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how is pre-made frozen food at the grocery store less healthy than food you make yourself and then refrigerate?
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It's not *necessarily* less healthy, depending on what you make at home. But, generally speaking, pre-made foods are often made with more salt, sugar, and/or fat than people usually use when they make their own food.
|
[
"Frozen products do not require any added preservatives because microorganisms do not grow when the temperature of the food is below , which is sufficient on its own in preventing food spoilage. Long-term preservation of food may call for food storage at even lower temperatures. Carboxymethylcellulose (CMC), a tasteless and odorless stabilizer, is typically added to frozen food because it does not adulterate the quality of the product.\n",
"People sometimes defrost frozen foods at room temperature because of time constraints or ignorance; such foods should be promptly consumed after cooking or discarded and never be refrozen or refrigerated since pathogens are not killed by the freezing process.\n",
"Other than drying, other methods include salting, curing, canning, refrigeration, freezing, preservatives, irradiation, and high hydrostatic pressure: Refrigeration can increase the shelf life of certain foods and beverages, though with most items, it does not indefinitely expand it. Freezing can preserve food even longer, though even freezing has limitations. Canning of food can preserve food for a particularly long period of time, whether done at home or commercially. Canned food is vacuum packed in order to keep oxygen, which is needed by bacteria in aerobic spoilage, out of the can. Canning does have limitations, and does not preserve the food indefinitely. Lactic acid fermentation also preserves food and prevents spoilage.\n",
"Freezing is also one of the most commonly used processes, both commercially and domestically, for preserving a very wide range of foods, including prepared foods that would not have required freezing in their unprepared state. For example, potato waffles are stored in the freezer, but potatoes themselves require only a cool dark place to ensure many months' storage. Cold stores provide large-volume, long-term storage for strategic food stocks held in case of national emergency in many countries.\n",
"Food processing does have some benefits, such as making food last longer and making products more convenient. However, there are drawbacks to relying on a lot of heavily processed foods. Whole foods and those that are only minimally processed, like frozen vegetables without any sauce, tend to be more healthy. An unhealthy diet high in fat, added sugar and salt, such as one containing a lot of highly-processed foods, can increase the risk for cancer, type 2 diabetes and heart disease, according to the World Health Organization.\n",
"Freezing food preserves it from the time it is prepared to the time it is eaten. Since early times, farmers, fishermen, and trappers have preserved grains and produce in unheated buildings during the winter season. Freezing food slows down decomposition by turning residual moisture into ice, inhibiting the growth of most bacterial species. In the food commodity industry, there are two processes: mechanical and cryogenic (or flash freezing). The freezing kinetics is important to preserve the food quality and texture. Quicker freezing generates smaller ice crystals and maintains cellular structure. Cryogenic freezing is the quickest freezing technology available due to the ultra low liquid nitrogen temperature .\n",
"Freezing food preserves it from the time it is prepared to the time it is eaten. Since early times, farmers, fishermen, and trappers have preserved grains and produce in unheated buildings during the winter season. Freezing food slows down decomposition by turning residual moisture into ice, inhibiting the growth of most bacterial species. In the food commodity industry, there are two processes: mechanical and cryogenic (or flash freezing). The freezing kinetics is important to preserve the food quality and texture. Quicker freezing generates smaller ice crystals and maintains cellular structure. Cryogenic freezing is the quickest freezing technology available due to the ultra low liquid nitrogen temperature .\n"
] |
What do social and political sciences say about when we will get to dealing with global climate change?
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You might want to have a mod change the the category flag for this question, as it's pretty far afield of the physical science of climate change. Poli sci, economics, or another social science might be more appropriate.
In the mean time, I can toss you some leads that I've stumbled across until someone else can do better.
In terms of:
> it seems to me the prisoner's dilemma characteristics, threat to poor greater than rich, actions of one country impacting the health of others
You might be interested in:
* [The Global Deal: Climate Change and the Creation of a New Era of Progress and Prosperity](_URL_3_) (Stern, 2009)
* [A Question of Balance: Weighing the Options on Global Warming Policies](_URL_2_) (Nordhaus, 2008)
* [Combined inequality in wealth and risk leads to disaster in the climate change game](_URL_1_) (Burton-Chellew, et al., 2013)
* [Circumspection, reciprocity, and optimal carbon prices](_URL_7_) (Kopp and Migone, 2013)
The most recent crisis on a scale remotely like anthropogenic climate change was arguably ozone depletion. There are some missteps one can make in believing that these are 1:1 fits for each other, but there are certainly valuable lessons to we can learn about intergovernmental diplomacy, scientific consensus informing policy, projected vs. realized costs of action, etc. These are some accounts of how we avoided a pretty serious catastrophe through a mix of science, advocacy, governmental action, technological innovation, etc.:
* [Protecting the Ozone Layer: Science and Strategy](_URL_0_;) by Parson
* [Ozone Diplomacy: New Directions in Safeguarding the Planet](_URL_5_) by Benedick
* [Ozone Discourse: Science and Politics in Global Environmental Cooperation](_URL_6_) by Liftin
There is a long history of industry funded (and ideologically metastasized) denial of health/environmental problems, fear-mongering about the economic consequences of action, claims that the problems are intractable, etc. A brief summary of the history of this dynamic is:
* [Merchants of Doubt: How a Handful of Scientists Obscured the Truth on Issues from Tobacco Smoke to Global Warming](_URL_4_) (Oreskes and Conway, 2010)
|
[
"Scientists are also increasingly interested in understanding the nature of past and present changes to Earth's climate—whether abrupt or gradual, regional or global—and the potential for human activities to influence the natural system.\n",
"It has been evident that climate change has become a main focus in the pursuit of sustainable solutions. As more evidence grows on the significant changes in the weather patterns in the past few decades and the impacts it has on disrupting human and natural systems far more quickly than what has been predicted, actions need to be made in order to maintain efforts in eliminating greenhouse gas emissions. With the lack of help from the government in reinforcing policies to further reduce these emissions, colleges and universities have taken it upon themselves to sustain this world through efforts around their own campuses.\n",
"Climate change and global warming have become one of the most pressing environmental concerns and the greatest global challenges in society today. As this issue continues to dominate the international agenda, researchers from different academic sectors have for long been devoting great efforts to explore effective solutions to climate change, with technologists and planners devising ways of mitigating and adapting to climate change; economists estimating the cost of climate change and the cost of tackling it; development experts exploring the impact of climate change on social services and public goods. However, Cammack (2007) points out two problems with many of the above discussions, namely the disconnection between the proposed solutions to climate change from different disciplines; and the devoid of politics in addressing climate change at the local level. Further, the issue of climate change is facing various other challenges, such as the problem of elite-resource capture, the resource constraints in developing countries and the conflicts that frequently result from such constraints, which have often been less concerned and stressed in suggested solutions. In recognition of these problems, it is advocated that “understanding the political economy of climate change is vital to tackling it”.\n",
"Eltahir's research focuses on how global climate change may impact society, specially in Africa and Asia. He spent the last 25 years developing sophisticated computer models suitable for predicting regional and local impacts of climate change, and testing them against field and satellite observations. Using these models, he studied the “hottest” spots on Earth: around the Persian Gulf and in South Asia, and predicted that habitability of these regions will be impacted due to deadly heatwaves, if climate change is not mitigated. This work received broad international media attention, suggesting a significant role in shaping policy debate about climate change. \n",
"Global climate change is going to increase the probability of extreme weather events and environmental disturbances around the world, needless to say, future human populations are going to have to confront this issue. Every society around the world differs in its capacity with regards to combating climate change because of certain pre-existing factors such as having the proper monetary and institutional mechanisms in place to execute preparedness and recovery plans. Despite these differences, communities around the world are on a level-playing field with regards to building and maintaining at least some degree “human resilience”.\n",
"Lord Rees, the president of the Royal Society, said, \"This report makes it clear, more convincingly than ever before, that human actions are writ large on the changes we are seeing, and will see, to our climate. The IPCC strongly emphasises that substantial climate change is inevitable, and we will have to adapt to this. This should compel all of us — world leaders, businesses and individuals — towards action rather than the paralysis of fear. We need both to reduce our emissions of greenhouse gases and to prepare for the impacts of climate change. Those who would claim otherwise can no longer use science as a basis for their argument.\"\n",
"\"Climate change is, without doubt, the most serious threat to the global security and survival of mankind. It is an issue of enormous concern to a highly vulnerable small island State like Tuvalu. Here in this Great House, we now know both the science and economics of climate change. We also know the cause of climate change, and that human actions by ALL countries are urgently needed to address it. The central message of both the IPCC reports and the Sir Nicholas Stern reports to us, world leaders, is crystal clear: \"unless urgent actions are done to curb greenhoses gasses emissions by shifting to a new global energy mix based on renewable energy sources, and unless timely adaptation is done, the adverse impact of climate change on all communities, will be catastrophic.\"\" \n"
] |
how do satellites orbiting the earth get their orbits assigned to them, and how do they not hit into each other?
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Spent the last 25 years in the space business. It depends on the orbit. Geostationary communication satellites have their slots (e.g. longitude) assigned by the International Telecommunications Union (ITU) _URL_3_. If I want to put up a new comm sat I have to file with my national regulatory agency (for the US this is the Federal Communications Commission). The FCC then works with the ITU which may award a slot. The spacing is determined based on the type of communication service you want to offer and frequency you will be operating in. If satellites operating on the same frequencies get too close in longitude then they will cause interference into each others ground terminals (e.g. dishes). But two satellites at different frequencies can be in the same slot. Several geostationary operators operate multiple satellites in the same slot (most famously SES Astra having 6 in one slot _URL_1_).
For non-geo satellites, it's pretty much not an issue. Space is big and satellites are not. Until they do hit, such as the famous Iridium/Cosmos collision in 2009 _URL_2_.
