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Is it possible for a planet to exist in our SS that we have yet to discover?
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No, any body large enough to be a real planet would leave a gravitational footprint that could be observed.
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[
"HD 162826 has no known planets. The current state of knowledge excludes hot Jupiters and suggests that a more distant \"Jupiter\" is unlikely, but terrestrial planets are possible. A rocky terrestrial planet situated in a Mars-like orbit at about 1.525 AU could potentially be habitable. However, more studies on this star are needed in order to verify these habitability factors.\n",
"Other possible candidates are merely speculated based on their mass and position in the habitable zone include planet though little is actually known of their composition. Some scientists speculate Kepler-22b may be an \"ocean-like\" planet. Models have been proposed for Gliese 581 d that could include surface oceans. Gliese 436 b is speculated to have an ocean of \"hot ice\". Exomoons orbiting planets, particularly gas giants within their parent star's habitable zone may theoretically have surface oceans.\n",
"Additional data is needed to confirm the possibility of more sub-Saturn planets between 0.5 (really, 0.3) and 30 AU from the star. An Earth-mass planet in the star's habitable zone (which would still be too small to detect with current technology) remains possible.\n",
"It is possible that some exoplanets may have moons with solid surfaces or liquid oceans that are hospitable. Most of the planets so far discovered outside the Solar System are hot gas giants thought to be inhospitable to life, so it is not yet known whether the Solar System, with a warm, rocky, metal-rich inner planet such as Earth, is of an aberrant composition. Improved detection methods and increased observation time will undoubtedly discover more planetary systems, and possibly some more like ours. For example, NASA's Kepler Mission seeks to discover Earth-sized planets around other stars by measuring minute changes in the star's light curve as the planet passes between the star and the spacecraft. Progress in infrared astronomy and submillimeter astronomy has revealed the constituents of other star systems.\n",
"The outermost planet discovered appears to be within the system's habitable zone, where liquid water would remain stable (more accurate data on the primary star's luminosity will be required to know for sure where the habitable zone is). HD 69830 is the first extrasolar planetary system around a Sun-like star without any known planets comparable to Jupiter or Saturn in mass.\n",
"Given the general planet-to-satellite(s) mass ratio of 10,000, Large Saturn or Jupiter sized gas planets in the habitable zone are believed to be the best candidates to harbour Earth-like moons with more than 120 such planets by 2018. Massive exoplanets known to be located within a habitable zone (such as Gliese 876 b, 55 Cancri f, Upsilon Andromedae d, 47 Ursae Majoris b, HD 28185 b and HD 37124 c) are of particular interest as they may potentially possess natural satellites with liquid water on the surface.\n",
"The goal of current searches is to find Earth-sized planets in the habitable zone of their planetary systems (also sometimes called the \"Goldilocks zone\"). Planets with oceans could include Earth-sized moons of giant planets, though it remains speculative whether such 'moons' really exist. The Kepler telescope might be sensitive enough to detect them. There is speculation that rocky planets hosting water may be commonplace throughout the Milky Way.\n"
] |
why do radio stations sometimes have two frequencies playing the same thing?
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They would probably be broadcasting from different locations, giving the station a wider range.
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[
"Two-way radios can operate on many different frequencies, and these frequencies are assigned differently in different countries. Typically channelized operations are used, so that operators need not tune equipment to a particular frequency but instead can use one or more pre-selected frequencies, easily chosen by a dial, a pushbutton or other means. For example, in the United States, there is a block of 5 channels (pre-selected radio frequencies) are allocated to the Multiple Use Radio System. A different block of 22 channels are assigned, collectively, to the General Mobile Radio Service and Family Radio Service. The citizen's band radio service (\"\"CB\"\") has 40 channels.\n",
"The most common two-way radio systems operate in the VHF and UHF parts of the radio spectrum. Because this part of the spectrum is heavily used for broadcasting and multiple competing uses, spectrum management has become an important activity of governments to regulate radio users in the interests of both efficient and non-interfering use of radio. Both bands are widely applied for different users.\n",
"Using the trunked radio system technology that shares and reuses radio channels, the system is capable of handling thousands of individual Talkgroups and radio ID's. Since most radios are only transmitting a small percentage of the time, the channels are shared among many users. The same radio frequency may be used at many sites throughout the state.\n",
"Two-way radio systems usually use a single radio channel and operate in a half-duplex mode: the user can talk, or he can listen, but not at the same time. The radio is normally in receive mode so the user can hear all other transmissions on the channel. When the user wants to talk he presses a \"push-to-talk\" button, which turns off the receiver and turns on the transmitter; when he releases the button the receiver is activated again. Multiple users on the channel must take turns talking. Other two-way radio systems operate in full-duplex mode, in which both parties can talk simultaneously. This requires either two separate radio channels or channel sharing methods such as time division duplex (TDD) to carry the two directions of the conversation simultaneously on a single radio frequency. A cell phone is an example of a full-duplex two-way radio. During a phone call, the phone communicates with the cell tower over two radio channels; an incoming one to carry the remote party's voice to the user, and an outgoing one to carry the user's voice to the remote party.\n",
"Early two-way schemes allowed only one station to transmit at a time while others listened, since all signals were on the same radio frequency – this was called \"simplex\" mode. Code and voice operations required a simple communication protocol to allow all stations to cooperate in using the single radio channel, so that one station's transmissions were not obscured by another's. By using receivers and transmitters tuned to different frequencies and solving the problems introduced by operation of a receiver immediately next to a transmitter, simultaneous transmission and reception was possible at each end of a radio link, in so-called \"full duplex\" mode.\n",
"A radio band is a small contiguous section of the radio spectrum frequencies, in which channels are usually used or set aside for the same purpose. To prevent interference and allow for efficient use of the radio spectrum, similar services are allocated in bands. For example, broadcasting, mobile radio, or navigation devices, will be allocated in non-overlapping ranges of frequencies.\n",
"A two-way radio is an audio transceiver, a receiver and transmitter in the same device, used for bidirectional person-to-person voice communication with other similar radios. An older term for this mode of communication is \"radiotelephony\". The radio link may be half-duplex, as in a walkie-talkie, using a single radio channel in which only one radio can transmit at a time, so different users take turns talking, pressing a \"push to talk\" button on their radio which switches off the receiver and switches on the transmitter. Or the radio link may be full duplex, a bidirectional link using two radio channels so both people can talk at the same time, as in a cell phone.\n"
] |
Is there any known species that can see other parts of the electro magnetic spectrum?
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Tarsiers and Chameleons can see in the Ultraviolet. Dragonflies can see polarized light (Not a different part of the spectrum, but still cool). The Mantis shrimp is my favorite though. It has the most complex eyes known in the animal kingdom. Like many flies the mantis shrimp has compound eyes, but each row of ommatidia have specific functions (i.e. one for light intensity, one for color, etc) Their eyes have twelve different types of color receptors (humans only have three) as well as Ultraviolet, Infrared, and polarized light. Let me also say that it doesn't necessarily help to see light in other parts of the E/M spectrum except infrared because although stars emit light from ultraviolet to radio, about 50% of the light is in the visible range and about 20% is infrared.
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[
"Another less general type of magnetic sensing mechanism in animals that has been described is electromagnetic induction used by sharks, stingrays and chimaeras (cartilaginous fish). These species possess a unique electroreceptive organ known as \"ampullae of Lorenzini\" which can detect a slight variation in electric potential. These organs are made up of mucus-filled canals that connect from the skin's pores to small sacs within the animal's flesh that are also filled with mucus. The ampullae of Lorenzini are capable of detecting DC currents and have been proposed to be used in the sensing of the weak electric fields of prey and predators. These organs could also possibly sense magnetic fields, by means of Faraday's law: as a conductor moves through a magnetic field an electric potential is generated. In this case the conductor is the animal moving through a magnetic field, and the potential induced depends on the time varying rate of flux through the conductor according to\n",
"There are innumerable reports of heterogeneous types of precursory phenomena ranging from emission of electromagnetic waves from ultralow frequency (ULF) to visible (VIS) and near-infrared (NIR) light, electric field and magnetic field anomalies of various kinds (see below), all the way to unusual animal behavior, which has been reported again and again.\n",
"Several species of birds are known to incorporate magnetite crystals in the upper beak for magnetoreception, which (in conjunction with cryptochromes in the retina) gives them the ability to sense the direction, polarity, and magnitude of the ambient magnetic field.\n",
"The class of crustaceans called Stomatopods, which includes \"Lysiosquillina maculata\" has the most complex visual receptors in the animal kingdom. Many species are thought to be able to express up to 16 different visual pigments. In addition, Stomatopods have a tripartite cornea which contains upper and lower halves, separated by a middle band made up of ommatidia. These photoreceptors include specialized receptors that can detect a wide range of visible and ultraviolet light, as well as being able to detect linearly and circularly polarized light. polarized light is used by many insects for navigation, however, in other invertebrates like cephalopods and crustaceans it is used primarily to increase visual contrast and for visual signaling.\n",
"Many investigations of the magnetosphere and auroral regions have been made using rockets and satellites. McIlwain discovered from a rocket flight in 1960 that the energy spectrum of auroral electrons exhibited a peak that was thought then to be too sharp to be produced by a random process and which suggested, therefore, that an ordered process was responsible. It was reported in 1977 that satellites had detected the signature of double layers as electrostatic shocks in the magnetosphere. indications of electric fields parallel to the geomagnetic field lines was obtained by the Viking satellite, which measures the differential potential structures in the magnetosphere with probes mounted on 40m long booms. These probes measured the local particle density and the potential difference between two points 80m apart. Asymmetric potential excursions with respect to 0 V were measured, and interpreted as a double layer with a net potential within the region. Magnetospheric double layers typically have a strength formula_1 (where the electron temperature is assumed to lie in the range formula_2) and are therefore weak. A series of such double layers would tend to merge, much like a string of bar magnets, and dissipate, even within a rarefied plasma. It has yet to be explained how any overall localised charge distribution in the form of double layers might provide a source of energy for auroral electrons precipitated into the atmosphere.\n",
"In regards to the magnetic field hypothesis, there are three main concepts that should be considered. The concepts include electromagnetic induction, magnetic field chemical reactions, and magnetite. In regards to electromagnetic induction, it is assumed that the sea turtles have electroreceptors. Although evidence has been found in other species such as rays and sharks, no evidence has shown that there are electroreceptors in sea turtles making this hypothesis invalid. A second concept from the experimentation by Irwin involves chemical reactions which is commonly found in a variety of species of newts and birds. The strength of the magnetic field affects the chemical reactions within the bodies of the newts and birds. The final concept includes the magnetic crystals that form during the magnetic pulses from the earth's magnetic fields. These magnetic crystals formed by magnetite give the turtles directional information and guides in migration. The magnetite affects the cells of the nervous system of the sea turtle by producing a signal that references the forces of the magnetic field and the direction and magnitude that is applied. If this magnetite is used in the migration, when the earth's magnetic poles reverse at the dipole moment, the signal that the sea turtle nervous system receives will change the migration direction. Regardless of the hypothesis, hatchling turtles have the ability to determine the direction and inclination angle of which they are swimming with aide from magnetic fields.\n",
"The interaction is significant at sub-auroral, auroral, and polar latitudes where large regions of the magnetosphere are mapped along the magnetic field into relatively small regions of the ionosphere, and where the magnetospheric dynamics are controlled primarily by the plasma rather than the magnetic field. This organization is actually by magnetic rather than by geographic latitude (see Baker and Wing, and references therein for a description of magnetic vs. geographic coordinates). The aurora, for example, is most frequently observed at magnetic latitudes between roughly 60 and 80 degrees (see Eather). In the northern hemisphere Canada has the largest land mass at the magnetic latitudes. As a consequence of this so-called \"Canadian-advantage\", Canada has been a world-leader in ground-based auroral and ionospheric research for decades.\n"
] |
why do your lips peel when you’re sick?
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lip skin is different than regular sin & doesn't make it's own lipid.
It comes from the skin around your lips & those pores could be clogged. As an experiment you could try AHA cream on that skin, or just get good chapstick.
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[
"Inflammation of the corners (angles) of the lips is termed angular stomatitis or angular cheilitis. In children a frequent cause is repeated lip-licking, and in adults it may be a sign of underlying iron deficiency anemia, or vitamin B deficiencies (\"e.g.\", B-riboflavin, B-folate, or B-cobalamin, which in turn may be evidence of poor diets or malnutrition such as celiac disease).\n",
"Lip licker's dermatitis, popularly known as perioral dermatitis, is an irritant contact dermatitis on and around the lips due to saliva from repetitive lip licking. Involving children more than adults, the resulting papules, scaling, erythema and occasional fissures and crusting make a well-defined ring around the lips. The rash extends as far as the tongue can reach and frequently spares the angle of the mouth. Unlike periorificial dermatitis, the vermillion border of the lip is often involved and the treatment is simple moisturisers.\n",
"Lip licking, biting, or rubbing habits are frequently involved. Counterintuitively, constant licking of the lips causes drying and irritation, and eventually the mucosa splits or cracks. The lips have a greater tendency to dry out in cold, dry weather. Digestive enzymes present in saliva may also irritate the lips, and the evaporation of the water in saliva saps moisture from them.\n",
"Chapped lips (also cheilitis simplex or common cheilitis) are characterized by cracking, fissuring, and peeling of the skin of the lips, and are one of the most common types of cheilitis. While both lips may be affected, the lower lip is the most common site. There may also be burning or the formation of large, painful cracks when the lips are stretched. Chronic cheilitis simplex can progress to crusting and bleeding.\n",
"The lips are normally symmetrical, pink, smooth, and moist. There should be no growths, lumps, or discoloration of the tissue. Abnormal findings are asymmetricality, cyanosis, a cherry-red or pale color or dryness. Diseases include mucocele, aphthous ulcer, angular stomatitis, carcinoma, cleft lip, leukoplakia, herpes simplex and chelitis.\n",
"Symptoms typically include generalized hives, itchiness, flushing, or swelling (angioedema) of the afflicted tissues. Those with angioedema may describe a burning sensation of the skin rather than itchiness. Swelling of the tongue or throat occurs in up to about 20% of cases. Other features may include a runny nose and swelling of the conjunctiva. The skin may also be blue tinged because of lack of oxygen.\n",
"Common side effects when applied to the skin include redness. Common side effects when taken by mouth include nausea, headache, and liver problems. Liver problems may result in death or the need for a liver transplantation. Other severe side effect when taken by mouth include QT prolongation, adrenocortical insufficiency, and anaphylaxis. It is an imidazole and works by affecting the production of ergosterol required for the fungal cell membrane thereby slowing growth.\n"
] |
Japan was separated from their Axis allies by numerous Allied countries. How did they communicate with other Axis powers?
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For the most part, they didn't. Top axis and allied leaders met and hammered out agreements at conferences. The Axis leaders often didn't even tell each other which countries they were going to invade, much less had joint strategy sessions.
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[
"As the Axis powers of Germany, Italy, and Japan cemented their military alliance by mutually declaring war against the United States by December 11, 1941, the Japanese proposed a clear territorial arrangement with the two main European Axis powers concerning the Asian continent. On December 15 they presented the Germans with a drafted military convention that would delimit the continent of Asia into two separate \"operational spheres\" (zones of military responsibility) by a dividing line along the 70th meridian east longitude, going southwards through the Ob River's Arctic estuary, southwards to just east of Khost in Afghanistan and heading into the Indian Ocean just west of Rajkot in India, to split the \"Lebensraum\" land holdings of Germany and the similar \"spazio vitale\" areas of Italy to the west of it, and the Empire of Japan (and the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere) to the east of it, after a complete defeat of the Soviet Union by the Third Reich.\n",
"In 1940, the three countries formed the Axis powers, and became closer linked. Japan imported Nazi propaganda films such as \"Ohm Krüger\" (1941), advertising them as narratives showing the suffering caused by Western imperialism.\n",
"On September 27, 1940, Imperial Japan signed the Tripartite Pact with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. Their objectives were to \"establish and maintain a new order of things\" in their respective world regions and spheres of influence, with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy in Europe, and Imperial Japan in Asia. The signatories of this alliance become known as the Axis Powers. The pact also called for mutual protection—if any one of the member powers was attacked by a country not already at war, excluding the Soviet Union—and for technological and economic cooperation between the signatories.\n",
"At the end of September 1940, the Tripartite Pact formally united Japan, Italy and Germany as the Axis Powers. The Tripartite Pact stipulated that any country, with the exception of the Soviet Union, which attacked any Axis Power would be forced to go to war against all three. The Axis expanded in November 1940 when Hungary, Slovakia and Romania joined. Romania and Hungary would make major contributions to the Axis war against the Soviet Union, in Romania's case partially to recapture territory ceded to the Soviet Union.\n",
"Germany and Japan were separated by great distance, and by 1944 they were increasingly cut off from each other. While neither power was able to send meaningful reinforcements or armaments through territory controlled by the Allied powers, they were able to use submarines to share some intelligence and weapons blueprints. Submarines offered security and their stealth allowed for a fair chance of success. Between 1942 and 1944, approximately 35 submarines attempted the journey from Europe to the Far East, and at least 11 attempted the journey from the Far East to Europe (ref. 4).\n",
"On September 27, 1940, Germany, Italy and Japan signed the Axis Pact, which divided the world into spheres of influence and was implicitly directed at the United States. The pact contained an explicit provision (Article 5) stating that it did not concern relations with the Soviet Union. Molotov, worried that the pact contained a secret codicil pertaining specifically to the Soviet Union, attempted to extract information from the Japanese ambassador in Moscow, Togo.\n",
"The Tripartite Pact—between the three Axis Powers of Germany, Japan and Italy—guaranteed mutual support, and this paid off for Japan in July 1941 when French weakness in the wake of the fall of France to Germany allowed Japan to occupy French Indo-China (now modern Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia). This blocked a supply route for the Kuomintang, against whom Japan had been fighting, since 1937, the Second Sino-Japanese War. It also gave Imperial Japan a seaboard facing Sarawak and North Borneo across the China Sea. Japan turned its eyes from the war in China and towards strategic targets in the Pacific and the Dutch East Indies. In December that year, Japan struck out against US possessions in Hawaii and the Philippines, declaring war on the US and finally precipitating Germany's official declaration of war on America according to the Pact.\n"
] |
what is the purpose of so much pollen everywhere?
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> So why do plants give off so much pollen?
To make sure they have enough. Way out on the edges of the most distant spread of the pollen there may be just enough for fertilization, and the ground covered increases greatly as they put more and more out there. It isn't a group effort; each tree is trying to spread its genes individually. It doesn't matter if other trees have "enough" pollen, it matters if they have the pollen of a given tree.
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[
"Pollen in plants is used for transferring haploid male genetic material from the anther of a single flower to the stigma of another in cross-pollination. In a case of self-pollination, this process takes place from the anther of a flower to the stigma of the same flower.\n",
"Bee pollen is a ball or pellet of field-gathered flower pollen packed by worker honeybees, and used as the primary food source for the hive. It consists of simple sugars, protein, minerals and vitamins, fatty acids, and a small percentage of other components. Also called bee bread, or ambrosia, it is stored in brood cells, mixed with saliva, and sealed with a drop of honey. Bee pollen is harvested as food for humans, with various health claims, one of them being that the fermentation process makes it much more potent than simple flower pollen.\n",
"Pollen is a fine to coarse powdery substance comprising pollen grains which are male microgametophytes of seed plants, which produce male gametes (sperm cells). Pollen grains have a hard coat made of sporopollenin that protects the gametophytes during the process of their movement from the stamens to the pistil of flowering plants, or from the male cone to the female cone of coniferous plants. If pollen lands on a compatible pistil or female cone, it germinates, producing a pollen tube that transfers the sperm to the ovule containing the female gametophyte. Individual pollen grains are small enough to require magnification to see detail. The study of pollen is called palynology and is highly useful in paleoecology, paleontology, archaeology, and forensics. \n",
"The term pollen source is often used in the context of beekeeping and refers to flowering plants as a source of pollen for bees or other insects. Bees collect pollen as a protein source to raise their brood. For the plant, the pollinizer, this can be an important mechanism for sexual reproduction, as the pollinator distributes its pollen. Few flowering plants self-pollinate; some can provide their own pollen (self fertile), but require a pollinator to move the pollen; others are dependent on cross pollination from a genetically different source of viable pollen, through the activity of pollinators. One of the possible pollinators to assist in cross-pollination are honeybees. The article below is mainly about the pollen source from a beekeeping perspective.\n",
"\"Filipendula rubra\" is known for its air-borne pollen, however pollination is only effective (can create a seed) when pollen is transferred to a different plant, due to the fact that \"F. rubra\" is self-incompatible. The vast majority of pollen will be derived from inflorescences within the same clone and thus incompatible. Pollination is aided by insects such as sweat bees spreading pollen.\n",
"Pollen is most commonly spread by wind. The male produces the pollen and the female plant produces the seed. The wind carries the pollen from resistant male plants to female plants. In addition, the seed is spread by traditional means, such as harvesting, inadequate cleaning of equipment, and the spreading of infested materials, such as manure.\n",
"While some plants are capable of self-pollenization, \"pollenizer\" is more often used in pollination management for a plant that provides abundant, compatible, and viable pollen at the same flowering time as the pollinated plant. For example, most crabapple varieties are good pollenizers for any apple tree that blooms at the same time, and are often used in apple orchards for the purpose. Some apple cultivars produce very little pollen or pollen that is sterile or incompatible with other apple varieties. These are poor pollenizers.\n"
] |
How can a counterexample to the Collatz(3n+1) conjecture be for a sequence to go towards infinity?
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You can't use statistics on math. For example, half of numbers are even, but there's only one odd power of two, and only one even prime. Similarly, you might end up getting (3n+1)/2 as being odd over and over again even though it statistically shouldn't happen.
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[
"For each of these, multiply the distance to the closest line with integer x-coordinate by the distance to the closest line with integer y-coordinate. This product will certainly be at most 1/4. The conjecture makes no statement about whether this sequence of values will converge; it typically does not, in fact. The conjecture states something about the limit inferior, and says that there is a subsequence for which the distances decay faster than the reciprocal, i.e.\n",
"The Collatz conjecture is a conjecture in mathematics that concerns a sequence defined as follows: start with any positive integer \"n\". Then each term is obtained from the previous term as follows: if the previous term is even, the next term is one half the previous term. If the previous term is odd, the next term is 3 times the previous term plus 1. The conjecture is that no matter what value of \"n\", the sequence will always reach 1.\n",
"If is a composite number, , then an expansion for could be found from an expansion for or . Therefore, if a counterexample to the Erdős–Straus conjecture exists, the smallest forming a counterexample would have to be a prime number, and it can be further restricted to one of six infinite arithmetic progressions modulo . Computer searches have verified the truth of the conjecture up to , but proving it for all remains an open problem.\n",
"If Legendre's conjecture is true, the gap between any prime \"p\" and the next largest prime would always be at most on the order of formula_1; in big O notation, the gaps are formula_2. Two stronger conjectures, Andrica's conjecture and Oppermann's conjecture, also both imply that the gaps have the same magnitude. It does not, however, provide a solution to the Riemann Hypothesis, but rather strengthens one of the implications of its correctness.\n",
"Thurston's conjecture was proven by . More precisely, they showed that, as \"n\" goes to infinity, the function \"f\" determined using Thurston's method from hexagonal packings of radius-1/\"n\" circles converges uniformly on compact subsets of \"A\" to a conformal map from \"A\" to \"C\".\n",
"If the Erdős–Ulam problem has a positive solution, it would provide a counterexample to the Bombieri–Lang conjecture and to the abc conjecture. It would also solve Harborth's conjecture, on the existence of drawings of planar graphs in which all distances are integers. If a dense rational-distance set exists, any straight-line drawing of a planar graph could be perturbed by a small amount (without introducing crossings) to use points from this set as its vertices, and then scaled to make the distances integers. However, like the Erdős–Ulam problem, Harborth's conjecture remains unproven.\n",
"BULLET::::- The chain of natural numbers together with infinity, as a Heyting algebra, is subdirectly representable as a subalgebra of the direct product of the finite linearly ordered Heyting algebras. The situation with other Heyting algebras is treated in further detail in the article on subdirect irreducibles.\n"
] |
What did Vikings do with all their loot? Was the loot divided equally among the raiders, given to one man, or somewhere in between?
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It certainly did. I recently finished my masters on these lovely individuals and while I do not have all the sources handy with me, hopefully, someone else here will.
To give you a brief, non-cited explanation, there were several places that the loot from Viking raids/expeditions had a serious effect. Towns like Dublin were completely established by Viking raiders and therefore would have been affected greatly by the influx of coinage. In addition to that, those Vikings that served in the Varangian Guard and returned to Iceland often did so as rich men. I believe there is a man named Bolli Bollason (or something similar), who serves for a time in the Varangian guard, then returns and is so wealthy he is known as Bolli the Grand.
As far as the division of loot goes that is a much harder and less studied question. There are no primary sources that give us a percentage break-down of what a raiding band would receive. Often, all we have is that the entire force was paid x pounds of silver and other such goods. In order to really find out something about how much the average Viking warrior took home would require examining graves. Even then though, it would only be a rough estimate of how much a raider could obtain over time and not be an accurate reflection of how much a particular raid earned them.
I can promise you though, it is *very* unlikely that only one man received the loot, and even if he did, he soon split it up amongst his men or else paid the price. Gift giving was extremely important and played a massive role in keeping together raiding parties.
tldr: very much yes.
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[
"The hoard consists of a variety of silver items including 27 coins, 10 arm-rings, 2 finger-rings, 14 ingots, 6 brooch fragments, a fine wire braid and 141 fragments of arm-rings and ingots which had been chopped up and turned into hacksilver, which was used as a form of currency in Viking times. Together they weigh a little over two pounds (1 kg). The hoard includes Arabic, Anglo-Saxon, Anglo-Viking and Viking coins. They date to around AD 900 and include coins of Alfred the Great and the Danish-ruled Kingdom of Northumbria. Some of the other items appear to have been intended for personal ornamentation, perhaps to indicate the owner's rank. The arm bands would have been given by a leader to a warrior as a reward for services rendered. One of the bands is particularly notable for its unusual combination of Irish, Anglo-Saxon and Carolingian-style decoration.\n",
"The hoard had been protected by lead sheeting of some kind. The coins date from the late 9th and early 10th centuries, providing a \"terminus post quem\" for dating the hoard. The first theory as to a likely 10th-century occasion for such a careful burying was that it had belonged to a wealthy Viking leader during the unrest that followed the conquest of the Viking kingdom of Northumbria in the year 927 by the Anglo-Saxon king of a unified England, Athelstan (924–939). Another brief period of Viking rule in Northumbria also followed Athelstan's death in 939; it lasted until the expulsion and murder of the Viking king of Jórvík (modern-day York), Eric Bloodaxe, in 954.\n",
"Strandhogg in old Norse was a Viking tactic consisting of a coastal raid with the intention of capturing livestock and indigenous peoples for the slave trade. This tactic was enhanced by Viking longships' shallow draft.\n",
"Norse invaders and Norse raiders differed in purpose. The forces engaged by the Anglo-Saxon were raiding, or (in Old Norse) \"\"í víking\"\", to gather loot, rather than to occupy land for settlement. Therefore, if Byrhtnoth's forces had kept the Vikings off by guarding the causeway or by paying them off, Olaf would likely have sailed farther up the river or along the coast, and raided elsewhere. As a man with troops and weapons, it might be that Byrhtnoth had to allow the Vikings ashore to protect others. The poem may, therefore, represent the work of what has been termed the \"monastic party\" in Ethelred's court, which advocated a military response, rather than tribute, to all Norse attacks.\n",
"Molnby Hoard is a Viking Age deposit of 163 silver coins found in Molnby, Vallentuna Municipality in Sweden in October 2016. Most of the coins come from the area around Samarkand in Central Asia and date from the 10th century. The hoard is one of the largest Viking Age hoards to have been discovered in the province of Uppland.\n",
"Judging from the age of the coins, the hoard can have been deposited at the site during the middle of the 9th century at the earliest. This would make it one of the earliest Viking Age hoards to be discovered on mainland Sweden.\n",
"In 1871, a Viking Age hoard of at least eleven Carolingian coins was uncovered at Mullaghboden, near Ballymore Eustace. The hoard appears to have been originally deposited as early as about 847. This could mean that it was hidden by Vikings fleeing the Battle of Sciath Nechtain in 848. The hoard itself appears to have been composed of coins looted from Aquitaine only a few years previous, a haul possibly pillaged by the Viking fleet of \"\" contemporaneously attested by the ninth–eleventh-century \"Annales Engolismenses\". This force was evidently composed of men from Vestfold, a region of eastern Norway evidently under Danish overlordship during the ninth century.\n"
] |
we have a huge sea which is evapourating all the time which comes back to us in the form of rains. we can create artificial rains. why do we worry about water shortage in future?
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First of all, I'm not sure what you mean by creating "artificial rains." It's possible to seed clouds and make them rain, but it costs money, and only works if there's sufficient moisture available. We can desalinate saltwater, but it's expensive and time consuming. Personally, I think that it's a really important scientific pursuit and more people should be working on the problem of how to do it cheaply, but as it stands, turning saltwater into freshwater is not easy or cheap to do at volume.
So, what we're left with, you may be surprised to hear, is 2.5% of the earth's water. That's what percentage is NOT saltwater. Of that, less than half is easily accessible (from lakes, rivers, or aquifers close enough to the surface for wells). We're talking 1% of the planet's water is not salt and available for people to reach. Now, if we let industry dump waste products into that water, we have less and less potable water for future generations, and we have to invest more and more money into cleaning up the freshwater that's available to us.
Now, we're looking at a population that continues to expand. Many people are already at a disadvantage when it comes to acquiring water. They either live in arid regions where there is little freshwater to start with (that's another problem with desalinating saltwater--it's terribly expensive to ship it to people who don't have access to water) or else in places where there is little water regulation, and the "fresh" water available to them is dangerous to drink.
Every year, the planet's water usage increases. There are more people, more factory farms, more industry. This all decreases our available freshwater, as do the increased pollution that comes with an increased population. Now we have situations where places that already experience drought/water shortage find that industry has more right to the water than people do. We have companies like Nestle pumping water out of drinking sources, bottling it in plastic (and I'm pretty sure the plastic industry uses a lot of water, too), and selling it back to people.
If you have a good idea for taking large quantities of saltwater and purifying it quickly and inexpensively, you should get on that right away, because you will save lives and probably get rich. But don't believe, right now, that humanity has an unlimited supply of drinking water at its fingertips, because we don't. It's limited and shrinking and if corporations like Nestle have their way, water won't be a human right anymore. It will be an expensive privilege.
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[
"Floods effects are exacerbated due to greater erosion by the sea caused by human interventions to facilitate port activities (e.g. through the construction of jetties and artificial canals); establishment of the industrial Porto Marghera area; and increased wash from motorized boats, which all aggravate erosion of morphological structures and the foundations of quaysides and buildings.\n",
"The sea plays a part in the water or hydrological cycle, in which water evaporates from the ocean, travels through the atmosphere as vapour, condenses, falls as rain or snow, thereby sustaining life on land, and largely returns to the sea. Even in the Atacama Desert, where little rain ever falls, dense clouds of fog known as the camanchaca blow in from the sea and support plant life.\n",
"Paul Tobasi, the atolls' district manager with Papua New Guinea's Bougainville province, and many other environmental groups have suggested that the flooding is the result of sea-level rise associated with global warming. He also stated that small storm surges were becoming more frequent.\n",
"In the occasional very wet year such as 2005, lives and property are lost in floods on the Barotse Plain. More often, however, it is a very good example of the principle that natural annual flooding by rivers is valuable and productive for wildlife and human populations, while damming rivers to control floods, as has happened with the Kafue Flats, is potentially damaging to the environment.\n",
"Water is stored in all components of the climate system, with the oceans and ice containing the most. Its movement is driven by evaporation from oceans and other water bodies as a consequence of direct and indirect sunlight from the evapotranspiration of water from plants. Precipitation and evaporation are not evenly distributed across the globe, with some regions such as the tropics having more rainfall than evaporation, and others having more evaporation than rainfall.\n",
"In recent years, there have been wide variations between the dry and wet seasons' water levels. It is suspected that this is caused by increasing watershed land conversion to intensive crop production and urbanization, both which reduce the capacity of soils to absorb water, recharge ground water and thus increase seasonal flooding. Pollution and drought destroy the flamingos' food, Cyanobacteria, or blue-green algae, and causing them to migrate to the nearby Lakes, more recently lakes Elmenteita, Simbi Nyaima and Bogoria. Local climate changes have also been hypothesized to contribute to the changing environmental conditions in the lakes catchment. Recent media reports indicate increasing concern among stakeholders, as mass flamingo migrations and deaths could spell doom to the tourism industry.\n",
"Union Environment and Forests Minister Javedakthar said the exact causes of the flooding – whether the result of climate change or stemming from other causes – remained in \"a grey area\" as experts had differing opinions. Regarding the current floods, he said the United Nations would not deem the evidence conclusive enough to be able to reach a judgment. \"One thing is sure, climate change brings such disasters more frequently. So [the] frequency, [the] ferocity of untimely rains increases, [along with] erratic monsoons, droughts and floods; all these are caused [by climate change].\" he said. He subsequently clarified his position on the Tamil Nadu floods in a written statement addressed to the Rajya Sabha. According to Javadekar, the recent extreme rainfall across the region was \"highly localised\" and could not be definitively attributed to the effects of climate-change. \"[The] extreme rainfall that occurred over [the] coastal districts of Tamil Nadu is part of the natural variability of the Indian monsoon system. Although some studies have reported an increase in frequency and intensity of extremes in rainfall during the past 40–50 years, their attribution to global warming is not established.\" Javadekar said the Inter-Governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and local assessments have indicated that extreme rainfall events will likely increase in frequency by the end of the 21st century.\n"
] |
is artificial photosynthesis not viable?
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Photosynthesis (PS) involves harnessing light (photons) from the sun for energy to drive chemical reactions. Here's an abridged version of the process:
1. A photon strikes an electron that is chilling in chlorophyll (or some other pigment depending on the wavelength of light the organism harvests)
2. The electron absorbs the photon
3. The electron gains the energy of the photon, becoming 'excited'
4. The excited electron is chemical reactions that require a lot of energy (called 'energetically unfavorable reactions')
5. The cool part: light is used to split water into oxygen and hydrogen and build carbohydrates from CO2
When the excited electron forms a new chemical bond, that chemical bond stores the energy of the excited electron. That stored energy can be used to drive other energetically unfavorable reactions, many of which happen at night. These are aptly called the dark reactions (the reactions involved in harvesting light for energy are called the light reactions).
We know pretty well how PS works, but we're nowhere near technologically advanced enough to replicate the process artificially. There are tons of steps involved in harnessing that light energy - sort of like taking the stairs from the top floor instead of jumping off the roof. Each step is a separate chemical reaction facilitated by a unique protein. It's hard to build that from scratch.
Here's a simple breakdown of the process: _URL_0_
One last thing: the majority of carbon fixation (utilizing atmospheric CO2) is done by microorganisms, especially marine microorganisms. Scientists are trying to genetically modify photosynthetic microorganisms so they'll take atmospheric CO2 and convert it into useful organic compounds like ethanol and other biofuels.
I lied, here's the last thing:
> Chlorophyll? More like BOREophyll!
> Right?
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[
"The purpose of artificial photosynthesis is to produce a fuel from sunlight that can be stored conveniently and used when sunlight is not available, by using direct processes, that is, to produce a solar fuel. With the development of catalysts able to reproduce the major parts of photosynthesis, water and sunlight would ultimately be the only needed sources for clean energy production. The only by-product would be oxygen, and production of a solar fuel has the potential to be cheaper than gasoline.\n",
"Artificial photosynthesis was first anticipated by the Italian chemist Giacomo Ciamician during 1912. In a lecture that was later published in Science he proposed a switch from the use of fossil fuels to radiant energy provided by the sun and captured by technical photochemistry devices. In this switch he saw a possibility to lessen the difference between the rich north of Europe and poor south and ventured a guess that this switch from coal to solar energy would \"not be harmful to the progress and to human happiness.\"\n",
"Another area of research within artificial photosynthesis is the selection and manipulation of photosynthetic microorganisms, namely green microalgae and cyanobacteria, for the production of solar fuels. Many strains are able to produce hydrogen naturally, and scientists are working to improve them. Algae biofuels such as butanol and methanol are produced both at laboratory and commercial scales. This method has benefited from the development of synthetic biology, which is also being explored by the J. Craig Venter Institute to produce a synthetic organism capable of biofuel production. In 2017, an efficient process was developed to produce acetic acid from carbon dioxide using \"cyborg bacteria\".\n",
"Using biomimetic approaches, artificial photosynthesis tries to construct systems doing the same type of processes. Ideally, a triad assembly could oxidize water with one catalyst, reduce protons with another and have a photosensitizer molecule to power the whole system. One of the simplest designs is where the photosensitizer is linked in tandem between a water oxidation catalyst and a hydrogen evolving catalyst:\n",
"Artificial photosynthesis remained an academic field for many years. However, in the beginning of 2009, Mitsubishi Chemical Holdings was reported to be developing its own artificial photosynthesis research by using sunlight, water and carbon dioxide to \"create the carbon building blocks from which resins, plastics and fibers can be synthesized.\" This was confirmed with the establishment of the KAITEKI Institute later that year, with carbon dioxide reduction through artificial photosynthesis as one of the main goals.\n",
"Research in artificial photosynthesis is necessarily a multidisciplinary topic, requiring a multitude of different expertise. Some techniques employed in making and investigating catalysts and solar cells include:\n",
"Artificial photosynthesis is a chemical process that biomimics the natural process of photosynthesis to convert sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide into carbohydrates and oxygen. The term artificial photosynthesis is commonly used to refer to any scheme for capturing and storing the energy from sunlight in the chemical bonds of a fuel (a solar fuel). Photocatalytic water splitting converts water into hydrogen and oxygen and is a major research topic of artificial photosynthesis. Light-driven carbon dioxide reduction is another process studied that replicates natural carbon fixation.\n"
] |
Would a handful of marbles released in empty space exert enough gravity on each other to clump together or even orbit one another?
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If you started them off stationary with respect to one another, they would move together and end up in a clump, because their only acceleration would be towards one another. Of course, the accelerations would be very small, and the time to clumping very large.
If you started them with velocities with respect to one another, they could enter orbit, clump together (or at least hit each other, with behaviour depending on the elasticity of the collision), or move apart forever depending on what those velocities were. My quick calculation suggests that escape velocity for a 5g marble at a distance of 5cm is about 4 microns per second.
Edit: I confirmed my escape velocity calculation using [Wolfram Alpha](_URL_0_). At a distance of 5cm from a relatively heavy 5g marble, it's about 4x10^-6 metres per second. So each marble wouldn't need much velocity to escape the others.
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[
"In contrast to Rachel Whiteread's procedure of making positive volumes out of negative space, Chromy constructs a negative space out of a solid volume: the human body. The marble therefore becomes a material of strength, a structural material, rather than one that engages in the illusion of weightlessness — in this way it is a different approach to Chromy's works in bronze which, like the sculptures of Ancient Greece, appear to defy gravitational forces by capturing the dynamism of the human body, many of which can be seen in the National Archaeological Museum of Athens, which contains the richest collection of artifacts from Greek antiquity worldwide.\n",
"Bellaso challenged his detractors to solve some cryptograms encrypted according to his guidelines. He also furnished the following clue to help the solution of one of them: ‘‘The cryptogram contains the explanation why two balls, one in iron and one in wood, dropped from a high place will fall on the ground at the same time.’’ This is a clear statement of the law of the free-falling bodies forty years before Galileo. They were purportedly solved in 2018.\n",
"The fluid solution is appropriate for bodies that are only loosely held together, such as a comet. For instance, comet Shoemaker–Levy 9's decaying orbit around Jupiter passed within its Roche limit in July 1992, causing it to fragment into a number of smaller pieces. On its next approach in 1994 the fragments crashed into the planet. Shoemaker–Levy 9 was first observed in 1993, but its orbit indicated that it had been captured by Jupiter a few decades prior.\n",
"It is important to note that in this example the system is not stable for all inputs. Give the marble a big enough push, and it will fall out of the ladle and fall, stopping only when it reaches the floor. For some systems, therefore, it is proper to state that a system is exponentially stable \"over a certain range of inputs\".\n",
"Hard spheres are widely used as model particles in the statistical mechanical theory of fluids and solids. They are defined simply as impenetrable spheres that cannot overlap in space. They mimic the extremely strong (\"infinitely elastic bouncing\") repulsion that atoms and spherical molecules experience at very close distances. Hard spheres systems are studied by analytical means, by molecular dynamics simulations, and by the experimental study of certain colloidal model systems.\n",
"A step input in this case requires supporting the marble away from the bottom of the ladle, so that it cannot roll back. It will stay in the same position and will not, as would be the case if the system were only marginally stable or entirely unstable, continue to move away from the bottom of the ladle under this constant force equal to its weight.\n",
"BULLET::::- Collision: All 16 teams will be placed into a tournament bracket. Marbles will collide with each other and they will be knocked down by a barrier of dominoes. If a barrier ball is triggered, then it will have the ability to knock down other marbles not affected by their opponents. There are 3 sets of barrier balls. 2 horizontal and 1 vertical.\n"
] |
how can most low-end phone have a better processor speed than higher-end laptops?
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number of cores and clock speed (GHz) do not necessarily indicate raw processor power. You also cannot add the GHz of multiple cores to get a number that means anything.
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[
"For Internet browsing and typical office applications, where the computer spends the majority of its time waiting for the next user input, even relatively low-end laptops (such as Netbooks) can be fast enough for some users. Most higher-end laptops are sufficiently powerful for high-resolution movie playback, some 3D gaming and video editing and encoding. However, laptop processors can be disadvantaged when dealing with a higher-end database, maths, engineering, financial software, virtualization, etc. This is because laptops use the mobile versions of processors to conserve power, and these lag behind desktop chips when it comes to performance. Some manufacturers work around this performance problem by using desktop CPUs for laptops.\n",
"A laptop's central processing unit (CPU) has advanced power-saving features and produces less heat than one intended purely for desktop use. Typically, laptop CPUs have two processor cores, although 4-core models are also available. For low price and mainstream performance, there is no longer a significant performance difference between laptop and desktop CPUs, but at the high end, the fastest 4-to-8-core desktop CPUs still substantially outperform the fastest 4-core laptop processors, at the expense of massively higher power consumption and heat generation; the fastest laptop processors top out at 56 watts of heat, while the fastest desktop processors top out at 150 watts.\n",
"Despite intense user demand for a faster laptop CPU than the G4, Apple never used a G5 series CPU in their PowerBook laptops. The original 970 used far too much power and was never seriously viewed as a candidate for a portable computer. The 970FX reduced thermal design power (TDP) to about 30 W at 1.5 GHz, a figure which led many users to believe a PowerBook G5 might be possible. However, several obstacles prevented even the 970FX from being used in this application. At 1.5 GHz, the G5 was not substantially faster than the 1.5 and 1.67 GHz G4 processors which Apple used in PowerBooks instead. Furthermore, the northbridge chips available to interface the 970FX to memory and other devices were not designed for portable computers, and consumed too much power. Finally, the 970FX had inadequate power saving features for a portable CPU. Its minimum (idle) power was much too high, which would have led to poor battery life figures in a notebook computer.\n",
"The dual-core Cortex A9 runs at a speed of 1.2 GHz by default, but it can be overclocked to 1.3 GHz without the need of a custom kernel. This can be effected by rooting and then using a CPU clock speed modification app.\n",
"At the time of its release at the Intel Developer Forum on September 23, 2009, Clarksfield processors were significantly faster than any other laptop processor, including the Core 2 Extreme QX9300. The initial laptop manufacturers shipping products based on Clarksfield processors include MSI, Dell/Alienware, Hewlett-Packard, Toshiba and Asustek.\n",
"BULLET::::- Low power consumption: Laptops are several times more power-efficient than desktops. A typical laptop uses 20–120 W, compared to 100–800 W for desktops. This could be particularly beneficial for large businesses, which run hundreds of personal computers thus multiplying the potential savings, and homes where there is a computer running 24/7 (such as a home media server, print server, etc.).\n",
"A desktop computer often has the advantage over a comparable laptop in computational capacity. Overclocking is often more feasible on a desktop than on a laptop; similarly hardware add-ons such as discrete graphics co-processors may only be possible to install in a desktop.\n"
] |
what's happening in my head when sound gets drowned out while falling asleep and then a minor disturbance "opens" up my ears?
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Your brain differentiates between expected and unexpected noises. So the hum from the fridge or the music you left on is expected, but broken glass or some other noise is unexpected and your brain wakes you up.
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[
"The occlusion effect occurs when an object fills the outer portion of a person's ear canal, and that person perceives \"hollow\" or \"booming\" echo-like sounds of their own voice. It is caused by bone-conducted sound vibrations reverberating off the object filling the ear canal. When talking or chewing, these vibrations normally escape through an open ear canal; most people are unaware of their existence. When the ear canal is blocked, the vibrations are reflected back toward the eardrum. Compared to a completely open ear canal, the occlusion effect can boost low frequency (usually below 500 Hz) sound pressure in the ear canal by 20 dB or more. This effect can be measured with a probe-tube microphone.\n",
"Another cause of noise is due to the exocytosis of neurotransmitters from the synaptic terminals that provide input to a given neuron. This occurrence happens in the background while a cell is at resting membrane potential. Since it is happening in the background, the release is not due to a signal, but is random. This unpredictability adds to the synaptic noise level.\n",
"The human ear picks up sounds made by the human body as well, including the sounds of blood flowing and muscles acting. These sounds are normally discarded by the brain; however, they become more obvious when louder external sounds are filtered out. This occlusion effect occurs with seashells, cups, or hands held over one's ears, and also with circumaural headphones, whose cups form a seal around the ear, raising the acoustic impedance to external sounds.\n",
"Misophonia's mechanism is not known, but it appears that, like hyperacusis, it may be caused by a dysfunction of the central auditory system in the brain and not of the ears. The perceived origin and context of the sound appears to be essential to trigger a reaction.\n",
"Disturbances (such as stroke or trauma) at any of these levels can cause hearing problems, especially if the disturbance is bilateral. In some instances it can also lead to auditory hallucinations or more complex difficulties in perceiving sound.\n",
"BULLET::::- Dissonance sensation is a result of brain's response to unusual or rare sound perceptions (). The brain is remembering and ranking the sound patterns that usually enters the ears, and if an unusual (rare occurring) sound is listened to, a well known EEG pattern emerges (P300/P3b) indicating an oddball event. This causes slight stress in the listener, which is causing the sensation of dissonance. In the same paper, Pankovski and Pankovska show by a software simulated neural network that the brain is capable of such remembering and ranking of the sound patterns, thus perfectly reproducing the well known Helmholtz's list of two-tone intervals ordered by consonance/dissonance, for the first time in the history of studying these phenomena. As a consequence, Pankovski and Pankovska suggest that the consonance and dissonance are biologically dependent for the more consonant sounds, and culturally dependent for the more dissonant sounds.\n",
"When exposed to a multitude of sounds from several different sources, sensory overload may occur. This overstimulation can result in general fatigue and loss of sensation in the ear. The associated mechanisms are explained in further detail down below. Sensory overload usually occurs with environmental stimuli and not noise induced by listening to music.\n"
] |
why is e85 85% ethanol?
