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20231101.en_13200141_34 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | Family duties and family forming cause significant delays in aspiring women's political careers. While campaigning in the 2018 United States House of Representatives elections in New York, Democratic primary candidate Liuba Grechen Shirley used campaign funds to pay a caregiver for her two young children. The FEC ruled... | [
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20231101.en_13200141_35 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | A 2017 study found that female Republican candidates fare worse in elections than Republican men and Democratic women. | [
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20231101.en_13200141_36 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | A 2020 study found that being promoted to the position of mayor or parliamentarian doubles the probability of divorce for women, but not for men. | [
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20231101.en_13200141_37 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | In Canada, there is evidence that female politicians face gender stigma from male members of the political parties to which they belong which can undermine the ability of women to reach or maintain leadership roles. Pauline Marois, leader of the Parti Québécois (PQ) and the official opposition of the National Assembly ... | [
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20231101.en_13200141_38 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | Bruce M. Hicks, an electoral studies researcher at Université de Montréal, states that evidence shows that female candidates begin with a head start in voters' eyes of as much as 10 per cent, and that female candidates are often more favorably associated by voters with issues like health care and education. The elector... | [
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20231101.en_13200141_39 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | Within Quebec itself, Don McPherson pointed out that Pinard himself has enjoyed greater electoral success with Pauline Marois as party leader than under a previous male party leader, when Pinard failed to be elected in his riding. Demographically, Pinard's electoral riding is rural, with "relatively older, less-well ed... | [
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20231101.en_13200141_40 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | In Nigeria, there are not many women in positions of leadership. Only seven of the 109 senators and 22 of the 360 members of the House of Representatives are women at the moment.There are several explanations for why women's political party participation is so low. For instance, women are discouraged from running for o... | [
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20231101.en_13200141_41 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | In one study that looked at campaign funding in Chile, researchers found a significant gender bias against women in campaign funding. In Chile, parties are given money directly from the government to allocate to their various candidates, and candidates are limited to a certain amount of money they can spend on their ca... | [
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20231101.en_13200141_42 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | Many of the challenged women face that leads to their underrepresentation in political office is amplified through other institutional factors. Race, specifically, plays an increasingly large role in the challenges faced by women when deciding to run for office, actively running for office, and actively holding office.... | [
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20231101.en_13200141_43 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | One study found that intersectionality plays a significant role in the ambition of women and their decision to run for political office. They found that when women were told the different reasons for underrepresentation of women in political office, women of different races responded very differently. Researchers state... | [
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20231101.en_13200141_44 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | Women's participation in formal politics is lower than men's throughout the world. The argument put forth by scholars Jacquetta Newman and Linda White is that women's participation in the realm of high politics is crucial if the goal is to affect the quality of public policy. As such, the concept of mirror representat... | [
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20231101.en_13200141_45 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | A key critique is that mirror representation assumes that all members of a particular sex operate under the rubric of a shared identity, without taking into consideration other factors such as age, education, culture, or socioeconomic status. However, proponents of mirror representation argue that women have a differen... | [
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20231101.en_13200141_46 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | There have been differing results between studies that looked at the significance of women's representation on actual policy outcomes. Though women in the United States are more likely to identify as feminists, a 2014 study looking at the United States finds "no effect of gender of the mayor on policy outcomes." A 2012... | [
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20231101.en_13200141_47 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | Mirror representation stems from the barriers female political candidates often face. These include sex stereotyping, political socialization, lack of preparation for political activity, and balancing work and family. In the media, women are often asked how they would balance the responsibilities of elected office with... | [
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20231101.en_13200141_48 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | Sex stereotyping: Sex stereotyping assumes that masculine and feminine traits are intertwined with leadership. Hence, the bias leveled against women stems from the perception that femininity inherently produces weak leadership. Due to the aggressive and competitive nature of politics, many insist that participation in ... | [
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20231101.en_13200141_49 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | Sexual and physical violence: In Kenya, a woman's rights activist named Asha Ali was threatened and beaten by three men for standing as a candidate in front of her kids and elderly mother. A 2010 survey of eight hundred likely U.S voters found that even very mild sexist language had an impact on their likelihood of vot... | [