The US Air Force Joint Space Operations Center (JSpOC) _URL_0_ does monitor all the objects in space and checks for potential collisions and notifies operators of potential collisions. Due to the limited accuracy of the orbital data it's difficult to predict with any certainty that an actual collision will occur, at best you can calculate a probability (usually around 1E-6 or smaller).
|
[
"Inner satellites are all tidally locked, that is, their orbit is synchronous with their rotation so that they only show one face toward their parent planet. Their long axes are typically aligned to point towards their planet.\n",
"A geocentric orbit or Earth orbit involves any object orbiting Planet Earth, such as the Moon or artificial satellites. In 1997 NASA estimated there were approximately 2,465 artificial satellite payloads orbiting the Earth and 6,216 pieces of space debris as tracked by the Goddard Space Flight Center. Over 16,291 previously launched objects have decayed into the Earth's atmosphere.\n",
"Co-located satellites cannot actually be positioned at the same point on the geostationary satellite arc. In fact, they are just close enough together to appear to be at the same position so far as the beamwidth of the receiving dish is concerned. SES maintains its co-located satellites within an imaginary 150 km cube in space, centred on the notional orbital position.\n",
"Small satellites are difficult to track with ground-based radar, so it is difficult to predict if they will collide with other satellites or human-occupied spacecraft. The U.S. Federal Communications Commission has rejected at least one small satellite launch request on these safety grounds.\n",
"Satellites in geostationary orbit must all occupy a single ring above the equator. The requirement to space these satellites apart to avoid harmful radio-frequency interference during operations means that there are a limited number of orbital \"slots\" available, and thus only a limited number of satellites can be operated in geostationary orbit. This has led to conflict between different countries wishing access to the same orbital slots (countries near the same longitude but differing latitudes) and radio frequencies. These disputes are addressed through the International Telecommunication Union's allocation mechanism. In the 1976 Bogotá Declaration, eight countries located on the Earth's equator claimed sovereignty over the geostationary orbits above their territory, but the claims gained no international recognition.\n",
"Other small natural objects in orbit around the Sun may enter orbit around Earth for a short amount of time, becoming temporary natural satellites. , the only confirmed example has been in Earth orbit during 2006 and 2007, though further instances are already predicted.\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Temporary satellites\": NEAs can also transfer between solar orbits and distant Earth orbits, becoming gravitationally bound temporary satellites. According to simulations, temporary satellites are typically caught when they pass the L1 or L2 Lagrangian points, and Earth has at least one temporary satellite across at any given time, but they are too faint to detect by current surveys. , the only observed transition was that of asteroid , which was a temporary satellite from September 2006 to June 2007 and has been on a solar orbit with a 1.003-year period ever since. According to orbital calculations, on its solar orbit, passes Earth at low speed every 20 to 21 years, at which point it can become a temporary satellite again.\n"
] |
what's the difference between allegory and metaphor?
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The short version: An allegory is a type of metaphor.
Longer version: A metaphor is a figure of speech that substitutes in a non-literal alternative to make an interesting point. Saying that "his heart is a shattered vase" is a metaphor, because a heart is definitely not a balloon, but it gives you an interesting image about how heartbroken that guy is. But it's not an allegory.
An allegory is specifically a story, poem, or image where the characters, places, or events are used as metaphors to make another point. So it's a little more fleshed out than the metaphor overhead. The Narnia books are seen to be allegorical, showing the foundations of Christianity (the creation of the world, a savior figure, a Last Judgement) in the form of a story about a magical world with talking lions and evil witches. Plato's Allegory of the Cave is about human understanding and learning, with humans trapped in a metaphorical cave staring at shadows on the wall, unable to understand what the greater world looks like when it's explained to them by someone who understands it better than them.
& #x200B;
So an allegory is sort of a metaphor on a larger scale, while a metaphor can be small or large, not needing the structure of a larger work of art to be understood.
|
[
"A metaphor is a figure of speech that, for rhetorical effect, directly refers to one thing by mentioning another. It may provide (or obscure) clarity or identify hidden similarities between two ideas. Metaphors are often compared to other types of figurative language, such as antithesis, hyperbole, metonymy and simile. One of the most commonly cited examples of a metaphor in English literature comes from the \"All the world's a stage\" monologue from \"As You Like It\":\n",
"A list of metaphors in the English language organised by type. A metaphor is a literary figure of speech that uses an image, story or tangible thing to represent a less tangible thing or some intangible quality or idea; e.g., \"Her eyes were glistening jewels\". \"Metaphor\" may also be used for any rhetorical figures of speech that achieve their effects via association, comparison or resemblance. In this broader sense, antithesis, hyperbole, metonymy and simile would all be considered types of metaphor. Aristotle used both this sense and the regular, current sense above.\n",
"Primary metaphor is a term named by Joseph Grady for the basic connection that exist between subjective or abstract experiences such as \"good\" and concrete experiences such as \"up\". These two concepts usually correlate in experience, and form the primary metaphor \"good is up\". Likewise there is a correlation between \"knowing\" and \"seeing\" forming the primary metaphor \"knowing is seeing\". Two such primary metaphors are used when understanding an expression such as \"glass ceiling\".\n",
"Some theorists have suggested that metaphors are not merely stylistic, but that they are cognitively important as well. In \"Metaphors We Live By\", George Lakoff and Mark Johnson argue that metaphors are pervasive in everyday life, not just in language, but also in thought and action. A common definition of metaphor can be described as a comparison that shows how two things that are not alike in most ways are similar in another important way. They explain how a metaphor is simply understanding and experiencing one kind of thing in terms of another, called a \"conduit metaphor\". A speaker can put ideas or objects into containers, and then send them along a conduit to a listener who removes the object from the container to make meaning of it. Thus, communication is something that ideas go into, and the container is separate from the ideas themselves. Lakoff and Johnson give several examples of daily metaphors in use, including \"argument is war\" and \"time is money\". Metaphors are widely used in context to describe personal meaning. The authors suggest that communication can be viewed as a machine: \"Communication is not what one does with the machine, but is the machine itself.\"\n",
"Metaphors are most frequently compared with similes. It is said, for instance, that a metaphor is 'a condensed analogy' or 'analogical fusion' or that they 'operate in a similar fashion' or are 'based on the same mental process' or yet that 'the basic processes of analogy are at work in metaphor'. It is also pointed out that 'a border between metaphor and analogy is fuzzy' and 'the difference between them might be described (metaphorically) as the distance between things being compared'. A metaphor asserts the objects in the comparison are identical on the point of comparison, while a simile merely asserts a similarity through use of words such as \"like\" or \"as\". For this reason a common-type metaphor is generally considered more forceful than a simile.\n",
"The definitions of 'allegory', 'symbolism', and 'figurative meaning' evolved over time. The word 'allegory' (Greek for 'saying other') became more frequent in the early centuries CE and referred to language that had some other meaning in addition to its usual or literal meaning. Earlier in classical Athens, it was common instead to speak of 'undermeanings' (Gk., \"hyponoiai\"), which referred to hidden or deeper meanings. Today, allegory is often said to be a sustained sequence of metaphors within a literary work, but this was not clearly the ancient definition since then a single passage or even a name could be allegorical. Generally, the changing meanings of such terms must be studied within each historical context.\n",
"\"Chapter 1\". Aristotle defines words as symbols of 'affections of the soul' or mental experiences. Spoken and written symbols differ between languages, but the mental experiences are the same for all (so that the English word 'cat' and the French word 'chat' are different symbols, but the mental experience they stand for—the concept of a cat—is the same for English speakers and French speakers). Nouns and verbs on their own do not involve truth or falsity.\n"
] |
Biologists: Snake repellent?
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Cats will reduce the rodent population. I live in Rural California and we have a lot of Rattlesnakes, we have cats to bring down the rodent population, lessening the snakes. We still find them, but when we do they meet Mr. Shovel.