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E85 has between 51 and 83% ethanol, by law (in the U.S.). Outside of the US it has 85%, and you can get 100% ethanol in some places too, mostly in warm areas.
You have to mix it because it won't ignite in cold weather without some gasoline - the exact mix of ethanol and gas is often changed depending on where you are (the weather!).
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[
"E85, a mixture of 85% ethanol and ~15% gasoline, is generally the highest ethanol fuel mixture found in the United States and several European countries, particularly in Sweden, as this blend is the standard fuel for flexible-fuel vehicles. This mixture has an octane rating of 108, however, the Ethanol molecule also carries with it an Oxygen atom, -where-as Octane (A.K.A Gasoline) does not carry an Oxygen atom- effectively requiring the internal combustion engine to ingest less air per unit-volume by its' own accord, which reduces pumping losses, and further increases the exo-thermic chemical reaction. Ethanol fuel is considered -although not widely known as- a form of \"chemical supercharging\", similar to that of Nitrous Oxide (N2O) & Nitromethane (CH3NO2).\n",
"For E10 (10% ethanol and 90% gasoline), the effect is small (~3%) when compared to conventional gasoline, and even smaller (1–2%) when compared to oxygenated and reformulated blends. For E85 (85% ethanol), the effect becomes significant. E85 produces lower mileage than gasoline, and requires more frequent refueling. Actual performance may vary depending on the vehicle. Based on EPA tests for all 2006 E85 models, the average fuel economy for E85 vehicles was 25.56% lower than unleaded gasoline. The EPA-rated mileage of current United States flex-fuel vehicles should be considered when making price comparisons, but E85 is a high performance fuel, with an octane rating of about 94–96, and should be compared to premium.\n",
"The E85 blend is used in gasoline engines modified to accept such higher concentrations of ethanol, and the fuel injection is regulated through a dedicated sensor, which automatically detects the amount of ethanol in the fuel, allowing to adjust both fuel injection and spark timing accordingly to the actual blend available in the vehicle's tank. Because ethanol contains close to 34% less energy per unit volume than gasoline, E85 FFVs have a lower mileage per gallon than gasoline. Based on EPA tests for all 2006 E85 models, the average fuel economy for E85 vehicles was 25.56% lower than unleaded gasoline.\n",
", E85 is frequently sold for up to 36% lower price per quantity than gasoline. Much of this discount can be attributed to various government subsidies, and, at least in the United States, the elimination of state taxes that typically apply to gasoline and can amount to 47 cents, or more, per gallon of fuel. The US federal tax exemption that keeps ethanol economically competitive with petroleum fuel products is due to expire in 2007, but this exemption may be extended through legislative action. In the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina in 2005, the price of E85 rose to nearly on par with the cost of 87 octane gasoline in many states in the United States, and was for a short time the only fuel available when gasoline was sold out, but within four weeks of Katrina, the price of E85 had fallen once more to a 20% to 35% lower cost than 87 octane gasoline.\n",
"In countries like Australia where E85 is always 85% ethanol (and pump fuel with varying fractions is called \"flex fuel\"), performance motoring enthusiasts and motor racing clubs/championships use E85 extensively (without the need for any FFV certification). Use of alcohol (ethanol and methanol) in motor racing history parallels the invention of the automobile, favoured due to inherent combustion characteristics such as high thermal efficiency, raised torque and with some advanced engines, better specific fuel consumption. In the United States, government subsidies of ethanol in general and E85 in particular have encouraged a growing infrastructure for the retail sale of E85, especially in corn growing states in the Midwest.\n",
"Because ethanol contains close to 34% less energy per unit volume than gasoline, E85 FFVs have a lower mileage per gallon than gasoline. However, this lower energy content does not translate directly into a 34% reduction in miles per U.S. gallon, because there are many other variables that affect the performance of a particular fuel in a particular engine, though for E85 the effect becomes significant. E85 will produce lower mileage than gasoline, and actual performance may vary depending on the vehicle. Based on EPA EPA-rated mileage for all 2006 E85 models, the average fuel economy for E85 vehicles was 25.56% lower than unleaded gasoline. When making price comparisons it has to be considered that E85 has octane rating of about 104 and could be used as a substitute for premium gasoline.\n",
"The American E85 flex-fuel vehicle was developed to run on any mixture of unleaded gasoline and ethanol, anywhere from 0% to 85% ethanol by volume. Both fuels are mixed in the same tank, and E85 is sold already blended. In order to reduce ethanol evaporative emissions and to avoid problems starting the engine during cold weather, the maximum blend of ethanol was set to 85%. There is also a seasonal reduction of the ethanol content to E70 (called winter E85 blend) in very cold regions, where temperatures fall below during the winter. In Wyoming for example, E70 is sold as E85 from October to May.\n"
] |
why are nitrites toxic to tank fish, but nitrates are okay?
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That one oxygen atom changes the shape, structure, and function.
For example Nitrates are used in many fertilizers and explosives. Nitrites are used in food preservation.
Nitrates form strong acids and nitrates form weaker acids.
That one extra oxygen atom in Nitrates makes a huge difference.
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[
"Nitrates and nitrites have been used for hundreds of years to prevent botulism in fish and ensure microbial safety. Nitrates help kill bacteria, produce a characteristic flavor, and give fish a pink or red color. The use of nitrates in food preservation is controversial. This is due to the potential for the formation of nitrosamines when the preserved food is cooked at high temperature. However, the production of carcinogenic nitrosamines can be potently inhibited by the use of the antioxidants Vitamin C and the alpha-tocopherol form of Vitamin E during curing. A 2007 study by Columbia University suggests a link between eating cured meats and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Nitrites were posited as a possible cause. The use of either compound is carefully regulated. For example, the FDA Code of Federal Regulations states that sodium nitrite may be safely used: \"As a color fixative in smoked cured tunafish products so that the level of sodium nitrite does not exceed 10 parts per million (0.001 percent) in the finished product... As a preservative and color fixative, with or without sodium nitrate, in smoked, cured sablefish, smoked, cured salmon, and smoked, cured shad so that the level of sodium nitrite does not exceed 200 parts per million and the level of sodium nitrate does not exceed 500 parts per million in the finished product.\"\n",
"Although nitrites are the nitrogen compound chiefly used in meat curing, nitrates are used in certain specialty curing processes where a long release of nitrite from parent nitrate stores is needed. The use of nitrates in food preservation is controversial. This is due to the potential for the formation of nitrosamines when nitrates are present in high concentrations and the product is cooked at high temperatures. The effect is seen for red or processed meat, but not for white meat or fish. The production of carcinogenic nitrosamines may be inhibited by the use of the antioxidants vitamin C and the alpha-tocopherol form of vitamin E during curing.\n",
"Because of its ready solubility in water, niter is most often found in arid environments and often in conjunction with other soluble minerals like halides, iodates, borates, gypsum, and rarer carbonates and sulphates. A major source of sodium nitrate mineral (\"Chile saltpeter\" or nitratine) is the Atacama Desert in Chile. Potassium and other nitrates are of great importance for use in fertilizers and, historically, gunpowder. Much of the world's demand is now met by synthetically produced nitrates, though the natural mineral is still mined and is still of significant commercial value.\n",
"The use of nitrites in food preservation is controversial due to the potential for the formation of nitrosamines when nitrites are present in high concentrations and the product is cooked at high temperatures. The effect is seen for red or processed meat, but not for white meat or fish. Nitrates and nitrites may cause cancer and the production of carcinogenic nitrosamines can be potently inhibited by the use of the antioxidants Vitamin C and the alpha-tocopherol form of Vitamin E during curing. Under simulated gastric conditions, nitrosothiols rather than nitrosamines are the main nitroso species being formed. The use of either compound is therefore regulated; for example, in the United States, the concentration of nitrates and nitrites is generally limited to 200 ppm or lower. While the meat industry considers them irreplaceable because of their low cost and efficacy at maintaining color, botulism is an extremely rare disease (less than 1000 cases reported worldwide per year), and almost always associated with home preparations of food storing. Furthermore, while the FDA has set a limit of 200 ppm of nitrates for cured meat, they are not allowed and not recognized as safe in most other foods, even foods that are not cooked at high temperatures, such as cheese.\n",
"While this chemical will prevent the growth of bacteria, it can be toxic in high amounts for animals and humans. Sodium nitrite's LD in rats is 180 mg/kg and its human LD is 71 mg/kg, meaning a 65 kg person would likely have to consume at least 4.6 g to result in death. To prevent toxicity, sodium nitrite (blended with salt) sold as a food additive is dyed bright pink to avoid mistaking it for plain salt or sugar. Nitrites are not naturally occurring in vegetables in significant quantities. However, nitrates are found in commercially available vegetables and a study in an intensive agricultural area in northern Portugal found residual nitrate levels in 34 vegetable samples, including different varieties of cabbage, lettuce, spinach, parsley and turnips ranged between 54 and 2440 mg/kg, e.g. curly kale (302.0 mg/kg) and green cauliflower (64 mg/kg). Boiling vegetables lowers nitrate but not nitrite. Fresh meat contains 0.4–0.5 mg/kg nitrite and 4–7 mg/kg of nitrate (10–30 mg/kg nitrate in cured meats). The presence of nitrite in animal tissue is a consequence of metabolism of nitric oxide, an important neurotransmitter. Nitric oxide can be created \"de novo\" from nitric oxide synthase utilizing arginine or from ingested nitrate or nitrite.\n",
"Nitrates and nitrites not only help kill bacteria, but also produce a characteristic flavor and give meat a pink or red color. Nitrite () is generally supplied by sodium nitrite or (indirectly) by potassium nitrate. Nitrite salts are most often used in curing. Nitrate is specifically used only in a few curing conditions and products where nitrite (which may be generated from nitrate) must be generated in the product over long periods of time.\n",
"There are claims that shellfish killed with the CrustaStun taste better than those killed by boiling. Waitrose, Tesco and other major supermarkets in the United Kingdom have insisted that all shellfish products supplied to them are killed using this method.\n"
] |
why is cancer the most common disease associated with dna mutations?
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Of all the things that mutations cause (that is, mutations that happen *after* a person has been born), most of them probably just end up with the mutated DNA getting repaired or removed, or the cell that contains it being destroyed through programmed cell death. Cancer is the result of a mutation that removes the cell's ability to repair or quarantine mutations. It isn't that so much of DNA is devoted to reproduction that any one mutation is likely to damage that section of the DNA. It's that, of all the mutations that happen, the ones that can survive and reproduce are necessarily the ones that alter the normal reproduction/cell death processes (and these are the mutations that cause cancer.)
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[
"The likely major underlying cause of mutations in cancer is DNA damage. For example, in the case of lung cancer, DNA damage is caused by agents in exogenous genotoxic tobacco smoke (e.g. acrolein, formaldehyde, acrylonitrile, 1,3-butadiene, acetaldehyde, ethylene oxide and isoprene). Endogenous (metabolically-caused) DNA damage is also very frequent, occurring on average more than 60,000 times a day in the genomes of human cells (see DNA damage (naturally occurring)). Externally and endogenously caused damages may be converted into mutations by inaccurate translesion synthesis or inaccurate DNA repair (e.g. by non-homologous end joining). In addition, DNA damages can also give rise to epigenetic alterations during DNA repair. Both mutations and epigenetic alterations (epimutations) can contribute to progression to cancer.\n",
"Cancers have high levels of genome instability, associated with a high frequency of mutations. A high frequency of genomic mutations increases the likelihood of particular mutations occurring that activate oncogenes and inactivate tumor suppressor genes, leading to carcinogenesis. On the basis of whole genome sequencing, cancers are found to have thousands to hundreds of thousands of mutations in their whole genomes. (Also see Mutation frequencies in cancers.) By comparison, the mutation frequency in the whole genome between generations for humans (parent to child) is about 70 new mutations per generation. In the protein coding regions of the genome, there are only about 0.35 mutations between parent/child generations (less than one mutated protein per generation). Whole genome sequencing in blood cells for a pair of identical twin 100-year-old centenarians only found 8 somatic differences, though somatic variation occurring in less than 20% of blood cells would be undetected.\n",
"Cancers also generally have genome instability, that includes a high frequency of mutations in the noncoding DNA that makes up about 98% of the human genome. The average number of DNA sequence mutations in the entire genome of breast cancer tissue is about 20,000. In an average melanom (where melanomas have a higher exome mutation frequency) the total number of DNA sequence mutations is about 80,000.\n",
"DNA damage and genomic instability appear to be the basic causes of sporadic (non-familial) cancer. While infections have many effects, infectious organisms that increase the risk of cancer are frequently a source of DNA damage or genomic instability, as discussed below for oncogenic viruses and an oncogenic bacterium.\n",
"Overall, the most common gene mutations in ovarian cancer occur in \"NF1, BRCA1, BRCA2, \"and \"CDK12\". Type I ovarian cancers, which tend to be less aggressive, tend to have microsatellite instability in several genes, including both oncogenes (most notably \"BRAF\" and \"KRAS\") and tumor suppressors (most notably \"PTEN\"). The most common mutations in Type I cancers are \"KRAS, BRAF, ERBB2, PTEN, PIK3CA,\" and \"ARID1A.\" Type II cancers, the more aggressive type, have different genes mutated, including \"p53, BRCA1\", and \"BRCA2\". Low-grade cancers tend to have mutations in KRAS, whereas cancers of any grade that develop from low malignant potential tumors tend to have mutations in p53. Type I cancers tend to develop from precursor lesions, whereas Type II cancers can develop from a serous tubal intraepithelial carcinoma. Serous cancers that have BRCA mutations also inevitably have p53 mutations, indicating that the removal of both functional genes is important for cancer to develop.\n",
"It is currently accepted that sporadic tumors (non-familial ones) are originated due to the accumulation of several genetic errors. An average cancer of the breast or colon can have about 60 to 70 protein altering mutations, of which about 3 or 4 may be \"driver\" mutations, and the remaining ones may be \"passenger\" mutations Any genetic or epigenetic lesion increasing the mutation rate will have as a consequence an increase in the acquisition of new mutations, increasing then the probability to develop a tumor. During the process of tumorogenesis, it is known that diploid cells acquire mutations in genes responsible for maintaining genome integrity (\"caretaker genes\"), as well as in genes that are directly controlling cellular proliferation (\"gatekeeper genes\"). Genetic instability can originate due to deficiencies in DNA repair, or due to loss or gain of chromosomes, or due to large scale chromosomal reorganizations. Losing genetic stability will favour tumor development, because it favours the generation of mutants that can be selected by the environment.\n",
"Genome-wide analyses of human cancer tissues reveal that a single typical cancer cell may possess roughly 100 mutations in coding regions, 10-20 of which are “driver mutations” that contribute to cancer development. However, chronic inflammation also causes epigenetic changes such as DNA methylations, that are often more common than mutations. Typically, several hundreds to thousands of genes are methylated in a cancer cell (see DNA methylation in cancer). Sites of oxidative damage in chromatin can recruit complexes that contain DNA methyltransferases (DNMTs), a histone deacetylase (SIRT1), and a histone methyltransferase (EZH2), and thus induce DNA methylation. DNA methylation of a CpG island in a promoter region may cause silencing of its downstream gene (see CpG site and regulation of transcription in cancer). DNA repair genes, in particular, are frequently inactivated by methylation in various cancers (see hypermethylation of DNA repair genes in cancer). A 2018 report evaluated the relative importance of mutations and epigenetic alterations in progression to two different types of cancer. This report showed that epigenetic alterations were much more important than mutations in generating gastric cancers (associated with inflammation). However, mutations and epigenetic alterations were of roughly equal importance in generating esophageal squamous cell cancers (associated with tobacco chemicals and acetaldehyde, a product of alcohol metabolism).\n"
] |
why are some drink powders white but then turn a bright/deep shade after adding water
|
Artificial food coloring is extremely concentrated. A couple of granules, hidden among the white granules that make up most of the drink mix, are all it takes.
|
[
"Reflecting its slightly hydrophilic character, the white powder is moderately soluble in alcohols and can be recrystallized from hot water. In the presence of a base, it oxidizes readily. The methylated derivatives \"N\"-methylaminophenol and \"N\",\"N\"-dimethylaminophenol are of commercial value.\n",
"Ouzo is a clear liquid. However, when water or ice is added, ouzo turns a milky-white colour. This is because anethole, the essential oil of anise, is completely soluble in alcohol at approximately 38% ABV and above, but not in water. Diluting the spirit causes it to separate creating an emulsion, whose fine droplets scatter the light. This process is called louching, and is also found while preparing absinthe.\n",
"BULLET::::- Pure water is nearly colorless. However, it does absorb slightly more red light than blue, giving large volumes of water a bluish tint; increased scattering of blue light due to fine particles in the water shifts the blue color toward green, for a typically cyan net color.\n",
"Purple-K powder has an acrid taste and odor, is free-flowing, floating on most liquids, non-abrasive, does not wet with water and is compatible with most foam concentrates. It has violet color, to distinguish it from other dry agents. Its principal component is potassium bicarbonate (78–82% by weight), with addition of sodium bicarbonate (12–15%), mica (1–3%), Fuller's earth (1–3%), amorphous silica (0.2–%), and is made hydrophobic by methyl hydrogen polysiloxane (0.2–1%).\n",
"The powders were often packaged in a small envelope containing two coloured paper wraps, one white and one blue. The white packets contained tartaric acid, and the blue packets contained a mixture of 75% w/w Rochelle salt (potassium sodium tartrate) and 25% baking soda (sodium bicarbonate). The powdery contents of both packets were stirred or dissolved separately in water and then mixed, giving off carbon dioxide with a characteristic fizzing sound. The drink was described as \"a cooling, agreeable draught\".\n",
"It is a white to off white odourless crystalline powder. It is practically insoluble in chloroform, slightly soluble in boiling acetone, ethanol, methanol, and ethyl acetate, sparingly soluble in water 8 at 20° and ethyl alcohol, soluble in dilute hydrochloric acid, and dilute sodium hydroxide, and freely soluble in N,N-dimethylformamide (at 60 °C).\n",
"The liquid used can be pure ethanol, toluene, kerosene or isoamyl acetate, depending on manufacturer and working temperature range. Since these are transparent, the liquid is made more visible by the addition of a red or blue dye. One half of the glass containing the capillary is usually enamelled white or yellow to give a background for reading the scale.\n"
] |
sarcasm and irony
|
Irony:
The use of words to convey a meaning that is the opposite of its literal meaning or an outcome of events contrary to what was, or might have been, expected.
Sarcasm: A sharply ironical taunt; sneering or cutting remark
So sarcasm is an ironical remark used to taunt someone.
[_URL_1_](_URL_0_)
|
[
"Sarcasm does not necessarily involve irony. But irony, or the use of expressions conveying different things according as they are interpreted, is so often made the vehicle of sarcasm ... The essence of sarcasm is the intention of giving pain by (ironical or other) bitter words.\n",
"A feature of satire is strong irony or sarcasm—\"in satire, irony is militant\"—but parody, burlesque, exaggeration, juxtaposition, comparison, analogy, and double entendre are all frequently used in satirical speech and writing. This \"militant\" irony or sarcasm often professes to approve of (or at least accept as natural) the very things the satirist wishes to attack.\n",
"Professionals in psychology and related fields have long looked upon sarcasm negatively, particularly noting that sarcasm tends to be a maladaptive coping mechanism for those with unresolved anger or frustrations. Psychologist Clifford N. Lazarus describes sarcasm as \"hostility disguised as humor\". While an occasional sarcastic comment may enliven a conversation, Lazarus suggests that too frequent use of sarcasm tends to \"overwhelm the emotional flavor of any conversation\".\n",
"Cultural perspectives on sarcasm vary widely with more than a few cultures and linguistic groups finding it offensive to varying degrees. Thomas Carlyle despised it: \"Sarcasm I now see to be, in general, the language of the devil; for which reason I have long since as good as renounced it\". Fyodor Dostoyevsky, on the other hand, recognized in it a cry of pain: Sarcasm, he said, was \"usually the last refuge of modest and chaste-souled people when the privacy of their soul is coarsely and intrusively invaded.\" RFC 1855, a collection of guidelines for Internet communications, includes a warning to be especially careful with it as it \"may not travel well.\" Another study of sarcasm over email verifies these claims. A professional translator has advised that international business executives \"should generally avoid sarcasm in intercultural business conversations and written communications\" because of the difficulties in translating sarcasm.\n",
"Irony can be categorized into different types, including: \"verbal irony\", \"dramatic irony\", and \"situational irony\". Verbal, dramatic, and situational irony are often used for emphasis in the assertion of a truth. The ironic form of simile, used in sarcasm, and some forms of litotes can emphasize one's meaning by the deliberate use of language which states the opposite of the truth, denies the contrary of the truth, or drastically and obviously understates a factual connection. Other forms, as identified by historian Connop Thirlwall, include dialectic and practical irony.\n",
"Distinguishing sarcasm from banter, and referring to the use of irony in sarcasm, Derek Bousfield writes that sarcasm is: The use of strategies which, \"on the surface\" appear to be appropriate to the situation, but are meant to be taken as meaning the opposite in terms of \"face management\". That is, the utterance which appears, on the surface, to maintain or enhance the face of the recipient actually attacks and damages the face of the recipient. ... \"sarcasm\" is an insincere form of politeness which is used to offend one's interlocutor.\n",
"There's a certain aspect of sarcasm, I guess, being a guy from Seattle who lives in L.A., ex-drug addict who lives in the belly of the beast and doesn't partake, and being totally cool with that...It's like being the bad gambler and living in Vegas. It's right there. It's just the irony of that and a little bit of sarcasm. And it's not putting this place down at all. It's just kind of like, 'Wow, you know, check my brain, wow.'\n"
] |
Why are there tigers in Primorye and historically throughout Siberia, but none in the similar ecosystem of Alaska?
|
There were a number of large cats that formerly inhabited North America, such as the American Lion: _URL_2_ And the Saber-toothed cat: _URL_1_
The only species to survive in North America into modern times is the Cougar. _URL_0_
|
[
"Siberian tigers used to be common on either side of the Amur River in Russia and China, as well as in northeastern Mongolia and South Korea. Caspian tigers lived around the Caspian sea in Azerbaijan, Iran and Turkmenistan, and also further away in Armenia, Georgia and Turkey and Kazakhstan all the way to the Altai Mountains in the East. Caspian tigers reportedly became extinct in the 1970s after many years of hunting, poaching and habitat loss. Siberian tigers lost most of their ranges in Siberia and China and became extinct in the wild of Korea and Mongolia.\n",
"The Siberian tiger (\"Panthera tigris tigris\") is a tiger population in the Russian Far East and Northeast China, and possibly North Korea. It once ranged throughout the Korean Peninsula, north China, Russian Far East, and eastern Mongolia. Today, this population inhabits mainly the Sikhote Alin mountain region in southwest Primorye Province in the Russian Far East. In 2005, there were 331–393 adult and subadult Siberian tigers in this region, with a breeding adult population of about 250 individuals. The population had been stable for more than a decade due to intensive conservation efforts, but partial surveys conducted after 2005 indicate that the Russian tiger population was declining. An initial census held in 2015 indicated that the Siberian tiger population had increased to 480–540 individuals in the Russian Far East, including 100 cubs. This was followed up by a more detailed census which revealed there was a total population of 562 wild Siberian tigers in Russia. As of 2014, about 35 individuals were estimated to range in the international border area between Russia and China.\n",
"The Amur region of Russia holds the last remaining habitats of the critically endangered Amur tiger, Amur leopard, and Manchurian sika deer. It has been estimated that there are less the 600 tigers. and around 40 leopards left in the wild. The area also contains populations of Asiatic black bears and Kamchatka brown bears, as the Russian Far East is the only place in the world where tigers, brown bears, and leopards coexist. This region also happens to be some of the last of habitat of the Blakiston’s fish owl (Bubo blakistoni); along with being the world’s largest owl, it is unique in the way that it eats fish (primarily Masu salmon) and relies on old growth forests along river banks to feed, nest, and breed. Common ungulates include red deer, roe deer, wild boar, Manchurian moose, and musk deer.\n",
"BULLET::::- In the 1900s (decade) the Russian government declared that there is no place for tigers in Central Asia and Caucasus. The Russian army was tasked with the extermination of all tigers in the Caspian Sea area so that farmers could move in. It is unknown whether the Caspian tiger is entirely extinct since there are some reports of sightings in Afghanistan.\n",
"The Siberian tiger once inhabited much of the Korean Peninsula, Manchuria and other parts of north-eastern China, the eastern part of Siberia and the Russian Far East, perhaps as far west as Mongolia and the area of Lake Baikal, where the Caspian tiger also reportedly occurred. The geographical range of the tiger in the Russian Far East stretches south to north for almost the length of Primorsky Krai and into southern Khabarovsk Krai east and south of the Amur River. It also occurs within the Greater Xing'an Range, which crosses into Russia from China at several places in southwest Primorye. In both regions, peaks are generally above sea level, with only a few reaching or more. This region represents a merger zone of two bioregions: the East Asian coniferous-deciduous complex and the Taiga, resulting in a mosaic of forest types that vary with elevation, topography, and history. Key habitats of the Siberian tiger are Korean pine broadleaf forests with a complex composition and structure.\n",
"The Siberian tiger occurs in the Northeast, along the border with Russia and North Korea. The Caspian tiger was last seen in the Manasi River Basin of the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region in the 1960s, where this population is now extinct. The South China tiger is an endemic population whose habitat is now confined to the mountain regions of Jiangxi, Hunan, Guangdong and Fujian. A few Indochinese tigers were known to live in Yunnan where six nature reserves have been established for their protection.\n",
"Large mammals such as tigers, bears, and lynx were once abundant throughout the Korean peninsula. However, they have virtually disappeared due to human settlement, loss of forest habitat, and over-hunting. The Siberian tiger has not been sighted in South Korea since the 1920s. Bears and Wildcats can still be found in the more remote areas, such as Jiri-san and Seorak-san. South Korea also has several indigenous species of deer, including the roe deer and the Siberian musk deer. Wild boars have been growing common in recent years, thanks to reduced hunting pressure.\n"
] |
What does it mean for a substance to have 0 viscosity?
|
It's been a few years since I last did matter at low temp, but IIRC there are a few things that characterise such a state:
- Film flow: superfluids are capable of climbing out of open beakers, even against gravity. Here is a cool [video](_URL_2_)
- Superleaks: Superfluids can leak through incredibly small holes which normal viscous liquids would be unable to do. So one example would be a narrow tube packed with loads of cotton wool.
- Fountain effect: [video](_URL_1_) and [link](_URL_0_) will explain better than me
- Also quantised vortices but I don't know enough about them, maybe someone else can fill in
|
[
"The intrinsic viscosity of the material, found by extrapolating to zero concentration of relative viscosity to concentration which is measured in deciliters per gram (dℓ/g). Intrinsic viscosity is dependent upon the length of its polymer chains but has no units due to being extrapolated to zero concentration. The longer the polymer chains the more entanglements between chains and therefore the higher the viscosity. The average chain length of a particular batch of resin can be controlled during polycondensation.\n",
"Viscosity is the material property which relates the viscous stresses in a material to the rate of change of a deformation (the strain rate). Although it applies to general flows, it is easy to visualize and define in a simple shearing flow, such as a planar Couette flow.\n",
"Intrinsic viscosity formula_1 is a measure of a solute's contribution to the viscosity formula_2 of a solution. It should not be confused with inherent viscosity, which is the ratio of the natural logarithm of the relative viscosity to the mass concentration of the polymer.\n",
"The viscosity is one of the measures of a fluid substance that is the resistance of itself. It can be described as high viscosity or low viscosity. Before the study of the viscosity of a liquid, a scientist called van der Gulik has explained how the viscosity of gas determines. He said that the increase in temperature can increase the viscosity of the gas, but it is opposite to liquid. He also proposed the influence of the molecules exerts on each other to viscosity. Another person called Brillouin also has mentioned that the concept of free path of molecules should be given up. After several ideas have been mentioned and proposed, the typical image of the viscosity of liquids is that the molecule is actively bouncing in a space that is formed by other molecules when the momentum has been exchanged as collisions. Therefore, the viscosity coefficient is measured by the efficiency of exchange and by the number of collisions per unit of time and volume.\n",
"Critical viscosity is seldom measured and attempts to predict it by formulas are few. For a pure fluid, or component i in a fluid mixture, a formula from kinetic theory is often used to estimate critical viscosity.\n",
"Viscosity is usually described as the property of a fluid which determines the rate at which local momentum differences are equilibrated. Rotational viscosity is a property of a fluid which determines the rate at which local angular momentum differences are equilibrated. It is only appreciable if there are rotational degrees of freedom for the fluid particles. In the classical case, by the equipartition theorem, at equilibrium, if particle collisions can transfer angular momentum as well as linear momentum, then these degrees of freedom will have the same average energy. If there is a lack of equilibrium between these degrees of freedom, then the rate of equilibration will be determined by the rotational viscosity coefficient.\n",
"Observed values of viscosity vary over several orders of magnitude, even for common substances. For instance, a 70% sucrose (sugar) solution has a viscosity over 400 times that of water, and 26000 times that of air. More dramatically, pitch has been estimated to have a viscosity 230 billion times that of water.\n"
] |
Is there an infinite number of wavelengths on the EM spectrum between 2 wavelengths?
|
No, it's infinite. All wavelengths are allowed.
Planck's constant cannot do that, and you can deduce that without knowing the physics. The theory of photons is free quantum electrodynamics, which has only two dimensionful constants: c and hbar, respectively from relativity and QM. c has units of length/time, hbar has units mass×length^(2)/time. If you had some kind of discretization of wavelength, which has ofc units of length, the step should be a pure number times a length obtained by combination of powers of c and hbar. But as you can see, there is no way to build a length multiplying powers of c and hbar.
|
[
"The electromagnetic spectrum extends from below frequencies used for modern radio to gamma radiation at the short-wavelength end, covering wavelengths from thousands of kilometers down to a fraction of the size of an atom. That would be wavelengths from 10 to 10 kilometers. The long wavelength limit is the size of the universe itself, while it is thought that the short wavelength limit is in the vicinity of the Planck length, although in principle the spectrum is infinite and continuous.\n",
"There is a minimum possible wavelength, given by twice the equilibrium separation \"a\" between atoms. Any wavelength shorter than this can be mapped onto a wavelength longer than 2\"a\", due to the periodicity of the lattice. This can be thought as one consequence of Nyquist–Shannon sampling theorem, the lattice points are viewed as the \"sampling points\" of a continuous wave.\n",
"An absolute minimum continuous wavelength range is 0.4 to 1 μm, with possible short wavelength extensions down below 0.3 μm and near infrared extensions to 1.7 μm or even 2.5 μm, depending on the cost and complexity.\n",
"There is a \"minimum possible\" wavelength, given by the equilibrium separation \"a\" between atoms. Any wavelength shorter than this can be mapped onto a wavelength longer than \"a\", due to effects similar to that in aliasing.\n",
"The visible spectrum of light from hydrogen displays four wavelengths, 410 nm, 434 nm, 486 nm, and 656 nm, that correspond to emissions of photons by electrons in excited states transitioning to the quantum level described by the principal quantum number \"n\" equals 2. There are several prominent ultraviolet Balmer lines with wavelengths shorter than 400 nm. The number of these lines is an infinite continuum as it approaches a limit of 364.6 nm in the ultraviolet.\n",
"The 430-nanometer wavelength corresponds to a deep blue (violet) light, and was chosen, as was the multiplier, to make values determined in the SRM system comparable to those determined using the Lovibond system in use at the time the SRM was adopted.\n",
"In electricity and magnetism, the long wavelength limit is the limiting case when the wavelength is much larger than the system size. This corresponds to the quasi-static case, and reduces to electrostatics and magnetostatics.\n"
] |
how come after only a couple days of not working out, i feel and look like i'm not in good shape anymore?
|
It's honestly a mental thing. If you think you look/feel good, then you will (if you're pretty healthy). I know that I feel like I'm in a funk when I don't work out for a few days. It's all in my head, though.
|
[
"Dr. Pope said that when individuals have a regular workout regimen, but sustain an injury, they can't wait to get back to working out and that it has a psychiatric protective effect for them. He also said their instincts are to get back to work and if they allow their working out to lapse too long then bad things may start to happen.\n",
"Is caused by overexerting. The body symptoms are fatigue, lack of motivation, losing body weight, decreased performance, depression, insomnia and immune system weakening. This can affect the athlete mentally as well as physically.\n",
"Research has shown that the body experiences muscle fatigue after standing for five hours; this fatigue persists for more than 30 minutes after the end of the work day according to electronic measurements of fatigue. The perception of fatigue is subjective and does not necessarily correlate with the experimental indicators of fatigue.\n",
"Haldeman stated in an article posted on Muscle Foods USA's website: \"I found fitness more by circumstance than anything else. I had an injury (2009) that resulted in my inability to walk or run for quite some time. It was recommended to me that I try weight training during this time to keep in shape and help reduces my recovery time. At the time I had zero interest in lifting weights or making a daily trip to the gym. It didn’t take long, however, until I found that I loved what resistance training can do to your body. After only a few short weeks I was hooked and started to learn everything I could about sculpting and building my physique….and although a few years have passed since then I am just as excited learning about everything health and fitness related ! It is a life style that I have completely submerged myself in!\" \n",
"Over the next few years as I tried the ‘lose-weight-without-any-change’ method, as I wore ever tighter clothes, and weighed myself to depression, I felt doomed. My lowest point was the day I weighed myself after a haircut.\n",
"Even work does not take the pain away. I may be diving for my own pleasure or showing others how to do so, but when I return to the shop, it seems empty without you. I stock and order as I always did, but even now, I sometimes glance over my shoulder without thinking and call for you. As I write this note to you, I wonder when, or if, things like that will ever stop.\n",
"I wish that my lungs felt as good as my hip. If I last four days (of practice) in a row and my hip's barking at me, then that's all she wrote. I know how I felt when I had to retire and I know how I'm feeling now. It's not really how I want to feel. It was fun while I was out there but each day I skated, the pain just kind of lingered a lot longer than I would have liked. I was feeling really good and had started getting some different treatment. I practiced a few times with the Bruins but after some really hard practices, realized there was just no way I could continue.\n"
] |
how and why exactly does anxiety affect your whole body? (eg. digestive system, feeling cold, etc)
|
Stress causes your adrenal glands to release adrenaline which causes a wide range of physical symptoms.
|
[
"The behavioral effects of anxiety may include withdrawal from situations which have provoked anxiety or negative feelings in the past. Other effects may include changes in sleeping patterns, changes in habits, increase or decrease in food intake, and increased motor tension (such as foot tapping).\n",
"Researchers believe that feelings of anxiety arise to prepare a person for threats. In humans, anxiety symptoms are distributed along a continuum and different symptom levels of anxiety predict outcomes. Responses consist of increased heart rate, stress hormone secretion, restlessness, vigilance, and fear of a potentially dangerous environment. Anxiety prepares the body physically, cognitively, and behaviourally to detect and deal with threats to survival. As a result, a person's body begins to hyperventilate to allow more oxygen to enter the bloodstream, divert blood to muscles, and sweat to cool the skin. In individuals, the degree to which an anxiety response is developed is based on the probability of bad things happening in the environment and the individual's ability to cope with them. In the case of test taking, this might be a failing exam grade that prevents the student from being accepted to a post-secondary institution. A person's beliefs about their own competencies are a form of self-knowledge, which plays an important role in analyzing situations that might be threatening. When a person has feelings of low competence about their abilities they are likely to anticipate negative outcomes such as failure, under uncertain conditions. Thus, evaluative situations including tests and exams, are perceived as more threatening by students who have low competencies.\n",
"Somatic anxiety is the physical symptoms of anxiety, such as butterflies in the stomach. It is also known as somatization. It is commonly contrasted with \"cognitive anxiety\", which is the mental manifestations of anxiety, or the specific thought processes that occur during anxiety, such as concern or worry. These different components of anxiety are especially studied in sports psychology, specifically relating to how the anxiety symptoms affect athletic performance.\n",
"The emotional effects of anxiety may include \"feelings of apprehension or dread, trouble concentrating, feeling tense or jumpy, anticipating the worst, irritability, restlessness, watching (and waiting) for signs (and occurrences) of danger, and, feeling like your mind's gone blank\" as well as \"nightmares/bad dreams, obsessions about sensations, déjà vu, a trapped-in-your-mind feeling, and feeling like everything is scary.\"\n",
"Stress hormones released in an anxious state have an impact on bowel function and can manifest physical symptoms that may contribute to or exacerbate IBS. Anxiety is often experienced by those with obsessive–compulsive disorder and is an acute presence in panic disorder.\n",
"While anxiety arose as an adaptation, in modern times it is almost always thought of negatively in the context of anxiety disorders. People with these disorders have highly sensitive systems; hence, their systems tend to overreact to seemingly harmless stimuli. Sometimes anxiety disorders occur in those who have had traumatic youths, demonstrating an increased prevalence of anxiety when it appears a child will have a difficult future. In these cases, the disorder arises as a way to predict that the individual's environment will continue to pose threats.\n",
"Psychodynamic theory posits that anxiety is often the result of opposing unconscious wishes or fears that manifest via maladaptive defense mechanisms (such as suppression, repression, anticipation, regression, somatization, passive aggression, dissociation) that develop to adapt to problems with early objects (e.g., caregivers) and empathic failures in childhood. For example, persistent parental discouragement of anger may result in repression/suppression of angry feelings which manifests as gastrointestinal distress (somatization) when provoked by another while the anger remains unconscious and outside the individual's awareness. Such conflicts can be targets for successful treatment with psychodynamic therapy. While psychodynamic therapy tends to explore the underlying roots of anxiety, cognitive behavioral therapy has also been shown to be a successful treatment for anxiety by altering irrational thoughts and unwanted behaviors.\n"
] |
Why was Portugal accepted into NATO?
|
While both regimes shared very similar outlooks (Corporatist, authoritarian, conservative, anti-communist states) both had significantly different reputations after the 2nd world war. Salazar was an incredibly well regarded statesman, who had a great dislike for Hitler and who stayed neutral during the war due to a strategic issue (Anglo-Portugese alliance stayed intact as a strategic issue, as Portugal was poorly defended and the British did not need more reason to draw the Spanish into the war.) Franco had presided over an incredibly bloody civil war and had only stayed neutral in the 2nd world war because the Germans thought his conditions for Spanish military help were unfeasible (Rumor is Hitler once stated he'd rather have teeth pulled than continue to deal with Franco).
Four years after the end of the 2nd world war, when the North Atlantic treaty was signed, few people had forgotten had close Spain was to becoming a full-fledged member of the Axis.
|
[
"NATO's focus on preventing a conventional Soviet attack against Western Europe was to the detriment of military preparations against guerrilla uprisings in Portugal's overseas provinces that were considered essential for the survival of the nation. The integration of Portugal in NATO resulted in the formation of a military élite that were critical in the planning and implementation of operations during the Overseas War. This \"NATO generation\" ascended quickly to the highest political positions and military command without having to provide evidence of loyalty to the regime.\n",
"The membership of the organization at this time remained largely static. In 1974, as a consequence of the Turkish invasion of Cyprus, Greece withdrew its forces from NATO's military command structure but, with Turkish cooperation, were readmitted in 1980. The Falklands War between the United Kingdom and Argentina did not result in NATO involvement because article 6 of the North Atlantic Treaty specifies that collective self-defence is only applicable to attacks on member state territories north of the Tropic of Cancer. On 30 May 1982, NATO gained a new member when the newly democratic Spain joined the alliance; Spain's membership was confirmed by referendum in 1986. At the peak of the Cold War, 16 member nations maintained an approximate strength of 5,252,800 active military, including as many as 435,000 forward deployed US forces, under a command structure that reached a peak of 78 headquarters, organized into four echelons.\n",
"The alliance has served both countries throughout their respective military histories, influencing the participation of the United Kingdom in the Iberian Peninsular War, the UK's major land contribution to the Napoleonic Wars and the establishment of an Anglo-American base in Portugal. Portugal aided England (and later the UK) in times of need, for example, in the First World War. Today, Portugal and the United Kingdom are both part of NATO, a larger intergovernmental military alliance between several North American and European states that accounts for over 70% of total global military spending.\n",
"A member state of the United Nations since 1955, Portugal is also a founding member of NATO (1949), OECD (1961) and EFTA (1960); it left the last in 1986 to join the European Economic Community, which became the European Union in 1993.\n",
"Portugal was a founding member of NATO (1949), Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (1961), and European Free Trade Area (1960); it left the latter in 1986 to join the European Economic Community, which would become the European Union (EU) in 1993. In 1996, it co-founded the Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP). The country is a member state of the United Nations since 1955.\n",
"After World War II, Portugal was one of the founding nations of NATO. In the scope of the Cold War, the Portuguese fleet actively participated in the defense of the North Atlantic against the Soviet naval threat. Inside NATO, the Portuguese Navy stands out by the development of a high proficiency in the mine and anti-submarine warfares.\n",
"NATO has added new members seven times since its founding in 1949 to include twenty-nine members. Twelve countries were part of the founding of NATO: Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, the United Kingdom, and the United States. The early years of the Cold War saw a stark divide between Capitalist states, backed by United States, and Communist satellite states of the Soviet Union. This divide eased inclusion of Portugal under Salazar in NATO and encouraged the anti-Communist governments of Greece and Turkey to join NATO in 1952. Greece would suspend its membership in 1974, over the Turkish invasion of Cyprus, but rejoined in 1980 with Turkey's cooperation.\n"
] |
why do politicians owe favors to their donors?
|
Let's look at it at a "before presidency thing", first. To get to that point you have held one office or another multiple times. You would not have gotten past the first if you were known not to "repay favours", as you would get no donors the second time. Now, to the presidency. Let's assume you decide "OK, I'm here, no more sucking up". Can you get any work done? Not really because EVERYONE else needs to still suck up to those campaign funds. So you get nothing done and when your one term is over you find no jobs waiting for you on the other side.
As for evidence? It is hard to tell. Being able to "follow the money" in a lot of cases is difficult, although others are less so.
|
[
"Although the political science literature indicates that most contributors give to support parties or candidates with whom they are already in agreement, there is wide public perception that donors expect government favors in return. (such as specific legislation being enacted or defeated), so some have come to equate campaign finance with political corruption and bribery. These views have led governments to reform campaign financing in the hope of eliminating big money influence.\n",
"A 2016 experimental study in the \"American Journal of Political Science\" found that politicians made themselves more available for meetings with individuals when they believed that the individuals had donated to their campaign. A 2011 study found that \"even after controlling for past contracts and other factors, companies that contributed more money to federal candidates subsequently received more contracts.\" A 2016 study in the \"Journal of Politics\" found that industries overseen by committees decreased their contributions to congresspeople who recently departed from the committees and that they immediately increase their contributions to new members of the committees, which is \"evidence that corporations and business PACs use donations to acquire immediate access and favor—suggesting they at least anticipate that the donations will influence policy.\" Research by University of Chicago political scientist Anthony Fowler and Northwestern University political scientists Haritz Garro and Jörg L. Spenkuch found no evidence that corporations that donated to a candidate received any monetary benefits from the candidate winning election.\n",
"According to McMaster University political scientist Henry Jacek, political contributions tend to come from the wealthy, and not the poor. It is also clear from other jurisdictions in the world that political donors typically are people that have more disposable income.\n",
"Politics is another area where the power of reciprocity is evident. While politicians often claim autonomy from the feelings of obligation associated with gifts and favors that influence everyone else, they are also susceptible. In the 2002 election, U.S. Congress Representatives who received the most money from special interest groups were over seven times more likely to vote in favor of the group that had contributed the most money to their campaigns.\n",
"Despite the AEC publishing a yearly list of political donors, it is often difficult to ascertain who made the donation, as political parties sometimes use \"associated entities\" as front organisations to hide the source of donations.\n",
"Moreover, the dependence on foundations for revenue, can cause an ideological skewing towards the political orientation of their donors. The donors may also have secret propaganda agendas and aim to utilize these news networks for their own spread of knowledge. However, as mentioned earlier, this could be bypassed by increasing the number of donor sources. The centers also have to create a respectable profile to convince foundations, organizations and individuals to donate, which, in return could in increase the quality of reporting.\n",
"A 2017 study found that \"only a small portion of Americans make campaign donations\" and that both Democratic and Republican donors \"are more ideologically extreme than other partisans, including primary voters. With respect to why individuals contribute, we show that donors appear responsive to their perception of the stakes in the election.\"\n"
] |
How far can an ant be removed from the anthill and still find its way home?
|
This has been asked a lot before so if you want deeper answers you can look them up. Basically if an ant doesn't know where it's trail home is it will start wandering around in random(ish) directions trying to find it. IIRC, they also have a good ability to remember landmarks, so that can help too.
If they are really far away and can't find their home then yes, then they may wander until they die. They may find another colony that they can assimilate into, but more than likely they ants their won't accept the foreigner and will attack and kill it (even if it's the same species possibly.)
