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These upgraded variants remained in service into the 1990s.With the development of flexible anti-tank missiles, which were capable of installation on almost any vehicle in the 1960s, the concept of the tank destroyer has morphed into light vehicles with missiles. With the weight of main battle tanks growing to the fort... | Wikipedia - Anti-tank missile carrier - Missile-based tank destroyers |
The recent entries into that category are the 2S25 Sprut-SD, armed with a current-issue 125 mm tank gun that is also capable of launching missiles like the 9M119 Svir, and Israeli-modified Pandur IIs, which is to enter service with the Philippine Army by 2022 armed with an Elbit Turret and a 105 mm gun. Many forces' in... | Wikipedia - Anti-tank missile carrier - Missile-based tank destroyers |
There have also been dedicated anti-tank vehicles built on ordinary armoured personnel carrier or armored car chassis. Examples include the U.S. | Wikipedia - Anti-tank missile carrier - Missile-based tank destroyers |
M901 ITV (Improved TOW Vehicle) and the Norwegian NM142, both on an M113 chassis, several Soviet ATGM launchers based on the BRDM reconnaissance car, the British FV438 Swingfire and FV102 Striker and the German Raketenjagdpanzer series built on the chassis of the HS 30 and Marder IFV. India fielded NAMIS (Nag Missile S... | Wikipedia - Anti-tank missile carrier - Missile-based tank destroyers |
In the face of the devastation of smallpox, various smallpox gods and goddesses have been worshipped throughout parts of the Old World, for example in China and India. In China, the smallpox goddess was referred to as T'ou-Shen Niang-Niang (Chinese: 痘疹娘娘). Chinese believers actively worked to appease the goddess and pr... | Wikipedia - Smallpox virus - Tradition and religion |
If a case of smallpox did occur, shrines would be set up in the homes of the victims, to be worshipped and offered to as the disease ran its course. If the victim recovered, the shrines were removed and carried away in a special paper chair or boat for burning. If the patient did not recover, the shrine was destroyed a... | Wikipedia - Smallpox virus - Tradition and religion |
The word is a combination of 3 words, the verb ṣán, meaning to cover or plaster (referring to the pustules characteristic of smallpox), kpa or pa, meaning to kill, and enia, meaning human. Roughly translated, it means One who kills a person by covering them with pustules. | Wikipedia - Smallpox virus - Tradition and religion |
Among the Yorùbá people of West Africa, and also in Dahomean religion, Trinidad, and in Brazil, The deity Sopona, also known as Obaluaye, is the deity of smallpox and other deadly diseases (like leprosy, HIV/AIDS, and fevers). One of the most feared deities of the orisha pantheon, smallpox was seen as a form of punishm... | Wikipedia - Smallpox virus - Tradition and religion |
However, Shopona was also seen as a healer who could cure the diseases he inflicted, and he was often called upon his victims to heal them. The British government banned the worship of the god because it was believed his priests were purposely spreading smallpox to their opponents.India's first records of smallpox can ... | Wikipedia - Smallpox virus - Tradition and religion |
This book describes a disease that sounds exceptionally like smallpox. India, like China and the Yorùbá, created a goddess in response to its exposure to smallpox. The Hindu goddess Shitala was both worshipped and feared during her reign. | Wikipedia - Smallpox virus - Tradition and religion |
It was believed that this goddess was both evil and kind and had the ability to inflict victims when angered, as well as calm the fevers of the already affected. Portraits of the goddess show her holding a broom in her right hand to continue to move the disease and a pot of cool water in the other hand in an attempt to... | Wikipedia - Smallpox virus - Tradition and religion |
Some Indian women, in an attempt to ward off Shitala, placed plates of cooling foods and pots of water on the roofs of their homes.In cultures that did not recognize a smallpox deity, there was often nonetheless a belief in smallpox demons, who were accordingly blamed for the disease. Such beliefs were prominent in Jap... | Wikipedia - Smallpox virus - Tradition and religion |