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20231101.en_13200141_50 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | Lack of media support: The qualitative and quantitative study reveals that media reflects and strengthens a male-overwhelmed society. Women in the news is usually for bad news and just for all the vulgar or wrong reasons such as about their looks, personal life and their clothes and characters. Media likes to give more... | [
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20231101.en_13200141_51 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | Political socialization: Political socialization is the idea that, during childhood, people are indoctrinated into socially constructed norms of politics. In the case of women's representation in government, it says that sex stereotyping begins at an early age and affects the public's disposition on which genders are f... | [
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20231101.en_13200141_52 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | Generally, girls tend to see politics as a "male domain". Newman and White suggest that women who run for political office have been "socialized toward an interest in and life in politics" and that "many female politicians report being born into political families with weak gender-role norms." | [
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20231101.en_13200141_53 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | Women running for U.S senate are often underrepresented in news coverage. The way male and female candidates are depicted in media has an effect on how female candidates gets elected in to public office. Female candidates get treated differently in the media than their male counterparts in the U.S senate elections. Wom... | [
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20231101.en_13200141_54 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | Lack of preparation for political activity: An aftereffect of political socialization is that it determines how inclined women are to pursue careers that may be compatible with formal politics. Careers in law, business, education, and government, professions in which women happen to be minorities, are common occupation... | [
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20231101.en_13200141_55 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | Balancing work and family: The work life balance is invariably more difficult for women, because they are generally expected by society to act as the primary caregivers for children and maintainers of the home. Due to these demands, it is assumed that women would choose to delay political aspirations until their childr... | [
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20231101.en_13200141_56 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | Institutional barriers may also pose as a hindrance for balancing a political career and family. For instance, in Canada, Members of Parliament do not contribute to Employment Insurance; therefore, they are not entitled to paternity benefits. Such lack of parental leave would undoubtedly be a reason for women to dela... | [
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20231101.en_13200141_57 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | Political family – women in this path come from families that have a long history of involvement in electoral politics. | [
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20231101.en_13200141_58 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | Surrogate – women in this path have assumed office, often temporarily, as a surrogate for a father, husband, or brother who has recently died. | [
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20231101.en_13200141_59 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | Party or political insider – women in this path start at the bottom of a party or political ladder and work their way up over time filling in necessary roles to show loyalty to the party. | [
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20231101.en_13200141_60 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | Political outsider – women in this path usually lack political experience but they run on a platform emphasizing new political changes and serve as an alternative to the status quo. | [
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20231101.en_13200141_61 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | The political recruitment model is a term coined by political scientists who studied why women do not hold political positions at the same rates men do. The political recruitment model categorizes the steps between a citizen and politician, and many political scientists use this to study where women are losing the oppo... | [
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20231101.en_13200141_62 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | The United Nations has identified six avenues by which female participation in politics and government may be strengthened. These avenues are: equalization of educational opportunities, quotas for female participation in governing bodies, legislative reform to increase focus on issues concerning women and children, fin... | [
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20231101.en_13200141_63 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | The first government organization formed with the goal of women's equality was the Zhenotdel, in Soviet Russia in the 1920s. | [
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20231101.en_13200141_64 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | Women with formal education (at any level) are more likely to delay marriage and subsequent childbirth, be better informed about infant and child nutrition, and ensure childhood immunization. Children of mothers with formal education are better nourished and have higher survival rates. Education is a vital tool for any... | [
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20231101.en_13200141_65 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | abolishment of educational fees which would require parents to consider financial issues when deciding which of their children to educate. Poor children in rural areas are particularly affected by inequality resulting from educational fees. | [
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20231101.en_13200141_66 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | encouragement of parents and communities to institute gender-equal educational agenda. Perceived opportunity cost of educating girls may be addressed through a conditional cash transfer program which financially reward families who educate their daughters (thus removing the financial barrier that results from girls sub... | [