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[
"Francis Crick has commented on potential limitations of Occam's razor in biology. He advances the argument that because biological systems are the products of (an ongoing) natural selection, the mechanisms are not necessarily optimal in an obvious sense. He cautions: \"While Ockham's razor is a useful tool in the physical sciences, it can be a very dangerous implement in biology. It is thus very rash to use simplicity and elegance as a guide in biological research.\"\n",
"Several compounds from snake venoms are being researched as potential treatments or preventatives for pain, cancers, arthritis, stroke, heart disease, hemophilia, and hypertension, and to control bleeding (e.g. during surgery).\n",
"The treatment for a snakebite is as variable as the bite itself. The most common and effective method is through antivenom (or antivenin), a serum made from the venom of the snake. Some antivenom is species-specific (monovalent) while some is made for use with multiple species in mind (polyvalent). In the United States for example, all species of venomous snakes are pit vipers, with the exception of the coral snake. To produce antivenom, a mixture of the venoms of the different species of rattlesnakes, copperheads, and cottonmouths is injected into the body of a horse in ever-increasing dosages until the horse is immunized. Blood is then extracted from the immunized horse. The serum is separated and further purified and freeze-dried. It is reconstituted with sterile water and becomes antivenom. For this reason, people who are allergic to horses are more likely to suffer an allergic reaction to antivenom. Antivenom for the more dangerous species (such as mambas, taipans, and cobras) is made in a similar manner in India, South Africa, and Australia, although these antivenoms are species-specific.\n",
"Findlay Ewing Russell (1 September 1919 – 21 August 2011) was an American internal medicine physician and toxicologist. He pursued a research interest in venomous and poisonous animals and the effects of toxins on the human nervous system and was widely acknowledged as one of the world's leading authorities on snakes and the pharmacology of snake venoms. Consulting work for the United Nations and various governmental agencies took him all over the world.\n",
"\"D. acutus\" venom has been used in traditional Chinese medicine for centuries to extract antivenin that is successfully used to treat snakebites. Different parts of the snake are also prescribed to help alleviate ailments known as “wind diseases.” Because these snakes move so quickly, substances from their bodies are thought to easily treat these fast-moving “wind” syndromes. \"D. acutus\" is currently used in patients with arthritis, leprosy, tetanus, boils, and, as previously mentioned, tumors. The same qualities that make snakes flexible, capable of regenerating skin, and able to inflict paralysis could be transferred to human conditions if applied medicinally. The vipers are prepared by cooking the flesh of the headless body, grinding a paste of snake ash and mixing it with honey, drying the snake and compacting it into a powder, or even injecting their venom intravenously. Although these practices are common in Chinese medicine, no current studies have affirmed the effectiveness of these treatments. Whether or not these \"cures\" simply have a placebo effect or actually heal the patients is not known.\n",
"Biologists or philosophers of biology use Occam's razor in either of two contexts both in evolutionary biology: the units of selection controversy and systematics. George C. Williams in his book \"Adaptation and Natural Selection\" (1966) argues that the best way to explain altruism among animals is based on low-level (i.e., individual) selection as opposed to high-level group selection. Altruism is defined by some evolutionary biologists (e.g., R. Alexander, 1987; W. D. Hamilton, 1964) as behavior that is beneficial to others (or to the group) at a cost to the individual, and many posit individual selection as the mechanism that explains altruism solely in terms of the behaviors of individual organisms acting in their own self-interest (or in the interest of their genes, via kin selection). Williams was arguing against the perspective of others who propose selection at the level of the group as an evolutionary mechanism that selects for altruistic traits (e.g., D. S. Wilson & E. O. Wilson, 2007). The basis for Williams' contention is that of the two, individual selection is the more parsimonious theory. In doing so he is invoking a variant of Occam's razor known as Morgan's Canon: \"In no case is an animal activity to be interpreted in terms of higher psychological processes, if it can be fairly interpreted in terms of processes which stand lower in the scale of psychological evolution and development.\" (Morgan 1903).\n",
"In science, Occam's razor is used as an abductive heuristic in the development of theoretical models, rather than as a rigorous arbiter between candidate models. In the scientific method, Occam's razor is not considered an irrefutable principle of logic or a scientific result; the preference for simplicity in the scientific method is based on the falsifiability criterion. For each accepted explanation of a phenomenon, there may be an extremely large, perhaps even incomprehensible, number of possible and more complex alternatives. Since one can always burden failing explanations with \"ad hoc\" hypotheses to prevent them from being falsified, simpler theories are preferable to more complex ones because they are more testable.\n"
] |
why do ants drop other ants off ledges?
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Not sure if the carried ant was alive, but as i'm aware ants will remove ant-corpses from the vicinity of their colony so disease doesn't spread and doesn't attract predators. Perhaps that's why?
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[
"Other species of ants such as \"Conomyrma biocolor\" has been known to drop stones around the entrances of \"M. mexicanus\" nests. This behavior usually happens if the two species have colony entrances within 3 meters of each other. The two species have similar foraging times and food sources which creates competition between the colonies. The foraging of a \"M. mexicanus\" colony can decrease drastically due to this stone dropping technique.\n",
"Because the ants compete for exclusive usage of a given tree, some species employ tactics to reduce the chance of a hostile ant invasion. \"Crematogaster nigriceps\" ants trim the buds of trees to reduce lateral growth in trees, thereby reducing chances of contact with a neighboring tree. \"Tetraponera penzigi\", the only species which does not utilize the nectar produced by the trees, instead destroys the nectar glands in order to make a tree less appealing to other species.\n",
"When an insect lands on the leaf, three to ten of the closest ants immediately attack and drive the prey to the leaf margin, where more ambushing ants will congregate and attack. Large prey was only captured if on the edge of the leaf, because the ants use their specialized legs to hold onto the velvety surface underneath ‘’C. obtusa’’ leaves. This mechanism essentially acts like Velcro, with the many small hooks on the legs of the ant gripping onto the velvet of the underside of the leaf. Because only the bottom of the leaf has this surface, the ants can only really capture prey when they are holding onto the leaf from the underside. This is the main factor that allows the ants to capture such massive prey. After catching their prey, they will either start tearing it to shreds on the spot or take it back to the colony and cut it up into smaller pieces.\n",
"Largely due to the extreme high temperatures of their habitat, but also due to the threat of predators, the ants are active outside their nest for only about ten minutes per day. The twin pressures of predation and temperature restrict their above-ground activity to within a narrow temperature band between that at which predatory lizards cease activity and the ants' own upper threshold.\n",
"\"A. andreae\" use ambush predation to hunt insects many times their own size. The ants will actually position themselves side-by-side next to each other underneath the edge a leaf. There, they are invisible from above except for their mandibles, which hang outside the edge waiting for prey. Many times, the ants will occupy each leaf of the plant.\n",
"Ants of the species \"Conomyrma bicolor\" pick up stones and other small objects with their mandibles and drop them down the vertical entrances of rival colonies, allowing workers to forage for food without competition.\n",
"Ants of the species \"Conomyrma bicolor\" pick up stones and other small objects with their mandibles and drop them down the vertical entrances of rival colonies, allowing workers to forage for food without competition.\n"
] |
why have we developed to sometimes hold our breath during tense situations?
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I'm going to do my best here. Deep breathing activates certain neurons in the brain that tell your body to relax. Holding your breath heightens that response a little. It also provides proprioceptive input, meaning it activates your muscles through that feeling of tension in your chest/abdomin. Similar to swaddling a baby, putting a thunder vest on a dog, or how a nice good hug is calming.
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[
"BULLET::::- Many took part in sports activities during teens and twenties some which required breath-holding which included many types of sports such as swimming and even weight lifting. They find a certain level of comfort in breath-holding, and often do it while awake.\n",
"Ventilation is normally unconscious and automatic, but can be overridden by conscious alternative patterns. Thus the emotions can cause yawning, laughing, sighing (etc.), social communication causes speech, song and whistling, while entirely voluntary overrides are used to blow out candles, and breath holding (to swim, for instance, underwater). Hyperventilation may be entirely voluntary or in response to emotional agitation or anxiety, when it can cause the distressing hyperventilation syndrome. The voluntary control can also influence other functions such as the heart rate as in yoga practices and meditation.\n",
"Breathing techniques can be taught to reduce tension in the throat, neck, and upper body and bring attention to the flow of air during respiration. Diaphragm support during breathing decreases muscle tension in the larynx. These techniques are meant to move awareness away from the act of breathing in and focus on the auditory feedback provided by the air moving in and out.\n",
"Body language related to breathing and patterns of breathing can be indicative of a person's mood and state of mind; because of this, the relationship between body language and breathing is often considered in contexts such as business meetings and presentations. Generally, deeper breathing which uses the diaphragm and abdomen more is interpreted as conveying a relaxed and confident impression; by contrast, shallow, excessively rapid breathing is often interpreted as conveying a more nervous or anxious impression.\n",
"Breathing techniques is one of the easiest ways to reduce stress. It requires little effort and can be done anywhere at any time. Proper breathing techniques that incorporate deep abdominal breathing have been shown to reduce the physical symptoms of depression, anxiety and hypertension as well as everyday emotional symptoms of anger and nervousness.\n",
"Deep breathing exercises are sometimes used as a form of relaxation, that, when practiced regularly, may lead to the relief or prevention of symptoms commonly associated with stress, which may include high blood pressure, headaches, stomach conditions, depression, anxiety, and others.\n",
"Nigamananda taught that the breathing system is closely connected with the intricate workings of the mind. Therefore, practice of pranayama leads to calmer breathing and thereby maintains tranquility of mind. Mind is subjected to forces of disturbed thoughts owing to irregular breathing. He said\n"
] |
What were the reactions and perceptions of new allied technology by the axis?
|
It's worth noting that most of the major Allied technologies we associate with the European war were secret (e.g. the code-breaking computers) or subtle. The most important two were probably radar and the proximity fuze. Neither of them have a "Wunderwaffen" quality to them. The Germans had their own proximity fuzes (though they didn't deploy them as heavily), they had their own radar (though they didn't develop them as well or integrate them as successfully into their total defensive and offensive plans). The Allies also used napalm to deadly effect — again, not much of a wonder weapon, just a good improvement on existing techniques (incendiary bombs). I am wracking my brain for a good Allied technology that mattered during World War II that would have actually been a significant propaganda tool, or made a big morale splash, and just not coming up with any. The German technologies were superficially impressive but ended up being not very effective militarily in the forms developable for the war. The Nazis led the "super technology propaganda" war during the war itself even though the Allied technologies, while superficially more banal, were much, much more useful for winning the actual war.
The atomic bomb, of course, would qualify as a wonder weapon but, of course, it was not developed in time for use during the European campaign. The physicists who were working on fission work for the Germans were justifiably shocked that the Americans had managed to pull that one off, when they heard about it after Hiroshima.