This led to the invention of the so-called red treatment, where patients and their rooms would be decorated in red. The practice spread to Europe in the 12th century and was practiced by (among others) Charles V of France and Elizabeth I of England. Afforded scientific credibility through the studies by Niels Ryberg Fi... | Wikipedia - Smallpox virus - Tradition and religion |
In the face of the threat of the International Science Olympiads' cancellation due to the COVID-19 pandemic (the International Physics Olympiad was officially canceled), the IBO 2020 was the first in the International Science Olympiads that was claimed by the host (Japan) to be held entirely virtually with a guaranteed... | Wikipedia - International Biology Olympiad - IBO 2020 and the International Group Project |
Finally, they had to propose a professional poster or presentation about an outstanding, innovative idea that can determine biology's future and solve a critical global issue. Every performance was evaluated by noble professors of Japan in life science. Altogether, 53 countries and 202 contestants participated in the I... | Wikipedia - International Biology Olympiad - IBO 2020 and the International Group Project |
In the face of uncertainty, people often look to others for guidance, including experts. Prior research shows that people heuristically rely on consensus cues in the absence of motivation to cognitively elaborate, because consensus typically implies correctness. Research also indicates that people desire to conform to ... | Wikipedia - Gateway belief model - Consensus-heuristic |
Consensus is therefore an example of a descriptive norm, i.e., the collective judgment of a group of individuals, such as experts. Public opinion research shows that the views of the general public often diverge sharply from experts on a number of important societal issues, especially in the United States. This is know... | Wikipedia - Gateway belief model - Consensus-heuristic |
In the factory, car bodies are protected with special chemical formulations. Typically, phosphate conversion coatings were used. Some firms galvanized part or all of their car bodies before the primer coat of paint was applied. If a car is body-on-frame, then the frame (chassis) must also be rustproofed. | Wikipedia - Rustproofing - Factory |
In traditional automotive manufacturing of the early- and mid-20th century, paint was the final part of the rustproofing barrier between the body shell and the atmosphere, except on the underside. On the underside, an underseal rubberized or PVC-based coating was often sprayed on. These products will be breached eventu... | Wikipedia - Rustproofing - Factory |
Old 1960s and 1970s rubberized underseal can become brittle on older cars and is particularly liable to this.The first electrodeposition primer was developed in the 1950s, but were found to be impractical for widespread use. Revised cathodic automotive electrocoat primer systems were introduced in the 1970s that marked... | Wikipedia - Rustproofing - Factory |
This assures nearly 100% coverage of all metal surfaces by the primer. The coating chemistry is waterborne enamel based on epoxy, an aminoalcohol adduct, and blocked isocyanate, which all crosslink on baking to form an epoxy-urethane resin system.E-coat resin technology, combined with the excellent coverage provided by... | Wikipedia - Rustproofing - Factory |
In the faded variants, the lines of code may additionally contain blanks that the student needs to fill in. | Wikipedia - Parsons problem - Faded |
In the fair cake-cutting problem, classic allocation rules such as divide and choose are not PM. Several rules are known to be PM: When the pieces may be disconnected, any function that maximizes a concave welfare function (a monotonically-increasing function of the utilities) is PM. This holds whether the welfare func... | Wikipedia - Population monotonicity - In fair cake cutting |
It is an open question whether concavity of the welfare function is necessary for PM. When the pieces must be connected, no Pareto-optimal proportional division rule is PM. The absolute-equitable rule and relative-equitable rules are weakly Pareto-optimal and PM. | Wikipedia - Population monotonicity - In fair cake cutting |
In the fair cake-cutting problem, classic allocation rules such as divide and choose are not RM. Several rules are known to be RM: When the pieces may be disconnected, any allocation rule maximizing a concave welfare function of the absolute (not normalized) utilities is RM. In particular, the Nash-optimal rule, absolu... | Wikipedia - Resource monotonic - Cake cutting, additive utilities |