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20231101.en_13200141_67 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | creation of "girl-friendly" schools to minimize bias and create a safe school environment for girls and young women. Currently, a barrier to female school attendance is the risk of sexual violence en route to school. A "safe school environment" is one in which the school is located to minimize such violence, in additio... | [
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20231101.en_13200141_68 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | Mark P. Jones, in reference to Norris's Legislative Recruitment, states that: "Unlike other factors that have been identified as influencing the level of women's legislative representation, such as a country's political culture and level of economic development, institutional rules are relatively easy to change". | [
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20231101.en_13200141_69 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | In an article about the exclusion of Women from politics in southern Africa, Amanda Gouws said "The biggest hurdles to overcome for women are still on the local level where both men and women are often recruited from the communities and have limited political skills". The level of education in these local governments o... | [
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20231101.en_13200141_70 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | One example of the hurdles women face in receiving good education comes from Beijing. "Most women who attended the NGO Forums accompanying the UN conferences, which are for government delegations (though increasingly many governments include activists and NGO members among their official delegates), were middle-class e... | [
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20231101.en_13200141_71 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | The study of the history of women's representation has been a major contribution in helping scholars view such concepts. Andrew Reynolds states: "historical experience often leads to gender advancement, and political liberalization enables women to mobilize within the public sphere". He argues that we will see a larger... | [
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20231101.en_13200141_72 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | Quotas are explicit requirements on the number of women in political positions. "Gender quotas for the election of legislators have been used since the late 1970s by a few political parties (via the party charter) in a small number of advanced industrial democracies; such examples would be like Germany and Norway". And... | [
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20231101.en_13200141_73 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | Sex quota systems: institute a "critical value" below which a government is deemed imbalanced. Examples of such critical values include 20% of legislators or 50% of politicians. | [
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20231101.en_13200141_74 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | Legal quota systems regulate the governance of political parties and bodies. Such quotas may be mandated by electoral law (as the Argentine quota law, for example) or may be constitutionally required (as in Nepal). | [
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20231101.en_13200141_75 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | Voluntary party quota systems may be used by political parties at will, yet are not mandated by electoral law or by a country's constitution. If a country's leading or majority political party engages in a voluntary party quota system, the effect may "trickle down" to minority political parties in the country (as in th... | [
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20231101.en_13200141_76 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | Quotas may be utilized during different stages of the political nomination/selection process to address different junctures at which women may be inherently disadvantaged: | [
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20231101.en_13200141_77 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | Potential candidacy: sex quota systems can mandate that from the pool of aspirants, a certain percentage of them must be female. | [
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20231101.en_13200141_78 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | Nomination: legal or voluntary quotas are enforced upon this stage, during which a certain portion of nominated candidates on the party's ballot must be female. | [
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20231101.en_13200141_79 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | Quota usage can have marked effects on female representation in governance. Stronger quotas are estimated to increase the number of women elected to parliament by about three times as compared to weaker quotas. In 1995, Rwanda ranked 24th in terms of female representation, and jumped to 1st in 2003 after quotas were in... | [
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20231101.en_13200141_80 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | With quotas drastically changing the number of female representatives in political power, a bigger picture unravels. Though countries are entitled to regulate their own laws, the quota system helps explain social and cultural institutions and their understandings and overall view of women in general. "At first glance, ... | [
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20231101.en_13200141_81 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | Quotas have been quite useful in allowing women to gain support and opportunities when attempting to achieve seats of power, but many see this as a wrongdoing. Drude Dahlerup and Lenita Freidenvall argue this in their article "Quotas as a 'Fast Track' to Equal Representation for Women" by stating: "From a liberal persp... | [
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20231101.en_13200141_82 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | The introduction of gender quotas in the electoral process has spurred controversy from politicians, resulting in resistance to the acceptance of quotas in the political realm. The mobilization of women in politics has been hindered by means of preserving male political survival, and to avoid political interference wit... | [
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20231101.en_13200141_83 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | Substantive representation contains two distinct parts: both the process and outcome of having female politicians. Substantive representation based on the process is concerned with the gendered perspective, themes that female representatives discuss in political debates, and the impact they have on the creation of bill... | [