So to answer your question of how far away, it depends. If they are a really long ways away, but get lucky in their random search they can find their way back. In general, I've seen estimates hover closer to 100 or less meters. It's actually a neat direct application of some of the algorithms in computer science if you want a more rigorous way to think of it.
|
[
"Then let it move Northwards, over \"the hill\", then towards the Northwest so that it starts sliding down towards the \"x = 0\" axis. As soon as the ant crosses this axis it will find itself \"inside\" the Northern lobe, standing right side up. Now let the ant walk towards the North. It will climb up the wall, then along the \"roof\" of the Northern lobe. The ant is back on the third hyperbolic paraboloid, but this time under it and standing upside-down. (Compare with Klein bottle.)\n",
"After following the pheromone trail to vegetation, ants climb onto leaves or grass and begin cutting off sections. To do this, they place one mandible, called the fixed mandible, onto a leaf and anchor it. Then they open the other, called the motile mandible, and place it on the leaf tissue. The ant keeps moves the motile jaw and pulls the fixed jaw behind it by closing them together until the fragment detaches. Which jaw is fixed and which is motile varies depending on the direction the ant chooses to cut a fragment in.\n",
"This ant is found in rainforests in tropical regions of India, Hong Kong, Malaysia, Sarawak, Singapore, Vietnam, Papua New Guinea and parts of the Northern Territory and Queensland in Australia. In Australia it is not usually found above 300 metres and occupies a similar range to the weaver ant, \"Oecophylla smaragdina\".\n",
"Numerous large ant-hills are a prominent feature of the reserve. They are made by the yellow meadow ant. In some places they may be as a high as a metre. In parts of Gloucestershire the ant hills are known as \"emmet casts\", \"emmet\" being the old English word for ant.\n",
"This ant ventures far from its burrow in the Sahara Desert, which has almost no identifiable features. While venturing out it periodically takes measurements of its angle in respect to the Sun. By doing this the ant can venture far from its nest in search of food. Because of the blistering heat, it can only do this for about 3–5 minutes/day (the hottest time of the day, when all its predators are in hiding from the sun). When the ant finds a dead insect it then looks at the sun and because of its periodic references to the sun's angle it knows exactly what the shortest route back to the nest is. Researchers from the Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology have also verified that desert microhabitats have unique odour signatures that can guide the ants back to the nest.\n",
"This ant usually builds its nest in a hollow in a large live or dead tree. A small entrance may lead to a complex of tunnels and chambers, all excavated by the ants. From the nest the workers emerge by day to forage on other parts of the tree, or cross to contiguous trees, and make use of the crevices in the bark as runways to descend to the ground where they also forage. Auxiliary nests may sometimes be found a little apart from the main colony.\n",
"Imagine an ant on top of the \"third\" hyperbolic paraboloid, \"z = x y\". Let this ant move North. As it moves, it will pass through the other two paraboloids, like a ghost passing through a wall. These other paraboloids only seem like obstacles due to the self-intersecting nature of the immersion. Let the ant ignore all double and triple points and pass right through them. So the ant moves to the North and falls off the edge of the world, so to speak. It now finds itself on the northern lobe, hidden underneath the third paraboloid of Figure 3. The ant is standing upside-down, on the \"outside\" of the Roman surface.\n"
] |
why do planes take what seems like huge detours instead of straight lines to the destination?
|
Airplanes take [Great Circle paths](_URL_1_), the shortest distance between two points on a globe, effectively a straight line. And when you look at the globe, they do look like straight lines. But when you flatten the globe into a map, [they get distorted](_URL_0_)
|
[
"The path that a vessel follows over the ground is called a \"ground track\", \"course made good\" or \"course over the ground\". For an aircraft it is simply its \"track\". The intended track is a \"route\". For ships and aircraft, routes are typically straight-line segments between waypoints. A navigator determines the \"bearing\" (the compass direction from the craft's current position) of the next waypoint. Because water currents or wind can cause a craft to drift off course, a navigator sets a \"course to steer\" that compensates for drift. The helmsman or pilot points the craft on a \"heading\" that corresponds to the course to steer. If the predicted drift is correct, then the craft's track will correspond to the planned course to the next waypoint. Course directions are specified in degrees from north, either true or magnetic. In aviation, north is usually expressed as 360°. Navigators used ordinal directions, instead of compass degrees, e.g. \"northeast\" instead of 45° until the mid-20th century when the use of degrees became prevalent.\n",
"The aircraft cannot be too close to each other, so the player needs to make sure that they are passing each other on different flight levels or with sufficient distance (three grid dots north/south or east/west) between them. When an aircraft is in danger of crashing or is exiting at the wrong location or altitude, the aircraft will inform the air traffic controller. Aircraft do not change course/altitude unless the player tells them to. Incoming aircraft not given clearance to land, however, will go into a holding pattern and wait until given clearance. When necessary, the player can also give holding instructions to aircraft, as long as their course takes them over a VOR tower which is used as the holding fix.\n",
"With the exception of landing, plus a few exotic maneuvers, stalling an aircraft is typically avoided in most conventional maneuvers, both because the plane is no longer flying normally, making the control surfaces sloppy and sluggish to react, and also because the aircraft is balanced on the edge of losing control. If the pilot can maintain a level attitude (nose position in relation to the horizon) and keep the wings level, the plane should theoretically float downward at its terminal velocity, which is partially determined by the shape of the plane in the direction of the relative wind. However, the slightest bit of variation in any of a number of factors, such as control surface inputs or air turbulence, will generally result in the aircraft beginning a rotation around both the yaw and roll axes, referred to as \"incipient spin.\" The rotation may be self-induced, called autorotation, or, in maneuvers like the falling leaf, the rotation is pilot-induced by using the rudder.\n",
"At a controlled airport, air traffic control will direct aircraft to the localizer course via assigned headings, making sure aircraft do not get too close to each other (maintain separation), but also avoiding delay as much as possible. Several aircraft can be on the ILS at the same time, several miles apart. An aircraft that has turned onto the inbound heading and is within two and a half degrees of the localizer course (half scale deflection or less shown by the course deviation indicator) is said to be \"established\" on the approach. Typically, an aircraft is established by at least prior to the final approach fix (glideslope intercept at the specified altitude).\n",
"An out-of-plane maneuver enhances this effect, by diverting the fighter into a new plane of travel. Increasing the pitch or slice can quickly provide a change in speed, which can just as quickly be reversed by returning to the original plane of travel. Out-of-plane maneuvers are not only used to provide a reduction in turn radius, but also causes the fighter to fly a longer path in relation to the direction of travel. A maneuver such as a high Yo-Yo is used to slow closure and to bring the fighter into lag pursuit, while a low Yo-Yo is used to increase closure and to bring the fighter into lead pursuit.\n",
"In air navigation, ground tracks typically approximate an arc of a great circle, this being the shortest distance between two points on the Earth's surface. In order to follow a specified ground track, a pilot must adjust their heading in order to compensate for the effect of wind. Aircraft routes are planned to avoid restricted airspace and dangerous areas, and to pass near navigation beacons.\n",
"In general, to avoid vortices an aircraft is safer if its takeoff is before the rotation point of the airplane that took off before it. However care must be taken to stay upwind (or otherwise away) from any vortices that were generated by the previous aircraft. On landing behind an airplane the aircraft should stay above the earlier one's flight path and touch down further along the runway.\n"
] |
seriously, how do cell phones work?!
|
First of all it's not instant. It's something like one twentieth of a second from the time you speak until the other person hears you, and it depends on how far away you are from each other. It takes time to transmit information, so no kind of communication is instantaneous.
Step by step here is a basic overview. If there's any specific part of this you are curious about I can explain more.
The sound of your voice goes into the microphone.
The microphone converts these sounds into electrical signals.
A part in the phone called a ADC converts these signals into a stream of numbers.
A tiny but very fast computer in the phone does lots of math with the numbers to process the signal, compress the information so there's not too much to transmit, and package it into a format that the phone company can understand.
A radio in the phone transmits these numbers onto the airwaves.
The nearest cell tower receives the radio signal.
A computer at the cell tower then retransmits the numbers, in the form of light waves, into cables that run all over the country. Lots of fancy equipment in big air conditioned facilities all over the world pass this information along to its destination.
At the other end, the reverse process occurs until the sound you made finally exits the other person's phone through its speaker.
|
[
"A cell phone is a wireless portable telephone that connects to the telephone network by radio waves exchanged with a local antenna and automated transceiver called a cellular base station (\"cell site\" or \"cell tower\"). The service area served by each provider is divided into small geographical areas called \"cells\", and all the cell phones in a cell communicate with that cell's antenna. Both the cell phone and the cell tower have radio transmitters which communicate with each other. Since in a cellular network the same radio channels are reused every few cells, cellular networks use low power transmitters to avoid radio waves from one cell spilling over and interfering with a nearby cell using the same frequencies.\n",
"Cellular telephones are radio transmitters and receivers much like a walkie-talkie. However, the cell phone communicates only with a repeater inside a nearby cell tower installation. At that installation, the devices take in all cell calls in its geographic area and repeat them out to other cell installations which repeat the signals onward to their destination telephone (either by radio or landline wires). Radio is used also to transmit a caller's voice/data back to the receiver's cell telephone. The two-way duplex phone conversation then exists via these interconnections.\n",
"Single number means that the mobile phone and the desk phone share an extension number. So only one phone number need be given out to receive calls on either a mobile or desk phone. But the cell phone likely still has its own number, it’s just that one need not give it out to anyone. To make business calls from a cell phone, one dials an access number at the office, gets a new dial tone, and then dials the destination number. This allows taking advantage of corporate least-cost-routing, and shows the office number on the caller ID display of the called person.\n",
"A mobile phone, or cell phone, is a long-range, electronic device used for mobile voice or data communication over a network of specialized base stations known as cell sites. Early mobile FM radio telephones were in use for many years, but since the number of radio frequencies were very limited in any area, the number of phone calls were also very limited. To solve this problem, there could be many small areas called cells which share the same frequencies. When users moved from one area to another while calling, the call would have to be switched over automatically without losing the call. In this system, a small number of radio frequencies could accommodate a huge number of calls. The first mobile call was made from a car phone in St. Louis, Missouri on June 17, 1946, but the system was impractical from what is considered a portable handset today. The equipment weighed 80 lbs, and the AT&T service, basically a massive party line, cost $30 per month plus 30 to 40 cents per local call. The basic network and supporting infrastructure of hexagonal cells used to support a mobile telephony system while remaining on the same channel were devised by Douglas H. Ring and W. Rae Young at AT&T Bell Labs in 1947. Finally in 1973, Martin Cooper invented the first handheld cellular/mobile phone. His first mobile phone call was made to Joel S. Engel in April 1973.\n",
"Some cellular telephone networks offer a push-to-talk handset that allows walkie-talkie-like operation over the cellular network, without dialing a call each time. However, the cellphone provider must be accessible.\n",
"To make all that work correctly, the system allows automatic increases and decreases in transmitter power (for the individual cell phone and for the tower repeater, too) so that only the minimum transmit power is used to complete and hold the call active, \"on\", and allows the users to hear and be heard continuously during the conversation. The goal is to hold the call active but use the least amount of transmitting power, mainly to conserve batteries and be efficient. The tower system will sense when a cell phone is not coming in clearly and will order the cell phone to boost transmit power. The user has no control over this boosting; it may occur for a split second or for the whole conversation. If the user is in a remote location, the power boost may be continuous. In addition to carrying voice or data, the cell phone also transmits data about itself automatically, and that is boosted or not as the system detects need.\n",
"All mobile phones are designed to work on cellular networks and contain a standard set of services that allow phones of different types and in different countries to communicate with each other. However, they can also support other features added by various manufacturers over the years:\n"
] |
Can a fusion reaction occur near the boundary of the event horizon of a black hole with enough material?
|
It is probably not possible for sustained fusion to occur near a black hole, but some fusion may occur on a small scale. Matter falling into a black hole can (if the black hole is large enough) attain incredibly high speeds, even significant fractions of the speed of light. If a black hole accumulates a large cloud of matter around it, internal collisions between high-velocity objects can produce short situations with sufficient pressure to achieve fusion. This is not where the 'burps' come from though. The best example we can look at is a [Quasar](_URL_0_), a galaxy-sized cloud of accreting matter that is falling into a supermassive black hole. These incredibly bright objects produce far more energy per time unit than any star and are often likened to a sustained supernova in terms of their energy output. Th only source of energy that could be that plentiful with the sustained output that quasars demonstrate is the release of gravitational energy of infalling matter. This process is not very well understood, but it is far more efficient than nuclear fusion, and is the source of the 'burps' you are talking about.
|
[
"BULLET::::- the Schwarzschild generating plane wave, a gravitational plane wave which, should it collide head-on with a twin, will produce in the \"interaction zone\" of the resulting colliding plane wave solution a region which is locally isometric to part of the \"interior\" of a Schwarzschild black hole, thereby permitting a classical peek at the local geometry \"inside\" the event horizon,\n",
"An alternative explanation proposed by Friedwardt Winterberg is that in the course of a gravitational collapse and in reaching the event horizon of a black hole, all matter disintegrates into a burst of gamma radiation.\n",
"A fusion explosion begins with the detonation of the fission primary stage. Its temperature soars past approximately one hundred million kelvins, causing it to glow intensely with thermal X-radiation. These X-rays flood the void (the \"radiation channel\" often filled with polystyrene foam) between the primary and secondary assemblies placed within an enclosure called a radiation case, which confines the X-ray energy and resists its outward pressure. The distance separating the two assemblies ensures that debris fragments from the fission primary (which move much slower than X-ray photons) cannot disassemble the secondary before the fusion explosion runs to completion.\n",
"The probability that fusion occurs is greatly increased compared to the classical picture, thanks to the smearing of the effective radius as the DeBroglie wavelength as well as quantum tunnelling through the potential barrier. To determine the rate of fusion reactions, the value of most interest is the cross section, which describes the probability that particle will fuse by giving a characteristic area of interaction. An estimation of the fusion cross sectional area is often broken into three pieces:\n",
"In 1958, David Finkelstein identified the Schwarzschild surface as an event horizon, \"a perfect unidirectional membrane: causal influences can cross it in only one direction\". This did not strictly contradict Oppenheimer's results, but extended them to include the point of view of infalling observers. Finkelstein's solution extended the Schwarzschild solution for the future of observers falling into a black hole. A complete extension had already been found by Martin Kruskal, who was urged to publish it.\n",
"In the simple picture of stellar collapse leading to formation of a black hole, an event horizon forms before an apparent horizon. As the black hole settles down, the two horizons approach each other, and asymptotically become the same surface. If the AH exists, it is necessarily inside of the EH.\n",
"Event horizons can, in principle, arise and evolve in exactly flat regions of spacetime, having no black hole inside, if a hollow spherically symmetric thin shell of matter is collapsing in a vacuum spacetime. The exterior of the shell is a portion of Schwarzschild space and the interior of the hollow shell is exactly flat Minkowski space. Bob Geroch has pointed out that if all the stars in the Milky Way gradually aggregate towards the galactic center while keeping their proportionate distances from each other, they will all fall within their joint Schwarzschild radius long before they are forced to collide. \n"
] |
which is the best theory on how the world will function in ~100 years (socially, economically etc) and what reasoning supports this/these theories?
|
there is no way to decide which theory is "best", and there is no good theory that can be done up in one Reddit post, do i suggest you read some books instead
the best theory i've read syas that in a hundred years, most countries will have space colonies, which will be used to gather energy and minerals. Far East Asia will be unified as an economic powerhouse, and Europe will have fallen far behind them and the US due to population crunch. Russia will go to war to create a buffer zone in Europe because the using up of fossil fuels in the middle East will make Siberia a big target for other countries. it will be defeated by America, the East Asian alliance, Eastern European alliance, and turkey. the last one will benefit from the fall of geopolitical importance of the middle East after oil runs out, and, with an alliance with Iran, will control most of the middle east and a good chunk of central asia and north africa. it will still be behind Europe industrially and technologically, and will be the major supplier of labour to the then critically undermanned Europe, causing the ethnic ratios to become very skewed.
Also, India and Mexico will become superpowers and challenge the US.
i know what i said sounds far fetched, but it's hard summarizing a 300 page book into one comment, and it(the book) does a good job of explaining it, so i suggest you go read it.
|
[
"The \"Dynamics of Growth in a Finite World\" provides several different scenarios. The \"reference run\" is the one that \"represent the most likely behavior mode of the system if the process of industrialization in the future proceeds in a way very similar to its progress in the past, and if technologies and value changes that have already been institutionalized continue to evolve.\" In this scenario, in 2000, the world population reaches six billion, and then goes on to peak at seven billion in 2030. After that population declines because of an increased death rate. In 2015, both industrial output per capita and food per capita peak at US$375 per person (1970s dollars) and 500 vegetable-equivalent kilograms/person. Persistent pollution peaks in the year 2035 at 11 times 1970s levels.\n",
"The World Systems Theory argues that a nation's future is decided by their stance in the global economy. A global capitalistic market demands the needs for wealthy (core) states and poor (periphery) states. Core states benefit from the hierarchical structure of international trade and labor. World systems theory follows the logic that international wars or multinational financial disputes can be explained as attempts to change a location within the global market for a specific state or groups of states; these changes can have the objective to gain more control over the global market (to become a core country), while causing another nation to lose control over the world market. As the two groups grew apart in power, world systems theorists to established another group, the semi-periphery, to act as the middle group.\n",
"Immanuel Wallerstein's world system theory develops a basic framework to understand global power shifts in the rise of the modern world. Wallerstein proposes four different categories: core, semi-periphery, periphery, and external, in terms of different region's relative position in the world system. The core regions are the ones that benefited the most from the capitalist world economy, such as England and France. The peripheral areas relied on and exported raw materials to the core, such as Eastern Europe and Latin America. The semi-peripheries are either core regions in decline or peripheries attempting to improve their relative position in the world system, such as Portugal and Spain. The external areas managed to remain outside the modern world economy, such as Russia.\n",
"The scenario of world economy influenced Philip Kotler to coin the term “Creating a Better World through Marketing”, asserting that that creation of positive perceptions is the fastest route toward attaining behavioural changes to make a better world.\n",
"Stephen G. Bunker (d. 2005) and Paul S. Ciccantell collaborated on two books from a world-systems theory view, following commodity chains through history of the modern world system, charting the changing importance of space, time, and scale of extraction and how these variables influenced the shape and location of the main nodes of the world economy over the past 500 years. Their view of the world was grounded in extraction economies and the politics of different states that seek to dominate the world's resources and each other through gaining hegemonic control of major resources or restructuring global flows in them to benefit their locations.\n",
"Often, the decisions of a policy-maker may have influences that extend to the far future. Economic decisions made today may influence the economic growth of a nation for an unknown number of years into the future. In such cases, it is often convenient to model the future outcomes as an infinite stream. Then, it may be required to compare two infinite streams and decide which one of them is better (for example, in order to decide on a policy). The overtaking criterion is one option to do this comparison.\n",
"The theory allows, being based on the Angus Maddison\"s estimates of the Gross World Product and World population, to restore the picture of development of mankind in the previous centuries. It was shown (see , Chapter 12). that one need the theory, based on the effect of substitution of worker's efforts with work of external power (two-factor theory), for the description of the evolution of production activity from approximately year 1000 of our era. Before this time the substitution of human’s efforts for outer work practically was not noticeable, and one can use one-factor theory that is taking into account only one production factor -- efforts of workers. The theory is stated (see. section 1.3.1, the formula 1.1 in chapter 1 and section 12.3 in chapter 12).\n"
] |
Question about the magnetic field in relation to the human brain.
|
There's no reason to think it would, because magnetic fields have an incredibly small effect on chemistry (I neglect them all the time in doing theoretical calculations), and the Earth's magnetic field is very weak. It's more surprising, really, that there are birds who've evolved an ability to sense it at all.
Anyway, empirically we also know this isn't the case: We've sent people to the moon, and their brains seemed to work just fine over there. And we routinely stick people's heads in MRI machines to check them out, where the magnetic field is hundreds of thousands of times larger than the earth's field, and not noticed anything. (Nor noticed much chemical effects when using NMR, MRI's chemical cousin) If you think about it, you'll have a stronger field close to an ordinary refrigerator magnet (try it with a compass), and those don't seem to do anything either.
In short: No, static (unchanging) magnetic fields of that size have no significant impact on your brain or physiology, or almost all chemistry in general. That said, a strong _rapidly changing_ magnetic field can and will screw things up in your brain, since they'll induce currents in your head and screw up the electrical signalling that's going on.
|
[
"Some researchers also suggest that humans possess a magnetic sense, proposing that this could allow certain people to use magnetoreception for navigation. The role of magnetite in the brain is still not well understood, and there has been a general lag in applying more modern, interdisciplinary techniques to the study of biomagnetism.\n",
"Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is essentially direct magnetic stimulation to the brain. Because electric currents and magnetic fields are intrinsically related, by stimulating the brain with magnetic pulses it is possible to interfere with specific loci in the brain to produce a predictable effect. This field of study is currently receiving a large amount of attention due to the potential benefits that could come out of better understanding this technology. Transcranial magnetic movement of particles in the brain shows promise for drug targeting and delivery as studies have demonstrated this to be noninvasive on brain physiology.\n",
"The measurement of the naturally occurring magnetic fields produced by the brain's electrical activity is called magnetoencephalography. This method differs from magnetic resonance imaging in that it passively measures the magnetic fields without altering the body's magnetization. However, data from MEG and MRI can be combined to create images that approximately map the estimated location of the natural magnetic fields. This composite imaging process is called magnetic source imaging (MSI).\n",
"Aside from the sensory receptor for magnetic reception in homing pigeons there has been work on neural regions that are possibly involved in the processing of magnetic information within the brain. Areas of the brain that have shown increases in activity in response to magnetic fields with a strength of 50 or 150 microtesla are the posterior vestibular nuclei, dorsal thalamus, hippocampus, and visual hyperpallium.\n",
"One hypothesis is that magnetic fields in the 0.5-9 Tesla range can affect the ion permeability of neural membranes, in fact this could account for a lot of the issues seen as this would affect many different brain functions.\n",
"Any electrical current generates a magnetic field; neural oscillations induce weak magnetic fields, and in functional magnetoencephalography the current produced can show localised brain function in high resolution. Tractography uses MRI and image analysis to create 3D images of the nerve tracts of the brain. Connectograms give a graphical representation of the neural connections of the brain.\n",
"In comparison to the electric signals, which are influenced by the differently conductive tissue of the body and varying resistance of the skin before they can be recorded, the magnetic signals travel through the body almost without disturbance. The differences in the electric potentials, that are recorded by the ECG, are directly depending on the inhomogeneity and geometry of the thorax, the magnetic signals outside of the thorax depend primarily on the intracellular currents of the cardiac tissue and only secondarily on the secondary currents generating the electric signal. Furthermore, the magnetic signals of so-called vortex currents, which occur regularly in every heartbeat and include important information for an advanced and more accurate cardiac diagnosis (first theoretically described by John Wikswo), can be acquired with an MFI system, but cannot be recorded electrically on the body surface (First experimental hint by Brockmeier et al. 1994 and comprehensive demonstration Brockmeier et al. 1997).\n"
] |
what goes into making a new font and how hard is it?
|
Making a new font is a relatively simple process, but can be a lot of work depending on how detailed you want it to be, and how many different letters you want it to span.
In essence all you do is you open up MS paint, draw your letter, and save it. Then rinse and repeat for every letter in your font. You then just need to convert the file type from a .png or .jpeg to a .ot or .tt. Some software, like Photoshop allows you to save your file directly as a .ot or .tt.
Making good fonts is harder, you want letters to look the same, and you want your font to have good spacing between letters (kerning). If you're interested in more, check out the [Open Font Library](_URL_0_) and feel free to contribute. Everyone's shitty first attempt is welcome (although it probably won't be downloaded).
|
[
"are continually added to it, and common font formats cannot contain more than 65,535 glyphs (about half the number of characters encoded in Unicode). As a result, font developers and foundries incorporate new characters in newer versions or revisions of a font, or in separate auxiliary fonts intended specifically for particular languages.\n",
"\"Fontwork\" is a feature that allows users to create stylized text with special effects differing from ordinary text with the added features of gradient colour fills, shaping, letter height, and character spacing. It is similar to WordArt used by Microsoft Word. When OpenOffice.org saved documents in Microsoft Office file format, all Fontwork was converted into WordArt.\n",
"In addition to the Core fonts for the Web, some newer fonts, such as those packaged with Microsoft Windows, Microsoft Office, OpenOffice.org or other software could form a new canon of core fonts. Broader web browser adoption of the web fonts specification may ultimately render the notion of core fonts obsolete by allowing the real-time downloading and display of specific fonts.\n",
"Different typefaces and sizes can be used by replacing the daisy wheel. It is possible to use multiple fonts within a document: font changing is facilitated by printer device drivers which can position the carriage to the center of the platen and prompt the user to change the wheel before continuing printing. However, printing a document with frequent font changes and thus requiring frequent wheel changes was a tedious task.\n",
"Font editors allow the user to modify the properties of a font, including its kerning table (if the font license permits it). They accomplish this by modifying the table found in the actual font file. The user can change the kerning value in existing pairs, or add new pairs.\n",
"In 2011, FontForge was packaged for easier installation on Mac OS X by Dr. Ben Martin with support from TUG. Meanwhile, Matthew Petroff published his Windows Build System and unofficial Windows builds. In 2013 the FontForgeBuilds project was started on sourceforge to extend this; it was subsequently entirely rewritten, and is today maintained by Jeremy Tan as an official Windows package.\n",
"The latest font-versions that were available from Microsoft's \"Core fonts for the Web\" project were 2.x (e.g. 2.82 for Arial, Times New Roman and Courier New for MS Windows), published in 2000. Later versions (such as version 3 or version 5 with many new characters) were not available from this project. A Microsoft spokesman declared in 2002 that members of the open source community \"will have to find different sources for updated fonts… Although the EULA did not restrict the fonts to just Windows and Mac OS they were only ever available as Windows .exe's and Mac archive files.\"\n"
] |
Mouse models for disease?
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The answer varies depending on the model. If the gene or mutation that causes the gene is known, the mouse model is usually made by creating that same mutation in the mice. Long QT syndrome is an example of such a disease that has been studied this way. If the genetic cause isn't known, or if the cause isn't genetic in origin (diet, lifestyle, ect) the researchers try their best to simulate the external factors that lead to the disease. After several attempts they usually find the right combination of factors that result in a mouse that presents with the same symptoms as the human disease. This has been done for diabetic studies (in rats more typically than in mice). Additionally for some diseases, like cardiac hypertrophy or modeling heart failure, a surgical intervention can be done to induce the desired disease state.
How these models are tested depends on how much is known about the disease. Some times we know the gene responsible. From there its usually a matter of figuring out if the mutation results in an overactive protein, and figuring out what drugs will decrease its activity, or if the mutation results in a nonfunctional protein, and figuring out what drugs can restore or circumvent its activity.
For diseases where we don't know the gene involved, or there are many genes or the problem isn't strictly genetic, we usually screen for drugs that reverse the disease symptoms in our mice models. Researchers have had many years to study mice, so the behavior of healthy happy mice is well known. From there researchers can compare disease model mice to the healthy mice and note any changes or improvements.
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[
"Many mouse models are named after the gene that has been inactivated. For example, the p53 knockout mouse is named after the p53 gene which codes for a protein that normally suppresses the growth of tumours by arresting cell division and/or inducing apoptosis. Humans born with mutations that deactivate the p53 gene suffer from Li-Fraumeni syndrome, a condition that dramatically increases the risk of developing bone cancers, breast cancer and blood cancers at an early age. Other mouse models are named according to their physical characteristics or behaviours.\n",
"Nobuyo N. Maeda is a Japanese geneticist and medical researcher, who works on complex human diseases including atherosclerosis, diabetes and high blood pressure, and is particularly known for creating the first mouse model for atherosclerosis. Maeda has worked in the United States since 1978; as of 2017, she is the Robert H. Wagner Distinguished Professor at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.\n",
"Grompe is a specialist in hepatology and stem cell biology, and is known for the development of the \"Fah mouse model\", a transgenic mouse with an inactivating mutation (exon 5 deletion) in sequence encoding fumarylacetoacetate hydrolase (\"Fah\"). This mouse strain has been a useful model of Type I tyrosinemia, a human genetic disease caused by inactivating mutations in the \"Fah\" gene. The mice have been used to model diseases such as malaria and to optimize human gene therapy strategies \n",
"SCID mice are routinely used as model organisms for research into the basic biology of the immune system, cell transplantation strategies, and the effects of disease on mammalian systems. They have been extensively used as hosts for normal and malignant tissue transplants. In addition, they are useful for testing the safety of new vaccines or therapeutic agents in immunocompromised individuals.\n",
"Mice with severe combined immunodeficiency (SCIDs) are often used in the research of human disease. Human immune cells are used to develop human lymphoid organs within these immunodeficient mice, and many different types of SCID mouse models have been developed. These mice allow researchers to study the human immune system and human disease in a small animal model.\n",
"The Mouse genome Database (MGD) is the international community resource for integrated genetic, genomic and biological data about the laboratory mouse. MGD provides full annotation of phenotypes and human disease associations for mouse models (genotypes) using terms from the Mammalian Phenotype Ontology and disease names from OMIM.\n",
"CDCP1/Trask is not important for the development of the mouse. Adult mice lacking CDCP1 do not exhibit gross morphologic, reproductive or behavioral abnormalities compared with wild-type mice, and histologic examination of multiple organ systems has shown no significant pathology and no observed histologic differences. CDCP1 is a ligand for CD6, a receptor molecule expressed on certain T-cells and may play a role in their migration and chemotaxis. As such CDCP1 may contribute to autoimmune diseases such as encephalomyelitis, multiple sclerosis and inflammatory arthritis.\n"
] |
How realistic was Chiang Kai-shek/the Republic of China invading and retaking Mainland China?
|
Well until someone with perhaps more verifiable sources can comment, I can take a shot at this based on my experiences interviewing villagers in Southwest China and urbanites in Taiwan. In addition, I will try to tie this in with what I learned from both Chinese/Taiwanese professors, and while in the United States undertaking an undergrad in East Asian studies.
The answer to your question largely depends on what exactly you meant by "re-taking" the mainland? Do you mean could the ROC march back into Beijing by sheer military force? Or do you mean could the Guomingdang effectively reinstate their authority on the mainland population?
If you looked into historical sources on the Yuan and Qing dynasties, you will understand the difficulty in asking the latter. In practically any case where a foreign entity attempted to rule over the Chinese populace, they ultimately it difficult to impose their culture and ideologies on the public, and often ended up becoming absorbed by the Chinese civilization, whom it appeared was greater than the sum of all its borders.
Now obviously Chiang Kai-Shek and the KMT/GMD (depending on what spelling you prefer) were not "foreigners", but the fact of the matter was that by the time the Japanese were retreating after World War 2 and the Chinese Civil War was reigniting, the Communist Party has already amassed a huge base of support among the massive agrarian population, which was crucial in gaining ground against the KMT, who were seen as corrupt an apathetic to the plights of those in the countryside.
What I got out of my time in the countryside of Yunnan and Sichuan Provinces, China, was that even today, the love and adoration for Mao Ze Dong is permeable and strong. To a lot of people, especially the older ones that I spoke to, Mao and the CCP were seen as "knights in shining armors", who instituted land reform, agricultural practices, medical care, etc. I of course also spoke to individuals who had lost loved ones during the famine of the Great Leap Forward, and those who had been imprisoned for 18+ years during the Cultural Revolution, who obviously did not share such admiration, but there was still a significant amount of people even today who proudly display pictures of Mao in their homes with no hint of being coerced into doing so (the police are largely non present here).
The point is, even today there are many who express nostalgia for the "iron rice bowl" era and still do hold on to their red books. Even after I spoke to these people, it is still impossible to imagine the fervor some of them held when Mao rolled into Beijing.
So what does this mean for Chiang Kai-Shek? Well, even if he managed to re-invade the mainland, with or without US support, he would find himself facing an extremely hostile and recently empowered population residing in a country spanning the entire length of the continental United States. Even if he and his armed forces were able to successfully defeat the Communists, he would then have to face the greater battle of rebuilding the Republic of China in a country who historically has been notoriously resistant to subjugation.
If you are asking simply in regards to the military capabilities of the ROC, then I'll let someone else much more knowledgeable discuss that; however, from my studies and experience, Chiang Kai-Shek and the KMT would have had an extremely difficult time reinstating the ROC to its original borders. Even during times of crises like the Great Leap Forward, the geopolitical impact of the ROC attempting to invade the mainland and risk another civil war during the broader context of the Cold War would have like made the idea not too palatable to anyone.
Again, sorry about not specific sources. This is focusing primarily on first-hand sources conducted through private interviews rather than vetted historical sources.
|
[
"After several unsuccessful feigned invasions between August 1971 and June 1973, in the lead up to the main landings, the 1973 coup which witnessed Nie Rongzhen's rise to power in Beijing drove Chiang to call off all further false attacks and commence full landing operations. Having said this, according to Gen Huang Chih-chung, who was an army colonel at the time and part of the planning process, Chiang Kai-shek never completely gave up the desire to recapture China; \"even when he died (in 1975), he was still hoping the international situation would change and that the Communists would be wiped out one day.\"\n",
"Originally, the Republic of China planned to reconquer the mainland from the People's Republic. After the retreat to Taiwan, Chiang Kai-shek established a relatively benign dictatorship over the island with other Nationalist leaders, and began making plans to invade the mainland. Chiang conceived a top secret plan called Project National Glory or Project Guoguan (), to accomplish this. Chiang's planned offensive involved 26 operations including land invasions and special operations behind enemy lines. He had asked his son Chiang Ching-kuo to draft a plan for air raids on the provinces of Fujian and Guangdong, from where many ROC soldiers and much of the population of Taiwan had origins. If it had taken place, it would have been the largest seaborne invasion in history.\n",
"Like other similar clashes immediately after the end of World War II between the communists and the nationalists in China, this conflict showed that Chiang Kai-shek's attempt to simultaneously solve China's long-standing warlord problem and to exterminate communism proved to be a critical mistake. Although the result of the campaign turned out exactly like Chiang Kai-shek and his subordinates had predicted, reducing the power of the warlords in the region, the positive impact of any secondary objectives were negated by the loss of primary ones. The people of the region had already blamed the nationalists for the previous loss to the Japanese invaders, and the reassignment of the former nationalist forces to fight the communists only further alienated the local populace and strengthened popular resentment of Chiang Kai-shek and his nationalist regime.\n",
"Like similar clashes following World War II between the communists and the nationalists in China, the Xinghua Campaign stemmed from Chiang Kai-shek's realization that his nationalist regime had neither sufficient troops nor adequate transportation to move his army into the Japanese-occupied regions of China. Chiang feared that the communists, who already dominated much of rural China, would further expand their territories by being the first Chinese faction to accept the official Japanese surrender, thus adding the regions occupied by Japan to the area controlled by the communists. Chiang Kai-shek ordered the Japanese and their wartime puppet regime not to surrender to the communists, and furthermore to quell unrest and fight off the communists until the eventual arrival of the nationalist troops.\n",
"Thus, Chiang Kai-shek had to devote everything China had to offer to make sure the Western powers knew that the present conflict between China and Japan was a major war, not a collection of inconsequential \"incidents\" as had been the case previously. Based on this political strategy, Chiang Kai-shek had to order his troops to fight to the death in an attempt to arouse international sympathy and cause the international community to adopt measures that would help China and sanction Japan.\n",
"On 12 December 1936, a deeply disgruntled Zhang Xueliang kidnapped Chiang Kai-shek in Xi'an to force an end to the conflict between KMT and CCP. To secure the release of Chiang, the KMT was forced to agree to a temporary end to the Chinese Civil War and the forming of a united front between the CCP and KMT against Japan on 24 December 1936.\n",
"On November 15, near the end of the Battle of Shanghai, Chiang Kai-shek convened a meeting of the Military Affairs Commission's Supreme National Defense Council to undertake strategic planning, including a decision on what to do in case of a Japanese attack on Nanking. Here Chiang insisted fervently on mounting a sustained defense of Nanking. Chiang argued, just as he had during the Battle of Shanghai, that China would be more likely to receive aid from the great powers, possibly at the ongoing Nine Power Treaty Conference, if it could prove on the battlefield its will and capacity to resist the Japanese. He also noted that holding onto Nanking would strengthen China's hand in peace talks which he wanted the German ambassador Oskar Trautmann to mediate.\n"
] |
Is there something better than History of the World? (J.M. Roberts, 2007)
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It's probably the best book to start with. If you tell us more specifically, what you are looking for, we may be able to give you better recommendations. For general world history, *A World History* by Clive Ponting is quite good too. It focuses more on the "East", while Roberts' focus is the "West".
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[
"History of the World is a compendium written by a collection of noted historians. It was edited by William Nassau Weech, M.A., a former Headmaster of Sedbergh School (and a very early aficionado of downhill skiing who also wrote \"By Ski in Norway\", one of the first British accounts of the sport). First published by Odhams in 1944, \"History of the World\" ran to three editions, the second edition in 1959, and the third in 1965. The editor, W.N. Weech, wrote in the Preface:\"This book is designed for the ordinary man or woman, who should have no difficulty in getting through it in a month, though many may prefer to compress their first reading of it into a fortnight.\" W.N. Weech's \"History of the World\" is notable for bearing comparison with Ernst Gombrich's best-selling \"Little History of the World\", a book that is shorter and is addressed to younger readers. (Gombrich, a Jewish émigré from Vienna, was an art historian better known for his classic work, \"The Story of Art.)\" Weech's book is noteworthy, not only for being both thorough and accessible, but also (not unlike Gombrich's) for maintaining a tolerant and measured style, despite being written during the dark days of Nazism.\n",
"A Short History of the World is a general history non-fiction book written by Australian historian Geoffrey Blainey. First published in 2000 by Penguin Books, it describes over 4 million years of history, from before the first people left Africa, through to the current day.\n",
"John C. Campbell, writing in \"Foreign Affairs\", the journal of the Council on Foreign Relations, said that the book \"cannot be the definitive history, but it comes as close as we are likely to get and is especially good in showing how critical to, and closely interwoven with, the fate of the nation these agencies have been.\"\n",
"BULLET::::- Ellis, Edward Sylvester and Charles F. Horne (1906). \"The story of the greatest nations: from the dawn of history to the twentieth century : a comprehensive history founded upon the leading authorities, including a complete chronology of the world and a pronouncing vocabulary of each nation, Volume 1\". F. R. Niglutsch.\n",
"BULLET::::- Ellis, Edward Sylvester and Charles F. Horne (1906). \"The story of the greatest nations: from the dawn of history to the twentieth century : a comprehensive history founded upon the leading authorities, including a complete chronology of the world and a pronouncing vocabulary of each nation, Volume 1\". F. R. Niglutsch.\n",
"World history is the study of major civilizations over the last 3000 years or so. World history is primarily a teaching field, rather than a research field. It gained popularity in the United States, Japan and other countries after the 1980s with the realization that students need a broader exposure to the world as globalization proceeds.\n",
"Speaking in 2013, the editor of volume three, Norman Yoffee, described the history as being \"conceived by a group of world historians, that is people who insist that large indeed global relations are essential in understanding local histories, and they are dedicated comparativists.\"\n"
] |
Magnets and Space Travel?
|
Let's apply Fermi method or order of magnitude calculation. If you're moving at about escape velocity, ~10 km/s, then you have to displace about 1 ton per kilometer of air per 1 m^2 of frontal area, so that would be 10 tons/s/m^2. At these speeds a blunt heat shield is the only option, let's say 1 m^2 frontal area. Change of momentum would be 10000 m/s × 10000 kg = 1e8 kgm/s. Flying ~10 km (isobaric height of atmosphere) would take 1 s, so rate of change of momentum or force would be max. 1e8 N/m^2 i.e Pa, or 1000 atm, higher than in a gun barrel. Over 10000 m, that would mean a work of 1e12 J/m^2, 1 terajoule, over at least a second. Most of it would be spent on the atmosphere, but we're still talking about sitting next to a gigawatt heater. You'd need to evaporate about 5-500 tons of water as a coolant.
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[
"Project Magnet, led by senior radio engineer Wilbert B. Smith from the Department of Transport, had the goal of studying magnetic phenomena, specifically geomagnetism, as a potential propulsion method for vehicles. Smith believed UFOs were using this method to achieve flight. The final report of the project, however, contained no mention of geomagnetism. It discussed twenty-five UFO sightings reported during 1952, and concluded with the notion that \"extraterrestrial space vehicles\" are probable.\n",
"The Magnetospheric Multiscale Mission (MMS) is a NASA robotic space mission to study the Earth's magnetosphere, using four identical spacecraft flying in a tetrahedral formation. The spacecraft were launched on 13 March 2015 at 02:44 UTC. It is designed to gather information about the microphysics of magnetic reconnection, energetic particle acceleration, and turbulence, processes that occur in many astrophysical plasmas.\n",
"The early Magnets saw some short trips to Europe, but it was not until 1922 that the first proper foreign travel series appeared. In Magnets Nos. 768 to 774 the juniors travel with Bob Cherry's cousin to Africa in search of buried ivory. The juniors revisited Africa with Mr Vernon-Smith in 1931 (Magnets Nos. 1228 to 1236).\n",
"The Magnetospheric Multiscale Mission (MMS) is a mission to study the Earth's magnetosphere, using four identical spacecraft flying in a tetrahedral formation. The spacecraft were launched on March 13, 2015.\n",
"Explorer 6 (1959) used a search coil magnetometer to measure the gross magnetic field of the Earth and vector fluxgate., however because of induced magnetism is the space craft the fluxgate sensor became saturated and did not send data. Future missions would attempt to place magnetometers further away from the space craft.\n",
"Project Magnet was an unidentified flying object (UFO) study programme established by Transport Canada on in December 1950 under the direction of Wilbert Brockhouse Smith, senior radio engineer for Transport Canada's Broadcast and Measurements Section. It was formally active until mid-1954 and informally active (without government funding) until Smith's death in 1962. Smith eventually concluded that UFOs were probably extraterrestrial in origin and likely operated by manipulation of magnetism.\n",
"The main method of interplanetary travel from this time onward is the rocket ship. These vessels use fusion reactions to power the ship throughout its entire voyage. Rocket ships usually can range from 5 to 500 tons.\n"
] |
Will a light source change direction inside a black hole?
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> Suppose a flashlight is falling into a black hole facing outwards. Since light cannot escape the black hole, and a trajectory of a single photon is smooth, I would assume that as soon as the flashlight crosses the event horizon, its particles can no longer emit light in the direction towards the event horizon. Is this correct?
Yes, that is exactly right! Inside the event horizon, *all* paths that light (or matter) can take point towards the singularity; no path points outward toward the event horizon.
The three images on the right side of [this Wikipedia article](_URL_0_) do a pretty good job of illustrating this, if you're interested.
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[
"While light can still escape from the photon sphere, any light that crosses the photon sphere on an inbound trajectory will be captured by the black hole. Hence any light that reaches an outside observer from the photon sphere must have been emitted by objects between the photon sphere and the event horizon.\n",
"Penrose concluded that whenever there is a cube where all the outgoing (and ingoing) light rays are initially converging, the boundary of the future of that region will end after a finite extension, because all the null geodesics will converge. This isn't significant, because the outgoing light rays for any sphere inside the horizon of a black hole solution are all converging, so the boundary of the future of this region is either compact or comes from nowhere. The future of the interior either ends after a finite extension, or has a boundary that is eventually generated by new light rays that cannot be traced back to the original sphere.\n",
"The region outside the event horizon but inside the surface where the rotational velocity is the speed of light, is called the \"ergosphere\" (from Greek \"ergon\" meaning \"work\"). Particles falling within the ergosphere are forced to rotate faster and thereby gain energy. Because they are still outside the event horizon, they may escape the black hole. The net process is that the rotating black hole emits energetic particles at the cost of its own total energy. The possibility of extracting spin energy from a rotating black hole was first proposed by the mathematician Roger Penrose in 1969 and is thus called the Penrose process. Rotating black holes in astrophysics are a potential source of large amounts of energy and are used to explain energetic phenomena, such as gamma-ray bursts.\n",
"BULLET::::- At the event horizon, formula_30 the speed of light shining outward away from the center of black hole is formula_31 It can not escape from the event horizon. Instead, it gets stuck at the event horizon. Since light moves faster than all others, matter can only move inward at the event horizon. Everything inside the event horizon is hidden from the outside world.\n",
"Falcke predicted that near the edges of a black hole, there would be a 'black hole shadow' that could be detected by a radio telescope.. This shadow was eventually observed with the Event Horizon Telescope. \n",
"The event horizon of a black hole may be thought of as a surface moving outward at the local speed of light and is just on the edge between escaping and falling back. The event horizon of a white hole is a surface moving inward at the local speed of light and is just on the edge between being swept outward and succeeding in reaching the center. They are two different kinds of horizons—the horizon of a white hole is like the horizon of a black hole turned inside-out.\n",
"If light signals are exchanged around one side of the hole, in the equatorial plane, where the adjacent section of event horizon is moving roughly in the direction A→B, then frame-dragging effects should make it easier for light to move with the horizon's motion than against it, and the measurements should show B to be \"downhill\" of A.\n"
] |
why can healthy eyes look in only one direction, i.e. why can’t our eyes look in different directions from each other?
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They can be trained to look independently, but our body was evolutionarily selected for the two eyes to work together. It's hard to break the instinct to utilize them in tandem, and there is very little advantage to doing that.