When the pieces must be connected, no Pareto-optimal proportional division rule is RM. The absolute-equitable rule is weakly Pareto-optimal and RM, but not proportional. The relative-equitable rule is weakly Pareto-optimal and proportional, but not RM. The so-called rightmost mark rule, which is an variant of divide-an... | Wikipedia - Resource monotonic - Cake cutting, additive utilities |
In the fair cake-cutting problem, the partners often have different entitlements. For example, the resource may belong to two shareholders such that Alice holds 8/13 and George holds 5/13. This leads to the criterion of weighted proportionality (WPR): there are several weights w i {\displaystyle w_{i}} that sum up to 1... | Wikipedia - Proportional cake-cutting with different entitlements - Summary |
In the fair item allocation problem, classic allocation procedures such as adjusted winner and envy-graph are not RM. Moreover, even the Nash-optimal rule, which is RM in cake-cutting, is not RM in item allocation. In contrast, round-robin item allocation is RM. Moreover, round-robin can be adapted to yield picking seq... | Wikipedia - Resource monotonicity - Different items, additive utilities |
In the fair item allocation problem, the Nash-optimal rule is no longer PM. In contrast, round-robin item allocation is PM. Moreover, round-robin can be adapted to yield picking sequences appropriate for agents with different entitlements. Picking-sequences based on divisor methods are PM too. However, a picking-sequen... | Wikipedia - Population monotonicity - In fair item allocation |
In the fair item allocation problem, there are n items and k people, each of which assigns a possibly different value to each item. The goal is to partition the items among the people in as fair way as possible. The natural generalization of the greedy number partitioning algorithm is the envy-graph algorithm. | Wikipedia - Greedy number partitioning - Generalizations |
It guarantees that the allocation is envy-free up to at most one item (EF1). Moreover, if the instance is ordered (- all agents rank the items in the same order), then the outcome is EFX, and guarantees to each agent at least 2 n 3 n − 1 {\displaystyle {\frac {2n}{3n-1}}} of his maximin share. If the items are chores, ... | Wikipedia - Greedy number partitioning - Generalizations |
In the fair random assignment problem, there are n objects and n people with different preferences over the objects. It is required to give an object to each person. To attain fairness, the allocation is randomized: for each (person, object) pair, a probability is calculated, such that the sum of probabilities for each... | Wikipedia - Birkhoff algorithm - Application in fair division |
This raises the question of how to implement this randomized allocation in practice? One cannot just randomize for each object separately, since this may result in allocations in which some people get many objects while other people get no objects. | Wikipedia - Birkhoff algorithm - Application in fair division |
Here, Birkhoff's algorithm is useful. The matrix of probabilities, calculated by the probabilistic-serial algorithm, is bistochastic. Birkhoff's algorithm can decompose it into a convex combination of permutation matrices. Each permutation matrix represents a deterministic assignment, in which every agent receives exac... | Wikipedia - Birkhoff algorithm - Application in fair division |
In the fairly early days of aviation, airline seats were typically of soft, earthy colors such as light browns and gray, which were intended to calm the passengers. During the 1970s, brighter colors such as red and orange became more commonplace. After this, shades of blue and gray, with a more business-like tone, beca... | Wikipedia - Airplane seat - Color |
In the fairy tale "Hansel and Gretel", breadcrumbs are used by Hansel and Gretel to track their footpath. However, the bread crumbs were eventually eaten by birds, subsequently leading them to become lost in the woods. The popularity of breadcrumbs in the fairy tale led to the use of the word "breadcrumb" as a navigati... | Wikipedia - Bread crumbs - In popular culture |
In the fall 1865 Spotted Tail and Red Cloud rejected two peace messages sent to them by Dakota Territory Governor Newton Edmunds and Gen. Henry H. sibley by way of Kawawesna Tanka (Big Ribbs) and, later, I Tanka (Big Mouth), two friendly chiefs campng near Fort Laramie, but the winter 1865-1866 was a hard one, supplies... | Wikipedia - Spotted Tail - Treaty of Fort Laramie |
