen and De La Clue at, 79
Lepanto, Battle of, 112
Line of battle, the, 113
Lisbon, Craig and Knight at, 65
Lissa, Battle of, 8
Louis XIV., 33
Maddalena Bay, Nelson's base at, 143
Mahan, Admiral, on commerce at sea, 98, 99;
on a fleet in being, 31, 43;
on a fortress fleet, 47, 55;
on Hannibal's passage of the Alps, 61;
on Nelson, 48, 123;
on territorial expansion, 52
Maida, Battle of, 66
Makaroff, Admiral, 47, 59
Manchuria, 59; Japanese successes in, 55
Maria Theresa, 80
Mary, Queen, her orders to Torrington, 40, 44
Mathews, his action off Toulon, 80;
in the Mediterranean, 83, 84
Medina Sidonia, and the Armada, 79
Mediterranean, the, England's position in, 136, 137
Merchant vessels, conversion of into warships at sea, 101-104
Morbihan, the, troops collected in, 79
Napoleon, 30, 31; and the campaign of Trafalgar, 18, 19;
his descent on Egypt, 61, 73;
his ignorance of the sea, 74
Naval force, differentiation of, 111-128;
distribution and supply of, 129-145
Naval strength, measure of, 129
Naval warfare, defined, 1;
special characteristic of, 56;
its limitations, 51;
philosophy of, 145;
its primary aim, 14
Nelson, 18, 32, 46, 123;
his advanced squadron, 127;
and Barham, 66, 67;
his base at Maddalena Bay, 143;
on the blockade of Toulon, 22;
on Craig's expedition, 64;
evaded by Napoleon, 73;
evaded by Villeneuve, 63;
at Trafalgar, 60;
his Trafalgar Memorandum, 126;
his pursuit of Villeneuve, 37, 38
Newcastle, Duke of, 83
Nile, Battle of the, 74
Norman Conquest, the, 68, 75
Norris, Sir John, 83;
in the Downs, 87;
leaves the Downs, 88;
and Roquefeuil at Dungeness, 89;
at St Helen's, 85, 86
North Sea, concentration in, 135
Orde, Sir John, raises the blockade of Cadiz, 65
Orders in Council, the British, 100
Parma, Duke of, and the Armada, 79
Peace strategy of position, 131, 132, 136
Philippines, the, acquired by the United States, 52
Pitt, 61, 62, 63, 67
Plymouth, Killigrew at, 35
Pompey, at Pharsalus, 71, 72
Port Arthur, 27;
how blockaded by Togo, 26, 143;
its capture by Japan, 54, 55;
first Japanese attack on, 46;
Russian fleet at, 47, 58
Pretender, the, 80
Privateering, 99, 101
Property, private, at sea, 95-97
Puerto Rico, acquired by the United States, 52
Quiberon Bay, Battle of, 79, 126
Rochefort, Allemand escapes from, 66, 67
Roquefeuil, De, at Brest, 81, 82;
anchors at Dungeness, 87;
puts to sea, 82;
and Norris at Dungeness, 89;
off the Start, 84, 86
Rozhdestvensky, at Tsu-Shima, 60
Sampson, Admiral, 46
Santiago, 46;
its capture by the United States, 54
Saxe, Marshal, at Dunkirk, 81;
with Baraille at Dunkirk, 88
Sea, its characteristics, 13
Sea power, 6, 10, 13, 52, 55
Sea transport, 14
Sebastopol, siege of, 6, 46
Shovel, Sir Cloudesley, 33, 35, 39, 40, 44, 78
Sovereignty of the Seas, 49, 50
St Helen's, Norris at, 85, 86
Start, the, De Roquefeuil off, 84, 86
Submarine, the, 24, 120, 121
Supply, of fleets, two alternative methods of, 142
Syracuse, Athenian expedition to, 61
Talavera, Battle of, 73
Teignmouth, French raid on, 42
Telegraphy, wireless, 26, 117
Togo, Admiral, 59;
his method of blockading Port Arthur, 26, 143
Torbay, Tourville's projected descent on, 33
Torpedo craft, 24, 57, 69, 120
Torpedo, the locomotive, 24
Torrington, Arthur Herbert, Earl of, 34, 35, 36, 47, 78;
anchors at Beachy Head, 41;
Admiral Bridge on, 32, 40, 42;
Colomb on, 43;
on a fleet in being, 32, 42;
ordered to give battle, 44;
his strategy, 38, 39;
tried by Court Martial, 42;
warns Mary and her Council, 40
Toulon, Château-Renault at, 33
Tourville, 33, 34, 43, 44, 48, 70, 78;
at Brest, 35;
in the Channel, 36
Trade routes, 104
Trafalgar, 63;
campaign of, 90, 91;
and Craig's expedition, 61;
its significance, 19
Tsu-Shima, Battle of, its effects, 54, 55
Utrecht, Treaty of, 82
Villeneuve, pursued by Nelson, 37;
driven out of the West Indies, 38;
leaves Toulon, 63
War, defined, 1;
its origin, 2;
its primary object, 4;
of American Independence, 99, 133;
Boer, 8, 56, 94;
civil, 1, 2;
Crimean, 6;
Cuban, 9, 46;
in the Far East, 9;
of 1859, 7;
of 1866, 7;
of 1870, 8, 54;
of Secession in America, 2, 7;
the Seven Years', 79
Wars, the Dutch, 93, 113
War Staff, 118, 119
Wellington, 73;
his Peninsular Campaigns, 19
William the Conqueror, 68
William III., 32
Wolseley, Lord, on communications, 73
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A1TeTFaxNEGgfgHs | College Physics | Chapter 17 Physics of Hearing
17.1 Sound
Summary
- Define sound and hearing.
- Describe sound as a longitudinal wave.
Sound can be used as a familiar illustration of waves. Because hearing is one of our most important senses, it is interesting to see how the physical properties of sound correspond to our perceptions of it. Hearing is the perception of sound, just as vision is the perception of visible light. But sound has important applications beyond hearing. Ultrasound, for example, is not heard but can be employed to form medical images and is also used in treatment.
The physical phenomenon of sound is defined to be a disturbance of matter that is transmitted from its source outward. Sound is a wave. On the atomic scale, it is a disturbance of atoms that is far more ordered than their thermal motions. In many instances, sound is a periodic wave, and the atoms undergo simple harmonic motion. In this text, we shall explore such periodic sound waves.
A vibrating string produces a sound wave as illustrated in Figure 2, Figure 3, and Figure 4. As the string oscillates back and forth, it transfers energy to the air, mostly as thermal energy created by turbulence. But a small part of the string’s energy goes into compressing and expanding the surrounding air, creating slightly higher and lower local pressures. These compressions (high pressure regions) and rarefactions (low pressure regions) move out as longitudinal pressure waves having the same frequency as the string—they are the disturbance that is a sound wave. (Sound waves in air and most fluids are longitudinal, because fluids have almost no shear strength. In solids, sound waves can be both transverse and longitudinal.) Figure 4 shows a graph of gauge pressure versus distance from the vibrating string.
The amplitude of a sound wave decreases with distance from its source, because the energy of the wave is spread over a larger and larger area. But it is also absorbed by objects, such as the eardrum in Figure 5, and converted to thermal energy by the viscosity of air. In addition, during each compression a little heat transfers to the air and during each rarefaction even less heat transfers from the air, so that the heat transfer reduces the organized disturbance into random thermal motions. (These processes can be viewed as a manifestation of the second law of thermodynamics presented in Chapter 15.3 Introduction to the Second Law of Thermodynamics: Heat Engines and Their Efficiency.) Whether the heat transfer from compression to rarefaction is significant depends on how far apart they are—that is, it depends on wavelength. Wavelength, frequency, amplitude, and speed of propagation are important for sound, as they are for all waves.
PhET Explorations: Wave Interference
Make waves with a dripping faucet, audio speaker, or laser! Add a second source or a pair of slits to create an interference pattern.
Section Summary
- Sound is a disturbance of matter that is transmitted from its source outward.
- Sound is one type of wave.
- Hearing is the perception of sound.
Glossary
- sound
- a disturbance of matter that is transmitted from its source outward
- hearing
- the perception of sound | 691 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://pressbooks.online.ucf.edu/algphysics/chapter/sound/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:41106 | https://pressbooks.online.ucf.edu/algphysics/chapter/sound/ |
qxiAbB7W6K9ejtDu | 29.7C: Early Hominins | 29.7C: Early Hominins
- Describe the physical characteristics of the Australopiths and compare them to those of modern humans
Early Hominins: Genus Australopithecus
Australopithecus (“southern ape”) is a genus of hominin that evolved in eastern Africa approximately 4 million years ago and became extinct about 2 million years ago. This genus is of particular interest to us as it is thought that our genus, genus Homo , evolved from Australopithecus about 2 million years ago. Australopithecus had a number of characteristics that were more similar to the great apes than to modern humans. For example, sexual dimorphism was more exaggerated than in modern humans. Males were up to 50 percent larger than females, a ratio that is similar to that seen in modern gorillas and orangutans. In contrast, modern human males are approximately 15 to 20 percent larger than females. The brain size of Australopithecus relative to its body mass was also smaller than modern humans and more similar (although larger) to that seen in the great apes. A key feature that Australopithecus had in common with modern humans was bipedalism, although it is likely that Australopithecus also spent time in trees. Hominin footprints, similar to those of modern humans, found in Laetoli, Tanzania, are dated to 3.6 million years ago. They show that hominins at the time of Australopithecus were walking upright.
There were a number of Australopithecus species, often referred to as australopiths. Australopithecus anamensis lived about 4.2 million years ago. More is known about another early species, Australopithecus afarensis , which lived between 3.9 and 2.9 million years ago. This species demonstrates a trend in human evolution: the reduction of the dentition and jaw in size. A. afarensis had smaller canines and molars compared to apes, but these were larger than those of modern humans. Its brain size was 380–450 cubic centimeters, approximately the size of a modern chimpanzee brain. It also had prognathic jaws, which is a relatively longer jaw than that of modern humans. In the mid-1970s, the fossil of an adult female A. afarensis was found in the Afar region of Ethiopia, dated to 3.24 million years ago. The fossil, which is informally called “Lucy,” is significant because it was the most complete australopith fossil found, with 40 percent of the skeleton recovered.
Australopithecus africanus lived between 2 and 3 million years ago. It had a slender build and was bipedal, but had robust arm bones and, as with other early hominids, may have spent significant time in trees. Its brain was larger than that of A. afarensis at 500 cubic centimeters, which is slightly less than one-third the size of modern human brains. Two other species, Australopithecus bahrelghazali and Australopithecus garhi , have been added to the roster of australopiths in recent years.
A Dead End
While most australopiths had a relatively slender, gracile build and teeth suited for soft food, there were also australopiths of a more robust build, dating to approximately 2.5 million years ago. These hominids were larger and had large grinding teeth. Their molars show heavy wear, suggesting that they had a coarse and fibrous vegetarian diet as opposed to the partially carnivorous diet of the more gracile australopiths. They include Australopithecus robustus of South Africa, and Australopithecus aethiopicus and Australopithecus boisei of East Africa. These hominids became extinct more than 1 million years ago and are not thought to be ancestral to modern humans, but rather members of an evolutionary branch on the hominin tree that left no descendants.
Key Points
- The early hominin Australopithecus displayed various characteristics which show more similarity to the great apes than to modern humans: great sexual dimorphism, small brain size in comparison to body mass, larger canines and molars, and a prognathic jaw.
- Australopithecus africanus lived between 2 and 3 million years ago and had a larger brain than A. afarensis , but was still less than one-third the size of the modern human brain.
- The gracile australopiths had a relatively slender build and teeth that were suited for soft food and may have had a partially carnivorous diet, while the robust australopiths probably ate tough vegetation.
Key Terms
- dentition : the type, number and arrangement of the normal teeth of an organism or of the actual teeth of an individual
- sexual dimorphism : a physical difference between male and female individuals of the same species
- bipedalism : the habit of standing and walking on two feet | 963 | common-pile/libretexts_filtered | https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology/General_Biology_(Boundless)/29%3A_Vertebrates/29.07%3A_The_Evolution_of_Primates/29.7C%3A_Early_Hominins | libretexts | libretexts-0000.json.gz:50197 | https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology/General_Biology_(Boundless)/29%3A_Vertebrates/29.07%3A_The_Evolution_of_Primates/29.7C%3A_Early_Hominins |
OW9p1Fe7SeJaWZ3G | Rail failures for the trackman, with notes on rail specifications, rail manufacture, and rail sections, by A. L. Davis. | PREFACE.
The causes of Rail Failures and the remedies therefor, constitute a problem which requires the most careful study by every employe in the Maintenance and Operating Departments of any railroad, from the Section Foreman to the Chief Engineer and General Manager.
The elimination of Rail Failures, in a commercially practical way, is the subject of careful investigation by the manufacturers and by the railroads. This investigation has been carried on, for the railroads, by the American Railway Engineering Association, the details being handled by its Committee on Rail.
employe is involved in this question.
To study it intelligently one must have at least an elementary knowledge of the process of rail manufacture, and of the specifications under which a rail of good quality can be delivered, as well as a knowledge of what constitutes good practice in Maintenance and Operation.
track and equipment conditions.
It is of the utmost importance that all the above details be reported in full as soon as the failure is discovered; for while the pieces of the broken rail rail can be examined in the laboratory and conclusions as to its internal structure drawn, any time after the failure, the other conditions which may have influenced that failure may change immediately, and no reliable data concerning them other than shown on the Foreman's report, can afterwards be obtained.
Next to a proper description of the kind of failure and the conditions surrounding same, it is important to see that the Heat Number, Kail Letter, and Ingot Number (where used) be correctly given. Where the rail is rusted it should be carefully cleaned off and the Foreman should satisfy himself that he has obtained the correct information.
When the Foreman's report is fully and accurately made out it will be found in the majority of cases that further examination of the broken rail is unnecessary; otherwise, a special representative of the Engineering Department must make an investigation of conditions.
Too often it is found that the wrong heat number has been reported, causing delay until further examination can be made, and this could easily be avoided by the exercise of a little care on the part of the Foreman.
Rail failures are more numerous in the winter months, and during severe cold weather the Trackman should be especially watchful for signs of failures.
Probably every railroad has careful analyses and statistics made of all rail breakages that have been reported, but in many cases sufficient stress is not laid on the absolute necessity for obtaining from the Section Foreman a complete report covering EVERlc RAIL THAT FAILS on his section.
It is as essential to have statistics from lines that accept rails made under Manufacturer's Specifications as from lines using other specifications, and whose inspectors see that the material furnished complies therewith.
very small.
These improvements are due in large part to the work of the American Railway Engineering Association, backed by the American Railway Association.
One of the most important objects of compiling rail failure statistics is to ascertain which manufacturers furnish, consistently from year to year, rails that give good service.
Nearly every railroad is in a position to make a choice between two or more mills when placing rail orders, and it is proper to place them where they can get the best material at the general market price.
years of service.
The Trackman should not feel that the sending in of a great many rail failure reports is a reflection on his maintenance methods. The Trackman is ranked among the most faithful and industrious
employes of the railroad, and it may be said that in all cases he does the best he can with, and gets the best possible results out of, the material supplied him. In times of general financial depression his supplies are, too often, inadequate.
Nevertheless, he must bear in mind that he can render valuable assistance to the cause of Safety First as applied to Rail Failures, by being constantly on the alert for signs of impending failures, by removing such rails from service prior to total failure, and by reporting promptly and fully on every case.
By this means only will the Chief Engineer be enabled to determine the cause of the failure, whether due to defective rail, defective equipment or operation, or to inferior maintenance, and be in a position to apply the proper remedy.
Data on Rail Failures was obtained largely from papers, appearing in the columns of the RAILWAY AGE GAZETTE, by Mr. W. C. Gushing, Dr. P. H. Dudley, Capt. Robt. W. Hunt, Mr. Robert Job, Mr. J. P. Snow, Mr. Bradley Stoughton and Mr. F. A. Wey mouth.
Mr. H. H. Campbell.
The reader should guard against accepting the data, in the form given herein, as expressing the exact views of the individuals mentioned above.
I am especially indebted to Mr. Chas. W. Gennet, Jr., for many valuable suggestions, as well as for the data contained in Chapters VIII and XXIV.
Marie 45
XI. From Rolling Mill to Cars: Sawing, Cambering, Hot-beds and Cooling, Cold- Straightening, Drilling, Loading 48
IRON AND IRON ORES
Iron and steel are metallic mixtures, the chief ingredient being the element iron, of which they contain from 93 per cent to 99 per cent. The difference between iron and steel is principally due to the composition and proportion of the remaining ingredients. Iron is rarely found in the metallic condition; but, in combination with oxygen, as oxide of iron, it exists in large quantity. Iron ores contain from 25 per cent to 70 per cent of iron, the balance being oxygen, phosphorus, sulphur, silica, and other impurities.
gangue.
If the ores contain less than 40 per cent iron they must first be concentrated, that is, part of the gangue removed; if less than 25 per cent, the cost of smelting is so great that they are not of commercial value.
Lake Superior, Wyoming and New Mexico ores contain from 55 per cent to 60 per cent, Cuban ores average about 55 per cent, while Alabama ores average only about 35 per cent, iron.
The principal commercial ore is the anhydrous ferric oxide, which varies in color from a brilliant black to a brick red, and is ordinarily known as hematite, red hematite, or red iron ore.
brown hematite, brown iron ore, bog iron ore.
Magnetic oxide, a black, hard mineral, occurring in large masses or granulated, known as magnetic iron ore, black iron sand, etc.
ore, brown ore, etc.
Iron ore is smelted (melted down) in a blast furnace, the metal obtained being commercially known as pig iron. It contains about 93 per cent of pure iron, 3 per cent to 5 per cent of carbon (pure coal), some silicon, phosphorus, sulphur, etc.
From this pig iron all steel is made.
Pig iron is also used in foundries for the manufacture of iron castings, by melting it in a cupola; this does not change its composition, but it gives the metal a closer grain and some increase in strength.
Pig iron (or cast iron) has a grayish-white lustrous appearance, does not harden appreciably on quenching, and is brittle with little, if any, ductility.
TURE OF PIG IRON
The blast furnace is a brick structure, circular in section, from 80 to 100 feet in height, and can manufacture from 300 to 600 tons of pig iron per day.
It is built of fire-brick and in two parts, the upper part resting on columns, the lower part resting directly on the foundations. The upper portion is encased in steel plates, and water circulates around the lower portion, in pipes, or flows down the outside.
It is used for smelting iron ore to obtain pig iron, and its name arises from the fact that a blast of hot air is blown in at the bottom of the furnace, to burn the fuel which supplies the heat, as well as the carbon necessary for the reduction (deoxidation) and carburization of the ore, and to make the iron and slag molten.
The furnace is continuous in operation, the solid raw materials being charged at the top, and the molten iron and slag being tapped out at' the bottom at intervals.
In or^\er to separate the gangue from the iron it is necessary to use a flux, that is, a material that will combine with the gangue and produce a suitab1^ slag by (a) making it sufficiently fusible, and (b) combining with the impurities in the gangue and thus preventing them from entering or remaining in the iron.
Blast Furnace.
The charge is put in at the top of the furnace at nearly regular intervals, and the height of the materials in the furnace is maintained at a constant level called the stock line.
The slag is tapped out at more frequent intervals than the iron, is run directly into ladles, and carried away; it is used for ballast, and for the manufacture of cement.
The iron is led through sand troughs or runners to the pig bed if it is to be sand cast, or into ladles, and is carried away to be used in the manufacture of steel, or to be cast into pigs in a pig machine.
The small amount of slag which comes out of the iron hole floats on top of the iron, and is diverted into a side trough by a skimmer.
A modern plant requires, in addition to the furnace proper, blowing engines for furnishing air for the blast, stoves for preheating the blast, appliances for charging the raw material, and sometimes a casthouse, or pig machine.
of gas from the furnace.
The furnace gas is taken off at the top of the furnace, the dust removed from it, and after further purification it is used for heating the stoves, burning under boilers, or as the fuel for direct combustion
engines.
The stoves for heating the blast are circular in section, are about as high as the furnace, and consist of a steel shell lined with fire-brick in such a way
as to form a number of flues or passages. The gas is introduced and burned at the bottom, and the products of combustion go out at the top. After the fire-bricks have been heated to the proper temperature the gas is shut off, and the air for the blast is forced through in the opposite direction. A large blast furnace generally has four stoves, three of which are being heated while the fourth is heating the blast.
As the product of the blast furnace varies considsiderably in its composition, it is customary, before using it in the manufacture of steel, to first put it in a mixer. The mixer is a huge pot-shaped vessel, capable of holding from 250 to 600 tons of molten pig iron; as a rule, the larger the mixer the greater the uniformity obtained, and the easier is the heat regained.
Where the hot iron from the blast furnace is not placed in mixers, nor used directly in the steel-making furnace, the cold pig iron used for making steel is first melted in large cupolas.
nary steel or carbon steel.
All rail manufactured in this country is made by either the straight Bessemer or Open Hearth processes, or by a combination of those two, known as Duplex process.
Some rail is being made by what is known as the Triplex process, in which the steel is started in a Bessemer converter and passed serially through two Open Hearth furnaces, but this process is not yet well developed.
High grade steels are being made in considerable quantity by means of the Electric Furnace, but this method is not yet used for manufacture of rail s!;eel, except experimentally.
In the Bessemer process, as practiced in the United States, it is impossible to reduce the proportion of phosphorus below that existing in the original charge of pig iron; while in the Open Hearth process, phosphorus can be left at any desired proportion or almost entirely eliminated.
Manufacture of Rail Steel.
The higher the phosphorus content the more brittle is the steel; as the toughness of the steel is increased by cutting down the proportion of phosphorus, and as the supply of iron ores which contain a small amount of that element is becoming exhausted, the Open Hearth and Duplex processes are rapidly taking the place of the straight Bessemer process.
With a low phosphorus content it is safe to use a higher proportion of carbon. Hence, we get a rail with a higher elastic limit, with increased hardness and capacity for wear.
Open Hearth rails are, however, subject to the same general defects which may be found in Bessemer rails, and, therefore, require equal care in process of manufacture. However, the rail failure statistics of the American Railway Engineering Association, show that the rate of failure for Bessemer steel rails is much higher than that of Open Hearth steel rails of same section and under similar conditions. Both show almost same tensile strength under a static load, but Bessemer steel is weaker under a rapidly applied stress, especially in cold weather.
On the other hand, Bessemer rails w^hen carefully made, may give better results in service than Open Hearth rails in which the same amount of care in manufacture has not been exercised.
Some steel makers claim that the Bessemer process is cheaper than the Open Hearth process, and it is still favored by a few mills which have large bodies of low phosphorus ores in sight.
Experience indicates that Open Hearth steel rails are more subject to pipe and segregatior than Bessemer steel rails — because of larger ingots, and because the size of the heat prevents slow casting ; on account of low phosphorus content in the former the
element.
Modern practice, in order to produce more tonnage, has been in the direction of larger heats of steel, larger ingots, fewer passes through the rolls, and more rapid reduction of cross-section.
in fifteen to eighteen passes.
In the past few years, however, there has been an undoubted improvement in quality at most of the mills, due to improved mill practice.
The steel manufacturers are now directing their efforts towards adopting such new methods as may be commercially practicable, for bettering their product, and some of the mills have rebuilt all, or portions, of their plants with this end partly in view.
reaction and thorough mixture.
One or two mills are experimenting with the sinkhead process of casting ingots, thus keeping all pipe and segregation in the upper part of the ingot so that it can readily be removed in the usual discard.
The use of greater amounts of Silicon and Aluminum in the ladle and ingot molds is becoming general. Bottom pouring of ingots is practiced in some cases. Some mills are using a special wash for the inside surface of the ingot molds.
STEEL AND ITS CONSTITUENTS.
The word Steel covers a multitude of mixtures which are very different from each other in their chemical as well as their physical qualities.
Steel consists almost wholly of the element Iron, with something like 2 per cent or more of other elements, depending upon the use for which the steel is designed.
impurities.
One of the aims of good steel makers is to eliminate as much of the impurities as is commercially practicable, and to have the remaining constituents distributed evenly throughout the metal so as to give a uniform structure.
The useful elements ordinarily existing in rail steel are IRON, CARBON, MANGANESE, SILICON, and in addition frequent use is made of Nickel, Chromium, Aluminum, Titanium and Vanadium.
IRON — This is a metal with which everyone is familiar, and sufficient attention has already been drawn to it in previous chapters.
graphite, soot, coke, charcoal.
The elastic limit and tensile strength of the steel is in direct proportion to the amount of carbon content up to a total proportion of 1 per cent of the mixture, while the ductility decreases.
Soft boiler steel plate may contain but .06 per cent, steel rails from .40 per cent to .80 per cent (according to size), steel springs about 1.00 per cent, and razor steel about 1.25 per cent carbon.
Steel (or iron) which is very low in carbon can easily be welded but it cannot be tempered; when carbon is above .33 per cent welding is more difficult.
Steel with carbon above .40 per cent can be tempered; that is, hardened by quenching in water (or other liquid) from a red heat, and according to the proportion of carbon, becomes very hard, and can be used for tools, such as saws, files, chisels, drills, cutlery, etc.
Other ingredients, such as Nickel, Tungsten, Manganese, etc., are sometimes used to influence the hardness; steels containing such elements are often referred to as Special Steels.
MANGANESE— Usually found in combination with oxygen and in conjunction with iron. The pure metal has a grayish-white color, with a slight tinge of red, and is hard and brittle.
Next to carbon it is the most important constituent of steel. It has a stronger affinity for oxygen and sulphur than has iron, and in ordinary amounts it will remove oxygen existing in the steel either as a gas or in direct combination as oxide.
2. To make the metal more malleable and ductile
when hot, so it will roll more readily and conform better to the desired shape. Its addition to the metal is made in the form of an alloy with iron, which when about 15 per cent manganese and 85 per cent iron is called spiegel or spiegeliesen, and when 80 per cent manganese and 20 per cent iron is called ferro-manganese.
In ordinary steel the manganese varies from about .50 per cent to 1.10 per cent. Below .40 per cent the removal of the oxygen does not seem to be sufficiently thorough; above 1.10 per cent and up to about 6 per cent or 7 per cent the hardness and the brittleness of the steel increase so rapidly that the material is of little commercial value; while above 7 per cent and up to 10 per cent it becomes absolutely worthless. Above 10 per cent and up to about 15 per cent a curious reversal takes place, the metal becoming very hard and tough after quenching in water from 1600 degrees F.; this composition is called manganese steel. Above this point the metal becomes more brittle again.
Manganese also tends to neutralize the effect of sulphur and prevent red-shortness; that is, tendency to crack while being worked at a red heat.
It combines with iron to form iron-silicide. It is always a constituent of pig iron; if higher than about 6 per cent it is called ferro-silicon, in which form it is valuable as a deoxidizer.
In ordinary steel it is usually under .30 per cent; in steel castings it is generally under .25 per cent; while for certain purposes it may go as high as 1.00 per cent.
In small proportions it hardens the steel, and also tends to prevent unsound metal. It has a remarkably strong affinity for oxygen, and in this particular lies its usefulness in steel. After the manganese has done its duty silicon is added to remove the remaining gases.
There, is good reason to presume that the higher the silicon in steel, within reasonable limits, the more is the wearing quality of the steel increased.
SLAG — Sometimes called cinder, is the molten substance, other than the metal under treatment, consisting of acid or basic oxides which may be composed
(a) In Smelting operations, of the gangue of the ore combined with some fluxing material (usually lime) added to render it fusible and easily separated from the metal, or
(b) In purifying processes, of substances (usually lime and iron oxides) introduced for the purpose of affecting or assisting in the purification.
As a result of the methods by which steel is manufactured, it is obvious that the liquid metal coming from the furnace is permeated with particles of slag which, because of being lighter than the mother liquid, rapidly seek the top in an effort to escape; notwithstanding, unless great precautions are taken, particles of Iron, Manganese and Silicon oxides are often found in the finished steel.
PHOSPHORUS — It is the most undesirable impurity which occurs in steel. It is usually limited to .10 per cent in Bessemer and to .04 per cent in Open Hearth steel.
mospheric temperatures.
An amount of phosphorus, so small, that with proper proportion to carbon, both toughness and hardness are insured, is not objectionable.
continuity of the structure.
When present in steel in undesirable amounts it makes the metal red-short; that is, to crack while being worked at rolling temperatures; this produces, in the case of rails, a large number of second quality and scrap rails.
OXYGEN — A gas which forms one-fifth (by volume) of the air. Combined with iron it forms ironoxide. Familiar forms of iron-oxide are iron ore, rust, and the scale which forms on an iron or steel bar in cooling after removal from a furnace or forge.
Many deleterious effects are laid to the presence of oxygen in steel, and steel containing over a certain per cent of oxygen is usually considered undesirable.
NITROGEN — A gas which forms four-fifths of air. It is often found in steel, and its ill effects are the subject of careful investigation.
STEEL.
This process consists of blowing air through molten iron contained in a suitable vessel, whereby the carbon, manganese and silicon are oxidized and removed in the form of slag, and the product is obtained in a fluid condition.
the mouth of the vessel if gaseous.
The molten metal still contains a certain amount of oxides and gases, which are removed by adding manganese, in the form of spiegel, and in such proportion as to give the steel the proper percentage of carbon.
Bessemer Process.,
The molten pig iron from the blast furnace, mixer, or cupola, is put into a large pear-shaped vessel called the converter, the bottom of which is double, the inner one being perforated with numerous holes to admit air to be forced in under pressure.
The converter consists of a steel shell lined with suitable fire-brick, and mounted at the middle on trunnions so it can be tilted to various angles.
The molten iron, from 5 to 15 tons at a time, is poured into the converter while the latter is lying on its side, then the air is turned into the double bottom as the converter rises to a vertical position.
The air has sufficient pressure to prevent the molten metal from entering the holes in the bottom, and it streams up through the molten iron, burning out the carbon, silicon, and manganese, accompanied by a brilliant display of sparks and a flame shooting out of the mouth of the converter. Fifteen tons of molten pig iron contain nearly three-quarters of a ton of carbon, and since this is all burned out in less than fifteen minutes, the rapid rate of combustion increases the heat of the metal very much; the air blast does not cool it, as one might suppose, and scrap has to be added, or steam, in order to keep the temperature within proper limits.
The flame, therefore, at first red, due to the manganese, becomes brighter as the carbon is attacked, until it is so white that it can scarcely be looked at with the naked eye, but finally the sudden dropping of the flame gives notice that the carbon is all burned out, and the blue tinge shows that the iron is being attacked and that it is time to shut off the blast.
The converter is then laid on its side again, the blast shut off, and a certain amount of spiegel added so as to give the amount of carbon, manganese and silicon desired in the steel, which is then ready to be poured into the molds.
Each Bessemer plant has from two to four converters, with appliances for pouring in the molten pig iron and pouring out the molten steel. Blowing engines must also be provided, and, when necessary, cupolas for melting the pig iron.
In the basic process (which is the one commonly used) the charge is placed on the bottom of specially designed furnaces, and over its surface a gas flame plays back and forth. The flame is maintained at such a high temperature that the charge is melted or kept molten, and so remains, until the proper proportion of carbon is obtained, and the steel is then tapped out into a ladle.
The furnace is rectangular in shape, and comprises a hearth which contains the charge, covered with an arched roof of bricks 9 inches to 12 inches thick, with ports or passages at each end, the air and gas for combustion entering at one end and leaving at the other; regenerative chambers at each end, connected with the ports by vertical flues leading to the chimney; and at the bottom of the flues small chambers for catching small particles of cinder or dirt.
The hearth consists usually of metal plates lined with silica bricks on top of which are placed magnesite bricks covered with crushed dolomite, some-
Open Hearth Process.
times mixed with a little pitch or tar. The hearth is rectangular in shape, with charging doors in front, and is provided at the back with a tap hole which is stopped up with refractory material. The roof and walls above the slag of the charge are built of silica bricks, and below of magnesite bricks.
The regenerators are fire-brick chambers nearly filled with bricks set on edge and arranged so as to leave a greater number of small passages, which abstract most of the heat from the outgoing waste gases, and return it later to the incoming cold gases for combustion.
Reversing valves are located where the gas and air flues meet before entering the regenerators, and about every twenty minutes while the furnace is in operation, the valves are shifted and the currents of air and gas turned in the opposite direction.
degrees Fahrenheit can be attained.
While in the Bessemer process, pig iron only is used as the charge in the converter, in the Open Hearth process, wrought iron or steel scrap of any character, as well as pig iron, may be used, as the high temperature of the furnace will readily melt the scrap. This is the great economical feature of the Open Hearth process — as the charge may consist of, all scrap, all pig, one-half scrap and one-half pig, or any other proportion of each or both, as may appear most advantageous at each mill.
When the pig iron or scrap contains too much phosphorus, burnt lime is added, and the resulting slag will absorb the phosphorus, thus taking it out of the metal.
machine.
Furnaces used in this country for the manufacture of rail steel have a capacity of about 40 to 100 tons, although some hold as much as 250 tons; the latter are called continuous or Talbot furnaces, and only from 75 to 100 tons are tapped from the furnace at one time.
depending upon the size.
When completely melted the molten metal should contain about .60 per cent carbon. To determine this, a sample is taken out in a spoon and poured into a small mold, then chilled in water and broken. Examination of the fracture gives the desired information, and small quantities of ore or pig are then added, in order to bring the carbon to the right proportion.
Just before tapping a small amount of ferro-manganese is usually thrown into the furnace to effect a partial deoxidation of the bath, and assist in retaining the proper proportion of carbon.
When the bath is in the right condition, as regards both composition and temperature, it is run out of the furnace through the tapping hole, is caught in a ladle, and then poured into the molds.
The practice most generally followed is to work the carbon down below the amount desired in the steel, and then bring it up by adding some form of recarburizer, as hot iron, spiegel, coal or coke.
A few of the mills tap the furnace as soon as the carbon gets down to or slightly below the amount desired, and then bring it up to the proper proportion by adding coal or coke in the ladle.
basic, though the latter is in more general use.
In the basic process a large amount of lirne is used in melting down the steel in order to remove some of the phosphorus in the charge, whereas no lime is used in the acid charge.
In the acid process the hearth is made of ordinary silica fire-brick; in the basic the fire-brick is of magnesia or basic material, as the ordinary fire-brick would be attacked by the lime.
In the acid process no phosphorus is removed, and the furnace charge must therefore be as low in that element as is desired in the finished product.
ING MILL.
A BLOW of BESSEMER STEEL— In the Bessemer process each melt of steel made in the converter is caller a blow, but also called, as in Open Hearth process, a heat. Each blow furnishes from 5 to 15 tons of molten steel, depending upon the size of the converter, and each converter can make from 15 to 25 blows every 12 hours.
A HEAT OF OPEN HEARTH STEEL— In the Open Hearth process each melt of steel made in the furnace is called a heat. Each heat furnishes from 40 to 70 tons of molten steel, depending upon the size of the furnace, and each furnace can make one heat every 8 to 12 hours.
LADLE — Both in the converter and the furnace a considerable amount of slag or cinder is formed, which rises to the top and floats on the surface of molten steel. In order to prevent the slag from entering the molds, the molten mass is poured from the converter, or tapped from the furnace, into a ladle.
From Furnace to Rolling Mill.
The ladle is a large pot made of iron or steel plates lined with fire-brick. It is provided with a hole in the bottom, called the nozzle, through which the contents are discharged into the molds. The discharge is regulated by a stopper consisting of a steel rod enclosed in special hollow fire-bricks; the brick on the lower end fits over the nozzle and is called the stopper head, the upper end is connected with a lever on the outside of the ladle. The stopper head is usually of graphite. Good practice tends towards holding the metal in the ladle long enough for the impurities to rise to the surface, and the time the heats are so held is an important factor of the soundness of the ingots.
TEEMING THE INGOTS— The steel casting is called an ingot, the molds into which the molten steel is poured are called ingot molds, and the process of filling the molds with the molten metal is called teeming, or pouring. The bottom-pouring style of ladle is universally employed, as by this means slag can be prevented from entering the molds, splashing of metal on the sides of the molds can be avoided, and pouring can be better regulated.
Occasionally, through faulty setting, on account of some obstruction, or through burning off of the stopper-head, the stream of steel cannot be completely shut off — this is termed a gripping stopper, and if control is lost entirely it is called a running stopper.
At the commencement of teeming the stopper frequently sticks, or the metal may solidify around the nozzle, thus preventing its ready flow; in such case a pricker of wood or steel is forced up through the nozzle in order to start the flow. If, as sometimes happens, due to chilling, the pricker fails to open the nozzle, the hot metal must be poured over the top of the ladle, and this is called a chilled heat.
INGOTS — The ingot molds are usually rectangular in cross section, open at both top and bottom, and vary in size at the different mills, from 18 inches by 19 inches to 23 inches by 29 inches at the bottom, tapering to slightly smaller dimensions at the top, and are from 66 inches to 82 inches in height. Each Bessemer blow makes from four to ten ingots while each Open Hearth heat makes from 15 to 40 ingots.
tiously to the stripper.
STRIPPER— The stripper is a machine which lifts the ingot mold off the ingot, leaving the latter standing upright on the car. The stripping should be done as soon as the outside of the ingot has solidified. The ingot is then weighed and is taken up by a traveling crane and placed in a reheating furnace called a soaking pit.
SOAKING PITS— These are furnaces in which the ingots are placed and allowed to remain until the temperature in all parts of the ingot has become equalized. They are then ready for the rolling mill.
The ingots must always be kept in a vertical position until they are taken out of the soaking pits, in order that none of the molten metal in the interior of the ingot may escape, (called "bled ingots") and so that the usual shrinkage cavity will be centrally located. A delay between teeming and stripping ingots, and between stripping and charging in the soaking pits, may seriously affect the soundness of the ingots. The best practice requires the hot ingots to be placed in the soaking pits as soon as possible after they are teemed, stripped and weighed.
RECARBURIZATION— This means the addition of carbon, in some form, in order to obtain the desired proportion of that element in the finished steel.
It is also used to describe the addition of other materials in order to give the steel the desired composition and to effect its deoxidation. In the latter sense it is preferable to call this material additions. To indicate some particular material, its name is prefixed; e. g., Manganese addition.
additions.
If they are in such amounts that there is danger of chilling the metal they may be preheated, or melted, or added in the furnace, in which case they are termed furnace additions.
In manufacture of rail steel the usual additions are silicon and aluminum, the former being added in the ladle, the latter in the ingot molds. Titanium is also used.
These additions tend to purify the metal, prevent segregation, and give quiet-setting steel. Aluminum and titanium, however, tend to increase the pipe.
INTRODUCTION.
The mechanical treatment of the rail in rolling, is of at least equal importance with the work of obtaining sound steel of the proper chemical composition.
good rails.
Wearing qualities, resistance to abrasion, great strength and toughness, are qualities that depend largely upon the rolling practice, and the fineness of grain developed thereby. The more mechanical work done on the rail, the greater will be its toughness and ductility.
The rolling-mill practice at the various steel plants varies considerably, as will be seen by an examination of the table on page 42, which shows the difference in the size of ingots used and in the number of passes used in the blooming and shaping mills. On account of this variation no one method can be described which would apply to the methods used at more than one mill. While the table gives general information concerning all the rolling mills in America, a detailed description of the rolling mill practice followed at two of the mills, with details of steel manufacturing process at one of them, is given on pages 44 and 45.
Good mill practice tends towards increasing the number of passes, decreasing the amount of reduction in cross section per pass, and perhaps getting the desired output by increased speed of the rolls; not by digging into and tearing the metal, as is
and heavy draft are customary.
Reducing the metal gradually by a large number of passes, tends to work and knead the metal and produce a tougher and more elastic rail. It would seem that more time might be given to the last five or six passes through the rolls, and that the finishing temperature should be as low as possible in order to get a fine-grained structure.
Some mills are installing continuous reheating furnaces to insure the rolling of blooms into finished rails at more uniform temperatures; the reheating furnace also tends to relieve internal stresses caused by blooming.
One or two mills make a careful examination of the surfaces of the cold blooms and cut out all surface imperfections before reheating and rolling into rails.
One mill has installed a milling machine which removes a thin layer of metal from the head and base of the hot rail in its passage through the rolling mill, surface seams and other imperfections being eliminated with this layer of metal.
One or two mills make a regular practice of discarding from 20 per cent to 30 per cent, thus eliminating the "A" rails, the top rail of their product being given the letter "B."
The question of heat-treating finished rails has been given consideration in recent years, but on account of the length of the rail and the unbalanced character of its section, it is a very difficult problem to solve, and a satisfactory method has not yet been developed.
THE ROLLING MILL.
This is a device for reducing and shaping the section of the steel ingot into the finished rail, the desired result being obtained by passing the hot metal between revolving cylinders, termed rolls.
A rolling mill consists of the rolls, set in a suitable framework to support them, called housings, and connected with the engine by spindles and pinions.
The rolls consist of (a) a middle portion called the body or barrel, which comes in contact with the piece being rolled; (b) the ends, which rest in the bearings, called necks or journals, which are of smaller diameter than the middle portion to permit the body of the rolls to come close together; and (c) the portion at the fillet connecting the body and the necks called the shoulders.
The rolls are cast to rough shape, with necessary depressions or grooves to give the metal the desired shape, and then turned down to exact size.
prevent them from becoming overheated.
A pass is the opening between a pair of rolls formed by corresponding grooves, and is also the term used to describe the passing of the piece of nietal between the rolls.
The housings are of cast iron or cast steel, secured to massive foundations so they will be perfectly rigid. Each housing looks like an elongated "U,m the open space being large enough to hold suitable bearings or brasses in which the necks of the rolls rest, the bearings being held in place by chucks.
A set of rolls and the housings which hold them are called a stand, and two or more stands connected together constitute a train. The stands may
Mills are termed two-high, or three-high, depending upon whether there are two rolls or three rolls one above the other in the stand.
The two-high mill is generally used for plate and shape mills, the three-high for blooming mills; both kinds being, therefore, necessary in rolling rails.
The pieces of metal from which rails are rolled are too large to be manipulated at the rolls, or from one stand to another, by hand. The metal is therefore supported on a set of rollers, one on either side of a roll stand, called a table. The table rollers are cornected with the engine, and being turned in one direction carry the piece back through the rolls through which it has just passed, or, turned in the reverse direction, carry the piece on to the next stand" of rolls.
In order that the metal may receive an equal amount of work on all sides, a device called a manipulator is used; this has projections called fingers passing up between the rollers in the table, which catch the edge of the piece and turn it through 90 degrees after a certain number of passes.
With the three-high mill, the piece being rolled must be raised or lowered a distance equal to the diameter of the middle roll ; two kinds of tables, operated by hydraulic power, are used for this purpose. When the whole table is raised and lowered, but always remaining horizontal, it is called a lifting table; when the table is pivoted so that only the end nearest the rolls is raised or lowered it is called a tilting table. The former is generally used for blooming mills, the latter for plate and shape mills; both types being used in the rolling of rails.
a better grip of the rolls on the piece is obtainable.
The size or rating of a mill (for everything but plates) is based upon the diameter of the rolls; thus a 30-inch blooming mill, or a 16-inch bar mill, means that the rolls are of those respective diameters.
it is known as a shape mill.
The ingots are first rolled in a blooming mill, producing blooms, billets, or slabs, which then pass to the shape, bar, or merchant mills.
The name bloom is used where the cross section of the piece is greater than 36 square inches, billets and slabs when the width is not less than twice the thickness. Another distinction frequently drawn is that ordinarily a bloom will be rolled immediately, by the mill that made it, into the finished product, whereas a billet is usually a merchantable product and sold to other mills.
From the Railway Age Gazette.
The first group of rolls consists of four stands of continuous 40-inch mills arranged in tandem, requiring no manipulation from stand to stand. Sufficient distance is left between successive stands to enable a quarter turn of the ingot or bloom to be made, so that it is worked qually on all sides. The first two stands are equipped with 42-inch rolls, enabling 20-inch and 24-inch ingots to be used.
After passing these four mills the ingot is sent to a 40-inch, three-high, blooming mill," equipped with lifting tables, and is given five passes. The resulting bloom, IVz inches by 8 inches, is sheared in two, and the crop ends or butts cut off and are taken outside the mill.