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[
"Intermediate directions are controlled by simultaneous actions of multiple muscles. When one shifts the gaze horizontally, one eye will move laterally (toward the side) and the other will move medially (toward the midline). This may be neurally coordinated by the central nervous system, to make the eyes move together and almost involuntarily. This is a key factor in the study of strabismus, namely, the inability of the eyes to be directed to one point.\n",
"Human eyes are horizontally separated by about 50–75 mm (interpupillary distance) depending on each individual. Thus, each eye has a slightly different view of the world around. This can be easily seen when alternately closing one eye while looking at a vertical edge. The binocular disparity can be observed from apparent horizontal shift of the vertical edge between both views.\n",
"The brain must point both eyes accurately enough that the object of regard falls on corresponding points of the two retinas to avoid the perception of double vision. In most vertebrates (humans, mammals, reptiles, birds), the movements of different body parts are controlled by striated muscles acting around joints. The movement of the eye is slightly different in that the eyes are not rigidly attached to anything, but are held in the orbit by six extraocular muscles.\n",
"One and a half syndrome: “One and a half syndrome” also affects horizontal gaze. One eye is completely incapable of horizontal movement, while the other eye is capable of horizontal movement only in one direction away from the midline.\n",
"To maintain stereopsis and singleness of vision, the eyes need to be pointed accurately. The position of each eye in its orbit is controlled by six extraocular muscles. Slight differences in the length or insertion position or strength of the same muscles in the two eyes can lead to a tendency for one eye to drift to a different position in its orbit from the other, especially when one is tired. This is known as phoria. One way to reveal it is with the cover-uncover test. To do this test, look at a cooperative person's eyes. Cover one eye of that person with a card. Have the person look at your finger tip. Move the finger around; this is to break the reflex that normally holds a covered eye in the correct vergence position. Hold your finger steady and then uncover the person's eye. Look at the uncovered eye. You may see it flick quickly from being wall-eyed or cross-eyed to its correct position. If the uncovered eye moved from out to in, the person has esophoria. If it moved from in to out, the person has exophoria. If the eye did not move at all, the person has orthophoria. Most people have some amount of exophoria or esophoria; it is quite normal. If the uncovered eye also moved vertically, the person has hyperphoria (if the eye moved from down to up) or hypophoria (if the eye moved from up to down). Such vertical phorias are quite rare. It is also possible for the covered eye to rotate in its orbit. Such cyclophorias cannot be seen with the cover-uncover test; they are rarer than vertical phorias.\n",
"The brain's ability to see three-dimensional objects depends on proper alignment of the eyes. When both eyes are properly aligned and aimed at the same target, the visual portion of the brain fuses the forms into a single image. When one eye turns inward, outward, upward, or downward, two different pictures are sent to the brain. This causes loss of depth perception and binocular vision. There have also been some reports of people that can \"control\" their afflicted eye. The term is from Greek \"exo\" meaning \"outward\" and \"trope\" meaning \"a turning\".\n",
"Other phenomena of binocular vision include utrocular discrimination (the ability to tell which of two eyes has been stimulated by light), eye dominance (the habit of using one eye when aiming something, even if both eyes are open), allelotropia (the averaging of the visual direction of objects viewed by each eye when both eyes are open), binocular fusion or singleness of vision (seeing one object with both eyes despite each eye's having its own image of the object), and binocular rivalry (seeing one eye's image alternating randomly with the other when each eye views images that are so different they cannot be fused).\n"
] |
how and why is there a standard for cylindrical batteries, and why hasn't it happened for flat batteries?
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There are numerous standards for flat batteries. Hearing aides have several standardized sizes, as do watches.
Phone makers/companies also tend to have standardized sizes between specific brands or range of brands. They want you to be somewhat limited in options though so that you have to buy replacements from them.
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[
"The third-generation includes mechanical mods and variable voltage devices. Battery sections are commonly called \"mods,\" referencing their past when user modification was common. Mechanical mods do not contain integrated circuits. They are commonly cylindrical or box-shaped, and typical housing materials are wood, aluminium, stainless steel, or brass. A larger \"box mod\" can hold bigger and sometimes multiple batteries.\n",
"BULLET::::- Compared to lead–acid batteries, Ni–Cd batteries have a much higher energy density. A Ni–Cd battery is smaller and lighter than a comparable lead–acid battery, but not a comparable NiMH or Li-ion battery. In cases where size and weight are important considerations (for example, aircraft), Ni–Cd batteries are preferred over the cheaper lead–acid batteries.\n",
"Solid state batteries employ geometry most similar to traditional thin-film batteries. Three-dimensional thin-films use the third dimension to increase the electrochemically active area. Thin film two dimensional batteries are restricted to between 2-5 micrometres, limiting areal capacity to significantly less than that of three-dimensional geometries.\n",
"Because of its large diameter and straight-walled design, the .45 ACP geometry is the highest power-per-pressure production, repeating round in existence. This is because of the higher powers achievable with .45 Super, and +P loads. Because of these inherent low pressures of the standard pressure round, however, compensators and brakes have little effect until +P and Super loads are utilized.\n",
"Alkaline batteries are made in the same button sizes as the other types, but typically provide less capacity and less stable voltage than more costly silver oxide or lithium cells. They are often sold as watch batteries, and bought by people who do not know the difference.\n",
"Deep cycle batteries have a different geometry for their positive electrodes. The positive electrode is not a flat plate but a row of lead-oxide cylinders or tubes strung side by side, so their geometry is called tubular or cylindrical. The advantage of this is an increased surface area in contact with the electrolyte, which higher discharge and charge currents than a flat-plate cell of the same volume and depth-of-charge. Tubular-electrode cells have a higher power density than flat-plate cells. This makes tubular/cylindrical geometry plates especially suitable for high-current applications with weight or space limitations, such as for forklifts or for starting marine diesel engines. However, because tubes/cylinders have less active material in the same volume, they also have a lower energy density than flat-plate cells. And, less active material at the electrode also means they have less material available to shed before the cell becomes unusable. Tubular/cylindrical electrodes are also more complicated to manufacture uniformly, which tends to make them more expensive than flat-plate cells. These trade-offs limit the range of applications in which tubular/cylindrical batteries are meaningful to situations where there is insufficient space to install higher capacity (and thus larger) flat-plate units.\n",
"A significant majority of battery designs are two–dimensional and rely on layered construction. Recent research has taken the electrodes into three-dimensions. This allows for significant improvements in battery capacity; a significant increase in areal capacity occurs between a 2d thick film electrode and a 3d array electrode.\n"
] |
Common cloth materials in medieval Europe?
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They weren't that expensive because they were home grown. Anyone could put in a patch of flax among the other crops. Women could pull it (one does not cut it and shorten the fibres), though men could help. After that it was a woman's job to rett the flax in the stream to rot off the outer coating and pith. Then the fibres were hackled or combed out to remove the bits not wanted. Repeated hackling produced short fibres broken off, called tow. Tow was used like cotton balls or waste paper for wiping up or stopping wounds. Everyone used tow, because every woman spun linen. Once the flax had been bleached on the grass, it was put up in stricks, which were a bundle to be arranged on the distaff to draw down smoothly into thread.
Taxes were often paid in thread. Single women contributed to a household by extra spinning, so the traditional term for them was "spinster." Extra thread could be sold for cash.
Women rarely wove at home. That was a job for the weaver's guild, who might trade finished cloth for thread. It was a sign of wealth to have one of the gigantic timber-built looms when they only wove a narrow tabby linen for underclothes (body linen).
Wool was a little more specialist. A fine lady would spin flax, but only a peasant would spin greasy wool. I'll bet her hands loved the lanolin. Fleeces were sheared from sheep and lambs before spring so they were spared the summer heat. Qualities of wool were separated out of the different parts of the fleece. These would be carded until the fibres all ran straight and the tangles were out. Then the carding combs would be cleared a clever way to roll the wool into a roving. Wool can be spun without a distaff. Wool can be combed before carding to produce worsted. Again, wool thread was a valued commodity and one of the few ways to get cash.
But all of these were produced by the peasant class. They still stretched the life of everything, including cutting down clothes so the unworn parts clothed the children.
|
[
"In medieval times, rulers, the nobility and senior churchmen brought many of their fabrics from the Republic of Ragusa. The most common fabric for ordinary Serbs was \"sclavina\" or \"schiavina\", a coarse woollen fabric. Linen was also made within Serbia while silk was grown at the Dečani Monastery as well as near Prizren. Few secular garments have survived from the medieval period the most notable being the costume worn by Lazar Hrebeljanović at the Battle of Kosovo. More decorated vestments have survived from the period.\n",
"A wide variety of portable objects from various decorative arts were imported from the Islamic world into Europe during the Middle Ages, mostly through Italy, and above all Venice. In many areas European-made goods could not match the quality of Islamic or Byzantine work until near the end of the Middle Ages. Luxury textiles were widely used for clothing and hangings and also, fortunately for art history, also often as shrouds for the burials of important figures, which is how most surviving examples were preserved. In this area Byzantine silk was influenced by Sassanian textiles, and Islamic silk by both, so that is hard to say which culture's textiles had the greatest influence on the Cloth of St Gereon, a large tapestry which is the earliest and most important European imitation of Eastern work. European, especially Italian, cloth gradually caught up with the quality of Eastern imports, and adopted many elements of their designs.\n",
"Archaeological finds from medieval cities all over Europe, such as London, Newcastle, Oslo, Amsterdam, and Lübeck, as well as tax lists, prove the spread of knitted goods for everyday use from the 14th century onward. Like many archaeological textiles, most of the finds are only fragments of knitted items so that in most cases their former appearance and use is unknown. One of the exceptions is a 14th or 15th century woollen child's cap from Lübeck.\n",
"Linen was an especially popular cloth during the Middle Ages in Europe, when cotton was an exotic import. It was used for underclothing, chemises, shifts, shirts and blouses, in fact most clothing worn next to the skin, by those able to afford an extra layer of clothing. The tradition of calling household fabric goods \"linens\" dates from this period, but meant clothing as much as large sheets. According to medieval tradition, which survived up until the modern era, a bride would often be given a gift of linens made by the women in her family as a wedding present, to help her set up her new married home. In France this was called a trousseau, and was often presented to the bride in a wooden hope chest. \n",
"In his \"Lexicon of Medieval Latin\", Charles du Fresne suggests that \"fustanum\" (a piece of cloth) originates from the Roman \"palla\". Cotton \"fustana\" was among the belongings of Pope Urban V (1310–1370).\n",
"While the use of linen has been shown in archaeological evidence, the use of cotton – and cotton-based canvas – is disputed since the access to large amounts of cotton cloth was not widely available in northern Europe at this time. It is quite probable that Egypt (and Asia-Minor generally) still produced cotton well after the 7th and 8th centuries and knowledge (and samples) of this cloth was brought to Europe by the returning Crusaders. However logistics and expense of equipping a town militia or army with large amounts of cotton-based garments is doubtful, when flax-based textiles (linen) was in widespread use.\n",
"The most used materials among the lower classes were wool, flax and hemp. Rich ones used silk, velvet and taffeta which were imported from Italy, Greece and Flanders via Dubrovnik. In time, the weaving workshops began to open in Serbia itself. The silk was produced in Dečani and Prizren and domestic gold-woven fabrics appear at the court of Emperor Dušan. In time, the colored embroidery developed as the main characteristics of the Serbian medieval attire.\n"
] |
if it is thought that dreams only last for fractions of a second at a time and it is our brains that interpret them as longer, what is happening when we talk in our sleep?
|
Good question! Where did you get that information, that dreams only last for fractions of a second? If your girlfriend talks in her dream and in real life simultaneously then that becomes impossible - you're right! And if it is impossible then the conclusion must be: it isn't true.
Dreams vary in lenght, the further you are into the night the longer the dreams get. Some are very short, you're right about that, but they have been observed to last over 20 minutes in real time
|
[
"Accumulated observation shows that dreams are strongly associated with REM sleep, during which an electroencephalogram shows brain activity to be most like wakefulness. Participant-nonremembered dreams during NREM are normally more mundane in comparison. During a typical lifespan, a human spends a total of about six years dreaming (which is about two hours each night). Most dreams last only 5 to 20 minutes. It is unknown where in the brain dreams originate, if there is a single origin for dreams, if multiple portions of the brain are involved, or what the purpose of dreaming is for the body or mind.\n",
"Dreams mainly occur in the rapid-eye movement (REM) stage of sleep—when brain activity is high and resembles that of being awake. REM sleep is revealed by continuous movements of the eyes during sleep. At times, dreams may occur during other stages of sleep. However, these dreams tend to be much less vivid or memorable. The length of a dream can vary; they may last for a few seconds, or approximately 20–30 minutes. People are more likely to remember the dream if they are awakened during the REM phase. The average person has three to five dreams per night, and some may have up to seven; however, most dreams are immediately or quickly forgotten. Dreams tend to last longer as the night progresses. During a full eight-hour night sleep, most dreams occur in the typical two hours of REM. Dreams related to waking-life experiences are associated with REM theta activity, which suggests that emotional memory processing takes place in REM sleep.\n",
"Since waking up usually happens during rapid eye movement sleep (REM), the vivid bizarre REM sleep dreams are the most common type of dreams that is remembered. (During REM sleep an electroencephalogram (EEG) shows brain activity that, among sleep states, is most like wakefulness.) During a typical lifespan, a person spends a total of about six years dreaming (which is about two hours each night). Most dreams only last 5 to 20 minutes. It is unknown where in the brain dreams originate, if there is a single origin for dreams or if multiple portions of the brain are involved, or what the purpose of dreaming is for the body or mind.\n",
"Dreams are brief compared to the range and abundance of dream thoughts. Through condensation or compression, dream content can be presented in one dream. Oftentimes, people may recall having more than one dream in a night. Freud explained that the content of all dreams occurring on the same night represents part of the same whole. He believed that separate dreams have the same meaning. Often the first dream is more distorted and the latter is more distinct. Displacement of dream content occurs when manifest content does not resemble the actual meaning of the dream. Displacement comes through the influence of a censorship agent. Representation in dreams is the causal relation between two things. Freud argues that two persons or objects can be combined into a single representation in a dream (see Freud's dream of his uncle and Friend R).\n",
"Dream researcher Ernest Hartman comments on current dream theories proposed by biologists. One such theory suggests that dreams are basically random nonsense and are the product of a poorly functioning brain during sleep. If there is any meaning to dreams, it is added on later as our brains try to make the best of a bad job.\n",
"The characteristics of REM sleep consistently contain a similar set of features. While dreaming people regularly falsely believe that they are awake unless they implement lucidity. Dreams contain multimodal pseudo-perceptions; sometimes any or all sensory modalities are present, but most often visual and motoric. Dream imagery can change quickly and is regularly of a bizarre nature, but reports also contain many images and events that are a part of day-to-day life. In dreams there is a reduction or absence of self-reflection or other forms of meta-cognition relative to during waking life. Dreams are also characterized by a lack of \"orientational stability; persons, times, and places are fused, plastic, incongruous and discontinuous\". In addition, dreams form a single narrative to explain and integrate all dream elements. Lastly, NREM reports contain thought-like mentation and depictions of current concerns more frequently than REM reports.\n",
"Although study participants' reports of intense dream vividness during REM sleep and increased recollection of dreams occurring during that phase suggest that dreaming most commonly occurs during that stage, dreaming can also occur during NREM sleep, in which dreams tend to be more mundane in comparison.\n"
] |
What's the best way to use the Bible, when appropriate, as a Primary Source?
|
I think a lot of it depends on the level of scholarship.
I know that many scholars use the New Revised Standard Edition when a simple verse quotation is required. It was created in 1989 to be good for devotional use as well as scholarly use.
Learning the biblical languages and using ancient copies is done, but this is at a fairly advanced level of historical inquiry or textual criticism.
|
[
"BULLET::::- Using Primary Sources as Evidence is the ability to locate, choose, understand and provide context for the past using primary sources. This approach to reading a source will be dependent on the kind of source being used and the kind of information the user is trying to find (e.g. reading to a book for factual information)\n",
"In many fields and contexts, such as historical writing, it is almost always advisable to use primary sources if possible, and \"if none are available, it is only with great caution that [the author] may proceed to make use of secondary sources.\" In addition, primary sources avoid the problem inherent in secondary sources in which each new author may distort and put a new spin on the findings of prior cited authors.\n",
"In other cases, Bible scholars use the way a text is written (changes in style, vocabulary, repetitions, and the like) to determine what sources may have been used by a biblical author. With some reasonable guesswork it is possible to deduce sources not identified as such (e.g., genealogies). Some inter-biblical sources can be determined by virtue of the fact that the source is still extant, for example, where the Books of Chronicles quotes or retells the accounts of the books of Samuel and Kings.\n",
"The minimalists did not claim that the Bible is useless as a historical source; rather, they suggest that its proper use is in understanding the period in which it was written, a period which some of them place in the Persian period (5th–4th centuries BCE) and others in the Hellenistic period (3rd–2nd centuries).\n",
"Sourcebooks are a mix of rules and setting. As such, they contain setting information applicable to any edition of the game, and statistics that may need a little updating. Foreign language editions of sourcebooks often contain additional content relating to local variants on the topic in question. Sometimes even whole original books have been published concentrating solely on providing local source material.\n",
"Study Bible software is also available which can aid readers in the study of the Bible. This software normally includes several Bible translations, commentaries, dictionaries, maps and other content. They also include search engines to enable users to find Bible passages by keyword and by theme.\n",
"The source, inspired by the principle of conscience, is a last resort if none of the widely accepted sources are applicable to a problem. It involves giving favor to rulings that dispel hardship and bring ease to people. The doctrine was justified directly by the Qur'anic verse stating: \"Allah desires you ease and good, not hardship\". Though its main adherents were Abu Hanifa and his pupils (such as Abu Yusuf), Malik and his students made use of it to some degree. The source was subject to extensive discussion and argumentation, and its opponents claimed that it often departs from the primary sources.\n"
] |
When and how did the concept of political veto arise?
|
The romans created it.
Veto means "I forbade" in latin and the right of veto was the privilege of the tribunes of the plebs. When one of them stood up to say "Veto" it blocked the decision.
Ironically what was originally a tool to protect the plebeian against patrician abuses of the beginnings of the republic became at the end of it one of the base of the imperial power as Augustus received power over the "imperial provinces" and the tibunita potestas, the power of the tribune (of the plebs) enabling him, the patrician to veto any law he would not like.
|
[
"The institution of the veto, known to the Romans as the \"intercesio\", was adopted by the Roman Republic in the 6th century BC to enable the tribunes to protect the mandamus interests of the plebs (common citizenry) from the encroachments of the patricians, who dominated the Senate. A tribune's veto did not prevent the senate from passing a bill, but meant that it was denied the force of law. The tribunes could also use the veto to prevent a bill from being brought before the plebeian assembly. The consuls also had the power of veto, as decision-making generally required the assent of both consuls. If one disagreed, either could invoke the \"intercessio\" to block the action of the other. The veto was an essential component of the Roman conception of power being wielded not only to manage state affairs but to moderate and restrict the power of the state's high officials and institutions.\n",
"Every single member of the Polish parliament during the 17th and 18th century had an absolute veto (); as a result, legislation could only be passed unanimously. Originally, the procedure was used for technical issues such as points of order, but as diverging interests discovered they could disrupt their opponents' agendas singlehandedly, the process came to be abused. Today, the expression is mostly used to describe an assembly that is too easy for minorities or individuals to disrupt and/or has too many parties present for meaningful and orderly debate and decision-making to take place.\n",
"In 1631 and 1632 the Senate first used its right to veto constitutional acts adopted by the Chamber of Envoys. This marks the first phase of the Senate's demise as powerful nobles (known as the magnates) begin to exercise their power in the legislature. By 1669 the situation had become so bad that landowners took to the streets and, angered by the magnates machinations during the earlier royal election of Michael I, shot at passing senators. By 1717 the king was obliged to implement recommendations given by the senators-resident and by 1773 the cardinal laws pertaining to the 'power of legislating for the Republic in three estates' had been passed and the Senate had begun to hold joint debates with the Chamber of Envoys as a single 'united' Sejm. As a result, in 1775, the senators-resident or 'Little Senate' were abolished and were replaced with a 'Permanent Council' of senators and envoys headed by the King.\n",
"In the case of monarchy, \"legislative veto\" describes the right of the ruler to nullify the actions of a legislative body, for example, the French monarch's claim to the right to veto actions of the National Assembly at the start of the French Revolution.\n",
"The veto was the result of extensive discussion during the negotiations for the formation of the United Nations at Dumbarton Oaks (August–October 1944) and Yalta (February 1945). The evidence is that the United States, Soviet Union, United Kingdom, and China all favored the principle of unanimity, not only out of desire for the major powers to act together, but also to protect their own sovereign rights and national interests. Harry S. Truman, who became President of the US in April 1945, wrote: \"All our experts, civil and military, favored it, and without such a veto no arrangement would have passed the Senate.\"\n",
"The legislative veto was first developed in context of the delegation to the president to reorganize governmental agencies and was first authorized by the Legislative Appropriations Act in 1932. It was furthered by the necessities of providing for national security and foreign affairs immediately prior to and during World War II.\n",
"During the state's early history, vetoes were seldom employed by governors primarily because they were seen as only symbolic since the General Assembly could override them with only a simple majority. Governor James Whitcomb was the first to make significant use of the power and vetoed a record of fifteen bills during a single legislative session. Roger Branigin, who presided over a hostile legislature, made the most total vetoes of any governor, returning a total of one hundred bills to the assembly. Despite the fact that vetoes are easily overridden, only around ten percent of vetoed bills are overridden. During the 1970s, for example, 117 bills were vetoed, but only eleven were overridden. Observers and historians attribute this to the short length of legislative sessions, which often do not allow enough time for a large number of bills to pass through both houses twice. Another factor is that legislators of the same party as the governor typically refuse to override his veto, even in cases where they supported the bill originally.\n"
] |
what would happen to a person if they were to undergo a brain transplant?
|
This would technically be a body transplant, you are your brain.
|
[
"Even with proper identification and treatment, the majority of patients who present in the neonatal period have severe neurological and intellectual impairments. Liver transplantation cannot cure brain damage which has already occurred, but it will prevent future hyperammonemic episodes and prevent further damage.\n",
"A man who had a terminal disease decided to get a whole body transplant surgery, removing his brain from his original body and transplanting it to a new brainless body, which was cloned from his cell. He gets the surgery and it seems to be successful.\n",
"No human brain transplant has ever been conducted. Neurosurgeon Robert J. White has grafted the head of a monkey onto the headless body of another monkey. EEG readings showed the brain was later functioning normally. It was thought to prove that the brain was an immunologically privileged organ, as the host's immune system did not attack it at first, but immunorejection caused the monkey to die after nine days. Brain transplants and similar concepts have also been explored in various forms of science fiction.\n",
"A brain transplant or whole-body transplant is a procedure in which the brain of one organism is transplanted into the body of another organism. It is a procedure distinct from head transplantation, which involves transferring the entire head to a new body, as opposed to the brain only. Theoretically, a person with advanced organ failure could be given a new and functional body while keeping their own personality, memories, and consciousness through such a procedure.\n",
"On Earth in the mid-21st century, it became possible to transplant any organ from any person to another, with the exception of brain and central nervous system tissue. Individuals were categorized according to their so-called \"rejection spectrum\" which allowed doctors to counter any immune system responses to the new organs, allowing transplants to \"take\" for life. It also enabled the crime of \"organlegging\" which lasted well into the 24th century.\n",
"The psychological results of the procedure were unclear as well. While concerns were raised about whether recipients of a face transplant and their social circle would have difficulty adjusting, studies had found that disruptions had been minimal. But no transplant had ever been performed where the entire body of an individual is unfamiliar at the conclusion of the procedure, and one of the few documents discussing the ethics in the biomedical literature, a letter to the editor of a journal published in 2015, foresaw a high risk of insanity as a result of the procedure.\n",
"When organs are transplanted, aggressive rejection by the host's immune system can occur. Because immune cells of the CNS contribute to the maintenance of neurogenesis and spatial learning abilities in adulthood, the brain has been hypothesized to be an immunologically privileged (unrejectable) organ.) However, immunorejection of a functional transplanted brain has been reported in monkeys.\n"
] |
why is snowden seen as such a hero?
|
Because of the breadth of what his leaks revealed.
We spy on our allies. We spy on our own private citizens. We spy on neutral third parties that are no threat at all like fucking Brazil. We spy on everything, *because we* can, *and because noone will stop us*.
Also, the [NSA doesn't really do much to not appear cartoonishly evil](_URL_0_).
|
[
"In regards to Snowden's presence, the filmmakers stated that while Snowden is \"a central character, he is not the most prominent. It is more about the maelstrom of events surrounding him.\" This was because they knew too little about Snowden himself to give him a more prominent role in the story. Lee said that the film focuses more on the \"vignettes\" than on Snowden and that Snowden serves as a catalyst for events that affect the other characters. Snowden himself has no live dialogue in the film. Lee said that half of the film's focus was on Hong Kong, and half was on Snowden.\n",
"Snowden was active in the Grand Army of the Republic and Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States. He took part in numerous Union Army reunions, as well as the dedication of several monuments and memorials.\n",
"Currently held by Snowden. Snowden's speciality is in tricking his opponents, creating clones of himself to deceive opponents. He is the fastest among the Five Pillars, and usually often employs long range tactics like spying or attacking his enemies from long range. Snowden's true form is an owl.\n",
"The awards received by Edward Snowden are part of the reactions to global surveillance disclosures made by Edward Snowden. A subject of controversy, Snowden has been variously called a hero, a whistleblower, a dissident, a patriot, and a traitor. He has been honored by publications and organizations based in Europe and the United States.\n",
"Snowden was in Australia on a worldwide lecture tour when the First World War broke out in August 1914; he did not return to Britain until February 1915. He was not a pacifist; however, he did not support recruiting for the armed forces, and he campaigned against conscription. His stance was unpopular with the public and he lost his seat in the 1918 general election. In 1922, he was elected to represent Colne Valley.\n",
"The Snowden effect is part of the reactions to global surveillance disclosures made by Edward Snowden. A subject of controversy, Snowden has been variously called a hero, a whistleblower, a dissident, a patriot, and a traitor.\n",
"Snowden was named \"Time\"′s Person of the Year runner-up in 2013, behind Pope Francis. \"Time\" was criticized for not placing him in the top spot. In 2014, Snowden was named among \"Time\"s 100 Most Influential People in the world.\n"
] |
What happens to an island formed in a hotspot when in a subduction zone?
|
This depends a bit on the proximity of the hotspot to the subduction zone and the nature of the material that makes up the island / feature. In a general sense, as plate motion translates an oceanic island away from the hotspot, the island will start to 'sink' as the area around the oceanic island cools (cooler crust = denser crust = lower elevation crust). This coupled with erosion of the island before it sinks below the surface and the potential for continued mass wasting after it is below the surface of the ocean, means that generally the prominence of former oceanic islands diminishes with distance from the hotspot. This is illustrated in [diagrams like these](_URL_2_) and can be seen in the real world in trails of seamounts behind hotspot related oceanic islands, like the [Hawaiian-Emperor seamount chain](_URL_4_).
The relative volume/prominence of the feature when it reaches the subduction zone will determine what exactly happens (and hence why distance between the subduction zone and the hotspot matters). Small seamounts and similar features are successfully subducted all the time, though their subduction may cause deformation of the [accretionary prism](_URL_6_) or overriding plate, e.g. [Dominguez et al, 1998](_URL_3_). If the seamount is larger or still a true oceanic island (or something really big, like an [oceanic plateau](_URL_5_)), then it is more likely that it will, at least in part, [accrete](_URL_0_) to the margin. An example of this would be the [Ontong-Java plateau](_URL_1_), an oceanic plateau which is related to the eruption of a plume head (i.e. the beginning of a hotspot) and that is now being subducted. Portions of the plateau material have been scraped off and are thrust up along the subduction margin while other portions have continued to be subducted.
|
[
"On the subducting side of the island arc is a deep and narrow oceanic trench, which is the trace at the Earth's surface of the boundary between the down-going and overriding plates. This trench is created by the downward gravitational pull of the relatively dense subducting plate on the leading edge of the plate. Multiple earthquakes occur along this subduction boundary with the seismic hypocenters located at increasing depth under the island arc: these quakes define the Benioff zone.\n",
"A third type of volcanic oceanic island is formed over volcanic hotspots. A hotspot is more or less stationary relative to the moving tectonic plate above it, so a chain of islands results as the plate drifts. Over long periods of time, this type of island is eventually \"drowned\" by isostatic adjustment and eroded, becoming a seamount. Plate movement across a hot-spot produces a line of islands oriented in the direction of the plate movement. An example is the Hawaiian Islands, from Hawaii to Kure, which continue beneath the sea surface in a more northerly direction as the Emperor Seamounts. Another chain with similar orientation is the Tuamotu Archipelago; its older, northerly trend is the Line Islands. The southernmost chain is the Austral Islands, with its northerly trending part the atolls in the nation of Tuvalu. Tristan da Cunha is an example of a hotspot volcano in the Atlantic Ocean. Another hotspot in the Atlantic is the island of Surtsey, which was formed in 1963.\n",
"The oceanic crust contains hydrated minerals such as the amphibole group. During subduction, oceanic lithosphere is heated and metamorphosed causing dehydration of these hydrous minerals contained within basalts, releasing water into the asthenosphere. The release of water into the asthenosphere leads to partial melting. Partial melting allows the rise of more buoyant, hot material and can lead to volcanism at the surface and emplacement of plutons in the subsurface. These processes which generate magma are not entirely understood.\n",
"The older, and denser plate moves below the lighter plate. The further down it moves, the hotter it becomes, until finally melting altogether at the asthenosphere and inner mantle and the crust is actually destroyed. The location where the two oceanic plates actually meet become deeper and deeper creating trenches with each successive action. There is an interplay of various densities of lithosphere rock, asthenosphere magma, cooling ocean water and plate movement for example the Pacific Ring of Fire. Therefore, the site of the sub oceanic trench will be a site of submarine earthquakes; for example the Mariana Trench, Puerto Rico Trench, and the volcanic arc along the Great Sumatran fault.\n",
"The subduction zone is where the oceanic crust slides beneath the continental crust or other oceanic plates. This is because the oceanic plate's litosphere has a higher density.Subduction zones are sites that usually have a high rate of volcanism and earthquakes. Additionally, subduction zones develop belts of deformation The subduction zones on the east side of the Japanese archipelago cause frequent low intensity earth tremors. Major earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and tsunamis occur several times per century. It is part of the Pacific Ring of Fire. Northeastern Japan, north of Tanakura fault had high volcanic activity 14-17 million years before present.\n",
"Similarly, exclusion zones have been established due to natural disasters. There is an exclusion zone on the island of Montserrat, where the long-dormant Soufrière Hills volcano started erupting in 1995 and has continued erupting since. It encompasses the south part of the island, accounting for over half of its land mass and most areas of the island which were populated before the volcano erupted. The volcano destroyed the island's urban center and capital Plymouth, as well as many other villages and neighborhoods. The zone is now strictly enforced; entry into most of the destroyed areas is prohibited, while some areas are subject to restrictions during volcanic activity or open only as a \"daytime entry zone\".\n",
"During subduction, an oceanic plate is thrust below another tectonic plate, which may be oceanic or continental. Water and other volatiles in the down-going plate cause flux melting in the upper mantle, creating magma that rises and penetrates the overriding plate, forming a volcanic arc. The weight of the down-going slab flexes the down-going plate creating an oceanic trench. The area between the trench and the arc is the forearc region, and the area behind the arc (i.e. on the side away from the trench) is the back-arc region.\n"
] |
A century ago, in the aftermath of WWI and with the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire, the world had to deal with millions of refugees and mass migration. How did the receiving countries deal with this influx?
|
This depends on a case-by-case basis. I am unfortunately unable to give you a fully-fledged answer in general, but would be happy to explain what happened in the Netherlands during the War and the immediate post-war period with (predominantly Belgian) refugees, if you are interested. I could also be of some help in illuminating the emergence of the closed-border and passport systems in the immediate pre-war era, again if you are interested in the context.
|
[
"They were followed by other waves of immigration: during the First World War the Ottoman Empire from disintegrating, before and after the Second World War from Europe, from Arab countries because of the exodus caused in 1948 and more recently from South American countries suffering economic crises.\n",
"By the 19th century, the empire began to decline when ethno-nationalist uprisings occurred across the empire. Thus, the last quarter of the 19th and the early part of the 20th century saw some 7–9 million Muslim refugees (Turks and some Circassians, Bosnians, Georgians, etc.) from the lost territories of the Caucasus, Crimea, Balkans, and the Mediterranean islands migrate to Anatolia and Eastern Thrace. By 1913, the government of the Committee of Union and Progress started a program of forcible Turkification of non-Turkish minorities. By 1914, the World War I broke out, and the Turks scored some success in Gallipoli during the Battle of the Dardanelles in 1915. During World War I, the government of the Committee of Union and Progress continued with its Turkification policies, which affected non-Turkish minorities, such as the Armenians during the Armenian Genocide and the Greeks during various campaigns of ethnic cleansing and expulsion. In 1918, the Ottoman Government agreed to the Mudros Armistice with the Allies.\n",
"The conflict and political instability during World War II led to massive numbers of refugees (see World War II evacuation and expulsion). In 1943, the Allies created the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA) to provide aid to areas liberated from Axis powers, including parts of Europe and China. By the end of the War, Europe had more than 40 million refugees. UNRRA was involved in returning over seven million refugees, then commonly referred to as displaced persons or DPs, to their country of origin and setting up displaced persons camps for one million refugees who refused to be repatriated. Even two years after the end of War, some 850,000 people still lived in DP camps across Western Europe. DP Camps in Europe Intro, from: \"DPs Europe's Displaced Persons, 1945–1951\" by Mark Wyman After the establishment of Israel in 1948, Israel accepted more than 650,000 refugees by 1950. By 1953, over 250,000 refugees were still in Europe, most of them old, infirm, crippled, or otherwise disabled.\n",
"The First and Second World Wars, and wars, genocides, and crises sparked by them, had an enormous impact on migration. Muslims moved from the Balkan to Turkey, while Christians moved the other way, during the collapse of the Ottoman Empire. In April 1915 the Ottoman government embarked upon the systematic decimation of its civilian Armenian population. The persecutions continued with varying intensity until 1923 when the Ottoman Empire ceased to exist and was replaced by the Republic of Turkey. The Armenian population of the Ottoman state was reported at about two million in 1915. An estimated one million had perished by 1918, while hundreds of thousands had become homeless and stateless refugees. By 1923 virtually the entire Armenian population of Anatolian Turkey had disappeared. Four hundred thousand Jews had already moved to Palestine in the early twentieth century, and numerous Jews to America, as already mentioned. The Russian Civil War caused some three million Russians, Poles, and Germans to migrate out of the new Soviet Union. Decolonization following the Second World War also caused migrations.\n",
"Following the end of the war in Europe in late May 1945, large parts of Europe lay completely smashed. Acute food, housing and medical shortages continued for some time and around 10 million refugees housed in temporary encampments or on the roads.\n",
"The next essential change was brought by World War II respectively its consequences. Owing to the absorption and integration of a large number of refugees grave economic and demographic shifts were brought about.\n",
"Subsequently, with the Balkan Wars (1912–1923) and the First World War (1914–1918) the Ottoman Empire lost virtually most of its possessions, except these in Asia Minor. During these wars and the following Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922) the Orthodox Christians there were a subject to a persecution and deportation, and the Assyrians and Greeks even to a Genocide. That put de facto end to the community of the Rum millet. The Treaty of Lausanne from 1923, led to the recognition of the new Republic of Turkey and to the end of the Ottoman Empire itself.\n"
] |
what are those fake puddles of water that appear on the road and disappear as i drive closer?
|
Mirage. Optical illusion that form when light coming form critical angle bounce(reflection) off instead of refraction. As you approach closer you are no longer in the path of that bounced light, so it disappear
|
[
"Puddles commonly form during rain, and can cause problems for transport. Due to the angle of the road, puddles tend to be forced by gravity to gather on the edges of the road. This can cause splashing as cars drive through the puddles, which causes water to be sprayed onto pedestrians on the pavement. Irresponsible drivers may do this deliberately, which, in some countries, can lead to prosecution for careless driving.\n",
"Due to the action of surface tension, small puddles can also form if a liquid is spilt on a level surface. Puddles like this are common on kitchen floors. Puddles tend to evaporate quickly due to the high surface-area-to-volume ratio and tend to be short lived. In cold conditions puddles can form patches of ice which are slippery and difficult to see and can be a hazard to road vehicles and pedestrians.\n",
"Puddles commonly form in potholes in a dirt road, or in any other space with a shallow depression and dirt. In such cases, these are sometimes referred to as \"mud puddles\", because mud tends to form in the bottoms, resulting in dirtied wheels or boots when disturbed.\n",
"In order to deal with puddles, roads and pavements are often built with a camber (technically called 'crowning'), being slightly convex in nature, to force puddles to drain into the gutter, which has storm drain grates to allow the water to drain into the sewers. In addition, some surfaces are made to be porous, allowing the water to drain through the surface to the aquifer below.\n",
"Muddy-debris flows can start as a result of slope-related factors and shallow landslides can dam stream beds, resulting in temporary water blockage. As the impoundments fail, a \"domino effect\" may be created, with a remarkable growth in the volume of the flowing mass, which takes up the debris in the stream channel. The solid–liquid mixture can reach densities of up to and velocities of up to (;). These processes normally cause the first severe road interruptions, due not only to deposits accumulated on the road (from several cubic metres to hundreds of cubic metres), but in some cases to the complete removal of bridges or roadways or railways crossing the stream channel. Damage usually derives from a common underestimation of mud-debris flows: in the alpine valleys, for example, bridges are frequently destroyed by the impact force of the flow because their span is usually calculated only for a water discharge. For a small basin in the Italian Alps (area ) affected by a debris flow, estimated a peak discharge of for a section located in the middle stretch of the main channel. At the same cross section, the maximum foreseeable water discharge (by HEC-1), was , a value about 40 times lower than that calculated for the debris flow that occurred.\n",
"Some video games (particularly racing games) include road debris that damages vehicles or obstructs visibility. \"Spy Hunter\" (1983) features slippery, icy roads and puddles, oil slicks, and smoke screens. \"MotorStorm\" (2007) depicts air-borne mud that becomes accurately painted onto the body of each vehicle in real-time. Players can use this airborne debris strategically: a chunk of debris may be used to knock opponents off their motorcycles, and mud spatter on the wind-shields might temporarily blind them. \"Fuel\" (2009) features \"crazy windstorms that kick up leaves and debris.\"\n",
"A road running below the water level of a stream or river is often known as a \"watersplash\". It is a common name for a ford or stretch of wet road in some areas, and sometimes also used to describe tidal crossings. They have become a common feature in rallying courses. There are enthusiasts who seek out and drive through these water features, recording details (such as wave created, position and access) on dedicated websites.\n"
] |
why do so many think robert johnson is the greatest bluesman?
|
Everything I know about Robert Johnson I learned from the movie Crossroads, but apparently he invented The Blues, or at least wrote all the early classic Blues songs. He was able to do this because he sold his soul to the Devil.
|
[
"BULLET::::- Eric Clapton considers Johnson \"the most important blues musician who ever lived\". He recorded enough of his songs to make \"Me and Mr. Johnson\", a blues-rock album released in 2004 as a tribute to the legendary bluesman (it was also used in the film \"Sessions for Robert J\"). He earlier recorded \"Crossroads\", an arrangement of \"Cross Road Blues\", with Cream in 1968, leading some to consider him \"the man largely responsible for making Robert Johnson a household name.\"\n",
"Johnson is considered one of the masters of blues, particularly of the gospel blues style. Like his contemporary Blind Lemon Jefferson, Johnson channeled the expressiveness of the blues into his religious messages derived from hymnbooks. Samuel Charters, in the liner notes to the compilation album \"The Complete Blind Willie Johnson\", wrote that, in fact, Johnson was not a bluesman in the traditional sense, \"but here still is so much similarity between his relentless guitar rhythms and his harsh, insistent voice, and the same fierce intensities of the blues singers, that they become images of each other, seen in the mirror of the society that produced them\".\n",
"Robert Leroy Johnson (May 8, 1911August 16, 1938) was an American blues singer, songwriter and musician. His landmark recordings in 1936 and 1937 display a combination of singing, guitar skills, and songwriting talent that has influenced later generations of musicians. Johnson's poorly documented life and death have given rise to much legend. The one most closely associated with his life is that he sold his soul to the devil at a local crossroads to achieve musical success. He is now recognized as a master of the blues, particularly as a progenitor of the Delta blues style.\n",
"Primarily a blues musician, Johnson fuses many eras of the genre with rock, country, and jazz. He regularly performs either as a solo act with an acoustic guitar or with a backing band. Beyond guitar and vocals he also plays harmonica. He draws on influences as diverse as Robert Johnson, Mississippi John Hurt, Lonnie Johnson, Chuck Berry, Muddy Waters, T-Bone Walker, Eric Clapton, BB King, and slide guitarists David Lindley and Sonny Landreth. According to the Musicians Association of Victoria and the Islands, \"for years he has honed his craft in bars, clubs, festivals and concerts and has achieved a worldly perspective that gives his blues the kind of soul that speaks with authenticity.\"\n",
"Johnson is considered a master of the blues, particularly of the Delta blues style. Keith Richards, of the Rolling Stones, said in 1990, \"You want to know how good the blues can get? Well, this is it.\" But according to Elijah Wald, in his book \"Escaping the Delta\", Johnson in his own time was most respected for his ability to play in a wide range of styles, from raw country slide guitar to jazz and pop licks, and for his ability to pick up guitar parts almost instantly upon hearing a song. His first recorded song, \"Kind Hearted Woman Blues\", in contrast to the prevailing Delta style of the time, more resembled the style of Chicago or St. Louis, with \"a full-fledged, abundantly varied musical arrangement\". Unusual for a Delta player of the time, a recording exhibits what Johnson could do entirely outside of a blues style. \"They're Red Hot\", from his first recording session, shows that he was also comfortable with an \"uptown\" swing or ragtime sound similar to that of the Harlem Hamfats, but as Wald remarked, \"no record company was heading to Mississippi in search of a down-home Ink Spots ... [H]e could undoubtedly have come up with a lot more songs in this style if the producers had wanted them.\"\n",
"Johnson has had enormous impact on music and musicians, but outside his own time and place and even the genre for which he was famous. His influence on contemporaries was much smaller, in part because he was an itinerant performer—playing mostly on street corners, in juke joints, and at Saturday night dances—who worked in a then undervalued style of music. He also died young after recording only a handful of songs. Johnson, though well-traveled and admired in his performances, was little noted in his lifetime, and his records were even less appreciated. \"Terraplane Blues\", sometimes described as Johnson's only hit record, outsold his others, but was still only a minor success.\n",
"While Robert Johnson's professional recording career can be measured in months, his musical legacy has survived more than 70 years. Muddy Waters and Howlin' Wolf, two prominent Chicago bluesmen, have their roots in the Delta: both knew Robert Johnson, and were heavily influenced by him. Johnson's emotive vocals, combined with his varied and masterful guitar playing, continue to influence blues and popular music performers to this day. In 2004, Eric Clapton recorded \"Me and Mr. Johnson\" as a tribute to the legendary bluesman; the album reached number 6 on the \"Billboard\" 200 and has sold more than 563,000 copies in the United States. The \"Chicago Tribune\"s Greg Kot wrote that \"The Complete Recordings\", along with Clapton's \"The Layla Sessions\" (1990), survive as \"monuments of 20th Century music that will rarely, if ever, be equaled\".\n"
] |
Do humans make bodily or vocal noises above or below the human hearing (20Hz to 20,000Hz) threshold?
|
Anything that causes a vibration causes a sound, because that's what sound is. While it may not be audible, pretty much any movement your body makes technically makes a sound.
Waving your hand frantically may cause vibration of a few Hertz, for example, even though it's probably very quiet too. Of course, that's just an example you could easily mimic on purpose.
Short answer is yes.
|
[
"A human is capable of hearing (and usefully discerning) anything from a quiet murmur in a soundproofed room to the loudest heavy metal concert. Such a difference can exceed 100 dB which represents a factor of 100,000 in amplitude and a factor 10,000,000,000 in power. The dynamic range of human hearing is roughly 140 dB, varying with frequency, from the threshold of hearing (around −9 dB SPL at 3 kHz) to the threshold of pain (from 120–140 dB SPL). This wide dynamic range cannot be perceived all at once, however; the tensor tympani, stapedius muscle, and outer hair cells all act as mechanical dynamic range compressors to adjust the sensitivity of the ear to different ambient levels.\n",
"The threshold of hearing is generally reported as the RMS sound pressure of 20 micropascals, i.e. 0 dB SPL, corresponding to a sound intensity of 0.98 pW/m at 1 atmosphere and 25 °C. It is approximately the quietest sound a young human with undamaged hearing can detect at 1,000 Hz. The threshold of hearing is frequency-dependent and it has been shown that the ear's sensitivity is best at frequencies between 2 kHz and 5 kHz, where the threshold reaches as low as −9 dB SPL.\n",
"The absolute threshold of hearing is the minimum sound level of a pure tone that an average ear with normal hearing can hear with no other sound present. The absolute threshold relates to the sound that can just be heard by the organism.The threshold of hearing is generally reported as the RMS sound pressure of 20 µPa (micropascals) = 2×10 pascal (Pa). It is approximately the quietest sound a young human with undamaged hearing can detect at 1,000 Hz. The threshold of hearing is frequency dependent and it has been shown that the ear's sensitivity is best at frequencies between 1 kHz and 5 kHz.\n",
"Human hearing extends in frequency from 20–20,000 Hz, and in intensity from 0 dB to 120 dB HL or more. 0 dB does not represent absence of sound, but rather the softest sound an average unimpaired human ear can hear; some people can hear down to −5 or even −10 dB. Sound is generally uncomfortably loud above 90 dB and 115 dB represents the threshold of pain. The ear does not hear all frequencies equally well; hearing sensitivity peaks around 3000 Hz. There are many qualities of human hearing besides frequency range and intensity that cannot easily be measured quantitatively. But for many practical purposes, normal hearing is defined by a frequency versus intensity graph, or audiogram, charting sensitivity thresholds of hearing at defined frequencies. Because of the cumulative impact of age and exposure to noise and other acoustic insults, 'typical' hearing may not be normal.\n",
"The commonly stated range of human hearing is 20 Hz to 20 kHz. Under ideal laboratory conditions, humans can hear sound as low as 12 Hz and as high as 28 kHz, though the threshold increases sharply at 15 kHz in adults, corresponding to the last auditory channel of the cochlea. Humans are most sensitive to (i.e. able to discern at lowest intensity) frequencies between 2,000 and 5,000 Hz. Individual hearing range varies according to the general condition of a human's ears and nervous system. The range shrinks during life, usually beginning at around age of eight with the upper frequency limit being reduced. Women typically experience a lesser degree of hearing loss than men, with a later onset. Men have approximately 5 to 10 dB greater loss in the upper frequencies by age 40.\n",
"Audiograms of human hearing are produced using an audiometer, which presents different frequencies to the subject, usually over calibrated headphones, at specified levels. The levels are weighted with frequency relative to a standard graph known as the minimum audibility curve, which is intended to represent \"normal\" hearing. The threshold of hearing is set at around 0 phon on the equal-loudness contours (i.e. 20 micropascals, approximately the quietest sound a young healthy human can detect), but is standardised in an ANSI standard to 1 kHz. Standards using different reference levels, give rise to differences in audiograms. The ASA-1951 standard, for example, used a level of 16.5 dB SPL (sound pressure level) at 1 kHz, whereas the later ANSI-1969/ISO-1963 standard uses , with a 10 dB correction applied for older people.\n",
"The human ear has a large dynamic range in sound reception. The ratio of the sound intensity that causes permanent damage during short exposure to that of the quietest sound that the ear can hear is greater than or equal to 1 trillion (10). Such large measurement ranges are conveniently expressed in logarithmic scale: the base-10 logarithm of 10 is 12, which is expressed as a sound pressure level of 120 dB re 20 μPa.\n"
] |
What happened to German police personnel after the Germans surrendered in WW2?
|
This is an interesting one.