The two great chiefs and their people received gifts and were ready for peace, scheduling a meeting with Government Commisary N.G. Taylor for June 5 ad then, waiting for more Lakota and Cheyenne bands, for June 16, but, on June 16, col. Henry B, Carrington's arrival, with the 700 men of his 18° Infantry, moving to the ... | Wikipedia - Spotted Tail - Treaty of Fort Laramie |
In may, while waiting for Taylor, Spotted Tail, now at peace with the wasichu, left to make war on the Pawnee, from 1865 hunting again in Lakota country, provoking frantic appeals for troops to protect them and the Pawnee Agency white employees; therefore he led the Sichangu braves to clean out the Pawnee in the Republ... | Wikipedia - Spotted Tail - Treaty of Fort Laramie |
In 1871, the senior Spotted Tail, by then the principal war chief and leader of the Sichangu Lakota, visited Washington, D.C. to meet the Commissioner of Indian Affairs Ely S. Parker and President Ulysses S. Grant. While there, he met with Red Cloud, the principal war chief and leader of the Oglala Lakota, and they agr... | Wikipedia - Spotted Tail - Treaty of Fort Laramie |
Spotted Tail succeeded in manteining almost balanced relations with the wasichu, visiting Washington several times and gaining the esteem of many high officers and Government civil servants, so much that, in January 1872, Gen. Philip Sheridan and lt. col. George A. Custer presented him with 25 wagons loaded with suppli... | Wikipedia - Spotted Tail - Treaty of Fort Laramie |
In the fall of 1685, once the first issue of card money had been redeemed, Jacques Demeulles wrote of his experiment in a report to the home government: "No person has refused , and so good has been the effect that by this means the troops have lived as usual" (Lester, 1964, p. 11). Upon receiving this report, the King... | Wikipedia - Card money in New France - Counterfeit |
However, forgeries of later issues of card money periodically caused a stir in the colonies, and measures for dealing with those responsible had to be developed (Lester, 1964). According to judicial records, counterfeiting was among the most common crimes committed in seventeenth-century New France, but its incidence w... | Wikipedia - Card money in New France - Counterfeit |
253). As early as 1690, a "Surgeon" is recorded as convicted of counterfeit in Quebec. | Wikipedia - Card money in New France - Counterfeit |
After being severely flogged and whipped, the man was sold into bondage for three years, but subsequent offenders would receive the penalty for counterfeiting which was later changed to death by hanging (Lester, 1964, p. 12). A colourful account of one large-scale counterfeiting operation is given in the memoir of Lieu... | Wikipedia - Card money in New France - Counterfeit |
In October 1716, four soldiers from Montreal convened with the intention to counterfeit 80,000 livres in card money. The group consisted of a skilled engraver, a scribe to forge the seals of the Governor and Intendant, a drummer to conceal the sounds of cards being stamped, and the sergeant mayor, who would exchange th... | Wikipedia - Card money in New France - Counterfeit |
All four were imprisoned and sentenced to death, but were somehow smuggled files to cut their chains and escaped on a fishing boat back to France (Sayre and Zecher, 2012, p. 77-79). While it must be assumed that Dumont embellished parts of the story for the purpose of entertainment, court records validate most of its m... | Wikipedia - Card money in New France - Counterfeit |
In the fall of 1777 forces of the British Army successfully captured Philadelphia, the seat of the Second Continental Congress, which was forced to relocate to York, Pennsylvania. The series of military setbacks (principally the losses at Brandywine in September and Germantown in October) caused many in the Continental... | Wikipedia - Conway Cabal - Background |
Some historians feel that this was more due to the actions of Benedict Arnold, who, in the first battle on September 19, effectively and almost independently defended his forces against British assaults. It was also alleged that Gates had failed to provide Arnold with adequate reinforcements which would have turned the... | Wikipedia - Conway Cabal - Background |