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[
"The message of complacency is transferred to other theatres, such as the Russian, Pacific and later invasion of Germany, reminding the audience that despite recent victories, the Axis could still strike.\n",
"With the signing of the Tripartite Pact on September 27, 1940, creating the Axis of Germany, Japan, and Italy, Decoux had new grounds for worry: the Germans could pressure the homeland to support their ally, Japan.\n",
"Finally, the industrial centers arrayed against the Axis – in the United States and the Urals and Siberia – were simply out of reach of strategic reconnaissance. As always it was at the tactical level that the Germans excelled, and short-range aircraft were able to hold their own in the East until fuel, pilots, and even aircraft became depleted. Experts generally hold that the top German leadership failed to understand air power, and Hitler has been especially blamed for lacking the strategic perspective that the West Allies adopted. But since the industrial mismatch was insurmountable, it is doubtful what difference a greater German emphasis on strategic reconnaissance and commensurate bombardment would have made.\n",
"With the forces of the New World about to collide with that of the Old World, the Axis powers build up their defences using forced labour. Across Northwest Europe, the \"Maginot mentality\" begins to take root as the Axis turns its occupied territory into Fortress Europe. The Allies realize that victory over the Axis powers will release the industrial might that was mobilized for war.\n",
"A period of development follows the success of the Axis Powers, transforming conquered Europe, Asia and Africa into the Greater German Reich and allowing allies Japan and Italy to share in the prosperity; at the same time, the Nazis start engineering and mass-producing many of their Wunderwaffen, including jet fighters, super-heavy tanks, and high-tech bombers. This advanced technology makes Germany the strongest nation on the planet. With the war essentially over, the people of the world wonder why the weapons are being developed, and what is the purpose of the build-up. This causes rising tensions between the now technologically superior German Reich and the United States, one of the few nations that is still free from Nazi rule. The United States and the rest of the League of Nations continue to condemn the actions of Nazi Germany in the occupied territories, but make no attempts to stop them, as the U.S. is still dominated by anti-war sentiment.\n",
"By 1941, the Axis powers were in a comfortable position after defeating the Allies in Scandinavia, Western Europe and in the Balkans (leaving the British Empire as the only significant opposition). Axis forces deployed in Europe could only be engaged in the air or at sea, while the North African Campaign was unlikely to threaten its European territories. However, by this point of the war, Germany was in dire need of raw materials and oil resources available in the Soviet Union.\n",
"The subject of Axis supremacy as a fictional dramatic device began in the English-speaking world before the start of World War II, with Katharine Burdekin's novel \"Swastika Night\" coming out in 1937. Subsequent popular fictional depictions of an Axis-powers victory include: \"The Man in the High Castle\" by Philip K. Dick (1962), \"SS-GB\" by Len Deighton (1978), and \"Fatherland\" by Robert Harris (1992).\n"
] |
why do surgeons need to wash their hands for an extend period of time when normal sanitizer already kill 99.9% of all bacteria
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From what I understand, sanitizer kills the organisms, but those dead "corpses" are all still there. The body reacts the same way to a dead virus as it does to a live one. Washing probably cleans all that dead stuff off too.
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[
"Improving patient hand washing has also been shown to reduce the rate of nosocomial infection. Patients who are bed-bound often do not have as much access to clean their hands at mealtimes or after touching surfaces or handling waste such as tissues. By reinforcing the importance of handwashing and providing santizing gel or wipes within reach of the bed, nurses were directly able to reduce infection rates. A study published in 2017 demonstrated this by improving patient education on both proper hand-washing procedure and important times to use sanitizer and successfully reduced the rate of enterococci and \"S. aureus\".\n",
"Before Lister's studies of surgery, most people believed that chemical damage from exposure to bad air was responsible for infections in wounds. Hospital wards were occasionally aired out at midday as a precaution against the spread of infection via miasma, but facilities for washing hands or a patient's wounds were not available. A surgeon was not required to wash his hands before seeing a patient; in the absence of any theory of bacterial infection, such practices were not considered necessary. Despite the work of Ignaz Semmelweis and Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr., hospitals practised surgery under unsanitary conditions. Surgeons of the time referred to the \"good old surgical stink\" and took pride in the stains on their unwashed operating gowns as a display of their experience.\n",
"The risk of death at the hands of a surgeon was greatly increased by the lack of understanding of the causes of infection. Although cleanliness was a moral virtue, descriptions suggest that a surgeon was as likely to wash his hands after an operation as before. The old frock coats worn by surgeons during operations were, according to a contemporary, 'stiff and stinking with pus and blood'. Beneath the table was a sawdust box for collecting blood. The death rate was further heightened by the shock of the operation, and because operations took place as a last resort, patients tended to have few reserves of strength.\n",
"The purpose of hand-washing in the health-care setting is to remove pathogenic microorganisms (\"germs\") and avoid transmitting them. The \"New England Journal of Medicine\" reports that a lack of hand-washing remains at unacceptable levels in most medical environments, with large numbers of doctors and nurses routinely forgetting to wash their hands before touching patients, thus transmitting microorganisms. One study showed that proper hand-washing and other simple procedures can decrease the rate of catheter-related bloodstream infections by 66 percent.\n",
"A hand-hygiene audit completed in February 2012 found that front-line staff in hospitals do not sufficiently wash their hands. Reports reviewed two wards, N2W and N2E, and found compliance rates of only 58% and 48%. \n",
"The campaign was initiated to reduce childhood mortality rates and related respiratory and diarrheal diseases by introducing simple behavioral changes, such as handwashing with soap. This simple action can reduce the mortality rate of respiratory disease by 25%. Death from diarrheal diseases can be reduced by 50%. Across the world, more than 60 percent of health workers do not adhere to proper hand hygiene. According to the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, US health care providers, on average, wash their hands less than half of the time they should. On any given day, one in 25 US hospital patients has at least one health care-associated infection.\n",
"Handwashing may prevent spread, and those infected should not go to work, daycare or school. No antiviral medication or vaccine is available, but development efforts are underway. Most cases require no specific treatment. Simple pain medication such as ibuprofen or numbing mouth gel may be used. Occasionally, intravenous fluids are given to children who are unable to drink enough. Rarely, viral meningitis or encephalitis may complicate the disease.\n"
] |
why you only get caught for illegally downloading some things, but not others?
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Pure luck. You just happened to be downloading the file at a time when the copyright police (basically a bunch of people at the big media companies) were tracking you.
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[
"Christian Barry believes that understanding illegal downloading as equivalent to common theft is problematic, because clear and morally relevant differences can be shown \"between stealing someone’s handbag and illegally downloading a television series\". On the other hand, he thinks consumers should try to respect intellectual property unless doing so imposes unreasonable cost on them.\n",
"BULLET::::- Downloading illegal copies on the Internet will be prohibited. Downloading for personal use won't be punished, but it may lead to claims for damages, if the copier knows or should have known that the source is illegal.\n",
"BULLET::::- In some jurisdictions (such as England and Wales), consumers found to be in possession of stolen goods will have them taken away if they are traced, even if they did not know they were stolen. Though they themselves will not usually face criminal prosecution, they are still left without the goods they paid for and with little if any recourse to get their money back. This risk may make some averse to buying goods that they think may be from the underground market, even if in fact they are legitimate (for example, items sold at a car boot sale).\n",
"[[Sweden]]'s \"Sex Purchase Act\" (), enacted in 1999, makes it illegal to purchase \"sexual services\" (\"sexuell tjänst\"), but not to sell them. The rationale for criminalizing the purchaser, but not the seller, was stated in the 1997 government proposition, namely that \"\"...it is unreasonable to also criminalize the one who, at least in most cases, is the weaker party who is exploited by others who want to satisfy their own sexual desires\".\"\n",
"Buyers often know they were victimized from online sales, as over a third (34%) said they were victimized two or three times, and 11% said they had bought fake goods three to five times. While many online sellers such as Amazon are not legally responsible for selling counterfeit goods, when items are brought to their attention by a buyer, they will apply a takedown procedure and quickly remove the product listing from their website. This does not seem to be entirely accurate in practice. Counterfeit sellers have a lot of leeway through online commerce.\n",
"It is possible to intend to possess something without knowing that it exists. For example, if you intend to possess a suitcase, then you intend to possess its contents, even though you do not know what it contains. It is important to distinguish between the intention sufficient to obtain possession of a thing and the intention required to commit the crime of possessing something illegally, such as banned drugs, firearms or stolen goods. The intention to exclude others from the suitcase and its contents does not necessarily amount to the guilty mind of intending to possess illegally.\n",
"Instead, the aim of content providers is to make illegal downloads statistically less likely to be clean and complete, in the hope that users will be discouraged from illegally downloading copyright material. Content providers and copyright holders may decide that the financial outlay is not worth the end result of their efforts.\n"
] |
Why didn't the turkish people attempt to reclaim any lost territory from the first world war?
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It's important to note that, at this time, the lands they lost with the exception of Saudi Arabia were all British and French colonies who were at the height of their power. Taking back Iraq or Syria or Palestine didn't mean going to war with some two-bit monarch or collapsing empire, it meant taking them from some of the strongest militaries in the world. Additionally, the ideals of the Arab Revolt were probably still very strong in many of these territories, and the Turks would have likely faced an unending insurgency if they tried to retake any of the old Ottoman territories.