Each bloom then goes through a 28-inch roughing mill which is equipped with tilting tables. This mill has three stands of rolls, the roughing stand being three-high, the other two-high. The roughing mill gives the bloom three passes.
one pass.
It is then sent to the finishing mills, consisting of five stands of 28-inch mills. After the dummy pass, the bloom is transferred to the first edging, which is in this same mill, but the second stand, and turns back on an elevated table to the second edging, which is in line with the 28-inch roughing mill. It then travels by chain transfer to the lower tables, and on the leading pass goes through a stand which also is in line with the roughing mill and driven by the same motor, and continues on to the third stand of the 28-inch finishing mill, this being the eighteenth and last pass.
are branded.
After the finishing pass the rail travels through to the hot saws, of which there are five, thus cutting four rails to length at one operation. These four rails consist of half the ingot. The saws have 42inch blades arranged to be raised and lowered in unison by one controller from the hot-saw operator.
rail letter.
As the capacity of the mill is 4,000 gross tons per 24 hours, there must be four-rail length sawed about every half-minute when working to full capacity.
CHAPTER X.
MANUFACTURE OF STEEL AND OPERATION OF ROLLING MILL AT PLANT OF ALGOMA STEEL CORPORATION, SAULT STE. MARIE.
The blast furnace metal is poured into mixers, of which there are two, one at the Bessemer plant with a capacity of 150 tons, and one at the Open Hearth plant with a capacity of 250 tons.
Rail steel is made by both Bessemer and Open Hearth straight processes, but as the demand for Bessemer rail is decreasing rapidly, the Company is now contemplating the introduction of the duplex process, which will enable them to keep their Bessemer plant in operation and reduce the time in the Open Hearth furnace.
The Open Hearth furnaces are charged with limestone, ore or roll scale, rail ends, bloom butts, and other scrap, including crop ends of all kinds, and hot metal, in the order mentioned. No scrap
obtained at economical prices.
At the Bessemer plant there are two five-ton converters with a capacity of 850 tons per twentyfour hours. There are also four cupolas for melting cold pig iron.
At the Open Hearth plant there are eight basiclined, stationary furnaces; four of 40 tons capacity each, and four of 80 tons capacity each. Total capacity 25,000 tons per month.
The carbon is worked down to about .45 to .55 per cent and recarburized by adding Pocahontas coal to the ladle; if the carbon gets below .40 per cent, hot metal from the mixer is added in the furnace.
About 25 per cent of the ferro-manganese is added to the furnace just before tapping, the remainder being added to the ladle, as is also the f erro-silicon ; all the ladle additions being made while the metal is pouring from the furnace. No other additions are made either in the ladle or the ingot molds.
The average time of a heat in the furnace is twelve to fourteen hours for the larger, and seven to ten hours for the smaller, furnaces.
The average time required for tapping from furnace to ladle is ten minutes, and after tapping, the metal is immediately teemed into the ingots, through a 2-inch nozzle, controlled so that the stream of molten steel is gradually decreased as top of ingot it reached.
The ingot molds are of two sizes, one 19 inches by 23 inches, the other 18 inches by 19 inches, at bottom, by 72 inches and 70 inches in height.
The ingots are bloomed in from 16 to 19 passes to a cross section of 8 inches by S1^ inches, in a two-high, 35-inch reversing mill driven by either 4000 h. p. motor or 55-inch by 60-inch twin reversing steam engine. Average time for blooming each ingot is two minutes.
The blooms are cropped by a vertical steam shear, and cut into two parts, each part ordinarily making two rails (of the heavier sections).
The blooms are taken by a transfer crane to reheating furnaces, of which there are three, each holding 16 blooms; the blooms remain in these furnaces from 30 to 60 minutes.
The bloom then is given eight passes in a threehigh, 23-inch roughing and intermediate mill, driven by a 36-inch and 65-inch by 68-inch tandem compound steam engine.
Operations at Sault Ste. Marie.
The cambering machine is well regulated and the rails are turned while on the hot beds, so that nearly straight rails, slightly base high, go to the straightening presses.
the rail letter applied by hand.
There are two hot beds, each holding 65 rails, five cold straightening presses, and five pairs of drills; all well covered and protected from the weather.
FROM ROLLING MILL TO CARS.
Good rails cannot be made from poor ingots but poor rails can be made from good ingots; therefore, as much care should be used in the processes following the rolling as is used in the manufacture of the steel, and in the rolling of the rail.
At Gary and Birmingham several rails are cut to length at one operation by gang saws, but at nearly all the other mills the rails are cut to length singly.
While on their way from the hot saws to the cambering machine, the heat number, rail letter, and ingot number, where required, are stamped on the web of the rail.
The outer edges of the base of the rail cool more rapidly and become more rigid than the head. The head and base are cut to same length at the hot saws; but as the head is the hotter its shrinkage
would be greater and its cold length less than the base. This is corrected by the cambering rolls, which stretch the head to the length necessary to compensate for its greater shrinkage, and leave the rail straight after it has cooled.
The cambering machine is somewhat similar in action to a roller rail-curving machine; it generally consists of two horizontal rolls bearing on the web of the rail, with vertical rolls bearing on the head. The vertical rolls have a screw-motion, and by regulating the pressure imparted by the vertical rolls (which will depend upon the section of rail being rolled and the temperature at which it reaches the cambering machine), the amount of curve or sweep put in the hot rail is just sufficient to produce a rail that is straight, or nearly so, when cold.
The differences in form and area between head and base of rail, makes the rails tend to cool high or low unless they are cambered as above; no difficulty is encountered in having the rails cool straight, or nearly so, in line.
This is a very important detail of the rail manufacturing process, because the straighter the rails when they leave the cooling beds the less the work required on them at the cold-straightening presses, and consequently less danger of rupturing the metallic structure.
limit.
After leaving the cambering machine the rails pass to the hot beds, and after being allowed to cool, are cold-straightened in the gagging presses.
After straightening, the rails are inspected, the bolt holes drilled, rails re-inspected, and then they are loaded on cars for shipment.
At some mills the ends of the cold rails are cut perfectly square and true, and to exact lengths specified, by milling machines.
Most of the mills are now using electric magnet cranes for loading the rails on cars, and with this method the danger of damage in handling (at the mill) is eliminated.
At many of the mills the hot beds are now enclosed on all sides, thus preventing rain or snow from coming in contact with the hot rails, and also keeping off strong winds; by this means, and by careful spacing and turning of rails on the hot beds, uniform cooling is secured.
tion thereof.
These primary causes may be aggravated by carelessness in loading or unloading rail, and by extremes of temperature, especially extreme cold weather.
Statistics show that failures in northern latitudes are much more numerous than in warmer climates, under similar service conditions and with the same kind of rail. Steel is more sensitive to shock in cold weather, and with frozen roadbed the shock is undoubtedly greater than in warm weather with elastic roadbed.
Occasionally a rail will break without any of the above-named causes being apparently responsible, but such cases are rare, and progress is being made towards development of the causes.
It is now generally admitted that wheel loads have about reached the safe limit for the present Carbon steel rail, and railroad engineers are considering what may be done to avoid dangerous wheel pressures; special attention is being given to:
(e) Using special alloy steels to increase the hardness and tensile strength, without at the same time decreasing the ductility.
With the large wheel loads now in use the injurious effect of inferior material in the rail is more apparent, but the results obtained from some rails appear to indicate that the attention of the manufacturer was fixed more on quantity than upon quality of the output.
It is probably impossible to produce commercially a rail from melt-made steel that will be wholly free from internal defects; but with all the flaws that have been shown to be so common, it is likely that a thousand rails give satisfactory service to every one that fails, which shows that these manufacturing defects can be tolerated if kept within proper bounds.
vent it.
During the cooling and solidification of any casting the outside, or portion in contact with the walls of the mold, cools first, . and the cooling proceeds gradually towards the center of the ingot.
As the metal cools it also contracts, that is, it occupies less space when solid than when liquid, so that eventually, a cone-shaped opening in the casting is left near the top of the ingot. This contraction cavity is known as a pipe.
The photographs on the opposite page show onehalf of two ingots which have been split vertically through the center, to show the pipe that is formed in rail-steel ingots under present mill practice.
That portion of the ingot containing the pipe is objectionable in any rolled product, and particularly so in rails; therefore, especial pains is usually taken to discard it. This is not difficult to do when the pipe is confined to the upper portion of the ingot, as shown in Fig. 1.
When, however, the pipe is broken up, and continues down into the central and lower portions of the ingot, as shown in Fig. 2, an extremely dangerous condition presents itself. In such case, the usual amount of discard may not disclose the separate cavities existing below the main cavity, and rails containing these dangerous defects, if placed in service, are liable to sudden failure without previous indications thereof.
When sufficient deoxidizers are used to purify the steel, then, as must be expected, a small cavity starts to form in the top under the cap of the ingot, and its development can be retarded by early stripping of the ingot and promptly charging it into the soaking pit.
and stubby.
Pipes always occur in the center of the ingot, and consequently appear in the center, or web, of the finished rail ; except when, as heretofore pointed out, the ingots are not kept vertical.
The sides of the pipe are pressed closely together in the passage of the ingot through the rolls, and if the walls of the pipe in a broken rail be examined, they will be found to be smooth instead of granular, showing that the walls did not weld together.
give promise of good results.
Some mills, by exercising great care in deoxidizing and obtaining a quiet-setting steel, and by prompt handling of the ingot from the teeming to the soaking pit, so reduce the pipe that it is all removed in the usual discard.
The elements Carbon, Sulphur and Phosphorus have different, but lower, melting points than the iron containing them; consequently those having the lowest melting point will tend to separate, and to collect in the hottest part of the ingot, that is, the top and center of the ingot, which is the last to solidify.
segregation.
In addition to segregation of elements above mentioned, there is also found in ingots cast and in rails rolled, compounds of these and other elements; e. g., iron oxide, manganese sulphide, etc. These evidently originate in the slag formed prior to teeming the ingots, and frequently act similarly to the segregating elements, and may produce lines of weakness if found in the finished rails in excessive quantities.
The top and center of the ingot will therefore contain the largest proportion of the impurities and segregated elements, and other parts of the ingot will have a deficit of these.
It is the aim of the mill to have the molten steel leave the converter or furnace with as small a proportion of impurities as is commercially practicable, and to have the elements distributed evenly throughout the ingot.
The term positive segregation is applied to cases where too much of an element is found in one portion of the steel, and negative segregation in cases where less than the prescribed amount is found.
Segregation may be lessened by:
(a) Allowing more time in the furnace for the material to become thoroughly mixed and homogeneous, and then holding in the ladle long enough to allow the impurities to rise to the top of the molten metal;
(b) Adding Silicon, or Titanium, to the molten steel in the ladle and holding as in (a), or by adding Aluminum in the ingot mold, or by both additions;
By use of a sinking-head the segregation all forms in the top part of the ingot and is eliminated, with the pipe, in the usual discard.
While segregation is greatly reduced by use of the deoxidizers mentioned in (b), pipe is usually increased thereby, except in the case of Silicon.
Blowholes generally form in the upper half of the ingot which is permeated by honeycombs or dispersed cavities, due to liberation of imprisoned gases. These gases are absorbed or occluded in the molten steel, but are wholly or partially evolved and collect into bubbles when the metal begins to solidify, and any which cannot escape are mechanically held in little pockets called blowholes or gas holes.
Small, deep-seated blowholes, i. e., those a conerable distance from the sides of the ingot, are not very objectionable, and are ordinarily welded up in rolling. The larger blowholes may be entirely prevented by a thorough deoxidation of the steel by additions of Silicon, Titanium or Aluminum. These metals not only prevent blowholes, but also prevent the evolution of gas.
preventive of blowholes.
If steel is so thoroughly deoxidized that no blowholes form, the size of the pipe will be correspondingly increased, and conversely, if a sufficient number of blowholes be permitted to form, the pipe may be almost entirely avoided.
For this reason some manufacturers desire a small number of blowholes to form, so that a deep pipe will not necessitate a heavy discard from the ingot; but this practice is dangerous because of the difficulty in so controlling their position that they will be deep-seated instead of near the skin of the ingot, and because the blowholes are not always welded up in the rolling.
If an ingot with blowholes near the surface of its sides, be permitted to remain longer than usual in the soaking pit, the oxidizing action will remove
portions of the metal, and with heavy reductions in the blooming mill, surface seams will undoubtedly be present in the finished rail.
more universal than is usually supposed.
These slag inclusions vary all the way from minute particles scarcely visible under the microscope, to pieces easily discernible to the naked eye.
Slag inclusions tend to cause steel to be brittle and unreliable, and to create microscopic fissures and flaws which continuously develop under service, and often cause sudden failure.
One of the most objectionable impurities is manganese sulphide. When the spiegel (ferro-manganese) is added to the molten metal, part of the manganese is liable to combine with the sulphur of the steel, and given time enough, will with all the other impurities, float up into the slag on the top of the molten steel.
Good practice requires an interval of time between the additions of the spiegel and the teeming of the ingots. Some railroads classify as piped rails all fractures which show a seam. These may not always be due to pipe, but may be slag or gas seams; however, the effect is the same.
Each heat of steel differs from every other heat, and the same is true of every ingot in the same heat. This dissimilarity is due to differences in temperature, to the reactions and chemical composition resulting therefrom, to varying condition of molds, to time taken between teeming of ingots and
placing them in the soaking pits, and to conditions of reheating and time when they are given the first pass in the blooming mill. All these have an influence on the location and amount of unsound metal in the ingot, and which it is the object of the discard to prevent getting into the rails.
The two greatest defects, pipe and segregation, are usually found in the upper thirty per cent of the ingot. Until some remedy has been adopted to prevent or minimize their occurrence, it is often necessary to specify that a certain percentage from the top of the ingot shall be cut off and discarded, not used in the finished product. By this means it is hoped that nearly all of the imperfect metal will be eliminated.
However, the general tendency now is, to require the blooms to be sheared until sound metal appears. This leaves a great deal to the judgment of the shear operator, and does not always produce the desired results.
The only way to ascertain definitely whether all imperfect metal has been discarded, is to test a portion of the top rail of every ingot. This can be done by a chemical survey, or by a nick-and-break test and examination of the fractured surfaces.
Defective spots in the ingot, due to slag, blowholes, piping and segregation, will not be removed in rolling but must be eliminated as far as possible in the discard.
In order to get definite knowledge of the service given by rails from different parts of the ingot, specifications now require that each rail shall be stamped with a letter indicating its position in the ingot; the top rail being lettered "A," the next "B,"
the rail failure report.
While the practice of lettering the rails is comparatively recent, statistics so far obtained, indicate, as was expected, that the "A" rails have a larger percentage of impurities and much greater segregation than the "B" or lower rails, that they wear out faster, develop more surface defects, and must be removed from service much sooner than the other rails.
One or two mills discard nearly 30 per cent from every ingot, thus entirely eliminating the "A" rails, the top rail of their product being given the letter "B."
In the passage of the ingot through the rolls of the blooming mill, the squeezing between the rolls tends to crack and tear the sides of the ingot, especially during the first few passes, and also tends to open up the surface blowholes which may exist near the sides of the ingot.
This tendency is greater in some mills than in others, depending upon the amount the ingot is reduced in thickness at each pass (called reduction or draft), and upon the speed of the rolls.
weld together.
These defects thus developed may be minimized by reducing the draft in the earlier passes, or by reducing the speed of the rolls.
Surface seams may also be caused by the small holes or pits which occur on the outer surface of every ingot, and v/hich are elongated into seams in passing through the rolling mill.
Rolling mill laps or folds have been caused by too deep cogging of the rolls, or by a break in the roll, or by lack of proper adjustment of the rolls; and by failure of the mill to catch the defect in time to prevent some of the rails being loaded and shipped.
as segregation and slag inclusions.
An examination of the Table on page 42 will show the variation in rolling mill practice. In some mills the draft is extremely light in the first few passes, while in other mills the draft is at first heavy but the speed extremely slow: in the former it is the purpose to weld up the skin of the ingot so as to prevent the development of the defects above mentioned; while in the latter the idea is to elongate the metal of the ingot in the manner done in wire drawing.
The passage through the rolls continuously parallel with one axis of the ingot and bloom, tends to elongate the impurities and segregated materials, the blowholes, the surface cracks and pits, in one direction; so that notwithstanding the original crystalline formation of the steel, the finished rail has a structure somewhat similar to a stick of wood, and which is stronger with than across the grain. This condition is especially noticeable in the base of the rail, where the ductility in the direction of the length of the rail is much greater than at right angles thereto, or across the rail.
STRAIGHTENING.
All of the care used in the various manufacturing steps up to this stage may be wasted, unless the work of cambering, cooling, and cold-straightening be properly performed.
The cambering machine, by which the hot rails are given the curvature necessary to compensate for the unequal temperature of head and base, deserves the most careful attention, otherwise the rails will be badly out of surface when cold.
The rails on the cooling beds must be carefully protected against rain or snow, sudden changes of temperature, or other unequal cooling conditions.
With all the precautions that may be taken, there is a certain amount of cold-straightening to be done on nearly every rail; but, given a well-designed rail section, the rail-maker can by exercise of proper care in manufacture and cambering, greatly reduce the amount of gagging.
It would seem that the present methods of straightening should be replaced by a method which distributes the compressions of either the head or base, or lengthens either one uniformly per inch of rail.
Acting on the suggestion of Capt. Robt. W. Hunt, a number of railroads have this year agreed to accept from the manufacturers, for experimental purposes, a small amount of rail which has been carefully cambered but not straightened, provided they contain no short bends or kinks, and that the middle ordinate of total curvature of rail when leaving the hot beds is not greater than one inch in any direction. It is hoped that this will in time lead to elimination of cold-straightening in No. 1 rails.
It is conceded that the strain and torture that rails have to endure in cold-straightening is a very objectionable part of the whole manufacturing and finishing process.
It is impossible to take a bend or a kink out of a rail without straining it beyond its sectional elastic limit, and setting up internal stresses which work at cross purposes with the normally cold tension of the steel. To what extent these may be harmful to the rail after it is put into service cannot be definitely determined, but it is only reasonable to infer that they have some effect.
They undoubtedly are, in many cases, the cause of external and internal fissures or breaks in the continuity of the rail structure, after the rail is placed in service develop into split heads, split webs, and broken bases, and which have been proved to be the source, in several cases, of the dangerous failures known as transverse fissures hereafter discussed in Chapter 19.
The service for which a rail is designed does not require it to be able to withstand indefinitely, the repeated powerful blows delivered by improperly counterbalanced locomotives, or broken and flat wheels, nor the bad effects of slipping drivers, excessive speeds, etc.
There is little excuse for operating with defective equipment, and it must be avoided wherever possible, but even with the best supervision, flat wheels or unbalanced locomotives will be found in service occasionally.
Unnecessary punishment of the rail should be reduced as far as possible, and the Mechanical Departments of the various railroad companies are continually directing their efforts towards improving the design and the maintenance of locomotives
Locomotives now have more driving wheels than formerly, to sub-divide and distribute the load. The large freight locomotives have four and five pairs of drivers; and instead of the Atlantic and American types, the Pacific type of locomotive with three pairs of drivers is generally used on heavy fast passenger trains.
When a railroad has in service, rail that is obviously too light for the character of machinery operated, that rail is subjected to unreasonable stresses, and due consideration should be given to that fact in investigating cases of rail failure.
frequent causes of rail failures. While locomotives that may be correctly balanced for a certain speed should not be operated at much higher speeds, it is not uncommon to find them being run at speeds 30 per cent greater than that for which they were designed, and this has been permitted even in extremely cold weather.
The computations of the centrifugal and reciprocating forces are usually based on a speed in miles per hour equal to the diameter of the driving wheel in inches, which may be considered as a maximum for good practice.
The railroads are devoting a great deal of attention to reducing the weight of reciprocating parts, by use of special heat-treated carbon and alloy steel, aluminum, etc.; thus making it possible to construct very light parts, the expense being more than justified by saving in repairs to equipment and track, and by increase in tractive power of locomotive.
It has been found that by this method the weight of the reciprocating parts can be reduced to nearly 1/240 of the total weight of the locomotive in working order, instead of the usual average of 1/160.
With incorrect counterbalance, due either to poor design or to excessive speed, there is a tremendous blow delivered to the rail at every revolution of the driving wheel; these blows, however, do not as a rule leave a mark on the rail. When apparently sound rails break on well maintained track, or in cases where a number of rails are found broken or damaged on one side of the track and at regular intervals which are multiples of the circumference of the wheels, defective equipment may be suspected as the cause.
The competition among the railroads for traffic, led them gradually into offers of quicker and faster service, until a point was reached a few years ago where excessively high speeds for both passenger and freight trains was the general practice.
In some cases where track and rolling stock could not be maintained at a high standard, these fast schedules had reached the limit of safe operation. The traveler, the shipper, and the railroads were equally to blame for this condition. In recent years the tendency has been to reduce schedule speeds and hold them within reasonable limits.
On some railroads the schedule speed of the train may not be exceeded, and if a train is delayed no attempt is made to run at high speeds in order to bring the train into its terminal on time. The management and the trainmen do not always cooperate on this feature, and on a few railroads automatic registering speed recorders are placed in the trains, which are carefully checked at the end of a run, and in cases where the permissible speed has been exceeded a penalty is inflicted.
As indicated in the preceding article, the principal trouble caused by excessive speed is that due to counterbalancing, but high speeds accentuate any slight defects in equipment or track, and may lead to failures that would never occur when the locomotive is run at speeds no greater than the maximum for which it was designed, and which the track can safely carry.
by repeated hammering from flat spots on wheels.
Good railroad practice demands that new wheels shall be circular, shall be set concentrically on the axle, and that the size of the flat spot which is allowed by the interchange rules shall be strictly limited.
These cause burnt rails, that is, the metal directly in contact with the wheels becomes suddenly heated to a high temperature, and cools quickly, with the result that a hard spot forms in the metal which may develop into complete failure of the rail. Slipping of drivers may be caused, either by the enginemen, giving too much steam causing drivers to spin, or by an improper application of the air brakes locking the driving wheels or other wheels while the train is in motion, causing them to slide along the surface of the rail. The latter does double damage in that it also causes flat wheels.
With the long passenger and freight trains now in use all air equipment must be in first-class shape, or no matter how well it is handled by the enginemen, the brakes on one or more cars may fail to release, especially in cold weather.
This condition causes eccentric loading, and overloads the rail at the edges of the head. It is generally admitted that wheel loads have about reached the safe limit for the present carbon steel rail, and close attention is being given to methods for avoiding increase in such pressures.
be taken to see that the tires of locomotive drivers are kept in first-class condition, and that the maximum limit of wear prescribed by the Master Mechanics' Association is not exceeded.
Rails damaged by worn tires are difficult to identify; a wheel with a false flange may be suspected as causing the trouble when the outer corner of the head of the rail shows unusual marks.
DEFECTS IN TRACK.
Good railroad track involves a properly drained sub-grade, ballast, ties and rail fastenings, joint bars and other joint material, and the proper maintenance of these, as well as rails.
support or fastenings.
When rail is submitted to an abnormal and unfair usage, it may break, and the fracture will occur, of course, along the line of least resistance; that is, to say, if there is a defect of any kind in the rail, it would be developed by defective track (and also by defective equipment) when it might not be developed under usual service stresses.
Many failed rails show no apparent interior defect, and manufacturers argue from this that the only remedy is to use heavier sections.
It is entirely probable that a great deal of rail is subjected to unreasonable treatment. There is likewise no doubt that it is entirely reasonable to require manufacturers to remedy defective practices in the mill, and to use such attention and care in the production of rail as the service to which it is put, and the safety of the traveller, demands.
The following track defects may hasten the wear, or even the breakage of unsound rails, and some of them may even cause the failure of sound rails;
Unequal tie spacing,
Insufficient drainage of roadbed, Blows from spike maul oft rail, Injuries by trackshifting machines, etc., Injuries in unloading and handling, Reversing curvature, or strains, in relaying
The great enemy of the trackman is water — if more study had been given to the problem of keeping water out of the subgrade fewer rail failures would have characterized the past.
The subgrade is the foundation, and no amount of money spent on rails, ties, joint bars and ballast will give successful results on an inferior subgrade.
Careful records on a certain operating district show that on one portion of the district where the subgrade is sandy, porous and well drained, the rail failures were but two-fifths of the number occurring on another portion of the district where the subgrade is a kind of clay that holds water.
It is only infrequently that one reason tells the whole story. The blanks provided for reporting failures aim to get as much information as possible concerning the conditions surrounding the failure, and the blanks should be carefully studied, carefully filled out, and the diagrams carefully marked.
The logical classification of rail failures seems to be one that places them under headings that are descriptive of the manner in which the failure generally develops or occurs in service. They may therefore be divided into three general classes:
3. Broken rails.
As a general rule a failure in any one of the first two classes will, sooner or later, if the rail be allowed to remain in service, lead to a failure in Class 3, and care should be taken in reporting failures in Class 3, to be certain that a failure in Class 1 or 2 did not first occur. The proportion of failures in Class 3 which were not preceded by a failure in one of the other classes is small.
but do occur occasionally.
Especial care should be taken to distinguish between failures occurring at the joints, from those occurring in portion of the rail outside the joint bars. If after a few years service a rail fails at the joint while the balance of the rail is in good condition, it may be assumed that the failure is not primarily due to defects in the rail itself. Such failures must be covered by the usual reports, but the reports should show clearly, as provided, that the failures occurred at the joint.
Similarly, in reporting failures of rails on curves, care must be taken to show if the head of the rail has been abraded to an appreciable extent. Manu-
Kinds of Rail Failures.
facturers claim that as soon as a rail has received any appreciable amount of wear, the surface metal is strained, while the metal beneath is undisturbed.
some failures and assign true cause or origin.
In fractures of granular structures, the point of origin of the fracture is usually easily detected by a well-defined nucelus, from which a fan-like or radiant structure diverges. With this in mind, a careful examination of the fractured surfaces of a broken rail will enable the trackman to show in his report whether the failure originated in head or base.
It is no doubt generally understood, that the term rail failure is not limited to those rails in which a partial break, or a break clear across the section, has occurred. Any condition of the rail, which requires its removal from service before the end of its usual life in such service, and under the local conditions, should be reported as a rail failure.
In this type of failure the head flattens and broadens out, begins to sag down on one or perhaps both sides, and if allowed to remain in service the head finally splits and drops down.
This type first shows itself to the trackman by the development of a dark streak along the top of the head, indicating that a portion of the metal is depressed and is not receiving the usual brightening from the wheels. It usually develops very slowly, and should be readily detected in its earlier stages.
Crushed head failures may be caused by unsound and segregated metal, blowholes or gas seams; and often, flat wheels, or slipping driving wheels, may
contribute to these failures. With segregated metal, the crack develops in the interior of the head, where the metal is less ductile than on the surface and ruptures under the wheel loads. Slag inclusions or other impurities often form the nucleus for a split in the head.
a perfectly sound rail.
When this type of failure occurs at the rail joint, the report should so indicate, as the failure may not be due to defective rail but to defective joint. Even with perfect rails, perfect joint bars, and perfect support, depressions may be worn near the end of the rail. This is due entirely to the fact that at a joint there is a tendency for the wheels to jump from one rail to the other, thus battering the rail as well as tending to cause loose joint bars, bolts, and ties.
It is sometimes difficult to distinguish clearly between split heads and crushed heads ; with true split head failures the crushing and flattening of the head does not usually appear, but a piece of the head from a few inches to a few feet in length splits off and drops down.
This type of failure is confined, almost entirely, to metal showing considerable segregation and attended more or less with laminations and slag seams.
Under certain conditions of track the action of the wheels tends to press the metal in the head of the rail outwards. The metal in the outer surface of the rail is usually ductile enough to stand this action without cracking, but if the interior metal is unsound a crack will be started, which gradually develops until it results in a split head.
Split heads have also been caused by a blow from the sharp edge of a defective wheel, which may cut the surface metal, and the final fracture not occur until later.
It is claimed that the present wheel-coning loads the rail eccentrically, and by giving insufficient contact for present wheel loads, tends to split the head and web.
In this type of failure the metal on the top of the head flows out to the sides and forms an overhanging lip, but without any indication of the breaking down of the head structure.
This type cannot be classed as a dangerous failure in itself, but in some forms it may offer a starting point for splits or breaks.
length of the rail.
In some cases the metal sloughs off in several spots, causing what are sometimes called roaring rails, but may be properly defined as flowed in spots.
Flowed in spots may be caused by slipping drivers and sliding wheels, which produce a thin sheet of brittle steel at the spot where the friction occurred, and this soon breaks away from the metal beneath.
Flow of Metal may be caused by blowholes, gas seams, or other unsoundness near the surface or corners of the head. Improper heat treatment, such as will cause coarse grain, is another cause.
fective joints or to inferior joint maintenance.
Stock rails at switches afford examples of the effect of natural service conditions in regard to this type of failure, where the false flange of the wheels rides on the top of the head of the rail.
Rails which show even flowage for their entire length, such as the inside rail on curves, should not, except in special cases, be classed as failed rails, as this is a form of abrasion which cannot well be avoided where all kinds of traffic are operated over the track.
Under certain conditions of curvature and speed variation for different kinds of traffic, the head of the rail is abraded more or less rapidly, by the wheel tread in the case of the low rail, and the wheel flange in the case of the high rail.
This condition, while not classed as failure of the rail, reduces the life of the rail so materially that experiments are being carried on by the railroads with a view of overcoming the trouble.
These experiments indicate that rails of special alloy steel, or of special section, may overcome the difficulty to a certain extent, but it has not yet been determined which will prove most economical.
During the past there has been a tendency on the part of a great many railroads towards too great a widening of the gage on curves ; this leads to excessive abrasion of the rail and lashing of the locomotive, especially at high speed. A great many of the leading railroads are now maintaining standard gage on curves of to 7 to 9 degrees with very satisfactory results.
Failures of this type are not numerous. Ordinarily the web splits horizontally, usually at the end of the rail through the bolt holes. They may be caused by loose bolts, or by imperfect alignment of bolt holes in drilling at the mill. These end failures may also be caused by careless handling in loading or unloading in cases where rail is shipped by boat.
Web failures also occur at intermediate points of the rail; this type may be caused by rolling seams or laps, chilling by water in the course of rolling, initial stresses in cooling and excessive alternating bending either at the straightening press or in service, and some have even been causd by blows of the spike maul.
As a rule these defective rails fail completely and suddenly, without previous warning, and are therefore especially dangerous. While they are properly classed as broken rails (discussed in the following chapter), the cause of failure is due to defect in the web, and they are therefore placed in this chapter.
Piped rails are those in which the sides of the original shrinkage cavity (called the pipe) in the ingots, are found closely pressed together in the rail, but not welded together. The pipe is very distinct, and as it occurs in the center of the ingot, so we should expect to find it in the center of the web of the finished rail, and not in either the head or base. With some sections of rail, which have a preponderance of metal in the head, the pipe may extend up into the head.
If an ingot be laid on its side after casting, and allowed to cool in that position, the pipe will be near the upper surface, and may then appear in portioni of the rail other than the web.
If split head fractures can be examined while new, the condition of the fractured surfaces will indicate if a pipe be present, as in that case the walla of the fracture will be smooth. This can also be detected in nearly all cases of old breaks.
Piped rails are caused by the failure of the mill to crop the blooms down to sound steel, thus insuring the complete elimination of the cavity existing in the ingot.
BASE FAILURES.
The well known crescent or half-moon failures usually start near the center of base of rail and continue along it, sometimes a fraction of an inch, some times as much as four or five feet, and then break out to the edge of the base in a crescentshaped curve. Sometimes one side only of the base breaks, and rails have been known to do service for some time in this condition; generally, however, the rail breaks through the other side of the base, the web, and the head, immediately after the first break occurs.
It is claimed that this type of failure is, in most cases, due to seams in the base of the rail. These seams may occur at any point across the full width of the base, but seams near the center of the base are more dangerous than those near the edge. The
an inch to several feet.
In a fresh break it is generally possible to distinguish the seam at which the fracture started, as a smooth face showing a bluish surface, or corroded and rusty if the seam has been open.
These seams are usually caused by cracks or blowholes formed or opened in the early passes in rolling the ingot, especially on the two sides which are not in contact with the rolls; these are elongated in subsequent passes in the rolling mill. They may be found all over the rail, and are frequently very minute.
In all cases of broken rails the base should be carefully examined for signs of the crescent-shaped breaks, and for seams that caused them, in order to ascertain if the ultimate failure of the rail was not preceded by the failure of the base. One or two blows of a hammer will break out a crescent where the rail has base seams; without seams present the flange should bend but not split.
These failures are aggravated by cold weather, frozen roadbed with unequal bearing, poor shimming, and other defects in maintenance; but even under these conditions, failure would not ordinarily occur without the presence of seams.
Distinction should be made between the seams referred to above and those produced in the process of rolling all rails, which, as shown on page 63, tends by elongating the impurities, to give the whole rail a fibrous or seamy structure. Such seams are very minute, but are easily made apparent by polishing and etching the bottom of the rail, when the seams appear as black lines on the surface. The base of rails, where such seams are present, has less
transverse than longitudinal ductility, and with defects in track, may lead to broken bases that would not break where track conditions are good.
Broken base failures were frequent in rails with thin bases, and the A. R. A. sections were partly designed to overcome this trouble.
Rail breakages are of two distinct classes, consisting of those of rails which are sound when put in track, and those of rails which have inherent defects.
The latter are more dangerous than the former, because in a sound rail the break is pretty sure to be a clean one, and the rail will ordinarily be held securely in place by the track fastenings until found and removed by the section forces; whereas, a defective rail will frequently shatter into several pieces, giving rise to serious danger of accident.
better methods of manufacture.
For the breakages of sound rails by defective equipment or defective maintenance the railroads must and do accept full responsibility — the remedy is proper maintenance, and constant vigilance to remove defective equipment from service, and to properly regulate the speed of trains, especially in cold weather.
All rails which break in two or more pieces are placed in this class. However, as has been stated, there may have first been a failure in head, web, or base, which was the primary cause of total failure of the rail. Therefore, careful examination of all the fractured surfaces should be made, both for the pur-
pose of ascertaining if partial failure of portions of the rail probably occurred before total failure took place, as well as to see if the total failure apparently took place all at once, and whether or not any internal defects were present.
Broken rails are generally accompanied by brittleness and segregation; the former may be caused by too large a quantity of the hardening elements, or by improper heat treatment during manufacture.
vious chapters.
5. The difference between the number of failures during warm weather, compared with the number of failures in cold weather is very marked.
Statistics of some railroads show that under similar conditions the failures in severe cold weather will run from three to five times as many as in warm weather, for the same weight and section of rail.
6. Under failures due to rough handling the initial fracture may occur at the mill at straightening presses or in loading into high side cars and letting fall upon other rails five feet or more below, or in letting the rails fall in unloading six or seven feet upon the ground.
A fracture of this type is characteristic; it begins generally across the base and extends a short distance up into the web, then it works along the web, sometimes for a distance of several feet, with the face of the fracture in a plane at right angles to a vertical line down through the rail, and finally breaks up through the head.
Some approved device should be used for unloading rails from box cars or gondolas, and in unloading from flat cars both ends should be dropped at once, and dropping on hard or uneven ground avoided.
Nearly all the rail mills have installed electric magnet cranes, and have thus eliminated practically all failures due to careless loading at the mill.
TRANSVERSE FISSURES.
This is a type of failure which has received a great deal of attention in the last four or five years, particular attention having been drawn to it on account of several disastrous train wrecks caused by broken rails which were found to contain transverse fissures.
to 1909.
The name transverse fissure is given to a fractured rail section that shows smooth, dark or silvery spots on the fractured surface, while the rest of the metal shows the usual crystalline structure.
The transverse fissure is found on the fractured surface, usually without any connection with the outside skin of the rail, indicating that it is an internal fissure.
If moisture gets into the break before total failure of the rail, or in some cases of oxidation during manufacture, these spots are found darkened, but in many cases they are found to be bright and silvery.
Photographs are shown of several different fissures which have been found in rails that failed in service, and from which the trackman can get a good idea of the form in which these failures usually appear.
dicated by the photographs.
In the great majority of cases the plane of the fissure is at right angles to the length of the rail, but a few cases have been found in which the upper part of the fissure bends backwards and runs parallel with the length of the rail and about half an inch below the top of the head.
On account of the fissure being internal, and that as soon as it works out nearly to the outer surface of the rail, failure occurs, it is impossible for the trackman to foresee the failure, and remove the rail before it breaks.
has to contend.
Fortunately they are of rare occurrence, and some railroads claim that notwithstanding careful watch no failures of this type have ever been found on their lines.
Trackmen should keep a close watch for the appearance of fissures on the fractured surfaces of any rail that breaks; when any are found draw special attention thereto on their rail failure reports, and be especially careful to see that all parts of the rail in which they appear are preserved until instructions as to their disposition have been received.
While the United States Government Bureau, the rail manufacturers, and the railroads, have all been carrying on careful investigations, they have not yet agreed upon a theory as to the cause of transverse fissures; all, however, are agreed upon two points:
transverse fissures have been advanced :
(a) Fissures start from the breaking of an overstrained fibre, caused by a combination of internal strains due to cooling and the strains produced by heavy wheel loads ;
(b) Fissures are caused by unequal cooling strains requiring subsequent excessive gagging to straighten the rail, especially near its ends ;
(g) Fissures are the direct result of overloading, combined with alternate repeated bending stresses and intense wheel contact stresses;
Experiments show that metals subjected to rapidly alternating stresses, will ultimately break under a load within the elastic limit, and that the relation of elastic limit to ultimate strength is materially affected by cold rolling.
After the primary break of an internal fibre has occurred, it is admitted by all that the repeated alternating bending stresses produced by passing wheels, will develop the fissure until total failure of the rail takes place; any unusually severe strain, such as in the gagging press or caused by defective counterbalance, etc., will much hasten the development.
ing points may be noted:
1. Dr. Dudley (N. Y. C. & H. R. R. R.) finds gag marks in the vicinity of all his fissures, 92 per cent of the fissures being within 3^ feet of ends of rail.
2. Numerous fissures have been found only two inches apart, and as many as twelve have been found in one 33-foot rail, which makes it difficult to believe that they could all have been caused by gagging.
3. Mr. Jas. E. Howard (Interstate Commerce Commission) states that all the fissures he has seen have been located in the gage side of the head of the rail, whereas Dr. Dudley finds 13 per cent of all the fissures found on his lines were in the outer half of the rail head; Dr. Dudley further states that the reason these fissures usually develop on the gage side of the head is, with the present coning of wheel treads of 1 in 38 more of the load comes on that side of the head, whereas with the former coning of 1 in 20 more of the load came over the center of the head.
4. Mr. A. W. Thompson (B. & O. R. R.) says, if bad straightening practice is alone to blame why are not more fissures found in Bessemer rails, and why were there but rare instances of fissures in any rail prior to 1909?
5. Mr. Howard says, again, that fissures have never been found in structural steel, nor in rails that have never been in service, whereas Dr. J. S. Unger (Carnegie Steel Co.) has produced in the laboratory true transverse fissures in structural and medium carbon, as well as in high carbon steel, also in new rails that have never been in service.
6. No method has yet been discovered, whereby an examination of the interior of the section can be made prior to the development of the fissure in the laboratory, to see if the structure was sound before the experiment was started. The laboratory experiments show that the fissure can be produced at any desired point in head or base of rail.
7. As proof of the cause being in the manufacturing process, it has been found, that whereas the rails from a certain heat will under certain conditions develop transverse fissures, adjoining rails of the same section and under exactly similar conditions show no signs of transverse fissures. Mr. Robert Job (L. V. R. R.) removed rails from track upon both sides of and adjoining various failed rails of same section found to contain transverse fissures; the rails thus removed were subjected to the drop test without finding a single indication of transverse fissures. He claims that this proves that neither track nor traffic conditions were the primary cause of the fissure, and that consequently the rails that failed in service, must have contained manufacturing defects which so weakened their power of resistance, that they were overloaded by ordinary weights and stresses which exerted no injurious effect upon rails in which the steel was properly made and sound.
Part VI contains the Specifications for the Manufacture of Carbon Steel Rails, recommended by the American Railway Engineering Association in 1915.
Each manufacturer naturally prefers to make rails under his own specifications, but the railroad companies feel that, in drawing up his specifications, the question of quantity (as well as quality) is liable to be given more weight by the manufacturer than is desirable.
Most of the Manufacturers' Specifications conform to nearly all of the requirements of the A. R. E. A. Specifications, but there are a few clauses in the latter which the Manufacturers have not yet been willing to accept without the payment by the Railroad Company of an extra amount in addition to the regular market price.
To attempt to include in this pamphlet all the various specifications extant, would serve no good purpose, but it will be interesting for the employes of any railroad company to compare the specifications under which their rail is being manufactured, with the specifications given herein, and see in what important points they differ.
The Specifications for Open Hearth Carbon Steel Rails are shown herein separately from those for Bessemer Carbon Steel Rails, as this makes for convenience in comparing and checking.
As the use of Open Hearth Steel is becoming more and more general, the specifications for that steel are given in full, whereas in the Bessemer Steel Specifications, those articles which are the same in both specifications are only referred to by number
cifications.
Each ingot must be considered as an individual or separate casting, and because one is sound is no proof that the others are also. One ingot may be a perfect casting, and the next one poured (of the same heat) may contain a deep pipe or large amount of segregation. Recent specifications recognize this fact and require a test on every ingot.
It is thought that these specifications are still not as strong as they should be on one point, that is, the test for chemical composition to show if much segregation is present in the finished rail, or if the chemical composition conforms to the specifications. Article 6 of the specifications provides for this test being made on a sample of hot metal taken from the ladle, whereas experience has shown that the chemistry of the finished rail may differ considerably from that found in the ladle.
With a view of overcoming these weak spots in the specifications two methods have been developed. In one method a chemical survey, and in the other an ocular inspection of the fractured surfaces, is made. Modifications of the A. R. E. A. specifications to cover the former method are shown on page 111, and for the latter method on page 109.
STEEL RAILS.
1. Inspectors representing the purchaser shall have free entry to the works of the manufacturer at all times while the contract is being executed, and shall have all reasonable facilities afforded them by the manufacturer to satisfy them that the rails have been made and loaded in accordance with the terms of the specifications.
2. All tests and inspections shall be made at the place of manufacture, prior to shipment, and shall be so conducted as not to interfere unnecessarily with the operation of the mill.
Hearth process, as provided by the contract.
4. The chemical composition of each heat of the steel from which the rails are rolled, determined as prescribed in Section 6, shall be within the following limits :
used, the minimum limit for Silicon will be omitted.
5. It is desired that the percentage of carbon in an entire order of rails shall average as high as the mean percentage between the upper and lower limits specified.
Open Hearth Specifications.
6. In order to ascertain whether the chemical composition is in accordance with the requirements, analyses shall be furnished as follows:
(b) The makers shall furnish the inspectors with a chemical analysis of the elements, carbon, manganese, silicon, phosphorus and sulphur, for each heat.
for check analyses.
The analyses shall be made on drillings taken from the ladle test ingot not less than oneeighth inch beneath the surface.
and be supported on springs.
(c) The supports for the test pieces shall be spaced three feet between centers and shall be a part of, and firmly secured to, the anvil. The bearing surfaces of the supports shall have a radius of five inches.
10. Drop tests shall be made on pieces of rail not less than four feet and not more than six feet long. These test pieces shall be cut from the top end of the top rail of the ingot, and marked on the base or head with gage marks one inch apart for three
between 60 and 100 degrees Fahrenheit.
12. The test piece shall preferably be placed base upwards on the supports, and be subjected to impact of the tup falling free from the following heights :
13. (a) Under these impacts the rail under one or more blows shall show at least 6 per cent elongation for one inch, or 5 per cent each for two consecutive inches of the six-inch scale, marked as described in Sec. 10.
(b) A sufficient number of blows shall be given to determine the complete elongation of one out of every three test pieces of a heat.
14. It is desired that the permanent set after one blow under the drop test shall not exceed that in the following table, and a record shall be made of this information :
15. The test pieces which do not break under the first or subsequent blows shall be nicked and broken, to determine whether the interior metal is sound.