Some congressmen such as Richard Henry Lee, John Adams, and Samuel Adams wanted tighter Congressional control of the war effort and supported Gates. Although John Adams did not specifically call for Washington to be replaced, he worried that Washington was being made into a military idol, and was fearful of the effects... | Wikipedia - Conway Cabal - Background |
Washington sent his staff officer, Colonel Alexander Hamilton, to meet Gates and tell him on Washington's behalf to send three of his brigades to Washington's troops outside Philadelphia. The logic was that Washington required more troops to fight General William Howe's British Army, which had just taken the capital, w... | Wikipedia - Conway Cabal - Background |
He then agreed to send only one 600-man brigade, which Hamilton discovered was the weakest of the three requested. Finally, Hamilton exacted a promise from Gates to send two brigades. At the same time, Gates wrote to Washington, rebuking him for sending Hamilton. | Wikipedia - Conway Cabal - Background |
"Conspiracy" is perhaps too strong a term to use in describing varied actions taken by disaffected officers and Congressional delegates unhappy with the course of the war. Most of those involved only shared the view that Washington was a less-than-perfect commander in chief, and very few of their activities were coordi... | Wikipedia - Conway Cabal - Background |
Opposition to Washington's command in Pennsylvania was anchored by Thomas Mifflin, a former Congressional delegate and also a former quartermaster of the Continental Army who had previously worked closely with Washington. His view of Washington as a rank amateur was supported by Lee, Benjamin Rush, and probably others.... | Wikipedia - Conway Cabal - Background |
In the fall of 1780, Continental Army general Nathanael Greene, commander of the Southern Department, carried out a harassment campaign against the British in North and South Carolina. One of Greene's subordinates, Daniel Morgan, commanded a force of approximately 600, and was tasked with harassing the enemy in the bac... | Wikipedia - Military deception - Battle of Cowpens |
The sharpshooters would then fall back to the second line, which would consist of militiamen. The militia would fire two volleys, then feign a rout and pretend to flee. If the British believed they had caused a panic in the militiamen, they would charge forward. | Wikipedia - Military deception - Battle of Cowpens |
But instead of catching up to the fleeing militia, they would run into the third line—Continental Army soldiers commanded by John Eager Howard. As a reserve, Morgan had a small Continental cavalry force commanded by William Washington.Morgan's deception proved decisive. At the Battle of Cowpens on 17 January 1781, the ... | Wikipedia - Military deception - Battle of Cowpens |
The militia feigned retreat, and Tarleton's troops charged forward. As planned, they were met by Howard's troops, then surprised by Washington's cavalry charging into their flanks. The British lost over 100 killed, over 200 wounded, and over 500 captured. Morgan's command sustained only 12 killed and 60 wounded. | Wikipedia - Military deception - Battle of Cowpens |
In the fall of 1785, Scheele began to suffer from symptoms described as kidney disease. In early 1786, he also contracted a disease of the skin, which, combined with his kidney problems, so enfeebled him that he could foresee an early death. With that in mind, he married the widow of his predecessor, Pohl, two days bef... | Wikipedia - Carl Wilhelm Scheele - Death |
Like most of his contemporaries, in an age where there were few methods of chemical characterisation, Scheele would smell and taste any new substances he discovered. Cumulative exposure to arsenic, mercury, lead, and their compounds and, perhaps, hydrofluoric acid, which he had discovered, as well as other substances, ... | Wikipedia - Carl Wilhelm Scheele - Death |
In the fall of 1803, American Naturalist John James Audubon wondered whether migrating birds returned to the same place each year. So he tied a string around the leg of a bird before it flew south. The following spring, Audubon saw the bird had indeed come back. Scientists today still attach tags, such as metal bands, ... | Wikipedia - Tracking animal migration - Technologies |