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[
"Everything that was left behind was later looted or destroyed. Turkey's surrender at the end of World War I led to the restoration of Ani to Armenian control, but a resumed offensive against the Armenian Republic in 1920 resulted in Turkey's recapture of Ani. In 1921 the signing of the Treaty of Kars formalized the incorporation of the territory containing Ani into the Republic of Turkey.\n",
"With the outbreak of war some Turks sold their property, mostly to wealthy local Bulgarians. Other Turks rented their lands, usually to dependable local Bulgarians, on the understanding that it would be handed back if and when the owners returned. Most departing Turks, however, simply abandoned their land and fled, the fall of Pleven had made it clear that the Russians were to win the War. As the Turks fled many Bulgarians seized some of the land now made vacant. The incidence of seizure varied regionally. In the north-east the Turks were numerous and, feeling safety in numbers, few of them had left and those remaining were therefore strong enough to discourage seizures by Bulgarians. In the north and south-west on the other hand almost all Turks had fled and their lands were immediately taken over by local Bulgarians who often divided up the large estates found in these areas. In the remainder of northern Bulgaria transfers, often under the cloak of renting, took place in approximately one third of the communities. In the Turnovo province, for example, there were seventy-seven Turkish mixed Turkish-Bulgarian villages of which twenty-four (31.0%) were seized by Bulgarians, twenty two (28.5%) were later repossessed by returning Turkish refugees, and another twenty-two remained unaffected; the fate of the remaining nine is unknown. In the south-west there was much more tension and violence. Here there was no provisions about renting and there were cases of Bulgarian peasants not only seizing land but also destroying buildings.\n",
"Historian Uğur Ümit Üngör, the author of \"Confiscation and Destruction: The Young Turk Seizure of Armenian Property\", noted that during the Russian invasion of the Ottoman Empire, many atrocities were carried out against the local Turks and Kurds by the Russian army and its Armenian volunteer units. A large part of the local Muslim Turks and Kurds fled west after the Russian invasion of 1916.\n",
"An additional factor that lead to violence was the return of Greek refugees to their homes, who have been dislocated as a result of the Ottoman ethnic cleansing policies during World War I. On the other hand, thousands of Turkish refugees from the Balkan wars, who had occupied their homes in the meantime, were expulsed. This turn of event created a rural proletariat apt for brigandage and violence by irregular groups. According to a report of the Allied commission the events during World War I and the problems of the refugees were not the primary reason of the thorough destruction of numerous Turkish villages and towns in the Gemlik-Yalova Peninsula. They stated that the massacres and destruction was carried out according to a plan by the Greek army who also encouraged the local Greek and Armenians to participate.\n",
"Following the Treaty of Sèvres, after the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in the First World War Karapınar was occupied by Greek forces from May 26, 1919. The Turkish resistance began at nearby Erbeyli in June 1919 and continued in the area throughout the Turkish War of Independence, while the Turkish people of the town retreated into the surrounding hills for safety to gather forces for further resistance. Following the defeat of the Greek army at İnönü and their retreat to the Aegean coast, Karapınar was liberated on September 7, 1922.\n",
"After the end of World War II in Europe, the Soviet Union made territorial claims to Turkey. Joseph Stalin pushed Turkey to cede Kars and Ardahan, thus returning the pre-World War I boundary between the Russian and Ottoman empires. Besides these provinces, the Soviet Union also claimed the Straits (see Turkish Straits crisis). \"Stalin, perhaps, expected that the Turks, shocked by the Red Army's triumph, would give up, and Washington and London accept it as a \"fait accompli\",\" writes Jamil Hasanli. Athena Leoussi added, \"While Stalin's motives can be debated, for Armenians at home and abroad the re-emergence of the Armenian Question revived hopes for territorial unification\". On 7 June 1945 Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov informed the Turkish ambassador in Moscow that the USSR demanded a revision of its border with Turkey.\n",
"Any possibility of a general effort at truth, reconciliation, or democratisation was, however, lost when Greece, which had sought to remain neutral through most of World War I, was invited by France, Britain, and the United States to occupy western Anatolia in May 1919. Turkish nationalist leader Mustafa Kemal rallied the Turkish people to resist. Two additional organisers of the genocide were hanged, but while a few others were convicted, none completed their prison terms. The CUP and other Turkish prisoners held on Malta were eventually traded for almost 30 British prisoners held by Nationalist forces, obliging the British to give up their plans for international trials.\n"
] |
what makes computer hacking difficult, and not something a computer itself does?
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Well in some cases, it does. But that's another story.
Consider what computers do: very simple tasks, *very* fast. They don't (usually) screw up.
Now hacking consists, fundamentally, of finding cases where people told the computer to do the wrong thing. At a very basic level, this is a deviation from expected behavior, which makes it...unpredictable. Computers suck at it because it's a *difficult* problem that can't easily be broken down into simple problems.
Or in a nutshell, it is very hard to predict the unpredictable.
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[
"This approach has its pitfalls. If the location specified is incorrect, this will cause the computer to write the data to some other part of the program. The results of an error like this are unpredictable. In some cases, the incorrect data might overwrite memory used by the operating system. Computer crackers can take advantage of this to create viruses and malware.\n",
"The most difficult problems for computers are informally known as \"AI-complete\" or \"AI-hard\", implying that solving them is equivalent to the general aptitude of human intelligence, or strong AI, beyond the capabilities of a purpose-specific algorithm.\n",
"Computer hacking represents a modern threat in ongoing global conflicts and industrial espionage and as such is presumed to widely occur. It is typical that this type of crime is underreported to the extent they are known. According to McAfee's George Kurtz, corporations around the world face millions of cyberattacks a day. \"Most of these attacks don't gain any media attention or lead to strong political statements by victims.\" This type of crime is usually financially motivated.\n",
"It is typical to make at least one of these mistakes. This makes it very easy for hackers, crackers, malware and cyber thieves to break into individual accounts, corporations of all sizes, government agencies, institutions, etc. It is protecting against these vulnerabilities that makes password managers so important.\n",
"Any security obtained from a computer is limited by the many ways it can be compromised – by hacking, keystroke logging, backdoors, or even in extreme cases by monitoring the tiny electrical signals given off by keyboard or monitors to reconstruct what is typed or seen (TEMPEST, which is quite complex).\n",
"BULLET::::- Explanation: Computer software can be used in ways that disturb other users or disrupt their work. Viruses, for example, are programs meant to harm useful computer programs or interfere with the normal functioning of a computer. Malicious software can disrupt the functioning of computers in more ways than one. It may overload computer memory through excessive consumption of computer resources, thus slowing its functioning. It may cause a computer to function wrongly or even stop working. Using malicious software to attack a computer is unethical.\n",
"The most powerful, and arguably the most difficult, hacking technique is editing the game's actual code, a process called \"ASM hacking\" (\"ASM\" means \"assembly\", referring to the type of programming language used for early video games). There is no set pattern for ASM hacking, as the code varies widely from game to game, but most skilled ASM hackers either use an emulator equipped with a built-in debugger or tracer, or run the ROM through a disassembler, then analyze the code and modify it using a hex editor or assembler according to their needs. While quite challenging compared to the relatively simple methods listed above, \"anything\" is possible with ASM hacking (of course, within the limits of the hardware/software of the gaming platform), ranging from altering enemy AI to changing how graphics are generated. (Of course, the possibilities are still limited by the hacker's ability to comprehend and modify the existing code.)\n"
] |
why do some gifs load fine on the reddit app but others won't?
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I don't know why either. Happens to maybe 20% of gifs. There is an easy fix though. If it doesn't load, click the word 'imgur' just above the post title. Works a treat.
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[
"To mark the 30th anniversary of the GIF, Facebook has introduced a new feature enabling users to add GIFs to comments. The eagerly-awaited feature can be accessed using the GIF button located beside the emoji picker. Users can choose from the available GIFs sourced from Facebook's GIF partners, but cannot upload other GIFs.\n",
"GifBoom is a free social networking mobile application that enables its users to upload animated GIFs and to share them on GifBoom as well as on Facebook, Twitter, and Tumblr, or via email or MMS. GifBoom is available in the App Store and in the Google Play Store too. On November 4, 2014, the application abruptly crashed. While unable to recover any data prior to the crash, GifBoom developers resorted to resetting the application.( \n",
"Giphy partners with brands to host GIFs that can be shared as marketing promotions via social media channels. The company also created artist profiles on the website, which allow GIFs to be attributed to the artist(s) who created them.\n",
"BULLET::::- Giphy lets anyone search for animated gifs on the web. It was born out of an experiment by two hackers in residence, Alex Chung and Jace Cooke, who found it difficult to browse the best gifs on the web. It spread unexpectedly quickly, serving millions of results in the first few weeks. \"We could tell it struck a nerve, so we swarmed it,\" said Paul Murphy, the head of product at Betaworks told The Verge\n",
"The app no longer loads due to the domain name of GifBoom.com no longer being able to be resolved (as of 9/17/2017). The app simply tries to load, but cannot find a service to connect to. The GifBoom Twitter states: \"We're having a service disruption. Working on resolving the issue and will provide an update as soon as possible.\" on 11/3/14.\n",
"GIFs are another example of remix culture. They are illustrations and small clips from films used for personal expressions in online conversations. GIFs are commonly taken from an online video form such as film, T.V. or YouTube videos. Each clip usually lasts for about 3 seconds and is \"looped, extended and repeated.\" GIFs take a mass media sample and reimagines, or remixes, its meaning from the original context to use it as a form of personal expression in a different context. They are used throughout various media platforms but are most popular in Tumblr where they are used to articulate a punch line.\n",
"As a noun, the word \"GIF\" is found in the newer editions of many dictionaries. In 2012, the American wing of the Oxford University Press recognized \"GIF\" as a verb as well, meaning \"to create a GIF file\", as in \"GIFing was perfect medium for sharing scenes from the Summer Olympics\". The press's lexicographers voted it their word of the year, saying that GIFs have evolved into \"a tool with serious applications including research and journalism\".\n"
] |
How come some farts blow over in seconds, whilst others hang in the air for ages?