The words interior defect, used below, shall be interpreted to mean seams, laminations, cavities or interposed foreign matter made visible by the destruction tests, the saws or the drills.
middle and last full ingot of each heat.
(a) If two of these test pieces do not break at at the first blow, and if both show the required elongation (Section 13), all of the rails of the heat shall be accepted, provided that none of the three test pieces when broken show interior defect.
(b) If two of the test pieces break at the first blow, or do not show the required elongation (Section 13), or if any of the three test pieces when broken show interior defect, all of the top rails from that heat shall be rejected.
(c) Second tests shall then be made from three test pieces selected by the inspector from the top end of any second rails of the same heat, preferably of the same ingots. If two of these test pieces do not break at the first blow, and if both show the required elongation (Section 13), all of the remainder of the rails of the heat shall be accepted, provided that none of the three test pieces when broken shows interior defect.
(d) If two of these test pieces break at the first blow, or do not show the required elongation (Section 13), or if any of the three test pieces when broken show interior defect, all of the second rails of the heat shall be rejected.
(e) Third tests shall then be made from three test pieces selected by the inspector from the top end of any third rails of the same heat, preferably of the same ingots. If two of these test pieces do not break at the first blow, and if both
show the required elongation (Section 13), all of the remainder of the rails of the heat shall be accepted, provided that none of the three test pieces when broken show interior defect.
(f ) If two of these test pieces break at the first blow, or do not show the required elongation (Section 13), or if any of the three test pieces when broken show interior defect, all of the remainder of the rails from that heat shall be rejected.
injurious defects and flaws of all kinds.
19. (a) Eails, which, by reason of surface imperfections or for causes mentioned in Section 29 hereof, are not classed as No. 1 rails, will be accepted as No. 2 rails; but No. 2 rails which contain imperfections in such number or of such character as will, in the judgment of the inspector, render them unfit for recognized No. 2 uses, will not be accepted for shipment.
(b) No. 2 rails to the extent of 5 per cent of the whole order will be received. All rails accepted as No. 2 rails shall have the ends painted white and shall have two prick punch marks on the side of the web near the heat number near the end of the rail, so placed as not to be covered by the splice bars.
metal to secure sound rails.
23. The standard length of rails shall be 33 feet, at a temperature of 60 degrees Fahrenheit. Ten per cent of the entire order will be accepted in shorter lengths varying by 1 foot from 32 feet to 25 feet. A
variation of one-fourth inch from the specified lengths will be allowed, excepting that for 15 per cent of the order a variation of three-eighths inch from the specified lengths will be allowed. No. 1 rails less than 33 feet long shall be painted green on both ends.
24. The number of passes and speed of train shall be so regulated that on leaving the rolls at the final pass, the temperature of the rail will not exceed that which requires a shrinkage allowance at the hot saws, for a rail 33 feet in length and of 100 Ibs. section, of six and three-fourths inches and one-eighth inch less for each ten pounds decrease in section.
25. The bars shall not be held for the purpose of reducing their temperature, nor shall any artificial means of cooling them be used after they leave the finishing pass. Rails, while on the cooling beds, shall be protected from snow and water.
26. The section of rails shall conform as accurately as possible to the template furnished by the railroad company. A variation in height of onesixty-fourth inch less or one-thirty-second inch greater than the specified height, and one-sixteenth inch in width of flange, will be permitted; but no variation shall be allowed in the dimensions affecting the fit of the splice bars.
27. The weight of the rails specified in the order shall be maintained as nearly as possible, after complying with the preceding section. A variation of one-half of 1 per cent from the calculated weight of section, as applied to an entire order, will be allowed.
actual weights.
29. (a) The hot straightening shall be carefully done, so that gagging under the cold presses will be reduced to a minimum. Any rail coming to the
4 inches in 33 feet for A. R. A. type of sections, or
5 inches for A. S. C. E. type of sections, will be at once classed as a No. 2 rail. The distance between the supports of rails in the straightening presses shall not be less than 42 inches. The supports shall have flat surfaces and be out of wind.
by the railroad company.
31. (a) All rails shall be smooth on the heads, straight in line and surface, and without any twists, waves or kinks. They shall be sawed square at the ends, a variation of not more than one-thirty-second inch being allowed; and burrs shall be carefully removed.
(b) Rails improperly drilled or straightened, or from which the burrs have not been removed, shall be rejected, but may be accepted after being properly finished.
following manner:
(a) The name of the manufacturer, the month and year of manufacture, and the weight and type or section of rail shall be rolled in raised letters and figures on the side of the web. The type shall be marked by letters which signify the name by which it is known, as for example :
(b) The number of the heat and letter indicating the portion of the ingot from which the rail was made shall be plainly stamped on the web of each rail where it will not be covered by the joint bars. The top rails shall be lettered A and the succeeding ones B, C, D, etc., consecutively; but in case of a top discard of from 20 to 35 per cent, the letter A will be omitted, the top rail becoming B. If the top discard be greater than 35 per cent the letter B shall be omitted, the top rail becoming C.
4. The chemical composition of each heat of the steel from which the rails are rolled, determined as prescribed in Section 6, shall be within the following limits :
6. In order to ascertain whether the chemical composition is in accordance with the requirements, analyses shall be furnished as follows:
(a) The manufacturer shall furnish to the inspector daily, carbon determinations for each heat before the rails are shipped, and two chemical analyses every twenty-four hours representing the average of the elements carbon, manganese, silicon, phosphorus and sulphur contained in the steel, one for each day and night turn respectively. These analyses shall be made on drillings taken from the ladle test ingot not less than one-eighth inch beneath the surface.
page 99.
(b) A sufficient number of blows shall be given to determine the complete elongation of the test piece of at least every fifth heat of steel.
14. It is desired that the permanent set after one blow under the drop test shall not exceed that in the following table, and a record shall be made of this information :
16. One piece shall be tested from each heat.
(a) If the test piece does not break at the first blow and shows the required elongation (Section 13), all of the rails of the heat shall be accepted, provided that the test piece when broken does not show interior defect.
(b) If the test piece breaks at the first blow, or does not show the required elongation (Section 13), or if the test piece does not break and shows the required elongation, but when broken shows interior defect, all of the top rails from that heat shall be rejected.
(c) A second test shall then be made of a test piece selected by the inspector from the top end of any second rail of the same heat, preferably of the same ingot. If the test piece does not break at the first blow, and shows the required elongation (Section 13), all of the remainder of the rails of the heat shall be accepted, provided that the test piece when broken does not show interior defect.
(d) If the test piece breaks at the first blow, or does not show the required elongation (Section 13), or if the test piece does not break and shows the required elongation, but when broken shows interior defect, all of the second rails from that heat shall be rejected.
(e) A third test shall then be made of a test piece selected by the inspector from the top end of any third rail of the same heat, preferably of the same ingot. If the test piece does not break at the first blow and shows the required elongation (Section 13), all of the remainder of the rails of the heat shall be accepted, provided that the test piece when broken does not show interior defect.
(f ) If the test piece breaks at the first blow, or does not show the required elongation (Section 13), or if the test piece does not break and shows the required elongation, but when broken shows interior defect, all of the remainder of the rails from that heat shall be rejected.
(a) If two of these test pieces do not break at the first blow, and if both show the required elongation (Section 13), all of the rails of the heat shall be accepted, except as provided by Clause (g).
(b) If two of the test pieces break at the first blow or do not show the required elongation Section (13), all of the top rails from that heat shall be rejected.
(c) Second tests shall then be made from three test pieces selected by the inspector from the top end of any second rails of the same heat, preferably of the same ingots. If two of these test pieces do not break at the first blow and if both show the required elongation (Section 13), all of the remainder of the rails of the heat shall be accepted, except as provided by Clause (g).
(d) If two of these test pieces break at the first blow or do not show the required elongation (Section 13), all of the second rails of the heat shall be rejected.
(e) Third tests shall then be made from three test pieces selected by the inspector from the top end of any third rails of the same heat, preferably of the same .ingots. If two of these test pieces do not break at the first blow, and if both show the required elongation (Section 13), all of the remainder of the rails of the heat shall be accepted, except as provided by Clause (g).
(f) If two of these test pieces break at the first blow, or do not show the required elongation (Section 13), all of the remainder of the rails from that heat shall be rejected.
(g) The test pieces which have successfully withstood the drop test and also a piece representing the top crop end of all other top rails shall be nicked and broken. If the fracture shows interior defect the A or top rail of the
ingot shall be rejected and a piece cut from its bottom end to represent the B or second rail of the same ingot. This piece shall then be nicked and broken, and if its fracture shows interior defect the rail represented shall be rejected. The testing by nicking and breaking shall proceed progressively in this manner on all the rails of each ingot, if necessary, and they shall be accepted or rejected, according as the fracture of the test piece representing them shows interior defect.
32. (e) Each rail must be stamped with a number to indicate the ingot from which it was rolled, so as to permit of identification with the other rails of the same ingot.
In order to ascertain whether the chemical composition is in accordance with the requirements, analyses shall be furnished as follows:
(a) For the Bessemer process, the manufacturer shall furnish to the inspector daily, the carbon determination for each melt before the rails are shipped, and two chemical analyses every twenty-four hours, representing the average of the elements, carbon, manganese, silicon, phosphorus and sulphur, contained in the steel, one for each day and night turn, respectively. The analyses shall be made on drillings taken from the ladle test ingot not less than % inch beneath the surface.
(b) For the Open Hearth process, the makers shall furnish the inspector with a chemical analysis of the elements, carbon, manganese, silicon, phosphorus and sulphur, for each melt.
Fig. 9.
of rail representing a melt, after the rails from that melt have passed the physical requirements. On request of the inspector, and in his presence, the manufacturer shall furnish from one of the drop test pieces representing the melt, drillings satisfactory to the inspector, taken with a %inch flat drill, parallel to the axis of the rail,
at a point one-third of the distance from the upper corner to the center of the head, as shown at location O in Fig. 9. The analysis from these drillings shall conform to the chemical requirements specified, and failure to meet these requirements shall be sufficient cause for the rejection of the entire melt.
(d) For the Open Hearth process, after the rail has passed the physical requirements, additional drillings will be taken from the same rail, and in the same manner as specified in clause (c), at the junction of the head and web, as
shown at location M in Fig. 9. The carbon determination from these drillings shall be within 12 per cent of the amount found at location 0. If the test from the top rails fails to meet this requirement, all the top rails from the melt shall be rejected, and a similar determination shall be made from location M of a second rail. If this test fails all the second rails from the melt shall be rejected, and a similar determination shall be made from location M of a third rail. If this test fails all the remaining rails from the melt shall be rejected.
(e) If, however, the segregation found at location M in any rail in a rolling exceeds 25 per cent, when determined as provided for in clause (d), the progressive testing of the second and third rails will not be permitted on any subsequent melts; but on such melts the failure of the top rail to pass the requirements provided for in clause (d) will cause the rejection of the entire heat.
NOTES.
1. When the analysis for carbon by the mill chemists and by the railroad chemists do not agree, a tolerance of two points below the minimum or two points above the maximum will be allowed to cover such variation before condemnation.
2. Where it is necessary to test rails lower than the first rail, the bottom of the first rail, in lieu of the top of the second rail; and the bottom of the second rail, in lieu of the top of the third rail, will be accepted, if preferred by the manufacturer.
TOLERANCES.
Metallic products of large size cannot readily be cast or rolled to exact dimensions specified, but where such results are desired must be sent to the machine shop, and brought to exact size by means of planers, lathes, etc.; in the case of rails, such machine shop work would be very expensive.
Efforts to have the rails rolled to the exact dimensions specified, would also necessitate changing rolls in the rolling-mill very often, and as soon as the old rolls showed any signs of wear.
These additional expenses would not be warranted by the benefits that might be gained, therefore, as a matter of economy, small variations or departures from the plans and specifications are usually permitted; these variations are generally called "permissible tolerances."
A perusal of the specifications will show the usual tolerances embodied therein, but for convenience they are summarized in this chapter, so that the Trackman will understand clearly just what variations from plans and specifications he may expect to find in new rail delivered him.
LENGTH.
The present standard length of rail is 33 feet, but usually 10 per cent of the entire order will be accepted in shorter lengths, varying by one foot from 32 feet to and including 25 feet, or in some cases 24 feet.
Most specifications permit a variation of ^ inch from the specified lengths, with a variation of % inch for 15 per cent of the total order.
ENDS OF RAIL.
Specifications usually provide that the ends of rails shall be sawed square, but permit a variation of not more than 1/32 inch off square in any direction. Rails that are slightly "head long," that is, have the bases at the ends undercut, are preferable to those in the opposite condition.
Where specifications require ends of rails to be milled in order to bring the rails to exact length, they also specify that the ends shall be milled square, both laterally and vertically; with the higher sections of rails an undercut of 1/32 inch is usually permitted.
The total width of the base may be 1/16 inch less or greater than specified ; convex bases, called "rocky bottoms," are not desired, and should not be accepted at the mill.
FISHING.
Most specifications permit no variation in those dimensions which affect the fit of the joint bars. Some specifications, however, allow 1/16 inch variation, either way, in the horizontal location of the fishing template; this is generally regarded as too much allowance, and better results are obtained where a total variation of less than 1/16 inch is insisted upon.
DRILLING.
A variation of 1/32 inch in the location of bolt holes is usually permitted, and the holes may be 1/32 inch larger than specified, but no smaller. In recent
SECOND QUALITY RAILS.
Nearly all specifications provide for the acceptance of second quality rails to the extent of 5 per cent of the total order; this 5 per cent may be included in or be additional to the total tonnage ordered.
WEIGHT.
On account of the permissible tolerances it is impossible to roll exactly to the weight of rail ordered, and a total variation of one-half of one per cent, over or under the theoretical weight, on the entire order is usually permitted.
ditions, may exist.
The width of head, thickness of web, and thickness of flange, may vary slightly from specified dimensions, but these can usually be controlled by the manufacturer and the inspector.
It is important to control the curve of top of head, and it is frequently difficult to maintain it as desired. Flat-headed rails are the result of failure to keep a full radius; on the other hand, if allowed to become too full, a slight ridge or welt, about one-half inch wide, is left in the center of the head. Flatheaded rails should be avoided, but the ridge in the center is generally accepted as a sign of good-rolling conditions, and as it soon disappears under traffic, such rails should not be criticised unless the ridge is too pronounced.
Square block letters and figures about one inch high are commonly used, and as these are cut into one of the rolls of the last pass, the brand will always appear SLIGHTLY RAISED at regular intervals on the web of the rail.
The section is usually shown by number or combination of number and letters, such as 9020, 902, 90RA, etc., instead of 90 ARA-A; each mill has special numbers which it uses to designate the different rail sections.
The rail failure reports should show under questions 2 and 3, the marking of the brand EXACTLY as it appears on the web of the rail. STAMP:
Branding and Stamping.
page 109) it is also necessary to stamp an additional number on each rail to indicate the ingot from which it was rolled, so that all the rails from each ingot can be identified. There are usually from four to eight rails, depending upon the weight, rolled from each ingot, so that the letters usually run from A to G.
each melt of steel is made.
The specifications require certain tests to be made on each melt, and a record of the chemical tests of each melt, and of the physical tests on the rail made therefrom, is kept under this number. As this number is constantly changing it cannot be placed on the rolls in the rolling mill.
The stamping is therefore done (on the web of the rail) with dies while the rail is still red hot, but after it has been completely rolled and sawed to length. The methods of branding and stamping the necessary data on the rail are not uniform.
Each mill uses different symbols to abbreviate the information, and places these abbreviations at different points on the web of the rail, and in varying locations with reference to each other.
Except at the Lorain mill, the heat number is always applied by dies carried on a wheel which revolves, so that when brought into contact with the moving rail, the numerals on the face of the dies are stamped on the web. It may be repeated therefore several times on the rail length, or it may be shown only once or twice, according to mechanical conditions at the mill.
The letter showing the position of the rail in the ingot is sometimes stamped on by hand, in which case a die is held on the rail and struck with a
distinct.
All rails rolled since 1912 have the brand on one side of the web, and the stamp on the other side. Remembering that the brand always appears in RAISED LETTERS, and the heat number and rail letter in SUNKEN LETTERS AND FIGURES, no confusion of the two should arise.
The trackman should familiarize himself with the particular brands and stamps of all rail in service on his territory, and for convenience, a blank form is given on which may be entered the abbreviations and symbols for such rail.
ALGOMA STEEL CO.
Bessemer heat numbers contain from one to five figures and Open Hearth heat numbers generally four figures; these are stamped at least three times on the unbranded side of the web.
BETHLEHEM STEEL CO.
There are always five figures in the heat number, which is stamped at least once on the unbranded side of the web, generally near the center.
Prior to 1914 a letter was placed in front of the heat number to indicate which furnace furnished the metal; this should not be confused with the rail letter which follows the heat number and is stamped by the same machine. Typical stamping would be B18945 C, which would mean a C rail from heat number 18945 from furnace B. The furnace letter has been omitted since 1914.
Bessemer heat numbers may contain from one to five figures, open hearth heats always contain five figures; these are stamped at least twice on the unbranded side of the web.
The rail letter is stamped by a separate machine so that it usually appears about six times on the rail length and can therefore be easily located.
placed on same side of web.
CARNEGIE STEEL CO. (Edgar Thompson Works) Bessemer heat numbers may contain from one to five figures, open hearth heats always contain five figures; these are stamped at least three times on the unbranded side of the web.
Formerly, the rail letter was stamped on by hand, generally twice near one end, but the stamping is now done by the heat-numbering machine.
Prior to 1913 a new series of numbers (each starting with number one) were used for Bessemer heats beginning with each quarter, so that it was possible to have four heats of the same number each year, and the month must therefore be given in order to identify the heat.
branded side of the web.
The rail letter is stamped on by hand at least once near the end of the rail so that it will be near the joints, and may be upside down.
Prior to 19J£ the heat number was stamped on the branded side of the web at least twice, and as the branding and stamping sometimes came close together some confusion was caused and the practice was therefore discontinued.
The rail letter is stamped on by the same machine that stamps the heat number, and it will therefore appear as often as the heat number and following
it; the distance between the last figure of the heat number and the letter may assist in deciphering the letter, as this distance increases regularly for each succeeding letter; e. g., 16897 B and 16897 G.
LA CKA WANNA STEEL CO.
There may be from one to five figures in the heat number, which is stamped at least once on the unbranded side of the web, usually near the middle of the rail.
There are always four figures in the heat number, which is stamped by hand near one end of the rail so that it will be near the joints.
Bessemer heat numbers may contain from one to five figures, open hearth heats always contain four figures ; these are stamped at least twice on the unbranded side of the web.
In front of the heat number a character is used which, on Bessemer steel, indicates the ingot number, and on Open Hearth steel, indicates the number of the furnace; this character should not be confused with the heat number.
PENNSYLVANIA STEEL CO.
There are either four or five figures in the heat number, which, prior to 1915, was stamped on the branded side of the web at least twice; the rail letter was stamped on by a different machine, at least once, generally near the center of the rail. Under this method it was possible for the branding and stamping to come close together and cause confusion; this practice has been changed, and the number and letter are now stamped by the same machine on the unbranded side of the web.
mended for general use by the
American Society of Civil Engineers in 1893, American Railway Association in 1908, and American Railway Engineering Association in
Special sections have, from time to time, been adopted by individual railroads, with a view of meeting special conditions of their service and locality. The principal characteristics of those sections are given on pages 140 to 142 and on page 144 is a blank form on which can be entered additional data concerning those or other special sections.
In their study of rail sections, and their relation to manufacturing processes, the committees of the various Associations have, from time to time, enunciated the following principles that govern the design of rail sections:
Rail Sections.
3. As fineness of grain is governed by the work done as the heat decreases, the section should be designed to obtain the maximum amount of work
degrees,
(c) Radii of under corner of head and top and bottom corners of base to be as small as practicable with the lower rolling temperatures,
(d) Radii of fillets connecting web with head and base to be as large as possible for reinforcement purposes, but not conflict with 4- (d),
TRACK IS THE JOINT
Over 75% of all rail renewals are required on account, primarily, of ends of rails battering, bending, or breaking; while remainder oi rail is still in serviceable condition.
A large part of this trouble is due to the practice of spiking joint bars to the ties, in order to reduce rail-creeping; this imposes an additional duty on what is already the weakest part of the track, and in additio.i causes shifting and skewing of joint ties, with consequent increased difficulty of maintaining line and surface.
Except under special conditions, the joint bars should only be called upon to support the rail ends; and railcreeping should be prevented by the use of a sufficient number of efficient anti-creepers.
Frictionless Rail
diminishes flange friction . and flange abrasion of the outside rail of curves. Consequently smoother riding is the result. You can notice it on a Frictionless Curve, and see the reason when you look out and find the narrow head on the inside rail of the curve.
RESOURCES and THE CONSERVATION
OF RAILROAD RESOURCES now call for the use of the inferior classes of timber for crossties, and for their treatment by preservatives which will so extend their life that the use of such wood will be economical.
The successful treatment of cross ties requires the use of suitable preservatives and careful work in seasoning and treating. In no other way can good results be obtained.
The longer the life of the tie the longer will be the periods between the renewals in track, and the less frequent the disturbance of ballast, line and surface.
The carrying capacity of the roadbed, and the prevention of deformity in the rail, depend directly on the size and spacing of the ties, the latter being the more important factor.
In many cases it will be found more economical to add two or three treated ties per rail length than to add ten pounds per yard to the weight of the rail; provided the ties have been carefully treated and the best preservative materials used.
AND BREAK UNLESS ROLLED END OVER END
The bottom corrugations of the Sellers Tie Plate imbed themselves firmly in the tie, without injuring the wood fibre; so that the plate practically becomes a part of the tie. This affords the best possible protection to the tie, and assists very materially in maintaining guage.
Furthermore, the bottom corrugations give a plate with additional strength equivalent to the depth of the corrugations, and with a saving of all metal eliminated between the corrugations.
| 29,390 | common-pile/pre_1929_books_filtered | railfailuresfort00davirich | public_library | public_library_1929_dolma-0008.json.gz:3559 | https://archive.org/download/railfailuresfort00davirich/railfailuresfort00davirich_djvu.txt |
Hjws-V0tu1wUMWPC | Aira's Learning Journey | It means owning my actions, decisions, and their consequences, both good and bad. When I make mistakes, I acknowledge them, learn from them, and make changes where necessary. It also means following through on my commitments, whether big or small, and being dependable in all areas of my life. I believe that being accountable to myself and others encourages personal growth and strengthens my relationships. Accountability also involves being honest about my limitations and seeking help when needed. By embracing this value, I hold myself to a higher standard and continually strive to improve. | 122 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/ajjourney/chapter/artifact-no-4/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:2883 | https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/ajjourney/chapter/artifact-no-4/ |
6Rkucwa1Lk5yiMzD | 8.1: The Three Sociological Paradigms and Perspectives | 8.1: The Three Sociological Paradigms and Perspectives
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A paradigm is a description of the world of human behavior; it is a description of society. A paradigm is a description of the interactions of human beings within any society. Paradigms are broad viewpoints or perspectives that permit social scientists to have a wide range of tools to describe society, and then to build hypotheses and theories. Paradigms don't do anything but DESCRIBE! They analyze based on their descriptions. That is all they do. They are scientific tools. Paradigms cannot occur or happen! Societies are not Conflictualist, Functionalist, or Symbolic Interactionist. People and social events are not based on paradigms: a paradigm is a viewpoint, a perspective, a guiding principal, a belief system. Paradigms cannot be proven or disproven, but they lead to the development of theories which are provable.
The Conflict Paradigm
The Conflict paradigm does a very good job of explaining racism, sexism, ageism, socioeconomic inequality (wealth and poverty), etc.
The Conflict paradigm describes the inequalities that exist in all societies around the globe. Conflict is particularly interested in the inequalities that exist based on all of the various aspects of master status—race or ethnicity, sex or gender, age, religion, ability or disability, and SES. SES is an abbreviation of s ocio e conomic s tatus and is comprised of the combined effects of income, education, and occupation. Every society is plagued by inequality based on social differences among the dominant group and all of the other groups in society, according to the Conflict paradigm. When we are analyzing any element of society from this perspective, we need to look at the structures of wealth, power, and status and the ways in which those structures maintain the social, economic, political, and coercive power of one group at the expense of all other groups.
The war in Iraq which began in 2003, according to the Conflict paradigm, was being fought in order to extend the power and control of the United States, and to create an American empire in the non-white, non-Christian world.
TheSeptember 11, 2001 terrorist attack was caused by American foreign policy vis á vis the Middle East as a whole, the first Gulf War, American support of the Israeli government and Israel’s treatment of its Palestinian population. The Bourgeoisie (the United States and most of Western Europe) has exploited for decades the people and natural resources of the Middle East without offering economic and educational support to the people. The U.S. and Western Europe have supported dictatorial regimes, ignored human rights abuses, and generally turned their backs on the plight of the majority of Middle Easterners and Muslims in general throughout the world. Thus, the terrorists (as representatives of the Proletariat), attacked, or attempted to attack, the centers of American power: the World Trade Center (economic power), the Pentagon (military power), and the U.S. Capital (political power).
The Conflict Paradigm’s Explanation of Socialization
The socialization process is coercive, forcing us to accept the values and norms of society.
The values and norms of society are dictated and enforced by the Bourgeoisie.
The Proletariat follow and accept the values and norms of the Bourgeoisie because all of the institutions of society, particularly education, religion, and the economy are shaped to serve the exploitative purposes of the Bourgeoisie.
The Conflict Paradigm’s Explanation of the Social Structure
The social structure exists in time and space, is objective/external, concrete, coercive, and relatively static.
The group is the basic unit of society and of analysis
Roles, statuses, groups, and institutions exist for the protection and maintenance of the elite; the social structure is based on relations of exploitation often based on master status.
There is no consensus among groups or individual members of society, there is only conflict over wealth, power, and status.
The social structure is exploitative.
The Conflict Paradigm’s Explanation of Bureaucracies
The bureaucracy exists to serve the needs of the Bourgeoisie
The bureaucracy is exploitive, and creates an “iron cage” which traps the average worker.
The bureaucracy is the primary characteristic of large-scale industrial societies.
The bureaucracy is the rationalized, and exploitive form of human interaction in large-scale formal organization.
The Conflict Paradigm’s Explanation of Deviance
Deviance is defined by those in power; therefore, what is deviant, is whatever offends the powerful, or whatever causes them to believe that they are losing power and control over the masses.
Deviance is conditional, situational, and relative to time, place, situation, and culture.
By declaring that certain groups are deviant, or treating certain groups as if they are, in some way, outside the boundaries of mainstream society, the ultimate in-group is able to maintain its power.
Deviance exists in all societies, and all societies create institutionalized methods of preventing and punishing de
The Conflict Paradigm’s Explanation of Inequality
Inequality is generated and maintained by those in power in order to maintain their power.
Various groups in society are delineated by those in power and then are pitted against each other in a struggle for wealth, power, and status.
The powerful exploit everyone in order to engender false consciousness—the belief that the non-elites have the potential to become rich and powerful.
The elites will do anything in order to maintain their power.
The Conflict Paradigm’s Explanation of the Family
The family works toward the continuance of social inequality within a society by maintaining and reinforcing the status quo.
Through inheritance, the wealthy families are able to keep their privileged social position for their members.
The traditional family form which is Patriarchal, also contributes to the inequality of the sexes. Males have a lot of power and females tend to have less. Traditional roles of husbands and wives are differential valued in favor of husbands. The roles they do are more valued than the traditional housekeeping/child raising roles done by their wives. The traditional family is also a structure of inequality for both women and children.
The Conflict Paradigm’s Explanation of Education
Schools routinely provide learning according to students’ social background, thereby perpetuating social HUinequalityUH.
Wealthy School districts have better buildings, state of the art technology, higher teacher salaries, more ancillary programs such as Art and Music and better sports equipment.
Schools serve as a screening device to fill positions of unequal status.
Tracking is a basic screening device - placing of students perceived to have similar intelligence and academic abilities in the same classroom.
Credentialism is the overemphasis on educational credentials for job placement. The result is that many individuals are placed in jobs for which they are overeducated.
The Conflict Paradigm’s Explanation of Religion
Religion is “the opiate of the masses.”
Religion acts as a drug, which keeps the proletariat from rising up against their oppressors.
Religion serves to legitimate the social structure and serves the needs of the elite to oppress the workers.
Religion lulls the workers into a false sense of security.
The Functionalist Paradigm (Structural Functionalism)
The Functionalist paradigm describes society as stable and describes all of the various mechanisms that maintain social stability. Functionalism argues that the social structure is responsible for all stability and instability, and that that the social structure is continuously attempting to maintain social equilibrium (balance) among all of the components of society. Functionalism argues that a stable society is the best possible society and any element that helps to maintain that stability must add to the adaptability (functionality) of society. This is a macro-level paradigm that describes large-scale processes and large- scale social systems; it is uninterested in individual behavior.
The Functionalist paradigm does a very good job of explaining the ways in which the institutions of society (the family, education, religion, law/politics/government, the economy, medicine, media) work together to create social solidarity (a social contract in which society as a whole agrees upon the rules of social behavior and agrees, more or less, to abide by those rules) and to maintain balance in society.
Functionalism, or Structural Functionalism, or the Functionalist paradigm describes the elements in society that create social stability FOR THE GREATEST NUMBER OF PEOPLE . This paradigm, like the Conflict paradigm, is very interested in the structure of society and how it impacts people's lives. However, Functionalism sees the social structure as creating equilibrium or balance. It also describes the various elements of society that maintain that balance. One of its basic premises is that society is structured to do the greatest good for the greatest number of people. Unfortunately, this perspective ignores minorities and is unable to explain inequality except to say that it must have a social function—it must make society more adaptable—simply because inequality has always existed. Functionalism describes, analyzes, and is interested in any social element that maintains the status quo—keeps things as they are—and maintains social balance between and among all of the institutions of society (the family, education, religion, law/politics/government, the economy, medicine, and media).
The war in Iraqwhich began in 2003, according to the Functionalist paradigm, is being fought in order to maintain security and stability in the US by keeping terrorism at bay thousands of miles away.
The September 11, 2001 terrorist attack was an act of extreme deviance caused by anomic conditions (conditions of social chaos when the rules for normative behavior seem to have disappeared) in the Middle East and among Muslim people throughout the world. Because of the cultural influence of the American media throughout the world, and because of the rapidity of social change taking place due to that cultural influence, the terrorists engaged in an act of deviance based on their belief that they were acting at the behest of God, and for the good of their own people, that took their own lives as well as the lives of thousands of others.
The Structural Functionalist Paradigm’s Explanation of Socialization
The socialization process is coercive, forcing us to accept to the values and norms of society.
The values and norms of society are agreed upon by all members of society because there is a “social contract” in effect which protects us from one another and keeps society stable and balanced.
People follow and accept the values and norms of society in order to maintain their own safety as well as maintaining the social order.
The Structural Functionalist Paradigm’s Paradigm’s Explanation of the Social Structure
The social structure exists in time and space, is objective/external, concrete, coercive. and relatively static.
Members of society see the social structure as legitimate (acceptable and working properly) and therefore strive to maintain that social structure. Legitimation (acceptability) maintains social equilibrium or balance which maintains the status quo.
The structure itself creates consensus.
The social structure is stable
The Structural Functionalist Paradigm’s Explanation of Bureaucracies
The bureaucracy exists to serve the needs of society.
The bureaucracy provides for the economic and social needs of a society and helps to maintain social stability.
The bureaucracy is a major characteristic of large-scale industrial societies.
The bureaucracy is the response to large-scale formal organizations.
The Structural Functionalist Paradigm’s Explanation of Deviance
Behaviors are not offensive because they are deviant; they are deviant because they offend.
Deviance is usually dysfunctional for society and arises from conditions of anomie.
Deviance may be functional for society because it may bring about necessary social change.
Deviance is integral to human societies. Deviance exists in all societies, and all societies create institutionalized methods of preventing and punishing deviance.
T he Structural Functionalist Paradigm’s Explanation of Inequality
Inequality is less widespread than the Conflictualists believe.
Inequality, in general, is functional for society because it engenders competition which serves as an incentive for people to attempt to rise to the top.
Inequality, overall, is highly dysfunctional for society because it fails to permit large groups of people from competing for the goods of society.
Inequality is always functional (adaptive) for some segments of society and dysfunctional (non-adaptive) for others.
The Structural Functionalist Paradigm’s Explanation of the Family
The family creates well-integrated members of society and teaches culture to the new members of society.
The family provides important ascribed statuses such as social class and ethnicity to new members.
The family regulates sexual activity.
Family is responsible for social replacement by reproducing new members, to replace its dying members.
Family gives individuals property rights and also affords the assignment and maintenance of kinship order.
Families offer material and emotional security and provides care and support for the individuals who need to be taken care of.
The Structural Functionalist Paradigm’s Explanation of Education
Enhances the operation and stability of society by systematically teaching certain cognitive skills and knowledge, and transmitting these skills and knowledge from one generation to the next generation.
Education has several manifest and latent functions for society.
Cultural transmission passes culture from one generation to the next and established social values are taught thoroughly.
EducationUH also serves to enhance social and cultural integration in society by bringing together people from diverse social backgrounds so that they share widespread social experiences and thus acquire commonly held societal HUnormsUH, attitudes and beliefs.
The Structural Functionalist Paradigm’s Explanation of Religion
Religion (along with the family and law) serves to legitimate (make acceptable) the social structure of any given society.
Religion (along with the family and law) helps to maintain social stability and balance by binding people to the normative aspects of their society.
Religion (along with law) provides a system of behavioral guidelines for society.
The Symbolic Interactionist Paradigm
Symbolic Interactionism describes society as small groups of individuals interacting based on the various ways that people interpret their various cultural symbols such as spoken, written, and non-verbal language. Our behavior with and among other people (our interaction) is the result of our shared understanding of cultural symbols. This is a micro-level paradigm that describes small-scale processes and small-scale social systems; it is interested in individual behavior.
The most important aspect of the Symbolic Interactionist paradigm is not so much that it is interested in small groups—although that is of great importance—as its interest in the interpretation of cultural symbols. For Symbolic Interactionism, everything in society is based on how we interpret our cultural symbols—media images, language, stereotypes, perceptions, and belief systems. In the US, we have a long history of creating a social mythology that leads many of us to believe that the poor, the minorities, women, non-white, non-Christian people are somehow not as American as White Anglo-Saxon Protestants (WASPs), and are somehow not as deserving of social approval as White Anglo-Saxon Protestants (WASPs). This social mythology is reinforced by the media's portrayal of non-white, non-middle class, non-Christian, etc. Americans as being disease-ridden, criminally-inclined, dangerous, and altogether unacceptable or barely acceptable in American society. This social mythology creates negative symbols that impact the actual, daily lives of the not-well-off, not Christian, not white, not female, etc. citizens and residents in our country. These negative symbols engender fear, hatred, neglect, and deliberate ignorance concerning the lives of those people in our country who are, in some socially defined way, out of the "mainstream" of American society.
Symbolic Interactionism does a very good job of explaining how various forms of language (including the images and the messages in the media) shape our interactions with one another and reinforce stereotypes.
The war in Iraq which began in 2003, according to the Symbolic Interactionist paradigm, is being fought to send a message to Islamic terrorists that the US cannot be attacked with impunity, and to support the image of non-white, non-Christian people as dangerous to our way of life.
The September 11, 2001 terrorists used the symbols of American power—the World Trade Center, New York City, the Pentagon, Washington, D.C.—in order to deliver a message to the world concerning their perception that the United States is the cause of the misery of Muslims in the Middle East as well as throughout the world. The perception of reality is often more real than the concrete reality itself, because sometimes we act based on what we think or believe more strongly than on what is really real. The actions of the terrorists were a form of language, a method of communication that was extreme, because the message was extreme.
The Symbolic Interactionist Paradigm’s Explanation of Socialization
The socialization process is voluntary, and we can accept or reject the values and norms of society at will.
The values and norms of society change moment by moment based on our mutual, day-to-day interactions with one another.
People follow and accept the values and norms of society only if those values and norms serve their own needs and permit them to be more comfortable in their society.
The Symbolic Interactionist Paradigm’s Explanation of the Social Structure
The social structure exists only in the minds of individuals and small groups and has no objective reality; it is subjective/internal, abstract, voluntary, and in constant flux.
The social structure is based on social interaction, statuses, roles, groups, social networks, social institutions, and societies in which small groups and individuals create consensus.
The social structure is subjective, abstract, and constantly changing.
The social structure exists within every individual and it is through our everyday interactions with one another that the abstract social structure is created, and continuously re-created, every moment of every day.
The Symbolic Interactionist Paradigm’s Explanation of Bureaucracies
The bureaucracy consists of groups of people interacting with one another in patterned ways, on a day-today basis.
The bureaucracy provides a mechanism for social intercourse among disparate groups and individuals.
The bureaucracy is a major characteristic of large-scale industrial societies.
The bureaucracy is the method by which large-scale formal organizations create interaction.
The Symbolic Interactionist Paradigm’s Explanation of Deviance
Deviance is conditional, situational, and relative to time, place, situation, and culture.
Deviance is based on the perceptions of individuals.
The language used to label groups or individuals as deviant, is highly symbolic and “coded.”
Individuals have the capacity to accept or reject the labels that society creates in the mirror.
The Symbolic Interactionist Paradigm’s Explanation of Inequality
Inequality is based on individual reactions to their own perceptions of the social structure.
Because the social structure is subjective, inequality is also subjective and based on individual interpretations.
The Symbolic Interactionist Paradigm’s Explanation of the Family
Emphasizes exploring the changing meanings attached to family.
Shared activities help build emotional bonds.
Marriage and family relationships are based on negotiated meanings.
Social resources are brought to the marriage by each partner including education, physical attractiveness, intelligence and family status.
The Symbolic Interactionist Paradigm’s Explanation of Education
Note
Schools play a vital role in shaping the way students see reality and themselves.
Authoritarianism prevalent in schools impedes learning and encourages undemocratic behavior later in life.
Schools create serious difficulties for students who are “labeled” as learning disabled or less academically competent than their peers; these students may never be able to see themselves as good students and move beyond these labels.
Teacher expectations play a huge role in student achievement. If students are made to feel like high achievers, they will act like high achievers, and vice versa. 1
The Symbolic Interactionist Paradigm’s Explanation of Religion
Note
Religion is a set of symbols that identify and join adherents.
Religion is shared among groups and between individuals.
Religion provides meaning.
Footnotes
- 1 http ://<IP_ADDRESS>/search q=cache:Yi8QaV3ml88J:www.unc.edu/~kbm/SOCI10Spring2004/Symbolic_Interactionism.doc+symbolic+interactionism+and+education&cd=1&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us | 4,161 | common-pile/libretexts_filtered | https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Sociology/Cultural_Sociology_and_Social_Problems/Minority_Studies_(Dunn)/08%3A_The_Three_Sociological_Paradigms/8.01%3A_The_Three_Sociological_Paradigms_and_Perspectives | libretexts | libretexts-0000.json.gz:38860 | https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Sociology/Cultural_Sociology_and_Social_Problems/Minority_Studies_(Dunn)/08%3A_The_Three_Sociological_Paradigms/8.01%3A_The_Three_Sociological_Paradigms_and_Perspectives |
X5Zcrgq49HQZsw7E | General and local anesthesia / by Aimé Paul Heineck. | By AIME PAUL HEINECK, M. D.
Surgeon to Cook County Hospital; Instructor in Clinical Surgery, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Medical Department of the University of Illinois.
' The medical man cannot acquire more than a mere rudimentary knowledge of anesthetizing from any book, but he may obtain undoubted service therefrom, enabling him to appreciate the dangers incident to, the caution necessary in anesthetizing and grasp the rationale of the various methods of procedure in the administration of anesthetics."— Dudley Buxton.
PREFACE.
The competent anesthetist is the surgeon's most valuable assistant. Conscious of this fact, I have endeavored to present in a concise form, the technique of surgical general and local anesthesia. The book could have been made more academical, could have been made to include interesting discussions of as yet unsettled points, but as it was intended for the hospital interne and for the general practitioner I decided to make it purely practical. Points that admit of controversy I have omitted. The methods that I have outlined are methods that are sanctioned by European and American clinicians. They are methods which I have tested in my surgical service at the Cook County Hospital.
The induction of anesthesia by sub-arachnoidean injections of cocaine solutions is not considered in this edition. The procedure is still in the experimental stage. Before it can be adopted by the general profession, its shortcomings will have to be remedied. Its great disadvantage is its unreliableness.
In this edition I present a large amount of new matter concerning bromide of ethyl as an anesthetic and discuss a number of important reme-
dies used for local anesthesia which were not con'sidered in the first edition. The whole book has been rewritten and brought up to date.
I take this opportunity of thanking the attendants of the medical department of the Newberry Library for the many courtesies which they have extended to me.
GENERAL ANESTHESIA.
Ether and chloroform are the most serviceable and the most widely used agents for the induction of general surgical anesthesia. General surgical anesthesia has its dangers. No powerful general anesthetic agent is free from risk. There is always danger in the use of a general anesthetic, whatever may be the indications for its use. Ether and chloroform are highly toxic substances, the inhalation of which is capable of producing death. All anesthetics are to be used cautiously. The mortality, however, that attends the use of these substances is largely the mortality of carelessness and of incompetency. It can be greatly reduced by observing modern safeguards and by employing improved methods of administration. The anesthetist must not depend upon a single dangersignal. He must know them all and have a clear understanding of their relative importance. When death occurs from the administration of an anesthetic, very frequently it is due to lack of watchfulness, to ignorance, and had proper precautions been taken, it would not have taken place. Statistics prove conclusively that the element of danger with either chloroform, ether or bromide of ethyl is not large provided the anesthetist be competent.
Upon the usefulness of general surgical anesthesia all are agreed. Its advantages to the surgeon are thus summarized by Hr. D. W. Cheever: "He need not hurry; he need not worry; he need not sympathize; he can calmly dissect, heedful only that the anesthetist is competent, the operation not prolonged beyond the verge of exhaustion; he can do better work; he can pause and consider; he can choose his steps; he can be deliberate, if not dextrous." In many cases there is infinitely greater danger from an unskilled anesthetist than from a bungling surgeon.
For the surgeon to derive all the forenamed advantages from the use of anesthetics, the anesthetist must be competent. He, the anesthetist, must know the physiological action of the agent which he is administering. He must be cautious and he must be vigilant in its administration. He must know the danger signals of surgical anesthesia. He must also know all the procedures by the aid of which the grave accidents of anesthesia can be forestalled and combated.
As the success and progress of surgery depend in a large measure upon the safety of anesthesia, it is evident that too much study can not be given to this subject. An operation may be practically devoid of danger, while an anesthetic is never administered without imperiling the life of the patient. Though much has been written on this
NECESSITY OF UNDERSTANDING ANESTHESIA. 9
subject, though the subject is old, Dr. McBurney speaks truly when he says: "Very few medical men administer ether well." As to chloroform, many physicians, conscious that they do not know how to administer it, and not possessing the necessary ambition and energy to acquire the knowledge, never make use of it. Many that use it, use it faultily. Lord Lister says: "Death from chloroform is almost always due to faulty administration." It is easy to become a competent anesthetist, and it is the duty of every medical practitioner to become one. Anesthetics being used in all the different departments of medicine, it is imperative that all physicians should know how to skilfully administer ether and chloroform.
Knowledge is only acquired by observation and by study. To become a good anesthetist, one must be taught, and must learn, how to induce and how to maintain surgical anesthesia. Theoretical and practical knowledge are both required. The value of theoretical knowledge lies greatly in the fact that more attention is paid to useful practical details, if the philosophy underlying their utility is evident or is known.
The giving of an anesthetic should never be delegated to a nurse, much less to a layman. Nurses, owing to their incomplete medical education, of necessity, are irresponsible anesthetists. They should not undertake and should not be
asked to discharge the duties of a medical practitioner. The giving of an anesthetic requires the undivided attention of an educated and watchful physician. It requires accurate knowledge. It demands the closest application. The surgeon must not "start the anesthetic" and then entrust the continuance and the maintenance of the anesthesia to an unqualified bystander. Accidents occur during all the different stages of anesthesia, and must be immediately met by appropriate measures, so as not to prove fatal.