The Order Police and the Krippo generally continued as normal, as did most of the judiciary.
The Gestapo was brought in front of the Nuremberg trails where it was decided the it was a criminal organisation and that all officers and administrators were collectively responsible. However, it didn't apply to those who left before 1st September 1939, thus ruling it was only after this date that it became a criminal organisation and this ruled out any officer facing punishment for their actions before then.
Very few rank and file officers were brought to trial and most of those that did served less than three years detention. The Law for the Liberation from National Socialism and Militarism (5th March 1946) allowed individuals, including Gestapo officers, the chance of exoneration by producing evidence and witnesses. Most of the West Germans who applied were exonerated (issued a 'Persil Certificate' - a pun on the washing powder that offered whiter-than-white results) due to those overseeing the process being over worked and under staffed.
In the East, the Russians were just as 'thorougher' in investigating the past of those involved in the Nazi regime, however, this meant detention.
Their are a number of things we must understand. Firstly, rank and file Gestapo officers were forcibly transferred from the police detective branch and very very few were members of the Nazi party before 1937. It was the senior managers that were ardent career Nazis with no police experience. Secondly, by the 1950s there was a distinct lack of enthusiasm among the West German political establishment to bring Nazis to judgement. Thirdly, the people who the Gestapo targeted were dead by the end of the war and unable to provide witness to the prosecution. Finally, by the late 1940s, the western allies were more concerned with the Soviet Union than the Nazis. Routing out every Nazi, be them part of the civil service or civilians was not only time consuming but removing the low level civil service would make reconstruction and governance more difficult.
|
[
"Shortly after the German invasion of Poland, the Nazi authorities ordered the mobilization of prewar Polish officials and the Polish police (the \"Blue Police\"), who were forced, under penalty of death, to work for the German occupation authorities. The primary task of the officials was to run the day-to-day administration of the occupied territories; and of the Blue Police, to act as a regular police force dealing with criminal activities. The Germans also used the Blue Police to combat smuggling and resistance and to round up (\"łapanka\") random civilians for forced labor and to apprehend Jews (in German, \"Judenjagd\", \"hunting Jews\"). While many officials and police reluctantly followed German orders, some acted as agents for the Polish resistance.\n",
"Norwegians who had volunteered for military service with the Wehrmacht, and especially Germanic-SS were subject to criminal prosecution after the war. Police officers who worked with the RSHA in the Sikkerhetspolitiet (Norwegian Secret State Police) or joined the Gestapo faced charges relating to war crimes, torture, executions, and the mistreatment of prisoners.\n",
"After World War I, all military police units were disbanded and no police units existed in the inter-war Weimar Republic era. Garrisons were patrolled by regular soldiers performing the duties of the military police.\n",
"In October 1939, the Nazis ordered a mobilization of the prewar Polish police to the service of the occupational authorities. The policemen were to report for duty or face a death penalty. The so-called Blue Police was formed. At its peak in 1943, it numbered around 16,000. Its primary task was to act as a regular police force and to deal with criminal activities, but they were also used by the Germans in combating smuggling and patrolling the Jewish ghettos. Many individuals in the Blue Police followed German orders reluctantly, often disobeyed them or even risked death acting against them. Many members of the Blue Police were double agents for the Polish resistance; a large percentage cooperated with the Home Army. Some of its officers were ultimately awarded the Righteous Among the Nations awards for saving Jews. However, the moral position of Polish policemen was often compromised by a necessity for cooperation, or even collaboration, with the occupier. According to Timothy Snyder, acting in their capacity as a collaborationist force, the Blue Police may have killed more than 50,000 Jews. The police assisted the Nazis at tasks such as rounding up Poles for forced labor in Germany.\n",
"In October 1939 the German authorities ordered mobilization of the prewar Polish police to serve under the German \"Ordnungspolizei\", thus creating the auxiliary \"Blue Police\" that supplemented the principal German forces. The Polish policemen were to report for duty by 10 November 1939 or face death. At its peak in May 1944, the Blue Police numbered some 17,000 men. Their primary task was to act as a regular police force dealing with criminal activities, but the Germans also used them in combating smuggling and resistance, rounding up random civilians (\"łapanka\") for forced labor or for execution in reprisal for Polish resistance activities (e.g., the Polish underground's execution of Polish traitors or egregiously brutal Germans), patrolling for Jewish ghetto escapees, and in support of military operations against the Polish resistance.\n",
"The police had the unenviable task of training up the local Home Guard, managing the disorder caused by visiting allied troops and dealing with the aftermath of German air raids. The officers of Kent, and indeed other towns targeted by the Germans, were the only persons obliged to perform such tasks as ensuring all lights were switched off during a raid (even going so far as snuffing out the odd offending light bulb with an air rifle) and pulling civilians from the wreckage of their own bombed homes. Captured German pilots were often thrown into the same cells as the common miscreant, with one recorded example of four enemy prisoners rounded up and taken back to an officer’s house, where the officer told his wife to make sure they didn’t leave.\n",
"The German General Government tried to form additional Polish auxiliary police units—\"Schutzmannschaft Battalion 202\" in 1942, and \"Schutzmannschaft Battalion 107\" in 1943. Very few men volunteered, and the Germans decided on forced conscription to fill their ranks. Most of the conscripts subsequently deserted, and the two units were disbanded. \"Schutzmannschaft Battalion 107\" mutinied against its German officers, disarmed them, and joined the Home Army resistance.\n"
] |
How and when did the Star and Crescent become a symbol of Islam? What exactly does it represent?
|
This is primarily trying to answer another question, but it touches on the question you’re curious about:
* [Why didn't the Turkish Republic change its flag?](_URL_0_)
I’m afraid, though, that I come at this as someone who’s interested in the Early Turkish Republican era/the Late (19th century) Ottoman Empire, so I don’t know much more about this early/middle Ottoman question than I listed in that answer. (Edit: this particularly doesn’t cover at all when the star and crescent became a *global* symbol—it obviously appears on flags outside the former Ottoman Empire and outside the context of Pan-Turkism on, for instance, the flags of Pakistan, Malaysia, and Mauritania.)
/u/Chamboz and /u/CptBuck might have more to add.
|
[
"The star and crescent symbol became strongly associated with the Ottoman Empire in the 19th century, a symbol that had been used throughout the Middle East extending back to pre-Islamic times, especially in the Byzantine Empire and Crusader States which occupied the lands later assumed by the Ottoman Empire. By extension from the use in Ottoman lands, it became a symbol also for Islam as a whole, as well as representative of western Orientalism. \"Star and Crescent\" was used as a metaphor for the rule of the Islamic empires (Ottoman and Persian) in the late 19th century in British literature. This association was apparently strengthened by the increasingly ubiquitous fashion of using the star and crescent symbol in the ornamentation of Ottoman mosques and minarets. The \"Red Crescent\" emblem was adopted by volunteers of the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) as early as 1877 during the Russo-Turkish War; it was officially adopted in 1929.\n",
"After the collapse of the Ottoman Empire in 1922, the star and crescent was used in several national flags adopted by its successor states. The star and crescent in the flag of the Kingdom of Libya (1951) was explicitly given an Islamic interpretation by associating it with \"the story of Hijra (migration) of our Prophet Mohammed\" By the 1950s, this symbolism was embraced by movements of Arab nationalism or Islamism, such as the proposed Arab Islamic Republic (1974) and the American Nation of Islam (1973).\n",
"The star and crescent is an iconographic symbol used in various historical contexts but most well known as a symbol of the Ottoman Empire. It is often considered as a symbol of Islam by extension, however is denied as the religion bears no symbol. It develops in the iconography of the Hellenistic period (4th–1st centuries BCE) in the Kingdom of Pontus, the Bosporan Kingdom and notably the city of Byzantium by the 2nd century BCE. It is the conjoined representation of the crescent and a star, both of which constituent elements have a long prior history in the iconography of the Ancient Near East as representing either Sun and Moon or Moon and Morning Star (or their divine personifications). Coins with crescent and star symbols represented separately have a longer history, with possible ties to older Mesopotamian iconography. The star, or Sun, is often shown within the arc of the crescent (also called star in crescent, or star within crescent, for disambiguation of depictions of a star and a crescent side by side); In numismatics in particular, the term crescent and pellet is used in cases where the star is simplified to a single dot.\n",
"In the late 19th century, \"Star and Crescent\" came to be used as a metaphor for Ottoman rule in British literature. The increasingly ubiquitous fashion of using the star and crescent symbol in the ornamentation of Ottoman mosques and minarets led to a gradual association of the symbol with Islam in general in western Orientalism. The \"Red Crescent\" emblem was used by volunteers of the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) as early as 1877 during the Russo-Turkish War; it was officially adopted in 1929.\n",
"In the later 20th century, the star and crescent have acquired a popular interpretation as a \"symbol of Islam\", occasionally embraced by Arab nationalism or Islamism in the 1970s to 1980s, but often rejected as erroneous or unfounded by Muslim commentators in more recent times.\n",
"The star and crescent is retained from the 19th-century Ottoman flag, and has acquired its status as de facto national emblem following the abolition of the Ottoman coat of arms in 1922. It was used on national identity cards by the 1930s (with the horns of the crescent facing left instead of the now more common orientation towards the right).\n",
"While some Islamic organisations since the 1970s have embraced the crescent as their logo or emblem (e.g. \" Crescent International\" magazine, established 1980), Muslim publications tend to emphasize that the interpretation of the crescent, historically used on the banners of Muslim armies, as a \"religious symbol\" of Islam was an error made by the \"Christians of Europe\". The identification of the crescent as an \"Islamic symbol\" is mentioned by James Hastings as a \"common error\" to which \"even approved writers on Oriental subjects\" are prone as early as 1928.\n"
] |
how come the human race still has "ugly" people if nobody wants to reproduce with them?
|
People still do.
Edit: also Luck, two "perfect" parents wont always have a "perfect" child.
|
[
"The second statement says that since human history is widely diverse and complex, there are many human populations that cannot be easily classified “racially”. However, some anthropologists believe that mankind is classified into at least three major human races. Even though it is believed that there are many human races, it gives no support that there is one race that is superior or inferior to any of the other races.\n",
"Eventually of the race which created it only three are left; these are called the Silent Ones, and they have been 'purged of dross' and can be described as higher, nobler, more angelic beings than are humankind. They have also been sentenced by the good among their race to remain in the world, and not to die, as punishment for their pride which was the source of the calamity called the Dweller, until such time as they destroy their creation—if they still can. And the reason they do not do so is simply that they continue to love it.\n",
"Other human races are descended from the Godless Ones: ethnicities chosen by no god (Aldur abstaining from selection) at the beginning of the human race. They are widely spread across both continents and have physical diversity comparable to the other races.\n",
"Portions of these humanoids are clearly not of human make. They may have drastic differences in skin color and eye type and may have scales, fur, claws, and tails. The average person may find them quite unpleasant and untrustworthy because they are not entirely human.\n",
"Women are often objectified by being compared to a piece of meat or dehumanized by being called a 'cow' or a 'bird'. There is indeed a history of dehumanization through equating humans to animals, which because of speciesism, means that they are devalued and considered to be less than other valued humans. This is often seen in cases of genocide, for in Rwanda the Tutsi were compared to cockroaches for many months leading up to the actual genocide. Viewing humans as animals makes it easier to oppress them, and thus it is once again clear that in order to end the oppression of humans, one must also work to end the oppression of nonhuman animals, because so long as nonhuman animals are viewed as inherently inferior to humans, dehumanization will continue to be justified with comparisons to nonhuman animals.\n",
"The human race consists of billions of people spread throughout a relatively small area of space containing Earth and several other inhabited planets. The majority of the population lives on giant space stations, either in orbit or moving like giant ships. A change occurred over the generations that was caused by zero-gravity conditions and exposure to different radiations. Most are pale-skinned, thin and frail-boned; some would die if they experienced gravity. The human race is ruled over by the Directorate, a group of three genetically modified humans, through whom all information must pass before it is released; this has given the Directorate complete control over information for the last 600 years. They stopped all war and religion and caused humanity to be composed of mostly obedient cowards.\n",
"Through this small sampling of experts, it is clear that race as a social construction is a common theory. All of the experts in this sampling say that biological race is non-existent. Race therefore must have been created by societies. They were created to do what humans do, to serve the purposes of the majority. The hierarchies created by race have kept the majority \"race\" in control of everything from public policy to the workforce to law enforcement. They benefit from this construction of race. Yet, the minorities, who are just the same genetically, suffer under this system. Most of the points made by the experts expose this issue, yet none truly suggest a way to fix the problem. Bill Nye weighs in on the issue on the same side as the experts in the sample. He says that humans are humans, we are all one species. We have to fix it. If society created the problem, society has to take it on itself to fix it.\n"
] |
how did amazon gain enough popularity to support it's massive infrastructure costs?
|
It was one of the first dot coms, back when online shopping wasn't a thing yet.
They also started niche with just books - an industry which (at that time) had lousy overpriced competition and was impossible for brick and mortar stores to compare on inventory / price. Great place to start.
Then after they became the niche book go-to, they moved to music and movies which had the same basic problem before digitalization.
Then they expanded to more types of merchandise. And so on.
|
[
"In June 2012, Amazon began the installation of a $52 million investment in cooling its warehouses around the country, a major cost for the company equivalent to 8.2 percent of Amazon's 2011 total earnings. Experts speculated Amazon made such a massive investment either to dampen negative publicity over worker conditions, and/or to better protect goods in the warehouse such as food and electronics equipment.\n",
"In 2016 Q1, revenue was $2.57 billion with net income of $604 million, a 64% increase over 2015 Q1 that resulted in AWS being more profitable than Amazon's North American retail business for the first time. In the first quarter of 2016, Amazon experienced a 42% rise in stock value as a result of increased earnings, of which AWS contributed 56% to corporate profits.\n",
"After the dot-com bubble, Amazon played a key role in the development of cloud computing by modernizing their data centers, which, like most computer networks, were using as little as 10% of their capacity at any one time, just to leave room for occasional spikes. Having found that the new cloud architecture resulted in significant internal efficiency improvements whereby small, fast-moving \"two-pizza teams\" (teams small enough to be fed with two pizzas) could add new features faster and more easily, Amazon initiated a new product development effort to provide cloud computing to external customers, and launched Amazon Web Services (AWS) on a utility computing basis in 2006. \n",
"Amazon is known for its disruption of well-established industries through technological innovation and mass scale. It is the world's largest e-commerce marketplace, AI assistant provider, and cloud computing platform as measured by revenue and market capitalization. Amazon is the largest Internet company by revenue in the world. It is the second largest private employer in the United States and one of the world's most valuable companies. Amazon is the second largest technology company by revenue.\n",
"For the fiscal year 2018, Amazon reported earnings of US$10.07 billion, with an annual revenue of US$232.887 billion, an increase of 30.9% over the previous fiscal cycle. Since 2007 sales increased from 14.835 billion to 232.887 billion, thanks to continued business expansion. Amazon's market capitalization was valued at over US$803 billion in early November 2018.\n",
"Amazon has grown through a number of mergers and acquisitions over the years. The company has also invested in a number of growing firms, both in the United States and Internationally. In 2014, Amazon purchased top level domain .buy in auction for over $4 million. The company has invested in brands that offer a wide range of services and products, including Engine Yard, a Ruby-on-Rails platform as a service company, and Living Social, a local deal site.\n",
"Amazon announced its plans to build a new headquarters in September 2017, saying that it would house 50,000 workers and spend $5 billion on new construction. The corporation also invited governments and economic development organizations to give the corporation tax breaks and other incentives to entice it to their locality. More than 200 cities in Canada, Mexico, and the United States eventually offered tax breaks, expedited construction approvals, promises of infrastructure improvements, new crime-reduction programs, and other incentives.\n"
] |
How long does it take for a large, non-spherical object in space to become spherical?
|
Assuming the cube is made from the same material that Earth is made of, it would probably not take very long to become spherical. The corners of the cube would in effect be mountains that are many hundreds of km tall, which would collapse due to gravity.
|
[
"A spherical secondary can achieve higher implosion densities than a cylindrical secondary, because spherical implosion pushes in from all directions toward the same spot. However, in warheads yielding more than one megaton, the diameter of a spherical secondary would be too large for most applications. A cylindrical secondary is necessary in such cases. The small, cone-shaped re-entry vehicles in multiple-warhead ballistic missiles after 1970 tended to have warheads with spherical secondaries, and yields of a few hundred kilotons.\n",
"If the radius of the sphere is called \"R\", the radii of the spherical segment bases are \"r\" and \"r\", and the height of the segment (the distance from one parallel plane to the other) called \"h\", then the volume of the spherical segment is\n",
"Eridanus II does not have a spherical shape, and its ellipticity (ε) has been estimated at about 0.45 (Crnojević et al., 2016; Koposov et al., 2015). Its size depends on assumptions about mass distribution and three-dimensional structure. Crnojević et al. (2016) find that their data are consistent with a simple exponential distribution of mass and a half-light radius (a radius enclosing half the luminosity of the galaxy) of 277 ±14 pc (~890 light years), with an apparent half-light diameter of 4.6 arcmin to observers on Earth.\n",
"A spherical lens has an aplanatic point (i.e., no spherical aberration) only at a radius that equals the radius of the sphere divided by the index of refraction of the lens material. A typical value of refractive index for crown glass is 1.5 (see list), which indicates that only about 43% of the area (67% of diameter) of a spherical lens is useful. It is often considered to be an imperfection of telescopes and other instruments which makes their focusing less than ideal due to the spherical shape of lenses and mirrors. This is an important effect, because spherical shapes are much easier to produce than aspherical ones. In many cases, it is cheaper to use multiple spherical elements to compensate for spherical aberration than it is to use a single aspheric lens.\n",
"In geometry, a spherical cap, spherical dome, or spherical segment of one base is a portion of a sphere cut off by a plane. If the plane passes through the center of the sphere, so that the height of the cap is equal to the radius of the sphere, the spherical cap is called a \"hemisphere\".\n",
"With a diameter of it is the smallest astronomical body that is known to still be rounded in shape because of self-gravitation. However, Mimas is not actually in hydrostatic equilibrium for its current rotation.\n",
"In spherical geometry, a spherical rectangle is a figure whose four edges are great circle arcs which meet at equal angles greater than 90°. Opposite arcs are equal in length. The surface of a sphere in Euclidean solid geometry is a non-Euclidean surface in the sense of elliptic geometry. Spherical geometry is the simplest form of elliptic geometry.\n"
] |
Why doesn't China have a large muslim population but southeast Asia does even though China is closer to the middle east?
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China does have a thriving Muslim population, though they are in several different groups.
Perhaps the most notable are the 维吾尔族 Uyghurs (pronounced like "Wee-ger") in the 新疆维吾尔族自治区, or the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region (a region some Uyghurs often refer to as Eastern Turkestan). In this region, the largest province in China, Uyghurs are the majority population, accounting for ABOUT fifty percent of the province's ~22 million people. They are a Turkic people, and are often characterized by their devotion to Islam. In general they bare little resemblance to East Asian peoples. Peter Hessler, an American travel writer, said that when he visited China in the 90's many Han Chinese 汉族 (the dominant ethnic group in China that we simply refer to as "Chinese," though incorrectly) assumed he was Uyghyr upon first meeting him. Many Muslims of the Kazakh minority 哈萨克族 are also to be found in Xinjiang.
Another notable groups of Muslims in China are the Hui (pronounced like "Hway") people 回族. The Hui have been present in China since the Tang Dynasty, and are widespread. Major population centers include Gansu 甘肃, Yunnan 云南, Xinjiang 新疆, and other Western provinces. Though ethnically distinct, a westerner might look at a Hui person and think they look very "Chinese" as opposed to the Uyghurs who certainly do not. Famous Hui Muslims include the famous explorer from the Ming Dynasty, Zheng He 郑和.
Edit: Just an anecdote. I live in Beijing, and I'm surrounded by Hui Muslims. Where I live, Chongwenmen 崇文门 in Dongcheng District 东城区, they are an everyday sight. There is a beautiful Hui Mosque here, and even a Hui Primary school.
Edit 2: Some numbers. China is home to over 8 million Ughurs, 10 millions Hui Muslims, 1.5 million Kazakhs, and a variety of other Muslim peoples such as Tajiks, Uzbecks, Kyrgyz, etc.
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[
"Most of the significant population of Muslims in China is a result, not of missionary activity, but of trade links forged between various Muslim Caliphates with various Chinese dynasties over the centuries. In addition, often Chinese rulers would encourage flourishing of Muslim minority communities as buffers against local Chinese enemies and as a source for loyal military recruits.\n",
"Most estimates indicate that the China has approximately 20 to 30 million Muslims (1.5% to 2% of the population). However, data provided by the San Diego State University's International Population Center to \"U.S. News & World Report\" suggests that China has 65.3 million Muslims. Islam is the second largest religion after Christianity in many European countries, and is slowly catching up to that status in the Americas, with between 2,454,000, according to Pew Forum, and approximately 7 million Muslims, according to the Council on American–Islamic Relations (CAIR), in the United States.\n",
"China is home to a large population of adherents of Islam. According to the \"CIA World Factbook\", about 1–2% of the total population in China are Muslims. The 2000 census counts imply that there may be up to 20 million Muslims in China. According to the textbook, “Religions in the Modern World”, it states that the “numbers of followers of any one tradition are difficult to estimate, and must in China as everywhere else rely on statistics compiled by the largest institutions, either those of the state – which tend to underestimate – or those of the religious institutions themselves – which tend to overestimate. If we include all the population of those designated ‘national’ minorities with an Islamic heritage in the territory of China, then we can conclude that there are some 20 million Muslims in the People’s Republic of China. A 2009 study done by the Pew Research Center, based on China's census, concluded there are 21,667,000 Muslims in China, accounting for 1.6% of the total population. According to the State Administration for Religious Affairs (SARA), there are more than 21 million Muslims in the country. According to SARA there are approximately 36,000 Islamic places of worship, more than 45,000 imams, and 10 Islamic schools in the country. Within the next two decades from 2011, Pew projects a slowing down of the Muslim population growth in China compared to previous years, with Muslim women in China having a 1.7 fertility rate. Many Hui Muslims voluntarily limit themselves to one child in China since their Imams preach to them about the benefits of population control, while the number of children Hui in different areas are allowed to have varies between one and three children. Chinese family planning policy allows minorities including Muslims to have up to two children in urban areas, and three to four children in rural areas.\n",
"Muslims live in every region in China. The highest concentrations are found in the northwest provinces of Xinjiang, Gansu, and Ningxia, with significant populations also found throughout Yunnan province in southwest China and Henan province in central China. Of China's 55 officially recognized minority peoples, ten groups are predominantly Muslim. The largest groups in descending order are Hui (9.8 million in year 2000 census, or 48% of the officially tabulated number of Muslims), Uyghur (8.4 million, 41%), Kazakh (1.25 million, 6.1%), Dongxiang (514,000, 2.5%), Kyrgyz (144,000), Uzbeks (125,000), Salar (105,000), Tajik (41,000), Bonan (17,000), and Tatar (5,000). However, individual members of traditionally Muslim groups may profess other religions or none at all. Additionally, Tibetan Muslims are officially classified along with the Tibetan people. Muslims live predominantly in the areas that border Central Asia, Tibet and Mongolia, i.e. Xinjiang, Ningxia, Gansu and Qinghai, which is known as the \"Quran Belt\".\n",
"Chinese-speaking, and of predominantly Han Chinese ethnic origin, this little-known group of Sunni Muslims of the Hanafi madhhab forms a predominantly endogamous, closely inter-related minority group in four countries – China, Burma, Thailand and Laos – and today represents both Islamic and Chinese cultures in northern Southeast Asia.\n",
"Hui Muslims are the majority Muslim group in China. The greatest concentration is in Xinjiang, with a significant Uyghur population. Lesser but significant populations reside in the regions of Ningxia, Gansu, and Qinghai. Various sources estimate different numbers of adherents with some sources indicating that 1-3% of the total population in China are Muslims.\n",
"About 20% of Muslims live in Arab countries. In the Middle East, the non-Arab countries of Iran and Turkey are the largest Muslim-majority countries; in Africa, Egypt and Nigeria have the most populous Muslim communities. The study found more Muslims in the United Kingdom than in Lebanon and more in China than in Syria. Indian state of Uttar Pradesh has more Muslims than any other Muslim majority countries except Indonesia, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Egypt, Iran and Turkey.\n"
] |
How and when did pepperoni become the default topping for pizza in the U.S.?
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We've had to remove a number of posts with people sharing what they like on their pizza instead of pepperoni and/or challenging the OP's assumption. Please, if you want to discuss your favorite pizza, that is for another subreddit.
As for the fact that Pepperoni is the default topic, "default" is up for debate, I agree, but I think we can all agree that "most popular" is not a very contentious observation, and supported by [polling on the matter.](_URL_0_) So I would ask that further discussion be focused on pepperoni's popularity in the American pizza business, and not on what *you* like on your pie. Thank you!
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[
"Common toppings for pizza in the United States include ground beef, mushrooms, onions, pepperoni, pineapple, garlic, olives, peppers, carrots, tomatoes, spinach, anchovies, chicken, bacon, ham and sausage. Distinct regional types developed in the 20th century, including California, Chicago, Detroit, Greek, New Haven, New York and St. Louis styles. The first pizzeria in the U.S. was opened in New York's Little Italy in 1905 and since then regions throughout the U.S. offer variations, including deep-dish, stuffed, pockets, turnovers, rolled and pizza-on-a-stick, each with seemingly limitless combinations of sauce and toppings.\n",
"According to \"Convenience Store Decisions\", Americans consume 251.7 million pounds of pepperoni annually, on 36% of all pizzas produced nationally. Pepperoni has a tendency to curl up from the edges in the heat of a pizza oven. Some pepperoni is produced in thicker slices, so that the edges curl intentionally.\n",
"The dish is believed to date back to the period between the 1940s and the 1960s. During the American Commonwealth Period, a shortage of tomato supplies in the Second World War forced the local development of the banana ketchup. Spaghetti with Bolognese sauce was introduced by the Americans and was tweaked to suit the local Filipino predilection for sweet dishes.\n",
"The first pizzeria in the United States of America was claimed to have been founded by Gennaro Lombardi in New York City's Little Italy in 1905, though this has recently been debunked by author Peter Regas. An immigrant \"pizzaiolo\" (pizza maker) from Naples, he opened a grocery store in 1897; eight years later, it was licensed to sell pizza by New York State. An employee, Antonio Totonno Pero, began making pizza, which sold for five cents a pie. Many people, however, could not afford a whole pie and instead would offer what they could in return for a corresponding sized slice, which was wrapped in paper tied with string. In 1924, Totonno left Lombardi's to open his own pizzeria on Coney Island, called Totonno's.\n",
"Shakey's Pizza was founded in Sacramento, California, on April 30, 1954, by Sherwood \"Shakey\" Johnson and Ed Plummer. Johnson's nickname resulted from nerve damage following a bout of malaria suffered during World War II. The parlor opened on a weekend, but since the pizza ovens were not yet completed only beer was served. Shakey took the profits from beer sales and bought ingredients for pizza the following Monday.\n",
"Old Town Pizza is a pizzeria established in 1974 and located in the historic Merchant Hotel building in the Old Town Chinatown neighborhood of central Portland, Oregon in the United States. The company has a satellite location located at Vanport Square in Northeast Portland that includes a brewery branded as Old Town Brewing Co. Two days before its March 2012 opening, a fire forced the restaurant to undergo reconstruction for six weeks.\n",
"The origins of grandma pizza can be traced back the early 20th century in Long Island when Italian immigrants from southern Italy would try to replicate some of the food and pizza from their old country with what few ingredients they had available. This eventually morphed into a pizza that would be made at home with simple ingredients in their home kitchens. Due to the humble beginnings and background of the pizza, it was dubbed \"grandma pizza\" since it was rarely made outside of a home kitchen and mainly made by first-generation immigrants. Pizzerias rarely sold this type of pizza.\n"
] |
One of the main requirements of Islam is prayer, and one of the prayers is at dawn. How did people in the time of the prophet Muhammad wake up for prayer on time, considering there were no alarms at all?
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There are basically two answers. One is that, at least according to the Hadith, the call to prayer already existed and would have been called out for the dawn prayer. The second answer is that pre-modern sleep practices were very different than our modern concept of one, approximately eight hour long period of uninterrupted sleep. Pre-moderns, including Muhammad, would more frequently have had a "first sleep", followed by a period of awakeness, followed by a "second sleep." This is also referenced in the hadith: _URL_0_
Separately, in lieu of alarm clocks, there were plenty of animals that make noise at dawn: _URL_1_
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[
"Mohammad initially prayed the tarawih, a special Muslim prayers during the month of Ramadan, in congregation but later discontinued this practice out of fear that Muslims would start to believe the prayers to be mandatory, rather than a sunnah. During his Caliphate Umar reinstated the practice of praying \"tarawih\" in congregation as there was no longer any fear of people taking it as something mandatory.\n",
"Tahajjud () prayer is performed at night time, and it is recommended that it be performed after first going to sleep for a part of the night. Scholars have different opinions about whether sleeping first is absolutely required or not. In Saudi Arabia during the fasting month of Ramadan, there are many people who leave the Tarawih prayers in the main masjid in a hurry so that they can go home, go to sleep, and then wake up to perform their Tahajjud prayers in the early morning. Others simply stay in the mosque and perform these optional prayers before going home.\n",
"However, as time passed, the Qur'an continued to grow, and by the time ayat 20 was revealed, the Qur'an was too long to fully recite during the night. Consequently, Allah relaxes his prior command to recite the Qur'an at night. Muhammad is told to pray what is easy for him during the night (“recite as much of the Qur’an is easy for you”), but to continue to pray throughout the day (“keep up the prayer [during the day], pay the prescribed alms, and lend God a good loan).\n",
"According to the history of Islam and the report from Abdullah bn 'Abbas narrated from the Prophet saying that: the permission to perform the Friday prayer was given by Allah before hijrah, but the people were unable to congregate and perform it. The Prophet wrote a note to Mus'ab b. Umair, who represented the Prophet in Madinah to pray to raka'at in congregation on Friday (that is, Jumu'ah). Then, after the migration of the Prophet to Medina, the Jumu'ah was held by him.\n",
"A hadith narrated by Abu Huraira said that Muhammad often recited \"As-Sajda\" together with \"Al-Insan\" (chapter 76 of the Quran) for the early morning prayer (\"fajr\") every Friday. This report also appears in Tafsir ibn Kathir. Another report said that he often recited the chapter before going to sleep.\n",
"Tahajjud (), also known as the \"night prayer\", is a voluntary prayer performed by followers of Islam. It is not one of the five obligatory prayers required of all Muslims, although the Islamic prophet, Muhammad was recorded as performing the tahajjud prayer regularly himself and encouraging his companions too.\n",
"When the prayer time came, the Muslims were worried that the Ghatafan men might descend from their mountain hideout and make a sudden attack on them while they were praying. Apprehending this fear, Muhammad introduced the ‘service of prayer of danger.’ In this system, a party of faithful stands guard while the other party prays. Then they take turns. According to Muslim sources, God revealed the verses 4:101 regarding shortening of a prayer.\n"
] |
how do disinfectants work?
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They contain an agent which kills bacteria. In the case of hand-sanitizers, the ingredient is alcohol - specifically, usually, ethanol or isopropanal (there's others too, though). When rubbed onto skin (or surfaces, in the case of other disinfectants) the bacteria are killed.
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[
"Disinfectants are antimicrobial agents that are applied to the surface of non-living objects to destroy microorganisms that are living on the objects. Disinfection does not necessarily kill all microorganisms, especially resistant bacterial spores; it is less effective than sterilization, which is an extreme physical and/or chemical process that kills all types of life. Disinfectants are different from other antimicrobial agents such as antibiotics, which destroy microorganisms within the body, and antiseptics, which destroy microorganisms on living tissue. Disinfectants are also different from biocides — the latter are intended to destroy all forms of life, not just microorganisms.\n",
"Disinfection is accomplished both by filtering out harmful micro-organisms and by adding disinfectant chemicals. Water is disinfected to kill any pathogens which pass through the filters and to provide a residual dose of disinfectant to kill or inactivate potentially harmful micro-organisms in the storage and distribution systems. Possible pathogens include viruses, bacteria, including \"Salmonella\", \"Cholera\", \"Campylobacter\" and \"Shigella\", and protozoa, including \"Giardia lamblia\" and other \"cryptosporidia\". After the introduction of any chemical disinfecting agent, the water is usually held in temporary storage – often called a contact tank or clear well – to allow the disinfecting action to complete.\n",
"A perfect disinfectant would also offer complete and full microbiological sterilisation, without harming humans and useful form of life, be inexpensive, and noncorrosive. However, most disinfectants are also, by nature, potentially harmful (even toxic) to humans or animals. Most modern household disinfectants contain Bitrex, an exceptionally bitter substance added to discourage ingestion, as a safety measure. Those that are used indoors should never be mixed with other cleaning products as chemical reactions can occur. The choice of disinfectant to be used depends on the particular situation. Some disinfectants have a wide spectrum (kill many different types of microorganisms), while others kill a smaller range of disease-causing organisms but are preferred for other properties (they may be non-corrosive, non-toxic, or inexpensive).\n",
"Chemical disinfectants are products that kill pathogens. If the product is a disinfectant, the label on the product should say \"disinfectant\" or \"kills\" pathogens. Some commercial products, e.g. bleaches, even though they are technically disinfectants, say that they \"kill pathogens\" but are not actually labelled as \"disinfectants\". Not all disinfectants kill all types of pathogens. All disinfectants kill bacteria (called bactericidal). Some also kill fungi (fungicidal), bacterial spores (sporicidal) or viruses (virucidal).\n",
"Disinfection uses liquid chemicals on surfaces and at room temperature to kill disease causing microorganisms. Ultraviolet light has also been used to disinfect the rooms of patients infected with \"Clostridium difficile\" after discharge. Disinfection is less effective than sterilization because it does not kill bacterial endospores.\n",
"Chemical sterilization, also referred to as cold sterilization, can be used to sterilize instruments that cannot normally be disinfected through the other two processes described above. The items sterilized with cold sterilization are usually those that can be damaged by regular sterilization. Commonly, glutaraldehydes and formaldehyde are used in this process, but in different ways. When using the first type of disinfectant, the instruments are soaked in a 2-4% solution for at least 10 hours while a solution of 8% formaldehyde will sterilize the items in 24 hours or more. Chemical sterilization is generally more expensive than steam sterilization and therefore it is used for instruments that cannot be disinfected otherwise. After the instruments have been soaked in the chemical solutions, they are mandatory to be rinsed with sterile water which will remove the residues from the disinfectants. This is the reason why needles and syringes are not sterilized in this way, as the residues left by the chemical solution that has been used to disinfect them cannot be washed off with water and they may interfere with the administered treatment. Although formaldehyde is less expensive than glutaraldehydes, it is also more irritating to the eyes, skin and respiratory tract and is classified as a potential carcinogen.\n",
"BULLET::::- Disinfectants: Destroy or inactivate microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, viruses,) but may not act as sporicides (as those are the most difficult form to destroy). According to efficacy data, the EPA will classify a disinfectant as limited, general/broad spectrum, or as a hospital disinfectant.\n"
] |
how did glow in the dark happen? and where did it get its source of energy to glow in the dark?
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Around 1669, there was a German alchemist named Hennig Brand. He was in search of gold, and thought that it came from within man. What color is gold? It's a shade of yellow. What else is yellow that everyone is familiar with? Urine. So off went Hennig on a quest to extract gold from pee. He boiled down 5,500 liters of the stuff, and what was left over was a bunch of phosphorus. Phosphorus, for those who don't know, has a tendency to take in light, and hold it for a while, which makes it glow. This is why Hennig named it phosphorus, for the greek "light-bearer".
So glow in the dark resulted from a scientific fluke. The dude was trying to make gold in an early stab at chemistry.
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[
"In 1974, the glow was explained by R. J. van Zee and A. U. Khan. A reaction with oxygen takes place at the surface of the solid (or liquid) phosphorus, forming the short-lived molecules HPO and that both emit visible light. The reaction is slow and only very little of the intermediates are required to produce the luminescence, hence the extended time the glow continues in a stoppered jar.\n",
"BULLET::::- Light: When quicklime is heated to , it emits an intense glow. This form of illumination is known as a limelight, and was used broadly in theatrical productions before the invention of electric lighting.\n",
"The glow is the result of a chemical reaction that involves luciferin, the substrate; luciferase, the enzyme that acts upon luciferin; adenosine triphosphate, the energy molecule; and oxygen. It occurs in modified excretory organs known as Malpighian tubules in the abdomen.\n",
"The light is produced either directly by the flame, generally by using special mixes of illuminating gas to increase brightness, or indirectly with other components such as the gas mantle or the limelight, with the gas primarily functioning as a fuel source.\n",
"The light works by introducing oxygen into the centre of an Argand burner. The unburned carbon in the oil flame burns incredibly brightly and an intense, white light is produced from the weak yellow flame of the oil lamp. They were first trialled to light the House of Commons in 1839, and stayed in use there for over 50 years.\n",
"The light was created by a burner fuelled by kerosene, which generated 20,000 candlepower and itself was dioptric occulting type. The light was \"eclipsed\" (darkened) every 17 seconds by lowering a metal cylinder around the burner for 3 seconds, thus giving rise to the term\n",
"Some examples of glow-in-the-dark materials do not glow by phosphorescence. For example, glow sticks glow due to a chemiluminescent process which is commonly mistaken for phosphorescence. In chemiluminescence, an excited state is created via a chemical reaction. The light emission tracks the kinetic progress of the underlying chemical reaction. The excited state will then transfer to a dye molecule, also known as a sensitizer or fluorophor, and subsequently fluoresce back to the ground state.\n"
] |
Theoretically, how far "back in time" could we go and still be able to have a conversation with local inhabitants?
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Warning: This is not my area of expertise at all, but since there have been no replies after half an hour, I'll give it a go.
First of all, it depends greatly on what language you'd like to speak in, as you acknowledged in your post. It also depends on who you'd like to speak to - peasants? kings? But the general answer for English is somewhere around the 12th-14th centuries. This is a bit of text from the mid-1100s: "He chæs himm sone kinnessmenn all swillke summ he wollde and whær he wollde borenn ben he chæs all att hiss wille." This is mostly intelligible - it means "He chose some kinsmen as he liked, and where he would be born, he chose all at his will." But they were also using a number of Germanic words that we don't use anymore, and you may have had some trouble understanding a great deal. By the time of Chaucer in the late 1300s - well, you can read Canterbury Tales without any special training, so there you go.
If you speak Italian, you might be able to go back significantly further. Italian was fractured into many regional dialects until the publication of the Divine Comedy in the 14th century. However, certain regional dialects were more like modern Italian than others, and in those regions you could go back further. The first documented words in Italian date from the mid 10th century; however, spoken Italian dates back much further - in 722, when Pope Gregory II, raised in Rome, met St. Boniface, who had studied classical Latin, Boniface said that he found Gregory IIs Latin very difficult to understand, indicating that the language of the Italian peninsula had already begun to evolve away from vulgar Latin.
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[
"\"In the not-distant future, the sound of Man will invade those unknown depths of space which as yet we cannot even imagine. In his own world there are no places left beyond the reach of his voice. His neighbor is no longer just next door, but anywhere at the end of a wire. And it all began when prehistoric man discovered the art of communication...\"\n",
"It may be that non-colonizing technologically capable alien civilizations exist, but that they are simply too far apart for meaningful two-way communication. If two civilizations are separated by several thousand light-years, it is possible that one or both cultures may become extinct before meaningful dialogue can be established. Human searches may be able to detect their existence, but communication will remain impossible because of distance. It has been suggested that this problem might be ameliorated somewhat if contact/communication is made through a Bracewell probe. In this case at least one partner in the exchange may obtain meaningful information. Alternatively, a civilization may simply broadcast its knowledge, and leave it to the receiver to make what they may of it. This is similar to the transmission of information from ancient civilizations to the present, and humanity has undertaken similar activities like the Arecibo message, which could transfer information about Earth's intelligent species, even if it never yields a response or does not yield a response in time for humanity to receive it. It is also possible that archaeological evidence of past civilizations may be detected through deep space observations.\n",
"For example, if one wanted to travel to Deneb (2,600 light years away) and arrive less than 2,600 years in the future according to external clocks, it would be required that someone had already begun work on warping the space from Earth to Deneb at least 2,600 years ago:\n",
"A national census undertaken in 2013 reported that about 149,000 people, or 3.7 per cent of the New Zealand population, could hold a conversation in Māori about everyday things. , 55 per cent of Māori adults reported some knowledge of the language; but of these speakers, only 64 per cent use Māori at home and only around 50,000 people can speak the language \"very well\" or \"well\".\n",
"In the year 2084 scientists have found a way to send messages back into time using time telepathy. With the Earth nearly destroyed by many different causes, they have one hope for the experiment: warn the past of the future to avert the fate of Earth.\n",
"Some physicists claim that by using a wormhole to connect two regions of spacetime a person could theoretically travel in time. Physicist Michio Kaku points out that to power this hypothetical time machine and \"punch a hole into the fabric of space-time\", it would require the energy of a star. Another theory is that a person could travel in time with cosmic strings.\n",
"A two-way distance record for communication was set by the Mercury laser altimeter instrument aboard the MESSENGER spacecraft, and was able to communicate across a distance of 24 million km (15 million miles), as the craft neared Earth on a fly-by in May, 2005. The previous record had been set with a one-way detection of laser light from Earth, by the Galileo probe, of 6 million km in 1992.\n"
] |
why are ceiling's spackled or whatever it's called. why aren't they just flat like walls?
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I work in new home construction in a mid-Atlantic market. We do smooth ceilings (you are describing textured). In my market textured is about 50% of the multifamily housing market and about 0% of the single family market. From my perspective you do this more to hide imperfections in drywall seams than as a sound dampening device. In multifamily it also hides wear and tear where a tenant my cause dents moving in/out of a unit.
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[
"A ceiling is an overhead interior surface that covers the upper limits of a room. It is not generally considered a structural element, but a finished surface concealing the underside of the roof structure or the floor of a story above. Ceilings can be decorated to taste, and there are many fine examples of frescoes and artwork on ceilings especially in religious buildings.\n",
"Many of the buildings designed by Scarano's firm are instantly recognizable for being much larger than neighboring buildings. This is often due to the double-height spaces and mezzanine levels commonly used on his residential projects to maximize building height, floor area, and lot coverage. Under the New York City building codes, mezzanines (defined in part as spaces with ceiling heights of less than five feet) are not included when calculating the square footage of a building, but it has been alleged that many of Scarano's building plans classified habitable space as mezzanines.\n",
"In the \"ricetto\", critics have noted that the recessed columns in the vestibule make the walls look like taut skin stretched between vertical supports. This caused the room to appear as if it mimics the human body, which at the time of the Italian Renaissance was believed to be the ideal form. The columns of the building also appear to be supported on corbels so that the weight seems to be carried on weak elements. Because of the seeming instability of the structure, the viewer cannot discern whether the roof is supported by the columns or the walls. This sense of ambiguity is heightened by the unorthodox forms of the windows and, especially, by the compressed quality of all architectural elements, which creates a sense of tension and constrained energy.\n",
"Large sectionals are a staple item in any industrial style room. This is because of their ability to help close off larger spaces and help divide up the living areas. This is important because spaces like lofts tend to be very open. In order to create the illusion of multiple rooms, a sectional can help block the flow and define a separate living area.\n",
"Ceilings have frequently been decorated with fresco painting, mosaic tiles and other surface treatments. While hard to execute (at least in place) a decorated ceiling has the advantage that it is largely protected from damage by fingers and dust. In the past, however, this was more than compensated for by the damage from smoke from candles or a fireplace. Many historic buildings have celebrated ceilings. Perhaps the most famous is the Sistine Chapel ceiling by Michelangelo.\n",
"The system for drawing floors and ceilings (\"flats\") is less elegant than that used for the walls. Flats are drawn with a flood fill-like algorithm. Because of this, it is sometimes possible if a bad BSP builder is used to get \"holes\" where the floor or ceiling bleeds down to the edges of the screen. This is also the reason that if the player travels outside of the level using the noclip cheat the floors and ceilings will appear to stretch out from the level over the empty space.\n",
"The rooms are well-sized, and have relatively high ceilings for cooling purposes, as when warm air can rise higher, the lower part of a room tends to be cooler. The lack of hallways allows for efficient cross-ventilation in every room. \n"
] |
Are there any current historical debates/uncertainties between historians in regards to Spartacus?
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The main uncertainty about Spartacus is his ethnicity. He is called a Thracian, but Thracian is both an ethnicity and a style of combat in gladiatorial games. Gladiators were organised by their combat style, and by that point in Roman history gladiators were no longer limited to just their cultural combat style, especially if the slave was not one of the traditional enemies of Rome. So while it is possible that Spartacus was from Thrace, it is equally possible that he was from pretty much anywhere else, and simply trained in Thracian-style combat as a gladiator.