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Best fucking question ever asked
I dunno :/
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[
"(I'm in the ox's tummy/ Where it doesn't snow or rain./ When the ox farts/ Patufet will get out). After a while they hear Patufet's little voice and his mother feeds the ox with herbs that make it fart faster.\n",
"The Gas We Pass: The Story of Farts (おなら \"Onara\") is a children's book written by Shinta Chō (). It was first published in Japan in 1978; the first American edition was in 1994. The book tells children about flatulence (also known as farting), and that it is completely natural to do so. \n",
"BULLET::::- In the episode \"Spontaneous Combustion\" (April 1999) of the American animated series \"South Park\", several characters die from spontaneous human combustion. It is later discovered that it is the result of people holding in their farts. In the DVD commentary for the episode, Trey Parker reveals that flatulence causing spontaneous combustion in the episode stemmed from his own serious belief that holding in farts can indeed cause humans to spontaneously combust. Parker said, \"I honestly think it could be what spontaneous combustion is because I've seen some dudes light their farts, and the fireballs were big. And that was just one fart. I'm serious, I think it's totally possible.\"\n",
"I started by wheeling out my shopping cart full of surprises. The first thing I did was stick a mop handle in my puss and clean the stage floor. Then I pulled the mop handle out of my puss and made a lot of pussy farts. The audience always got a laugh out of that. I made my puss sound like a duck. I'd say, \"I fucked a duck and the duck's still in there!\" I lit a candle with a match, then extinguished the flame with my puss. Then I'd blow out the flame from three candles all at once. After that I put three candles in my puss, lit them, and stood on my head. I'd count down, and blast-off! The candles shot out of my puss like a rocket. I call that 'Pussy Propulsion'. After the candles, I smoked a cigarette in my puss and blew smoke rings in time with Glenn Miller swing music. This is an old-time trick for the smoker's stag parties. I used to be afraid of cancer because of the smoke. Then I pour Jergens lotion into my parts, which I then shoot 20 feet into the air. The guys within shooting range scatter in all directions! I joke that the guys who are close to me are in the \"combat zone.\" Then I put talcum powder in my pussy, which I blow out in big white clouds. Then I shoot ping pong balls out; the powder gives me better grip on the ball so I can shoot them 15 to 20 feet. I prepare each ball carefully: I write 'Honeysuckle loves your balls' on them and then I wrap them each up in a baggie to keep the autograph dry, so whoever catches them can keep them as souvenirs.\n",
"Historical comment on the ability to fart at will is observed as early as Saint Augustine's \"The City of God\" (5th century AD). Augustine mentions men who \"have such command of their bowels, that they can break wind continuously at will, so as to produce the effect of singing\". Intentional passing of gas and its use as entertainment for others appear to have been somewhat well known in pre-modern Europe, according to mentions of it in medieval and later literature, including Rabelais.\n",
"There were also running gags in this part of the show. Mr. Eggz's bow moved if he was laughing, and at the end of their parts, smoke bellowed around them to keep these two from being seen moving into the ground.\n",
"During radio programmes of the 1920s and 1930s, the background noise for crowd scenes was often achieved by a moderately large group of people mumbling \"rhubarb\" under their breath with random inflections. This was often parodied by Milligan, who would try to get the same effect with only three or four people, clearly intoning the word rather than mumbling. After some time, Secombe began throwing in \"custard\" during these scenes (for example, in \"The Fear of Wages and Wings Over Dagenham\", where the phrase was amended to 'flying rhubarb').\n"
] |
What did the soldiers of the hundred years war eat as rations?
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Soldiers in the Hundred Years War did not receive rations as such. Commanders were supposed to provide food for their men (whether by taking it with them or by foraging/pillaging for it), but there was no system comparable to the Royal Navy's daily allotments of particular foods. Food might be provided by royal purveyance (where food was gathered by order of the king), but this proved to be politically unpopular and was largely replaced by contracted merchants providing supplies to military forces and garrisons like at Calais. What form did these supplies take? Primarily, various forms of grains: wheat, oat, barley, and malt are mentioned frequently. Beans and peas were also common for English military rations, though not to the same extent as the grains. For meat, pork and beef (presumably salted) were the usual military supplies. When soldiers were in the field, they would also forage for whatever they could find in the area. If they camped near a lake, they might fish. If they came upon a village, they would take bread. If they were passing by vineyards, the soldiers would drink as much as they could get their hands on, much to the irritation of their commanders. Although sometimes commanders attempted to limit the violence and destruction caused by their soldiers for political reasons, they had a limited ability to actually enforce discipline. Civilians caught in the path of medieval armies had very few options for protecting themselves or their livelihoods.
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[
"When on campaign, soldiers would normally be supplied with an allowance of bread, meat, oatmeal or rice and either beer or rum to wash it down with. A typical daily allowance for a group of up to six men consisted of () of bread or flour, () of beef, () of rice or oatmeal and () of rum. A soldier in camp could expect to be provided with a loaf of bread for which would last about four days.\n",
"The rations provided to the British Forces were often inedible and did not resemble real food. The soldiers mentioning food in many of their letters home shows some psychological distress that they may have been experiencing due to the nature of their rations. They also were high in calories yet low in the essential nutrients needed to thrive. In the book the author reveals parts of soldiers diaries where they admit to stealing food from French farms and orchards. Edible food was used as a motivating source for the Soldiers when receiving care packages from loved ones.\n",
"The standard for military rations in the United States was set in 1775 during the Revolutionary War and included one pound of beef, one quarter pound of pork, or one pound of salt fish; one pound of bread or flour; three pints of peas or beans; one pint of milk; one half-pint of rice or one pint of cornmeal; and one quart of spruce beer or cider. When these items were not available, soldiers relied on jerky and hardtack, a type of biscuit made from flour and water. During the Civil War, due to the progress made in the preservation of food, Union rations came to include coffee, tea, potatoes, and seasonings. During World War I, rations included a pound of hard bread and canned meat, a cube of condensed soup, coffee, and sugar.\n",
"Weekly rations for the soldiers consisted of two gallons of corn, a pound of beans, a pound of pinole, half a pound of panocha, and four pounds of meat. The meat, delivered in barrels from the galleon \"San Antonio\", often proved too putrid to eat. Weevils infested some of the corn and meal. The soldiers supplemented their diet by gathering wild herbs and hunting geese on Sundays. They also traded what goods they had like ponchos, knives, daggers and handkerchiefs for food from the Indians. News of the soldiers' harsh treatment and poor conditions gradually reached Mexico, and Alta California became an undesirable assignment.\n",
"By April 1863, rations consisted of \"three-fourths pounds of flour, or corn meal, or rice; meat rations: usually three-fourths pounds grass-fed common beef or a half pound of bacon; and salt, occasionally ...\" Soldiers supplemented this through foraging, and while rations were plentiful enough at this point to ignore a dead yearling bull they found on one of their marches, Matthews indicates that \"a dead yearling, nor a live one for that matter, would not have remained unskinned long near us a month later.\" By the start of the Atlanta Campaign, the beef issued to the regiment was of such an inferior quality that \"some of the boys said they had to walk across their pen twice to make a shadow.\"\n",
"In garrison the regular ration was supplemented with vegetables from gardens tended by the soldiers during their spare time. Turnips, carrots and cabbage were the most common crops. Soldiers in towns could also buy food in the civilian marketplace, but at border forts or in the field, they were limited to what the sutlers sold. The margin for such purchases was limited, however, due to the many stoppages taken from the soldiers' pay, among them the cost for the issued ration. While marching through populated areas, the soldiers frequently resorted to foraging, often a euphemism for theft and robbery of food from the citizenry.\n",
"Often, while on field campaigns, soldiers found themselves saving some portions of food in their haversacks, washable canvas bags that provided storage but did little for food preservation. The soldiers' diets often sometimes included salted pork, salted beef, salt, vinegar, and dried fruits and vegetables. Rarely, the soldiers could obtain fresh items such as carrots, onions, turnips, potatoes, and fresh fruit. The Union army soldiers were often given food items such as bacon, cornmeal, tea, sugar, molasses, and fresh vegetables.\n"
] |
baby boomers are adamant that they had it far worse than proceeding generations, how is the opposite actually true?
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Let's imagine this. You're a new generation of cavemen and you have the ability to use wheeled carts to carry items. The generation before you complains on how the new generation has it "easy" compared to them where they had to carry every item. Although yes, the technological advancements weren't there, a new set of issues arrive for the newer generation too. What if the wheels break down? Larger advancements demands larger supplements. Can you really move at the same pace in carrying items as if you had no wheels? Regardless if you're skilled at carrying items beforehand?
Same happens for the new generation. Each technological advancement brings a new set of complications for that specific grouping. Just because lets say, Africa doesn't have a large amount of people using smartphones doesn't mean that we can't complain about issues in our first world state. Someone had a leak in their home and wants to fix it, but then a homeless guy comes and says that they have it far worse in that they don't have a home at all.
With these examples, it comes more easy to understand the different perspectives that take place when talking about this topic.
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[
"This population is sometimes referred to as Generation Jones, and less commonly as Tweeners. These cuspers were not as financially successful as older Baby Boomers. They experienced a recession like many Generation Xers but had a much more difficult time finding jobs than Generation X did. While they learned to be IT-savvy, they didn't have computers until after high school but were some of the first to purchase them for their homes. They were among some of the first to take an interest in video games. They get along well with Baby Boomers, but share different values. While they are comfortable in office environments, they are more relaxed at home. They're less interested in advancing their careers than Baby Boomers and more interested in quality of life.\n",
"The boomers have tended to think of themselves as a special generation, very different from preceding and subsequent generations. In the 1960s and 1970s, as a relatively large number of young people entered their late teens—the oldest turned 18 in 1964—they, and those around them, created a very specific rhetoric around their cohort and the changes brought about by their size in numbers. This rhetoric had an important impact in the self-perceptions of the boomers, as well as their tendency to define the world in terms of generations, which was a relatively new phenomenon. The baby boom has been described variously as a \"shockwave\" and as \"the pig in the python\".\n",
"The generation is noted for coming of age after a huge swath of their older brothers and sisters in the earlier portion of the baby boomer population had come immediately preceding them; thus, many complain that there was a paucity of resources and privileges available to them that were seemingly abundant to older boomers. Therefore, there is a certain level of bitterness and \"jonesing\" for the level of freedom and affluence granted to older boomers but denied to them.\n",
"In addition to the size of the group, Steve Gillon has suggested that one thing that sets the baby boomers apart from other generational groups is the fact that \"almost from the time they were conceived, Boomers were dissected, analyzed, and pitched to by modern marketers, who reinforced a sense of generational distinctiveness.\" This is supported by the articles of the late 1940s identifying the increasing number of babies as an economic boom, such as a 1948 \"Newsweek\" article whose title proclaimed \"Babies Mean Business\", or a 1948 \"Time\" magazine article called \"Baby Boom.\"\n",
"Economic instability is the primary justification for this phenomenon, as articulated in Kimberly Palmer's 2007 \"U.S. News & World Report\" article \"The New Parent Trap: More Boomers Help Adult Kids out Financially\". In particular, the term Boomeranger has been used to draw reference to those Gen-Xers and Gen-Yers of the Boomerang Generation who have either returned to an earlier, more modest lifestyle or have simply moved back home with parents and other loved ones, in response to the Great Recession. Where the young person and his/her parents can tolerate the arrangement, it provides tremendous financial relief to the young person. Such co-residence can be a valuable form of insurance, particularly for youths from poorer families. It may also provide non-negligible income to the parents, though in many cultures, the boomeranger retains all or nearly all of their disposable income for discretionary income purchases.\n",
"As the children of the baby boomers advance from below, the Gen-Xers, usually with middle management jobs, feel threatened and trapped in a job that is going nowhere and might be given away to the next younger candidate.\n",
"BULLET::::- In the United States, many Millennials and late Generation X also belong to the Boomerang Generation which live with their parents after they would normally be considered old enough to live on their own. This social phenomenon is mainly caused by high unemployment rates coupled with various economic downturns, and in turn, many Boomerang children postpone romance and marriage due to economic hardship.\n"
] |
why do some things only taste good after a few tries?