Metal bands require the re-capture of animals for the scientists to gather data; the data is thus limited to the animal's release and destination points. Recent technologies have helped solve this problem. Some electronic tags give off repeating signals that are picked up by radio devices or satellites while other elec... | Wikipedia - Tracking animal migration - Technologies |
Scientists can track the locations and movement of the tagged animals without recapturing them using this RFID technology or satellites. These electronic tags can provide a great deal of data. Modern technologies are also smaller, minimizing the negative impact of the tag on the animal. | Wikipedia - Tracking animal migration - Technologies |
In the fall of 1917, George Brenkert of Washington Park Floral entered his newly developed shell pink carnation called “Denver” in the Denver Society of Ornamental Horticulturists. While he didn’t win in that show, the “Denver” carnation attracted attention and later won a Bronze Medal in the 1921 National Flower Show ... | Wikipedia - Carnation Gold Rush - Later Years |
McKinley always wore a red carnation in his lapel, and ordered fresh carnations to his office daily. McKinley’s birthday, January 29 is still recognized as the official Carnation Day.By 1919, the 15th Census of the United States reported that the value of sales for floral crops in Colorado was $1,145,000.From 1925 to 1... | Wikipedia - Carnation Gold Rush - Later Years |
By that time, there were approximately 5,000,000 square feet of greenhouse glass on operating nurseries in Colorado.The demand for Colorado carnations was growing. Colorado was "rapidly becoming recognized as the carnation state", because of the excellent quality of the blooms and the fact that they could be produced y... | Wikipedia - Carnation Gold Rush - Later Years |
10 states depended entirely on Colorado for their supplies of flowers.By 1929, there were 101 establishments, cultivating 1,582,463 square feet of carnation beds with the annual gross income of the Colorado's Floral industry of approximately $5,000,000 topping the value of metallic gold mined that year in the state. Co... | Wikipedia - Carnation Gold Rush - Later Years |
Wheat Ridge, Colorado still celebrates an annual Carnation Festival. New varieties continued to be developed including the White Ward and Hilda Varieties. | Wikipedia - Carnation Gold Rush - Later Years |
The early Denver growers began an industry that would shape Colorado’s economy and landscape. They helped to establish an orderly system to provide quality cut flowers to the nation and beyond. Some of the Colorado family names associated with the Carnation Gold Rush are Amato, Elitch, Lambourn, Lehrer, Maler, and Span... | Wikipedia - Carnation Gold Rush - Later Years |
In the fall of 1924, an outbreak occurred in Los Angeles that killed 30 people. On 2 November 2007, wildlife biologist Eric York died of pneumonic plague in Grand Canyon National Park. York was exposed to the bacteria while conducting a necropsy on a cougar carcass.In 2014, the Colorado Department of Public Health and ... | Wikipedia - Pneumonic plague - United States |
In the fall of 1931, Fermi and Orso Mario Corbino organized in Rome an international conference on nuclear physics, which was sponsored by the Royal Academy of Italy. Fermi invited Rossi to give an introductory talk on cosmic rays. In the audience were Robert Millikan and Arthur Compton, both of whom had won the Nobel ... | Wikipedia - Bruno Rossi - Rome conference |
He coined the name "cosmic rays" and proposed that they were photons created by the fusion of hydrogen in interstellar space. He was not pleased by the presentation of evidence that most observed cosmic rays are energetic charged particles. Later, Rossi wrote:Millikan clearly resented having his beloved theory torn to ... | Wikipedia - Bruno Rossi - Rome conference |
In the fall of 1937 at the age of 81, after midnight one night, Tesla left the Hotel New Yorker to make his regular commute to the cathedral and library to feed the pigeons. While crossing a street a couple of blocks from the hotel, Tesla was struck by a moving taxicab and was thrown to the ground. His back was severel... | Wikipedia - Nikola Tesla - Death |
His body was found by maid Alice Monaghan when she entered Tesla's room, ignoring the "do not disturb" sign that Tesla had placed on his door two days earlier. Assistant medical examiner H.W. | Wikipedia - Nikola Tesla - Death |