Never should the surgeon administer chloroform or ether, and operate at the same time. It is false economy. There is no scarcity of physicians. It is unsafe. Deaths have been caused by this practice. By attempting to do two things at once, the surgeon does neither well. The anesthetic is not watched as it should be watched. The anesthetist's eye should never be off his patient during the entire duration of the anesthesia. Asepsis, of necessity, will be deficient. The neglect of aseptic teachings invites suppuration with its train of annoyances. His mind will not be concentrated upon the technique of the operation, hence the surgical methods employed will be at fault and results will not be ideal.
An anesthetic should not be given if the patient refuses to be anesthetized. Should the patient's mental condition be such as to unfit him for pass-
USED FOR DIAGNOSTIC PURPOSES. 11
ing on the advisability of anesthesia, the consent of his relations or his friends must be obtained. In emergency cases if the patient be unconscious and in the absence of friends and relatives, the surgeon may take the responsibility of administering the anesthetic.
anesthesia are:
1. FOB DIAGNOSTIC PURPOSES: (a) In complete exploration of rectum, or genitourinary organs; (b) in children, in exploring the bladder for stone, since in children the bladder is so sensitive that it empties itself when an instrument is introduced; (c) in obscure abdominal and pelvic conditions, a precise diagnosis not being otherwise obtainable, as in carcinoma ventriculi, as in gynecological conditions, such as pus-tubes, etc. "Examinations under anesthesia can be conducted with a thoroughness which is impossible without it; the uterus can be drawn down, adhesions pulled upon, perineum deeply invaginated and inflamed tubes and ovaries handled in a way which is impossible so long as the patient remains conscious" (Kelly, Baltimore); (d) it may be used to exclude hysterical conditions — hysterical joint, pseudocyesis, etc.; (e) to exclude simulation.
Eotterstein reports the case of a military officer who simulated aphonia, so as to secure his discharge from the army. While being anesthetized,
in the stage of excitement, he began to sing. He was not discharged from the army, (f) In many cases, it is only by means of narcosis that we can obtain a sufficiently satisfactory view of the eyes. In blepharospasm, especially in children, by proceeding with violence, there is danger of abrading the eyeballs. This is especially to be feared in purulent ophthalmia and in corneal ulceration. In adults, cocaine anesthesia is often sufficient. Anesthesia is of value as an aid to diagnosis, because by it insensibility to pain on the part of the patient is secured, and through it, also, complete muscular relaxation is obtained. Complete muscular relaxation is especially valuable in the diagnosing of fractures and of abdominal and pelvic pathological conditions. Examinations under it can therefore be more prolonged, more deliberate, more accurate. All resistance, voluntary and involuntary, on part of the patient is done away with.
2. FOR THERAPEUTIC PURPOSES: In spasm, convulsions (epilepsy, puerperal eclampsia, tetanus), very painful neuralgias (tic douloureux, visceralgia of neurasthenia), renal colic, hepatic colic, intestinal colic. Tournier (Belfort) employs etherization in the treatment of hysteric and hysteroepileptic convulsions occurring in children and in adults.
ANESTHETICS IN OBSTETRICS. 13
The anesthesia is used to abort the spasms or convulsions. "In epileptic attacks, every effort should be made to lessen the liability of danger to the patient from the violence of the spasms. One is at times justified to use ether or chloroform by inhalation to control the severity of the convulsions." (Anders.) In the other conditions, we have recourse to anesthesia when the suffering is beyond the influence of safe doses of morphine. In these conditions, we only administer chloroform till relief of pain occurs.
3. IN OBSTETRICS. (A) In labor, we employ anesthetics to mitigate the suffering of natural labor, to secure a semianesthesia, that is an analgesia, a marked diminution of pain in the uterine and the periuterine regions. Winckel states that general anesthetics render great service when the «ervix is almost dilated and when the presenting part begins to pass through the vulva. We use them in natural labors in primiparse who are nervous and excitable and in whom the pain may even cause delirium; in all cases in which there is a spasmodic contraction or rigidity of the neck or body of the uterus.
The following conditions contraindicate their use: Opposition of the patient to their use; absence of severe suffering; placenta previa; alcoholism; marked disease of the circulatory or respiratory apparatus.
in childbirth are established:
a. Chloroform is the agent sanctioned by almost all the authorities. It is pleasant to take. It acts quickly. Ether is disagreeable to take, is slow of action. Ethyl bromide has irritating properties, a disagreeable odor and interferes with the pains. It should not be used in obstetrics. It is not a safe anesthetic for prolonged intermittent use. Chloroform, unlike ether, is not inflammable. Hence, it can be used at night, without any danger from light or fire. And certainly it is at night that the largest number of obstetrical cases occur. When using chloroform, in a room illuminated by coal-gas, for your personal and for the patient's safety, see that the room is properly ventilated.
b. Chloroform should be administered at the beginning of each pain, and discontinued as soon as the pain has passed, then resumed at beginning of next pain, discontinued at close of pain and so on. Never should complete insensibility be obtained. The object sought in natural labor is a mitigation of the pain, a semianesthesia. Complete anesthesia would interfere with the progress of labor.
c. Anesthetics are not harmful to the child. Anesthesia of the child is not produced. They are not harmful to the mother. "Lactation is not
injuriously affected, nor is the child in any way injured." (Buxton.) The almost complete immunity enjoyed by the woman in childbirth, from the accidents of anesthesia, is partly due to the following conditions: Marked hypertrophy of the left ventricle during pregnancy; recumbent posture which patient naturally assumes during delivery; action of the heart is aided by the alternate relaxations and contractions of the uterus; the tendency of anesthetics is to produce anemia of the brain. This anemia is counteracted by the labor-pains which give rise to an engorgement of that organ. Pain is a stimulant to the vaso-motor system, and, consequently, there is less danger in anesthesia while labor-pains are in progress. (Hare.)
Anesthetics do not, provided the narcosis be not too profound, interfere with the uterine contractions. They do not interfere with the contractions of the abdominal muscles. They weaken the resistance of the perineal muscles. They are of distinct advantage to the mother because by their attenuation of pain the progress of labor is hastened [this fact is especially demonstrable in* women that fear pain]; because they calm the extreme agitation and cerebral excitement that labor often produces in very nervous women, and because, by shortening labor, they lessen its traumatisms, greatly diminish the parturient's pros-
tration, and make her recovery more rapid. Cardiac, pulmonary and renal lesions are not absolute contraindications to their use in difficult labors. Ether would doubtless be less dangerous to a damaged heart, and cause less shock to the nervous and vascular systems, than would the agony of a severe extraction such as would occur with an excessively large fetal head or a small maternal pelvic outlet. (E. H. Boot.)
After profound anesthesia during delivery, increased watchfulness against hemorrhage is enjoined by most teachers. Play fair believes that the use of anesthetics increases the tendency to hemorrhage. This tendency to hemorrhage is disputed by many good authorities. Fordyce Barker, of New York, says: "Through a long number of years I have rarely attended labors without ether. I have never seen from it any ill effects. Especially has it not caused a tendency to hemorrhage."
anesthesia is indicated, you will be governed in your choice of anesthetic agent by the same rules that obtain in the absence of the pregnant condition. For instance, if the patient has a cardiac lesion, use ether instead of chloroform; if there is a marked renal lesion, use chloroform and not ether.
ANESTHETICS IN SURGEBY.
In all cases in which there is an indication for surgical anesthesia and the condition of the tissues or the nature of the operation do not admit of the employment of local anesthetics, we have recourse to general anesthetics. We use ether or chloroform for all operations requiring a longer and deeper anesthesia than can be obtained by nitrous oxide gas or bromide of ethyl.
There are no absolute contraindications to the induction of general surgical anesthesia. When the physical condition of the patient permits the performance of an operation, it permits of the giving of an anesthetic. The question to be decided is whether the disadvantages attending the use of the anesthetic more than counterbalance the advantages of its employment.
There are, however, unfavorable conditions. No age, no sex, no climate confers immunity from the dangers of ether and chloroform anesthesia. Pregnancy and menstruation do not contraindi-
cate ether or chloroform anesthesia. They may, however, contraindicate the operation. I have not found a single case reported in which the induction of surgical anesthesia has caused abortion.
In the following conditions the giving of an anesthetic is hazardous, because experience has taught us that patients suffering from these conditions are subject to the grave dangers and accidents of anesthesia:
In patients having severe organic lesions of the central nervous system, of the pulmonary system, of the circulatory system; in delirium tremens, the different neuroses as epilepsy, hysteria, etc.; in aneurisms of the arch of the aorta or the innominate artery, because there is danger of vascular rupture or because death frequently occurs from its administration in this condition; in surgical shock; in cachexia from any cause, fever, prolonged suppuration, suffering from, intense and constant pain. "These conditions bring such changes in tissue nutrition and tissue vigor as to render the action of ether and chloroform for the time being abnormal." (Gill, St. Barthol. Hosp. Kep., London, 1895.)
Ether 341,058 23, or 1 in 14,828
Despite the unfavorable showing made in the above figures by chloroform, from the standpoint of safety as compared to ether, chloroform maintains its popularity, its advocates declaring that in competent hands it is preferable to ether, because it is less disagreeable to take, less irritating to the lungs, its stage of excitement is shorter, and its after-effects, such as nausea and vomiting, less annoying, less prolonged than those of ether. "Nausea and general depression are more pronounced after the use of ether than after the use of chloroform." (Hare.) Ether and chloroform have each their individual contraindications. Clinical experience teaches us that the mortality from anesthesia can be much diminished by the careful selection of the anesthetic in each individual case. This selection is to be arrived at by a consideration of the age of patient, of the climate, of the environments, of the physical condition of the patient, of the nature of the operation, of the posture of the patient, of his idiosyncrasies, and of the skill of the anesthetist.
accidents. In the absence of indications (which are to be later enumerated) for the use of chloroform, ether is the anesthetic to use. The contraindications to the use of chloroform furnish indications for the use of ether. The following quotations from eminent experimental therapeutists and from well-known surgeons uphold this view:
"Ether is by far the safest anesthetic substance for use during prolonged surgical operations." (Hare.) "Chloroform is seven times as dangerous as ether." (Waller.) H. C. Wood urges the general use of ether, and adds: "In the selection of an anesthetic, the question of safety is paramount." "I am certain that ether is infinitely safer than chloroform." (Frederick Treves.)
AGE OF PATIENT.
In children, previous to the age of seven years, chloroform is the safest anesthetic. The relative immunity of children to chloroform narcosis is due to the great vascularity of their nervous system. The percentage of chloroform mortality in children is much below that of older patients. In children, ether causes a great outflow of bronchial mucus. This mucus can asphyxiate the patient. The bronchial mucous membrane of children is delicate and predisposed to inflammatory processes. Ether is a direct irritant to these mucous surfaces and can, and often does, excite inflammation of the air passages.
CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTS. 21
As a general rule, ether should not be administered to patients over sixty years of age, because these patients, as a class, either suffer from or are on the verge of renal and of pulmonary degenerative changes. Ether is contraindicated in renal and in pulmonary affections.
CLIMATE.
In warm climates use chloroform. It would seem that the warm atmosphere of tropical climates causes a rapid action of the chloroform and, at the same time, its rapid evaporation. Lawrie records 45,000 chloroformizations without a death. A warm climate renders chloroform vapor more diffusable and so lessens its noxious effects. The respiratory functions are not so paramount, owing to the great activity of the hepatic and cutaneous functions in warm climates. Ether is obtained and preserved with difficulty in tropical countries.
ENVIKONHENTS.
On the battlefield and in the navy, chloroform is the anesthetic to use. It is less bulky. The quantity of chloroform needed to anesthetize a patient is less voluminous than the quantity of ether required for the same purpose. Ether is inflammable, chloroform is not. It produces anesthesia in less time than ether. The amount of work to be performed being great, time is an important factor.
the face, use chloroform.
In operations by gaslight, use chloroform. Ether is inflammable and explosive. This fact should always be borne in mind, because, during an operation, a lighted candle or gas jet brought near the ether may cause a serious explosion. The danger of using ether near a lighted gas jet is shown by numerous news items.
PHYSICAL CONDITION OF PATIENT.
(a) In atheromatous conditions of the bloodvessels, use chloroform, because ether produces a more violent, a more prolonged stage of excitement, thereby increasing the liability to vascular rupture and its consequences. Ether increases the heart action and raises the blood pressure, and hence is liable to cause hemorrhage from weakened blood-vessels.
(b) In organic cardiac lesions, always select ether. In this connection, we must always remember that the integrity of the muscular structure of the heart is of far greater importance than the integrity of the valves. We select ether because chloroform is a powerful cardiac depressant and paralyzant; because chloroform acts upon the heart; it causes a marked depression of the cardiac muscle, involving a reduction of its tone, a relaxation of the cardiac walls, and an impairment of its
CONDITION OF THE PATIENT. 23
functional activity. (McWilliam, British Med. J., 1890); because ether is a cardiac stimulant; because experiments and clinical observation show that chloroform kills generally by syncope ( Verneuil), and organic cardiac lesions by their very nature predispose to this accident. Sudden arrest of the 'heart's action, from structural disease, may take place during the first few minutes of chloroform anaesthesia; and because failure to select ether is liable to result in accidents. Should, however, the cardiac lesion be accompanied by marked bronchial or pulmonary congestion, use chloroform.
If a fluidram of ether be injected directly into the jugular vein of a dog, there is no fall in arterial pressure; if twenty drops of chloroform be injected, it will immediately cause a fatal paralysis of heart. Sphygmographic tracings show that ether exerts a stimulant action upon the heart. They also show that chloroform exerts an opposite action. A small, weak and compressible pulse grows stronger under ether.
In renal affections use chloroform, because quantity for quantity ether is, of course, less irritating to the kidneys, but as a very much larger quantity of ether than of chloroform is needed to produce anesthesia, chloroform is to be preferred. The effect of chloroform anesthesia on kidneys is practically nil. Drs. Thompson and
Kemp, who have made experimental researches upon the circulation of the kidneys, regard chronic renal disease or the pressure of any of the systemic signs of renal inadequacy, such as rigid arteries, high tension pulse and dilated right heart with chronic bronchitis, as contraindications to the use of ether, and if any general anesthetic has to be employed, advise the use of chloroform.
In an examination of fifty cases before and after etherization (urine filtered and nitric acid test used), thirty-six cases showed that ether either produced albumin or increased its quantity when it was present before. (Blake.) Ether may cause oliguria,anuria, or nephritis.
OTHEK CONDITIONS.
In diabetes mellitus, use chloroform. The use of ether in diabetic patients has been, followed by diabetic coma. (Hare, Da Costa.)
In inflammatory conditions of the upper and the lower respiratory organs, as rhinitis, laryngitis, tracheitis, bronchitis, pneumonia, asthma, emphysema, use chloroform, because ether is a distinct irritant to mucous membranes of the respiratory passages and because untoward effects of ether are mainly exercised upon the respiratory system. (Sajous.)
SELECTION OF ANESTHETIC. 25
In collapse, especially that following the loss of blood in shock, as characterized by low temperature, in asthenia, cachexia and in anemia, use ether (but use it sparingly), because ether has stimulating properties, and because a comparatively small dose of chloroform may produce alarming or fatal cardiac depression.
In alcoholics, if the condition of the heart permits, use chloroform. Alcoholics are so steeped in stimulants that large quantities of ether must be employed to secure anesthesia, and even then may be ineffective.
When the liver function is impaired, use ether.
In obese and plethoric individuals, use chloroform. Ether, by causing marked engorgement of the upper air passages, and increased secretion of saliva and mucus, renders respiration difficult.
In goitre, and in all conditions tending to reduce the caliber of larynx, trachea or bronchi, as malignant disease of throat and neck, deep cervical cellulitis, foreign bodies in the air passages, foreign bodies in the esophagus, asthma, etc., use chloroform, if local anesthesia be unsuitable.
Hare prefers to use ether in young athletes, for clinical experience shows that this class of patients are especially liable to accidents with chloroform.
A. Use chloroform in prolonged operations about the mouth, nose and pharynx, when mouth and nose must frequently be uncovered, because, owing to the fact that consciousness rapidly returns when the supply of ether is discontinued, its (ether's) intermittent use does not give enough time for prolonged surgical procedure.
is to be given through a tracheal canula.
C. In ophthalmology, use chloroform. Ether, by causing struggling and venous congestion, increases the risk of hemorrhage. Its after-effects, as vomiting, etc., also disqualify its use in ophthalmic work.
and in laryngeal operations.
E. Use chloroform in operations in which venous engorgement constitutes a serious difficulty, as in removal of glands at root of neck; tracheotomy; operations on brain and its mem-
F. In cranial operations, in functional or organic diseases of the brain, use chloroform. Ether produces engorgement of the cerebral vessels, and general engorgement of the venous circulation. By using chloroform we shorten the stage of excitement and lessen the tendency to hemorrhage.
G. In abdominal operations, use chloroform. "In abdominal surgery chloroform is better than ether/' (Kelly, Baltimore.) Eespiration is much quieter under chloroform than under ether. Engorgement of part is considerably less, hence less hemorrhage. Muscular relaxation is more complete. Relaxation of the abdominal parietes is very important in abdominal operations. In some cases, ether fails to secure this. The tendency of patient to cough and strain is considerably less after chloroform than after ether. Chloroform is less frequently followed by vomiting. Ether increases the bronchial secretions. The stagnation of these in the bronchi can excite pathological conditions. After abdominal operation, the expelling power by which the bronchi are emptied is lessened, owing to the inhibition by pain and by the incision of the abdominal muscles. Chloroform does not increase the bronchial secretions, and hence is comparatively free from bronchial or pulmonary after-effects.
less disagreeable to take.
I. In operating upon the neck, use chloroform. There is less movement of the parts. Ether, by provoking copious salivary and bronchial secretions, hampers respiration and renders it jerky.
J. Chloroform should never be used for extracting teeth. Nitrous-oxide gas is a safe and convenient anesthetic, and fulfills, with very few exceptions, all the requirements of the dentist. In Lyman's collection of deaths from chloroform anesthesia (393 in number) there are thirty deaths that occurred under chloroform anesthesia induced for removal of teeth.
K. Chloroform should not be used for minor operations, such as removal of ingrowing toe-nail, opening of superficial abscess, or when local anesthesia fulfills the requirements. "A very large proportion of deaths from chloroform anesthesia have occurred with minor operations." (Hewitt.)
L. In the operation for removal of naso-pharyngeal adenoids, use ether, if local anesthesia is unsuitable, or if you do not wish to use bromide of ethyl anesthesia. This operation is not so very painful. I have frequently seen Prof. Coulter perform it without previously anesthetizing the parts or the patient, and it did not seem to provoke very great suffering. I have myself operated on mild
NATURE OF OPERATION. 2U
cases without an anesthetic. Hinckel has collected eighteen cases of death under chloroform in this operation as occurring within the last five years. During this same period, there was only one case of death from ether administered for throat operation. This operation was a tonsilotomy. Dr. Paltauf says: "As a result of enlargement of the thymus gland, and other lymphoid structures, there is a particular predisposition of the individual to cardiac syncope/' Syncope is a common mode of death under chloroform anesthesia. Brickner says: "In anesthetizing patients of the lymphatic temperament, or in whom lymphatic enlargements or adenoid vegetations exist, choloroform should be rigidly interdicted." The posture usually given to the patient in this operation, a1 sitting or semi-recumbent one, renders the use of chloroform inadmissible. For the removal of nasopharyngeal adenoids, Coulter, Hawley and many other laryngologists make use of bromide of ethyl anesthesia.
M. In rectal surgery give ether. Allingham believes ether to be the safer anesthetic in rectal surgery. Deep narcosis is here required. The rectal reflex is a late reflex to depart. Deep ether narcosis is less dangerous than deep chloroform narcosis. The anal reflex is one of the last reflexes to be abolished. Its abolition requires profound anesthesia. When this reflex is absent, no resist-
Chloroform is the safest anesthetic for laparotomy in Trendelenburg's posture. (Garrigues, Cleveland, Goodell, Sutton.) This position tends to produce congestion of brain. Ether has this same property. Both causes combined may cause rupture of cerebral vessels.
Any operation that must be performed in the upright, sitting or semirecumbent posture, forbids the use of chloroform anesthesia. As to the kneechest posture, it is not a position for anesthesia.
In the prone posture, give ether. In this position the face, the eyeballs, the pupils are more or less concealed from observation, the pulse is not as easily watched as in the dorsal position, therefore the respirations are our main guide as to the condition of the patient. The breathing under ether is strong and audible, hence the value of ether when this posture must be maintained during the course of the operation.
If in a previous anesthesia, the patient has taken ether very poorly, the selection of chloroform is proper. The same also applies to chloroform. When in the course of chloroform anesthesia, such evidences of chloroform intoxication as blanching of face, great rapidity of pulse (120-140), sudden dilatation of the pupils, become apparent, if the
with the use of ether.
If the anesthetist is inexperienced, ether is the anesthetic to be chosen. The safety margin is much less with chloroform than with ether. Ether kills slowly, gives plenty of warning. Chloroform gives no warning whatever, and kills quickly.
regarded as too insignificant.
1. Ascertain condition of heart, lungs and kidneys of patient. It will guide you in your selection of the anesthetic agent. Knowing the physical condition of your patient, you will be on the alert for possible accidents, and be better prepared to meet them. By carefully preparing your patient for the ordeal of anesthesia, you greatly minimize the dangers incident to this condition. "It is far better to err on the side of an unnecessarily cautious investigation than to overlook symptoms which if recognized would be of service in conducting the administration of the anesthetic." (Wm. S. Deutsch.) An existing bronchitis should be palliated or cured. If the operation is one of a certain duration, and the examination of the urine reveals the presence of albumin and casts, place
patient on a milk diet for a few days previous to the operation. Especially is this indicated if the daily passage of urine is much helow the normal. In this connection remember that water is our best diuretic.
2. Toilet of naso-pharyngeal passages. Cleansing of naso-pharyngeal mucosa by the use of an alkaline solution. This removes the secretions, thereby permitting much easier breathing and increasing the facility with which anesthesia can be induced and maintained. Ether promotes separation of foreign substances from naso-pharynx. The aspiration of these irritating morbid products (dessicated secretions), with their lurking micro-organisms, from the higher to the lower respiratory passages, can set up bronchial or pulmonary inflammation. An existing rhinitis should be palliated or cured. If a nasal obstruction to free breathing exists, it must be attended to.
antiseptic solution, as listerine or borolyptol.
4. Examine the eyes. If patient has a glass eye, remember it. Note the degree of dilatation, the regularity and the mobility of the pupils.
5. Examine joints for ankylosis. "An ankylosed elbow not previously noticed may lead you to believe the patient is not relaxed, and in your endeavor to secure complete muscular relaxation the anesthesia will be pushed too far."
function of the skin.
7. Bowels should be evacuated on the night before operation by a laxative. An enema should be given on the morning, two hours before the operation. This measure lessens the nausea and vomiting. (Buxton.) Empty the bowels of feces, thereby minimizing fermentation and abdominal distention and avoiding distressing pressure on the heart and lungs. (Gallant.) "In my experience, the salines act best for this purpose, and if the liver is inactive may be preceded by small doses of calomel. The salines, particularly the magnesium sulphate, act quickly, clear out the intestinal tract thoroughly, and leave the secretions in a healthy condition. The vegetable cathartics cause more or less violent and irregular peristalsis, which keeps the patient awake, and they usually leave the intestinal tract in an irritable condition. I have frequently recognized in the dark vomited material following an afternoon operation, the compound liquorice powder taken the night before, and have observed that patients who had taken a saline did not vomit to the same extent and suffered very little from intestinal disturbances afterward." (H. "W. Carter.)
8. On the night before the operation, give patient a hypnotic, so as to secure a restful night. "A good night's rest is one of the best means of
9. Patient's urine to be voided on morning of the operation. In abdominal operations the patient is to be catheterized before beginning the administration of the anesthetic. A distended bladder interferes with operative procedures.
and all head jewelry, such as earrings, combs, etc.
12. In cases of intestinal obstruction attended with fecal vomiting, as strangulated hernia, etc., lavage of stomach before administering the anesthetic lessens the danger of emesis during the course of the operation. The entrance of fecal vomit into the trachea causes either pneumonia or death.
13. The best time for an operation of election is early in the morning or early in the afternoon. These are the periods of greatest vitality. Late in the day, the body is fatigued. "Individuals are more liable to after-effects of an unpleasant character when their bodily condition is one of nervous exhaustion and lowered vitality." (Willard and Adler.)
14. If the operation is to be performed in the forenoon the patient should have a light supper on the day previous to the operation, and no breakfast
RULES FOR BOTH ETHER AND CHLOROFORM. 35
on the day of the operation. If the operation is to be performed in the afternoon the patient should have a light breakfast and no dinner on the day of the operation.
1. The temperature of the room in which ether or chloroform are to be used should not be below 70 deg. F.; when the trachea or abdomen are to be opened not below 85 deg. F. Koom should be free from draughts to avoid chilling of the body.
2. The anesthetist should be provided with a clean apron and clean towels; pledgets of gauze (plain); Allis inhaler; Esmarch inhaler; two long artery forceps, to serve as gauze-sponge holders; mouth-gag; tongue forceps; hypodermic syringes — one with strych. sulph., gr. 1-20, the other with tr. digitalis, m x-xx; cosmoline or other bland fatty substance; rubber catheters; tracheal canula. Strychnine, digitalis and ammonia are the most serviceable drugs in the accidents of anesthesia. Nitrite of amyl, caffeine and atropine are of little or no use in chloroform poisoning. (H. C. Wood.) Restorative agents should be close at hand, so that in case of impending danger relief can be immediate.
3. Anesthetics must not be self-administered. Up to 1880, there were 20 deaths on record from the self-administration of chloroform. (Lyman.)
4. Before beginning to give the anesthetic, scrub your hands with soap and water and put on a clean apron. It is cleanly. It makes a good impression.
5. Always clean cone or mask, sterilization is preferable, before each anesthesia. This will promote the comfort of patient, cleanliness and nonconveyance of infection.
6. Always satisfy yourself of the purity of the drug that you are going to administer. Enydahl attributes his great success with anesthesia to the absolute purity of the ether which he uses. "Impure chloroform is very dangerous to life." (Hare.) Perrin cites fatalities due to impure chloroform. The impurities of chloroform, such as chlorine and hydrochloric acid, lengthen and intensify the stage of excitement, aggravate the irritating action of chloroform upon mucous membranes, and increase the liability to sickness during and after anesthesia. They are said to favor the production of cardiac and respiratory syncope. Tasse says, "Impure chloroform is capable of poisoning the nervous system, producing paralysis, and transient or permanent albuminuria." The purity of ether may be tested by adding to it a small amount of oil of copaiba. Clearness of solution indicates purity
of ether; any cloudiness or emulsion indicates impurities. Ether readily develops impurities. It should not be exposed to light. The can should be kept closed. To ascertain the purity of chloroform, dip chemically pure filter paper into chloroform, and allow the latter to evaporate. Pure chloroform leaves no odor. If the chloroform tested is impure, a more or less irritating, unpleasant smell remains. Chloroform should be kept in glassstoppered, dark-colored bottles. The addition to chloroform of a small quantity of ethylic alcohol 1-1000, prevents its decomposition.
7. Win the patients7 confidence, reassure them as to the outcome of the operation; tell them that there is no cause for alarm, that anesthesia has no dangers. The heart can be made functionally incompetent by fright*. "The element of fear can easily lead to heart failure." (Eichardson.) A fatal result taking place within a few minutes after the commencement of the inhalation of the anesthetic can be caused by 'syncope, the effect of fear. Anxiety and fear are heart depressants, and may produce dangerous, and even fatal, symptoms. The patient uttered a loud cry and suddenly died. Gazenave was about to operate on a very nervous patient. He did not give chloroform, but made a
was dead.
8. Always give the anesthetic upon an empty stomach. The patient should not, however, be kept too long without food. If the patient is too long without food, bile is apt to flow into the stomach and induce vomiting during anesthesia. Five to six hours should have elapsed since food was last taken. By taking this precaution the tendency to vomiting is lessened. "Vomiting is almost a constant sequel in those who have inhaled the drug upon a full stomach." (Hare.) A distended stomach impedes the heart's action. In operations upon the stomach or intestines, Dr. McBurney washes out stomach previous to anesthetizing patient. Vomiting is annoying to the anesthetist; it retards the production of anesthesia; it can produce harm by disturbing the relation of wound flaps, by giving rise to hemorrhage from cut vessels imperfectly blocked, by disturbing and soiling dressings. In abdominal operations, it causes a protrusion of intestines; aspiration of vomited matter can cause: aspiration pneumonia and asphyxia; vomited matter may lodge in the esophagus, and from there compress trachea and cause asphyxia.
knowledge of the different steps of the operation that is to be performed and of the length of time that will he required to perform it. For example, in an operation on hemorrhoids while the sphincter is heing dilated the anesthetist should remove the cone or mask from the patient's face. Stretching of the sphincter excites deep inspiration and if the cone is not removed the patient may inhale an overdose of the anesthetic. In an operation on a cleft palate he must know when to intermit and when to resume the administration of the anesthetic. Previous to the cutting of important nerves hy the operator he must he sure that his anesthesia is complete.
10. Always, when the nature of the operation allows it (and there are very few operations that do not), anesthetize the patient in the recumbent posture. The giving of chloroform to a patient in the sitting posture is an unjustifiable error. The Hyderabad commission insists that chloroform be given in the recumbent position. The recumbent posture is to be selected because it facilitates the circulation between the heart and the brain, thereby lessening the tendency to syncope. Failure of respiration in chloroform narcosis is due to anemia of the respiratory center. The horizontal posture does not favor this anemia; the sitting posture does. This position is also the position of election for ether anesthesia. "Dentists who
administer ether to their patients in an erect posture have more deaths during anesthesia, proportionately, than surgeons who administer to patients in the recumbent posture." (Hare.)
Force of gravity has a marked influence upon the circulation. The sitting and vertical postures cause a fall of blood pressure in the carotid arteries, the horizontal posture restores the blood-pressure in these vessels to its normal state. Chloroform lowers the blood pressure by its depressing action on the vaso-motor apparatus, and on the heart and its contained ganglia. The upright, sitting and semirecumbent postures lower the blood pressure in the cranial and cervical vessels. Chloroform and faulty position acting together produce an anaemia of the medulla oblongata. From this anaemia, if it be sufficiently marked, results syncope.
The splanchnic vaso-motor mechanism controls the abdominal vascular area. This paralysis allows dilatation of the abdominal veins, and in the sitting and similar postures, the force of gravity aiding, the blood drains into these veins, the right heart is emptied and the cerebral circulation fails.
It is the most convenient position for the anesthetist. It gives him a better view of the face, of the pupils, of the respiratory movements of the patient and enables him to easily palpate the facial
or temporal artery. These arteries keep him informed of the patient's heart action. In this position he can easily prevent tongue from falling backward by pressing and keeping forward, with little and ring finger, the rami of the jaw. He can easily feel the expiratory current of air, by putting thumb occasionally over the patient's mouth, thereby ascertaining that the patient is breathing. This is important because the epigastric region may rise and fall, and still no air enter the lungs. He can easily hear the respiratory murmur. He can better watch action of the diaphragm.
The position admits of better expansion of chest. For the safe administration of chloroform and ether, expiration must not be impeded. This condition is only obtained in positions that permit the lungs to expand and contract freely. To secure this full expansion and contraction of the lungs, in addition to suitable position, the air passages must be straightened out, the glottis must be free, and the tongue prevented from falling back. The side position impedes respiration, and especially is this marked when a pleural effusion is present. When the heart's action is interfered with, by old adhesions, by tumors, etc., the side position greatly increases the tendency to heart-failure or syncope.
The prone position hampers respiration, (a) by preventing free expansion of chest, (b) by preventing descent of diaphragm, owing to the pressure
exerted in this position on abdominal wall and viscera. "Knee-chest posture must never be used in anesthesia." (Hewitt.) In obstetrics, semi-lateral position can be used. "It is said that during gynecological and obstetric operations, in which the patients are kept lying on the left side, the pulse and respiration have been more satisfactory during anesthesia from chloroform than when patients have taken it in the dorsal position. It may be that the view which attributes special safety to the drug in obstetrical cases took its origin in the fact that the customary obstetrical position in England and in this country is upon the left side. Buxton thinks that the influence of position is unquestionably important, and is due to the fact that the condition of the heart, lungs, tongue and larynx is more nearly correct physically and physiologically when the patient is placed in the left lateral position instead of on the back." (Am. Text-Book of Surgery.)
In laryngeal and abdominal operations the Trendelenburg position is very satisfactory. The anesthesia, however, must be started in recumbent posture, and when patient is under the anesthetic, position is changed. If in the Trendelenburg position, the cyanosis of face becomes marked, patient must temporarily be returned to horizontal position.
PRECAUTIONS TO BE OBSERVED. 43
the operator insists upon sitting posture, begin administering the anesthetic in the recumbent position, then, once patient is anesthetized, slowly raise him to sitting posture and have head and shoulders well thrown forward. (Hewitt.) This position is favorable for the escape of blood. Never use chloroform in this position. Henry Davis, in the British Med. Journal, for the removal of nasopharyngeal adenoids, advises having patient on back, with head drawn over the table, as in the method now so frequently employed for staphylorrhaphy. He says that in this position blood cannot trickle downward in the larynx, but that it collects in the roof of the pharnyx, which in this position forms, as it were, a cup from which the blood and fragments of adenoid tissue can be easily removed.
gravitate into the trachea.
12. Always have patient's mouth free from false teeth, chewing gum, or other foreign bodies, before starting to administer the anesthetic. Foreign bodies interfere with respiration. If an emergency arises demanding the rhythmic traction of the tongue, they are in the way. They may slip into the trachea, and cause pneumonia or asphyxia. Case 24:2. Lyman's collection: "A patient was
passing into stage of insensibility, her respiration became laborious, her countenance livid, her pulse weak, and all symptoms of suffocation appeared.
The tongue was pulled forward and with the finger a metallic plate of artificial teeth was drawn out of pharnyx. Death from suffocation." In children, look for loose temporary teeth, so as to be on guard, in case the use of the tongue forceps becomes necessary. Eough handling can dislodge a tooth, and its intrusion into the trachea can cause suffocation.
13. Always see that all articles of dress are loosened and that there are no constrictions about waist or neck. Such constrictions impede the circulation and the respiratory movements. The Hyderabad Commission found that tight lacing greatly increased the risks of chloroform administration, on account of the imperfect respiration and the consequent tendency to asphyxia to which it gave rise.
14. Always smear nose, chin and lips with vaseline or cold cream, or oil, or glycerine. Ether and chloroform irritate the skin and the mucous membranes. By taking this precaution the patient is protected from an annoying postoperative erythema or dermatitis. "Applied to the skin, chloroform is a powerful irritant, and if the contact be
15. This is to prevent
the irritation of the conjunctiva that follows its exposure to the fumes of ether or chloroform. It also protects the eyes from any ether or chloroform that might accidentally be spilled on the face. Once complete anesthesia has been induced, this can be removed so as to enable you to watch the pupils. Be careful not to pour any of the chloroform or of the ether in the patient's mouth.
16. Keep the patient's arms to side of body, and feel pulse at facial or temporal arteries. Arms must not be pinned over patient's chest. A good way is to flex forearm on arm and then pin lower part of sleeve of forearm to upper part of sleeve of arm. See that arms do not hang over sharp edges of operating table. See that they do not lie between the border of the operating table and the body of the operator or any of his assistants. Do not place the patient's arm under his head and do not bring it in that position so as to palpate the radial pulse. The facial and temporal arteries give you equally good information and do not expose your patient to postanesthetic paralysis. For the same reason do not allow the patient's legs to hang over the edge of the table.
paralysis, some have been due to compression, others to traction of brachial plexus or some of its branches by the arm having been pulled over head of patient. Others have been due to the arm having been caught as in a wedge between the operator and the operating table. The elevation of the arms lessens the costo-clavicular interspace, and thus can cause compression of the brachial plexus or of some of its branches. In the vast majority of cases postanesthesia paralysis is due to a lesion of the nerve-trunks. It is a "peripheral paralysis." It is always (excluding the very rare cases in which it may be due to the rupture of a cerebral vessel during the stage of excitement) due to direct or indirect pressure upon a nerve or nerves during the administration of an anesthetic. When due to this cause, it is preventable in every instance. Though the upper extremities are most commonly affected, it may also involve the lower extremities. Some cases of postanesthesia paralysis have been caused by the elbows of the anesthetist resting heavily upon the clavicular region of the patient and pressing upon the brachial plexus. (Leszinsky.)
17. Let there be no unnecessary exposure of the patient's body to cold. Anesthetics tend to reduce the temperature; hence, in administering them, rational measures should be adopted to prevent loss of heat. Maintain the patient's body-temperature before, during and after the operation. Have his
bed warmed by hot bricks and hot-water bottles. See that he does not lie in a puddle of cold water during the course of anesthesia. Object: To prevent chilling of body and consequent bronchitis and pneumonia. In discussing after-ether pneumonia, Buxton says: "That removal of the patient to a cold ward after he has been in a warm operating room and subjected to severe surgical shock, has been the true cause of the lung trouble in many cases." Chilling of the surface of the body produces congestion of the internal organs. Hyperemia of an organ predisposes it to inflammation. If to the hyperemic condition of the renal and pulmonary parenchyma is added the irritating action which attends the inhalation of ether and chloroform (not as marked with chloroform) by the lung, as well as their elimination by the kidneys and the lungs, inflammation can easily be excited in these organs. Prevention is more certain than cure.
18. Remember that all methods that employ a large quantity of anesthetic are faulty. A skilled anesthetist will use much less anesthetic to induce and maintain anesthesia than one who is unused to the administration of anesthetics. "The amount of the anesthetic used, no matter which one it may be, bears a direct proportion to the amount of shock, exhaustion, pulmonary edema, pneumonia or nephritis that develops after anesthesia." (Bennett.) Certain operations require that the patient
should be more deeply under the influence of the anesthetic, and so necessitate an increase of the amount to be used. All operations on the rectum, on the urethra and the perineum are of this kind. All methods involving marked asphyxial symptoms are subject to grave objections.
19. Never crowd the anesthetic. It is the large dose inhaled at once that causes death. If the operator asks of you to push the anesthetic, bear in mind, that though his time may be very valuable, the patient's life is much more so. During my interneship at Cook County Hospital I witnessed two deaths that were caused by crowding the anesthetic. "The pushing of the anesthetic vapor so as to get a rapid anesthesia at all risks, is as dangerous a plan as could be possibly devised." (Sir B. W. Eichardson.) "Hasty saturation of tissues with a powerful anesthetic may cause speedy death." (Hare.) Pushing the inhalation of a poison from the start overwhelms the vital centers, while its slow administration habituates them to it.
20. Never give an anesthetic to a woman unless a third person be present. This is suggested for the comfort of the patient and for your protection. There are cases on record where the patient has accused her medical attendant of assault while he had her under the effects of the drug. These accusations were brought forth either for the pur-
pose of blackmail, or because the patient had experienced, during the anesthetic sleep, an orgasm of which the anesthetizer appeared to be the cause.
21. In giving an anesthetic do not relax your vigilance from the beginning to the end. Attend to the anesthetic and to the anesthetic only. Remember that no one guide can be entirely relied upon to the exclusion of all the others. All the guides, such as the condition of the pupils, the nature of the respirations, the force and frequency of the pulse, etc., are of value and must all be taken into consideration during the induction and maintenance of surgical anesthesia. Deaths have occurred in all stages of anesthesia. Accidents are sudden, and, not to be fatal, must be detected at their inception. The anesthetist should not watch the operation. (Phocas, le Nord Medical.) While it is not necessary or safe for the anesthetist to watch the operation, he should know how it is progressing, so as to stop the anesthetic when it is no longer required.
22. Do not, as a routine measure, complicate anesthesia by the use of such agents as morphine, atropine, etc. By their action on the respiration, on the pulse and on the pupils, they mask the patient's real condition. There are exceptional instances where these agents can be properly used. Morphia, given previous to beginning the administration of the anesthetic, increases the liability to
vomiting during anesthesia. Analysis of 15,000 anesthesias collected by the Society of Scandinavian Surgeons (March 1, 1894, March 1, 1895) showed that vomiting occurred in ether anesthesia without injection of morphine in 14 per cent; with morphine, in 25 per cent. Chloroform, without injection of morphine, in 10| per cent; with mor: phine, in 14 8-10 per cent. Morphine is a respiratory depressant. Morphine interferes with the motility of the iris. Those agents, such as morphine and atropine, interfere with means employed for resuscitation if the patient gets into a dangerous condition. For instance, the effects of morphia would last longer than the effects of the anesthetic, and the morphia could not be counteracted by any other drugs than those that would be employed to resuscitate the patient from the anesthesia-narcosis.
23. During anesthesia, from time to time, turn patient's head to either side so as to allow the escape of loosened secretions from mouth and nose. Rotation of head on trunk has little or no influence upon respiration. This procedure facilitates the outflow of mucus and saliva from mouth. These, during anesthesia, tend to induce cough, and if swallowed, favor retching and vomiting. Coughing, retching and vomiting, when caused by swallowed saliva, and mucus, mislead us into thinking that patient is recovering consciousness, and incite
us to give him more of the anesthetic than he needs. Patients who during anesthesia sw.allow much mucus are much more liable to be sick afterwards. "Swallowing of much mucus excites postanesthetic vomiting." (Blumfeld.)
24. Should the patient to be anesthetized suffer from partial or complete nasal obstruction, place a small gag between his teeth before commencing the administration of the anesthetic. Partial nasal occlusion is liable to become complete during anesthesia, by reason of the increased vascularity of the parts. In all operations about mouth, pharynx and lower jaw, it is a good rule to introduce gag, at an early period during the induction of anesthesia. When the tongue is the seat of the growth, pass a thread through its tip before muscular relaxation sets in. This thread will give you a better control of tongue. Should the tongue fall backward, thereby mechanically preventing the entrance of air into the lungs, by pulling thread you can easily pull tongue forward. In operations about face, Souchon's apparatus is very serviceable.
25. Sudden change from recumbent to vertical posture during anesthesia must be avoided. Danger of syncope. It is always far more convenient for the anesthetist, and it is also safer for the patient, if he be anesthetized upon the operatingtable. "The extent to which a patient has to be
26. Boom, in which the anesthetic is administered, must be quiet. Conversations and noises excite the patient's attention and retard the production of anesthesia. If there is a burning gasjet in the roon£ see that ventilation is assured. Chloroform, in being decomposed by the gas-flame, liberates free chlorine. This gas is a respiratory irritant, and can cause bronchial irritation in operator and assistants, and asphyxia in patient. If chloroform is to be administered in a room lighted by gas-light it is imperative that free ventilation be secured. Patient must not be anesthetized beneath a gas-flame. "Chloroform, 'if given, in an unventilated room near a gas-flame, excites in the attendants present in the room a choking and stinging sensation in the throat and chest, resulting in incessant coughing." (Winslow.) These symptoms of bronchial and laryngeal irritation, such as a constant, dry, spasmodic and paroxysmal cough, and a feeling of distress and oppression over the chest, are provoked chiefly by hydrochloric and chlorine gas (Hare), these substances being resultants of the changes which chloroform vapor undergoes in the presence of gas, oil or other flame, chlorine gas being the main toxic agent responsible for the occurrence of the accidents. The forementioned symptoms, to which can be added a
stinging sensation in the nostrils, the perception of a pungent odor, etc., are chiefly experienced by the anesthetist. They may, however, affect the patient as well as bystanders. It is not rare for chemists working in small rooms with chloroform and lighted Bunsen lamps to suddenly become attacked with severe coughing. Dr. Mey, Westphalia, reports an operation for gun-shot wound of the abdomen lasting four hours under the influence of chloroform, and in the presence of gas-light, during which the surgeons and sisters in attendance were overcome by the decomposition products of the anesthetic, one sister dying on the second day following the operation. Emil Aronson reports a case in which the patient and the attending physician were killed by these decomposition products. ,
27. Have patient's head on level with body. "Keep patient's head in extension, but not dropped backward over end of table." (Hare.) Flexion of head on neck lessens the caliber of air way and favors stertor and respiratory embarrassment. "Extension and projection forward and backward, both pull epiglottis away from glottic opening, but in the latter posture the soft palate is strapped over dorsum of tongue and the patient is forced to breathe through his nose, which is often partly or entirely occluded by mucus, by hypertrophies, whereas, when the head is extended and projected
forward, the patient can readily breathe through both mouth and nasal chambers." (Hare.) If patient insists upon having pillow below head, remove it as soon as he is asleep.