|
Your body automatically rejects new bitter flavors, as many poisons are bitter. But once you have tasted them several times and suffered zero ill effects, your nervous system (basically your brain) starts to adjust.
|
[
"If the flavor has been encountered before the subject becomes ill, the effect will not be as strong or will not be present. This quality is called latent inhibition. Conditioned taste aversion is often used in laboratories to study gustation and learning in rats.\n",
"Conditioned taste aversion occurs when an animal associates the taste of a certain food with symptoms caused by a toxic, spoiled, or poisonous substance. Generally, taste aversion is developed after ingestion of food that causes nausea, sickness, or vomiting. The ability to develop a taste aversion is considered an adaptive trait or survival mechanism that trains the body to avoid poisonous substances (e.g., poisonous berries) before they can cause harm. The association reduces the probability of consuming the same substance (or something that tastes similar) in the future, thus avoiding further poisoning. It is an example of classical or \"Pavlovian\" conditioning.\n",
"Taste is generally considered very complex. As a result, it is sometimes said to be temperamental, and users who make complex documents and edit them in major ways have learned to keep good backup files. Sometimes documents become corrupted and it becomes difficult or impossible to recover the data.\n",
"Conditioned taste aversion is the only type of conditioning that only needs one exposure. It does not need to be the specific food or drinks that cause the taste. Conditioned taste aversion can also be attributed to extenuating circumstances. An example of this can be eating a rotten apple. Eating the apple then immediately throwing up. Now it is hard to even near an apple without feeling sick. Conditioned taste aversion can also come about by the mere associations of two stimuli. Eating a peanut butter and jelly sandwich, but also have the flu. Eating the sandwich makes one feel nauseous, so one throws up, now one cannot smell peanut butter without feeling queasy. Though eating the sandwich does not cause one to through up, they are still linked.\n",
"Garcia's discovery, conditioned taste aversion, is considered a survival mechanism because it allows an organism to recognize foods that have previously been determined to be poisonous, hopefully allowing said organism to avoid sickness.\n",
"As taste senses both harmful and beneficial things, all basic tastes are classified as either aversive or appetitive, depending upon the effect the things they sense have on our bodies. Sweetness helps to identify energy-rich foods, while bitterness serves as a warning sign of poisons.\n",
"As taste senses both harmful and beneficial things, all basic tastes are classified as either aversive or appetitive, depending upon the effect the things they sense have on our bodies. Sweetness helps to identify energy-rich foods, while bitterness serves as a warning sign of poisons.\n"
] |
why do people remember car accidents or anything similar in slow motion?
|
The brain's perceptual ability can have a very wide or very narrow focus depending on the circumstances. Normally you are taking in sights, sounds, physical sensation, scents, etc, in a more or less balanced manner. At the first sight of danger, the brain can essentially turn off the perception of everything but the visual stimuli.
What's happening is not really the perception of time being slowed, but an overwhelming level of visual detail being experienced all at once. Our memory perceives this as meaning the event must have lasted longer than it actually did.
|
[
"Do you remember the worst thing that has happened to you? What about the best? At what frequency are you able to recall memories that are negative in comparison to those that are positive? Does it seem like negative information is remembered with more ease and clarity than positive information? Why is it easier to know the percentage of fatal car accidents each year, as opposed to the percentage of accidents without fatalities?\n",
"Upon getting out of the vehicle, the driver and passenger(s) often will experience a blank period and amnesia (see Missing Time), after which they will find themselves again standing in front of, or driving their car. While they frequently will not consciously remember the experience, either subsequent nightmares or hypnosis will reveal events interpreted as having occurred during the period lacking explicit memory.\n",
"A common cause of accidents is driving faster than one can stop within their field of vision. Such practice is illegal and is particularly responsible for an increase of fatalities at night – when it occurs most.\n",
"Most phenomena are not memoryless, which means that observers will obtain information about them over time. For example, suppose that is a random variable, the lifetime of a car engine, expressed in terms of \"number of miles driven until the engine breaks down\". It is clear, based on our intuition, that an engine which has already been driven for 300,000 miles will have a much lower than would a second (equivalent) engine which has only been driven for 1,000 miles. Hence, this random variable would not have the memorylessness property.\n",
"When a scene includes both stationary and moving subjects (for example, a fixed street and moving cars or a camera within a car showing a fixed dashboard and moving scenery), a slow shutter speed can cause interesting effects, such as light trails.\n",
"Human thought and reaction time may sometimes be too slow to detect the risk of an upcoming fatal crash, think through the ethical implications of the available options, or take an action to implement an ethical choice. Whether a particular automated vehicle's capacity to correctly detect an upcoming risk, analyse the options or choose a 'good' option from among bad choices would be as good or better than a particular human's may be difficult to predict or assess. This difficulty may be in part because the level of automated vehicle system understanding of the ethical issues at play in a given road scenario, sensed for an instant from out of a continuous stream of synthetic physical predictions of the near future, and dependent on layers of pattern recognition and situational intelligence, may be opaque to human inspection because of its origins in probabilistic machine learning rather than a simple, plain English 'human values' logic of parsable rules. The depth of understanding, predictive power and ethical sophistication needed will be hard to implement, and even harder to test or assess.\n",
"Possibly related to the oddball effect, research suggests that time seems to slow down for a person during dangerous events (such as a car accident, a robbery, or when a person perceives a potential predator or mate), or when a person skydives or bungee jumps, where they're capable of complex thoughts in what would normally be the blink of an eye (See Fight-or-flight response). This reported slowing in temporal perception may have been evolutionarily advantageous because it may have enhanced one's ability to intelligibly make quick decisions in moments that were of critical importance to our survival. However, even though observers commonly report that time seems to have moved in slow motion during these events, it is unclear whether this is a function of increased time resolution during the event, or instead an illusion created by the remembering of an emotionally salient event.\n"
] |
Would a bottle of wine chill faster opened or unopened?
|
I don't think it'll make a significant difference either way. The neck is such a small surface area for heat to flow through. Circulating chilled water around the bottle is the way to do it quickly.
|
[
"Even if the temperatures do not reach extremes, temperature variation alone can also damage bottled wine through oxidation. All corks allow some leakage of air (hence old wines become increasingly oxidized), and temperature fluctuations will vary the pressure differential between the inside and outside of the bottle and will act to \"pump\" air into the bottle at a faster rate than will occur at any temperature strictly maintained.\n",
"A process called flash pasteurization rapidly heats the wine to the desired temperature and immediately chills it back to room temperature. This process is said to have a minimal effect on flavor, at least to the casual wine drinker.\n",
"Furthermore, the cold winter temperatures prematurely halted fermentation in the cellars, leaving dormant yeast cells that would awaken in the warmth of spring and start fermenting again. One of the byproducts of fermentation is the release of carbon dioxide gas, which, if the wine is bottled, is trapped inside the wine, causing intense pressure. The pressure inside the weak, early French wine bottles often caused the bottles to explode, creating havoc in the cellars. If the bottle survived, the wine was found to contain bubbles, something that the early Champenois were horrified to see, considering it a fault. As late as the 17th century, Champenois wine makers, most notably the Benedictine monk Dom Pérignon (1638–1715), were still trying to rid their wines of the bubbles.\n",
"Because vermouth is fortified, an opened bottle will not sour as quickly as white wine. Opened vermouth, however, will gradually deteriorate over time. Gourmets recommend that opened bottles of vermouth be consumed within one to three months and should be kept refrigerated to slow oxidation.\n",
"Bottle variation that increases over time typically comes from the packaging. Exposure to heat or light can cause a wine to mature more quickly or even make it taste \"cooked\". Bottles aged in the chilly cellars of Sweden's alcohol monopoly are famous for tasting younger than the same wine stored at a more typical 13 °C (55 °F). Finally, not all corks seal equally well, and a faulty cork will allow air into the bottle, oxidizing it prematurely. However, a corked wine would be described as a simple fault rather than bottle variation, even though the corked bottle would be clearly different from a non-corked example.\n",
"Wine will prematurely develop if stored in an environment that has large temperature variations, particularly if these occur frequently. Temperature control systems ensure the wine cellar temperature is very stable. The variations cause corks to expand and contract which leads to oxidation of the wine.\n",
"If the wine is completely on its side then this action will eject some wine through the cork. Through this \"breathing\" which can result from variations in temperature, oxygen may be repeatedly introduced into the bottle and as a result, can react with the wine. An appropriate and constant temperature is therefore preferred. Additionally, oxidation will occur more rapidly at higher temperatures and gases dissolve into liquids faster the lower the temperature.\n"
] |
where republicans have gotten the idea that
obama is a "socialist", and why socialism is seen as
such a threat to republicans.
|
The whole basis of the republican party is smaller government, socialism is more government, thus seen as a "threat" to republican ideals at the very core.