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20231101.en_13200141_84 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | Critical mass theory has correlations with both substantive representation as process and substantive representation as outcome. Critical mass theory suggests that once a certain percentage of women representatives has been reached, that female legislators will be able to create and enable transformative policies, and ... | [
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20231101.en_13200141_85 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | One cross-national study found that the implementation of electoral gender quotas, which substantially increased women's representation in parliament, led to increased government expenditures toward public health and relative decreases in military spending, consistent with a presumption that women favor the former whil... | [
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20231101.en_13200141_86 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | There have been numerous occasions where equal legislation has benefited the overall progression of women equality on a global scale. Though women have entered legislation, the overall representation within higher ranks of government is not being established. "Looking at ministerial positions broken down by portfolio a... | [
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20231101.en_13200141_87 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | Legislative agendas, some pushed by female political figures, may focus on several key issues to address ongoing gender disparities: | [
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20231101.en_13200141_88 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | Reducing domestic and gender-based violence. The Convention on the Rights of the Child, published by the United Nations in 1989, addressed home violence and its effects on children. The Convention stipulates that children are holders of human rights, and authorizes the State to 1) prevent all forms of violence, and 2) ... | [
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20231101.en_13200141_89 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | Reducing in-home discrimination through equalizing property and inheritance rights. National legislation can supersede traditionally male-dominated inheritance models. Such legislation has been proven effective in countries like Colombia, where 60% of land is held in joint titles between men and women (compared to 18% ... | [
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20231101.en_13200141_90 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | Sex-responsive budgets address the needs and interests of different individuals and social groups, maintaining awareness of sexual equality issues within the formation of policies and budgets. Such budgets are not necessarily a 50–50 male-female split, but accurately reflect the needs of each sex (such as increased all... | [
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20231101.en_13200141_91 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | Strengthened government position by advocating for needs of all, including the poor and the underrepresented rights | [
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20231101.en_13200141_92 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | In the last decades several countries have tied state funding of political parties to compliance with gender quotas, known as gender-targeted public funding. The idea is to use state funding to incentivize political parties to increase gender diversity on their ballot by either giving a fine or give extra resources to ... | [
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20231101.en_13200141_93 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | Current research which uses sex-aggregated statistics may underplay or minimize the quantitative presentation of issues such as maternal mortality, violence against women, and girls' school attendance. Sex-disaggregated statistics are lacking in the assessment of maternal mortality rates, for example. Prior to UNICEF a... | [
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20231101.en_13200141_94 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | Though the representation has become a much larger picture, it is important to notice the inclination of political activity emphasizing women over the years in different countries. "Although women's representation in Latin America, Africa, and the West progressed slowly until 1995, in the most recent decade, these regi... | [
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20231101.en_13200141_95 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | Researching politics on a global scale does not just reinvent ideas of politics, especially towards women, but brings about numerous concepts. Sheri Kunovich and Pamela Paxton's research method, for example, took a different path by studying "cross-national" implications to politics, taking numerous countries into cons... | [
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20231101.en_13200141_96 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | A 2018 study in the American Economic Journal: Economic Policy found that for German local elections "female council candidates advance more from their initial list rank when the mayor is female. This effect spreads to neighboring municipalities and leads to a rising share of female council members." | [
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20231101.en_13200141_97 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | Women's informal collectives are crucial to improving the standard of living for women worldwide. Collectives can address such issues as nutrition, education, shelter, food distribution, and generally improved standard of living. Empowering such collectives can increase their reach to the women most in need of support ... | [
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20231101.en_13200141_98 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | Women being increasingly represented in legislatures and having more political power in general creates various different effects. Women often bring different experiences, attitudes and resources that greatly affect legislation, party agendas, and constituency service. In practice, authoritarian regimes have utilized w... | [
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20231101.en_13200141_99 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | Affirmative action both corrects existing unfair treatment and gives women equal opportunity in the future. Moreover, the impact that gender representation can have on politics cannot be emphasized enough. In their noteworthy paper on examining the effects of female leadership in the times of crisis, Bruce et al. show ... | [