28. Keep jaw forward and upward. Falling down of jaw is attended by falling backward of the tongue. The tongue, in falling back, carries with it the epiglottis, and this, by falling back, prevents entrance of air into lungs.
29. Operators must minimize the duration of operations to time consistent with their proper and thorough execution, because the longer the operation the more anesthetic is required. Anesthetics are dangerous per se. Chloroform is a virulent protoplasmic poison. Ether produces a marked diminution in the amount of hemoglobin. The shorter the anesthesia, the less liability there is to after-vomiting and other disagreeable aftereffects. The danger of death is present as long as the anesthesia continues. In this connection it must be said that the surgeon must avoid undue delay before commencing the operation. Operation should be begun as soon as the patient is completely anesthetized.
30. Warn the patient, especially if he be an adult, that at first a sensation of choking will be experienced, but that it will soon pass off. When that feeling of suffocation comes he will feel less
pected. Tell patient that he must not struggle.
31. Patient's struggles should be quietly but resolutely restrained. When a patient struggles he holds his breath. This is disadvantageous, because any obstruction to breathing is very likely to impede the heart's action. If breath is held for any length of time, pulmonary circulation and right side of heart become engorged. With ether the cause of struggling is generally too strong a vapor being administered from the commencement. Give patient a breath or two of fresh air. During struggling, pushing of ether is dangerous.
32. Struggling in chloroform or ether anesthesia may be due to fright, which may lead to resistance; avoid fright by calming patient's fears. Choking or asphyxia is generally due to the cap being held too close to patient's face and to nonsufficient admixture of fresh air with the anesthetic; avoid it by holding mask not too close to patient's face at beginning of anesthesia; give patient a breath or two of fresh air to relieve symptoms. It is also due to an overdose of chloroform or ether. Permit a breath or two of air. If patient struggles violently, and the breathing becomes abnormally deep, give patient fresh air and do not reapply cap till the breathing becomes normal again.
To summarize, the objections to struggling are based on the facts that it interferes with the circulation and unduly taxes the heart, and that it fixes the thorax and embarrasses and often renders respiration impossible.
33. Encourage patient to take deep breaths. They help to overcome the sensation of suffocation. He must also be told not to hold his breath. By holding his breath he debilitates his respiratory center, owing to lack of oxygen furnished to it. Then when the necessity of breathing overcomes all other impulses, a gasping inspiration is taken, the center is flooded with the anesthetic agent, and death may supervene; this is especially liable to occur with chloroform. "Deaths which take place comparatively early in chloroform anesthesia are due primarily to rigidity, struggling and holding of breath." (Hill, Barnard.) If patient complains of suffocation, and struggles or breathes irregularly, remove mask and allow a few breaths of fresh air. Prof. Jno. Ashhurst recommends the following procedure: "Bequest patient to blow out. The vapor of ether is so irritating to the throat that it is very difficult to voluntarily draw it by deep inhalation, but it is perfectly easy to blow into the cone, and as a full expiration is inevitably followed by a deep inspiration, the surgeon's purpose is most readily accomplished; contrary to what happens when the
34. Encourage patient to expectorate mucus, and during the anesthesia, if mucus accumulates in pharynx, remove it with gauze sponges held by long artery forceps. Facilitate its outflow from mouth by turning head to one side. Mucus, mechanically, obstructs the entrance of air into the lungs. The swallowing of mucus causes retching and vomiting, both during and after the administration of the anesthetic. If mucus trickles down into the stomach during the operation, the patient is almost certain to vomit, and in most cases the vomited material consists of mucus with some gastric juice and bile.
35. Should the patient begin to vomit during the course of the anesthesia, immediately turn his head to one side and catch vomitus in towel or basin. By the aid of this measure the vomited matter will be ejected from the mouth, instead of being sucked into the larynx. Neglect of this precaution has been followed by fatalities. These have, principally, occurred in cases of fecal vomiting due to intestinal obstruction. It is the anesthetist's duty to see that the vomited matter is removed from the pharynx. Swab out pharynx with a gauze sponge held by long forceps. "During anesthesia, if vomited food has entered the larynx and is not ejected by coughing, it is necessary to promptly perform
tracheotomy and hold the tracheal wound open or introduce a tube, and practice artificial respiration." (Wharton.) If patient has vomited in mask or cone, discard it and take a clean one.
36. Remember that in cases where there has been a severe hemorrhage, the amount of anesthetic necessary to maintain safe anesthesia is small.
37. Should tongue fall backward and embarrass breathing, it is rare that one needs the aid of a tongue forceps to bring it forward. Tongue-forceps often lacerate tongue, and the lesions which they inflict cause suffering for a few days. Use the following method to bring tongue forward. I have often used it, and it has never disappointed me: With fingers (ring and little finger) push forwards and upwards angles of lower jaw; by this procedure the condyles of lower jaw are thrown, so to speak, on the eminentia articularis. This movement will invariably bring forward the tongue.
INCOMPLETE ANESTHESIA.
38. Under no circumstances should incomplete anesthesia be deemed sufficient for even the most trivial operation. See that anesthesia is complete before the operation is begun. If the operator begins operating before the anesthesia is complete, it becomes harder and requires more anesthetic than would otherwise be required to obtain complete surgical anesthesia. The patient being sub-
jected to traumatic irritation, such as cutting and pulling of nerves, the anesthetics act more slowly. Another, and still more valid objection to operating under incomplete anesthesia, is that pain may inhibit the heart's action. Therefore see that there is complete muscular relaxation, abolition of the ciliary, masseter, palpebral and buccal reflexes, and contraction of the pupils (the latter is not required in ether narcosis, but is indispensable in chloroform narcosis) before an incision is made. The conjunctival reflex, when abolished, does not always indicate a corresponding abolition of reflex action generally. I quote from Brunton: "Sudden stoppage of heart is usually ascribed to chloroform, and, no doubt, concentrated chloroform vapor inhaled into the lungs may arrest the heart. Very commonly, though, it is reflex, and when death occurs in such a case it is due to the want of chloroform, and not to its excess. In the great majority of cases recorded, as deaths from chloroform, the statement is made that the quantity used was very small and the anesthesia incomplete; that these operations, though trivial, were dangerous under imperfect anesthesia and not at all dangerous when either no anesthesia was used or when narcosis was complete. The reason for this is probably that when no anesthetic was given irritation of sensory nerves during operation caused two effects — slowing or stoppage of heart
and reflex contraction of vessels. This contraction of vessels neutralizes cardiac weakness, maintains blood pressure and thus prevents syncope. During imperfect chloroform anesthesia, the reflex effect on the heart persists, so that irritation of a sensory nerve may produce syncope by stopping the supply of arterial blood from the heart. In its weakened state it will not pump enough into the arteries, while the blood still flows rapidly into the dilated capillaries and veins." As Hare says, "The man is suddenly bled into his own vessels as effectively as into a bowl." It is perfectly possible for a patient to bleed to death in his own arteries. "Danger of partial* anesthesia lies particularly in not keeping reflex action in abeyance. It is essential that both sensation and reflex action be abolished." (A. R. Edwards.) Imperfect anesthesia renders patient peculiarly liable to cardiac failure through afference of sensory impressions conveyed from cutaneous or visceral nerves.
39. If operator notices that the patient's blood is becoming dark, he should tell the anesthetist. The patient is not inhaling enough oxygen, is getting an overdose of the anesthetic or the respiration is obstructed. Withdraw the cap and remove any impediment to the respiration that may be present. This impediment may be an excessive amount of mucus in the throat; may
40. See that operator's arms, or those of his assistant, do not rest on chest or abdomen of patient. All things that embarrass the respiratory movements of the patient must be avoided. In pelvic, perineal and rectal operations, bear in mind that all leg supports which pass around the neck and shoulder of the patient embarrass respiration and may by compressing branches of the brachial plexus cause paralysis. The best supporters are those which are attached to the table.
Watch the rate, the depth, the audibility of the breathing and the degree of stertor. "Throughout chloroformization, the respirations must be constantly watched." (Buxton.) The respirations must be regular, deep and of normal frequency. Throughout the inhalation of the anesthetic the breathing must be free and not impeded in any way. The respirations are watched in ether and chloroform anesthesia, because (a) the character of the respirations gives us information as to the depth of anesthesia, (b) The rapidity and the depth of breathing govern the amount of the drug inhaled. An amount of anesthetic which can be given with safety during easy breathing may kill, if given, during exaggerated respiration. For example, a given quantity of chloroform or ether will
exert its greatest effect when the respiration is deep and quick, because the vapor is then carried, in a given period of time, in larger quantity, into the air-spaces of the lungs. The respirations of the etherized patient are usually deeper, quicker and noisier than those of the chloroformed patient.
Movement of the chest wall, or of the diaphragm, is not sufficient evidence that the respiratory function is being carried on properly. The sounds of respiration must be heard, the breath must be felt. If costal respiration becomes feeble, or is replaced by purely diaphragmatical breathing, death will speedily follow if artificial breathing be not immediately resorted to. The value of artificial breathing lies in its property of furnishing oxygen to the blood, of clearing the lungs of anesthetic vapors and of helping on the circulation of the blood.
Marked quickening of respiration means an overdose of the anesthetic, unless it is accounted for by reflex action, such as stretching of the sphincter ani and working with the mucosa of the rectum, or by some mechanical interference with the breathing, as the presence of mucus in the airpassages. Snoring and stertorous breathing are evidences of profound narcosis. Deep, stertorous breathing is usually due to paralysis of the faucial and pharyngeal muscles. Stertor may depend upon the presence of mucus in the throat. Remove it,
with gauze sponges held by long artery forceps. During the course of anesthesia, at times, turn the patient's head to one or the other side so as to allow the saliva and mucus to run out at the side of the mouth. With ether, snoring and stertorous breathing are not necessarily dangerous. To prevent pharyngeal stertor, head must be in such a position as will not bend the neck too far back or approximate the jaw too near the sternum. Turning the head to one side will often give relief. Elevation of the jaw frequently stops the stertorous character of the breathing. In fleshy individuals, and in patients suffering from nasal obstruction, as hypertrophied tonsils, naso-pharyngeal adenoids, etc., snoring and stertorous breathing will persist during entire anesthesia. When breathing becomes stertorous, if chloroform is the anesthetic you are using, cease administration. Then watch for some slight indication of returning reflex action, as a dilating and active pupil, etc. Then give chloroform and reinduce stertor. If ether is the anesthetic agent used, continue its administration, but in doses just sufficient to maintain the anesthesia. If respiration is embarrassed, see that no obstruction to the entrance of air into the lungs is present, as regards improper position of head; foreign body in mouth, pharynx or larynx; falling backward of tongue and with it of the epiglottis; accumulation of saliva and mucus in pharynx.
64 GENERAL AND LOCAL ANESTHESIA.
See that patient gets more fresh air. In the stage oi excitement, breathing is labored. In the stage of surgical anesthesia it becomes regular as soon as the muscles are completely relaxed. The slowing of the respiration is due to the depressing action of the anesthetic on the pneumo-gastric nerve. In the stage of paralysis or collapse, the respirations are slow, sighing, shallow and finally cease.
There are certain reflexes present during full surgical anesthesia, such as those excited by dilating the sphincter ani, by the rough handling of the peritoneum, especially the breaking down of peritoneal adhesions, by the compression or rough handling of the ovaries or testes. These reflexes manifest themselves by an increase in the rate and in the depth of the respiration. During their occurrence the amount of chloroform or ether, being inhaled, should be temporarily diminished; as the increased frequency and increased depth of respiration would, were this precaution not taken, lead to the inhaling of an overdose, and to consequent ill effects.
Give chloroform drop by drop; you thereby give it in its most diluted form with air, and lessen the liability of any reflex action on the vagus. An unduly strong dose of chloroform can cause closure of the glottis. Sudden arrest of the heart or of the respiration in the initial stage of chloroform nar-
cosis has been, experimentally, proved by Europpean observers to be often due to reflex action from the filaments of the trigeminus in the Schneiderian membrane to the vagus. The possibility of this reflex action is much lessened by giving the chloroform in diluted form, and increasing the strength of the vapor very gradually. To counteract this reflex action, some surgeons spray patient's nasal chambers with a weak cocaine solution previous to beginning the administration of the anesthetic.
when ether is given is one of the following factors:
a. Irritation of peripheral filaments of the trifacial, which reflexly causes spasm of the glottis. (Kretzschmar.) This is avoided by giving vapor in diluted form to begin with. If, despite this precaution, it occurs, continuing the administration of the anesthetic will benumb the peripheral filaments of trif acial, and in that way cause relaxation of the glottis.
b. Irritation of the peripheral vagi in the lungs. This inhibits respiratory movements, and momentarily impedes the action of the heart. Here the pushing of the anesthetic benumbs the peripheral ends of the vagi in lungs and thus puts a stop to the irritation.
tinue to administer the anesthetic, and the muscular fibers of the bronchial tubes will soon relax, and breathing will take place. By gradually giving the anesthetic, that is, gradually increasing the strength of the vapor, the feeling of suffocation and spasm of glottis are rarely produced, and stertorous breathing and lividity of face are not frequently seen. In the respiratory forgetfulness which, at times, occurs at the beginning of ether anesthesia, pour some ether on patient's abdomen. The sensation of cold which attends the evaporation of this substance will reflexly excite respiration.
41. The condition of the circulation during anesthesia. Before beginning to administer the anesthetic, locate the facial or temporal artery. During the course of anesthesia, these arteries are to keep you informed of the strength and of the rate of the heart's action. A weak heart, a weak pulse; a labored heart, a thready pulse. The color of the face, lips and ears will also give you information, as to the heart's condition. It shows the activity of the capillary circulation. The fall of blood pressure, which is the normal condition of anesthesia with chloroform, is due to the action of chloroform on the vasomotor center in the medulla oblongata. During the stage of excitement the
CONDITION OF THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM. 67
pulse is accelerated; a frequency of 144 pulsations to the minute has been reported. Usually the more marked the excitement, the greater the frequency of the pulse.
In the stage of surgical anesthesia, the pulse loses in frequency, and acquires fullness and compressibility. If the administration is now continued with care, the pulse will not lose these qualities during the entire duration of the anesthesia. In the stage of paralysis the pulse is rapid, feeble, fluttering, finally ceasing or stopping suddenly without warning. When the pulse becomes rapid, 130 to 160 in children, 120 to 140 in adults, resort to stimulation; use strychnine sulph. gr. 1-20; use tr. digitalis, m. xv. to xxv. It is needless to say that during anesthesia these agents must always be given hypodermically. If the pulse seems feeble, slow, irregular, intermittent, the anesthetic must be withdrawn and fresh air freely admitted till improvement occurs. Respiration and circulation may cease simultaneously on section of a nerve.
There is an increased frequency of the pulse, when, though the thorax is rising and falling regularly, no air is entering the lungs; when patient is about to vomit (pulse also becomes irregular previous to vomiting); after considerable loss of blood; during stage of excitement; during manipulation of a considerable portion of the intes-
tines; during dilation of anal sphincter; during operations in cervical regions, when cardiac accelerating branches of pneumogastric may be irritated; at the beginning of anesthesia pulse may be rapid from fear.
There is a decreased frequency of the pulse in cranial operations; in operations in the cervical regions; when cardiac inhibitory branches of pneumogastric nerve may be irritated; in case of pressure or traction on the diaphragm; during gastric operations.
42. Condition of the muscular system during anesthesia. Muscular movements during stage of excitement are violent, purposeless and most always independent of the will. The voluntary
muscles are the first to be influenced by anesthetics. It is important to note that the involuntary muscles are, so to speak, refractory to the influence of anesthetics. It is rare for patients during anesthesia to pass urine or to void feces.
The usefulness of obstetrical anesthesia is based upon this nonpredisposition of the involuntary muscles to the action of anesthetics.
In the period of rigidity which precedes that of relaxation, if the breathing stops for more than a moment, practice artificial respiration.
Anesthesia is not complete before complete muscular relaxation has set in. Perfect relaxation of limbs is an indication that the patient is ready for the operation. During the stage of excitement, the patient struggles because he believes himself asphyxiated. The jaws are more or less fixed. Excitement and struggling gradually subside. Buccal paralysis accompanying respiration indicates that patient is going under. A little later, snoring and stertorous breathing indicate faucial and pharyngeal paralysis and that the stage of surgical anesthesia has been reached.
In the stage of surgical anesthesia the muscles are relaxed (if the arm is raised it falls back of its own weight); jaws are relaxed. If during anesthesia, patient regains control of the jaw, he is recovering consciousness. In the stage of paralysis, muscles are in the same condition as in the pre-
ceding stage. All patients in going under with ether pass through a stage in which there is more or less rigidity. Pushing the ether does not overcome, but prolongs, the rigidity, whereas withdrawing the ether brings relaxation of muscles without return to consciousness.
CONDITION OF CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM.
43. Condition of Central Nervous System: In the stage of excitement, patient seems intoxicated. There is a quick succession of ideas, of strange sensations, of hallucinations. Ideas become incoherent. Patient becomes drowsy. Cerebral torpor overtakes him. Delirium may be mild, may be violent. Excitement and delirium are due to marked hyperemia of brain. Excitement is most marked in robust, strong people and in alcoholics. Sensibility is impaired. Stage of surgical anesthesia. The patient is calm; his brain anemic; sensation is abolished. This is due to suppression of the function of the sensory nerves. State of paralysis same as the preceding. "Ether/' says Hare, "depresses first the perceptive and intellectual cerebral centers, next the sensory side of the spinal cord, then the sensory and motor portions of the medulla oblongata; and with this depression, death ensues." The motor centers of the cord are affected later than the spinal sensory centers. This applies also to chloroform, both drugs acting similarly on the nervous system.
STAGE OF EXCITEMENT. 71
44. Watch carefully the color of the face, lips and lobes of ear. Blanching of these parts may occur and must never escape notice. It is a sign of impending danger. By pinching the ear and watching how rapidly the capillaries refill, and noticing whether the ear returns to its normal redness, you get an idea of the activity and of the condition of the circulation. Cyanosis, though more marked in ether narcosis, is of less importance than in chloroform anesthesia. If patient's face becomes dusky, give him fresh air. In the stage of excitement, follow patient in his efforts to get away from cone or mask and keep it applied to his face.
45. Stage of Excitement: The face is congested. This congestion is due to the turgescence of the superficial vessels. Stage of surgical anesthesia; face resumes a more normal color, and may become covered with a viscous perspiration. Stage of paralysis or collapse; face deeply cyanosed and veins distended or face is suddenly blanched. This blanched appearance indicates impending trouble. At slight indication of blanching of the face remove the mask, allow the patient a few breaths of fresh air. Pallor indicates that circulation is depressed either by surgical shock, insufficient breathing, or an overdose of the anesthetic. A certain degree of pallor and a slow, rather feeble pulse are not necessarily indicative of danger.
They often precede vomiting, and, when so caused, need occasion no alarm ; they often precede respiratory failure, and by putting the anesthetist on his guard enable him to avoid this serious condition.
Cyanosis means embarrassed respiration. It indicates that the patient is not inhaling enough oxygen, is inhaling too much anesthetic. It is most often met with in stout, short, thick-necked people, and necessitates a more careful adjustment of the head and close attention to the patient. It may be due to accumulated mucus, to a faulty position of tongue, to a foreign body in the trachea. Eelieve it by removing the cause. A turgid condition of veins of head and neck, associated with a dusky color of surface, especially if there be muscular rigidity, with a rapid and irregular pulse and an excited state of the respiration, should always lead to a temporary suspension of the inhalations.
REFLEX ACTION.
46. Coughing and swallowing, in the very early stages of anesthesia, point to too strong a vapor and should be met by a diminution in its strength. Should they tend to arise after surgical anesthesia has become established, they should be met by increasing the strength of the vapor, because they then indicate that the patient is recovering from the effects of the anesthetic. The function of
deglutition during profound anesthesia is suspended. The presence of the pharyngeal reflex (the act of deglutition excited by the presence of the anesthetic vapor or mucus) indicates that more of the anesthetic is required. In the stage of excitement, the cornea is sensitive, reflex action continues, pupil dilates and reacts to light.
Stage of Surgical Anesthesia: All the reflexes except those of the involuntary muscles are abolished. By keeping these reflexes barely abolished, a patient may be kept in this state for hours. The abolition of reflex action denotes that the operation can begin. By carefully watching the pharyngeal reflex, and keeping it abolished, coughing, retching and vomiting can, with very few exceptions, be prevented during the course of the operation. This is a fact of no small importance, in abdominal, rectal and perineal surgery.
The patient may cough at first; this is due to direct irritation by anesthetic vapors of the superior laryngeal nerve filaments. This cough is, usually, slight and transitory; however, should it persist and be associated with dyspnea, suspend the inhalations till quiet is restored.
When stomachic disturbance is evidenced by the rapid dilatation of the pupils, by the spasmodic contractions of the diaphragm, by short, convulsive movements of the abdominal muscles, by rapid, short, jerky respirations, with a pulse of
increased rapidity and by repeated efforts at deglutition, vomiting will soon take place, in almost all instances. Pushing of the anesthetic if it succeeds in abolishing these reflexes, will prevent vomiting. As soon as it is apparent that the patient will certainly vomit, remove the mask, turn the head quickly to one side, always to the side away from the field of operation, catch vomit on towel, and clean mouth and pharynx. As soon as vomiting has ceased, resume anesthesia.
The observation of the pupil is of great importance during chloroform anesthesia. Its behavior while the patient is under the influence of this anesthetic furnishes us invaluable information concerning the stage and the depth of anesthesia, and the condition of the patient.
The third nerve center which governs the pupil, unlike the respiratory center, is not a vital center. In the stage of excitement, the corneal reflex is present, and the pupil is dilated and reacts. When the patient is going under or coming around, the dilatation and the activity of the pupil that are present are thus explained. The dilatation occurs because mental, sensory and sympathetic impulses affect the half narcotized cerebrum and cause reflex inhibition of the third nerve center. The activity
STATE OF SURGICAL ANESTHESIA. 75
of pupil is due to the fact that the center itself has not been reached by the anesthetic. A similar dilatation of pupil is produced, under ordinary circumstances, by fright, pain or a blow on the abdomen.
As long as the pupil dilates in response to sensory stimuli, such as the pinching of the skin, etc., anesthesia is not sufficiently deep to allow the commencement of the operation. Vomiting causes dilatation of pupil similar to that which occurs when patient emerges from the anesthetic state.
State of Surgical Anesthesia: Corneal reflex is abolished; pupil is contracted; myosis. A contracted pupil is a sign of complete and safe narcosis. We must endeavor to keep the pupil contracted. Operator may now begin. This contraction of the pupil occurs because all the cerebral reflexes are barred and the third nerve center is consequently unimpeded. The center of the third nerve is now only inhibited by the light reflex. The same condition occurs in deep sleep.
Stage of Paralysis or Collapse: Corneal reflex is always abolished. The Narcotic has reached the nerve center and gradually overwhelmed it; consequently nerve control has ceased. The pupil dilates widely and the light reflex is abolished. Withdraw chloroform till contraction of pupil occurs as a result of the recovery of the third nerve center. Dilated and fixed pupil denotes danger of imminent syncope of respiratory center. Respiratory
syncope is the most common cause of death from chloroform anesthesia. Use restorative measures. "Failure of the pupils to respond to light, or their wide dilatation is a sign of approaching danger. The inhalation should be at once discontinued, the head lowered, the tongue drawn well out of the mouth, the heart stimulated, and artificial respiration begun." (Am. Text-Book of Surgery.)
During the course of the anesthesia, the pupil may dilate gradually, may dilate suddenly. The gradual dilatation of the pupil denotes that patient is recovering from the anesthetic. Eesume the administration of the chloroform and continue it drop by drop until the pupils again become myotic. Then suspend the administration. In a few moments, when the pupils again show a tendency to dilate gradually, administer some more chloroform, and keep on in this way, always maintaining the pupils contracted. The sudden dilation of the pupils denotes that the third nerve center has been overwhelmed by the anesthetic. It is a serious condition. It must at all hazards be avoided. This sudden relaxation of the iris, under chloroform, is a part of the relaxation of death. Upon its occurrence, immediately cease the administration of the chloroform, invert the patient, practice artificial respiration, and resort to stimulation. The first three measures are by far the most valuable.
POINTS CONCERNING CHLOROFORM. 77
tracted and remains contracted (it suddenly dilates in this condition when cause being uncounteracted verges on a fatal result), the asphyxia is due to some mechanical obstruction to breathing and not to an overdose of chloroform. This condition can easily be remedied, and should never prove fatal.
Per contra, if the chloroform be present in an overdose, the pupils are always dilated. The dilating and active pupil of the stage of excitement and of insufficient narcosis can be distinguished from the dilated pupil of deep narcosis or collapse by the greater freedom of the light reflex, by the supervention of other reflexes, such as cough, vomiting, irregular breathing and by the absence of the glassy fixation of the eyes so characteristic of profound narcosis.
47. During the course of anesthesia, do not stimulate your patient with hypodermics of strychnia, sulphate, nitroglycerine, etc., unless it is absolutely necessary. Do not get needlessly alarmed. Do not annoy the operator with unfounded fears. Most always alarming symptoms disappear by just permitting the patient to come a little from under the anesthetic.
THESIA.
1. Always reduce to the minimum consistent with full and complete anesthesia, the amount of chloroform vapor inhaled. This also applies to
ether. Usually the more of the anesthetic absorbed, the longer is the interval before consciousness returns. It is impossible to find a dosage that will do for all patients. The individual must be studied, and the only person that can do this is the educated anesthetizer. "Patients vary as to the quantity of the anesthetic needed and time consumed in anesthetization. This depends upon the method of anesthetization and the type of patient. In general, it may be said, males require more of an anesthetic than females; muscular and stout subjects more than thin; plethoric more than anemic; nervous more than sanguine; those poor in intellectual development more than the highly developed; the healthy more than those suffering from prolonged illness; the non-septic more than the septic, though it occasionally occurs that some septic individuals require a surprisingly large quantity of ether; those addicted to the use of drugs, as alcohol, morphine, more than those not so addicted." (Goldau.) Do not administer chloroform from a towel. An overdose is too easily given this way. "Chloroform usually kills by its depressing action on the heart, and it seems highly probable that it often does this by the property which it has been shown to have, of destroying the contractile power of the cardiac muscle when it reaches it in a sufficiently concentrated form/'
(Am. Text Book of Surg.) By autopsies and experiments Heintz (Journ. de Med. et Chir. Prat., October 9, 1898) has proven that chloroform inhaled for long periods produces, through a slow secondary action, pathological changes in the organs, capable of causing death, one or several days after the anesthesia. By lessening the dose of chloroform, the liability to undesirable after-effects is lessened. In the causation of vomiting after ether or chloroform anesthesia, one of the most important etiological factors is the amount of anesthetic used.
2. Avoid the continuous action of chloroform on the organs by allowing at least one week to elapse between two chloroformizations in the same individual. The elimination of chloroform inhaled is only completely effected in about a week. The secondary action of chloroform exhausts itself also in about a week. Both elimination of the chloroform inhaled and its secondary action must be at an end before more chloroform is introduced in the system. Schenck objects forcibly to the practice common in gynecological clinics of narcotizing individual patients frequently at short intervals for the purpose of establishing a positive diagnosis.
3. Always be very watchful while administering chloroform, and in fact any anesthetic, to individuals suffering from renal or hepatic insuffi.-
ciency. These subjects offer to chloroform, as they also do to other intoxicants, as, for instance, sepsis, an impaired resistance.
4. Use an Esmarch inhaler in administering chloroform. "Esmarch chloroform mask is the cleanest, safest and best." (Mellish.) Put two or three thicknesses of gauze over the mask. Change gauze for each anesthesia. Should the patient vomit in the mask and soil the gauze during the course of anesthesia, change the latter. Give this agent well diluted with air. Give it drop by drop; the danger of an overdose is thereby lessened. In the absence of a drop-bottle, use a one or twoounce bottle and an ordinary cork. Cut a shallow groove on one side of the cork, and put in this groove either a thick silk ligature or a small strip of gauze extending into the chloroform. Cut a shallower groove on opposite side of cork. In partial inversion of the bottle, the chloroform will flow from bottle drop by drop. The rapidity of outflow is controlled by the position of the bottle. "Quantity is the all important factor in chloroform anesthesia. I am convinced that death is nearly always due to unskillful administration, and that unskillful administration is the administration of an overdose." (Waller.) Chloroform should always be given with about 95 per cent of air. Paralysis of the heart may result from the inhalation of too concentrated chloroform vapor. From
surgical anesthesia by the aid of chloroform.
At the beginning of anesthesia, hold inhaler some inches from mouth and nose, so that chloroform Avill be diluted with air. By doing this, the sense of suffocation which is so trying to the patient, and so provocative of struggling, will often be prevented. Asphyxia taking place within a few minutes from the commencement of the anesthesia can be caused by a too highly concentrated vapor of chloroform. If the patient struggles violently, breathes irregularly, or holds his breath, remove the cap and let him take a breath of fresh air before administration is proceeded with. In beginning anew to place the chloroformmask over the face of a patient upon whom its use has been discontinued on account of some serious signs, the vapor should be carefully and slowly given, otherwise fatal syncope may follow in a heart already affected by a previous overdose.
A FEW POINTS CONCERNING ETHER ANESTHESIA.
To administer ether you can use a cone, in the; apex of which you stuff some gauze sponges. The Allis* inhaler is a good apparatus. Complicated inhalers are cumbersome, tliey have no distinct advantage and have many decided disadvantages. (Hare.) The requirements of an ether inhaler are simplicity, cleanliness, inexpensiveness, portability and adaptability to safe etherization.
With it, the amount of air can be easily and quickly regulated. With it anesthesia is begun, by a free administration of air and drop by drop administration of ether upon parallel bandages. Drops are rapidly increased in number, so that by the end of the first half minute a tiny stream, resembling a bead-like chain, will be going into the inhaler.
*The advantages claimed for this inhaler by Dr. Allis are: — It gives the patient the freest access of air. It is a mistake to suppose that air must be excluded. All that is necssary is that the air should be saturated with the vapor of ether. The inhaler affords a series of thin surfaces upon which the ether can be poured, and from which it will almost instantly evaporate. By leaving the instrument open at the top, the supply can be kept up constantly, if desired; and as ether vapor is heavier than air, there is no loss by not coveiing it. The top should never be covered. The inhaler does not cover the patient's eyes, does not terrify him, and he often passes under the influence of the anesthetic without a struggle.
If ordinary cone is used, the ether is poured on the gauze sponges and distributed as evenly as possible. New gauze sponges should be used for each case. Ether should be given so that air is present in the proportion of about 5 per cent while patient is struggling. Always begin administering ether slowly, increasing the amount gradually. The inhalation of ether is made unnecessarily disagreeable by those who brutally insist on employing the so-called rapid method, accomplished by crowding the cone tightly over the patient's face, and holding it there in spite of his most strenuous efforts to secure comfortable inspirations. (Gallant.) Air slightly impregnated with ether is the first rule, and ether impregnated with air the second. In using ether do not drench patient with the anesthetic. In giving ether, it is the safest way to give with the first few inspirations vapor much over-diluted with air and gradually and systematically increase the strength of vapor at each following inspiration. If at the beginning of anesthesia ether vapor be inhaled in too concentrated a form it usually excites a momentary arrest of respiration and a decided sense of suffocation. These phenomena are due to the irritating action of ether vapor upon the mucous air passages. If the patient coughs or holds his breath, the vapor is too strong. The inhaler should be removed and gradually brought closer again. Ether, being irritating to mucous membranes, can, if given too strong, cause spasm of glottis and other serious reflex acts. Once patient is under the influence of ether, decrease the dose inhaled and keep the patient anesthetic and docile with as small a quantity as possible. On the average, eight to fifteen minutes are consumed in producing ether anesthesia (12^ min. Anna E. Blount.) In ether anesthesia the variations of the pupil do not possess the significance that they do in choloroform anesthesia. Hence the giving of atropine, though it dilates the pupil does not complicate the anesthesia as much as it would, if chloroform were the agent inhaled. In one hundred cases in which C. L. Gibson gave atropine previous to the etherization, he noticed that it did not prevent vomiting, that it lessened the bronchorrhea, that it acted as an efficient stimulant. The administration of atropine can be serviceable as an aid in preventing bronchial complications. When ether is given in abdominal operations, atropine prevents an hypersecretion of mucus. Atropine by preventing the plugging of the bronchi, which often results from an hypersecretion of mucus, lessens the liability to pulmonary complications. These conditions are serious after abdominal operations, owing to the want of expelling power from inhibition of the abdominal
lighted gas jets, candles, etc.
Pulmonary complications following etherization are less likely to occur if care is taken to see that the patient who has taken ether is not exposed to draughts and is not allowed to go out into the cold or moist air, immediately after taking the anesthetic.
"(a) The carrying of the patient from a warm operating room through a cold corridor to a room or ward with a lower temperature.
"(d) Dried secretions or incrustations of foreign matter that are loosened by the ether and drawn downward into the lungs, particularly if the head be not kept comparatively low and turned from time to time.
"(e) Use of ether in abdominal operations — partly due to the more protracted etherization, thus rendering the bronchi more susceptible; partly due to the fact that, after these operations, coughing excites great pain, and hence is re-
1. After the patient is returned to his bed, the anesthetist or an attendant must remain with him until he recovers consciousness, in order to guard against his choking by vomiting, to guard against dropping backward of the tongue, and to detect and control hemorrhage should it occur. No pillow should be placed under his head before he recovers full consciousness. A pillow placed below the head lessens the caliber of the air-passages, embarrasses respiration, thereby retarding recovery from the effects of the anesthetic. Have the bed warmed, using hot bricks or hot water-bottles. If the operation has been attended by much loss of blood, elevate the foot of the bed, give normal saline solution per rectum or subcutaneously. The garment which has been saturated with patient's perspiration during the operation, or wet by the irrigating solutions, should be removed immediately upon completion of the operation and a warm, dry nightdress substituted.
Immediately after discontinuance of the anesthetic, if the nature of the operation permits it, turn patient on the side, or if this cannot be done, turn the face to one side. Through this procedure, the mucus tends to flow out of the mouth, the tongue gravitates into the cheek of dependent side,
the respiration is unobstructed and the stertor ceases. ~No food should be given until the patient calls for it. The taste of ether is best overcome by moistening the lips with lemon juice. After vomiting has stopped, water can be given freely to the patient. If the stomach is unretentive, water can be given in the form of normal saline solution per rectum. This raises the arterial tension, quenches thirst and expedites the elimination of the anesthetic from the system.
If during the course of the anesthetic, some of the anesthetic has fallen into the conjunctival sac, to prevent a conjunctivitis, instill a few drops of 2 per cent sterile cocaine solution in conjunctival sac. P'or erythema or dermatitis due to the action of the anesthetic vapor, use zinc oxide ointment.
On the day following the administration of the anesthetic, I give a saline cathartic and a diuretic mixture, so as to secure as thorough elimination as possible of the anesthetic agent. The anesthetic is not eliminated entirely by the lungs; the other excretory organs aid in its elimination. "Water should be given per os and rectum as freely as practicable, after anesthesia, as an aid to the emunctories." (Hellish.)
ACCIDENTS.
The accidents of anesthesia admit of the following classification: Immediate and late. Immediate accidents are those that occur during
the inhalation of the anesthetic or before the patient has recovered consciousness. In meeting these accidents keep cool, and remember that promptitude of action is imperative. For example. in cessation of breathing, artificial respiration must be practiced immediately, as chloroform can kill the patient between the suspension of respiration and its attempted restoration by artificial means. As a rule, in t he minor accidents of anesthesia, what the patient needs is more air. These minor accidents disappear if the anesthetic be withdrawn entirely.
of flame.
2. During the period of muscular rigidity which precedes that of relaxation, the breathing sometimes ceases. Dash some ether on abdomen. Practice artificial respiration if condition persists.
3. Asphyxia. — It is a grave condition. If it be due to falling back of tongue, foreign body, or other mechanical obstruction, remove the impediment. These conditions will not occur if proper precautions have been taken. If asphyxia be due to a mechanical obstruction, the obstruction must
ineffective.
b. Tetanic fixation or relaxation of respiratory muscles. Practice artificial respiration. Sylvester's method is the method I have always used. Most authorities prefer it to the other methods.
b. Secondary.
(a) Initial syncope, due to a sudden arrest of the heart's action. This has only been observed in chloroform anesthesia. It occurs at beginning of anesthesia, and is attributed by some authors to a pathological condition of the nervous system, favoring an abnormal and rapid saturation of the whole or of one of the most important parts of the nervous system.
(b) Secondary syncope, occurring more or less rapidly during the course of anesthesia, and usually during the surgical period when the patient is subjected to the depressing effects of the operation, to hemorrhage, etc.
Immediately ascertain if the air passages are patent (as long as the glottis is closed no air can enter the lungs). Protect wound by covering it with sterile gauze-dressing, invert patient, and practice artificial respiration.
syncope. It should always be resorted to.
Artificial respiration exercises great influence upon the circulation and the respiration. In Sylvester's method of artificial respiration, it is important that the assistant should grasp the feet and keep them motionless. If this is done, extension and upward traction of arms above the head elevates and dilates the chest. This holding of feet is especially indicated in children as the lower segment of the body readily follows the chest in its upward movements. Always begin artificial respiration by the act of expiration. By beginning with inspiration you promote further absorption into the blood of the anesthetic vapor present in the bronchi, the bronchioles and the air-vesicles. Bring arms down close to body, compress firmly the thorax, and then elevate the arms. To determine the relative values of Sylvester and Marshall Hall's method of performing artificial respiration, Prof. Hare conducted some experiments. He connected the respiratory tract with an ordinary gas meter properly adjusted by means of a two-way tube through one valve of which the air entered readily, while it could only escape through the meter. Curare was used to prevent voluntary breathing. When the Sylvester method was used, the quantity of air passing out of the chest equalled 62, when that of Marshall Hall was
MEASURES TO COMBAT SYNCOPE. 91
employed the quantity was represented by 22. In another experiment the Sylvester method gave 18, while the Marshall Hall gave 8. It is evident, therefor, that the Sylvester is actually by far the best method.
1. Medicinal measures may be used. You must not rely on them exclusively. Strychnine sulphate is the best agent; it raises arterial tension and deepens the respirations. Digitalis and ammonia may be used. Avoid injecting your restorative agents directly into a nerve or a blood-vessel, so as not to provoke a neuritis, so as not to intoxicate your patient.
cold, flaggellations, electricity.
3. Stretching or divulsion of the sphincter ani. Its value is greatly exaggerated, although it does effect the respiratory function. Its action, however, in very deep narcosis is doubtful. For discussion on this procedure, see Transactions American Inst. of Homceopathy — 1896, 1897.
4. Insufflation of air into the lungs through the trachea. Introduce catheter or similar body into trachea and insufflate air either with mouth or with bellows. An excellent method. <
out of mouth regularly sixteen times a minute and by reflexly stimulating the respiratory center, it renews respiratory movements in apparently hopeless cases. The tongue must neither be lacerated nor contused. The tractions must not be precipitate. They must be performed methodically and rhythmically.
6. Massage and compression of heart. Eapid friction over region of heart. Heat over cardiac region. Rub the extremities strongly toward the heart. Compress the abdominal aorta. Those last two methods are intended to keep the blood in the region of the heart and great nerve centers, where, at least, during the period of shock, its presence is vitally important.
If the above methods fail to restore respiratory action, the patient must not be abandoned until tracheotomy followed, if necessary, by prolonged artificial respiration, or insufflation has been resorted to. Tracheotomy facilitates the access of air to the lower respiratory regions. The accumulation of mucus, the falling backward of the tongue, the constriction of the jaws and other causes contributing to the obstruction or closure of the glottic orifice, renders the passage of air to the lungs through the upper respiratory passages difficult, if not impossible. This operation, supplying a new route, meets an important indication. The operation is benign. Being practiced upon
VOMITING AFTER ANESTHESIA. 93
sound tissues, the canula can soon be removed after recovery of the patient from anesthesia, and healing by first intention results early.
7. Dupage in cardiac syncope occurring under anesthesia advises that normal saline solution be injected in the internal saphenous vein. He expects by this to excite the endothelium of the cardiac cavities.
1. The following procedure is often very serviceable and effective. Saturate a towel with fresh, strong vinegar, and hold it a few inches above patient's face. It should be used directly after the administration of the anesthetic has been discontinued, and kept up as long as indicated. It is free from toxic effects and can occasion no harmful conditions. The theoretical explanation of its action is that, free chlorine, one of the decomposition products of chloroform, is neutralized by the acetic acid. (Lewin.) Chlorine acts as a marked irritant to the pharyngeal mucous membrane and induces vomiting, but the acetic acid soothes the irritated parts and neutralizes the chlorine at the same time.
brane, promotes normal secretion and by its soothing action on peripheral nerve filaments of part, lessens the irritability of the pneumogastric and of its centers and thereby controls reflex condition of vomiting.
its removal. Coal tar products are of service.
Loss of blood, or shock from a prolonged operation, are comhatted by high rectal injections of normal saline solution. This solution can be used in severe cases subcutaneously or intravenously. Use it hot (110-115° F.).
Anesthetic chill (rare). — In many cases the chill is chiefly due to the operation. Warm bricks, hot water bottles, rubbing of body with alcohol, rubbing with warm camphorated oil.
Anesthetic stupor. — If this state is prolonged, patient must be stimulated, rubbed with alcohol, made to inhale plenty of fresh air, gentle flagellation of thorax resorted to.
Post-anesthetic paralysis. — That of similar paralysis due to other causes. Treatment of postanesthesia paralysis should be preventive as avoiding forced elevation of arm, watching to see that the arm or member is not compressed against edge of table, etc., etc. "The best treatment of paralysis following anesthesia consists in guarding the patient while unconscious from the injurious
effects of pressure produced by unnatural positions." (Mally.) "Local faradization is indicated in paralysis from compression, and passive movement of the articulation to prevent stiffness. If the electric tests disclose degenerative atrophy or severe reflex paralysis, localized electric treatment is contraindicated. In the latter case, the reflex medullary irritability should be soothed with static electricity, and possibly revulsion on the spine with spark friction." (Mally, Revue de Chirurgie.)
Albuminuria and Glycosuria may follow the administration of ether or chloroform. They are usually temporary conditions. For treatment, consult text-books on practice of medicine.
"7. Don't give him morphia or atropia (unless specially indicated). Pupil should not be benumbed by morphine previous to the operation.
BROMIDE OP ETHYL.
The usefulness of, and the indications for, the employment of ether and chloroform, I have already somewhat exhaustively discussed. They have an established sphere of indications. Yet it is my opinion, based on clinical observation, that the comfort and the safety of the patient, as well as the convenience and ease of mind of the operator, can often be promoted by using, in appropriate cases, ethyl bromid instead of chloroform or ether. Many operations do not demand the long anesthesia of ether with its attendant discomforts, nor do they warrant submitting the patient to the dangers of chloroform anesthesia. Hence, an hiatus, which in the present state of our knowledge can often be filled by the use of ethyl bromide. It is an agent well adapted to secure anesthesia for operations of short duration. It is an agent especially well adapted for use in children and young adults.
Ethyl bromide (chemically C2H5Br) is a very volatile liquid, having a very agreeable odor and a non-saccharine taste. It has a density of 1.40 and a boiling point of 40.70. It has the great advantage over nitrous oxide of portability and simplicity as regards the apparatus required for its administration. Its use requires no special apparatus. Our text-books on surgery mention the agent but fail to give the technique of its administration and fail to give it the consideration which it deserves. It is a general anesthetic, the popularity of which is increasing. It is an innocent anesthetic on condition that its inhalation is of short duration and that it is adminstered properly. If it is not administered properly, its use is unsatisfactory to the operator and dangerous to the patient.