Wembley examined the body and ruled that the cause of death had been coronary thrombosis (a type of heart attack). Two days later the Federal Bureau of Investigation ordered the Alien Property Custodian to seize Tesla's belongings. John G. Trump, a professor at M.I.T. | Wikipedia - Nikola Tesla - Death |
and a well-known electrical engineer serving as a technical aide to the National Defense Research Committee, was called in to analyze the Tesla items. After a three-day investigation, Trump's report concluded that there was nothing which would constitute a hazard in unfriendly hands, stating: His thoughts and efforts ... | Wikipedia - Nikola Tesla - Death |
On 10 January 1943, New York City mayor Fiorello La Guardia read a eulogy written by Slovene-American author Louis Adamic live over the WNYC radio while violin pieces "Ave Maria" and "Tamo daleko" were played in the background. On 12 January, two thousand people attended a state funeral for Tesla at the Cathedral of St... | Wikipedia - Nikola Tesla - Death |
In the fall of 1938, he was made acting director of the Foreign Department of the NKVD (as the OGPU had by then become) after the purging of the previous head, during the Great Purges, which later culminated in the fall of Nikolai Yezhov (who was eventually replaced by Lavrentiy Beria). Shortly afterward, Sudoplatov na... | Wikipedia - Pavel Sudoplatov - Near-purge |
In the fall of 1943, Alvarez returned to the United States with an offer from Robert Oppenheimer to work at Los Alamos on the Manhattan Project. However, Oppenheimer suggested that he first spend a few months at the University of Chicago working with Enrico Fermi before coming to Los Alamos. During these months, Genera... | Wikipedia - Luis Walter Alvarez - Manhattan Project |
The equipment did fly over Germany, but detected no radioactive xenon because the Germans had not built a reactor capable of a chain reaction. This was the first idea of monitoring fission products for intelligence gathering. It would become extremely important after the war. | Wikipedia - Luis Walter Alvarez - Manhattan Project |
As a result of his radar work and the few months spent with Fermi, Alvarez arrived at Los Alamos in the spring of 1944, later than many of his contemporaries. The work on the "Little Boy" (a uranium bomb) was far along so Alvarez became involved in the design of the "Fat Man" (a plutonium bomb). The technique used for ... | Wikipedia - Luis Walter Alvarez - Manhattan Project |
It was decided to use a nearly critical sphere of plutonium and compress it quickly by explosives into a much smaller and denser core, a technical challenge at the time.To create the symmetrical implosion required to compress the plutonium core to the required density, thirty-two explosive charges were to be simultaneo... | Wikipedia - Luis Walter Alvarez - Manhattan Project |
The exploding wire detonated the thirty-two charges to within a few tenths of a microsecond. The invention was critical to the success of the implosion-type nuclear weapon. He also supervised the RaLa Experiments. | Wikipedia - Luis Walter Alvarez - Manhattan Project |
Alvarez later wrote that: With modern weapons-grade uranium, the background neutron rate is so low that terrorists, if they had such material, would have a good chance of setting off a high-yield explosion simply by dropping one half of the material onto the other half. Most people seem unaware that if separated U-235 ... | Wikipedia - Luis Walter Alvarez - Manhattan Project |
In the fall of 1944, all of the buildings at the site except for the church were burned during the German retreat. | Wikipedia - Kåfjord Copper Works - 1944: Occupation forces burn Kåfjord |
In the fall of 1945 Cook applied for and received a graduate assistantship at Penn State and began work on a master's degree. During his second year there he was appointed to teach Prof. Weber's junior year Thermal Laboratory course. Cook read extensively in the Physics Library on gravitational topics, developed a thes... | Wikipedia - John Call Cook - Master of Science |
However Prof. Duncan, the department head, advised Cook that as he'd had serious difficulty with some important mathematical physics courses, it was recommended that he leave with the MS and not come back. Graduated in 1947 at age 29. | Wikipedia - John Call Cook - Master of Science |
Somewhat in shock from the experiences of his Master's, Cook drove home. He met L.V.S. Roos of Texaco, who headed a crew doing seismic prospecting for oil in the Utah area, and was hired on as Assistant Recorder at $300/month. | Wikipedia - John Call Cook - Master of Science |