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[
"Spartacus ( \"\"; ; c. 111–71 BC) was a Thracian gladiator who, along with Crixus, Gannicus, Castus, and Oenomaus, was one of the escaped slave leaders in the Third Servile War, a major slave uprising against the Roman Republic. Little is known about Spartacus beyond the events of the war, and surviving historical accounts are sometimes contradictory and may not always be reliable. However, all sources agree that he was a former gladiator and an accomplished military leader.\n",
"Spartacus is an American television series produced in New Zealand that premiered on Starz on January 22, 2010, and concluded on April 12, 2013. The fiction series was inspired by the historical figure of Spartacus, a Thracian gladiator who from 73 to 71 BCE led a major slave uprising against the Roman Republic departing from Capua. Executive producers Steven S. DeKnight and Robert Tapert focused on structuring the events of Spartacus' obscure early life leading up to the beginning of historical records.\n",
"\"Spartacus\" is a set of Starz television series that focuses on the historical figure of Spartacus, a Thracian gladiator who, from 73 to 71 BC, led a major slave uprising against the Roman Republic. Executive producers Steven S. DeKnight and Robert Tapert focused on structuring the events of Spartacus' obscure early life leading to the records of history. This article serves as a list of characters for the television series.\n",
"In modern times, Spartacus became an icon for communists and socialists. Karl Marx listed Spartacus as one of his heroes and described him as \"the most splendid fellow in the whole of ancient history\" and a \"great general (though no Garibaldi), noble character, real representative of the ancient proletariat\". Spartacus has been a great inspiration to left-wing revolutionaries, most notably the German Spartacus League (1915–18), a forerunner of the Communist Party of Germany. A January 1919 uprising by communists in Germany was called the Spartacist uprising. Spartacus Books, one of the longest running collectively-run leftist bookstores in North America, is also named in his honour.\n",
"The younger source, Plutarch, speaks less confidently of the details of Lycurgus' life, being faced by that time with multiple traditions, and having no way to judge between them. He says: \"There is so much uncertainty in the accounts which historians have left us of Lycurgus, the lawgiver of Sparta, that scarcely any thing is asserted by one of them which is not called into question or contradicted by the rest.\" After repeating some of the opinions of sources available to him he launches into his own reconstruction based, he says, on the majority opinion. Lycurgus was the younger son of the Eurypontid king, Eunomus. He was thus passed over for the throne in favor of his brother, Polydectes, but the latter died. The inheritance changed by law to Lycurgus. However, Polydectes's wife having been found to be pregnant, Lycurgus became regent instead for the first several months of the infant Charilaus' life. There is no mention of the Agiad Labotas in this version.\n",
"After 146 BC, sources for Spartan history are somewhat fragmentary. Pliny describes its freedom as being empty, though Chrimes argues that whilst this may be true in the area of external relations, Sparta retained a high level of autonomy in internal matters.\n",
"The classical authors and the literate population of Sparta knew better than to suppose that the rhetra went into effect as written by an oracle and remained unchanged. A double tradition developed: tales of the oracular rhetra and stories of the laws of Lycurgus. As there is no history of any constitutional issues dividing the Spartans, they seem to have had no problem accepting its contradictions, perhaps because they knew it was legendary. \n"
] |
If the y chromosome is human specific what causes the differentiation of male and female apes?
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The Y chromosome originally evolved from an autosome which acquired sex-determining characteristics. Apes also have X and Y chromosomes; in fact, many vertebrates do - mice have XY (male) and XX (female), birds have ZZ (male) and ZW (female).
Some vertebrates don't have their sex determined in this way. Often, environmental facts play a major role such as the temperature-dependence of sex determination in crocodilians.
[This](_URL_0_) is a great place to start for getting your head around the origin of the Y chromosome. Fascinating stuff.
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[
"Many species have so-called sex chromosomes that determine the gender of each organism. In humans and many other animals, the Y chromosome contains the gene that triggers the development of the specifically male characteristics. In evolution, this chromosome has lost most of its content and also most of its genes, while the X chromosome is similar to the other chromosomes and contains many genes. The X and Y chromosomes form a strongly heterogeneous pair.\n",
"Humans, many mammals, insects and other animals have an XY sex-determination system. Humans have forty-six chromosomes, including two sex chromosomes, XX in females and XY in males. The Y chromosome must carry at least one essential gene which determines testicular formation (originally termed \"TDF\"). A gene in the sex-determining region of the short arm of the Y, now referred to as \"SRY\", has been found to direct production of a protein, testis determining factor, which binds to DNA, inducing differentiation of cells derived from the genital ridges into testes. In transgenic XX mice (and some human XX males), \"SRY\" alone is sufficient to induce male differentiation.\n",
"The development of sexual differences begins with the XY sex-determination system that is present in humans, and complex mechanisms are responsible for the development of the phenotypic differences between male and female humans from an undifferentiated zygote. Females typically have two X chromosomes, and males typically have a Y chromosome and an X chromosome. At an early stage in embryonic development, both sexes possess equivalent internal structures. These are the mesonephric ducts and paramesonephric ducts. The presence of the SRY gene on the Y chromosome causes the development of the testes in males, and the subsequent release of hormones which cause the paramesonephric ducts to regress. In females, the mesonephric ducts regress.\n",
"Most mammals, including humans, have an XY sex-determination system: the Y chromosome carries factors responsible for triggering male development. In the absence of a Y chromosome, the fetus will undergo female development. This is because of the presence of the sex-determining region of the Y chromosome, also known as the SRY gene. Thus, male mammals typically have an X and a Y chromosome (XY), while female mammals typically have two X chromosomes (XX). In humans, biological sex is determined by five factors present at birth: the presence or absence of a Y chromosome, the type of gonads, the sex hormones, the internal genitalia (such as the uterus in females), and the external genitalia.\n",
"Biological differentiation is a fundamental part of human reproduction. Males have two different sex chromosomes, an X and a Y. Females have two X chromosomes. The Y chromosome is what determines sexual differentiation. If the Y chromosome is present, growth is along male lines; it results in the production of testes, which in turn produce testosterone. In addition to physical effects, this prenatal testosterone increases the likeliness of certain \"male\" patterns of behavior after birth, though the exact impact and mechanism are not well understood. Parts of the SRY and specific parts of the Y chromosome may also possibly influence different gender behaviors, but if so, these impacts have not yet been identified.\n",
"The XX/XY sex-determination system is the most familiar, as it is found in humans. The XX/XY system is found in most other mammals, as well as some insects. In this system, most females have two of the same kind of sex chromosome (XX), while most males have two distinct sex chromosomes (XY). The X and Y sex chromosomes are different in shape and size from each other, unlike the rest of the chromosomes (autosomes), and are sometimes called allosomes. In some species, such as humans, organisms remain sex indifferent for a time after they're created; in others, however, such as fruit flies, sexual differentiation occurs as soon as the egg is fertilized.\n",
"The sex of most mammals, including humans, is genetically determined by the XY sex-determination system where males have X and Y (as opposed to X and X) sex chromosomes. During reproduction, the male contributes either an X sperm or a Y sperm, while the female always contributes an X egg. A Y sperm and an X egg produce a male, while an X sperm and an X egg produce a female. The ZW sex-determination system, where males have ZZ (as opposed to ZW) sex chromosomes, is found in birds, reptiles and some insects and other organisms. Members of Hymenoptera, such as ants and bees, are determined by haplodiploidy, where most males are haploid and females and some sterile males are diploid. \n"
] |
why does using a tootbrush how we do not make us sick? it is never sanitised and sit in your bathroom all day.
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Soap, your faucet, your tooth brush, the glass you drink water out of, all has bacteria on it. We don't live in a sterile environment and we ourselves are not sterile. You have more bacteria in your mouth, and fungal spores, than on your tooth brush.
Having bacteria isn't the problem, it's having a place for bacteria to multiply and grow into a colony unopposed and for that you need food, water, shelter, and no competition. Your tooth brush has only one of those things.
The job of a tooth brush is not to sterilize your mouth, it's to wash away the metabolic junk and plaque that eats away at your teeth. It denies the colonies in your mouth food and a medium to safely grow in (plaque).
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[
"BULLET::::- Waterless pet shampoo may help keep a messy butt clean. If frequent baths are necessary, it's advisable to use a shampoo specifically formulated for cats. Their skin pH is significantly different from ours; our soaps, shampoos, and detergents may be too harsh and cause dry skin or brittle fur.\n",
"Infections can be prevented from occurring in homes as well. In order to reduce their chances to contract an infection, individuals are recommended to maintain a good hygiene by washing their hands after every contact with questionable areas or bodily fluids and by disposing of garbage at regular intervals to prevent germs from growing.\n",
"Shampoo intended for animals may contain insecticides or other medications for treatment of skin conditions or parasite infestations such as fleas or mange. These must never be used on humans. While some human shampoos may be harmful when used on animals, any human haircare products that contain active ingredients or drugs (such as zinc in anti-dandruff shampoos) are potentially toxic when ingested by animals. Special care must be taken not to use those products on pets. Cats are at particular risk due to their instinctive method of grooming their fur with their tongues.\n",
"Avoiding food or water that may be contaminated with stool can help prevent the infection of \"Cystoisospora\" (Isosporiasis). Good hand-washing, and personal-hygiene practices should be used as well. One should wash their hands with soap and warm water after using the toilet, changing diapers, and before handling food (CDC.gov). It is also important to teach children the importance of washing their hands, and how to properly wash their hands.\n",
"Antipruritic shampoos are intended to provide relief of itching due to conditions such as atopy and other allergies. These usually contain colloidal oatmeal, hydrocortisone, Aloe vera, pramoxine hydrochloride, menthol, diphenhydramine, sulfur or salicylic acid. These ingredients are aimed to reduce the inflammation, cure the condition and ease the symptoms at the same time while providing comfort to the pet.\n",
"Proponents of \"no poo\" claim that there is no medical reason for humans to wash their hair with synthetic shampoos, and that washing practices are determined by cultural norms and individual preferences, with some people washing daily, some fortnightly, and some not at all. From a clinical point of view, \"the main purpose for a shampoo is to cleanse the scalp\", though \"most patients would disagree[,] stating that the purpose of shampoo is to beautify the hair\".\n",
"In the 1970s, ads featuring Farrah Fawcett and Christie Brinkley asserted that it was unhealthy not to shampoo several times a week. This mindset is reinforced by the greasy feeling of the scalp after a day or two of not shampooing. Using shampoo every day removes sebum, the oil produced by the scalp. This causes the sebaceous glands to produce oil at a higher rate, to compensate for what is lost during shampooing. According to Michelle Hanjani, a dermatologist at Columbia University, a gradual reduction in shampoo use will cause the sebum glands to produce at a slower rate, resulting in less grease in the scalp. Although this approach might seem unappealing to some individuals, many people try alternate shampooing techniques like baking soda and vinegar in order to avoid ingredients used in many shampoos that make hair greasy over time.\n"
] |
Historiography question: what do you consider determinism/causality?
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you cannot assign a causal relationship without direct experimental manipulation. History is a correlative study.
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[
"Certain philosophers of science argue that, while causal determinism (in which everything including the brain/mind is subject to the laws of causality) is compatible with minds capable of science, fatalism and predestination is not. These philosophers make the distinction that causal determinism means that each step is determined by the step before and therefore allows sensory input from observational data to determine what conclusions the brain reaches, while fatalism in which the steps between do not connect an initial cause to the results would make it impossible for observational data to correct false hypotheses. This is often combined with the argument that if the brain had fixed views and the arguments were mere after-constructs with no causal effect on the conclusions, science would have been impossible and the use of arguments would have been a meaningless waste of energy with no persuasive effect on brains with fixed views.\n",
"Causal determinism is the concept that events within a given paradigm are bound by causality in such a way that any state (of an object or event) is completely determined by prior states. Causal determinism proposes that there is an unbroken chain of prior occurrences stretching back to the origin of the universe. Causal determinists believe that there is nothing uncaused or self-caused. The most common form of causal determinism is nomological determinism (or scientific determinism), the notion that the past and the present dictate the future entirely and necessarily by rigid natural laws, that every occurrence results inevitably from prior events. Quantum mechanics poses a serious challenge to this view.\n",
"In academia, there are a significant number of theories on causality; \"The Oxford Handbook of Causation\" encompasses 770 pages. Among the more influential theories within philosophy are Aristotle's Four causes and Al-Ghazali's occasionalism. David Hume argued that beliefs about causality are based on experience, and experience similarly based on the assumption that the future models the past, which in turn can only be based on experience – leading to circular logic. In conclusion, he asserted that causality is not based on actual reasoning: only correlation can actually be perceived. Immanuel Kant, according to , held that \"a causal principle according to which every event has a cause, or follows according to a causal law, cannot be established through induction as a purely empirical claim, since it would then lack strict universality, or necessity\".\n",
"BULLET::::- Causal determinism is \"the idea that every event is necessitated by antecedent events and conditions together with the laws of nature\". However, causal determinism is a broad enough term to consider that \"one's deliberations, choices, and actions will often be necessary links in the causal chain that brings something about. In other words, even though our deliberations, choices, and actions are themselves determined like everything else, it is still the case, according to causal determinism, that the occurrence or existence of yet other things depends upon our deliberating, choosing and acting in a certain way\". Causal determinism proposes that there is an unbroken chain of prior occurrences stretching back to the origin of the universe. The relation between events may not be specified, nor the origin of that universe. Causal determinists believe that there is nothing in the universe that is uncaused or self-caused. Historical determinism (a sort of path dependence) can also be synonymous with causal determinism. Causal determinism has also been considered more generally as the idea that everything that happens or exists is caused by antecedent conditions. In the case of nomological determinism, these conditions are considered events also, implying that the future is determined completely by preceding events—a combination of prior states of the universe and the laws of nature. Yet they can also be considered metaphysical of origin (such as in the case of theological determinism).\n",
"BULLET::::- Nomological determinism is the most common form of causal determinism. It is the notion that the past and the present dictate the future entirely and necessarily by rigid natural laws, that every occurrence results inevitably from prior events. Nomological determinism is sometimes illustrated by the thought experiment of Laplace's demon. Nomological determinism is sometimes called 'scientific' determinism, although that is a misnomer. Physical determinism is generally used synonymously with nomological determinism (its opposite being physical indeterminism).\n",
"Causal determinism has a strong relationship with predictability. Perfect predictability implies strict determinism, but lack of predictability does not necessarily imply lack of determinism. Limitations on predictability could be caused by factors such as a lack of information or excessive complexity. \n",
"Despite these subtleties, causality remains an important and valid concept in physical theories. For example, the notion that events can be ordered into causes and effects is necessary to prevent (or at least outline) causality paradoxes such as the grandfather paradox, which asks what happens if a time-traveler kills his own grandfather before he ever meets the time-traveler's grandmother. See also Chronology protection conjecture.\n"
] |
what are the reasons as to why the oil price never return to $1 range since 9/11?
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The specifics about why gas prices go up can be better explained by others, but this chart shows gas prices adjusted for inflation:
_URL_0_
It seems like the climb started closer to 1999 than 2001, but asking why it hasn't gone back done since then is a great question.
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[
"The oil price historically was comparatively low until the 1973 oil crisis and the 1979 energy crisis when it increased more than tenfold during that six-year timeframe. Even though the oil price dropped significantly in the following years, it has never come back to the previous levels. Oil price began to increase again during the 2000s until it hit historical heights of $143 per barrel (2007 inflation adjusted dollars) on 30 June 2008. As these prices were well above those that caused the 1973 and 1979 energy crises, they contributed to fears of an economic recession similar to that of the early 1980s.\n",
"In January 2008, oil prices surpassed $100 a barrel for the first time, the first of many price milestones to be passed in the course of the year. In July 2008, oil peaked at $147.30 a barrel and a gallon of gasoline was more than $4 across most of the US. The high of 2008 may have been part of broader pattern of spiking instability in the price of oil over the preceding decade. This pattern of instability in oil price may be a product of peak oil. There is concern that if the economy was to improve, oil prices might return to pre-recession levels.\n",
"On May 21, 2010, the price of oil had dropped in two weeks from $88 to $70 mainly due to concerns over how European countries would reduce budget deficits; if the European economy slowed down, this would mean less demand for crude oil. Also, if the European economic crisis caused the American economy to have problems, demand for oil would be reduced further. Other factors included the strong dollar and high inventories. According to the U.S. Energy Information Administration, gas prices nationwide averaged $2.91 on May 10, dropping to $2.79 two weeks later. The Deepwater Horizon oil spill was not a factor in gas prices since the well had not produced.\n",
"More recently, between 2011 and 2014 the price of crude oil was relatively stable, fluctuating around $US100 per barrel. It dropped sharply in late 2014 to below $US70 where it remained for most of 2015. In early 2016 it traded at a low of $US27. The price drop has been attributed to both oversupply and reduced demand as a result of the slowing global economy, OPEC reluctance to concede market share, and a stronger US dollar. These factors may be exacerbated by a combination of monetary policy and the increased debt of oil producers, who may increase production to maintain liquidity.\n",
"On August 4, the price of oil dropped 6% to its lowest level in 6 months. On August 5, the price had dropped $8.82 in a week to $86.88 per barrel on the New York Mercantile Exchange. The same pessimistic economic news that caused stock prices to fall also decreased expected energy demand, and experts predicted a gas price drop of 35 cents per gallon from the average of $3.70. On August 8, oil fell over 6%, in its largest drop since May, to $81, its lowest price of the year. On September 24, oil reached $79.85, down 9% for the week, due to concerns about another recession and the overall world economy. The average price of gas was $3.51, with predictions of $3.25 by November, but it was below $3 in some markets.\n",
"BULLET::::- March 7: Light, sweet crude oil for April delivery on the NYMEX closes at $23.71, the highest price since September 21, 2001, when oil prices had temporarily spiked because of the September 11 terrorist attacks. Oil prices have been on the rise because of OPEC and non-OPEC production cuts, an improving U.S. economy, and concern over U.S. intentions toward Iraq. (OD)\n",
"During October, the price of oil rose 22%, the fastest pace since February, as worries over the U.S. economy decreased, leading to predictions of $4 by early 2012. As of November 8, the price reached $96.80. Gas prices were not following the increase, due to lower demand resulting from the economy, the normal decrease in travel, lower oil prices in other countries, and production of winter blends which cost less. The average rose slightly to $3.41 but predictions of $3.25 were made.\n"
] |
What happens to electrons in a circuit?
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For the purposes of circuits, electricity works a lot like a pneumatic system. With wire there will be electrons in all the places at the same time. If power gets used up, to useful work or to resistance it does so in the form of a 'pressure drop' but the electrons are still around.
The actual net movement of the electrons is typically quite slow:
_URL_0_
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[
"The actual concentration of electrons is typically very dilute, and so (unlike in metals) it is possible to think of the electrons in the conduction band of a semiconductor as a sort of classical ideal gas, where the electrons fly around freely without being subject to the Pauli exclusion principle. In most semiconductors the conduction bands have a parabolic dispersion relation, and so these electrons respond to forces (electric field, magnetic field, etc.) much like they would in a vacuum, though with a different effective mass.\n",
"In an ideal conductor, where atoms are arranged in a perfect lattice structure, the electrons moving through it would experience no collisions and electromigration would not occur. In real conductors, defects in the lattice structure and the random thermal vibration of the atoms about their positions causes electrons to collide with the atoms and scatter, which is the source of electrical resistance (at least in metals; see electrical conduction). Normally, the amount of momentum imparted by the relatively low-mass electrons is not enough to permanently displace the atoms. However, in high-power situations (such as with the increasing current draw and decreasing wire sizes in modern VLSI microprocessors), if many electrons bombard the atoms with enough force to become significant, this will accelerate the process of electromigration by causing the atoms of the conductor to vibrate further from their ideal lattice positions, increasing the amount of electron scattering. High current density increases the number of electrons scattering against the atoms of the conductor, and hence the speed at which those atoms are displaced.\n",
"When electrodes are placed in an electrolyte and a voltage is applied, the electrolyte will conduct electricity. Lone electrons normally cannot pass through the electrolyte; instead, a chemical reaction occurs at the cathode, providing electrons to the electrolyte. Another reaction occurs at the anode, consuming electrons from the electrolyte. As a result, a negative charge cloud develops in the electrolyte around the cathode, and a positive charge develops around the anode. The ions in the electrolyte neutralize these charges, enabling the electrons to keep flowing and the reactions to continue.\n",
"The current \"I\"(\"t\") through any component in an electric circuit is defined as the rate of flow of a charge \"Q\"(\"t\") passing through it, but actual charges—electrons—cannot pass through the dielectric layer of a capacitor. Rather, one electron accumulates on the negative plate for each one that leaves the positive plate, resulting in an electron depletion and consequent positive charge on one electrode that is equal and opposite to the accumulated negative charge on the other. Thus the charge on the electrodes is equal to the integral of the current as well as proportional to the voltage, as discussed above. As with any antiderivative, a constant of integration is added to represent the initial voltage \"V\"(\"t\"). This is the integral form of the capacitor equation:\n",
"There is some conductivity in semiconductors, however. This is due to thermal excitation—some of the electrons get enough energy to jump the band gap in one go. Once they are in the conduction band, they can conduct electricity, as can the hole they left behind in the valence band. The hole is an empty state that allows electrons in the valence band some degree of freedom.\n",
"Electrons can be detected using an electron multiplier, usually a channeltron. This device essentially consists of a glass tub with a resistive coating on the inside. A high voltage is applied between the front and the end. An electron which enters the channeltron is accelerated to the wall, where it removes more electrons, in such a way that an electron avalanche is created, until a measurable current pulse is obtained.\n",
"Materials conduct electricity if they contain mobile charge carriers. There are two types of charge carriers in a semiconductor: free electrons (mobile electrons) and electron holes (mobile holes which are missing electrons from the normally occupied electron states). A normally bound electron (e.g., in a bond) in a reverse-biased diode may break loose due to a thermal fluctuation or excitation, creating a mobile electron-hole pair. If there is a voltage gradient (electric field) in the semiconductor, the electron will move towards the positive voltage while the hole will move towards the negative voltage. Usually, the electron and hole will simply move to opposite ends of the crystal and enter the appropriate electrodes. When the electric field is strong enough, the mobile electron or hole may be accelerated to high enough speeds to knock other bound electrons free, creating more free charge carriers, increasing the current and leading to further \"knocking out\" processes and creating an avalanche. In this way, large portions of a normally insulating crystal can begin to conduct.\n"
] |
how exactly do people avoid taxes using shell companies?
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Let's say you own a pretty profitable business in the US but you're tired of paying taxes. First, you make a shell company where there are lax regulations and low taxes. Then you transfer the assets that your US company has to the shell company, in name at least. You continue to use those assets in the US to make money and do business, but all the money technically belongs to your shell company. Since your shell company is outside of the US, it doesn't pay US taxes.
The tricky part is being able to use assets outside of the US to do business in the US without having to keep the money in the US. There are different ways to get around this. For example, a tech company can transfer all of its patents to its shell company and then the US company can lease them back under terms where money made from their sale belongs to the shell company.
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[
"There are also shell companies that were created for the purpose of owning assets (including tangibles, such as a real estate for property development, and intangibles, such as royalties or copyrights) and receiving income. The reasons behind creating such a shell company may include protection against litigation and/or tax benefits (some expenses that would not be deductible for an individual may be deductible for a corporation). Sometimes, shell companies are used for tax evasion or tax avoidance.\n",
"Shell companies are a main component of the underground economy, especially those based in tax havens. They may also be known as \"international business companies\", \"personal investment companies\", \"front companies\", or \"\"mailbox\" companies\". Shell companies can also be used for tax avoidance. A classic tax avoidance operation may utilize favorable transfer pricing among multiple corporate entities to lower tax liability in a certain country; e.g. Double Irish arrangement.\n",
"As another example, the use of a shell company in a tax haven makes it possible to move profits to that shell company, in a strategy called tax evasion. Suppose a United States company wants to buy products from overseas. If it brings the products directly to the United States, it will have to pay US tax on the profits. To avoid this, it may buy the products through a non-resident shell company based in a tax haven, where it is described as an offshore company. The shell company would purchase the products in its name, mark up the products and sell them on to the US company, thereby transferring the profit to the tax haven. (The products may never actually physically pass through that tax haven, and be shipped directly to the US company.) As the shell company is not based in the United States, its profit is not subject to US income tax, and as it is an offshore company in the tax haven jurisdiction, it is not taxed there either. Under the tax haven law, the profits are deemed not to have been made in the jurisdiction, with the sale deemed to have taken place in the United States. As US personal income tax is significantly less important than corporate income tax, US company executives would claim a salary (or fees, consulting fees, etc.) from the company's profits.\n",
"However, tax deferral encourages U.S. companies to make job-creating investments offshore even if similar investments in the United States can be more profitable, absent tax considerations. Furthermore, companies try to use accounting techniques to record profits offshore by any way, even if they keep actual investment and jobs in the United States. This explains why U.S. corporations report their largest profits in low-tax countries like the Netherlands, Luxembourg, and Bermuda, though clearly that is not where most real economic activity occurs.\n",
"A company may choose to avoid taxes by establishing their company or subsidiaries in an offshore jurisdiction (see offshore company and offshore trust). Individuals may also avoid tax by moving their tax residence to a tax haven, such as Monaco, or by becoming a perpetual traveler. They may also reduce their tax by moving to a country with lower tax rates.\n",
"Shell companies do have legitimate business purposes. They may, for example, act as trustee for a trust, and not engage in any other activity on their own account. This structure creates limited liability for the trustee. A corporate shell can also be formed around a partnership to create limited liability for the partners, and other business ventures, or to immunize one part of a business from the risks of another part. Shell companies can be used to transfer assets from one company into a new one, while leaving the liabilities in the former company.\n",
"A shell corporation is a company or corporation that exists only on paper and has no office and no employees, but may have a bank account or may hold passive investments or be the registered owner of assets, such as intellectual property, or ships. Shell companies may be registered to the address of a company that provides a service setting up shell companies, and which may act as the agent for receipt of legal correspondence (such as an accountant or lawyer). The company may serve as a vehicle for business transactions without itself having any significant assets or operations. Sometimes, shell companies are used for tax evasion, tax avoidance, and money laundering, or to achieve a specific goal such as anonymity. Anonymity may be sought to shield personal assets from others, such as a spouse when a marriage is breaking down, from creditors, from government authorities, besides others.\n"
] |
pigs are considered fairly intelligent animals. why are people who abhor eating dogs, cats, horses and whales for moral reasons fine with eating pork?
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Because pigs rarely have a use outside of their use as food. Sometimes they are bred to hunt for truffles and other fungus/plants, but aside from that, their characteristics make them ideal as a food source.
* Grow quickly
* Eat anything
* Don't require much space
* Gain lots of meat in a small amount of time
That second part "Eat anything" is actually the reason why Jews and Muslims don't eat pork. Pigs were scavengers in the areas where Abrahamic faiths are indigenous to, and as such they would eat the garbage and therefore were considered unclean, despite the fact that they are remarkably hygienic animals.
Whereas while dogs, cats and horses share some of these traits, they generally are more viable to be used for other means.
Dogs
* Hunting companions
* Shepherd companions
* Security/protection
* Don't grow as quickly
* Not as much of a varied diet
Cats are almost solely kept around as mousers, they would eat mice, rats, any rodent really, as well as insects and other small animals. This would result in less rats, mice, etc. to carry disease or get into food stores, therefore more food for us humans, and less disease. They were also very good when kept in a home in order to know when something was to happen as they can sense things we can't.
Horses have been used for travel, as beasts of burden and symbols of wealth and power for thousands of years. They took a while to grow and didn't produce a large enough amount of meat compared to what it took to raise them for them to be a viable mass food source. They are a delicacy in some countries, and even then they take in horses that are lame, or died in accidents to be butchered.
We don't eat whales because it's a pain to get them, they are almost extinct and serve a massive role in the oceans' ecosystems.
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[
"Pigs are regarded to be highly intelligent social animals. Animal rights groups like PETA argue that this makes their exploitation and suffering in the hands of the factory farming industry especially unethical.\n",
"Most Pigs, however, are mute, lacking the ability to form words in either thought or speech. Some Pigs are more intelligent and can interact on a human level, but even they are not as intelligent as humans; Scorpio comments that he has little understanding of complex human interrelationships and when played music, only hears a series of sounds. All but the lowliest have enough intelligence to make them useful as servants, however. Such treatment, and their low standing in human society, leads many into crime. At the time of \"Chasm City\", Pigs are only mentioned as either servants, or a criminal underclass. No Pig has reached a high position of authority among Humans except among the survivors of the planet Resurgam's destruction, where a large number of the rescue party were Pigs.\n",
"Although not true carnivores, pigs are competent predators and can kill and eat helpless humans unable to escape them. Numerous animal trials in the Middle Ages involved pigs accused of eating children.\n",
"Pigs, widely present in world cultures, have taken on many meanings and been used for many purposes in traditional arts, popular culture, and media. As one scholar puts it, people all over the world have made swine stand for \"extremes of human joy or fear, celebration, ridicule, and repulsion.\" They have become synonymous with negative attributes, especially greed, gluttony, and uncleanliness, and these ascribed attributes have often led to critical comparisons between pigs and humans.\n",
"More recently, Marvin Harris posited that pigs are not suited for being kept in the Middle East on an ecological and socio-economical level; for example, pigs are not suited to living in arid climates and thus require more water than other animals to keep them cool, and instead of grazing they compete with humans for foods such as grains. As such, raising pigs was seen as a wasteful and decadent practice. Another explanation offered for the taboo is that pigs are omnivorous, not discerning between meat or vegetation in their natural dietary habits. The willingness to consume meat sets them apart from most other domesticated animals which are commonly eaten (cattle, sheep, goats, etc.) who would naturally eat only plants. Mary Douglas has suggested that the reason for the taboo against the pig in Judaism is three-fold: (i) it trangresses the category of ungulates, because it has a split hoof but does not chew the cud, (ii) it eats carrion and (iii) it was eaten by non-Israelites.\n",
"The cultural materialistic anthropologist Marvin Harris thinks that the main reason for prohibiting consumption of pork was ecological-economical. Pigs require water and shady woods with seeds, but those conditions are scarce in the Middle East. Unlike many other forms of livestock, pigs are omnivorous scavengers, eating virtually anything they come across, including carrion and refuse. This was deemed unclean; and a Middle Eastern society keeping large stocks of pigs would destroy their ecosystem.\n",
"Observant Muslims and Jews consider it sinful to eat certain types of meat, pork for both groups and also horse and many other animals for Jews, due to religious prohibitions. Professor Reilly stated \"for some religious groups or people who abstain from eating pig meat, the presence of traces of pig DNA is unacceptable\".\n"
] |
why stab wounds in movies appear to be deadlier than gunshot wounds (at least in movies)
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It's all about what's convenient for the story. Bad guys get shot and they are instantly dead. Good guys get shot and they can run a marathon.
There is no consistent logic even within the same movie. As long as it doesn't break the suspension if disbelief, writers and directors do what moves the story in the direction they like
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[
"The film has developed a cult following due to its gruesome, if primitive, special effects, including some memorably bloody death scenes. One character is eaten from the inside out by the titular monsters, resulting in a gushing fountain of intestinal matter. Another victim is stabbed with a wooden stake, then shot twice in the face, with resultant gaping bullet holes. \n",
"\"Wounds\" received mixed reviews from film critics. It holds a 55% approval rating on review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, based on 22 reviews, with a weighted average of 5.4/10. The site's critical consensus reads, \"Wounds isn't without its creepy-crawly charms, but they -- and the efforts of a talented cast -- get squished by a story that never quite gets completely under the skin.\" On Metacritic, the film holds a rating of 50 out of 100, based on 7 critics, indicating \"mixed or average reviews\".\n",
"Ben Sachs of Mubi called the film \"satisfying as genre filmmaking. Many of the murder sequences are indeed scary—and they're scary because of their atmosphere and manipulation of suspense; they contain surprisingly little gore.\"\n",
"Though one contemporary critic noted that the film is \"nearly devoid of blood and gore by '80s slasher standards,\" several explicit scenes of gore were cut in order to avoid an X rating. Among these were the murder sequences of Maddy, who originally had a sickle jammed through her neck; Ben's death, which showed Jason crushing his head into a bloody pulp; Kate's death revealed the gory aftermath of a party horn to her eyeball; we see Eddie's head hit the floor; a shot of Russell's face splitting open with a large blood spurt; Dan's original death had Jason ripping out his guts; Amanda Shepard's death originally showed Jason stabbing her from behind, with the resulting blade going through her chest and subsequent blood hitting Dr. Crews; Dr. Crews's death showed Jason's tree-trimming saw violently cutting into his stomach, sending a fountain of blood and guts in the air; Melissa's original death had Jason cleaving her head in half with an axe with a close-up of her eyes still wriggling in their sockets. The boxed set DVD release of all of the films and the single deluxe edition have all these scenes available as deleted scenes in rough workprint footage; however, the deluxe edition features more additional footage than the boxed set.\n",
"Trauma from a gunshot wound varies widely based on the bullet, velocity, entry point, trajectory, and affected anatomy. Gunshot wounds can be particularly devastating compared to other penetrating injuries because the trajectory and fragmentation of bullets can be unpredictable after entry. Additionally, gunshot wounds typically involve a large degree of nearby tissue disruption and destruction due to the physical effects of the projectile correlated with the bullet velocity classification.\n",
"Stab wounds are one of the most common forms of penetrating trauma globally, but account for a lower mortality compared to blunt injuries due to their more focused impact on a person. Stab wounds can result from self-infliction, accidental nail gun injuries, and stingray injuries, however, most stab wounds are caused by intentional violence, as the weapons used to inflict such wounds are readily available compared to guns. Stabbings are a relatively common cause of homicide in Canada and the United States. Typically death from stab wounds is due to organ failure or blood loss. They are the mechanism of approximately 2% of suicides.\n",
"Michael O'Sullivan of the \"Washington Post\" wrote, \"\"Hollywood Homicide\" is a buddy film starring two people who, even as the closing credits roll, appear to have just met\" and added \"every scene between them, and that's most every scene, feels like a screen test or, at best, a rehearsal.\" One of the few major critics to give it a positive notice was Roger Ebert, who awarded the film 3 out of 4 stars and wrote \"that it's more interested in its two goofy cops than in the murder plot; their dialogue redeems otherwise standard scenes.\"\n"
] |
how does the susan g komen foundation steal so much money without anybody getting upset about it?
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people stop caring after they make their donation. No one ever cares where the money goes after they give it, they just give it to feel good about themselves, not to actually do any real good. It is all about perception, and perception is reality.
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[
"The accusations include receiving up to seven-figure sums in contributions to Spinka charities while secretly promising to refund up to 95% of contributors' donations, thus allowing contributors to then illegally claim tax deductions on money they in fact kept. The scheme allegedly saved the participating donors millions of dollars in federal income taxes. Over the course of ten years, it is alleged that at least $8.7 million in donations were involved, out of which the charities kept nearly $750,000. The rest is said to have been refunded to donors who allegedly claimed bogus donations on their income tax returns.\n",
"In 1982, Brinker established Susan G. Komen for the Cure, after a promise to her dying sister, Susan G. Komen, that she would do everything in her power to end breast cancer. Since its inception, the nonprofit organisation has raised over $1.9 billion for research, education and health services, making it the largest breast cancer charity in the world. \"The Washington Post\" has called her the \"steely force\" at the organization. Komen has more than 75,000 volunteers nationwide, 120 affiliates in the United States, and 3 affiliates in other countries. The organization has resulted in the development of many new treatment options and a higher quality of life overall for breast cancer patients and long-term survivors. Brinker served as founding chairman of the organization, supervising all aspects of initial growth. On December 2, 2009, Brinker was appointed CEO. She also pioneered cause marketing, allowing millions to participate in the fight against breast cancer through businesses that share Komen's commitment to end the disease. Susan G. Komen for the Cure at one point held Charity Navigator's highest rating, four stars. As of November 2016, it held three stars. In late January 2012, a public furor arose around the Foundation's policy decision to stop funding most Planned Parenthood offices, resulting in an apology from Brinker and a revised policy by the first week of February 2012. On June 17, 2013, Judith A. Salerno replaced Brinker as CEO.\n",
"Critics have also asserted that the slogan itself implies the majority of Komen's funds go to research, specifically research to find a means to cure (and not merely treat or detect) the disease. By Komen's own figures, however, 21% of the total budget goes to research. In the words of cancer survivor Alicia Staley, \"an organization that is actively pursuing other small charities over the use of the term 'for the cure' does not spend the majority of their own funds towards research for a cure.\"\n",
"In 2012, Foundation Financial Group entered a partnership with the Susan G. Komen for the Cure, a national nonprofit that funds breast cancer research. For each 2011 tax return Foundation Financial Group prepared, the company made a donation to Komen for the Cure.\n",
"Six months earlier, Patty Hewes is tackling a new case. Appointed a trustee by the US government, she is tasked to recover billions of dollars lost to the largest investment fraud in Wall Street history: a fraudulent Ponzi scheme run by Louis Tobin (Len Cariou), a Bernie Madoff-type. Patty believes Tobin has hidden the money and that members of his family, specifically his loyal son Joe (Campbell Scott) and daughter Carol, secretive wife Marilyn (Lily Tomlin), and trusted attorney and family friend Leonard Winstone (Martin Short) know much more than they claim. Tom has a personal involvement because he invested in the Tobin fund and lost his savings and those of his parents and in-laws, which makes his work on the case a conflict of interest. Ellen, meanwhile, has stayed true to her promise not to return to Patty's firm and has avoided contact for the past year that she has been working at the District Attorney's office. Ellen runs into Tom, and she mentions she is having trouble cracking a drug case. Soon afterward, Ellen's case is suddenly resolved under suspicious circumstances, and she receives a package from Hewes & Associates containing an expensive Chanel bag from Patty (the same bloodstained bag that ends up in the hands of the homeless man). Believing Hewes & Associates is more capable than the D.A. to bring about restitution for the victims, Ellen begins to secretly cooperate with Patty and Tom, and they all get drawn into the Tobin family's world of deceit.\n",
"In 2014 controversy erupted when she started an Indiegogo campaign to try to raise money for her authors; although the campaign was canceled after three days. As a result of \"personal misfortunes\", she had stopped paying royalties to the authors publishing books with Norilana Books, and hoped to raise enough money to pay what she owed them through the crowdfunding campaign. This generated discussion and criticism questioning to which extent small businesses should use Indiegogo or other similar crowdfunding sites to pay off business debt, and also resulted in criticism against her handling of the matter. A similar fundraiser was carried out successfully in 2008 for the same reasons, which resulted in donations of $19,000 to cover the debt she owed her authors, as well as to support herself.\n",
"The Susan G. Komen for the Cure is a non-profit organization created in 1982 to raise money for research and awareness of breast cancer. It is the world's largest network of breast cancer survivors and activists as well as the largest source of nonprofit funds dedicated to the fight against breast cancer in the world.\n"
] |
why do people want programming taught in elementary/high schools?
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Because it's a skill which has lots of real-world use, and which, like many skills, is easier to teach to children than adults.
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[
"The idea of educational programming is in fact much more than just the delivery of instruction modules for children and youth hungry to learn the basics of literacy and mathematics. The concept is much more holistic and concerned about the values, attitudes, and character of the next generation in the Arab World; to see Arab children grow up well and to shape a much more inclusive, creative, and democratic society.\n",
"Educational programs help people decide if they are going to be a teacher or not. They're mostly in high schools called C4 program. C4 programs help students in high schools decide what they are going to be before they get to college, so they do not waste their time taking classes they do not need in college or wasting their parents' money on classes and books they do not need.\n",
"The programming is done to connect and get in touch with all that happens in the “Collegial” student life. Attending the necessities of this market is pretty simple because all of the people who work on this project are students and they share the same necessities. \n",
"BULLET::::- To produce programming designed to improve scholastic abilities in math, reading and the sciences through after school tutoring, mentor-ship and educational excursions to help fight juvenile delinquency.\n",
"There are no traditional classrooms and no traditional classes; instead children are free to do what they wish with their time. This may or may not include formally exploring academia or speaking with staff members or other students about academic interests, as part of educating themselves.\n",
"The goal of school choice programs is to give parents more control over their child's education and to allow parents to pursue the most appropriate learning environments for children. For example, school choice may enable parents to choose a school that provides religious instruction, stronger discipline, better foundational skills (including reading, writing, mathematics, and science), everyday skills (from handling money to farming), or other desirable foci.\n",
"Pre-Kindergarten and Kindergarten students enjoy learning through purposeful play, constructive learning activities, information gathering and wondering. They review skills and concepts in math, literacy, handwriting, social studies, and science in one-to-one (teacher/student) or small groups. Classrooms are joyous places for learning, equipped with centers for literacy, science, engineering, manipulative work, sensory play, and exploration. \n"
] |
why do people in the americas greet eachother with one kiss on the cheek while in europe they greet eachother with two kisses on each cheek?
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Americans do not, on average, kiss each other on the cheek when meeting. Since the most common is zero, one seems like plenty.
In a culture where kissing on the cheek is common, two does not seem like an excess.
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[
"While cheek kissing is a common greeting in many cultures, each country has a unique way of kissing. In Russia, Poland, Slovenia, Serbia, Macedonia, Montenegro, the Netherlands, Iran and Egypt it is customary to \"kiss three times, on alternate cheeks\", but kiss twice in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Italians, Hungarians and Romanians usually kiss twice in a greeting and in Mexico and Belgium only one kiss is necessary. In the Galapagos women kiss on the right cheek only and in Oman it is not unusual for men to kiss one another on the nose after a handshake. French culture accepts a number of ways to greet depending on the region. Two kisses are most common throughout all of France but in Provence three kisses are given and in Nantes four are exchanged. However, in Finistère at the western tip of Brittany and Deux-Sèvres in the Poitou-Charentes region, one kiss is preferred.\n",
"Low contact cultures such as: The United States, Canada, Northern Europe, Australia, New Zealand and Asia prefer infrequent touching, larger physical distance, indirect body orientations (during interaction) along with little share gazes. In the Thai culture, kissing a friend on the cheek is less common than in the Latin Americas. Remland and Jones (1995) studied groups of people communicating and found that in England (8%), France (5%) and the Netherlands (4%), touching was rare compared to the Italian (14%) and Greek (12.5%) samples.\n",
"While cheek kissing is a common greeting in many cultures, each country has a unique way of kissing. In Slovenia, Croatia, Serbia, Macedonia, Montenegro, Russia, the Netherlands, Switzerland, Poland and Lebanon, it is customary to “kiss three times, on alternate cheeks.” Italians and Hungarians usually kiss twice in a greeting and in Mexico and Belgium only one kiss is necessary. In Ecuador, women kiss on the right cheek only and in Oman it is not unusual for men to kiss one another on the nose after a handshake. \n",
"In the Western world, a kiss is a common gesture of greeting, and at times a kiss is expected. Throughout all cultures people greet one another as a sign of recognition, affection, friendship and reverence. Depending on the occasion and the culture, a greeting may take the form of a handshake, hug, bow, nod, nose rub, a kiss on the lips with the mouth closed or a kiss or kisses on the cheek. Cheek kissing is most common in Europe and Latin America and has become a standard greeting in Latin Europe.\n",
"In Latin America, people who may be complete strangers may engage in very close contact. They often greet one another by kissing on the cheeks. North Americans, on the other hand, prefer to shake hands. While they have made some physical contact with the shaking of the hand, they still maintain a certain amount of physical space between the other person.\n",
"Kissing another person's lips has become a common expression of affection or warm greeting in many cultures worldwide. Yet in certain cultures, kissing was introduced only through European settlement, before which it was not a routine occurrence. Such cultures include certain indigenous peoples of Australia, the Tahitians, and many tribes in Africa.\n",
"A hand-kiss was considered a respectful way for gentleman to greet a lady. The practice originated in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Spanish courts of the 17th and 18th centuries. The gesture is still at times observed in Central and Eastern Europe, namely, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Slovakia, Romania and Russia.\n"
] |
is there any difference between getting injections(of vitamins,medicine etc.) directly into your veins or into your muscle(most commonly butt muscle)?
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Some things, like vaccines, are best injected into muscles due to the way they are made and engineered to work.
Others are injected into veins for quick distribution. Because vaccines do not need to be so rapidly distributed they do not need to directly enter the bloodstream.
As to why they did both for you, it could be that you need some now and some long lasting treatment.
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[
"Intramuscular injection, often abbreviated IM, is the injection of a substance directly into muscle. In medicine, it is one of several alternative methods for the administration of medications (see route of administration). Muscles have larger and more numerous blood vessels than subcutaneous tissue and injections here usually have faster rates of absorption than subcutaneous injections or intradermal injections. Depending on the injection site, an administration is limited to between 2 and 5 milliliters of fluid.\n",
"Intravenous injections involve needle insertion directly into the vein and the substance is directly delivered into the bloodstream. In medicine and drug use, this route of administration is the fastest way to get the desired effects since the medication moves immediately into blood circulation and to the rest of the body. This type of injection is the most common and often associated with drug use.\n",
"In a subcutaneous injection, the medication is delivered to the tissues between the skin and the muscle. Absorption of the medicine is slower than that of intramuscular injection. Since the needle does not need to reach the muscles, often a bigger gauge and shorter needle is used. Usual site of administration is fat tissues behind the arm. Certain intramuscular injection medicine such as EpiPen® can also be used subcutaneously. Insulin injection is a common type of subcutaneous injection medicine. Certain vaccines including MMR (Measles, Mumps, Rubella), Varicella (Chickenpox), Zoster (Shingles) are given subcutaneously.\n",
"Injections are focal treatments administered directly into the spastic muscle. Drugs used include: Botulinum toxin (BTX), phenol, alcohol, and lidocaine. Phenol and alcohol cause local muscle damage by denaturing protein, and thus relaxing the muscle. Botulinum toxin is a neurotoxin and it relaxes the muscle by preventing the release of a neurotransmitter (acetylcholine). Many studies have shown the benefits of BTX and it has also been demonstrated that repeat injections of BTX show unchanged effectiveness.\n",
"A more site-specific treatment is the injection of botulinum toxin. It is injected directly into the muscle and works much the same way the oral medications do—by blocking neurotransmitters. The injections are not a treatment for the disease, but are a means to control its symptoms. \n",
"Intramuscular injections (IM injections) deliver a substance deep into a muscle, where they are quickly absorbed by blood vessels. Common injections sites include the deltoid, vastus lateralis, and ventrogluteal muscles. Most inactivated vaccines, like influenza, are given by IM injection. Some medications are formulated for IM injection, like Epinephrine autoinjectors. Medical professionals are trained to give IM injections, but patients can also be trained to self-administer medications like epinephrine.\n",
"BULLET::::- intravenous injection (see also the article Drug injection): the user injects a solution of water and the drug into a vein, or less commonly, into the tissue. Drugs that are injected include morphine and heroin, less commonly other opioids. Stimulants like cocaine or methamphetamine may also be injected. In rare cases, users inject other drugs.\n"
] |
Where does helium in natural gas come from?
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Alpha particle decay of naturally occuring radioactive elements, such as Uranium. The alpha particle is a helium nucleus.