Dr. Chisholm has used it in 3,000 cases without fatal or untoward results occurring during or after its use. Gilles collected 20,000 bromide ethylizations without a death. Eeich went over the literature and found 16 deaths had occurred in 60,000 administrations. In some of these 16 cases, the anesthetic had been administered faultily, in others an impure or decomposed preparation had been used, and in a few cases, the deaths were directly traceable to the anesthetic. I have used the agent myself and have seen it used frequently in
its use.
With bromide of ethyl as with other anesthetics, experience is required to be able to use it to the best advantage, and with the greatest safety to the patient. It exerts no notable influence upon the inhalant's temperature. It exerts no modifying influence on the secretions. In some individuals, its use provokes marked sweating. Its stage of excitement is of a very transient character. Owing to the fact that it does not secure complete muscular relaxation, that it does not relax muscular spasm, it is not of aid in the diagnosis of fractures and dislocations, and can not be utilized in effecting the reduction of these conditions. Outside of slightly accelerating the pulse, it has, in therapeutic doses, no special action on the heart. In toxic doses, it is a cardiac depressant. It accelerates the respirations. It has a marked depressant action on the respiration only when large and practically excessive doses are taken. Death is caused by the toxic action of the drug on the respiratory center. It is eliminated by the lungs. Owing to its great volatility, it is rapidly eliminated. "Bromide of ethyl is almost totally eliminated by the respiratory organs." (Ch. Eobin.) Traces of it have been found in the renal secretion.
ANESTHETIC.
(1) Simplicity of use. Technique of administration is easily, acquired. If during the inhalation of this agent, accidents should occur, they are, owing to the great volatility and rapid elimination from the system of bromide of ethyl, rapidly recovered from.
(2) Under its use, the performance of operations upon patients in the sitting posture is permissible. This posture, though not as favorable as the recumbent posture, ft not dangerous for bromethylized patients, owing to the fact that bromid of ethyl produces cerebral congestion and not cerebral anemia. This agent, unlike chloroform, is not a predisposant to syncope. With ether anesthesia, the sitting posture is undesirable; with chloroform, it is positively dangerous. The maintenance of the patient in the sitting posture is of great convenience to the operator for the performance of operations in the naso-pharynx, such as the removal of naso-pharyngeal adenoids, tonsi llotomy. The patient's head and neck can, at the proper time, be rapidly thrown forward, and the blood thereby escapes through the mouth and nostrils instead of gravitating in the stomach or in the lungs, as it is prone to do when mouth or throat operations are performed with patients in the recumbent posture.
ANDVANTAGES OF ETHYL BROMIDE. 101
(3) The great rapidity with which anesthesia is induced. The time required to induce deep narcosis varies from 45 seconds to 2 minutes. Generally speaking one minute suffices. This saving of time is of distinct advantage in dispensary and in office work, especially when one considers that the inhalation of this drug, if it be pure and if it be employed with proper precautions, is not more dangerous than the inhalation of ether and chloroform. In fact, it is less so. An average, from 8 to 15 minutes are required to produce ether anesthesia.
(4) The great rapidity with which consciousness is recovered. The brain recovers its functions perfectly, and quickly after the deep but very transient impression brought about through the inhalation of the vapor of this potent agent. Usually after the withdrawal of the inhaler, the patient will remain unconscious from two to three minutes and will then promptly return to consciousness. After the anesthetic is removed, coordination of the muscular movements is rapidly regained. Five minutes after the anesthesia, the patient is as much himself as if no anesthetic had been administered. He can leave the office and walk home, unassisted and unattended. This feature makes this agent useful for such operations as can safely be performed in the physician's office.
shock after its use. Nausea and vomiting do occur, but are very infrequent if the drug is inhaled upon an empty stomach. If after its use vomiting occurs and persists, relieve it by having patient take a draught of ice water, or by having him swallow small pieces of ice. Frequently after its use the patient's breath for a few days has a mild garlicky odor. This is not productive of much discomfort. Bromide of ethyl is quite unirritating to the respiratory mucous membrane, hence its inhalation is never followed by bronchitis, or ether pneumonia; neither is it followed by other such unfortunate post-anesthetic complications as nephritis.
(6) The odor does not remain as does that of ether on the clothing of the operator or on that of his assistants. The odor does not permeate the office.
(7) It can be safely administered without as much pre-anesthetic preparation of the patient as is required for ether or chloroform anesthesia.
(1) It is not suitable for prolonged anesthesia. Experience has conclusively demonstrated, that its use is dangerous in operations, the performance of which requires more than a few minutes. For prolonged anesthesia, this agent possesses no advantages over ether or chloroform. It does pos-
CONTRAINDICATIONS FOR ETHYL BROMIDE. 103
sess additional dangers. Hence we shall employ this agent only in those operations to which it can he adapted, that is, only in operations of short duration. Even the warmest advocates of hromid of ethyl concede that it should not be used as an anesthetic for prolonged operations. "Its use should he restricted to short operations." (Gleich.)
(2) The use of bromide of ethyl is contraindicated in individuals having serious cardiac, renal or pulmonary lesions. Alcoholics are not favorable subjects for bromethylization.
(3) It does not secure complete muscular relaxation. "Bromide of ethyl, as it often causes muscular rigidity, should not be used in operations in which relaxation of the muscles would be of assistance." (Dudley Buxton.)
(5) Lake ether and chloroform, its use requires an experienced assistant whose whole attention must be given to the administration of the anesthetic. Local anesthetics enable the operator to dispense with this assistant.
Bromide of ethyl general siirgical anesthesia (this agent is also employed by a few as a local anesthetic) can be resorted to for operations such as the following: Opening of superficial abscesses, as abscesses of the abdominal wall; dilation of the sphincter ani; hemorrhoidal operations; removal
of urethral polypi; internal urethrotomy; curetting of sinuses; tenotomy; scraping of carbuncles; removal of aural polypi and paracentesis of the tympanum; ablation of condylomata, etc. Any painful surgical operation, the performance of which does not occupy more than two minutes, can be safely and painlessly performed under bromid of ethyl. The agent is particularly adapted for children while subjecting them to short examinations involving pain.
PROPER TECHNIQUE OF ADMINISTRATION.
(1) Do not employ this agent in cases unsuited for its action, for instance, as for major operations lasting more than a few minutes. Its usefulness for long operations is no longer debatable, it is established. Fatalities have resulted from its employment in prolonged operations. You would not employ chloral hydrate for the palliation of acute pain, you would employ opium or one of its derivatives; so for prolonged operations requiring general surgical anesthesia, you will not employ bromid of ethyl, you will employ either chloroform or ether.
(2) Make a physical examination of your patient. The object is to determine whether there are contra-indications to the use of this particular anesthetic. Serious cardiac, pulmonary and renal diseases are conditions that make the use of this
(3) Always be sure that the bromide of ethyl that you are going to use is pure; be sure that it has not undergone decomposition. Impurities may come from the process of manufacture or may come from decomposition. Exposure to air and light rapidly decomposes this agent and results in the formation of compounds having a more toxic effect than ethyl bromid. If you use one-half ounce vials, after the vial has been used to anesthetize one patient, throw away the unused portion of the contents. This is not extravagance; it is prudence. "Most of the unfavorable symptoms, such as vomiting, are due not to the bromide of ethyl, but to the impurities too often found associated with it." (Bazy.) Pure bromide of ethyl has a perfectly neutral reaction with reference to litmus paper. It is colorless. If it be yellowish, it is decomposed and contains free bromine. This latter element is a distinct irritant to the respiratory mucous membranes. As the liquids is very easily decomposed, buy it in small colored-glass vials of one-half or one ounce. The vials are sealed by melting the glass neck in the flame.
compounds. The former is chemically represented by C2H4Br2; the latter, by C2H5Br. Bromide of ethylene is not only a poor anesthetic, but it is also a very dangerous agent. It has caused deaths.
(5) The drug is to be inhaled upon an empty stomach. When practicable the taking of solid food should be avoided by the patient for four hours, and liquid food for three hours, before the administration. If the drug is inhaled upon a full stomach, nausea and vomiting are apt to follow its use. The most opportune time for the induction of general anesthesia is when the patient is rested and when his stomach is empty.
(6) Have the patient urinate previous to starting the anesthesia. This lessens the liability to involuntary emission of urine during anesthesia. This accident, when it occurs, is always very embarrassing, especially so in female patients.
(7) In the absence of a special indication for the employment of any other position, the recumbent posture, with slight elevation of the head, is the posture of election. It is more convenient for the operator; it is safer for the patient. If the patient be a child, and the operation be one in the buccal cavity, demanding that anesthesia be secured with the patient in the sitting posture, wrap a sheet around the patient's neck and chest so as to include and prevent the movement of the
arms. The child is then taken upon the nurse's lap, its legs being placed and immobilized between the nurse's thighs. The nurse's left arm encircles the child's chest to prevent struggling and movements of arms, and her right hand immobilizes the child's head on her right shoulder. This is same position that is employed for the intubation of children.
(8) All constrictions about the neck, the chest or the abdomen are to be removed. The corset is to be removed. The same applies to any other agency interfering with the respiratory movements. Free respiration hastens the production of anesthesia and also facilitates, once the inhaler is withdrawn, the elimination from the body of the ethyl bromid inhaled. The innocuousness of this agent is largely due to its great volatility and to its rapid elimination from the system. Interference with the patient's respiratory movements is not uncommonly due to a lazy assistant using the patient's chest as an arm rest.
(9) All foreign bodies, such as chewing gum, false teeth, etc., are to be removed from the mouth. If the operation is to be performed in the buccal, the naso-pharyngeal or the laryngeal cavities, previous to starting the anesthetic insert carefully and gently a mouth gag with padded alveolar projections between the patient's left upper and lower
mild trisnms.
(10) Leave eyes uncovered and watch them. When analgesia begins to appear, the pupils dilate and the conjunctival vessels become appreciably congested. The anesthetist is to watch the anesthesia only, — the operator is to watch the operation.
(11) The inhaler to be used can be made by folding a crash towel into an air-tight cone. The cone is made almost impervious to air by placing a layer of paper between the folds of the towel. The base of the cone must be large enough to cover both mouth and nose. Hold the rim of the cone firmly down upon the face so that very little air can enter. The use of a cumbersome apparatus for the administration of this anesthetic has no advantage over that of a cone made of paper and gauze, or with paper and a towel. These cumbersome apparatus are not as portable, are costly, and are not as cleanly as the towel and paper cone; neither are they as safe. A fresh cone is to be used for each anesthesia.
(12) Operator must be prepared to operate as soon as narcosis is complete. He must not wait for complete muscular relaxation. Every preparation should have been made in advance. Instruments should have been sterilized and arranged in the order in which they are to be used.
Surgeon must be dextrous and thoroughly familiar with the different steps of the operation which he is to perform. No time must be lost, as bromide of ethyl anesthesia is a rapidly fleeting anesthesia. The effects of it pass off too quickly to make it of any service to slow operators or for tedious operations.
(13) Instruct the patient in advance to make deep and long inspirations. A few inhalations suffice. The entire dose of anesthetic is to be given at once. Keep in mind that bromide of ethyl is not chloroform, and that it must not be administered like chloroform. Chloroform must be administered by the drop method, cautiously and slowly; ethyl bromide must be administered in massive doses, rapidly and, in fact, brutally. Unless bromide of ethyl vapor is crowded, only a state of semi-anesthesia must be expected. Push the bromide of ethyl during the few moments necessary to produce anesthesia. Ethyl bromide, unlike chloroform, should never be used with an admixture of air. The admission of air retards and may prevent the production of narcosis. A saturated ethyl vapor must be inhaled to the exclusion of atmospheric air, in order to obtain narcosis speedily and effectually.
The entire dose for a child is about two drams, for an adult from 4 to 5 drachms (as much as six drams can be used). It is poured at once
into the inhaler. "I pour the full dose required to produce anesthesia into the inhaler, the dose in children ranging from one and a half to two and a half drachms, and in adults from two to three drachms. I immediately cover the patient's nose and mouth, having previously instructed the patient to breathe deeply." (Kempster.) Apply cone firmly and closely to mouth and nose and do not remoove it until anesthesia is induced. Owing to the great volatility of the substance (it is the most volatile of the general anesthetics) the removal of the cone retards the production of anesthesia. If the cone is held at a distance from the face and given with free admission of air to the space between the towel and face, satisfactory anesthesia will not be obtained. Once full anesthesia has been induced and the cone has been withdrawn, most authorities condemn its being applied to the face again.
The first few inhalations give rise to a very decided flushing of the face. In alcoholics, there is a short period of excitement. The agent often provokes muscular spasms. Do not be alarmed by the presence of muscular rigidity, it will soon disappear. The same stage of muscular rigidity occurs during the administration of other general anesthetics. The patient struggles violently and, to the uninitiated, appears to be in danger of asphyxia, nevertheless^ the cone must not be re-
moved until full anesthesia is induced and the struggling has ceased. The stoppage of all struggling, the absence of the conjuctival reflex, the falling down limply of the elevated arm, are all evidences that inform you that your patient is sufficiently anesthetized.
In case of failure of respiration occurring in a patient inhaling bromide of ethyl, immediately place the patient in the recumbent posture and proceed to perform artificial respiration. Always begin with the act of expiration; inspiration would promote further absorption of the anesthetic.
For the performance of artificial respiration in the combating of some of the accidents incident to general anesthesia, we employ either Sylvester or Laborde's method. Both methods can be employed simultaneously.
"To perform operations under general anesthesia when they are certainly practicable with one or another form of local anesthesia, I must, from the standpoint of humanity, denounce as absolutely unjustifiable." — Schleich.
Local anesthetics are employed to abolish, by their topical application, the sensibility of a part for more or less prolonged periods, during diagnostic, therapeutic and operative procedures of various kinds. The number of substances that have been proposed and used as local anesthetic agents is great. Very few have found wide acceptance. Very few have remained popular for any length of time. A local anesthetic, to be ideal, must meet the following requirements:
1. Complete abolition of pain.
2. Non-interference with the operator's procedures. That is, the operator should not be compelled to modify his operation on account of restrictions imposed by the local anesthetic agent.
Among the less used agents may be mentioned:
(a) Brucine in five per cent solution. This agent was abandoned because it did not give uniform results; it was not readily absorbed, and had none of the advantages of cocaine.
(b) Beta-Eucaine is a good local anesthetic serviceable for all operations upon the ophthalmic, urethral, buccal or other mucosae. It can also be used intra and hypodermically. It is said to cause, in therapeutic doses, no heart depression or other unpleasant systemic effects. It is less toxic than cocaine with almost equal analgesic power, and can therefore be employed in larger amounts and with greater freedom, in such cases where the field of operation is extensive.
It is a colorless, crystalline powder, soluble in 30 to 33 1-3 parts of cold water, making a 3 per cent to 3£ per cent solution. Stronger solutions may be made with the aid of heat. The eucaine crystals that are deposited on cooling may be redissolved by raising the temperature of the solution, without in any way influencing its efficacy. It is 3.75 times less toxic than cocaine; it is at times irritating to the tissues; its injection into the tissues also at times causing pain; it causes a hyperemia of the tissues, the increased hemorrhage attending its use obscuring to a certain extent the field of operation. It admits of complete sterilization by boiling. This is a matter of
much importance, as complete asepsis, is essential for the successful performance of surgical procedures. Beta-eucaine is a stable compound. Its solutions keep for an indefinite time without undergoing decomposition. The solution of betaeucaine can be frequently boiled without injury and without losing its anesthetic properties. It has no action on the pupil, on accommodation, or on eye tension. One reason for the similarity of analgetic action existing between eucaine and cocaine is, according to Braun, that their osmotic tension is the same. The anesthesia produced by it is of longer induction and of shorter duration than that induced by cocaine. "Being 3.75 times less toxic than cocaine, it has the advantages in stomatology that the patient need not lie down during the operation; that he can go away at once; and that none of the difficulties that sometimes follow the use of cocaine occur. It should therefore, in this department, be preferred to the latter drug. In general surgery of the minor kind, cocaine is to be preferred because it is safe when prudently administered, and is free from some of the inconveniences of eucaine/' (Chapiro.) The following solutions are used:
For operations in the nasal fossae, in the nasopharynx, and in the larynx, a 4% to 5% solution is required to secure satisfactory anesthesia.
For the alleviation of painful deglutition associated with laryngeal tuberculosis, a o% spray of Beta-Eucaine can be used in the larynx.
Aquae distillatae 100.
For the production of beta-eucaine anesthesia, the technique employed in the induction of cocaine local anesthesia meets the indications. If Braun's formula is used to induce infiltration anesthesia, employ the technique that I follow with Schleich's solutions.
eucaine.
"Anesthetizing the urethra in conditions where the passing of sounds, catheters, urethroscopic tubes, etc., cause more pain than is desirable. The solution is kept in the passage five to ten minutes; when it is let out, the anterior urethra will be found anesthetized quite sufficiently to permit the passage of even large instruments without pain. If it is required to introduce instruments into the prostatic portion or bladder, after allowing the solution to run out of the anterior urethra, 20 minims of a 3% solution should be injected into the prostatic urethra by the prostatic instillator, and the instrument withdrawn; the solution being retained by the compressor urethrse muscles. A pause of four to five minutes more will be necessary, when the posterior urethra will also be found insensitive to pain. The anesthesia lasts for a period varying from five to twenty minutes.
"Circumcision. — The foreskin and glans having been cleansed in the ordinary way, 1 dram of a 5% solution of eucaine is injected with the ordinary urethral syringe under the foreskin, which is drawn well forward (when possible); the syringe is slipped out, the solution being kept in between the glans penis and prepuce by tightly holding the end of the latter (this can usually be done by the patient himself). A hypodermic syringe is then charged with a 3% normal saline solution of eucaine. Commencing near the frenum, small
CIRCUMCISION BY LOCAL ANESTHETIC. 117
blebs of solution are made just under the skin, each bleb, of about 2 minims, touching its neighbor. A ring is thus made under the line of incision. When this is finished, about six to eight deep injections are made into the subcutaneous tissue, with perhaps one or two extra ones near the frenum. The solution retained under the foreskin is now allowed to run ont, the parts are cleaned, and the operation is begun at once. Bichloride of mercury solution should not be used, but carbolic acid, or chinosol, etc., may be employed. The operation will probably not be absolutely painless; but the pain will be so slight that it is perfectly bearable even by a highly nervous patient.
"Buboes. — In opening and curetting suppurating buboes in the groin or elsewhere, the parts having been cleaned, a 3% solution is injected under the skin in the line of incision, as for circumcision; five or six deeper injections are made into the tissues beneath. Both in this operation and in the one for circumcision, 40 to 80 minims may be used. The incision is made at once; it is not necessary to wait ten minutes, as sometimes stated, after the hypodermic injection; since absorption from a mucous membrane by contact takes place less rapidly. After evacuating the pus, a 5% solution is poured into the wound, or pledgets of cotton soaked in solution are packed into the cavity; a delay of a few minutes is made when
curetting may be lightly performed painlessly. One dram of solution may be used for this with safety. Occasionally the skin over the bubo is so inflamed and tender that even the prick of the needle is dreaded by some patients. This may be obviated by previously spraying with ethyl chloride.
"Hydrocele. — The hydrocele is tapped, and the fluid withdrawn. One drachm of a 3% solution is injected into the sac through the trocar. Iodine may then be injected in the usual way. The patient only complains of a "warm sensation," instead of severe pain usually experienced. There is no after-pain."
(c) Guaiacol dissolved in olive oil has been used as a local anesthetic. Guaiacol is intensely irritating and is insoluble in water. It has not met with general favor. It is still used in selected cases by its introducer, Lucas-Championniere, and his personal admirers; it does not produce anesthesia as rapidly as cocaine or the infiltration method; it can, by its vaso-constrictive action, cause sphacelus; it does not always procure anesthesia; there is much smarting at the periphery of the area into which the fluid is injected, and this smarting lasts longer than the anesthesia.
(d) Carbolic acid is employed as a local anesthetic. It exerts a destructive and caustic action on the tissues. It does not penetrate deeply.
Antipyrin is valuable to obtain anesthesia of the urinary bladder. Its anesthetic power is less than that of cocaine, but it has the advantage of being less toxic. Surgical local anesthesia can be induced by the aforenamed and other less valuable agents. It is neither necessary nor practical for the medical practitioner to have a thorough and complete knowledge of every agent that can induce local anesthesia. It is far wiser and of far more utility for him to confine himself to the use of those local anesthetic agents, the value of which is universally acknowledged and to master thoroughly the technique of their administration. Experimentation is legitimate and commendable when carried on in laboratories and in large public hospitals by experienced men. Private patients, however, pay to be healed, not to be immolated on the altar of science, hence the busy general practitioner must accept the teachings of, and adopt the methods sanctioned and employed by the specialist.
(2) The use of Cocaine and Eucaine B. — (a) applied superficially to mucous membranes; (b) injected subcutaneously; (c) with the cataphoric action of the galvanic current. Cocaine is the
toxicity is its drawback.
(3) The infiltration method. — The principle being to infiltrate the entire field of operation with fluid as indifferent as possible to the organism. To obtain a complete anesthesia with an infiltrating fluid, the entire area must be tensely infiltrated. The effect appears immediately after the injection.
In using cocaine, eucaine, and the infiltration method of anesthesia, an elastic bandage should be applied whenever possible, even about the scalp. Care should be taken not to apply it too tightly, and also that it be loosened gradually after the operation is well over.
Local anesthetics in the present state of our knowledge can not entirely displace general anesthetics. General surgical anesthesia and local surgical anesthesia have each their respective indications and limitations, each their respective advantages and disadvantages.
1. Minor operations with local anesthesia can be performed without assistants. This is a matter of importance to the country practitioner who can not as easily obtain skilled assistants as his city brethren. This is also important when there are
ADVANTAGES OF LOCAL ANESTHETIC. 121
no means with which to compensate an assistant. The giving of a general anesthetic involves a great expenditure of energy and the assuming of a great responsibility, and it is unkind to ask a fellowpractitioner to give a general anesthetic for a mere '•thank you."
2. Greater rapidity of action. Their use does not entail the loss of time incident to putting patient under the influence of a general anesthetic.
exceptional.
4. Their use does not give rise to any serious after effects. Nephritis, pulmonary inflammations, paralysis and other pathological states have occurred consequent to the inhalation of general anesthetics.
5. General anesthesia is always accompanied by more or less depression or shock. After minor operations, under general anesthesia, the shock or depression is often due to the ether or chloroform administered. General anesthetics are depressants. In debilitated patients, they lower the general vitality, they lower the patient's natural resistance to disease. In laryngeal diphtheria necessitating the performance of tracheotomy, avoid the depressing effects of general anesthetics by the use of local anesthesia. '^Extreme prostration and asphyxia from diphtheritic poisoning are absolute
centra-indications to the use of Chloroform in tracheotomy." (Geffrier.) Fraenkel reports twenty-three cases of tracheotomies performed successfully under cocaine anesthesia. Lennox Brown reports forty.
In Prof. Schleich's elinic, infiltration anesthesia has been used with success in tracheotomies performed for the relief of dyspnea due to chronic stenosis and to acute diphtheritic stenosis.
6. There is a mortality inherent to the use of general surgical anesthesia. The dangers of general anesthesia are, however, dependent more on the experience and competence of the anesthetist than on the drug itself. Skilled anesthetists rarely have fatalities. Lawrie of India reports 45,000 chloroformizations with no death. The mortality of local anesthetics, when cautiously used, is practically nil. They can be used when the patient is too ill to take a general anesthetic with safety. In cases where there are grave objections to the employment of general anesthesia, major operations can be performed under local anesthesia. Amputation of the thigh has been successfully done under cocaine anesthesia.
being put to sleep with a general anesthetic. Their use meets less objection on the part of patients. Consent to their use is more easily obtained. Hence, surgical interventions can be more timely, more opportune. Patients are not so afraid of local anesthesia as they are of general anesthesia. While they are thinking over the advisability of taking a general anesthetic, the pathological processes progress.
9. The technique of their administration is comparatively simple. No previous preparation of the patient is required. In operations about the face, throat and nose, any apparatus used (Souchon's excepted) to produce general anesthesia embarrasses the operator, interferes with his operative manipulations.
10. The operator does not lose patient's cooperation and guidance. The patient remaining conscious, operations about the oral cavity under local anesthesia are not attended with the danger of deglutition of blood, of aspiration of blood and foreign bodies as teeth, etc., into the respiratory passages. The patient can be of aid to the surgeon by opening his mouth, thus doing away with the use of the mouth gag to maintain jaws apart, can expectorate any blood accumulating in mouth. The patient being conscious, there is no danger of the tongue falling backward, occluding the glottis and causing asphyxia, no danger of a tooth or
foreign body being swallowed. In operations on hands or feet in which cut tendons have been sutured, when one wishes to find out whether the ends have been correctly adjusted, voluntary motion supplies at once the physiological test.
11. Local anesthetics do away with the retching and vomiting that so often accompany the induction of general anesthesia. This retching and vomiting are especially objectionable in operations about the face, mouth, throat and eyes.
12. Local anesthetics are more agreeable to the patient, are safer than general anesthetics. The comfort and safety of the patient should ever be present to the physician's mind. Hence, we always employ local anesthetics instead of general anesthetics when the temperament of the patient and the nature of the operation render their use practicable.
WHEN NOT TO BE USED.
Local anesthetics must not be resorted to in the presence of insurmountable fear felt by the patient; of hysteria; or against his personally expressed wish to take a general anesthetic; when they would fail to secure a sufficiently deep anesthesia; when, in operations requiring exposure, a general anesthetic might be preferred on sentimental grounds; where muscular relaxation is required, as in the reduction of fractures and of dislocations, as in intra-abdominal operations; when very exten-
sive dissection is necessary, as in the separation of abdominal adhesions in surgery. (Abbe.) It must not be resorted to in operations where one does not know beforehand how extensive the necessary operative procedures will be. Many a surgeon has been obliged to finish an unexpectedly extensive dissection upon a groaning, screaming patient, because he had already reached the limit of safety in the use of his local anesthetic agent, or because he found a further extension of the local anesthesia impracticable for one reason or another.
Neither should they be resorted to in the case of very nervous individuals or in children, because they are liable to become unruly on seeing the knife, making local anesthesia often insufficient and very unsatisfactory. "Children, for instance, appear to be unsuitable subjects for this procedure. The mere sight of the surgical preparations for operation frightens them, and their unstable emotional condition is upset by the slightest pain. Very timid adults for the same reason are also better with general anesthesia." (Barker.) Nor should they be used in major operations attended by much hemorrhage, since the consciousness of the patient in these conditions is annoying to the operator, nor when the employment of a local anesthetic would impair the vitality of the tissues.
simple in technique which do not take up much time and where every step is well known. Operations such as the following come within the domain of local anesthesia:
Abdominal and thoracic puncture; incision and evacuation of abscesses when located near the surface; operations on felons, carbuncles, naevi, sebaceous cysts; lipomata; adenomata of breast when near surface; circumcisions; castrations; and many operations in ophthalmology, laryngology and rhinology.
It is well, however, to bear in mind that the anesthesia obtained by the use of local anesthetics is not as complete as that obtained by the use of general anesthetics. Consciousness being present, the perception of pain is not as completely abolished as with general anesthetics. Many individuals, however, will prefer to endure a slight amount of pain rather than be put to sleep.
The induction of local surgical anesthesia should only be practiced by qualified and responsible persons, that is, by dentists and by physicians. Irrational employment of local anesthetics leads to deleterious results. The toxicity of the agents employed and the serious consequences that can follow their unscientific use amply justify the dictum at the beginning of this paragraph.
ANESTHESIA BY REFRIGERATION. 127
When about to induce local anesthesia, and to operate under it, whatever may be the agent used, cover the patient's face with a light fabric so as to completely close off the field of operation from his observation. The sight of surgical instruments, of the operator's movements, of blood, will in some patients induce syncope. The patient seeing or being aware that an operation is being done upon him, the apprehension which is so commonly felt that pain will be experienced, in many cases, .produce faintness and in some instances fatal syncope.
Always tell the patient that there will be a slight amount of pain; he will then not be surprised is he experiences a little pain and, being forewarned, will not become alarmed. Section or rough manipulation of muscle tissue causes dull pain of an aching character which can easily be endured. (Lilienthal.) Section or manipulation of tendons is not felt. Manipulation of nerves causes a pain which is acute, if nerve is grasped with clamp or caught in a ligature. (Lilienthal.) Ligature of arteries is painful. Vaso-motor nerves are sensitive. (Wyeth.)
Cold benumbs the nerve-endings or trunks. The freezing methods are of limited application because (a) cold not penetrating beyond a very shallow depth, this method of anesthesia suffices
only for short surface operations; (b) they can be applied only to limited areas; there is danger of gangrene of the frozen tissues; (c) freezing retards healing; (d) anesthesia produced by the refrigerating methods is evanescent; its induction is attended with pain, especially in inflamed parts; the pain following its disappearance is at times very severe; (e) freezing substances harden the tissue and alter the appearances of cut surfaces, making it difficult to differentiate between normal and pathological states of tissues. (Lilienthal.) (f) Their use in certain tissues, as on the scrotum, may produce a slough.
Choppedxice and salt are used. Dr. Lemke uses these to anesthetize the site of insertion of the canula, previous to injecting nitrogen gas in tubercular pulmonary cavities. Rub over the part to be incised a small muslin bag containing some ice pounded very fine, and salt. This is to be kept up for two or three minutes, or until the skin is blanched.
Menthol part 1
This solution quite freezes the part in about a minute. The skin becomes white and hard. The freezing process must not be carried too far, other-
ETHYL CHLORIDE. 129
wise a slough is apt to ensue. The anesthesia produced by this spray lasts from two to six minutes. The solution and all others containing ether, must not be used in operations about the eye. Ether vapor irritates the cornea and conjunctiva.
Ethyl Chloride (that of French manufacture is the best) is of use to anesthetize very superficial parts, as when a mere incision is to be made in the skin. It is useful in the opening of abscesses and felons. It is useful in the removal of warts, both simple and venereal, and in the extraction of foreign bodies. If too much pressure is not made, that is, if the knife is sharp, operations under ethyl-chloride anesthesia are practically painless. It is usually dispensed in large glass tubes, which contain enough ethyl chloride to produce anesthesia in at least a dozen cases. The heat of the hand causes the liquefied gas to issue in spray form. In order to produce local anesthesia, the bulb of the tube is held in the palm of the surgeon's hand. The cap is unscrewed and the jet of spray is directed to the spot that is to be anesthetized. Hold tube at a distance of from six to ten inches from the part to be anesthetized. The part soon becomes frozen and ready for operation. Do not operate before the part has assumed a parchment-white color. This white color is indicative of local refrigeration, is indicative of loss
of dermal sensation in frozen area. It is a good rapid local anesthetic, having no influence on the sensory nerve centers in the brain. Anesthesia is induced in less than a minute and lasts about two minutes. This substance is highly inflammable, and when it is used, operations must be done at a good distance from gas or other flame. The exact limits of the operations must be determined beforehand, because the ethyl chloride hardens the skin. In many operations constriction of a member may be practiced before applying the spray. This, by limitation of the warm blood supply, will effect a more rapid and lasting anesthesia. After using the spray, the cap must be screwed on tightly, as the extreme volatility of this substance will cause its escape from the tube if the screw cap is loosely adjusted.
Previous to using the ethyl chloride spray, the field of operation must be sterilized. The bulb of ethyl chloride must be held with sterile gauze so that the surgeon will not contaminate his hands.
Cocaine is to the rhinologist, laryngologist and ophthalmologist what chloroform and ether are to the general surgeon. For the ophthalmologist, cocaine meets every requirement that could reasonably be expected from a local anesthetic. It has caused a few deaths. So has opium, so has
COCAINE, ITS PROPERTIES. 131
belladonna, and so have many other valuable medicinal agents. These few fatalities should not lead us to abandon the use of cocaine, but should stimulate us to discover and observe methods of administration that do away with some of the uncertainties attending its use. Careful attention to the teachings of experimental therapeutics and close observation of the methods practiced by eminent clinicians, minimize the dangers incident to therapeutic procedures and enhance their value to humanity. Cocaine is an agent of great power and usefulness, but it must be used with caution. In the absence of positive centra-indications to the use of general anesthesia, it should not be used in irregular and prolonged operations, as in abdominal surgery. The quantity required to maintain prolonged anesthesia is toxic. Neither should it be used in individuals showing organic disease of the brain, heart, lungs or kidneys, when local anesthesia by refrigeration, by infiltration or by the use of such agents as antipyrin, orthoform or strophantheine meets the indications.
PEOPEKTIES OF COCAINE.
Cocaine paralyzes the terminal filaments of the peripheral sensory nerves when brought in contact with them. Its use as a local anesthetic is based upon this property. The less vascular the part the more intense its action. It possesses remarkable
anesthetic properties upon mucous membranes. All mucous membranes are amenable to its anesthetic properties. A canal lined with mucous membrane may be rendered insensitive by injecting into it a small amount of cocaine solution. The conjunctival, the labial, the nasal, the pharyngeal, the gastric, the urethral, the vesical, the rectal., the vaginal and the uterine mucous membranes are all anesthetized by the application of cocaine to them. The application to any of these membranes of swabs of cotton saturated with a solution of cocaine is followed by insensibility in from three to five minutes. The cocaine solution can be brushed upon the field of operation. This loss of sensation continues for from fifteen to twenty minutes. The influence of cocaine solutions on mucous membranes depends entirely upon the strength of the solution, the frequency of the applications and the time that has elapsed from the time of first application. A 2% solution is almost always sufficiently strong to obtain anesthesia, of mucous membranes for minor operations. The statement made by some that a 2% solution is more effective than a stronger solution is erroneous. To secure anesthesia in throat, nose, larynx, do not use the spray. Spraying, be it ever so skillfully done, will not prove as satisfactory as a properly shaped and carefully applied cotton pledget.
Applied to the unbroken skin, cocaine does not anesthetize it. To anesthetize the skin the cocaine solution must be injected in the dermal tissues; that is, in the skin and not beneath it. Injections must be intradermic and not hypodermic. There is a difference in the susceptibility of patients to cocaine, also a difference in the susceptibility of the same patient on different occasions. There are individual idiosyncrasies. Children appear to come more quickly under the influence of the drug than adults. The application of cocaine to the conjunctival, vaginal and rectal mucous membranes is almost never followed by alarming symptoms. Serious accidents have followed, however, its application to the urethral mucous membrane. Its subcutaneous use has given rise to a few accidents. In vascular regions, such as face, scalp, nasal fossa? and mouth, large quantities of cocaine solution must not be used. Reclus collected from the medical literature, and analyzed, sixteen deaths due to cocaine anesthesia. He says that all these deaths were due to one or more of the following conditions:
(2) Sudden emptying of large quantities of the drug into the general circulation, either by puncture of a vein or injection into areas vascular, by virtue of the presence of an inflammation or naturally so, as is the case with the head.
"The healing process is not impaired by the use of cocaine." (Lndwig Pernice.) "In my experience, wounds made under the influence of cocaine have invariably healed well." (W. Moore.)
of all those that have used cocaine extensively.
The application of cocaine to mucous surfaces is attended by a weakening of the reflexes, so that parts can be handled that without the influence of cocaine could not be handled. Insensibility follows its application to mucous membranes in from three to five minutes, and lasts about ten minutes.
For cocaine anesthesia use the hydrochlorate of cocaine, the alkaloid itself is very insoluble in water; other preparations do not possess the same anesthetic properties. (Franz Fux.) Cocaine phenate, being insoluble in water, is unsuited for hypodermic use. In making ointments, cocaine, the alkaloid is used, as it is soluble in fats, whereas its salts are not.
COCAINE IN OPHTHALMOLOGY. 135
the eye, in the removal of foreign bodies present in the conjunctival sac or imbedded in the cornea, and in such operations as iridectomy, cataract removal, sclerotomy, extirpation of eyeball, cure of strabismus, etc. Slitting of canaliculi and other operations on lachrymal ducts are, with its use, done painlessly. The same applies to ablation of small tumors, as cysts, to removal of pterygium, etc. Cocaine does not possess the disadvantage of producing the enormous engorgement of the ocular vessels that ether does. An objection to the use of general anesthesia in ophthalmology is the possibility of vomiting which may occur during or after the administration of a general anesthetic. This is always dangerous after a cataract operation. Vomiting by causing a too rapid escape of the aqueous humor may cause extensive prolapse of iris, subluxation of lens, prolapse of the vitreous humor, intraocular hemorrhage. The use of cocaine anesthesia eliminates the danger of vomiting. Under local anesthesia, the patient can direct the movements of his eyes according to the necessities of the operation. This is impossible under general anesthesia.
Holtz (Chicago) uses a 2% cocaine solution to anesthetize corneal ulcers previous to cauterizing them. For most operations, ophthalmologists employ solutions varying from 3% to 5% in strength. A few drops of this solution are injected
several times into the conjimctival sac, at intervals of few minutes. For enucleation of the eyeball, J. A. White says: "A solution of from 10% to 20% is required to deaden the sensibility of deep tissues surrounding the optic and ciliary nerves.''' About five minutes before the division of these deep tissues inject in them, by means of a syringe with a long canula,five min.of the cocaine solution. .Cocaine solutions can be injected into the substance of the eyeball if necessary. If the performance of the operation is delayed ten or fifteen minutes after the first instillation, for the drug to pass through the cornea, the iris will be completely anesthetized and iridectomy can be performed without pain." (A. Duane.) Solutions of atropine, eserine, or cocaine, when applied to the surface of the conjunctiva, by a process of endosmosis, soak through the cornea and become diffused in the aqueous humor; they are thus brought in actual contact with the iris.
In making subconjunctival injections of cocaine, the episclera must not be wounded. A 1% solution is a safe solution for that purpose.
COCAINE ABOUT THE MOUTH, NOSE, ETC.
An objection to the use of general anesthetics in operations about the mouth, nose, larynx, is that voluntary cough can not take place until the patient has recovered from the effect of the general
COCAINE IN MOUTH AND NOSE. 137
anesthetic. During this period accumulation of blood in the main air-passages may cause asphyxia. This danger is not present when local anesthesia is used.
The use of cocaine spray to produce nasal pharyngeal or laryngeal anesthesia is to be condemned because too much unnecessary surface is anesthetized and too much cocaine is absorbed, it being not possible to regulate the dose. To anesthetize pharyngeal, laryngeal and nasal mucous membranes many operators use strong solutions ranging from 10% to 20 %; most operators, however, use 4% to 5% solution first. The saliva and mucus are wiped off from the surface, as they dilute and retard the production of the anesthesia. Should, during any operations under cocaine anesthesia, sensibility of part anesthetized return, more cocaine solution must be applied to the tissues, it being remembered that, once a tissue has been brought under the influence of cocaine, it is very quick to respond to subsequent applications during the entire duration of the operation. Use cocaine in tonsilotomy, especially if both tonsils are to be cut. The patient not experiencing any pain when the first tonsil is cut, willingly submits to the excision of the second. By the application of cocaine to the surface of the tonsils, anesthesia of the deeper parts is not obtained. This however,
in section of the tonsils, is the mucosa.
For the removal of naso-pharyngeal adenoids in adolescents and in adults for the removal of polypi and of multiple papillomata of the larynx, cocaine anesthesia is serviceable. When cauterizing or applying caustics to diseased portions of larynx see that cocainization is complete; have a cotton wad firmly wound around the end of a probe so that it won't detach itself, and after moistening in cocaine solution, under guidance of a mirror, rub vigorously against the laryngeal mucosa.
COCAINE IN NASAL SUEGEKY.
In nasal surgery, cocaine is a favorite anesthetic. When used the head can be kept in proper position for illumination of part. Every step of the operation can be seen. Under general anesthesia this can not be done. It is useful to the rhinologist for the removal of deep as well as superficial tissue abnormalities, by promoting quiet, by lessening hemorrhage, by preventing secretion and sneezing. By its contractile effect on the erectile tissues, the employment of cutting instruments in the nares is facilitated and the operator is enabled to examine the field of operation easily. The removal of pedunculated growths, of excrescences of the nasal septum and other similar operations come within the province of cocaine anesthesia.
In order to anesthetize the nasal mucous membrane put in the nostril to be anesthetized a pledget of cotton saturated with cocaine solution. The pledget must be large enough to occlude the nostrils; every two or three minutes until the part is fully anesthetized instill a few drops of solution on cotton in situ. The pledget of cotton must be in contact with the area to be anesthetized for about five minutes. In using cocaine in nasal surgery, be watchful. Owing to the fact that the mucous membrane covering the turbinated bones of the nose absorbs this agent with great rapidity, accidents are liable to follow its use in this region. Joseph S. Gibb recommends general anesthesia in the following intranasal operations:
following conditions:
(1) Application of painful remedies, such as nitrate of silver, alcohol, etc., in case of chronic purulent otitis, can be made to the ear after
cocainization, with little, if any, pain being experienced by the patient. (2) Operations on the walls of ear canal, auricle and its surroundings, such as removal of small tumors, incisions into the skin, can be rendered painless by injections of cocaine. (3) Manipulations, such as scraping*, torsion, avulsion, ecrasement, etc., in tympanic cavity can be performed painlessly under local anesthesia when the drumhead is perforated. (4) The following otological operations can be performed under local anesthesia: Paracentesis of tympanum, incision of its anterior and posterior flods; tenotomy of the tensor muscle, section of the handle of the malleus, and many others.
GENERAL SURGERY.
Kemoval of cutaneous tumors, as sebaceous cysts, rodent ulcers; excision of single ganglia about wrist and ankles, opening of abscesses, perineal, ischiorectal and others; tenotomies; operations on hydrocele, serous cyst of neck, tracheotomy, tapping of abdominal and thoracic cavities; all these operations can be done and should be done under cocaine or beta-eucaine anesthesia.
When local anesthesia of the skin or deeper tissues is required, the cocaine or beta-eucaine solution must be injected hypodermically into the deeper layers of the skin and into the cellular tissue of the parts to be operated upon. To avoid mul-
tiple punctures, the needle is not completely withdrawn from the wound, but its direction is changed and the solution is thrown into different portions of the tissues.
Use only 2% solution in the urethra, (a) To induce cocaine anesthesia of penile prepuce for circumcision: Ketract prepuce, place constriction band around base of penis; inject by means of a fine hypodermic needle ten or twelve drops of 2% cocaine solution into the internal layer of the prepuce about one-half inch from its attachment to the glans penis; make blebs until cervix is completely encircled by them. Now draw prepuce forward, and at that point elected for incision make a similar line of blebs on the external preputial layer, (b) For enlarging meatus urinarius painlessly, to anesthetize area, place a tablet of cocaine just within the meatus and let it dissolve there, (c) Previous to cauterizing chancroids and ulcers of other nature, have the patient wash them thoroughly and then apply your cocaine solution vigorously; another method is to powder a few cocaine tablets and dust them on the ulcers; they will dissolve in the secretions and anesthetize the surface, (d) In the removal of vulvar, urethral and anal vegetations; in the cauterization and scarification of the uterine cervix; when it is
desired to cauterize vulvar vaginal mucous membrane in gonorrhea! inflammations, cocaine is the anesthetic to resort to. Though curettage of the uterine cavity has been successfully performed under cocaine anesthesia, I prefer in that operation the aid of general anesthesia, (e) In internal urethrotomy inject a \% solution in the urethra compress the meatus so that the solution will sojourn in the urethra.
In rectal surgery, when six injections are made equidistant around the anus, the forcible dilatation of the orifice is not painful. The ligation of small hemorrhoidal tumors can be performed under cocaine anesthesia; if the hemorrhoids are to be cauterized, the infiltration method of anesthesia is preferable to cocaine anesthesia, as incandescent heat destroys the drug. In anal work, the rich lymphatic and vascular supply of the part increases the liability to cocaine intoxication.