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20231101.en_13200141_100 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | In addition to the points raised above, Supriya Garikipati and Uma Kambhampati conduct an analysis to determine if there is any significant difference between COVID-19 pandemic being handled by women as compared to men. Their findings show that COVID-death related outcomes are better in countries which are led by women... | [
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20231101.en_13200141_101 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | The evidence that women in power have a positive influence is also highlighted by Iyer at al. through their paper on how political representation of women led to higher rates of crime reporting. They also find that women are willing to report crime in villages with female representation in the council. Moreover, the po... | [
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20231101.en_13200141_102 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | One study found that about 9% more federal spending is brought to districts who are represented by a woman as opposed to a man. The study found that the type of women who tend to get elected are often "better" politicians because of the way they have to outperform men to be elected into office. | [
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20231101.en_13200141_103 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | One study found that in Argentina, bills involving women's rights regarding violence against women, sexual harassment, reproduction, and gender quotas were more introduced more when more women were in chambers. | [
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20231101.en_13200141_104 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | A study also finds that the percentage of women in global legislatures promotes the substantive representation of women as it pertains to the provision of public goods and infrastructure development that women perceive to be important. | [
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20231101.en_13200141_105 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | Since the election of 2008, Rwanda is the first country to have a majority of women in legislature. Rwanda is an example of a developing country that radically increased its female leadership because of national conflict. After the Rwandan genocide that killed 800,000 Tutsis in 100 days, the percentage of women in the ... | [
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20231101.en_13200141_106 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | It is argued that the increase in female leadership in Rwanda also led to an increase in gender equality. World Focus (2009) writes, "Rwandan voters have elected women in numbers well beyond the mandates dictated by the post-genocide constitution. And though women in Rwanda still face discrimination, female legislators... | [
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20231101.en_13200141_107 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | While some researchers see reform, others see dominant party tactics. Shireen Hassim (2009) writes, "It could be argued that in both countries [Uganda and Rwanda] women's representation provided a kind of alibi for the progressive, 'democratic' nature of new governments that at their core nevertheless remained authorit... | [
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20231101.en_13200141_108 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | After the Taliban were toppled in 2001 by the United States invasion of Afghanistan, Afghan women's political participation significantly improved. Before the fall of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan to the Taliban, Afghan women worked in various layers of decision-making positions in the Government of Afghanistan. ... | [
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20231101.en_13200141_109 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | In 1918, universal suffrage was introduced by the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic, thus making Azerbaijan the first Muslim-majority country and Turk-majority country ever to enfranchise women. Now, 28 women are members of the Azerbaijan Parliament (Milli Məclis). As of 2015, there were 21 women in the 125-seat parliamen... | [
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20231101.en_13200141_110 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | Ayna Sultanova – the first Azerbaijani female cabinet minister (People's Commissar of Justice) in 1938. | [
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20231101.en_13200141_111 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | Zuleykha Seyidmammadova – was a Minister of Social Security in 1952 and first female Azerbaijani military pilot. | [
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20231101.en_13200141_112 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | Sima Eyvazova – was first non-Russian diplomat of USSR 1982, Minister of Foreign Affairs of Azerbaijan, members of United Nations. | [
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20231101.en_13200141_113 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | Elmira Gafarova – was a Speaker of the National Assembly of Azerbaijan, and Minister of Foreign Affairs of Azerbaijan 1983 | [
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20231101.en_13200141_114 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | Hijran Huseynova – is chairwoman of the State Committee for Family, Women and Children Affairs 2006. | [
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20231101.en_13200141_115 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | Govhar Bakhshaliyeva – is the director of the Institute of Oriental Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences. | [
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20231101.en_13200141_116 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | In the 1954 Constitution, the Chinese Communist Party stated that men and women enjoy equal rights in the aspects of political, economic, cultural, social, and family dimensions, especially highlighting a legitimate voting right and the right to be elected. In the Law of the People's Republic of China on the Protection... | [
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20231101.en_13200141_117 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | In spite of these declarations, the political system in China remains overwhelmingly male-dominated which, in turn, drives the low engagement rate of female delegates. Despite the new 13th NPC lineup including 742 women out of 2,980 representatives, about 24.9% of the total with a 1.5% increase from the prior term, the... | [