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[
"All commercial production of helium comes from natural gas. There are two basic types of commercial helium deposits: natural gas produced primarily for the hydrocarbon content, typically containing less than 3 percent helium; and gas with little or no hydrocarbons, produced solely for the helium, which typically makes up between 5 and 10 percent of the gas. Although natural gas in which helium is only a byproduct contains a much lower percentage of helium, historically it has supplied the most helium.\n",
"Almost all helium on Earth is a result of radioactive decay of uranium and thorium. Helium is extracted by fractional distillation from natural gas, which contains up to 7% helium. The world's largest helium-rich natural gas fields are found in the United States, especially in the Hugoton and nearby gas fields in Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas. The extracted helium is stored underground in the National Helium Reserve near Amarillo, Texas, the self-proclaimed \"Helium Capital of the World\". Helium production is expected to decline along with natural gas production in these areas.\n",
"All commercial helium is recovered from natural gas. Helium usually makes up a minuscule portion of natural gas, but can make up as much as 10 percent of natural gas in some fields. A helium content of 0.3 percent or more is considered necessary for commercial helium extraction. In 2012, helium was recovered at 16 extraction plants, from gas wells in Colorado, Kansas, Oklahoma, Texas, and Wyoming. One extraction plant in Utah was idle in 2012.\n",
"Helium is commercially produced as a byproduct of natural gas extraction. Until the mid-1990s, the United States Bureau of Mines operated a large scale helium storage facility to support government requirements for helium. \n",
"BULLET::::- Helium (He) exists only as a gas except in extreme conditions. It is the second-lightest element and is the second-most abundant in the universe. Most helium was formed during the Big Bang, but new helium is created through nuclear fusion of hydrogen in stars. On Earth, helium is relatively rare, only occurring as a byproduct of the natural decay of some radioactive elements. Such 'radiogenic' helium is trapped within natural gas in concentrations of up to seven percent by volume.\n",
"Helium was discovered in 1868 by French astronomer Pierre Janssen, who first detected the substance as an unknown yellow spectral line signature in light from a solar eclipse. In 1903, large reserves of helium were found in the natural gas fields of the United States, which is by far the largest supplier of the gas. The substance is used in cryogenics, in deep-sea breathing systems, to cool superconducting magnets, in helium dating, for inflating balloons, for providing lift in airships, and as a protective gas for industrial uses such as arc welding and growing silicon wafers. Inhaling a small volume of the gas temporarily changes the timbre and quality of the human voice. The behavior of liquid helium-4's two fluid phases, helium I and helium II, is important to researchers studying quantum mechanics and the phenomenon of superfluidity in particular, and to those looking at the effects that temperatures near absolute zero have on matter, such as with superconductivity.\n",
"Helium is a natural atmospheric gas, but as a land-resource, it is limited. As of 2012 the United States National Helium Reserve accounted for 30 percent of the world's helium, and was expected to run out of helium in 2018. Some geophysicists fear the world's helium could be gone in a generation. For this reason, balloon releases are seen as a wasteful use of this limited resource.\n"
] |
why is contact lens solution so friggin' expensive?
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It's a sterile product that people are putting in their eyes. Lots of liability if someone gets an infection.
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[
"Contact lens solutions often contain preservatives such as benzalkonium chloride and benzyl alcohol. Preservative-free products usually have shorter shelf lives, but are better suited for individuals with an allergy or sensitivity to a preservative. In the past, thiomersal was used as a preservative. In 1989, thiomersal was responsible for about 10% of problems related to contact lenses. As a result, most products no longer contain thiomersal.\n",
"Another important area of contact lens research deals with patient compliance. Compliance is a major issue pertaining to the use of contact lenses because patient noncompliance often leads to contamination of the lens, storage case, or both. However, careful users can extend the wear of lenses through proper handling: there is, unfortunately, no disinterested research on the issue of \"compliance\" or the length of time a user can safely wear a lens beyond its stated use. The introduction of multipurpose solutions and daily disposable lenses have helped to alleviate some of the problems observed from inadequate cleaning but new methods of combating microbial contamination are currently being developed. A silver-impregnated lens case has been developed which helps to eradicate any potentially contaminating microbes that come in contact with the lens case. Additionally, a number of antimicrobial agents are being developed that have been embedded into contact lenses themselves. Lenses with covalently attached selenium molecules have been shown to reduce bacterial colonization without adversely affecting the cornea of a rabbit eye and octyl glucoside used as a lens surfactant significantly decreases bacterial adhesion. These compounds are of particular interest to contact lens manufacturers and prescribing optometrists because they do not require any patient compliance to effectively attenuate the effects of bacterial colonization.\n",
"Plastic lenses are currently the most commonly prescribed lens, owing to their relative safety, low cost, ease of production, and high optical quality. The main drawbacks of many types of plastic lenses are the ease by which a lens can be scratched, and the limitations and costs of producing higher-index lenses. CR-39 lenses are an exception in that they have inherent scratch resistance.\n",
"The multifocal intraocular lens is one of the newest types of such lenses. They are often referred to as \"premium\" lenses because they are multifocal and accommodative, and allow the patient to visualize objects at more than one distance, removing the need to wear eyeglasses or contact lenses. Premium intraocular lenses are those used in correcting presbyopia or astigmatism. Premium intraocular lenses are more expensive and are typically not covered, or not fully covered, by health insurance, as their additional benefits are considered a luxury and not a medical necessity. An accommodative intraocular lens implant has only one focal point, but it acts as if it is a multifocal IOL. The intraocular lens was designed with a hinge similar to the mechanics of the eye's natural lens.\n",
"Eyeglass lenses are commonly made from plastic, including CR-39 and polycarbonate. These materials reduce the danger of breakage and weigh less than glass lenses. Some plastics also have more advantageous optical properties than glass, such as better transmission of visible light and greater absorption of ultraviolet light. Some plastics have a greater index of refraction than most types of glass; this is useful in the making of corrective lenses shaped to correct various vision abnormalities such as myopia, allowing thinner lenses for a given prescription.\n",
"New studies found that the use of Scleral contact lens, a type of rigid gas permeable (RGP) lens, may be a good option for most people with PMD. Most of these lenses are in the range of 15.5mm to 18.0mm in diameter. Regardless of the lens size, it is thought that the larger the RGP lens will in most cases be more comfortable then standard rigid corneal lenses, and at times more comfortable than soft lenses, regardless of the fact that it is a rigid lens. The highlight to the scleral design and the correction of eye disorders such as pellucid marginal degeneration is that vision with these types of lenses is exceptional when fit correctly.\n",
"The use of glass in lens manufacturing has reduced due to the availability of new lens materials offering different characteristics. Lens research is aimed at finding the optimum materials for the most common vision deficiencies. EnChroma technology is one of the few materials to compenste for CVD. Trivex eyeglass lenses were first developed by PPG industries in the United States. The lenses can be progressive or photochromic. They are significant in allowing better vision sharpness and eye protection, and are also comfortable to wear since the weight of the material is minimized. The tinted plastic lens used to make EnChroma glasses is coated in approximately 100 layers of dielectric material. A coating can be applied on both sides of the lens to eliminate light reflection and to protect the lens itself for scratches. A predecessor of the Trivex lens with similar characteristics is made from polycarbonate.\n"
] |
how do "non-profit" organizations have some of the highest paying internships / job positions?
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The company itself doesn't post a profit, meaning that any money it gets over its budget/operating cost (including employee salaries) must be given away/not used for company benefit. While it may seem counter-intuitive, non-profits do need to maintain competitive pay rates to attract talent necessary to maintain an effective business.
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[
"Companies in search of interns often find and place students in mostly unpaid internships, for a fee. These companies charge students to assist with research, promising to refund the fee if no internship is found. The programs vary and aim to provide internship placements at reputable companies. Some companies may also provide controlled housing in a new city, mentorship, support, networking, weekend activities or academic credit. \n",
"They believe that unpaid internships are exploitative, exclusive and unfair. By asking people to work without pay, employers exclude those with talent, ambition and drive who cannot afford to work for free. They campaign that employers and young people alike benefit from the best graduates getting the best jobs. They argue that paying interns a fair wage can ensure that this happens.\n",
"All the internships offered through INROADS are paid internships though the actual rate of pay varies from company to company. Also in addition to working at the sponsoring company, INROADS interns are required to attend training sessions hosted by INROADS with the purpose of teaching interns business skills. Some of the many sponsoring companies are: Texas Instruments, Boeing, TD Bank Financial Group, Regions Bank, Liberty Mutual Insurance, Travelers Insurance, Target, MetLife, Pfizer, Google, Deloitte, PricewaterhouseCoopers, RBC Capital Markets, Sunoco Inc, KPMG, Bridgestone/Firestone, Allstate Insurance, Johnson and Johnson, Coca-Cola, PECO, Vanguard, United Health Group, United Technologies and Kraft.\n",
"A common misconception about nonprofits is that they are run completely by volunteers. Most nonprofits have staff that work for the company, possibly using volunteers to perform the nonprofit's services under the direction of the paid staff. Nonprofits must be careful to balance the salaries paid to staff against the money paid to provide services to the nonprofit's beneficiaries. Organizations whose salary expenses are too high relative to their program expenses may face regulatory scrutiny.\n",
"A post-graduate volunteer works for a non-profit organization on a full-time and long-term basis. Non-profits can have internal programs for taking on such volunteers. But what is more commonly meant by \"post-graduate service\" is when graduates interested in service of this kind become applicants to broader programs that have relationships with multiple (in the case of AmeriCorps, \"thousands\" of) non-profits. These programs, upon accepting the graduate, \"place\" him or her with a non-profit. The placement can resemble paid employment and usually demands a commitment of one (or two) year(s).\n",
"In 2010, The NonProfit Times added a job board called Nonprofit Jobseeker. The site lists the latest jobs from nonprofit organizations from all over the United States. The site is free to use for job seekers, though employers that wish to list their job openings have to pay a fee depending on the type of job package they choose.\n",
"According to the 2012 data from the National Association of Colleges and Employers, 55% of college graduates in 2012 experienced internships, nearly half of whom were unpaid interns. In the early years, non-profit organizations that demanded volunteer services had been employing unpaid internships for about one-third of companies seeking for-profit. Whether the unpaid internship is viewed as a valuable opportunity for young people to exploit their passion for the younger generation or to acquire actual job skills is a long-standing controversy in the United States. Under federal law, all employees are entitled to more than the minimum wage, except where there is an exception. If the employee's work is judged to be for the benefit of the employee rather than the benefit of the employer, that is to say, if the content or condition of the work is closer to the \"training\" of the training than to the actual work, it is not illegal. The US Department of Labor is concerned with wages and working hours that 'internships are for interns' benefit and interns do not replace existing ones, but existing staff directs and manages internships, I understand that the internship is unpaid, \"and that the unpaid internship is not against the law at all. However, Judge William Foley Manhattan District Court in 2013 ruled that Fox Search light violated the Minimum Wage and Excess Allowance rules in a lawsuit filed by interns who participated in the films \"Black Swan\" and \"500 Days of Summer\". He was heated up by the interns' controversy when he ruled that the interns could receive wages. Judge Paul said that the work that interns did at that time was to bring immediate benefits to employers in the same way that existing paid employees did, and the knowledge gained by interns working was not training by education for training.\n"
] |
why do elderly people die from simple falls?
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> when an identical fall would barely even injure someone younger?
Because often it is not an identical fall.
A healthy person will likely have the strength, reflexes, balance, and agility to partially recover, and minimize the damage of fall. You put a hand out, aim for something soft, or twist so you land on your side or butt.
An elderly person taking the same fall might not be able to any of these things, and wind up falling harder, landing on a more vulnerable area, and hurting something vital.
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[
"Falls in older adults are a significant cause of morbidity and mortality and are an important class of preventable injuries. The cause of falling in old age is often multifactorial, and may require a multidisciplinary approach both to treat any injuries sustained and to prevent future falls. Falls include dropping from a standing position, or from exposed positions such as those on ladders or stepladders. The severity of injury is generally related to the height of the fall. The state of the ground surface onto which the victim falls is also important, harder surfaces causing more severe injury. Falls can be prevented by ensuring that carpets are tacked down, that objects like electric cords are not in one's path, that hearing and vision are optimized, dizziness is minimized, alcohol intake is moderated and that shoes have low heels or rubber soles.\n",
"There is an increased risk of falls associated with aging. These falls can lead to skeletal damage at the wrist, spine, hip, knee, foot, and ankle. Part of the fall risk is because of impaired eyesight due to many causes, (e.g. glaucoma, macular degeneration), balance disorder, movement disorders (e.g. Parkinson's disease), dementia, and sarcopenia (age-related loss of skeletal muscle). Collapse (transient loss of postural tone with or without loss of consciousness). Causes of syncope are manifold, but may include cardiac arrhythmias (irregular heart beat), vasovagal syncope, orthostatic hypotension (abnormal drop in blood pressure on standing up), and seizures. Removal of obstacles and loose carpets in the living environment may substantially reduce falls. Those with previous falls, as well as those with gait or balance disorders, are most at risk.\n",
"Falling is the second leading cause of accidental death worldwide and is a major cause of personal injury, especially for the elderly. Falls in older adults are an important class of preventable injuries. Builders, electricians, miners, and painters are occupations with high rates of fall injuries.\n",
"Falls and fall related injuries are among the most serious and common medical problems experienced by older adults. Nearly one-third of older persons fall each year, and half of them fall more than once. Over 3 million American over the age of 65 visited hospital emergency departments in 2015 due to fall related injuries with over 1.6 million being admitted. Because of underlying osteoporosis and decreased mobility and reflexes, falls often result in hip fractures and other fractures, head injuries, and even death in older adults. Accidental injuries are the fifth most common cause of death in older adults. In around 75% of hip fracture patients, recovery is incomplete and overall health deteriorates.\n",
"The most common cause of falls in healthy adults is accidents. It may be by slipping or tripping from stable surfaces or stairs, improper footwear, dark surroundings, uneven ground, or lack of exercise. \n",
"Falls are well known amongst community – dwelling individuals ages 65 and older. The risk of fall-related incidents nearly doubles when individuals are institutionalized. The impact on different falls in certain situation of fall prevention programs on the rate differences of falls in elderly population has not been reported. According to the study, annual 60% of older people with cognitive impairment and dementia are highly likely risk of having a fall related incident .Most falls that are experienced are by older people over the age 65 with acute problems that can come from chronic diseases. These falls may occur by intrinsic risk factor as well as precipitating causes. In order to prevent falls that could lead to serious injury or death health facilities need to know how to solve the problems and explore alternatives that can lead to a patient fall. As well as cognitive impairment, functional impairment, gait and balance disorders, certain medications can all increase fall risk factors for patients. By advance age these risk factors are double and more likely to occur. It’s important to identify the risk factors that increase the likelihood of injurious falls. State-level fall prevention strategies can also mitigate fall risk for community-dwelling older adults.\n",
"The most common cause of falls in healthy adults is due to accidents. It may be by slipping or tripping from stable surfaces or stairs, improper footwear, dark surroundings, uneven ground, or lack of exercise. Studies suggest that women are more prone to falling than men in all age groups. The most common injuries in the young population due to falls occur at the wrist/hand, knees and ankles.\n"
] |
how does a on-time pad work?
|
All codes work by changing some piece of information. Because of the change it is hard to tell what the original information was. For instance if I change some word into "xxr" what was the original word?
Well a one time pad is a way of changing information that never repeats any pattern,, that means you can never predict how information is or was changed. That means you can never decode "xxr" because you can never guess what I did and I will never do it again, I did it "one time".
|
[
"All manufacturers mark their electrode pads with an expiration date, and it is important to ensure that the pads are in date. This is usually marked on the outside of the pads. Some models are designed to make this date visible through a 'window', although others will require the opening of the case to find the date stamp.\n",
"One-time pads are \"information-theoretically secure\" in that the encrypted message (i.e., the ciphertext) provides no information about the original message to a cryptanalyst (except the maximum possible length of the message). This is a very strong notion of security first developed during WWII by Claude Shannon and proved, mathematically, to be true for the one-time pad by Shannon about the same time. His result was published in the \"Bell Labs Technical Journal\" in 1949. Properly used, one-time pads are secure in this sense even against adversaries with infinite computational power.\n",
"A basic time clock will just stamp the date and time on a time card, similar to a parking validation machine. These will usually be activated by a button that a worker must press to stamp their card, or stamp upon full insertion. Some machines use punch hole cards instead of stamping, which can facilitate automated processing on machinery not capable of optical character recognition.\n",
"As traditionally used, one-time pads provide no message authentication, the lack of which can pose a security threat in real-world systems. For example, an attacker who knows that the message contains \"meet jane and me tomorrow at three thirty pm\" can derive the corresponding codes of the pad directly from the two known elements (the encrypted text and the known plaintext). The attacker can then replace that text by any other text of exactly the same length, such as \"three thirty meeting is canceled, stay home\". The attacker's knowledge of the one-time pad is limited to this byte length, which must be maintained for any other content of the message to remain valid. This is a little different from malleability where it is not taken necessarily that the plaintext is known. \"See also\" stream cipher attack.\n",
"Time-stamping was designed to circumvent the trust warning that will appear in the case of an expired certificate. In effect, time-stamping extends the code trust beyond the validity period of a certificate. \n",
"Time for prints (or trade for prints, time for pics, TFP, and sometimes prints for time, PFT) is a term many photography communities use to describe an arrangement between a model and a photographer whereby the photographer agrees to provide the model with a certain number of pictures of selected photographs from the session, and a release or license to use those pictures in return for the model's time. The word 'Time' refers a person's time spent during the photo shoot. The Word \"Prints\" refers to a physically printed photo, usually on photo paper. The foundation of the concept of TFP being that both a photographer and a model get together and exchange their 'time', for free, and each receives the photos for their own usage. Since photos can now be delivered by means other than 'Prints,' some variant wordings of this arrangement are: Time for CD or Trade for CD (TFCD). With TFCD, the photographer provides the selection of images on a CD instead of prints. Similarly, with the ease and convenience of digital high-resolution images, the generic term TF* has evolved, where it does not necessarily refer to a tangible CD or printed image since the same accepted rules apply.\n",
"Database records that include a time stamp typically use UTC, especially when the database is part of a system that spans multiple time zones. The use of local time for time-stamping records is not recommended for time zones that implement daylight saving time because once a year there is a one-hour period when local times are ambiguous.\n"
] |
why airline frequent flyer programs have been made so difficult?
|
Because the airlines benefit from the impression that they have the program, but do not benefit from people using it.
|
[
"Frequent-flyer programs have been receiving scrutiny because of the prevalence and rapid growth of air travel, in terms of both the frequency that individuals fly and the tendency toward longer distance travel. There have also been calls for an end to frequent-flyer programs. An increase in the number of hypermobile travelers has been identified as a particular aspect of the issue because of the highly disproportionate contribution of this class of individuals to aviation greenhouse gas emissions, and frequent-flyer programs are a contributing factor.\n",
"Over 130 airlines have \"frequent flyer programs\" based at least in part on miles, kilometers, points or segments for flights taken. Globally, such programs included about 163 million people as reported in 2006. These programs benefit airlines by habituating people to air travel and, through the mechanics of partnerships with credit card companies and other businesses, in which high profit margin revenue streams can amount to selling free seats for a high price. The only part of United Airlines business that was making money when the company filed for bankruptcy in 2002 was its frequent flyer program.\n",
"Precedent exists for ending frequent-flyer programs. In 2002, Norway established a ban on domestic frequent-flyer programs in order to promote competition among its airlines, and lifted the ban in 2013 when the competitive situation changed. In 2005, Morten A. Meyer, the Modernization Minister asked the competition authority to consider extending the Norwegian ban on frequent flyer miles to include all of Scandinavia. In the U.S. in 1989, a vice president of Braniff said the government should consider ordering an end to frequent-flyer programs, which he said allow unfair competition.\n",
"Some carriers also require frequent flyers to spend a set amount of money on tickets before they are eligible for elite status. This is in addition to the miles-flown requirements that are already in place. Delta switched to revenue-based elite status requirements in January 2014, United in March 2015, with American Airlines the last of the three US legacy carriers to switch on August 1, 2016. This has led to some frequent flyers devaluing those programs over others, as the changing model can be less rewarding to frequent flyers. To date no UK frequent flyer scheme has sought to operate in such a fashion, with both Virgin Atlantic and British Airways opting for the traditional method of granting tier points based on the miles flown and class of travel.\n",
"Several studies have contemplated the elimination of frequent flyer programmes (FFPs), on the grounds of anti-competitiveness, ethics, conflict with society's overall well-being, or climate effects. There is a record of governments disallowing or banning FFPs and of industry players requesting bans. Denmark did not allow the programs until 1992, then changing its policy because its airlines were disadvantaged. In 2002, Norway banned domestic FFPs in order to promote competition among its airlines. In the U.S. in 1989, a vice president of Braniff \"said the government should consider ordering an end to frequent-flyer programs, which he said allow unfair competition.\"\n",
"Because of the complications in scheduling flights and maintaining profitability, airlines have many loopholes that can be used by the knowledgeable traveler. Many of these airfare secrets are becoming more and more known to the general public, so airlines are forced to make constant adjustments.\n",
"Non-scheduled airlines first appeared in significant numbers in the United States after the Second World War, as returning pilots purchased discount surplus planes from the government and set up their own uncertificated air services under the non-scheduled charter service exemption in the 1938 Civil Aviation Act. Low overhead and fewer regulations allowed the non-scheduled airlines to offer considerably lower fares than the national scheduled carriers, inaugurating the immensely popular aircoach service which attracted millions of Americans unable to afford tickets on the regular airlines. Though the regulatory actions of the Civil Aeronautics Board ultimately extinguished the burgeoning non-scheduled industry, the idea of cheap, efficient air transport endured and by the passage of the 1978 Airline Deregulation Act nearly all civil airlines had transitioned to an aircoach model.\n"
] |
Can a person sense light if he/she is asleep?
|
You can sense light through your eyelids while closed, although you may not be consciously aware of it. Light signals your body to stop producing (or secreting) melatonin, enabling you to wake up more readily. This is how the lamps that use simulated sunlight help you gently wake up.
|
[
"Another study has indicated that sleeping with the light on may protect the eyes of diabetics from retinopathy, a condition that can lead to blindness. However, the initial study is still inconclusive.\n",
"A University of Pennsylvania study indicated that sleeping with the light on or with a nightlight was associated with a greater incidence of nearsightedness in children. However, a later study at Ohio State University contradicted the earlier conclusion. Both studies were published in the journal \"Nature\".\n",
"The most basic form of CEV perception that can be immediately experienced in normal waking consciousness involves a seemingly random noise of pointillistic light/dark regions with no apparent shape or order.\n",
"BULLET::::- Sleep is the emancipation of the mind: While we are asleep our spirit loosens its ties to matter and wanders the spiritual world. Because of it, it is theoretically possible—although uncommon—to see the spirit of a living person as an apparition.\n",
"This level is relatively easily accessible to people who use psychedelic drugs such as LSD. However, it is also accessible to people involved in deep concentration for long periods of time. When lying down at night and closing the eyes, right before sleep or just before waking up, the complex motion of these patterns can become directly visible without any great effort thanks to hypnagogic hallucination.\n",
"BULLET::::- Onset of sleep from time the lights were turned off: this is called \"sleep onset latency\" and normally is less than 20 minutes. (Note that determining \"sleep\" and \"awake\" is based solely on the EEG. Patients sometimes feel they were awake when the EEG shows they were sleeping. This may be because of sleep state misperception, drug effects on brain waves, or individual differences in brain waves.)\n",
"BULLET::::- Most common in individuals that are blind and unable to detect light, Non-24-hour sleep–wake disorder (N24SWD) is characterized by chronic patterns of sleep/wake cycles which are not entrained to the 24-hr light-dark environmental cycle. As a result of this, individuals with this disorder will usually experience a gradual yet predictable delay of sleep onset and waking times. Patients with DSPD may develop this disorder if their condition is untreated.\n"
] |
how do telescopes that capture images very far away (hundreds of light years) get a good sharp shot when you know that the earth rotates slowly
|
The telescopes are mounted on motors that move it to compensate for the rotation of the earth. This is true for even moderately expensive personal telescopes.
|
[
"Imaging of dim celestial targets, usually deep sky objects, requires exposure times of many minutes, particularly when narrowband images are being taken. In order for the resulting image to maintain usable clarity and sharpness during these exposures, the target must be held at the same position within the telescope's field of view during the whole exposure; any apparent motion would cause point sources of light (such as stars) to appear as streaks, or the object being photographed to appear blurry. Even computer-tracked mounts and GoTo telescopes do not eliminate the need for tracking adjustments for exposures beyond a few minutes, as astrophotography demands an extremely high level of precision that these devices typically cannot achieve, especially if the mount is not properly polar aligned.\n",
"Accurate telescope pointing and tracking is critical for obtaining good astronomical images and astrophotographs. However, because the Earth rotates, the sky appears to be in a constant state of motion relative to the Earth. Although this movement appears to be relatively slow when viewed with the naked eye, with the high magnification and consequently smaller field of view provided by even a small telescope this motion becomes apparent on timescales of the order of seconds.\n",
"The telescope uses high-precision radial velocity measurements to measure the gravitational reflex motion of nearby stars caused by the orbiting of planets. The design goal is to detect stellar motions as small as one meter per second, comparable to a slow walking speed. The main targets will be stars within about 100 light years of the Earth.\n",
"For telescopes combined with an imaging camera connected to a computer it is possible to achieve very accurate polar alignment (within 0.1 minute of arc) by approximately aligning it, then identifying the exact field of view when aimed at stars near the pole - 'plate solving'. The telescope is then rotated ninety degrees around its right ascension axis and a new 'plate solve' carried out. The error in the point around which the images rotate compared to the true pole is calculated automatically and the operator can be given simple instructions to adjust the mount for close polar alignment.\n",
"For accuracy purposes, a second alignment star, as far away as possible from the first and if possible close to the object to be observed, may be used. This is because the mount might not be level with the ground; this will cause the telescope to accurately point to objects close to the initial alignment star, but less accurately for an object on the other side of the sky.\n",
"The line of sight of the telescope needed to be exactly perpendicular to the axis of rotation. This could be done by sighting a distant, stationary object, lifting and reversing the telescope on its bearings, and again sighting the object. If the crosshairs did not intersect the object, the line of sight was halfway between the new position of the crosshairs and the distant object; the crosshairs were adjusted accordingly and the process repeated as necessary. Also, if the rotation axis was known to be perfectly horizontal, the telescope could be directed downward at a basin of mercury, and the crosshairs illuminated. The mercury acted as a perfectly horizontal mirror, reflecting an image of the crosshairs back up the telescope tube. The crosshairs could then be adjusted until coincident with their reflection, and the line of sight was then perpendicular to the axis.\n",
"There were two Fine Error Sensors (FES), and their first purpose was to image the field of view of the telescope in visible light. They could detect stars down to 14th magnitude, about 1500 times fainter than can be seen with the naked eye from Earth. The image was transmitted to the ground station, where the observer would verify that the telescope was pointing at the correct field, and then acquire the exact object to be observed. If the object to be observed was fainter than 14th magnitude, the observer would point the telescope at a star that could be seen, and then apply \"blind\" offsets, determined from the coordinates of the objects. The accuracy of the pointing was generally better than 2 arcseconds for blind offsets \n"
] |
FAQ Friday: Ask your questions about the Ebola epidemic here!
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For this outbreak the reported fatality rate seems to be around 50-60% meaning that a lot of people actually have survived this nightmare. My question is about what shape these people are in when they are no longer testing positive for the virus? It seems some make a full recovery, but are there irreversible damage done to organs or other things that will effect survivors later in life?
Or is it more likely that you either have < something > that makes you get rid of the virus in time, before serious damage are done, or you don't make it at all (and thus creating the image that surviving = full recovery)?
I haven't found much written about survivors of the virus, except for some news stories about people that survived and now working with the medical effort (on the assumptions they have (some) immunity now).
|
[
"On 11 May 2017, the DRC Ministry of Public Health notified the WHO about an outbreak of Ebola. Four people died, and four people survived; five of these eight cases were laboratory-confirmed. A total of 583 contacts were monitored. On 2 July 2017, the WHO declared the end of the outbreak.\n",
"On 8 August 2014, WHO declared that the spread of Ebola was a public health emergency; an outbreak which was believed to have started in Guinea had spread to other nearby countries such as Liberia and Sierra Leone. The situation in West Africa was considered very serious.\n",
"On 28 August, the WHO published a roadmap to guide and coordinate the international response to the outbreak, aiming to stop ongoing Ebola transmission worldwide within 6–9 months. It simultaneously revised its cost estimate for the global resources required over the next six months up to $490 million. They report that they \"are on the ground establishing Ebola treatment centres and strengthening capacity for laboratory testing, contact tracing, social mobilization, safe burials, and non-Ebola health care\" and \"continue to monitor for reports of rumoured or suspected cases from countries around the world.\" Other than cases where individuals are suspected or have been confirmed of being infected with Ebola, or have had contact with cases of Ebola, the WHO does not recommend any travel or trade restrictions.\n",
"In July 2014, the WHO convened an emergency meeting of health ministers from eleven countries and announced collaboration on a strategy to co-ordinate technical support to combat the epidemic. In August they published a roadmap to guide and coordinate the international response to the outbreak, aiming to stop ongoing Ebola transmission worldwide within 6–9 months, and formally designated the outbreak as a Public Health Emergency of International Concern. This is a legal designation used only twice before (for the 2009 H1N1 (swine flu) pandemic and the 2014 resurgence of poliomyelitis) that invokes legal measures on disease prevention, surveillance, control, and response, by 194 signatory countries.\n",
"Confirmed cases of Ebola were being reported in Guinea and Liberia in March 2014 and Sierra Leone by May 2014. On Friday, 8 August 2014, following the occurrence of Ebola in the United States and Europe and with the already intense transmission ongoing in three other countries for months, the WHO declared its third PHEIC in response to the outbreak of Ebola in Western Africa. Later, one review showed that a direct impact of this epidemic on America escalated a PHEIC declaration. It was the first PHEIC in a resource-poor setting.\n",
"With an Ebola epidemic devastating West Africa, Burwell began holding daily meetings on July 28, 2014, as part of the efforts of the United States government, including the Department of HHS, to prevent further spread of the disease. Starting on September 30, other Obama administration officials began giving daily public briefings while Burwell took less of a public role, although she did take part in a number of public meetings. In the fall of 2014, the first known death from Ebola in the United States occurred. The Obama administration proposed devoting $6billion to fight the spread of Ebola, including $2billion for the State Department and USAID. The plan included provisions to help U.S. hospitals become better prepared and to support global health initiatives aimed at containing the disease in Africa. Congress allocated $5.4billion to fight Ebola in response to the Obama administration request. Burwell and other Obama administration officials sought to assure the public that the American health system was prepared to deal with Ebola cases and that the chances of a full outbreak in the United States were low.\n",
"In September 2014, the United Nations Security Council declared the Ebola virus outbreak in Western Africa \"a threat to international peace and security\" and unanimously adopted a resolution urging UN member states to provide more resources to fight the outbreak. In October, WHO and the UN Mission for Ebola Emergency Response announced a comprehensive 90-day plan to control and reverse the Ebola epidemic. The ultimate goal was to have capacity in place for the isolation of 100% of Ebola cases and the safe burial of 100% of casualties by 1 January 2015 (the 90-day target). Many nations and charitable organizations cooperated to realise the plan, and a WHO situation report published mid-December indicated that the international community was on track to meet the 90-day target.\n"
] |
I few Warp Drive questions.
|
IIRC, there would be no significant time dilation using an Alcubierre metric because it is space itself moving. Inside the bubble the object has locally zero velocity, but I could be wrong. Therefore I think that only four weeks would pass. It also would not create any G-force since the spaceship is not being accelerated, space itself is moving.
Can't answer the last question.
|
[
"One supervisor, Jim Burton of Blue Ridge, tried to be serious. He reminded the board that \"warp\" had other meanings. \"You need to think about it before you vote on it\" he warned. \"Would you prefer 'Beam me up, Scotty?'\", the board's chairman replied. In the end the vote was unanimous. \"What more uplifting motion could there possibly be than something that will literally make law out of a Star Trek joke?\" concluded Miller. \"It's a great idea. I look forward to driving on Warp Drive myself.\" Orbital agreed to reimburse the county for the approximately $500 it would cost to replace the street sign.\n",
"A warp drive is a theoretical superluminal spacecraft propulsion system in many science fiction works, most notably \"Star Trek\" and \"I, Robot\" by Isaac Asimov. A spacecraft equipped with a warp drive may travel at speeds greater than that of light by many orders of magnitude. In contrast to some other fictitious FTL technologies such as a jump drive, the warp drive does not permit instantaneous travel between two points, but rather involves a measurable passage of time which is pertinent to the concept. In contrast to hyperdrive, spacecraft at warp velocity would continue to interact with objects in \"normal space.\" The general concept of \"warp drive\" was introduced by John W. Campbell in his 1931 novel \"Islands of Space\".\n",
"In Houston, Texas, at the Johnson Space Center, Harold White is working to create a warp drive that could be used for propulsion. Although this project is not related to the project proposed by BTE Dan, it could still possibly be used in a future version of the \"Enterprise\". The project is based on Miguel Alcubierre's spacetime metric. The warp drive would allow the ship to travel faster than the speed of light by compressing space around it to create a moving bubble. As of yet however, there still remain many problems with the theory.\n",
"Warp drive was first mentioned in Gene Roddenberry's first-draft pitch for \"Star Trek\", dated March 11, 1964, although in that version it was referred to as a \"space-warp drive\". The drive allows for a vessel to travel faster than the speed of light by warping space-time around the ship itself. In 1994, physicist Miguel Alcubierre created the theoretical Alcubierre drive, which used a similar theory. In the \"Star Trek\" universe, Zefram Cochrane invented the drive in 2063. Cochrane was portrayed by James Cromwell in the film \"\" and re-appeared in this role in the pilot of \"Enterprise\", \"\". That episode showed the culmination of the development of the warp 5 engine, which was designed by Jonathan Archer's father, Henry, in the launch of the \"Enterprise\" itself. The Vulcans during this period gave oversight and advice to Starfleet in the development of the warp drive, but sought to slow the progress of the humans. \"First Flight\" showed a previously unseen period in the development of the fictional warp drive, with the pursuit of the warp 2 barrier. The dark matter seen in this episode is a real phenomenon, however it is unclear exactly what it is. It cannot be seen by telescopes, and it is theorised that it makes up a great deal of the matter in the universe.\n",
"Warp drive is one of the fundamental features of the \"Star Trek\" franchise; in the first pilot episode of \"\", \"The Cage\", it is referred to as a \"hyperdrive\", with Captain Pike stating the speed to reach planet Talos IV as \"time warp, factor 7\". When beginning to explain travel times to the illusion survivors (before being interrupted by the sight of Vina), crewmember Jose stated that \"the time barrier's been broken\", allowing a group of interstellar travelers to return to Earth far sooner than would have otherwise been possible. Later in the pilot, when Spock is faced with the only action of escaping, he announces to the crew they have no choice but to leave, stating \"Our time warp factor...\" before the ship's systems start failing. In the second pilot for the original series, \"Where No Man Has Gone Before\", \"time\" was dropped from the speed setting with Kirk ordering speeds in simple \"Ahead Warp Factor One\", etc. that became so familiar from then on.\n",
"\"Force of Nature\" (, E09) is the 161st episode of the American science fiction television series \"\". In this episode, a pair of sibling scientists show that warp drive propulsion is harming the very fabric of space -- an implied metaphor for global climate change (which is mentioned explicitly in the episode's final scene). A sub-plot involves Data attempting to train his pet cat, Spot.\n",
"A theoretical principle for a faster-than-light (FTL) warp drive for spaceships has been suggested, involving negative energy. The Alcubierre drive comprises a solution to Einstein's equations of general relativity, in which a bubble of spacetime is moved rapidly by expanding space behind it and shrinking space in front of it.\n"
] |
i've been diagnosed with tenitus (loud ringing in the ears) what's making my brain generate that noise?
|
You didn't ask the person who diagnosed you?
Also, it's tinnitus.
|
[
"BULLET::::- For sensorineural hearing loss, the lack of input coming from the damaged sensory apparatus can cause \"ghost beeps\" or ringing/tinnitus as the brain attempts to interpret the now missing sensory data. The frequency and the volume of the noise can increase according to one's physical condition (stress, fatigue, etc.). This can aggravate social problems and increase the difficulty of speech comprehension.\n",
"Misophonia's mechanism is not known, but it appears that, like hyperacusis, it may be caused by a dysfunction of the central auditory system in the brain and not of the ears. The perceived origin and context of the sound appears to be essential to trigger a reaction.\n",
"\"Sensory\" hearing loss often occurs as a consequence of damaged or deficient cochlear hair cells. Hair cells may be abnormal at birth, or damaged during the lifetime of an individual. There are both external causes of damage, including infection, and ototoxic drugs, as well as intrinsic causes, including genetic mutations. A common cause or exacerbating factor in SNHL is prolonged exposure to environmental noise, or noise-induced hearing loss. Exposure to a single very loud noise such as a gun shot or bomb blast can cause noise-induced hearing loss. Using headphones at high volume over time, or being in loud environments regularly, such as a loud workplace, sporting events, concerts, and using lawn equipment can also be a risk for noise-induced hearing loss. \n",
"Synaptic noise is not only caused by mass signaling from surrounding neuronal impulses, but also from the direct signaling within the neuron itself. During episodes of epilepsy, the impulses fired are of greater magnitude and frequency than normal. Transient signaling, or more specifically noise, may shorten the resting potential in order to allow for quicker neural firing.\n",
"It is now thought by professionals that Farr was possibly suffering from hyperacusis, which occurs when the olivocochlear bundle in the inner ear is damaged, causing it to lose its ability to soften and filter sound, making loud noises physically unbearable (auditory efferent dysfunction). \n",
"Neuronal noise or neural noise refers to the random intrinsic electrical fluctuations within neuronal networks. These fluctuations are not associated with encoding a response to internal or external stimuli and can be from one to two orders of magnitude. Most noise commonly occurs below a voltage-threshold that is needed for an action potential to occur, but sometimes it can be present in the form of an action potential; for example, stochastic oscillations in pacemaker neurons in suprachiasmatic nucleus are partially responsible for the organization of circadian rhythms.\n",
"Extensive damage can also be inflicted upon the auditory system. The tympanic membrane (also known as the eardrum) may be perforated by the intensity of the pressure waves. Furthermore, the hair cells, the sound receptors found within the cochlea, can be permanently damaged and can result in a hearing loss of a mild to profound degree. Additionally, the intensity of the pressure changes from the blast can cause injury to the blood vessels and neural pathways within the auditory system. Therefore, affected individuals can have auditory processing deficits while having normal hearing thresholds. The combination of these effects can lead to hearing loss, tinnitus, headache, vertigo (dizziness), and difficulty processing sound.\n"
] |
Why did Russian life expectancy drop massively in 1993?
|
There was a [massive famine](_URL_1_). When Boris Yeltsin liberalized the economy in 1992, speculators came in and basically broke the Russian wholesale markets, causing massive price spikes. Inflation rose 2,500% in 1992.
Previously, the USSR had price controls for most foods, meat, dairy, wheat, etc. After prices were liberalized, the Russian diet shifted tremendously. People were unable to get, or afford, meat and diary products especially and only low-nutritive-value foods were widely available, i.e. potatoes and bread.
An additional issue wasn't just that food was too expensive, but that low quality substitutes came onto the market. Dangerous, toxic food substitutes. Poisoning and food-bourne illnesses were common. And mind you, this wasn't the healthiest population to begin with, as the old Soviet food systems weren't exactly renown for being particularly nutritious.
Add to all of this the end of subsidies to the Soviet health-care system and the end result is a huge swell in fatalities that continued on until the IMF helped Russia get on its economic feet in 1995, resulting in life expectancy rising agin in 1996.
Edit: [Here's an interesting Rand Corp. paper on Russian mortality trends](_URL_0_). Interestingly, they pin a large number of deaths on excess alcohol consumption following the collapse of the Soviet empire. Wow.
|
[
"The life expectancy was about 70 in 1986, prior to the transition-induced disruption of the healthcare system. The turmoil in the early 1990s caused life expectancy in Russia to steadily decrease while it was steadily increasing in the rest of the world. Recently however, Russian life expectancy has again begun to rise. Between 2006—2011 the male life expectancy in Russia rose by almost four years, increasing the overall life expectancy by nearly 4 years to 70.3.\n",
"Public health indicators show a dramatic corresponding decline. Although all post-Soviet countries experience an immediate decline in birth-rates due to economic turmoil this may have been particularly acute in Russia. In 1999, total population fell by about three-quarters of a million people. Meanwhile, life expectancy dropped for men from 64 years in 1990 to 57 years by 1994, while women's dropped from 74 to about 71. Both health factors and a sharp increase in deaths of the youth demographic from unnatural causes (such as murders, suicides, and accidents) have significantly contributed to this trend. Closely related to the declining life expectancy, alcohol-related deaths skyrocketed 60% in the 1990s and deaths from infectious and parasitic diseases shot up 100%, mainly because medicines were no longer affordable to the poor.\n",
"In 2018, the number of births kept falling, but at much slower pace. However, the number of deaths didn't decline by as much as it did the previous year because whilst life expectancy improved, the population aged leading to a higher mortality rate. By 2020 around 25.7% of Russians will be over 60 years, which is nearly double the percentage in 1985 of 12.7%. By the middle of the century it is possible that more than a third of the population will be over 60, similar to modern Japan.\n",
"After 1965, life expectancy began to plateau or even decrease, especially for males, in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe while it continued to increase in Western Europe. This divergence between two parts of Europe continued over the course of three decades, leading to a profound gap in the mid-1990s. Life expectancy sharply declined after the change to market economy in most of the states of the former Soviet Union, but may now have started to increase in the Baltic states. In several Eastern European nations, life expectancy started to increase immediately after the fall of communism. The previous decline for males continued for a time in some Eastern European nations, like Romania, before starting to increase.\n",
"An analysis of the official data from the late 1980s showed that after worsening in the late 1970s and the early 1980s, the situation for adult mortality began to improve again. Referring to data for the two decades ending in 1989-1990, while noting some abatement in adult mortality rates in the Soviet republics in the 1980s, Ward Kingkade and Eduardo Arriaga characterized this situation as follows: \"All of the former Soviet countries have followed the universal tendency for mortality to decline as infectious diseases are brought under control while death rates from degenerative diseases rise. What is exceptional in the former Soviet countries and some of their East European neighbors is that a subsequent increase in mortality from causes other than infectious disease has brought about overall rises in mortality from all causes combined. Another distinctive characteristic of the former Soviet case is the presence of unusually high levels of mortality from accidents and other external causes, which are typically associated with alcoholism.\"\n",
"The improving economy has had a positive impact on the country's low birth-rate, as it rose from its lowest point of 8.27 births per 1000 people in 1999 to 11.28 per 1,000 in 2007. Russian Ministry of Economic Development hopes that by 2020 the population will stabilise at 138–139 million, and that by 2025 it will begin to increase again to its present-day status of 142–145, also raising the life expectancy to 75 years.\n",
"After the October revolution, the life expectancy for all age groups went up. A newborn child in 1926-27 had a life expectancy of 44.4 years, up from 32.3 years thirty years before. In 1958-59 the life expectancy for newborns went up to 68.6 years. This improvement was seen in itself by some as immediate proof that the socialist system was superior to the capitalist system. The life expectancy in Soviet Union were fairly stable during most years, although in the 1970s went slightly down probably because of alcohol abuse.\n"
] |
What was the Communist Party of Korea like during the Japanese occupation, and how did Kim Il-Sung seize complete control over it after the establishment of North Korea?
|
About a year ago i answered a [similar question](_URL_0_).
|
[
"The party became the Korean section of the Communist International at the 6th congress of the international in August–September 1928. But after only a few months as the Korean Comintern section, the perpetual feuds between rival factions that had plagued the party from its foundation led the Comintern to disband the Communist Party of Korea in December the same year. However, the party continued to exist through various party cells. Some communists, like Kim Il-sung went into exile in China, where they joined the Communist Party of China. In the early 1930s Korean and Chinese communists began guerrilla activity against the Japanese forces.\n",
"The Communist movement in Korea emerged as a political movement in the early 20th century. Although the movement had a minor role in pre-war politics, the division between the communist North Korea and the anti-communist South Korea came to dominate Korean political life in the post-World War II era. North Korea, officially the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, continues to be a \"Juche\" \"socialist\" state under the rule of the Workers' Party of Korea. In South Korea, communism remains illegal through the National Security Law. Due to end of economic aid from Soviet Union after its dissolution in 1991 and impractical ideological application of Stalinist policies in North Korea over years of economic slowdown in the 1980s and receding during the 1990s, North Korea replaced Communism with the Juche ideology in its 1992 and 1998 constitutional revisions for the personality cult of Kim's family dictatorship and (albeit reluctanly) opening of North Korean market economy reform, though it still retains a command economy with complete state control of industry and agriculture. North Korea maintains collectivized farms and state-funded education and healthcare.\n",
"Late in August 1945, the Communist Party of Korea(조선 공산당) was re-established, having been officially disbanded in 1928, and Pak became its secretary. On 5 January 1946, as its representative, he announced at a foreign and domestic press conference that, supporting the decision of the Moscow conference of great powers (UK, US, Soviet Union), Korea was now in the process of a \"democratic revolution\". After Moscow Conference (1945) his organization the Communist Party of Korea had been oppressed by United States Army Military Government.\n",
"The Communist Party of Korea was founded during a secret meeting in Seoul in 1925. The leaders of the party were Kim Yong-bom and Pak Hon-yong. The party became the Korean section of the Communist International at the 6th congress of the International in August–September 1928. But after only a few months as the Korean Comintern section, the perpetual feuds between rival factions that had plagued the party from its foundation led the Comintern to disband the Communist Party of Korea in December the same year. However, the party continued to exist through various party cells. Some Korean communists went into exile in China, where they participated in the early years of Communist Party of China. In the early 1930s Korean and Chinese communists began guerrilla activity against the Japanese forces.\n",
"The Communist Party of Korea () was a communist party in Korea. It was founded during a secret meeting in Seoul in 1925. The Governor-General of Korea had banned communist parties under the Peace Preservation Law (see History of Korea), so the party had to operate in a clandestine manner. The leaders of the party were Kim Yong-bom and Pak Hon-yong.\n",
"On 22 July 1946 the northern section of the Communist Party of Korea joined with the New People's Party, the Democratic Party and the Party of Young Friends of the Celestial Way (supporters of an influential religious sect) to form the United Democratic National Front which put all of North Korea's parties under the \"leading role\" of the Communists.\n",
"After the end of the Second World War, the United States and the Soviet Union occupied Korea. While many Korean communists returned to an independent Korea, which they assumed would soon be unified, Zhu expected that the division of Korea would be perpetual. Hence, he believed that Korean communists in the CCP should rather take over former Manchurian territory in which more than a million of Korean minorities were residing. Once the communist party occupies the northeast, then communists could recruit and train a Korean army that could consolidate the divided Korea.\n"
] |
musical intervals (with emphasis on guitar)
|
The simplest way to describe an interval is that it's the number of semitones between two notes. There are 12 semitones in an octave and each one has a special name. Here's what that would look like using a C chromatic scale:
* 12. Octave (C)
* 11. Major 7th (B)
* 10. Minor 7th (Bb)
* 9. Major 6th (A)
* 8. Minor 6th (Ab)
* 7. Perfect 5th (G)
* 6. Tritone (Gb)
* 5. Perfect 4th (F)
* 4. Major 3rd (E)
* 3. Minor 3rd (Eb)
* 2. Major 2nd (D)
* 1. Minor 2nd (Db)
* 0. Root (C)
You might notice that the intervals labelled "major" match up with the notes of the major scale, and the ones labelled "minor" are in the minor scale (except for the minor 2nd, which gets no love). The perfect intervals are the most harmonious intervals, and appear in both scales, while the "tritone" is a special interval that is extremely dissonant and is in neither scale. For intervals larger than an octave, the cycle repeats again (starting with minor 9th because the octave is the 8th note).