Cocaine anesthesia is of service as an aid to diagnosis: (a) To differentiate the glans penis pain from renal pain, (b) To examine the eyeball and conjunctival sac. Anesthesia of the eyeball abrogates that reflex movement of the lids. This is of value, in trying to locate a foreign body in the conjunctival sac or imbedded in the cornea, in blepharospasm, etc. (3) Applications of cocaine to the palate, to the uvula and to the posterior pharyngeal wall greatly facilitate, especially in
COCAINE AS AN AID TO DIAGNOSIS. 143
hypersensitive patients, laryngoscopical and posterior rhinoscopical examinations. It does this by abolishing reflex phenomena and by diminishing, or abolishing, temporarily, tactile hyper-sensibility. (4) In anterior and posterior rhinoscopy, by abolishing reflex excitability, by diminishing or abolishing dolorous sensibility, by contracting the vessels of the congested nasal mucous membrane, it facilitates the use of instruments in the nasal cavities. Cocaine, owing to its. contractile effect on erectile tissues, enables the operator to examine the nares more closely. In nasal polypus, by diminishing the swelling around it, it makes the polypus more prominent. (5) For rectal examinations, especially when it is desired to palpate the prostatic gland, also in examining for anal fissure. (6) In sounding, and in examining the bladder by cystoscopy. In case of alarming symptoms appearing, rapidly empty the bladder and then wash it out. Very little absorption takes place from the vesical mucous membrane. However, it is unsafe to use cocaine solution in the bladder if any dissolution in the continuity of the lining membrane of the bladder is present. The anesthetization by cocaine of the urinary vesical mucous membrane having been attended in some cases by the production of alarming symptoms, many genito-urinary surgeons now use antipyrin to anesthetize the vesical mucous membrane. (7)
COCAINE AS A THERAPEUTIC AGENT.
As a therapeutic agent, the anesthetic properties of cocaine are made use of: (a) To lessen the pain associated with superficial inflammation of the eyeball, especially those of the cornea, (b) To reduce the sensibility of a painful membranum tympani. (c) To lessen the pain incident to fissured nipples, it must always be washed off before putting child to the breast. Orthoform, being non-toxic, is for this purpose preferable to cocaine. Another objection to cocaine in this condition, is that it unfavorably influences the secretion of milk, (d) To combat dysphagia; in cases of pharyngeal stenosis produced by tumors, in pharyngeal or laryngeal phthisis and syphilis, in tonsillitis, in ulcers of the pharynx, epiglottis or larynx, the pain produced by swallowing is at times so severe that patients either refuse or are unable to take nourishment. By cocainizing the painful parts, the pain incident to the partaking of food in these conditions is mitigated or stopped. Patients can then take nourishment. This, the taking of nourishment, in all diseases, is an important adjuvant to medicinal measures, (e) To facilitate the introduction of the stomach-
tube when lavage or gavage of the stomach are indicated. Before introducing the stomach-tube paint vigorously the posterior buccal and pharyngeal mucous membrane with a 10% cocaine solution. This abolishes the sensitiveness of the parts and spares the patient the pain and nausea incident to this procedure, when anesthesia of the fauces has not been previously secured. If in the absence of cocainization, swallowing of the stomach-tube causes patient little or no discomfort, the use of cocaine is not indicated and should not be resorted to.
(f) In hyperemesis gravidarum, Lutaud recommends ten drops of \% or 2% cocaine solution, repeated at one or two hours' intervals. In the gastric crises of tabes, the introduction into the stomach of five ounces of water containing from one-half to one grain of cocaine is most always followed by a palliation if not by a cessation of the pain. In stomatitis, in gastralgia, in boulimia, owing to its benumbing influence on the mucous membranes, it is a valuable palliative agent, (g) In catheterization of the Eustachian tubes through the nose, this procedure is greatly facilitated by previously applying cocaine to the nasal passage and to the pharyngeal orifice of tubes, by means of an atomizer, a brush, or with cotton on a probe. Under the influence of the cocaine, the mucous membrane becomes insensible, and then
the catheter glides over the parts without causing any pain, owing to the greater patulousness of the nasal passages. In most individuals, catheterization of the Eustachian tubes, introduction of the stomach tube, catheterization of urethra and examination of rectum can easily be performed without the aid of cocaine anesthesia. When the employment of a toxic agent is not required, its use should not be resorted to. (h) After operation for hemorrhoids, under general anesthesia, a cocaine suppository is comforting to the patient. In painful hemorrhoids, cocaine suppositories can be used with advantage, (i) In anal fissure, to obtain painless stools, so as to operate without general anesthesia (anal dilatation can be performed under cocaine anesthesia); in spasm of sphincter ani, to relieve anal itching of hemorrhoids; in all these conditions, cocaine, owing to its paralyzing action on the peripheral sensory nerve filaments, is of service. Use a tampon soaked in 5% solution and apply to fissure or insert in the rectum as indicated, (j) In vulvar and preputial pruritus, avail yourself of the action of cocaine on peripheral sensory nerve filaments. Also in eczema of the anus and of the genital organs.
(k) The employment of such agents as chromic acid, the galvanocautery, etc., etc., is by the use of cocaine made comparatively painless. "Cocaine solution applied for a few minutes to the surface
of an ulcer which is to be cauterized, will render the operation almost painless to the patient.'' (Whartcn.) The efficacy of the destructive agent is not affected by cocaine. The ulcerated surface is to be swabbed vigorously with 10% solution. If the cauterization or curettage is to be deep, some of the cocaine must be injected in the tissues. (1) When a few drops of a solution of cocaine, 2% to 5%, are injected into the urethra, a catheter can be introduced without pain, provided there is no stricture. Be cautious as to its use here. Most of the cases of cocaine poisoning have followed its use about the urinary organs, (m) In vaginismus, the swabbing of the vaginal walls with a cocaine solution, then following this with a vaginal injection of a weak cocaine solution, though it will not cure the condition, will, however, suppress one of its annoying inconveniences. Coitus is made possible and painless to the woman. Conception is thus facilitated. In this condition, I have found the local use of the following mixture valuable:
Alcohol 10.00
(n) In localized neuritis, the cataphoric use of cocaine is valuable. Place the positive pole over the affected nerve; it is the sedative pole. You get
analgesic action of the cocaine.
1. Observe the same aseptic and antiseptic precautions in operations done under local anesthesia that you do, or should do, in operations performed under general anesthesia, (a) Eigid surgical cleanliness of field of operation and irrigation with antiseptic solutions, (b) Thorough sterilization of all instruments and of all objects that are to come in contact with the field of operation, (c) Strict observance by surgeon and his assistants of modern surgical antiseptic teachings. Needle and syringe used should be aseptic. Needle can be boiled and a syringe full of alcohol passed through it previous to using.
2. Solutions used should be freshly prepared. Solutions of cocaine with age lose their anesthetic properties; they decompose and become septic; moulds form in them. Only distilled or filtered sterilized water or sterilized normal salt solution should be used for these solutions. The sterilization of solution by heat after the cocaine is dissolved in the water, decomposes the cocaine, moreover, it is superfluous, as unadulterated cocaine is sterile. If you keep on hand some cocaine solution, never load your syringe directly from the bottle. Sterilize a small glass, pour into it your cocaine solution (a quantity exceeding slightly in amount
load your hypodermic from glass contents.
Non-sterile solutions give rise to suppuration in wound. The humors of the eye, the body juices are good culture media for germs.
3. The cocaine employed should be absolutely pure. Laborde has pointed out that its mixture with other alkaloids forms highly poisonous compounds.
4. According to Reclus, who has a record of 3,500 successful cocainizations, the dose should not exceed one-fifth grain for small operations, one to three grains in large operations. When the latter amount is used, great watchfulness must be exercised. The dose of cocaine should be appropriate to the extent of surface desired to render insensitive. A large dose should never be used at one time, but fragmented, given at intervals. The slow administration of cocaine rendering it possible to guard against the production of sudden symptoms of poisoning. Injections can be made as the operation progresses. Concentrated solutions should never be employed, the danger from their use is too great rapidity of absorption.
A weak solution permits a minimal amount of cocaine to reach a maximal extent of surface. The danger of cocaine anesthesia is proportional to the actual quantity of the alkaloid used and not to the amount of solution used. Reclus, when he
uses cocaine subcutaneously, confines himself to a 1 % solution. With cocaine, when practical, it is well to make injections over the course of the sensory nerves in the part.
5. The use of a constricting band or tourniquet, when practicable, as in operations on extremities, as in circumcision, should never be omitted. In performing castration under cocaine anesthesia, surround base of scrotum with an elastic ligature. By the use of the constricting band or tourniquet the action of the drug is limited to desired area. Before applying tourniquet, elevate part to expel blood from same. The constrictor is applied at some point between the site of proposed operation and the trunk. "When we shut off the blood from a portion of the body previously injected with a comparatively weak solution of hydrochlorate of cocaine, we maintain the latter for a protracted period of time in contact with the filaments of the sensory nerves; and are consequently enabled to prolong in the sensory filaments those chemical changes which are necessary for the suspension of their functional activity, for the maintenance of the condition of anesthesia." (Leonard Corning.)
This constriction prevents the rapid absorption of the drug into the general circulation and the dangers of intoxication incident to this rapid
METHOD OF USING COCAINE. 151
absorption. Owing to lessened tendency to absorption, more latitude for the use of the drug is obtained. When this elastic ligature is removed, the bleeding from the stump washes out the excess of the drug. "The incision, the manipulation and the free bleeding which follows the removal of the constrictor should remove a considerable portion of cocaine." (Thompson.)
6. In some cases, the constricting band is useful, because it secures a wound unobscured by blood. Anemia facilitates the production of anesthesia. In operating on a limb, after the completion of the operation, the tourniquet is loosened for three or four seconds and then reapplied for several minutes; this procedure is repeated two or three times. In this way only a small quantity of cocaine is admitted into the circulation at one time and this small quantity distributed over a large area produces no ill results.
7. Extreme caution in the use of cocaine is to be employed, when the circulation cannot be controlled. First inject one centigram of the drug; if no untoward symptoms occur, there is no idiosyncrasy. You can then inject more.,
8. Injections should always be practiced with patient in recumbent posture, and he should only be raised when the operation is to be performed upon the mouth or throat, and then only when the anesthesia is complete. (Magitot, Keclus.)
The recumbent posture is imperative in cocaine anesthesia. (Dujardin-Beaumetz.) Eeclus insists upon the patient being kept in the recumbent posture, and adds that syncope in cocainization is the fault of the administrator and not of the cocaine. He makes patients keep recumbent posture for from two to three hours after the completion of the operation, and does not permit them to arise until they have eaten something.
9. When the operation involves the skin, the injection should be made into the derma itself and not into the subcutaneous cellular tissue. Anesthesia of the skin by cocaine is obtained only through endermatic injections. Cocaine cannot be absorbed through the unbroken skin. Hypodermatic injections secure subcutaneous anesthesia, but not cutaneous.
You will know that you are injecting the solution in the cutaneous tissues by experiencing the resistance which the dermal tissues offer to the advance of the hypodermic needle and by noting the formation of bleb-like swellings along the line of injection. Introduce the needle about parallel to the skin.
10. Do not inject the solution into a vein. Many of the accidents that have occurred under cocainization, and that have been attributed to idiosyncrasy, were, in reality, due to the injection of the drug directly into the veins. With proper precau-
tions, even in regions rich in veins, this should not occur. This is avoided by gradually expelling solution from the syringe at the same time that the needle is gradually withdrawn from the tissues. Leonard Corning advises the following to avoid injecting cocaine solutions in veins: Pass a piece of ordinary elastic webbing around the central portion of the limb; draw it sufficiently tight to cause swelling of the superficial veins. It is now an easy matter to trace out the course of the distended vessels with an ordinary colored pencil, so that when the ligature is removed these topographical reminders remain upon the surface.
11. Expel the solution of cocaine from the syringe drop by drop, while the needle is passing through the tissues. The object of this is to control the largest possible field with a single injection; that is obtaining the maximal effect with the minimal dose. Make cocaine injections in an orderly manner. Inject the sub-epidermal tissues first and subsequently the deeper tissues. If the operation to be done requires deep dissection, injections must be both superficial and deep. Swab, if needed, field of operations with cocaine solution, every few minutes.
cleation of a small tumor located near the surface of body, inject solution beneath and around tumor so as to bathe neoplasm in the anesthetic fluid. Its dissection will then not be attended with any suffering.
When giving cocaine, always have some aromatic spirits of ammonia, some nitrite of amyl and some ether at hand. These are useful agents with which to combat cocaine intoxication. Upon the first appearance of symptoms of poisoning, have (a) patient immediately assume the recumbent posture. Recovery takes place more rapidly in this posture, (b) Give hypodermic injections of ether.
ACCIDENTS AND THEIR REMEDIES.
Accidents are often due to the faulty technique of the physician, such as the use of an overdose, failure to have patient maintain the recumbent posture, non-employment of means that prevent too rapid absorption, as the constricting band or tourniquet, the use of an adulterated product, etc. Among the symptoms of poisoning may be mentioned loquacity, cold perspiration, shallow respirations, rapid, feeble pulse, unconsciousness and convulsions. Cocaine can cause death by causing paralysis of the respiratory center or tetanic fixation of respiratory muscles.
c. Morphine sulph.
Morphine, though not an absolute antidote, is most valuable in counteracting the toxicity of cocaine. "There exists a marked antagonism between cocaine and morphine, also between cocaine and chloroform or ether." (Willard and Adler.)
In all forms of cocaine poisoning, empty the bladder and activate urinary secretion. Meet sleeplessness by hypnotics or narcotics. In delirium due to cocaine intoxication, if the heart be not very weak, chloral can be used or hyoscine hypodermatically. If patient be very delirious, he will have to be restrained.
INFILTRATION ANESTHESIA.
The technique of this method was first elaborated and introduced to the medical world by Dr. C. L. Schleich of Berlin. It is based upon the fact that endermatic injections or infiltration of the various tissues of the body with water, or
watery solutions of indifferent substances will produce local anesthesia of the tissues infiltrated. Previous to the introduction of Schleich's infiltration method of local anesthesia, deep injections of cold water along the course of the sciatic nerve were made with alleged benefit. If the production of the anesthesia is preceded by the production of pain, we have the condition which is called anesthesia dolorosa. (Liebrich.) ".02 parts to 100 parts of distilled water is the weakest cocaine solution which can produce local anesthesia without prodromal hyperesthesia." (Schleich.) Infiltration causes anesthesia by
a. Causing an anemia of the part. This anemia is due to the compressing action exerted by the injected fluid on the bloodvessels.
b. Low temperature of the injected solution. Its temperature must_always be lower than that of the body. If both are of the same temperature, the anesthetic effect is greatly diminished; whereas if the solution is ice-cold, anesthetic action is augmented.
The anesthesia produced by this method is instantaneous. As soon as the tissues have been edematized, they are anesthetic. This differs from other methods of local anesthesia, and is a distinct advantage. "Every tissue is anesthetic that can be artificially edematized by our solutions." (Schleich.) This holds good for skin and mucous membrane, periosteum, synovial membrane, fascia, muscle, lymph, glands, nerves, viscera, and even bone.
c. In nasal, naso-pharyngeal and intra-laryngeal manipulations and surgery. Dr. Coulter, however, uses infiltration anesthesia when performing tonsillectomy. (Removal of all the tonsillar tissue through mouth by means of the galvano-cautery.
d. In plastic surgery, the artificial edema which is the basis of the modus operandi of "the infiltration method" interferes with the nicety of surgical operations. Infiltration produces an extensive artificial edema which masks anatomical details considerably, thus rendering the operation more difficult. Infiltration by distorting the flaps increases the difficulties of the operation.
f. Whenever the limits of the disease are not readily definable as in malignant tumors. The presence of much fluid in the tissues changes their appearance and renders difficult the demarcation of sound from diseased tissues.
h. In cases of malignant new growths, of diffuse
tuberculosis, etc. The increased hyper tension of part makes possible the forcing of the materies morbi into the lymph channels. "In the removal of large neoplasms or large purulent collections the infiltration method is not suitable." (Braun, Leipzig.) There is danger that the repeated needle punctures may disseminate an already existing infectious material into previously healthy parts.
i. In all cases where local anesthesia is contraindicated as in very nervous patients who dread watching the surgeon's manipulations.
j. In children.
With this method, anesthesia occurs at the moment of completion of artificial edema and not before. It lasts from 10 to 15 minutes and can be prolonged by further addition of the fluid. No part is to be operated on before the artificial edema is complete.
solutions employed is so small that the use of comparatively large quantities of the solutions is attended with no risks of drug-poisoning. Different solutions have been used. Arthur E. Barker (London) uses the following, worked out by Braun. He says that it can be used practically in any amount without danger of producing poisonous effects.
The advantages of beta-eucaine over cocaine are that it is far less toxic and that it admits of thorough sterilization by boiling.
In Braun's formula, beta-eucaine is the only anesthetic used in the solution, the salt simply preventing irritation. Prof. Schleich has used betaeucaine in his operative work. He has observed its non-toxic properties. He says that it can be substituted for cocaine in his method of infiltration anesthesia. Owing to the absence of vaso-constrictive effects, beta-eucaine does not allow of so bloodless an operation as is the case with similar doses of cocaine dissolved in normal salt solution.
There can be no doubt that cocaine and betaeucaine are simple substances to be considered in the selection of a drug for infiltration anesthesia;
they paralyze without irritation, and without injury to the tissues; and they effect an anesthesia lasting enough for practical purposes even in extreme dilution.
No. 1. Strong — for operations on highly hyperesthetic areas. Inflammation, suppuration, neuralgia. The more sensitive the parts are that you operate on, the greater must be the concentration of the cocaine.
M. et adde 5% acid carbol. gtt. . . 2. These solutions must be kept absolutely sterile. These ingredients can easily be prescribed in the form of a powder to be dissolved in sterilized water just previous to using. Every practitioner should always have in his satchel a few of these powders, kept in a sterilized flask.
Only sterilized water must be used in the preparation of the solutions. The sodium chloride is roasted in a small pan. It may be sterilized by boiling in a small amount of water in a wellcleansed test-tube and then allowing it to cool. It; is added to the solutions to attenuate the irritating action of the water. The one-fifth per cent solution of sodium chloride is a practical anesthetic when the skin is healthy. It will not suppress pain in hyperesthetic inflamed areas. (Schleich.) Inflamed tissues are highly sensitive. To do this, cocaine is added to the solution.
Morphine does not need to be sterilized. Like cocaine in the pure state, it is bacteriologically sterile. Heat decomposes these alkaloids. They should be weighed on a well -cleansed scale. Mor-
Fig. 2.
FIG. 1.— Bransford Lewis Infiltration Syringe. FIG. 2.— Formation of the cutaneous wheals. A spot made anesthetic by ether spray for the first injection.
phine was incorporated in Schleich's solutions for the purpose of allaying the paresthesia incident to the wearing off of the anesthesia. As stated, Schleich's solutions are prepared with boiled and filtered water, and if the hands and instruments used in its preparation are sterile it may be regarded as aseptic. It is, however, not antiseptic, and if accidentally contaminated is unfit for use.
An ordinary hypodermic needle may be made to serve for injecting the solution in many cases. It is better, however, to have a larger syringe with several needles, some straight, some curved. "The Bransford Lewis Infiltration Syringe" is very serviceable. The barrel of the syringe is large, the needles have a rounded end, or probe point, which prevents their piercing such structures as veins, arteries or nerves.
Such operations as enucleation of buboes, circumcisions, castration, colotomy, cholecystotomy, drainage of empyema of thorax, have been successfully performed under infiltration anesthesia. August McLean says "The infiltration does not appear to have any deleterious effect upon the healing of the tissues." In many of his cases, there was primary union.
suture of wounds. As your experience with the method increases, you can use it in more difficult cases. Experience will perfect your technique. Each case teaches something which will perhaps be useful in the next.
modern antiseptic teachings.
3. Needle, syringe and anesthetic solution must be sterile. Syringe must be in good working order. It is very annoying to have a leaking syringe.
4. Place the bottle containing the solution on ice. It must be kept on ice during the entire duration of the operation. The anesthetic properties of the solutions are intensified by cold. Warm solutions are unfit for anesthetic use. The syringe should also be cooled.
5. To make the first puncture, by needle, painless, a spray of chloride of ethyl can be directed against the skin; a pledget of cotton dipped in cocaine solution placed upon the mucous membrane.
6. Insert needle in skin, holding the syringe at an angle of 45° to the skin. Inject sufficient of solution to produce a wheal about the size of a dime. Remove needle, reintroduce at the periphery
TECHNIQUE OF METHOD. 165
but still within the wheal, inject enough of solution to form a new wheal and repeat this process as often as indicated. In this way the line of incision is anesthetized. When solution is thrown into skin, the end organs of the sensory nerves situated there immediately absorb the solution and are temporarily paralyzed. (Barker, London.) Anesthetize skin broadly, so that the suture line will be infiltrated.
Now an incision can be made through the skin, and infiltration of the deeper tissues proceeded with, or the subcutaneous tissues can be squeezed full of fluid through the anesthetized skin. The important fact being that all tissues that come within the field of operation must be edematized to be anesthetic. Spots which have not been infiltrated retain their sensibility. If the tissues to be operated on are not very deep, it is better to infiltrate through the skin. Infiltration in the open wound is more difficult, as the fluid escapes. Do not infiltrate through the skin deeper than the superficial muscles except in cases where the tissues to be anesthetized are superficially located, as over the skull, over the clavicle, over the sternum. When tissues are dense, considerable pressure is necessary to infiltrate them.
7. The field of operation must be tensely filled with the solution before beginning to operateT If, during operation a large nerve trunk is met, it may
FIG. 5.— 1, Fururcle; 2, Anesthetized skin; 3, Infiltration of subjacent tissue; 4 and 5, First and second position of syringe. FIG. 6.— Infiltration of abscess.
be anesthetized, for a short time only, by touching it with a 5% carbolic acid solution. If nerve is to be cut, it must be infiltrated separately. If patient during operation complains of the slightest pain, the part must immediately be reinfiltrated. Pain is a sign of insufficient anesthesia, insufficient edematization. As soon as infiltration is complete, pain is absent. "Tissues not thoroughly infiltrated must not be cut or manipulated." (Lund.) The surgeon must lay down the knife and take up the syringe on the slightest expression of pain on the part of the patient. Should it become necessary to extend the field of operation beyond the infiltrated area, injections must be made in the direction required, starting from within the anesthetic area.
8. Never begin the infiltration in inflamed area. Surround it and advance upon it from all sides, via sound skin. Inflamed tissues, owing to their hypersensitiveness, are not to be infiltrated until the adjacent normal tissues are infiltrated. Primary injection into an abscess, phegmon or pathological focus is to be avoided as it increases the tension and does not lessen the pain.
9. Do not inject contents of syringe in a blood vessel. If operation has lasted more than fifteen or twenty minutes, it will be necessary to anesthetize points of entrance and of exit of suture before closing the wound.
Spray is applied to one side of furuncle and the first wheal is set up within healthy skin. Push a long needle in an oblique direction through skin, expelling the solution all the time as you advance and deposit an anesthetic focus beneath the furuncle. (Fig. 5.)
Repeat this process on opposite side of boil. Use solution freely. Once the furuncle is completely cut off from the surrounding tissues by an anesthetic zone, anesthetize the skin covering it, beginning within the infiltrated area and advancing towards it. Now incise and evacuate and curette the furuncle.
For removal of sebaceous cyst, or small tumor, cut skin along line of wheals, severing only the skin. Adapt now a curved needle to syringe. Raising by aid of forceps the cut edge of the skin, insert needle gently and gradually, push it around underneath the cyst, steadily expelling solution from syringe all this while. The tissue beneath the cyst is thus anesthetized. Now draw out needle, and repeat the same injecting procedure on the other side, always expelling fluid from syringe as needle advances. The cyst is thus wholly enveloped by edematious and anesthetized tissue.
Abscess. Never inject solution in abscess. It increases pressure on all sides. It intensifies the pain. Begin at one side in healthy skin and proceeding towards abscess anesthetize by the forma-
HOLOCAINE, NIRVANINE AND ORTHOFORM. 169
tion of intracutaneous wheals, the skin overlying the abscess. (Fig. G.) The skin being infiltrated, infiltrate subjacent and surrounding tissues.
technique better than words.
For amputations or in operations upon bone, the periosteum must be infiltrated in its whole circumference. When this has been done, bone may be divided by saw or forceps without unbearable pain being caused. The medulla of bone can be infiltrated through an opening made in corlex of the bone.
The popularity of these agents is increasing. Laboratory experiments show that when properly employed they are of value as local anesthetic agents. Their toxicity, holocaine excepted, is less than that of cocaine. They have a sphere of usefulness the exact extent of which is yet to be determined. It can only be determined by actual clinical use. The objection to them can be raised, as it can with all other local anesthetic agents, that the anesthesia which they produce is not as complete as that secured by general anesthetics. To employ them to good advantage one must know their possibilities and also their limitations. As with many other valuable drugs, when given in
HOLOCAINE.
"Holocaine is the ideal local anesthetic for removing foreign bodies from the conjunctival sac." (Knapp.) "Holocaine is freely soluble in boiling water, but sparingly in cold water. It is neutral in reaction. Having germicidal properties, solutions of holocaine do not need sterilization. Boiling does not change it chemically or reduce its efficacy, but as a 1% solution is decidedly bactericidal, sterilization by heat is unnecessary." (Louis C. Dean.) In making solutions of holocaine, dissolve the latter in a porcelain vessel, as it causes glass containing alkali to lose a portion of the latter. This clouds the solution. Holocaine is a stable agent. A 1 % solution will remain clear for about two months.
Applied to mucous membrane, it produces no constitutional symptoms. Administered subcutaneously, it is a poison. No poisonous effect from the local use of the drug has ever been reported. The toxic dose of holocaine when administered subcutaneously or internally, is one centigramme. Holcaine is used extensively in ophthalmic practice. It has been found to be an efficient local anesthetic in eye surgery. It seems to act by producing a paralysis of the sensory nerve endings.
Unlike many other local anesthetic agents, it causes neither ischemia nor freezing of the part. Outside of rendering the eye anesthetic, holocaine has no other effect upon it. It produces anesthesia of the eye without producing any other associated symptom. It acts in the same manner in contact with the hyperemic or granular conjunctiva as in the presence of a normal conjunctiva. It causes hyperemia of the conjunctival blood vessels.
Anesthesia is rapidly induced, that is, in from one to two minutes. From this standpoint, in comparison with cocaine, a considerable saving of time is effected. "One or two drops of a \% solution generally brought about entire anesthesia in from forty to fifty seconds; when a second application was made, forty, seconds after the first, entire loss of sensation invariably followed in thirty seconds more." (Hasket Derby.)
"As holocaine is five times more toxic than cocaine,and the effect of a 1% solution of holocaine is about equal to 5% solution of cocaine, there would seem to be no greater danger from the use of one than from the other." (Deane.)
The 1% and 2% solutions are the solutions most commonly used; a few drops of either of these solutions instilled in the conjunctival sac will secure an anesthesia of that membrane and of the superficial structures of the eye in from one to three minutes. This anesthesia lasts about ten
minutes. Two or three instillations at one minute intervals may be required. Immediately after instillation, a slight burning, smarting sensation is experienced. This is not lasting; it rapidly passes off.
(e) It does not impair the integrity of the corneal epithelium. Holocaine not contracting the conjunctival blood vessels, it causes' neither bleaching of the eye, nor lessening of the lachrymal secretion, nor drying of the corneal epithelium.
(f ) There are no after effects. In cutting operations, the increased hemorrhage due to the hyperemia which this agent occasions is of service to wash out pathogenic germs that may be present on the corneal or conjunctival wound.
"When the surgeon of to-day has cut his finger with a knife passed through tissues of doubtful purity, he no longer burns out the wound but makes it bleed." (Knapp.)
possible when a proper antiseptic technique is observed. Because the solutions are bactericidal. The hemorrhage occurring under holocaine anesthesia is regarded by many ophthalmologists, Dr. Knapp among others, as lessening the danger of infection. The hemorrhage has a tendency to wash out the bacteria present in the wound.
It is useless to add any antiseptics to solutions of holocaine with the view of keeping them antiseptic. "Germs can not live in solutions of holocaine, for it actually kills these organisms." (K. L. Randolph.)
(h) It may be used when cocaine is contraindicated, as in glaucoma. In the performance of iridectomy in glaucoma, it has been found to be of special value. "In glaucoma, dilation of the pupil increases and contraction diminishes intra-ocular pressure. This long ago led to the observation that the instillation of atropine, cocaine and other drugs that dilate the pupil might produce an attack of glaucoma in an eye predisposed to this disease." (Derby.)
In ulcer of the cornea and in all operations upon the cornea it is to be preferred to cocaine, as it relieves pain equally well and it does not impair the integrity of the corneal epithelium. It has
no dessicating action on the cornea. "Holocaine does not interfere with nutrition of tissue, but rather increases the blood supply and hastens healing/' (Wurdemann and Black.)
The vaso-constrictor action of cocaine is useful in operations on vascular tissue, but is harmful in those performed upon the cornea because of the unfavorable way in which it influences nutrition.
Holocaine, owing to its poisonous nature, should never be used subcutaneously. Even in minute doses, when administered internally, it is highly poisonous. (The poisonous nature and the mineral toxic dose of holocaine have been determined by laboratory experiments. There are no reports of fatalities occurring in man from the use of holocaine.) Symptoms of intoxication due to the internal use of holocaine simulate those observed in strychnine poisoning. You will treat this condition symptomatically. As holocaine does not contract the blood vessels, operations under its influence are likely to .be attended by more hemorrhage than those performed under cocaine. In muscle operations, in pterygia and deeper operations upon the globe of the eye, the tendency to more free hemorrhage is disadvantageous. Hemorrhage obscures the field of operation; it also seems to lessen the duration of the anesthesia. This is probably due to washing out of the anesthetic by the outflow of blood.
NIRVANINE.
Nirvanine is a local anesthetic agent, only onetenth as toxic as cocaine. It has been used in children without ill effects. Its use is not attended by any excitement, influence on respiration, or weakening of the heart's action. Owing to the relative nontoxicity of this drug, it is of special value to secure anesthesia of parts, the circulation of which can not be easily controlled, as in operations in anal regions. Nirvanine anesthesia lasts longer than cocaine anesthesia.
For the ophthalmic surgeon, nirvanine is not a serviceable anesthetic. Applied to the unbroken skin it does not anesthetize it. Applied to the mucous membrane it is not to be recommended when it is intended that anesthesia should reach deeply as in nose and throat surgery.
The field of nirvanine is in subcutaneous and in infiltration anesthesia. When you wish to employ subcutaneous, or submucous nirvanine anesthesia, you can secure it by employing the same technique that is employed in securing cocaine endermic and hypodermic anesthesia. For nirvanine infiltration anesthesia make use of the technique that is employed for securing infiltration anesthesia with Schleich's formulae. There is this difference, however, that when you use the Schleich's formulae anesthesia is complete as soon as the tissues are completely infiltrated, while with the nirvanine
Nirvanine is being increasingly used by the dental profession. For tooth extraction, inject your solution of nirvanine on either side of the tooth down to the periosteum. Place the fingers over the punctures to prevent the solution from running out and then by gentle pressure assist in dispersing the liquid into the surrounding tissues. Wait three to five minutes before extracting the tooth.
Sterilization by boiling does not decompose nirvanine solutions and does not impair their anesthetic properties. For hypodermic injection anesthesia, the most commonly used solutions are the 1%, 2%, 3% and 5% aqueous solutions. For infiltration anesthesia, a \% to \% solution is used. Luxemburger recommends that nirvanine be dissolved in normal salt solution.
ORTHOFORM.
Orthoform is a tasteless, odorless, whitish powder. It is but slightly soluble in water; it is very soluble in alcohol and ether. This insolubility in water unfits it for hypodermic use and for infiltration anesthesia. It is sterile, but is not bactericidal to the germs of suppuration. No germs are found in it as it leaves the factory, and the few germs that may accidentally gain access to
it by careless exposure or by unclean contact are either destroyed or lose much of their virulency. In cases in which an antiseptic as well as an anesthetic action is desirable or required, orthoform can be combined with any of the following antiseptic agents: lodoform, dermatol, aristol, zinc oxide, calomel. The first four agents must be sterilized before they can be used on wound surfaces. The afore-mentioned agents are not chemically, pharmaceutically nor physiologically incompatibles of orthoform.
The drug when used in therapeutic doses is non-toxic. It has in a few reported instances, when applied too profusely, caused an eczematous condition of the skin surrounding the wound with which it had been in too prolonged contact. This accident I have never met with. Should eczema occur after its use, stop using the preparation for two or three days. If on second trial eczematous lesions are again provoked, the drug is not suited for use in that individual case. The drug has been given internally in doses of from 15 to 25 grains daily without inflicting any injury upon the organism.
Orthoform does not act upon the unbroken skin. "The substance will not act on unbroken skin nor with certain reservations on intact mucous membrane." (Young.) On the unbroken mucous membrane of the mouth, naso-pharynx and larynx,
orthoform does not secure anesthesia suitable for surgical action. To produce anesthesia, it must come in contact with terminal sensory nerve-endings. It then produces in from three to eight minutes anesthesia of the surface to which it has been applied. This anesthesia is complete to pain only. Orthoform is chiefly used to secure absence of pain in painful non-operative conditions and after operations in hyperesthetic areas. Its anesthetic action is prolonged for hours. We can use orthoform, either pure or diluted, as a dusting power applied to the open surface which we wish to anesthetize. It can be used in alcoholic solution; an ointment of from 10 to 20 per cent with lanolin base; in emulsion with the yolk of egg; in 10 per cent solution with collodion.
INDICATIONS FOE USE.
1. To relieve the pain of ulcers, chancroidal, syphilitic, tubercular, carcinomatous or simple chronic ulcers. Apply the drug to the surface of the ulcer and insure its retention there. Orthoform coming in contact with the exposed nerve endings secures a marked and often a complete suppression of the pain. It does not interfere with the regeneration of tissues and exerts no unfavorable influence on the economy. It secures a long anesthesia. If exudation is abundant, use it in the form of an ointment. An abundant exudate
INDICATIONS OF ORTHOFORM. 179
washes off the powder. Owing to the innocuousness of orthoform, repeated applications are not harmful. In rectal chancroids, in rectal carcinoma, a 10 per cent orthoform suppository will do away with the pain, and will enable the patient to dispense with the use of opium, with its allied constipating effects and antagonism to assimilation. Non-toxicity of orthoform is demonstrated by the fact that in a case of inoperable carcinoma two ounces were applied weekly without any ill effects. As a local application to corneal ulcers, to canker sores, and to herpetic ulcers, it is very satisfactory. It may be used in carcinoma of the tongue to make eating painless. Dusting orthoform upon painful, indolent, varicose ulcers renders them comparatively painless. Avoid eczema by not using orthoform too freely in the beginning and by the application of a thick zinc-oxide ointment around the ulcer.
2. To relieve the soreness and pain resulting from cutting, snaring or cauterizing operations upon the nasal cavity. Powder can be applied to the field of operation, or orthoform gauze can be packed lightly into the cavity. Orthoform gauze can be packed in wound sinuses.
3. In tubercular laryngeal ulcerations, orthoform is of value to relieve pain and to cause a disappearance of the difficulty of swallowing. In the larynx, orthoform is best applied with an insuf-
flator. Use about five grains at each insufflation. It enables tuberculous patients to take nourishment, thereby retarding the progress of the disease. The following emulsion is recommended in laryngeal ulcers by Freudenthal:
ordinary laryngeal syringe.
4. As an application for burns, be they thermic or chemical, when there is an exposure of nerve terminals. It secures an almost immediate cessation of pain. This anesthesia lasts about twelve hours. "Almost immediately after its applications for burns, even if they be deep, the pain ceases." (Maygrier.)
5. As an application to operation wounds. To lessen the after pains of an operation. After the removal of the faucial tonsils if orthoform be applied to the cut surfaces, the patient can eat solid food without pain being excited. After circumcision, after cauterization, after operation for hemorrhoids, etc., the local use of orthoform is palliative. For the relief of severe pain following the application of the various caustics or the actual cautery, orthoform powder or ointment applied to
sores, etc.
7. Upon lacerated wounds. I have used it frequently in crushing wounds of the finger. Painful sinuses can be tamponed with orthoform gauze, it can be used upon painful perineal and vulvar lacerations following delivery.
8. In painful hemorrhoids, the application of a 10 per cent ointment about ten or fifteen minutes before going to stool makes the latter painless. In cases of anal fissure and other painful lesions of anus and rectum, its use is serviceable.
9. Upon the exposed pulp of carious teeth; after teeth extractions. For dental caries introduce into the dental cavity, previously dried, a plug of cotton impregnated with the following preparation:
Chloral hydrate, aa gr. 40
10. In painful fissured nipples. Apply to the nipple, ten minutes previous to putting the child to the breast, a pledget of gauze impregnated with a saturated solution of orthoform. After several applications, nursing will in most cases cease to
be painful. You get the anesthetic action of the orthoform and you also get the antiseptic action of the alcohol. Maygrier used this treatment in forty cases of fissured nipples; in all he secured complete analgesia of the breast while at rest. Pain during nursing was in all cases markedly diminished. In the majority of the cases it had disappeared entirely.
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3v7ONBUmi-eE3Qhq | 7.7: References | 7.7: References
Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. (2023). Preventing pressure ulcers in hospitals . https://www.ahrq.gov/patient-safety/...ool/index.html
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2022). Hygiene-related disease s. www.cdc.gov/hygiene/disease/index.html
National Council of State Boards of Nursing (NCSBN). (2016). National guidelines for nursing delegation. Journal of Nursing Regulation, 7 (1), 5–12.
van Paasschen, J., Walker, S. C., Phillips, P. E., & Tipper S. P. (2015). The effect of personal grooming on self-perceived body image. International Journal of Cosmetic Science. 37 (1), 108–115. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25367114
Werneburg, G. T. (2022, April 4). Catheter-associated urinary tract infections: Current challenges and future prospects. Research and Reports in Urology. 14:109–133. https://doi.org/10.2147/RRU.S273663
World Health Organization. (2020). Hand hygiene for all initiative: Improving access and behaviour in health care facilities . https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240011618 | 157 | common-pile/libretexts_filtered | https://med.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Nursing/Clinical_Nursing_Skills_(OpenStax)/07%3A_Hygiene/7.07%3A_References | libretexts | libretexts-0000.json.gz:10738 | https://med.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Nursing/Clinical_Nursing_Skills_(OpenStax)/07%3A_Hygiene/7.07%3A_References |
WQ7Vzypj1AYT17CB | UH Microeconomics 2019 | KEY TERMS
minimum wage a price floor that makes it illegal for an employer to pay employees less than a certain hourly rate
affirmative action active efforts by government or businesses that give special rights to minorities in hiring, promotion, or access to education to make up for past discrimination
bilateral monopoly a labor market with a monopsony on the demand side and a union on the supply side
collective bargaining negotiations between unions and a firm or firms
discrimination actions based on the belief that members of a certain group or groups are in some way inferior solely because of a factor such as race, gender, or religion
first rule of labor markets an employer will never pay a worker more than the value of the worker’s marginal productivity to the firm
monopsony a labor market where there is only one employer
perfectly competitive labor market a labor market where neither suppliers of labor nor demanders of labor have any market power; thus, an employer can hire all the workers they would like at the going market wage | 232 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://pressbooks.oer.hawaii.edu/microeconomics2019/chapter/key-terms-13/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:93826 | https://pressbooks.oer.hawaii.edu/microeconomics2019/chapter/key-terms-13/ |
OM5Th8xsj2vaNJ2X | UNM Core Writing OER Collection | Standards and Style in Writing
Tinkering with your document’s style to ensure that it meets the demands of your audience comes next in the process. Among the most important skills in communication is to adjust your style according to the audience to meet their needs as well as your own. You would speak differently to a customer or manager compared with how you would to a long-time co-worker who has also become a friend. In each case, these audiences have certain expectations about your style of communication, and you must meet those expectations to be respected and maintain good relations. This section reviews those style choices and focuses especially on the six major characteristics of strong writing common to both formal and casual writing.
The Formality Spectrum
We began looking at the general choice between a formal and informal style of writing based on how you’ve profiled your audience’s position in relation to you. We have seen how certain situations call for formal writing and others for a more relaxed style. We also learned that these styles involve word choices along a spectrum of synonyms from “slangy” to casual to fancy. Here we will review those considerations in the context of the writing process.
Formal Style in Writing
Within the English field, formal standardized English has had the connotation of carrying favor with audiences, such as those outside your organization, those higher than you within your organization, and those on or around your level whom you have never communicated with before. These audiences can include managers, customers, clients, suppliers and vendors, regulators, and other interested stakeholders such as government agencies. A cover letter, for instance, will be read by a future potential manager probably unfamiliar to you, so it is a very real test of your ability to write formally—a test that is crucial to your career success. Many common professional document types also require formality, such as other letters, memos, reports, proposals, agreements, and contracts. In such cases, you are expected to follow grammatical rules more strictly and make slightly elevated word choices, but not so elevated that you force your reader to look up rarely used words.
Writing in what has been the accepted style can require effort because grammar must be tighter, and the vocabulary is sometimes advanced. However, at the drafting stage you should, in the interests of speed-writing to get your ideas down nearly as fast as they come, go with the word that comes to mind and leave the synonym-finding efforts for the editing stage. Strictly maintaining a formal style in all situations would also be your downfall, however, because flexibility is also expected depending on the situation. It is also important to note that standardized written English is not the only means of communication that can signal professionalism or scholarship and that using your own dialects, slang, and languages is equally as viable and constructive. It is just important to ensure that audiences will understand and not be alienated.
Casual Style in Writing
Your ability to gear down to a more casual style is also necessary in any situation where you’re communicating with familiar people generally on your level and when a personable, conversational tone is appreciated, such as when writing to someone with basic reading skills. In a routine email to a colleague, for instance, you would use the informal vocabulary, including conversational expressions such as “a lot” instead of the more formal “plenty.” You would also use contractions such as it’s for it is or it has, would’ve for would have, and you’re for you are. While not a sign of disrespect, the more relaxed approach says to the reader, “Hey, we’re all friends here, so let’s not try so hard to impress each other.” For example, when an upper-level manager wants to be liked rather than feared, they’ll permit a more casual style of communication in their employees’ interactions with them, assuming that doing so achieves collegiality rather than disrespect. Drafting in such a style may feel easier because it generally follows the diction and rhythms that come naturally in common conversation.
The Six Cs of Style
Whether you’re writing in a formal or casual style, all good writing is characterized by the “Six Cs”:
- Clear
- Concise
- Coherent
- Correct
- Courteous
- Convincing
Six-C writing is good because it fulfills the author’s purpose and meets the needs of the audience by making communication understandable and impactful. Such audience-oriented writing is clearly understood by busy readers on the first pass; it doesn’t confuse them with ambiguities and requires them to come back with questions for clarification. It gets the point across in as few words as possible so that it doesn’t waste readers’ time with word count-extending filler. Strong writing flows logically by being organized according to recognizable patterns, with sub-points connected by well-marked transitions. Six-C writing avoids confusing readers with grammar, punctuation, or spelling errors. It leaves the reader with a good feeling because it is polite, positive, and focuses on the reader’s needs. Six-C writing is persuasive because, with all the above going for it, it exudes confidence. The following sections explain these characteristics in greater detail with an emphasis on how to achieve Six-C writing at the drafting stage.
Clarity
Clarity in writing means that the words on the page are like a perfectly transparent window to the author’s meaning; they don’t confuse that meaning like the dirty, shattered window of under-developed writing or require fanciful interpretation like the stained-glass window of poetry. Business or technical writing has no time for anything that requires the reader to interpret the author’s meaning or ask for clarification. To the busy reader, scanning quickly, confusing writing opens the door for wrong guesses that, acted upon, result in mistakes that must be corrected later; the later the miscommunication is discovered, and the further the mistakes spread, the greater the damage control required. Vague writing also draws out the communication exchange unnecessarily with back-and-forth requests for clarification and details that should have been clear the first time. Either way, a lack of clarity in writing costs businesses by hindering personal and organizational productivity. Every operation stands to gain if its personnel’s writing is clear in the first place.