Early each morning their crew of 8 would drive out with the recording truck, a drill-hole rig, and a water tanker to various sites marked by a survey crew. The drill crew made a 3" hole up to 150' deep and emplaced a dynamite charge. They laid out numerous cables 1,000' around the radius of the recorder truck and attac... | Wikipedia - John Call Cook - Master of Science |
Then a preliminary charge would be set off to 'spring' the hole, and then the main shot was made, requiring many switches to be thrown in a special order. This all required concentration and care as, once blown the hole could not be used anymore, and Cook was soon promoted for getting good data. Having a master's degre... | Wikipedia - John Call Cook - Master of Science |
In the fall of 1955, Benfey was approached by Larry Strong at Earlham College, who invited him to become the third member of the chemistry department, with Strong and Wilmer Stratton. Benfey and Strong began to develop a new curriculum based on concepts. In 1958, their new curriculum was published in the report of the ... | Wikipedia - Otto Theodor Benfey - Earlham College |
The work at Earlham also led to development of a United States high school curriculum for chemistry, The Chemical Bond Approach, which received international attention.In 1963, Benfey was invited by the American Chemical Society to become the editor of Chemistry magazine, for high school students. From January 1964 to ... | Wikipedia - Otto Theodor Benfey - Earlham College |
The magazine acted as a model for similar publications internationally. One of the Benfey's publications in Chemistry was a model of an extended periodic table, sometimes referred to as the periodic snail. First published in 1964, it explicitly showed the location of lanthanides and actinides. | Wikipedia - Otto Theodor Benfey - Earlham College |
The elements form a two-dimensional spiral, starting from hydrogen, and folding their way around two peninsulars, the transition metals, and lanthanides and actinides. A superactinide island is already slotted in.Benfey was active in the Division of History of Chemistry (HIST) of the American Chemical Society, serving ... | Wikipedia - Otto Theodor Benfey - Earlham College |
In the fall of 1956, Walter Orr Roberts was named head of the newly created Department of Astro-Geophysics in the graduate school by the Regents of the University of Colorado; instruction began in the fall of 1957.In 1960 after the University Corporation for Atmospheric Research (UCAR) incorporated, Roberts was elected... | Wikipedia - Walter Orr Roberts - University of Colorado Boulder: UCAR and NCAR |
I.M. Pei was selected as the architect in 1961. The resulting Mesa Laboratory, NCAR’s flagship building, is considered an architectural masterpiece. | Wikipedia - Walter Orr Roberts - University of Colorado Boulder: UCAR and NCAR |
By 1965, as the director of both UCAR and NCAR, Walter Orr Roberts presided over five branches of NCAR: the Advanced Study Program, the Laboratory of Atmospheric Sciences or LAS (which included a Summer Visitor’s program and a Scientific Computing Facility), the High Altitude Observatory (HAO), the Facilities Division ... | Wikipedia - Walter Orr Roberts - University of Colorado Boulder: UCAR and NCAR |
In the fall of 1958, the Army's Office of Ordnance Research and Development formed the Ad Hoc Working Group at the Ballistic Research Laboratories (BRL) to define a future replacement for the SS.10 and 11. The team included members from Picatinny Arsenal, Frankford Arsenal, Redstone Arsenal, Watervliet Arsenal, Detroit... | Wikipedia - TOW missile - New concept |
Having approved Swingfire to some degree based on the possibility of foreign sales, the emergence of a possible US competitor was a concern. Meetings between Solly Zuckerman and John H. Rubel led to the July 1961 Rubel-Zuckerman agreement, wherein the UK would continue development of the long-range Swingfire while the ... | Wikipedia - TOW missile - New concept |
In the fall of 1960, Koller was hired at Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ. She was the first woman hired in the Physics department; in 1965, she became the first tenured female professor of Rutgers College.At Rutgers she has been a major member of the nuclear physics research group working on the tandem Van de Gra... | Wikipedia - Noemie Benczer Koller - Career |
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