EDIT: Since you asked for an emphasis on guitar, I made you [this diagram](_URL_0_) as an illustration. If you're playing in C (root note 3rd fret on A), the number on the diagram matches up with the interval on the list.
|
[
"For commonly encountered harmonic or melodic intervals between pairs of notes in contemporary Western music theory, without consideration of the way in which they are tuned, see Interval (music) § Main intervals.\n",
"In atonal or musical set theory, there are numerous types of intervals, the first being the ordered pitch interval, the distance between two pitches upward or downward. For instance, the interval from C upward to G is 7, and the interval from G downward to C is −7. One can also measure the distance between two pitches without taking into account direction with the unordered pitch interval, somewhat similar to the interval of tonal theory.\n",
"Jazz rhythm guitar often consists of very textural, odd-meter playing that includes generous use of exotic, difficult-to-fret chords. In 4/4 timing, it is common to play 2.5 beat intervals such as on the 2 and then the half beat or \"and\" after 4. Jazz guitarists may play chords \"ahead\" of the beat, by playing the chord a swung eighth note before the actual chord change. Chords are not generally played in a repetitive rhythmic fashion, like a rock rhythm guitarist would play.\n",
"Human perception of musical intervals is approximately logarithmic with respect to fundamental frequency: the perceived interval between the pitches \"A220\" and \"A440\" is the same as the perceived interval between the pitches \"A440\" and \"A880\". Motivated by this logarithmic perception, music theorists sometimes represent pitches using a numerical scale based on the logarithm of fundamental frequency. For example, one can adopt the widely used MIDI standard to map fundamental frequency, \"f\", to a real number, \"p\", as follows\n",
"A musical scale is a discrete set of pitches used in making or describing music. The most important scale in the Western tradition is the diatonic scale but many others have been used and proposed in various historical eras and parts of the world. Each pitch corresponds to a particular frequency, expressed in hertz (Hz), sometimes referred to as cycles per second (c.p.s.). A scale has an interval of repetition, normally the octave. The octave of any pitch refers to a frequency exactly twice that of the given pitch.\n",
"The term \"interval\" can also be generalized to other music elements besides pitch. David Lewin's \"Generalized Musical Intervals and Transformations\" uses interval as a generic measure of distance between time points, timbres, or more abstract musical phenomena.\n",
"Musical terminology also uses inclusive counting of intervals between notes of the standard scale: going up one note is a second interval, going up two notes is a third interval, etc., and going up seven notes is an \"octave\".\n"
] |
when people that are lactose intolerant eat or drink dairy, what exactly is happening inside their stomach when diarrhea occurs?
|
So lactose intolerance happens when someone's body does not create enough [lactase](_URL_1_). Lactase is an [enzyme](_URL_4_) that would break down [lactose](_URL_3_), the unique sugar component of milk, into sugar that our bodies can use for energy. Lactose intolerant people have issues with breaking down the lactose in their small intestines, which is a part of the digestive tract after the stomach that is responsible for absorbing a great amount of the nutritional stuff that goes through our body. So when a lactose passes through the small intestine and into the large intestine it removes water from the colon lining (through [osmosis](_URL_0_?)) and causes excessive runny poops. Much of the more complicated answer involves [microbial communities](_URL_2_).
Edit: added a bunch of links in case you get carried away with this question and want to learn more but appreciate quick links. Additionally, did you know in some Asian communities over 90% of individuals experience some level of lactose intolerance? This fun fact also brings up the important distinction that not all lactose intolerance is equal.
|
[
"Lactose intolerance is a condition in which people have symptoms due to the decreased ability to digest lactose, a sugar found in dairy products. Those affected vary in the amount of lactose they can tolerate before symptoms develop. Symptoms may include abdominal pain, bloating, diarrhea, gas, and nausea. These symptoms typically start thirty minutes to two hours after eating or drinking milk-based food. Severity typically depends on the amount a person eats or drinks. Lactose intolerance does not cause damage to the gastrointestinal tract.\n",
"Milk allergy is distinct from lactose intolerance, which is a nonallergic food sensitivity, due to the lack of the enzyme lactase in the small intestines to break lactose down into glucose and galactose. The unabsorbed lactose reaches the large intestine, where resident bacteria use it for fuel, releasing hydrogen, carbon dioxide and methane gases. These gases are the cause of abdominal pain and other symptoms. Lactose intolerance does not cause damage to the gastrointestinal tract. There are four types: primary, secondary, developmental, and congenital. Primary lactose intolerance is when the amount of lactase declines as people age. Secondary lactose intolerance is due to injury to the small intestine, such as from infection, celiac disease, inflammatory bowel disease, or other diseases. Developmental lactose intolerance may occur in premature babies and usually improves over a short period of time. Congenital lactose intolerance is an extremely rare genetic disorder in which little or no lactase is made from birth.\n",
"Lactose is the major sugar found in dairy milk. Lactose intolerance occurs when an individual is deficient in the enzyme lactase, which breaks down the lactose in the intestine. Bloating, cramps, constipation, or diarrhea may result when an individual who is lactose intolerant consumes a dairy product. \n",
"Lactose, the disaccharide sugar component of all milk, must be cleaved in the small intestine by the enzyme lactase, in order for its constituents, galactose and glucose, to be absorbed. Lactose intolerance is a condition in which people have symptoms due to not enough of the enzyme lactase in the small intestines. Those affected vary in the amount of lactose they can tolerate before symptoms develop. These may include abdominal pain, bloating, diarrhea, gas, and nausea. Severity depends on the amount a person eats or drinks. Those affected are usually able to drink at least one cup of milk without developing significant symptoms, with greater amounts tolerated if drunk with a meal or throughout the day.\n",
"The principal symptom of lactose intolerance is an adverse reaction to products containing lactose (primarily milk), including abdominal bloating and cramps, flatulence, diarrhea, nausea, borborygmi, and vomiting (particularly in adolescents). These appear one-half to two hours after consumption. The severity of symptoms typically increases with the amount of lactose consumed; most lactose-intolerant people can tolerate a certain level of lactose in their diets without ill effects.\n",
"Food intolerance and lactase deficiency may also be confused with food allergies. Symptoms include difficulty swallowing and breathing, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and abdominal pain. Upon reaching several other organs in the body, allergens can cause hives, eczema, lightheadedness, weakness, hypotension, etc. This has been proposed as the source of Darwin's illness, but the hypothesis is improbable, because, as with lactose intolerance, its temporal and causal relationship with food is easily established, and this was not always the case.\n",
"BULLET::::- Lactose intolerance is the most common problem of carbohydrate digestion and occurs when the human body doesn't produce a sufficient amount of lactase (a disaccharidase) enzyme to break down the sugar lactose found in dairy. As a result of this deficiency, undigested lactose is not absorbed and is instead passed on to the colon. There bacteria metabolize the lactose and in doing so release gas and metabolic products that enhance colonic motility. This causes gas and other uncomfortable symptoms.\n"
] |
is modern industry able to make cheap paper not from wood?
|
The question is though... What's wrong with paper from wood? The paper industry plants as many trees as they cut down nowadays, to make sure they will be able to still make paper in the future. It's not like massive forests are disappearing because of paper.
|
[
"Paper manufacturing is highly competitive, with historically tight margins and small operating profits. As a result, the raw materials used to make paper have to be very cost effective, using cheap, scalable renewable resources, coupled with relatively inexpensive ways to deliver large quantities to market. Until recently, commercial tree farming, has been shaped to account for these tight operating margins and supply cost limitations. Virtually all paper, however, requires massive cutting, replanting and re-cutting of wide swaths of forest. These limitations have made wood pulped farm grown supply stock the paper industry's overwhelming scalable raw material of choice.\n",
"Some of the most commonly used softwood trees for paper making include spruce, pine, fir, larch and hemlock, and hardwoods such as eucalyptus, aspen and birch. There is also increasing interest in genetically modified tree species (such as GM eucalyptus and GM poplar), because of several major benefits these can provide, such as increased ease of breaking down lignin and increased growth rate.\n",
"Using wood pulp to make paper is a fairly recent innovation, that was almost concurrent to the invention of automatic papermaking machines, both together resulting in paper and cardboard becoming an inexpensive commodity in modern times. Although the first use of paper made from wood pulp dates from 1800, as seen in some pages of a book published by Matthias Koops that year in London, large-scale wood paper production began with the development of mechanical pulping in Germany by Friedrich Gottlob Keller in the 1840s, and by the Canadian inventor Charles Fenerty in Nova Scotia, Chemical processes quickly followed, first with J. Roth's use of sulfurous acid to treat wood, then by Benjamin Tilghman's U.S. patent on the use of calcium bisulfite, Ca(HSO), to pulp wood in 1867. Almost a decade later, the first commercial sulfite pulp mill was built, in Sweden. It used magnesium as the counter ion and was based on work by Carl Daniel Ekman. By 1900, sulfite pulping had become the dominant means of producing wood pulp, surpassing mechanical pulping methods. The competing chemical pulping process, the sulfate, or kraft, process, was developed by Carl F. Dahl in 1879; the first kraft mill started, in Sweden, in 1890. The invention of the recovery boiler, by G.H. Tomlinson in the early 1930s, allowed kraft mills to recycle almost all of their pulping chemicals. This, along with the ability of the kraft process to accept a wider variety of types of wood and to produce stronger fibres, made the kraft process the dominant pulping process, starting in the 1940s.\n",
"Today, 40% of paper pulp is created from wood (in most modern mills only 9-16% of pulp is made from pulp logs; the rest comes from waste wood that was traditionally burnt). Paper production accounts for about 35% of felled trees, and represents 1.2% of the world's total economic output. Recycling one ton of newsprint saves about 1 ton of wood while recycling 1 ton of printing or copier paper saves slightly more than 2 tons of wood. This is because kraft pulping requires twice as much wood since it removes lignin to produce higher quality fibres than mechanical pulping processes. Relating tons of paper recycled to the number of trees not cut is meaningless, since tree size varies tremendously and is the major factor in how much paper can be made from how many trees. Trees raised specifically for pulp production account for 16% of world pulp production, old growth forests 9% and second- and third- and more generation forests account for the balance. Most pulp mill operators practice reforestation to ensure a continuing supply of trees. The Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification (PEFC) and the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) certify paper made from trees harvested according to guidelines meant to ensure good forestry practices. It has been estimated that recycling half the world's paper would avoid the harvesting of 20 million acres (81,000 km²) of forestland.\n",
"In the 19th century, industrialization greatly reduced the cost of manufacturing paper. In 1844, the Canadian inventor Charles Fenerty and the German F. G. Keller independently developed processes for pulping wood fibres.\n",
"While monitoring, regulations and action by concerned citizens, as well as improvements within the industry itself are limiting the worst abuses, papermaking continues to be of concern from an environmental perspective, due to its use of harsh chemicals, its need for large amounts of water, and the resulting contamination risks, as well as trees being used as the primary source of wood pulp. Paper made from other fibers, cotton being the most common, tends to be valued higher than wood-based paper.\n",
"Non-wood pulp made from rags, or from linters (short fibers discarded by the textile industry), is still manufactured today mostly as a pricey product perceived as being of better quality, especially for the art market and so-called \"archival\" paper. The modern source fiber is most often cotton, with a much higher value given to paper made from linen, hemp, abaca, kōzo or other fibers. 100% cotton, or a combination of cotton and linen pulp is used for certificates, currency, and passports. Abaca pulp has very long, strong fibers, and is used for teabags.\n"
] |
how hard would it be to just unplug all of n. korea from the internet?
|
Not that hard but China's assistance would be a prerequisite. But that goes against all ethical reasoning in that the internet should be available to all.
Even if you did, the chances are that the Sony hack was conducted from outside N. Korea.
|
[
"Internet access is not generally available in North Korea. Only some high-level officials are allowed to access the global internet. In most universities, a small number of strictly monitored computers are provided. Other citizens may get access only to the country's national intranet, called Kwangmyong. Foreigners can access the internet using the 3G phone network. However, the IT industry has been growing and Internet access is starting to increase within North Korea.\n",
"South Korea has banned at least 65 sites considered sympathetic to North Korea through the use of IP blocking. Most North Korean websites are hosted overseas in the United States, Japan and China. Critics say that the only practical way of blocking a webpage is by denying its IP address, and since many of the North Korean sites are hosted on large servers together with hundreds of other sites, the impact on the number of real blocked pages increase significantly. Estimates are that over 3,000 additional webpages are rendered inaccessible.\n",
"Foreigners in North Korea are generally not allowed to access Kwangmyong but may have access to the global Internet. For security reasons networks with Internet and intranet access are air gapped so that computers with Internet access are not housed in the same location as computers with Kwangmyong access.\n",
"South Korea uses IP address blocking to ban web sites considered sympathetic to North Korea. Illegal websites, such as those offering unrated games, file sharing, pornography, and gambling, are also blocked. Any attempts to bypass this is enforced with the \"three-strikes\" program.\n",
"In December 2014, North Korea was accused of a hack attack on Sony Pictures Entertainment. From 19–21 December, North Korea experienced technical difficulties with Internet access. On December 22, North Korea suffered a complete Internet link failure, resulting in loss of Internet access from outside the country for which the United States is suspected. On 23 December, nine hours after the outage, the country regained Internet access, albeit \"partial and potentially unstable with other websites still inaccessible.\" On 22–24 December, North Korea experienced seven more Internet outages, including two on 23 December. On 27 December, the country experienced an outage on Internet (the third time of the year) and a mobile network. A similar outage, lasting for one and a half days, occurred in March 2013.\n",
"Only tourists and a small number of government officials are allowed to use the global Internet in North Korea, making Kwangmyong the only computer network available to most North Korean citizens. It is a free service for public use.\n",
"Permission to access the Internet remains tightly restricted. However, the IT industry has been growing and Internet access is gradually increasing within North Korea. In October 2010, the website of the Korean Central News Agency went live from a web server hosted in North Korea. It is accessible globally on a North Korean IP address, marking the country's first known direct connection to the Internet. Around the same time, on 9 October, journalists visiting Pyongyang for the Workers' Party's 65th anniversary celebrations were given access to a press room with Internet connectivity. , 1,024 IP addresses are known to exist in North Korea, although \"The New York Times\" journalists David E. Sanger and Nicole Perlroth believe that the actual number may be higher. The total amount of Internet users is estimated at no more than a few thousand. People who can access the Internet without limits are claimed to be high-ranking officials, members of non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and government ambassadors. Kim Jong-il was said to have loved \"surfing the net\". According to Ofer Gayer, a security researcher of Incapsula, the country's total web traffic footprint has been less than that of the Falkland Islands. According to Joo Seong-ha, a \"The Dong-a Ilbo\" journalist and a North Korean defector, as of 2014, the government's intranet Kwangmyong has been used to limit the general public's global Internet usage, especially in hotels. Although available in most campuses, the government has \"strictly monitored the Internet usage\". Many citizens of North Korea may be unaware of the existence of the Internet.\n"
] |
why do analog tv broadcasts still exist in the us?
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Low Power TV stations are still allowed to transmit in analog in the United States. The current deadline for them to convert to digital is Sept 1, 2015.
_URL_0_
|
[
"On June 12, 2009, sporadic E allowed some television viewers in the eastern United States to see VHF analog TV stations from other states at great distances, in places and on TV channels where local stations had already done their permanent analog shutdown on the final day of the DTV transition in the United States. This was possible because VHF has been mostly avoided by digital TV stations, leaving the analog stations the last ones on the band. It is still possible (as of April, 2010) for many Americans to see Canadian and Mexican analog stations in this manner when sporadic-E occurs, until those countries do their own analog shutdowns over the following few years.\n",
"Over time AM and FM analog transmissions have started to become considered to be outdated, because digital transmissions have been developed that provide high quality signals using less bandwidth. In the United States, FCC mandates have resulted in analog over-the-air TV transmissions to be almost completely replaced by digital ones. In contrast, for radio broadcasting the FCC has adopted a dual analog-digital hybrid approach, permitting but not requiring stations to add digital signals to their existing analog ones.\n",
"In the United States on 12 June 2009, all full-power U.S. television broadcasts became exclusively digital, under the Digital Television and Public Safety Act of 2005. Furthermore, since 1 March 2007, new television sets that receive signals over the air, including pocket-sized portable televisions, include ATSC digital tuners for digital broadcasts. Prior to 12 June 2009, most U.S. broadcasters were transmitting in both analog and digital formats; a few were digital only. Most U.S. stations were not permitted to shut down their analog transmissions prior to 16 February 2009 unless doing so was required in order to complete work on a station's permanent digital facilities. In 2009, the FCC finished auctioning channels 52–59 (the lower half of the 700 MHz band) for other communications services, completing the reallocation of broadcast channels 52–69 that began in the late 1990s.\n",
"However, despite the pending switch to digital, analog television remains being transmitted in most countries. An exception is the United States that ended analog television transmission (by all but the very low-power TV stations) on 12 June 2009 after twice delaying the switchover deadline. Kenya also ended analog television transmission in December 2014 after multiple delays. For analog television, there were three standards in use for broadcasting color TV (see a map on adoption ). These are known as PAL (German designed), NTSC (American designed), and SECAM (French designed). For analog radio, the switch to digital radio is made more difficult by the higher cost of digital receivers. The choice of modulation for analog radio is typically between amplitude (AM) or frequency modulation (FM). To achieve stereo playback, an amplitude modulated subcarrier is used for stereo FM, and quadrature amplitude modulation is used for stereo AM or C-QUAM.\n",
"The transition to digital terrestrial television after the turn of the millennium left many existing television receivers unable to tune and display the new signal directly. In the United States, where analog shutdown was completed in 2009 for full-service broadcasters, a federal subsidy was offered for coupon-eligible converter boxes with deliberately limited capability which would restore signals lost to digital transition.\n",
"On June 12, 2009, all full-power analog television transmissions ended in the United States. Viewers who watch broadcast television on older analog TV sets must use a DTA. Since many of the low-power TV stations will continue to broadcast in analog for years to come, consumers who watch low-power stations will need an adapter with an analog passthrough feature that allows the viewer to watch both digital and analog signals. Viewers who receive their television signals through cable or satellite were not affected by this change and did not need a digital television adapter (however, see the cable TV exception below). Additionally, viewers who have newer televisions with built-in digital ATSC tuners will not need an external digital television adapter.\n",
"All U.S. full-power analog TV broadcasts were required by law to end on June 12, 2009. Since March 1, 2007, all new television devices that receive signals over-the-air, including pocket-sized portable televisions, personal computer video capture card tuners, and DVD recorders, have been required to include digital ATSC tuners. Prior to this, the requirement was phased-in starting with larger screen sizes. Until the transition was completed, most U.S. broadcasters transmitted their signals in both analog and digital formats, though a few were already digital-only. Digital stations transmitted on another channel, which was assigned to each full-power broadcaster in a three-round digital channel election.\n"
] |
Do modern high heels worn by women and Chinese foot binding have any historical similarities in the way they developed?
|
No, not really.
In western Europe, high heels date back to the 17th century for both men and women, and were worn by fashionable men and women into the 18th century. There is no clear origin, only speculation and apocryphal stories (so in that sense, there *is* a connection between foot-binding and high heels), such as the idea that various rulers invented or popularized them in order to be taller than their subjects. Louis XIV and Catherine de' Medici both come in for this - Catherine de' Medici is also falsely but commonly stated to have forced her court ladies to tightlace to a 13" waist, so there is possibly some correlation between the stories, a long-running reputation for fetishism in dress? A more likely origin is that the heel was brought from Persia and found to be helpful on riding boots, to better hold the stirrup, and then was applied to more and more non-riding footwear.
In Venice and Spain, during the 16th century, there was a woman's shoe called the *chopine* that comes closer to bound feet in ideology. These are sometimes considered proto-high-heels, but I think this is because of an assumed ideological similarity - they're actually tall platforms. The Metropolitan Museum of Art has [a nice little page on them](_URL_2_). We used to think they were associated with prostitutes, and therefore about sexuality mixed with helplessness (that assumed similarity I mentioned), but we now know that they were worn by noblewomen as well. [Here's another good resource.](_URL_0_)
The thing to remember is that "high heel" before the 1930s or 1940s really does not mean what we think of when it comes to high heels. An inch or two at most is generally what was worn. Not anywhere near as incapacitating as modern stilettos, let alone foot-binding.
A curator at the Bata Shoe Museum recentlyish wrote a book, *Heights of Fashion: A History of the Elevated Shoe*, that might be interesting to you. She attributes men's abandonment of high heels over the early 18th century to Enlightenment ideas about men being more rational than women, and men's clothing becoming more sober and "unfeminine" is a narrative that plays out over the course of the century. Still, [men's heels were still kind of clinging on in the 1780s](_URL_1_).
|
[
"The status of women in China was also low largely due to the custom of foot binding. About 45% of Chinese women had bound feet in the 19th century. For the upper classes, it was almost 100%. In 1912, the Chinese government ordered the cessation of foot-binding. Foot-binding involved alteration of the bone structure so that the feet were only about 4 inches long. The bound feet caused difficulty of movement, thus greatly limiting the activities of women.\n",
"In some parts of China, beginning in the Southern Tang kingdom in Nanjing (937-975), the custom of foot binding was associated with upper class women who were worthy of a life of leisure, and husbands who could afford to spare them the necessity of work (which would require the ability to be mobile and spend the day on their feet). Because of this belief, parents hoping to ensure a good marriage for their daughters would begin binding their feet from about the age of seven years to achieve the ideal appearance. The tinier the feet, the better the social rank of a future husband. This practice did not end until the early years of the 20th century.\n",
"Foot binding in Chinese history was initially a mark of hierarchy and privilege in society. However, it soon became a symbol of sexism in many people's minds and lasted for over more than one hundred years. Having a bound foot meant looking prettier as men thought smaller feet were more beautiful and dainty for a woman. Chinese women in the nineteenth century were expected to keep up their appearance, as they did not have many other rights. They could not own as much property, they did not get good education, and they showed a lot of signs of \"weakness\" because they were treated so poorly. However, scholars of Chinese religion and society note that women generally never felt like they were being victimized by being forced to have bound feet, but that they quietly rebelled against this societal norm by way of acting. Early Chinese feminists in the nineteenth century would get around the rules that restricted to them, but not in an obvious way that would get them in trouble.\n",
"Foot binding was a custom practiced on young girls and women for approximately one thousand years in China, beginning in the 10th century. In Chinese society, bound feet were considered beautiful and erotic. The practice also limited women's mobility and was sometimes seen as a mark of status (the woman did not have to work) or a mark of male ownership (the woman's mobility was limited and she was intensely dependent on the males in her household).\n",
"For centuries in Imperial China, smaller feet were considered to be a more aristocratic characteristic in women. The practice of foot binding was intended to enhance this characteristic, though it made walking difficult and painful.\n",
"In Imperial China, it was the custom for respectable women to have their feet bound as children. This was started between the ages of five and seven. The feet were bound tightly and forced into increasingly small shoes so that the front part of the foot was bent back and the toes touched the heel. This was done to make the girls marriageable as the tiny feet and the swaying lotus gait which resulted were considered attractive.\n",
"BULLET::::- As footwear, 19th century author Manuel Payno pointed out that despite her financial lackings, a \"china\"-dress woman would use satin shoes embroidered with silk thread. This type of footwear appears in some nineteenth century Mexican texts as an indicator that the wearer was a \"merry woman\". Furthermore, the \"china\" wearer completed the outfit with beads and jewels that adorned her ears, her cleavage, and her hands.\n"
] |
Photon Energy Levels, what is different about Radio wave photons vs Gamma wave photons?
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> but what exactly is that extra energy coming from?
Whatever is producing the photon.
|
[
"In astronomy, higher energy gamma and X-rays are defined by energy, since the processes that produce them may be uncertain and photon energy, not origin, determines the required astronomical detectors needed. High-energy photons occur in nature that are known to be produced by processes other than nuclear decay but are still referred to as gamma radiation. An example is \"gamma rays\" from lightning discharges at 10 to 20 MeV, and known to be produced by the bremsstrahlung mechanism.\n",
"Gamma rays are the highest-energy form of electromagnetic radiation, being physically the same as all other forms (e.g., X rays, visible light, infrared, radio) but having (in general) higher photon energy due to their shorter wavelength. Because of this, the energy of gamma-ray photons can be resolved individually, and a gamma-ray spectrometer can measure and display the energies of the gamma-ray photons detected.\n",
"LET has therefore no meaning when applied to photons. However, many authors speak of \"gamma LET\" anyway, where they are actually referring to the LET of the secondary electrons, i.e., mainly Compton electrons, produced by the gamma radiation. The secondary electrons will ionize far more atoms than the primary photon. This gamma LET has little relation to the attenuation rate of the beam, but it may have some correlation to the microscopic defects produced in the absorber. It must be noted that even a monoenergetic gamma beam will produce a spectrum of electrons, and each secondary electron will have a variable LET as it slows down, as discussed above. The \"gamma LET\" is therefore an average.\n",
"For electromagnetic radiation, the amplitude of a photon corresponds to the changes in the electric field of the wave. However, radio signals may be carried by electromagnetic radiation; the intensity of the radiation (amplitude modulation) or the frequency of the radiation (frequency modulation) is oscillated and then the individual oscillations are varied (modulated) to produce the signal.\n",
"Ultra-high-energy gamma rays are gamma rays with photon energies higher than 100 TeV (0.1 PeV). They have a frequency higher than 2.42 × 10 Hz and a wavelength shorter than 1.24 × 10 m. The existence of these rays were confirmed in 2019 . The highest energy astronomical sourced gamma rays detected are very-high-energy gamma rays, with the center of the Crab Nebula (thought to contain a rapidly spinning neutron star, or 'pulsar') being the source of the highest energy rays detected as of 2019.\n",
"Very-high-energy gamma ray (VHEGR) denotes gamma radiation with photon energies of 100 GeV (Gigaelectronvolt) to 100 TeV (Teraelectronvolt), i.e., 10 to 10 electronvolts. This is approximately equal to \n",
"Electromagnetic waves are typically described by any of the following three physical properties: the frequency \"f\", wavelength λ, or photon energy \"E\". Frequencies observed in astronomy range from (1 GeV gamma rays) down to the local plasma frequency of the ionized interstellar medium (~1 kHz). Wavelength is inversely proportional to the wave frequency, so gamma rays have very short wavelengths that are fractions of the size of atoms, whereas wavelengths on the opposite end of the spectrum can be as long as the universe. Photon energy is directly proportional to the wave frequency, so gamma ray photons have the highest energy (around a billion electron volts), while radio wave photons have very low energy (around a femtoelectronvolt). These relations are illustrated by the following equations:\n"
] |
Partial pressure of O2/CO2 in blood versus the actual concentrations of O2/CO2 exchanged; why the huge difference?
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Well, you partially answered your own question; oxygen pressure increases dramatically due to hemoglobin binding. Some oxygen is directly dissolved into the blood, but this amount is almost negligible compared to that bound to hemoglobin. CO2, on the other hand, is mostly present in the blood in the form of bicarbonate ions, and this conversion and excretion process is slower than oxygen transfer to hemoglobin. Oh, and relative pressures of inhaled air is important too.
Oxygen transfer in the lungs is normally perfusion limited, meaning that the amount of oxygen transferred from air to blood is limited by the rate of blood flowing through the lungs. This is because oxygen transfers very well to the blood, faster than blood can flow through the lungs.
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[
"Because A–a gradient is approximated as: (150 − 5/4(pCO)) – Pa at sea level and on room air (0.21x(760-47) = 149.7 mmHg for the alveolar oxygen partial pressure, after accounting for the water vapor), the direct mathematical cause of a large value is that the blood has a low P, a low P, or both. CO2 is very easily exchanged in the lungs and low P directly correlates with high minute ventilation; therefore a low arterial P indicates that extra respiratory effort is being used to oxygenate the blood. A low Pa indicates that the patient's current minute ventilation (whether high or normal) is not enough to allow adequate oxygen diffusion into the blood. Therefore, the A–a gradient essentially demonstrates a high respiratory effort (low arterial P) relative to the achieved level of oxygenation (arterial P). A high A–a gradient could indicate a patient breathing hard to achieve normal oxygenation, a patient breathing normally and attaining low oxygenation, or a patient breathing hard and still failing to achieve normal oxygenation.\n",
"See the graph showing relative CO concentration. After the cation exchanger, the sample pH value is generally between 5.5-6, so that means almost only CO is present as gas, and only about 6% is carbon carbonate ion CO. The bicarbonate ion (HCO) is practically absent.\n",
"Triplet oxygen, \"\"O, refers to the \"S\" = 1 electronic ground state of molecular oxygen (dioxygen). It is the most stable and common allotrope of oxygen. Molecules of triplet oxygen contain two unpaired electrons, making triplet oxygen an unusual example of a stable and commonly encountered diradical. According to molecular orbital theory, the electron configuration of triplet oxygen has two electrons occupying two π molecular orbitals (MOs) of equal energy (that is, degenerate MOs). In accordance with Hund's rules, they remain unpaired and spin-parallel and account for the paramagnetism of molecular oxygen. These half-filled orbitals are antibonding in character, reducing the overall bond order of the molecule to 2 from a maximum value of 3 (e.g., dinitrogen), which occurs when these antibonding orbitals remain fully unoccupied. The molecular term symbol for triplet oxygen is Σ.\n",
"The ratio between partial pressure of oxygen in arterial blood (PaO2) and \"Fi\"O is used as an indicator of hypoxemia per the American-European Consensus Conference on lung injury. A high \"Fi\"O has been shown to alter the ratio of \"Pa\"O/\"Fi\"O.\n",
"However, no CO is removed during apnea. The partial pressure of CO in the airspace of the lungs will quickly equilibrate with that of the blood. As the blood is loaded with CO from the metabolism, more and more CO will accumulate and eventually displace oxygen and other gases from the airspace. CO will also accumulate in the tissues of the body, resulting in respiratory acidosis.\n",
"The Phosphate/Oxygen Ratio, or P/O Ratio, refers to the amount of ATP produced from the movement of two electrons through a defined electron transport chain, terminated by reduction of an oxygen atom.\n",
"The carbon monoxide has a very high bond-dissociation energy, the strongest of any neutral molecule, 11.65 eV. Carbon and oxygen together have a total of 10 electrons in the valence shell. Following the octet rule for both carbon and oxygen, the two atoms form a triple bond, with six shared electrons in three bonding molecular orbitals, rather than the usual double bond found in organic carbonyl compounds. Since four of the shared electrons come from the oxygen atom and only two from carbon, one bonding orbital is occupied by two electrons from oxygen, forming a dative or dipolar bond. This causes a C←O polarization of the molecule, with a small negative charge on carbon and a small positive charge on oxygen. The other two bonding orbitals are each occupied by one electron from carbon and one from oxygen, forming (polar) covalent bonds with a reverse C→O polarization, since oxygen is more electronegative than carbon. In the free carbon monoxide, a net negative charge δ remains at the carbon end and the molecule has a small dipole moment of 0.122 D.\n"
] |
how do single cylinder engines work?
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All engines have a flywheel of some sort to smooth out their power output. In a four-stroke engine with less than four cylinders or a two-stroke engine with only one, the flywheel's inertia is the only thing turning the engine when there isn't a power stroke occurring in one of the cylinders.
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[
"A single-acting cylinder in a reciprocating engine is a cylinder in which the working fluid acts on one side of the piston only. A single-acting cylinder relies on the load, springs, other cylinders, or the momentum of a flywheel, to push the piston back in the other direction. Single-acting cylinders are found in most kinds of reciprocating engine. They are almost universal in internal combustion engines (e.g. petrol and diesel engines) and are also used in many external combustion engines such as Stirling engines and some steam engines. They are also found in pumps and hydraulic rams.\n",
"A single-cylinder engine is a piston engine with one cylinder. It is often used on motorcycles, scooters, go-karts, ATVs, radio-controlled vehicles, portable tools and garden machinery (such as lawnmowers, rototillers and string trimmers).\n",
"A multi-cylinder engine is a reciprocating internal combustion engine with multiple cylinders. It can be either a 2-stroke or 4-stroke engine, and can be either Diesel or spark-ignition. The cylinders and the crankshaft which is driven by and co-ordinates the motion of the pistons can be configured in a wide variety of ways. Multi-cylinder engines offer a number of advantages over single-cylinder engines, chiefly with their ability to neutralize imbalances by having corresponding mechanisms moving in opposing directions during the operation of the engine.\n",
"A double-acting cylinder is a cylinder in which the working fluid acts alternately on both sides of the piston. In order to connect the piston in a double-acting cylinder to an external mechanism, such as a crank shaft, a hole must be provided in one end of the cylinder for the piston rod, and this is fitted with a gland or \"stuffing box\" to prevent escape of the working fluid. Double-acting cylinders are common in steam engines but unusual in other engine types. Many hydraulic and pneumatic cylinders use them where it is needed to produce a force in both directions. A double-acting hydraulic cylinder has a port at each end, supplied with hydraulic fluid for both the retraction and extension of the piston. A double-acting cylinder is used where an external force is not available to retract the piston or it can be used where high force is required in both directions of travel.\n",
"A cylinder is the central working part of a reciprocating engine or pump, the space in which a piston travels. Multiple cylinders are commonly arranged side by side in a bank, or engine block, which is typically cast from aluminum or cast iron before receiving precision machine work. Cylinders may be sleeved (\"lined\" with a harder metal) or sleeveless (with a wear-resistant coating such as Nikasil). A sleeveless engine may also be referred to as a \"parent-bore engine\".\n",
"A large number of small two-stroke engines use a sealed crankcase as a compression chamber for their mixture. These are very common as petrol or gasoline small engines for motorcycles, generator sets and garden equipment. Both sides of the piston are used as working surfaces: the upper side is the power piston, the lower side acts as a scavenging pump. As the piston rises, it pushes out exhaust gases and produces a partial vacuum in the crankcase, which draws in fuel and air. As the piston travels downward, the compressed fuel/air charge is pushed from the crankcase into the cylinder. \n",
"Steam engines normally use double-acting cylinders. However, early steam engines, such as atmospheric engines and some beam engines were single-acting. These often transmitted their force through the beam by means of chains and an \"arch head\", as only a tension in one direction was needed.\n"
] |
Did the Roman economy suffer through "Bust and Boom" cycles?
|
This is a very interesting question that I would like answered (as well as the spam deleted). Did the slave economy more or less function in a stable pattern of growth fueled by conquests until the decline brought about stagnation? Or were there boom and bust cycles as in the capitalist system? Any experts care to weigh in?
|
[
"Whereas the Roman Economy was able to thrive in the first few centuries AD thanks to its advanced trade and commerce, the boom was tempered as their ways of conducting business changed drastically. Due to Augustus and the aristocracy holding the large majority of land and wealth in Rome, trade and commerce in the basic everyday commodities began to decline. Trade began to only take place for the more luxurious commodities, effectively excluding the majority of Romans due to their poverty. Foreign trade was also incredibly significant to the rise and complexity of the Roman Economy, and the Romans traded commodities such as wine, oil, grain, salt, arms, and iron to countries primarily in the West. When those countries came under decline in around 2nd century AD, and respective trade between them and the Roman Empire had to cease as a result, this put a dent in the strength of the Roman economy as foreign trade was a major factor of economic growth for the superfluously resourced Roman Empire. Compounded with their inability to make proper production advancements to keep up with their growing and evolving economy, these events hindered Roman trade, limited their array of commodities and harmed the economy.\n",
"During the time of expansion in the Republic and early Empire, Roman armies had acted as a source of revenue for the Roman state, plundering conquered territories, displaying the massive wealth in triumphs upon their return and fueling the economy to the extent that historians such as Toynbee and Burke believe that the Roman economy was essentially a plunder economy. However, after the Empire had stopped expanding in the 2nd century CE, this source of revenue dried up; by the end of the 3rd century CE, Rome had \"ceased to vanquish.\" As tax revenue was plagued by corruption and hyperinflation during the Crisis of the Third Century, military expenditures began to become a \"crushing burden\" on the finances of the Roman state. It now highlighted weaknesses that earlier expansion had disguised. By 440 CE, an imperial law frankly states that the Roman state has insufficient tax revenue to fund an army of a size required by the demands placed upon it.\n",
"The Roman economy, however, boomed in the 16th and 17th centuries, especially when the Medici popes Leo X and Clement VII were in power. The renaissance transformed Rome into a city of the arts, culture, politics, banking, commerce and trade, especially when the Florentine merchants involved in papal affairs, yielded huge profits.\n",
"The economy was greatly stimulated by the construction of the Via Egnatia, the installation of Roman merchants in the cities, and the founding of Roman colonies. The Imperial government brought, along with its roads and administrative system, an economic boom, which benefited both the Roman ruling class and the lower classes. With vast arable and rich pastures, the great ruling families amassed huge fortunes in the society based on slave labor.\n",
"In Rome, the effect of the Great Depression was significantly less severe than in other, larger cities across the United States. Since Rome was an agricultural town, food could be grown in surrounding areas. Rome's textile mill continued operating, providing steady jobs as a buffer against the hardships of the Great Depression.\n",
"Romans, being the successors of the Greeks, enjoyed an even greater boom to their economy. Granted a lot of their success was due to their unbeatable production of iron as well as the development of trade routes i.e. Pax Romana. They ruled with a mixture of kingship, aristocracy and democracy. Despite their accomplishments from the reformed political structure, the need to invest in the military to keep their growing competition at bay, by producing less and less valuable coins, ultimately led to their collapse, recessing back to the country side and barter system.\n",
"But the biggest boom was seen under the Roman Empire from the 1st to the 4th centuries. The public part of the Roman settlement was located on the highest terrace of the hill Varaždin spa, today the park and archaeological site. The residential part of \"Aquae Iasae\" was on the terraces that descend to the foot of the hill in the foothills of the craft-established commercial and trade show facilities.\n"
] |
why at rock concerts and gigs is it always impossible to get the sound of the vocals to sound clear over the rest of the band?
|
It's all about the sound engineer and the equipment they use. A shitty engineer won't get it right but the good ones will. Also depends where you are sitting/standing.
|
[
"The performances are improvised: they can be quite loud, lengthy, dramatic, soothing, eerie, and possibly alarming. Because Soundscapes are often held as part of a rock concert, they can prove somewhat taxing on an unprepared audience.\n",
"“We haven’t yet done any playback vocals at any of our live concerts, and to prove to the audience that we truly can sing, we always pull out our acoustic guitars and perform a couple of tune unplugged”, says Søren about the band’s good experiences on tour.\n",
"\"[...] Typically I’ve had difficulty in the studio. I don’t sing as raw, it’s just a bit more tame. I’m a live singer who’s always fed off the energy of the audience. In a studio, you’re just looking at a wall—it feels very odd to me. I’ve been a live performer since I was six years old. The reason I recorded the album live with the band was so that I could play guitar, which I usually never do in the studio, while I sing at the same time. The band was accustomed to following singer-songwriters and feeling for me slowing down and speeding up. It has a real ebb and a flow and a naturalness that didn’t inhibit my singing or performance.\"\n",
"The band later performed a dubbed version of \"Martha's Harbour\" on the BBC television music show \"Top of the Pops\", but, owing to a studio technical error, the taped vocals were broadcast without the band being able to hear them, resulting in the audience of BBC1 hearing the recorded version of the song, while the band members sat motionless on screen waiting for their cue to begin. By way of compensation, the band were invited back on to the show to perform the song the following week, this time with the vocals performed live. This performance passed off smoothly, with the resultant publicity helping the track to climb the singles chart.\n",
"Choral singers experience reduced feedback due to the sound of other singers upon their own voice. This results in a tendency for people in choruses to sing at a louder level if it is not controlled by a conductor. Trained soloists can control this effect but it has been suggested that after a concert they might speak more loudly in noisy surroundings, such as after-concert parties.\n",
"The vocals, handled jointly by Shields and Butcher, are kept relatively low in the mix, and are for the most part highly pitched. On occasion Shields sang the higher register and Butcher the lower. According to Shields, because the band had spent so long working on the album's vocals, he \"couldn't tolerate really clear vocals, where you just hear one voice\", thus \"it had to be more like a \"sound\".\" Butcher said of her \"dreamy, sensual\" style vocals: \"Often when we do vocals, it's 7:30 in the morning; I've usually just fallen asleep and have to be woken up to sing.\" To aid this effect, Shields and Ó Cíosóig sampled Butcher's voice and reused it as instrumentation. The layered vocals on \"When You Sleep\" were born out of frustration with trying to get the right take. Shields commented that \"The vocals sound like that because it became boring and too destructive trying to get the right vocal. So I decided to put all the vocals in. \"(It had been sung 12 or 13 times)\".\" He explained:\n",
"The overlaid vocals in several choruses give songs the feel of football chants. These vocals have been harshly criticised, both because the effect seemed like low-brow rabble-rousing, and the chants compared unfavourably with Jones's backing vocals on the band's earlier recordings. The drums are largely untreated with sound effects and are thus are dull sounding. Knowles suggested that adding reverb would have helped to create a more organic \"roomy\" sound, so the songs wouldn't feel \"so canned and phony\". Against this, the live instrumentation is tight and cohesive. Each of the new recruits were skilled musicians, and they had just come off a tour during which Rhodes had instructed them not to vary song structures or guitar leads between performances.\n"
] |
why should we care that we created nuclear fusion?
|
As you might know, most of our energy comes from unsustainable and highly polluting fossil fuels. Wind, solar, hydro, and geothermal sources can't create enough energy to replace them. Nuclear fission power plants produce highly radioactive waste. So we need some large source of energy that has a readily available fuel, doesn't pollute, and can produce enough energy to sustain a developing world. One of the most likely sources is through nuclear fusion. The fuel is not too uncommon (it can be found in sea water), it doesn't leave radioactive waste like fission, and it can theoretically produce large amounts of energy. We have some technological hurdles to sustain the process and for it to generate more power than it consumes, but many scientists and engineers are confident that some time decades from now, it can effectively eliminate many of today's problems with generating energy.
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[
"As a source of power, nuclear fusion is expected to have several theoretical advantages over fission. These include reduced radioactivity in operation and little high-level nuclear waste, ample fuel supplies, and increased safety. However, achieving the necessary temperature/pressure/duration combination has proven to be difficult to produce in a practical and economical manner. Research into fusion reactors began in the 1940s, but to date, no design has produced more fusion power output than the electrical power input, defeating the purpose.\n",
"Fusion power is the process driving the sun and other stars. It generates large quantities of heat by fusing the nuclei of hydrogen or helium isotopes, which may be derived from seawater. The heat can theoretically be harnessed to generate electricity. The temperatures and pressures needed to sustain fusion make it a very difficult process to control. Fusion is theoretically able to supply vast quantities of energy, with relatively little pollution. Although both the United States and the European Union, along with other countries, are supporting fusion research (such as investing in the ITER facility), according to one report, inadequate research has stalled progress in fusion research for the past 20 years.\n",
"Research has been done into the possibility of pure fusion bombs: nuclear weapons that consist of fusion reactions without requiring a fission bomb to initiate them. Such a device might provide a simpler path to thermonuclear weapons than one that required development of fission weapons first, and pure fusion weapons would create significantly less nuclear fallout than other thermonuclear weapons, because they would not disperse fission products. In 1998, the United States Department of Energy divulged that the United States had, \"...made a substantial investment\" in the past to develop pure fusion weapons, but that, \"The U.S. does not have and is not developing a pure fusion weapon\", and that, \"No credible design for a pure fusion weapon resulted from the DOE investment\".\n",
"Nuclear fusion power is a developing technology still under research. It relies on fusing rather than fissioning (splitting) atomic nuclei, using very different processes compared to current nuclear power plants. Nuclear fusion reactions have the potential to be safer and generate less radioactive waste than fission. These reactions appear potentially viable, though technically quite difficult and have yet to be created on a scale that could be used in a functional power plant. Fusion power has been under theoretical and experimental investigation since the 1950s.\n",
"The National Institute for Fusion Science is engaged in basic research on fusion and plasma in order to actualize nuclear fusion generation, with the hope of developing new sources of energy that are safe and environmentally friendly.\n",
"Fuels that produce energy by the process of nuclear fusion are currently not utilized by humans but are the main source of fuel for stars. Fusion fuels tend to be light elements such as hydrogen which will combine easily. Energy is required to start fusion by raising temperature so high all materials would turn into plasma, and allow nuclei to collide and stick together with each other before repelling due to electric charge. This process is called fusion and it can give out energy.\n",
"Both fission and fusion appear promising for space propulsion applications, generating higher mission velocities with less reaction mass. This is due to the much higher energy density of nuclear reactions: some 7 orders of magnitude (10,000,000 times) more energetic than the chemical reactions which power the current generation of rockets.\n"
] |
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