So much confusion from vague expressions can be avoided if you use hard facts, precise values, and concrete, visualizable images. For example:
- Instead of saying “a change in the budget,” “a 10% budget cut” makes clear to the reader that they’ll have to make do with nine of what they had ten of before.
- Instead of saying that you’re rescheduling “it” for Thursday, be clear on what’s being rescheduled, what the old and new calendar dates and times are, and if the location is changing, too. If you say that it’s the 3 pm Friday meeting on May 25th being moved to 9 am Thursday, May 31st, in room B349, participants know exactly which meeting to move where in their email program’s calendar feature.
- Always spell out months so that you don’t confuse your reader with dates in the “dd/mm/yy” or “mm/dd/yy” style; for instance, “4/5/18,” could be read as either April 5th or May 4th, 2018, depending on whether the author personally prefers one date form over the other or follows a company style in lieu of any universally accepted date style.
- Instead of saying at the end of an email, “Let’s meet to discuss” and leaving the ball in your correspondent’s court to figure out a time and place, prevent the inevitable time-consuming back-and-forth by giving your available meeting time options (e.g., “9-10 am Thursday, May 31st; 2-3 pm Friday, June 1st; etc.) in a bulleted list and suggesting a familiar place so that all your correspondent needs to do is reply once with their preferred meeting time from among those menu options and confirmation on the location.
- Instead of saying, “You’ve got a message,” being clear that Tia Sherman from the Internal Revenue Agency left a voicemail message at 12:48 pm on Thursday, February 8th, gives you the precise detail that you need to act on that information.
The same is true of vague pronouns such as its, this, that, these, they, their, and there when it’s unclear what they’re referring to earlier in a sentence or paragraph. Such pronoun-antecedent ambiguity, as it’s called (with antecedent meaning the noun that the pronoun represents), can be avoided if you can spot the ambiguity that the reader would be confused by and use other words to connect them to their antecedents. If you say, for instance,
The union reps criticized the employer council for putting their latest offer to a membership vote.
Whether the offer is coming from the union, the employer, or possibly (but unlikely) both is unclear because their could go either way. You can resolve the ambiguity by using words like the former, the latter, or a shortened version of one of the names:
The union reps criticized the employer council for putting the council’s latest offer to a membership vote.
When pronouns aren’t preceded by the noun to which they refer, a strong writer must simply define them. Though these additions extend the word count a little, the gains in clarity justify the expense.
Conciseness
Because the goal of professional writing, especially when sharing expertise, is to make complex concepts sound simple without necessarily “dumbing them down,” such writing should communicate ideas in as few words as possible without compromising clarity. Weaker writing predictably does the opposite, making simple things sound complicated. This is a rookie mistake among some students new to college or employees new to their profession. Such attempts are usually a smokescreen for a lack of strong ideas; if someone is embarrassed by this, they tend to dress up their words to make them seem more substantial. Of course, their college instructors or professional audiences are frustrated by this kind of writing rather than fooled by it because it doesn’t help them find the clear meaning that they expect and seek. It just gets in the way and wastes their time until they resent the person who wrote it.
If the temptation to overcomplicate a point is uncontrollable at the drafting stage, it’s probably better to vomit it all up at this point just so that you can get everything out while knowing that you’ll be mopping it up by paring down your writing later. By analogy, a film production will overshoot with perhaps 20 takes of (attempts at) a single shot just so that it has plenty of material to choose from when assembling the sequence of shots needed to comprise a scene during post-production editing. However, as you become a stronger writer and hone your craft, you’ll be able to resist those filler words and overcomplicated expressions at the drafting stage from having been so aggressive in chopping them out at the editing stage of the writing process so many times before. Of course, if you make a habit of writing concisely, even at the drafting stage, you’ll minimize the amount of chopping work you leave yourself at the editing stage.
Coherence and Completeness
Coherence means that your writing flows logically and makes sense because it says everything it needs to say to meet your audience’s needs. Pronouns and transitions especially help to connect the distinct points that make up your bare-bones outline structure as you flesh them out into meaningful sentences and paragraphs, just as ligaments and tendons connect bones and tissues throughout your body.
Correctness
Correct spelling, grammar, and mechanics should not be a concern at the drafting stage of the writing process, though they certainly must be at the end of the editing stage. As explained before, speed-writing to get ideas down requires being comfortable with the writing errors that inevitably pockmark your draft sentences. The perfectionists among us will find ignoring those errors difficult, but resisting the temptation to bog yourself down by on-the-go copy-editing will pay off at the revision stage when some of those awkwardly written sentences get cut in the end anyway.
Courtesy
No matter what kind of document you’re writing and what you can expect your audience’s reaction to it to be, writing courteously so that your reader feels respected is a fundamental part of strong communication. Whether you’re simply sharing information, making a sales pitch, explaining a procedure, or doing damage control, using polite language helps ensure your intended effects—that your reader will be receptive to that information, will buy what you’re selling, will want to perform that procedure, or will be onboard with helping to fix the error. The cornerstone of polite language is obviously saying “the P-word” that you learn gets what you want when you’re 18 months old—because saying please never gets old when asking someone to do something for you, nor does saying thanks when they’ve done so—but there’s more to it than that.
Much of courtesy in writing involves taking care to use words that focus on the positive, improvement, and what can be done rather than those that come off as being negative, critical, pushy, and hung up on what can’t be done. If you’re processing a contract and the client forgot to sign and date it, for instance, the first thought that occurs to you when emailing to inform them of the error may go something like the following:
You forgot to sign and date our contract, so you’ve got to do that and send it to me a.s.a.p. because I can’t process it till I receive it signed.
Now, if you were the client reading this slightly angry-sounding, accusatory order, you would likely feel a little embarrassed and maybe even a little upset by the edgy, pushy tone coming through in negative words like forgot, do that, a.s.a.p., and can’t. That feeling wouldn’t sit well with you, and you will begin to build an aversion to that person and the organization they represent. (If this isn’t the first time you forgot to sign a contract for them, however, the demanding tone would be more justified or at least more understandable.) Now imagine you read instead a message that says, with reference to the very same situation, the following:
For your contract to be processed and services initiated, please sign, date, and return it as soon as possible.
You would probably feel much better about coming through with the signed contract in short order. You may think that this is a small, almost insignificant shift in meaning, but the difference in psychological impact can be quite substantial, even if it operates subconsciously. From this example you can pull out the following three characteristics of courteous writing.
Use the “You” View: Audience-oriented messages that address the reader directly using the pronouns you and your have a much greater impact when the message is positive or even neutral. Writing this way is a little counterintuitive, however, because when we begin to encode any message into words, we do so naturally from our own perspective. The sender-oriented messages that result from our perspective don’t register as well with readers because they use first-person personal and possessive pronouns (I, me, my, we, us, and our) that tend to come off as being self-involved. In the above case, the contract is shared by both parties, but saying “our contract” is a little ambiguous because it may be read as saying “the employer’s contract” rather than “your and my contract.” Saying “your contract,” however, entitles the reader with a sense of ownership over the contract, which sits much better with them.
Prioritize Audience Benefits: Whenever you need to convince someone to do something, leading with a positive result—what the reader will get out of it for their effort—followed by the instruction has a much better chance of getting the reader on board. Notice in the two example sentences above that the reader-hostile version places the demand before the result, whereas the improved, reader-friendly version places the result before the (kindly worded) demand. This simple organizational technique of leading with the audience benefits works because people are usually more motivated by the carrot (reward) than the stick (consequence), and dangling the carrot attracts the initial interest necessary to make the action seem worthwhile. It’s effective because it answers what we can always assume the reader is wondering: “What’s in it for me?”
Focus on Future Positive Outcomes: Focusing on what can be done and improved sits better with readers than focusing on what can’t be done and criticism. In the above case, the initial rendering of the problem focused on blaming the reader for what they did wrong and on the impasse of the situation with the contract. The improved version corrects this because it skips the fault-finding criticism and instead moves directly to what good things will happen if the reader does what needs to be done. The reader of the second sentence will associate you with the feeling of being pleased by the taste of the carrot rather than smarting from the whack of the stick.
On its own, translating a single sentence like the one exemplified above will likely not have a lasting effect; over time, however, an habitual focus on negative outcomes and the use of negative language will result in people developing a dislike for dealing with you and, by association, the organization you represent. If you make a habit of writing in positive words most of the time and use negative words only in situations where they’re necessary, on the other hand, you stand a good chance of being well-respected. People will enjoy working with or for you, which ensures continued positive relations as well as opens the door to other opportunities.
Convincing and Confident
When all the other aspects of style described above are working in concert, and when the information your writing presents comes from sound sources, it naturally acquires an air of confidence that is highly convincing to readers. That confidence is contagious if you are rightfully confident in your information or argument, decisive in your diction, and avoid lapsing into wishy-washy, noncommittal indecision by overusing weaker words and expressions such as:
Examples
- almost
- approximately
- basically
- blah
- close to
- could (have)
- -esque
- -ish
- kind of/kinda
- may/maybe
- meh
- might
- probably
- roundabout
- somewhat
- sort of/sorta
- should (have)
- thereabouts
- usually
- we’ll see
- whatever
- whenever
- whichever
- -y (e.g. orange-y)
These timid words are signs of hedging and might even connote a lack of confidence. This is not to say that your writing can’t err toward overconfidence through lapses in judgment or haughtiness but being tactful and self-assured when delivering a message is important for persuasiveness overall. If you apply the same rigor in argument and persuasion that you do in selecting quality research sources that are themselves well reasoned by considering a topic holistically rather than simplistically for the sake of advancing a narrow-minded position, it’s easy to get readers to comprehend your information shared, follow your instruction, buy what you’re selling, and so on.
Exercises
- Assemble a Six-Cs scoring rubric for assessing professional writing. In the highest-achievement column, list in point-form the attributes of each characteristic. In the columns describing lesser and lesser levels of achievement, identify how those expectations can fall apart. For help with the rubric form, you may wish to use Rubistar’s writing rubric template.
- Find examples of past emails or other documents you’ve written that make you cringe, perhaps even high school essays or reports. Identify instances where they are unclear, unnecessarily longwinded, incoherent (lacking both a clear organizational pattern and transitions that drive the argument along), rife with writing errors, rude, and/or unconvincing. Assess and score those specimens using your Six-Cs rubric from Exercise 1 above. Begin to think of how you would improve them.
- Find a professionally written document, perhaps from a case study in another class. Assess it using the same Six-Cs scoring rubric.
- Speed-write a written assignment that you’ve been recently assigned in one of the other courses in your program. If you’re not fast at typing (or even if you are and want to try something new), you may start by recording your message into your smartphone’s or computer’s voice recorder app or program and then transcribe it. Ensure that your style hits five of the six style Cs (clarity, conciseness, coherence, courtesy, and conviction) as you write and most definitely do not correct as you go.
LICENSE AND ATTRIBUTION
Adapted from Julie River’s “4.5 Standard Business Style“ of Communication at Work,2020, used according to CC by 4.0. | 4,477 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://nmoer.pressbooks.pub/unmcorewriting/chapter/standards-and-style-in-writing/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:71058 | https://nmoer.pressbooks.pub/unmcorewriting/chapter/standards-and-style-in-writing/ |
jtzMIHZ2mXX3NybF | An Intersectional Look at Men's Health | 9 Oral Diseases
Aneri Vasoya
In the United States, a large proportion of adults have experienced some form of oral disease. Oral diseases refer to diseases that are located in the mouth. Oral cavities and oral cancer are two of the main oral diseases that can cause physical pain, negatively impact quality of life, and can even lead to other diseases (Chapter 10).
About 1 in 4 adults have had one or more untreated cavities (CDC, 2022). Oral cavities are permanently damaged hard tissues of the tooth. The hard tissues of the tooth, which include the enamel and dentine, are located on the surface of the tooth. Cavities are caused by bacterial plaque, which can progress deep into the dental pulp and cause tooth loss (Peres et al., 2019). Surface level cavities decay the surface of the tooth’s enamel. Root cavities penetrate deeper into the gumline, can cause intense pain, and usually require a surgical root canal (Cleveland Clinic, 2020). Risk factors for developing cavities include improper oral hygiene (smoking, eating excess amounts of sugar, etc), pre-existing conditions such as diabetes and heart disease, and irregularly visiting the dentist (Chapter 10).
“Blausen 0864 Tooth Decay” by KDS4444 is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0
Roughly 1.7% of men and 0.71% of women in America are at risk for developing oral cancer during their lifetime (American Cancer Society, 2022). Oral cancer can form anywhere in the mouth, including the tongue, lips, and gums. The most typical category of oral cancer is squamous cell carcinoma, which involves rapid growth of dividing flat shaped cells within the mouth (Peres et al., 2019). General risk factors for oral cancers include smoking, alcohol abuse, and forgoing oral cancer screenings.
Prevention and treatment strategies to aid individuals in achieving healthier oral disease outcomes are increasing access to dental cleanings, oral hygiene education in schools, expanding access to dental insurance, and making oral cancer screening more accessible. While it is important to improve oral disease outcomes among all populations, one population of interest is males.
Gender Differences in Oral Disease Risk
Research indicates that women are biologically more prone to cavities than men. This is largely due to women’s genetics and changes in hormones, especially during pregnancy (Lukacs & Largaespada, 2006). While ample evidence has explained the biological differences between male and female cavity risks, there is insufficient data about the behavioral and accessibility differences between men and women. One behavioral difference between men and women is accessing dental care. Men may have different priorities and obligations to their family, therefore they might delay or forgo spending money on dental care. Additionally, men might face more societal pressures to deal with the oral pain and tough it out. However, more research is still needed to establish these gender differences.
Men are at higher risk of developing oral diseases due to visiting the dentist less often. Research suggests that most men tend to seek dental care only when they start experiencing pain, rather than focusing on preventative dental visits (University of Illinois at Chicago, 2017). One study shows that only 44.7% of men visited the dentist in the past 6 months, compared to 54.3% of women (Su et al., 2022). This study also found that men are less likely to follow through with routine dental checkups and participate in screenings. Thus, the men experienced greater incidences of root and coronal cavities (Su et al., 2022). Men are also more likely than women to develop cancerous growths in the mouth due to engagement in risky behaviors such as smoking (Auluck et al., 2016).
“Dental care: Keeps Him on the Job” by U.S. Public Health Service : U.S. G.P.O is in the Public Domain
Neighborhood Income Impacts on Oral Diseases
External factors such as average neighborhood income, availability of dental clinics, and affordability of dental insurance affect oral disease status in men. The location and wealth of neighborhoods both impact one’s ability to access dental care. One study showed that men in wealthy neighborhoods were more likely to survive oral cancer (72.5%), compared to only 66.6% of men living in underserved areas (Auluck et al., 2016). Among Black men, those living in urban areas with less than 10 dental offices were 2.4 times more likely to report difficulties in finding dental care compared to those living in areas with more dental offices (Akintobi et al., 2016). This is linked to the finding that 68.8% of the sample did not possess dental insurance, which almost tripled the likelihood of having negative oral disease outcomes. One possible reason for differences in men’s access to oral care is the availability of dental clinics that accept government sponsored dental insurance. The American Dental Association found that about 21 states had less than 50% of dentists who accepted Medicaid patients (Vujicic et al., 2021). Individuals without any dental insurance would need to spend out of pocket for dental services, which poses a serious barrier for underserved low-income men.
Household Income Impacts on Oral Diseases
Since oral diseases develop over time, it is also important to understand barriers that the young males face to promote a healthier oral disease status earlier on. While there is little research about income and oral disease status solely in boys, there is evidence about children’s household income and oral disease rates. Children from low-income households generally have greater incidences of cavities than children from higher income families (Vasireddy et al., 2021). This is largely because lower-income households usually have public insurance, whereas high income families usually have private insurance. Results about the effect of different types of dental insurance on disease rates are however variable. One study found that children with governmental public insurance or without any insurance had higher cavity prevalence rates compared to their privately insured counterparts (Vasireddy et al., 2021). In a different study of Head Start preschool students, researchers found no correlation between cavities rates in low income uninsured, privately insured, and publicly insured children. This study also did not observe significant gender differences in cavities rates between preschool girls and boys (Heima et al., 2017). More research is needed to determine if boys and girls have different rates of cavities and to understand household income-related reasons behind any differences.
Ethnicity and Oral Diseases
Minorities tend to directly experience worse oral disease outcomes. In one study, White individuals lost an average of 12.9 teeth, whereas Black individuals lost 17.6 teeth (Liang et al., 2013). Black individuals are also more likely to suffer mortality from oral cancer due to being diagnosed at later stages compared to Whites (Yu et al., 2019). Such trends in Black populations are likely due to the disadvantages that Black populations face when taking action to prevent oral diseases. Black men report facing barriers such as lack of oral healthcare access, unavailability of Black oral healthcare providers, systemic racism, medical mistrust, and hypermasculinity pressures to tough out the oral pain (Smith et al., 2022). Experiencing racism and discrimination may cause Black males to feel mistrust towards the oral healthcare system. However, there is limited evidence showing the correlation between these specific barriers and oral disease status.
Other minority groups such as immigrants and Hispanics face further barriers to oral healthcare. People migrating to America from Spanish-speaking countries may experience difficulties assimilating into society for fear of discrimination and stigma due to their ethnicity or immigration status. Therefore, minorities are usually less likely to possess insurance coverage, less likely to seek dental care, and more likely to have decayed teeth (Han, 2019). Among the Hispanic population, those who primarily speak Spanish experience the worst oral health outcomes compared to Whites and are least likely to visit the dentist to receive preventative treatments (Han, 2019). Such trends are possibly due to language and cultural barriers between the oral healthcare workforce and underrepresented populations. Lack of workforce cultural competency and diversity to meet the needs of various populations is a main driver of oral disease differences among many racial and ethnic groups, especially in men.
Prevention and Treatment Strategies
To decrease rates of oral diseases among men, more action needs to be taken to reduce risk factors that men may face. Different ways to reduce oral disease prevalence rates include increasing affordability and accessibility of dental care, as well as eliminating barriers for minorities.
National organizations, such as the American Student Dental Association (ASDA) have recently made policy changes to address oral health inequities. In 2018, ASDA helped pass the Action for Dental Health Act, which increased the scope of dental care to reach socioeconomically and racially disadvantaged populations. In 2022, dental students met at a national conference to discuss the passing of the Medicaid Dental Act. If passed, the bill will expand public dental insurance coverage to adults across all states (ASDA, 2022).
As previously stated, it is also important to focus on educating and treating children, including adolescent boys, since oral diseases develop over time. Multiple strategies can be implemented to improve the oral disease status of children earlier in life. One preventative strategy is a school-based dental sealant program to provide free or low-cost care to children who otherwise may not be able to access dental services. Dental sealants are thin protective coatings over the tooth that, when applied to children’s teeth, can prevent cavities later in life. School-based sealant programs have proven to be a cost-effective method for preventing cavities in low-income children (Griffin et al. 2016). Another recommendation is to involve male parents and caregivers in these programs so that they may receive dental checkups alongside their child.
Additionally, hospitals and dental offices need to implement institutional level interventions that target men. Programs that increase diversity and cultural competence among healthcare providers can address the ethnic and cultural barriers existing for minority males who have difficulty accessing oral care. (Han, 2019). Moreover, providing access to translators in the dental office, promoting providers who speak multiple languages, being respectful of cultural norms, and understanding the oral health needs of special populations can all help create a more inclusive oral healthcare system.
Key Takeaways
- Oral diseases can largely be prevented by practicing proper oral hygiene and regularly visiting the dentist.
- Household and neighborhood income levels can impact one’s ability to afford dental insurance and access dental care.
- Socially disadvantaged populations, such as Black or Hispanic men and immigrants, face barriers such as discrimination, difficulties assimilating, and lack of diverse racial representation in the dental field.
Chapter Review Questions
- What is the most common type of oral cancer?
- A. Squamous cell carcinoma
- B. Mucosal melanoma
- C. Sarcomas
- D. Adenoid cystic carcinoma
- Which is not a general risk factor for developing cavities?
- A. Improper oral hygiene
- B. Having pre-existing health conditions
- C. Not visiting the dentist regularly
- D. All of these are risk factors
- Generally, _________ are more prone to cavities due to biological reasons. ________ are more prone to cavities due to behavioral and accessibility differences.
- A. Men; men
- B. Women; men
- C. Women; women
- D. Men; women
- What is a significant barrier that racial minorities face when accessing or utilizing dental care?
- A. Being unassimilated to dominant culture
- B. Systemic racism in the healthcare system
- C. Low perceived need of dental care
- D. Both A and B
References
Akintobi, T. H., Hoffman, L. S. M., McAllister, C., Goodin, L., Hernandez, N. D., Rollins, L., &
Miller, A. (2016). Assessing the oral health needs of African American men in
low-income, urban communities. American Journal of Men’s Health, 12(2), 326–337.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1557988316639912
American Association of Endodontics. (n.d.). What is a root canal?
https://www.aae.org/patients/root-canal-treatment/what-is-a-root-canal/
American Cancer Society. (2022). Key statistics for oral cavity and oropharyngeal cancers.
https://www.cancer.org/cancer/oral-cavity-and-oropharyngeal-cancer/about/key-statistics.html#:~:text=These%20cancers%20are%20more%20than,140%20(0.71%25)%20for%20women.
American Student Dental Association. (2022). Barriers to care.
https://www.asdanet.org/index/get-involved/advocate/issues-and-legislative-priorities/Barriers-to-Care
Auluck, A., Walker, B., Hislop, G., Lear, S., Schuurman, N., Rosin, M. (2016). Socio-economic
deprivation: a significant determinant affecting stage of oral cancer diagnosis and
survival. BMC Cancer, 16, 569.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4970228/
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2022). Oral Health Conditions.
https://www.cdc.gov/oralhealth/conditions/index.html
Griffin, S., Naavaal, S., Scherrer, C., Griffin, P., Harris, K., Chattopadhyay, S. (2016). School-based dental sealant programs prevent cavities and are cost-effective. Health Aff (Millwood), 1;35(12): 2233-2240. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27920311/
Han, Chengming. (2019). Oral health disparities: racial, language, and nativity effects. Social Science and Medicine- Population Health, (8).
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6658987/
Heima, M., Ferretti, M., Qureshi, M., & Ferretti, G. (2017). The effect of social geographic factors on the untreated tooth decay among head start children. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Dentistry, 9(10): e1224-e1229. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5694152/
Liang, J., Wu, B., Plassman, B., Bennett, J., Beck, J. (2013). Racial disparities in trajectories of dental caries experience. Community Dentistry and Oral Epidemiology, 41(6), 517-525.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4324468/
Lukacs, J. Largaespada, L. (2006). Explaining sex differences in dental caries prevalence: saliva, hormones, and “life history” etiologies. American Journal of Human Biology, (18): 540-555. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ajhb.20530
Peres, M., Macpherson, L., Weyant, R., Daly, B., Venturelli, R., Mathur, M., Listl, S., Celeste, R., Herreno, C., Kearns, C., Benzian, H., Allison, P., & Watt, R. (2019). Oral diseases: a global public health challenge. The Lancet, (394): 249-260.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140673619311468
Smith, P., Murray, M., Hoffman, L, Ester, T., & Kohli, R. (2022). Addressing black men’s oral health through community engaged research and workforce recruitment. Journal of Public Health Dentistry, 82(1): 83-88. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jphd.12508
Su, S., Lipsky, M., Licari, F., Hung, M. (2022). Comparing oral health behaviours of men and women in the United States. Journal of Dentistry, (122).
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0300571222002135?via%3Dihub
University of Illinois at Chicago. (2017). Why is oral health important for men?
https://dentistry.uic.edu/news-stories/why-is-oral-health-important-for-men/#:~:text=Goo d%20oral%20health%20recently%20has,only%20when%20a%20problem%20arises
Vasireddy, D., Sathiyakumar, T., Mondal, S., & Sur, S. (2021). Socioeconomic factorsassociated with the risk and prevalence of dental caries and dental treatment trends in children: a cross-sectional analysis of National Survey of Children’s Health (NSCH)
data, 2016-1019. Cureus, 13(11): e19184.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8635037/#:~:text=The%20prevalence%20of%20dental%20caries%20was%20highest%20among%20the%20children,FPL%20(6.47%2D6.92%25)
Vujicic, M., Nasseh, K., & Fosse, C. (2021). Dentist participation in Medicaid: How should it bemeasured? Does it matter? American Dental Association Health Policy Institute.
https://www.ada.org/-/media/project/ada-organization/ada/ada-org/files/resources/research/hpi/hpibrief_1021_1.pdf?rev=59e7a5e0b8e34337bb5b0b4066241193&hash=F7E98E87D6A35AB7D970E1A0B81EE7AB
Yu, A., Choi, J., Swanson, M., Kokot, N., Brown, T., Yan, G., & Sinha, U. (2019). Association of race/ethnicity, stage, and survival in oral cavity squamous cell carcinoma: a SEER study. OTO Open, 3(4): 2473974X19891126. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6904786/
A bacterial biofilm that builds up and can harden on the tooth.
A surgical procedure that removes deeper infected tissues of the tooth called the pulp.
A clinical checkup of the mouth and throat to scan for abnormal growths. | 3,110 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://opentextbooks.clemson.edu/hlth3200baxter/chapter/mens-oral-diseases-at-the-intersections-of-income-and-race/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:35090 | https://opentextbooks.clemson.edu/hlth3200baxter/chapter/mens-oral-diseases-at-the-intersections-of-income-and-race/ |
P70MEVDyhNbAqHFd | 3: Repeated Two-Person Zero-sum Games | 3: Repeated Two-Person Zero-sum Games
If we are presented with a two-person zero-sum game we know that our first step is to look for an equilibrium point. If a game has an equilibrium point, then we know that our players should play the corresponding strategy pair. In this case the equilibrium pair and its payoff vector is the “solution” to the game. In this chapter we will explore games that do not necessarily have an equilibrium point. We will also try to determine what a player should do if they play the game repeatedly.
-
- 3.1: Introduction to Repeated Games
- When playing the game several times, does it make sense for either player to play the same strategy all the time? Why or why not? Although we use the term “strategy” to mean which row (or column) a player chooses to play, we will also refer to how a player plays a repeated game as the player's strategy. In order to avoid confusion, in repeated games we will define some specific strategies.
-
- 3.5: Liar's Poker
- In this section, we will continue to explore the ideas of a mixed strategy equilibrium. We saw two different methods for finding an equilibrium. The first employed graphs in order to understand and find the maximin and minimax strategies, and hence the equilibrium mixed strategy. The second method employed the ideas of expected value to find the equilibrium strategy. We will continue to solidify these ideas with another game, a simplified variation of poker.
-
- 3.7: Undercut
- This section requires you to be able to solve “large” systems of equations. You will be using the matrix techniques from Section 3.6. You are encouraged to use technology such as a graphing calculator or Sage. As we saw in Section 3.5, an important part of game theory is the process of translating a game to a form that we can analyze. As we saw in Section 3.5, an important part of game theory is the process of translating a game to a form that we can analyze. | 451 | common-pile/libretexts_filtered | https://math.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Applied_Mathematics/Introduction_to_Game_Theory%3A_A_Discovery_Approach_(Nordstrom)/03%3A_Repeated_Two-Person_Zero-sum_Games | libretexts | libretexts-0000.json.gz:30975 | https://math.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Applied_Mathematics/Introduction_to_Game_Theory%3A_A_Discovery_Approach_(Nordstrom)/03%3A_Repeated_Two-Person_Zero-sum_Games |
kCZQnJPJ98L92lEH | Announcement of the California State Dairy Cow Competition, 1916-18 / by F.W. Woll. | By F. W. WOLL
The College of Agriculture of the University of California will conduct a competition for dairy herds during the coming year, in connection with the official testing of dairy cows for production of butter-fat in which work the college has been engaged for a number of years past. The competition has been rendered possible through the hearty co-operation of breeders of pure-bred dairy cattle, feed dealers, creamery companies, and other parties interested in the advancement of our dairy industry, who have subscribed a fund of over $4700 for the award of prizes for records of production made by cows in the competition. A number of special prizes of pure-bred bull calves, dairy apparatus, and feeds have likewise been donated in order to make the competition of general interest to dairy farmers and to insure a large participation in it.
been received from the following parties :
A. Cash Prize Fund. — Alexander and Kellogg, Suisun; Mrs. Anita M. Baldwin, Santa Anita; Balfour, Guthrie & Co., San Francisco; "Calf -Way" Milker Co., San Francisco; California Central Creameries, San Francisco; De Laval Separator Co., New York City, New York; W. H. Dupee, Santee; J. S. Gibson Co., Williams; F. M. Helm, Fresno; Miss M. M. Holdridge, Modesto; Larrowe Milling Co., Los Angeles; Millbrae Dairy, Millbrae; A. W. Morris & Sons Corp., Woodland; B. E. Nixon, Yountville; Pacific Dairy Review, San Francisco; Palo Alto Stock Farm, Palo Alto; Sacramento Clearing House, Sacramento; Somers & Co., San Francisco; Sperry Flour Mills, Stockton; State Holstein Breeders' Association, Chino; State Jersey Breeders' Association, Stockton; F. Stenzel, San Lorenzo; Western Creameries Co., San Francisco; G. W. Wilder, Redlands.
B. Special Prizes. — Pure-bred bull calves. — K. W. Abbott, Milpitas; J. W. Clise, Seattle, Washington; Dr. J. W. Henderson, Berkeley; A. B. Humphrey, Mayhews; N. B. Locke Co., Lockeford; C. G. McFarland, San Francisco; W. H. Savior, San Francisco.
Cream separators. — Associated Mfrs. Co., Waterloo, Iowa; Baker & Hamilton, San Francisco; Beck Hardware Co., San Francisco; De Laval Dairy Supply Co., San Francisco; Empire Cream Separator Co., Bloomfield, New Jersey; International Harvester Co., San Francisco.
arator Co., San Francisco.
Trophies and medals. — American Guernsey Cattle Club, Peterboro, New Hampshire; American Jersey Cattle Club, New York City, New York; HolsteinFriesian Association of America, Brattleboro, Vermont; Scott, Magner & Miller, San Francisco.
Special cash prises.— California Cultivator, Los Angeles; McAlister & Sons, Chino; Livestock and Dairy Journal, Sacramento; Pacific Rural Press, San Francisco; the Country Life Department of the Sacramento Bee, Sacramento; Barber & Thomson Co., Los Angeles.
CONDUCT OF THE COMPETITION
The production by the cows entered in the competition will be determined by the method adopted in the semi-official testing of dairy cows for yearly records of production. About twenty young men, especially interested and trained in dairying, most of them graduates of the College, or of the short courses offered by the University of California, are at the present time employed in this work. They visit the various ranches for two days every month, during which period they are present at every milking of the cows, carefully weigh and make fat determinations in the milk, and make out reports on the production of milk and butter-fat for the two-day periods. The average per cent of fat in the milk for the two days is taken to represent the average quality of the milk during the month, and the milk yield reported by the owner and verified by the College or the respective breed associations, multiplied by this percentage, gives the production of butter- fat for the month. Such production for twelve consecutive months will give very closely the actual production for the year, and cows are admitted to the advanced registers of the various breed associations when these figures exceed the minimum requirements for cows of different ages that have been adopted by the respective associations. I
The method of conducting the official tests and details concerning the system of testing dairy cows for production are explained in Circular 135 of the California Agricultural Experiment Station,1 a copy of which will be sent to residents of the state upon request. Address, Director Agricultural Experiment Station, Berkeley, Calif.
In the competition to be conducted as above explained, the production by cows during the period of ten months will form the basis of awarding the prizes offered, instead of that for a period of one year,
for the reason that in ordinary dairy practice cows drop a calf once every twelve months and arc dry for from four to six weeks every year. When cows are tested for yearly records, many breeders are tempted to delay breeding their cows until late in the lactation period and to feed very heavily so that the cows will give milk for the entire 365 days, with the result that the breeding operations are seriously interfered with and the production by the cows during the following year is greatly decreased. By limiting the record period to ten months, cows may be regularly bred so as to drop a calf at intervals of about twelve months, may go dry for at least a month, and the future usefulness of the cows in the herd will not be jeopardized. Breeders who are anxious to obtain good results from their cows beyond the special period while they are placed on tests may, therefore, enter their cows in the competition without danger of interfering with the general system of herd management adopted.
COMPETITION OPEN TO ALL KINDS OF COWS The competition is not restricted to pure-breds, but is open to all kinds of cows, including grades, and cows of mixed breeding. Cows of the latter classes do not come into competition with pure-breds in the awards of most prizes, since a considerable number of the prizes are awarded for records made by such cows only. The value of the cash prizes to be competed for by grades alone amounts to over $1000, and a large number of special prizes will be awarded for records made by grade or common cows, or by cows irrespective of their breeding. It is hoped that the provision made for liberal prizes for this class of cows will appeal to many farmers owning common dairy herds and that they will enter cows in the competition in large numbers.
choice of:
An Ayrshire, Guernsey, Holstein, or Jersey bull calf — donated, respectively, by J. W. Clise, Seattle, Washington; A. B. Humphrey, Mayhews, California; K. W. Abbott, Milpitas, California; and N. B. Locke Co., Lockeford, California.
2. A. Saylor, San Francisco, California; C. G. McFarland, Tulare, California; and of $100 worth in pure-bred Guernsey or Hampshire males, donated by Dr. J. W. Henderson, Berkeley, California.
A 2-unit outfit of the "Calf -Way" Milker, donated by the "Calf -Way" Milker Company, Chicago, Illinois, and a 2-unit Sharpies Mechanical Milker, donated by the Sharpies Separator Company, West Chester, Pennsylvania.
5 tons of Larrowe's Dried Beet Pulp, offered by the Larrowe Milling Company, Los Angeles, California, provided, that if the winner of this prize consumed not less than one half-ton of Larrowe's Dried Beet Pulp in her ration during the record period, the quantity to be awarded shall be increased to 15 tons.
five cows in a herd, bred by the owner, three prizes:
$150 each for (a) pure-bred cows, (b) grade cows, (c) cows irrespective of their breeding — offered by the Country Life Department of The Sacramento Bee, Sacramento, California. No cow shall compete in more than one of these groups.
Association records for twelve consecutive months during the period of November, 1916, to February, 1918, will be considered in the award of these prizes; entries to close February 28, 1917. All heifers and cows in milk during six months or more must be included in the average for the herd.
owned by their patrons.
The rules governing the conduct of official tests, and details relating to their conduct, will be found in Circular 135, above referred to, and will not be repeated here. The following special rules will govern the conduct of the competition.
2. The awards of prizes offered in the competition, except as otherwise given, shall be made on the basis of the production of butter- fat during a period of ten consecutive months, as determined by the system of semi-official testing of dairy cows.
one day each month, if desired.
4. In order not to place young animals at a handicap in the award of prizes, the records for production actually made by cows under five years of age shall be increased in accordance with the average results obtained in authenticated yearly tests of cows of different ages, as follows : Records made by cows under 21/) years at the beginning of the test shall be increased by 30 per cent, and those made by older heifers and cows shall be increased as follows : for heifers 2y2 to 3 years old, by 24 per cent; for cows 3 to 3% years, by 18 per cent; 3% to 4 years, by 15 per cent ; 4 to 4% years, by 8 per cent, and 4i/> to 5 years, by 5 per cent.
5. The owner shall furnish a correct monthly statement of the amount of milk produced by the cows entered in the competition and of the kinds and amounts of the different feeds eaten by them. Blanks for reporting milk yields and the feed eaten will be furnished free of charge for this purpose. Milk records calculated from the data obtained in the monthly tests may be used, at the option of the Experiment Station authorities, for arriving at the production of the cows, in the place of those reported by the owners or where regular milk records are not kept by the owner.
6. Records of production for the competition may begin on the fifth day after calving and shall close ten months from the date of the beginning of the test. A cow will not, as a rule, be tested prior to the fourteenth day from freshening. When an official test of a cow in the competition, of seven days' duration or longer is conducted during a month, the average fat content for this period shall be used for the calculation of the production of butter-fat by the cow during that month.
7. Failure to get a cow in calf before the end of the fifth month after calving shall bar her from competing for any but the monthly prizes and the trophies offered by the various breed associations.
8. The cost of the monthly two-day tests conducted in connection with the competition shall be $7.50 for each farmer, and that of oneday tests of grade cows, $5. This cost includes all direct expenses of the tests to farmers, except room and board of the supervisors while on duty, «and transportation to and from the nearest railway station or ranch where tests are conducted.
9. The maximum number of cows in a herd that may be tested at one time shall be fifteen if the cows are milked twice a day; ten if any are milked three times a day; and eight if any are milked four times
60 pounds of milk per day.
10. The maximum amount of prize money paid to any one breeder (exclusive of monthly and special prizes) shall be $500. Prizes shall only be awarded to the bona fide owner of a cow at the time her record is completed. Only records of production of 365 pounds of butter-fat or more by pure-bred cows for ten months shall be considered in the award of cash prizes.
11. Where a choice of two or more prizes is offered, the highest production shall entitle the owner to first choice, the next highest to second choice, etc., in the order of decreasing production.
In the award of prizes to be made in the Competition, it shall be considered that a grade cow is the progeny of a pure-bred bull and a grade or common cow, and that a common or "scrub" cow is the progeny of a "scrub" or a grade bull.
12. All questions not covered by the preceding rules or by the rules governing the semi-official tests in this state, shall be decided by the Chief of the Division of Animal Husbandry in the College of Agriculture of the University of California, whose decision shall be final.
Applications for entry in the competition may be made any time prior to May 1, 1917, when the entries will close. Records of production may commence on November 1, 1916 and prizes will be awarded for records for ten consecutive months made prior to March 1, 1918. Entry blanks and further information concerning the competition will be furnished upon request. Address, Professor F. W. Woll, in charge of dairy tests, University Farm, Davis, California.
The California State Dairy Cow Competition offers a rare opportunity for breeders and dairy farmers to have records of production by their cows considered in the award of the many and substantial prizes offered in the competition and at the same time to get their purebred cows into the Advanced Registers of the various breed associations. For this reason, and on account of the general advancement of the dairying industry of the state, which will result from a large participation in the competition, it is hoped that all breeders of dairy cattle so situated that they can enter cows in the competition, and farmers who own cows of exceptional productive capacity, whether pure-breds, grades, or of mixed breeding, will avail themselves of the opportunity offered by this competition to establish the value of their cows for dairy production.
| 2,972 | common-pile/pre_1929_books_filtered | announcementofca153woll | public_library | public_library_1929_dolma-0011.json.gz:4251 | https://archive.org/download/announcementofca153woll/announcementofca153woll_djvu.txt |
3-lknS3TONzpe0_P | Western Civilization | 41 Athens
Learning Objective
- Understand the factors contributing to the rise and fall of Athens
Key Points
- Cleisthenes overthrew the dictator Hippias in 511/510 BCE in order to establish democracy at Athens.
- Athens entered its Golden Age in the 5th century BCE, when it abandoned the pretense of parity and relocated the treasury of the Delian League from Delos to Athens. This money funded the building of the Athenian Acropolis, put half the Athenian population on the public payroll, and allowed Athens to build and maintain the dominant naval power in the Greek world.
- With the empire’s funds, military dominance, and its political fortunes as guided by statesman and orator Pericles, Athens produced some of the most influential and enduring cultural artifacts of the Western tradition.
- Tensions within the Delian League brought about the Peloponnesian War (431-404 BCE), during which Athens was defeated by its rival, Sparta. Athens lost further power when the armies of Philip II defeated an alliance of Greek city-states.
Terms
Acropolis
A settlement, especially a citadel, built upon an area of elevated ground, frequently a hill with precipitous sides, chosen for purposes of defense. Often the nuclei of large cities of classical antiquity.
Pericles
A prominent and influential Greek statesman, orator, and general of Athens during its Golden Age, in the time between the Persian and Peloponnesian wars.
Delian League
Founded in 478 BCE, an association of Greek city-states under the leadership of Athens, whose purpose was to fight the Persian Empire during the Greco-Persian Wars.
The Rise of Athens (508-448 BCE)
In 514 BCE, the dictator Hippias established stability and prosperity with his rule of Athens, but remained very unpopular as a ruler. With the help of an army from Sparta in 511/510 BCE, he was overthrown by Cleisthenes, a radical politician of aristocratic background who established democracy in Athens.
Prior to the rise of Athens, Sparta, a city-state with a militaristic culture, considered itself the leader of the Greeks, and enforced an hegemony. In 499 BCE, Athens sent troops to aid the Ionian Greeks of Asia Minor, who were rebelling against the Persian Empire during the Ionian Revolt. This provoked two Persian invasions of Greece, both of which were repelled under the leadership of the soldier-statesmen Miltiades and Themistocles, during the Persian Wars. In the decades that followed, the Athenians, with the help of the Spartans and other allied Greek city-states, managed to rout the Persians. These victories enabled Athens to bring most of the Aegean, and many other parts of Greece, together in the Delian League, creating an Athenian-dominated alliance from which Sparta and its allies withdrew.
Athenian Hegemony and the Age of Pericles
The 5th century BCE was a period of Athenian political hegemony, economic growth, and cultural flourishing that is sometimes referred to as the Golden Age of Athens. The latter part of this time period is often called The Age of Pericles. After peace was made with Persia in the 5th century BCE, what started as an alliance of independent city-states became an Athenian empire. Athens moved to abandon the pretense of parity among its allies, and relocated the Delian League treasury from Delos to Athens, where it funded the building of the Athenian Acropolis, put half its population on the public payroll, and maintained the dominant naval power in the Greek world. With the empire’s funds, military dominance, and its political fortunes as guided by statesman and orator Pericles, Athens produced some of the most influential and enduring cultural artifacts of Western tradition, during what became known as the Golden Age of Athenian democracy, or the Age of Pericles. The playwrights Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides all lived and worked in Athens during this time, as did historians Herodotus and Thucydides, the physician Hippocrates, and the philosopher Socrates.
Pericles was arguably the most prominent and influential Greek statesman, orator, and general of Athens during its Golden Age. One of his most popular reforms while in power was to allow thetes (Athenians without wealth) to occupy public office. Another success of his administration was the creation of the misthophoria, a special salary for the citizens that attended the courts as jurors. As Athens’ ruler, he helped the city to prosper with a resplendent culture and democratic institutions.
5th century Athenian Political Institutions
The administration of the Athenian state was managed by a group of people referred to as magistrates, who were submitted to rigorous public control and chosen by lot. Only two magistrates were directly elected by the Popular Assembly: strategos (or generals), and magistrates of finance. All magistrates served for a year or less, with the exception of Pericles, who was elected year after year to public office. At the end of their service, magistrates were required to give an account of their administration and use of public finances.
The most elite posts in the Athenian political system belonged to archons. In ages past, they served as heads of the Athenian state, but in the Age of Pericles they lost much of their influence and power, though they still presided over tribunals. The Assembly of the People was the first organ of democracy in Athens. In theory, it was composed of all the citizens of Athens. However, it is estimated that the maximum number of participants it witnessed was 6,000. The Assembly met in front of the Acropolis and decided on laws and decrees. Once the Assembly gave its decision in a certain matter, the issue was raised to the Council, or Boule, to provide definitive approval.
The Council consisted of 500 members, 50 from each tribe, and functioned as an extension of the Assembly. Council members were chosen by lot in a similar manner to magistrates and supervised the work of the magistrates in addition to other legal projects and administrative details. They also oversaw the city-state’s external affairs.
Athenian Defeat and Conquest By Macedon
Originally intended as an association of Greek city-states to continue the fight against the Persians, the Delian League soon turned into a vehicle for Athens’s own imperial ambitions and empire-building. The resulting tensions brought about the Peloponnesian War (431-404 BCE), in which Athens was defeated by its rival, Sparta. By the mid-4th century BCE, the northern Greek kingdom of Macedon was becoming dominant in Athenian affairs. In 338 BCE, the armies of Philip II of Macedon defeated an alliance of some of the Greek city-states, including Athens and Thebes, at the Battle of Chaeronea, effectively ending Athenian independence. | 1,402 | common-pile/pressbooks_filtered | https://library.achievingthedream.org/herkimerwesterncivilization/chapter/athens/ | pressbooks | pressbooks-0000.json.gz:88462 | https://library.achievingthedream.org/herkimerwesterncivilization/chapter/athens/ |
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