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20231101.en_13200141_118 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | Men's domination of politics in China despite written protections for women's rights can be explained by the following underlying causes: | [
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20231101.en_13200141_119 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | While the implied prerequisite of national appointment is years of experience serving at middle-to-top management, women in the PRC government often struggle to obtain promotion to high-ranked positions, such as party secretary or principal governor. The reason contributing to the captioned phenomenon is gender divisio... | [
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20231101.en_13200141_120 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | In China, there is an apparent discrepancy in the mandatory retirement age between men and women, in which men are entitled to enjoy 10 more years of work. This policy was established on the ground that women are primary and central support for domestic subjects and their early retirement (at the age of 50–55) would be... | [
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20231101.en_13200141_121 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | While in foreign countries, women's socio-economic status is uplifted and gender division of labor is largely wiped out by feminist movements to open up the availability and variety of work for women, the conservative and politically sensitive Chinese government's censorship on feminism within the country has spread fe... | [
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20231101.en_13200141_122 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | In an effort to increase women's participation in politics in India, a 1993 constitutional amendment mandated a randomly selected third of leadership positions at every level of local government to be reserved for women. These political reservation quotas randomly choose one third of cities to implement a women-only el... | [
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20231101.en_13200141_123 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | Indira Gandhi is the first female prime minister of India. She is the daughter of Jawaharlal Nehru, the first prime minister of India. She served as Prime Minister from January 1966 to March 1977 and again from January 1980 until her assassination in October 1984, making her the second longest-serving Indian Prime Mini... | [
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20231101.en_13200141_124 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | Following the 2019 elections, the 17th Lok Sabha has the highest ever representation of women at 14.3%, which includes 78 women MPs out of 543, higher than 62 in 2014. But only 6 women became cabinet ministers, lower than 10 in 2014. | [
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20231101.en_13200141_125 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | The local panchayat system in India provides an example of women's representation at the local governmental level. The 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments in 1992 mandated panchayat elections throughout the country. The reforms reserved 33% of the seats for women and for castes and tribes proportional to their pop... | [
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20231101.en_13200141_126 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | Since the founding of the State of Israel, relatively few women have served in the Israeli government, and fewer still have served in the leading ministerial offices. While Israel is one of a small number of countries where a woman—Golda Meir—has served as prime minister, it is behind most Western countries in the repr... | [
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20231101.en_13200141_127 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | Japan ranks 127 in the world for the number of women in national parliamentary worldwide as of March 2014, which is lower than their ranking of 122 in 2013. As of February 28, 2013, there are a total of 39 women in the House of Representatives out of 479 incumbents. | [
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20231101.en_13200141_128 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | Since the enactment of the modern Japanese Constitution in 1947, Japanese women have been given the right to vote, and the new version of the constitution also allows for a more democratic form of government that guarantees women equality under the law. | [
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20231101.en_13200141_129 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | The first female cabinet member, Masa Nakayama, was appointed as the Minister of Health and Welfare in Japan in 1960. Until 1996, the electoral system for the House of Representatives was based on a single non-transferable vote in multi-member districts. That system was not conducive to women's advancement in public o... | [
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20231101.en_13200141_130 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | By 1996, Japan adopted another new electoral system for the House of Representatives that combines single-seat districts with proportional representation. Out of 480 seats, 300 are contested in single seat constituencies. The other 180 members are elected through allocations to an electoral list submitted by each party... | [
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20231101.en_13200141_131 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | As for the future of women in politics in Japan, Prime Minister Shinzō Abe announced in his speech at the Japan National Press Club on April 19, 2013, that a major goal of his national growth strategy is "having no less than 30 per cent of leadership positions in all areas of society filled by women by 2020." | [
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20231101.en_13200141_132 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | Lebanese women are considered to have more rights and freedom compared to other women in the Gulf and Middle East. Lebanese women enjoy almost equal civil rights as men. However, due to the large number of officially recognized religions in Lebanon, Lebanese family matters are governed by at least 15 personal statute c... | [
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20231101.en_13200141_133 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20government | Women in government | Local and regional NGOs have helped to increase awareness of violence against women in Lebanon. Government policies regarding this are poor however, and attempts to improve this area have been met with resistance. Lebanon's laws do not recognize the concept of spousal rape, and attempts to add this to law have been att... | [
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