|
[
"Following Obama's election, many on the political right began to allege that his administration's policies were \"socialistic\", a claim rejected by the DSA and the Obama administration alike. The widespread use of the word \"socialism\" as a political epithet against the Obama administration by its opponents caused National Director Frank Llewellyn to declare that \"over the past 12 months, the Democratic Socialists of America has received more media attention than it has over the past 12 years\".\n",
"Conservatives have criticised the perceived opportunism of left-wing groups who have increased their focus on green issues since the fall of communism. Fred L. Smith Jr., President of the Competitive Enterprise Institute think-tank, exemplifies the conservative critique of left Greens, attacking the \"pantheism\" of the Green movement and conflating \"eco-paganism\" with eco-socialism. Like many conservative critics, Smith uses the term 'eco-socialism' to attack non-socialist environmentalists for advocating restrictions on the market-based solutions to ecological problems. He nevertheless wrongly claims that eco-socialists endorse \"the Malthusian view of the relationship between man and nature\", and states that Al Gore, a former Democratic Party Vice President of the United States and now a climate change campaigner, is an eco-socialist, despite the fact that Gore has never used this term and is not recognised as a such by other followers of either Green politics or socialism.\n",
"During his campaign, 2008 Socialist Party candidate for President Brian Moore was very vocal against the idea that Barack Obama was a socialist of any kind. He further commented on the issue, saying it was \"misleading of the Republicans\" to spread that message. In a later statement about Obama's policies, Wharton called Obama's 2010 State of the Union Address a \"public relations ploy\" and concluded saying: \"The time for slick public relations campaigns has ended—the time for building our grassroots movements is more urgent than ever. The Socialist Party USA stands ready to join in such a political revitalization\".\n",
"Moore reports on the Occupy movement and the 2008 presidential campaign of Democratic Senator Barack Obama, who is demonised as a \"socialist\". He notes that the smears against Obama don't work, as support for him increases and people become curious as to what socialism actually means. He profiles Wayne County Sheriff Warren Evans, who orders an end to foreclosures; the Miami Low Income Families Fighting Together, who re-occupy foreclosed homes; and workers at Republic Windows and Doors, who organised a sit-down strike after being fired without severance, vacation time, or health care benefits after the company was taken over by Bank of America and JPMorgan Chase. The striking workers are met with support from Obama, clergy and Illinois politicians and Moore asks if this is the beginning of a worker's revolt. After six days, Bank of America agrees to all their demands. Moore compares this action with the Flint sit-down strike of 1936–1937 and recalls President Franklin D. Roosevelt's proposed Second Bill of Rights during his 1944 State of the Union address and lamenting that Roosevelt's early death meant that none of it was accomplished. However, as Roosevelt's advisors went abroad after the end of World War II, many other countries adopted his ideas. In contrast, Moore muses, ordinary American people eventually suffered from crises like Hurricane Katrina, while the rich are unaffected.\n",
"The Socialist Alternative party supported the candidacy of Ralph Nader during the 1996, 2000, 2004 and 2008 presidential elections. In the time leading up to the 2008 presidential election, the Socialist Alternative party criticized Barack Obama, pointing to his pro-free market stance on job creation, his record in congress of voting in favor of bills such as the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act, his stance on healthcare reform and on other issues.\n",
"Alkhateeb, in response to the usage of his image, said, \"To accuse [Obama] of being a socialist is really ... immature. First of all, who said being a socialist is evil?\" He also stated \"socialism is an idea thats time has come and passed. It’s basically like calling someone a loyalist to the British crown\".\n",
"The Socialist Equality Party claims that the majority of left-wing opponents of the Bush administration have \"lined up behind the Obama Administration\", despite the fact that the Obama administration's policies are in many respects similar to those of the Bush administration. The Socialist Equality Party seeks to create a mass movement in opposition to the Obama administration on the basis of a socialist program.\n"
] |
why emergency vehicle (police/fire/ambulance) sirens sometimes sound like the driver is repeatedly pushing the siren button causing the pattern to constantly restart, rather than just keeping the siren on?
|
Modern emergency vehicle sirens, typically made by federal or Whelen
The standard modes are usually "wail" and "yelp" which are the two typical police sirens. Then there is usually a button for an airhorn and a manual burst siren.
The manual burst siren is what they use to alert you to a traffic stop if you don't notice the flashing lights behind you. And airhorn is what they use to clear an intersection.
This is a good demo of the typical buttons in an emergency vehicle. _URL_0_
Fire trucks and old 50s era police cars often also have a secondary rotary siren, usually made by Whelen that sounds like this _URL_1_
Rotary sirens were also used in air-raid sirens. They have a motor that spins the a fan every few seconds, so the siren pulsates.
So I'm not sure which you're referring to. My gut tells me you're thinking of air-horns, or a cop who just likes playing with the buttons as they clear the intersection.
|
[
"Some emergency vehicle operators occasionally turn off their sirens when on side streets or when there are no cars on the road so as not to disturb residents; however, there is seldom a mandate for responders to do so. The driver will then turn on the sirens before proceeding through intersections or when traveling on potentially dangerous stretches of road.\n",
"A siren on a passing emergency vehicle will start out higher than its stationary pitch, slide down as it passes, and continue lower than its stationary pitch as it recedes from the observer. Astronomer John Dobson explained the effect thus:\n",
"BULLET::::- Respond: To drive to an incident, urgently but safely, whilst displaying lights and/or sirens. Drivers are exempt from the road traffic act with some conditions, however both organisations have policies imposing further restrictions.. The siren can be switched off at the discretion of the driver when it is not needed (for example, when the road ahead is clear of traffic and easily visible) and reactivated at possible traffic hazards.\n",
"In addition to visual warnings, most police cars are also fitted with audible warnings, sometimes known as sirens, which can alert people and vehicles to the presence of an emergency vehicle before they can be seen. The first audible warnings were mechanical bells, mounted to either the front or roof of the car. A later development was the rotating air siren, which made noise when air moved past it. Most modern vehicles are now fitted with electronic sirens, which can produce a range of different noises. Police driving training often includes the use of different noises depending on traffic conditions and maneuver being performed. In North America for instance, on a clear road, approaching a junction, the \"wail\" setting may be used, which gives a long up and down variation, with an unbroken tone, whereas, in heavy slow traffic, a \"yelp\" setting may be preferred, which is a sped up version of the \"wail\". Some vehicles may also be fitted with airhorn audible warnings. Also in some European countries, where a hi-lo two tone siren is the only permitted siren for emergency vehicles, a \"stadt\" siren will be used in cities where it has loud echo that can be heard from blocks away to warn the traffic an emergency vehicle is coming, or a \"land\" siren will be used on highways to project its noise to the front to produce more penetration into the vehicles ahead to alert the drivers.\n",
"When an emergency vehicle is responding, it often uses audio warning devices in addition to the visual warnings provided by its warning lights. Audio warning devices are turned off once the vehicle is on-scene. Such devices include:\n",
"Fire sirens are often called \"fire whistles\", \"fire alarms\", or \"fire horns\". Although there is no standard signaling of fire sirens, some utilize codes to inform firefighters of the location of the fire. Civil defense sirens also used as fire sirens often can produce an alternating \"hi-lo\" signal (similar to emergency vehicles in many European countries) as the fire signal, or a slow wail (typically 3x) as to not confuse the public with the standard civil defense signals of alert (steady tone) and attack (fast wavering tone). Fire sirens are often tested once a day at noon and are also called \"noon sirens\" or \"noon whistles\".\n",
"Emergency vehicle equipment is used in the United Kingdom to indicate urgent journeys by an emergency service. This usage is colloquially known as Blues and twos which refers to the blue lights and the two-tone siren once commonplace (although most sirens now have a range of tones like Wail, Yelp and Phaser). A call-out requiring the use of lights and sirens is often colloquially known as a blue light run.\n"
] |
why crt tv's have that line going through them when recorded by a camera
|
CRTS work by an electron beam scanning down the screen line by line hitting phosphoros dots and lighting them up. It does this 50 times a second.
At the same time a camera is effectively doing the reverse, it is sampling it's light sensor line by line, 50 times a second. The problem is that the scan rates are rarely in sync, so the camera ends up catching the CRT halfway through it's scan.
There are special devices that are used by the television industry called genlocks which allow a camera and CRT tv to be synced so that the line does not appear
|
[
"Although a CRO allows one to view a signal, in its basic form it has no means of recording that signal on paper for the purpose of documentation. Therefore, special oscilloscope cameras were developed to photograph the screen directly. Early cameras used roll or plate film, while in the 1970s Polaroid instant cameras became popular. A P11 CRT phosphor (visually blue) was especially effective in exposing film. Cameras (sometimes using single sweeps) were used to capture faint traces.\n",
"For older analog cathode ray tube (CRT) technology, display lag is extremely low, due to the nature of the technology, which does not have the ability to store image data before display. The picture signal is minimally processed internally, simply for demodulation from a radio-frequency (RF) carrier wave (for televisions), and then splitting into separate signals for the red, green, and blue electron guns, and for timing of the vertical and horizontal sync. Image adjustments typically involve reshaping the signal waveform but without storage, so the image is written to the screen as fast as it is received, with only nanoseconds of delay for the signal to traverse the wiring inside the device from input to the screen.\n",
"On some larger TV screen sizes, the scanned lines were not fat enough to give 100% coverage of the CRT. The result was a lined picture with darkness between each horizontal scanned line, reducing picture brightness and contrast. Larger screen sets often used a spot wobble oscillator, that slightly elongated the scanning spot vertically at high frequency to avoid this line separation effect without reducing horizontal sharpness. Spot wobble was also utilised when making telerecordings of 405-line programmes.\n",
"Originally the kinescope was used to record the image from a television display to film, synchronized to the TV scan rate. This could then be re-played directly into a video camera for re-display. Non-live programming could also be filmed using the same cameras, edited mechanically as normal, and then played back for TV. As the film was run at the same speed as the television, the flickering was eliminated. Various displays, including projectors for these \"video rate films\", slide projectors and film cameras were often combined into a \"film chain\", allowing the broadcaster to cue up various forms of media and switch between them by moving a mirror or prism. Color was supported by using a multi-tube video camera, prisms, and filters to separate the original color signal and feed the red, green and blue to individual tubes.\n",
"Early TV cameras, such as the video camera tube, did not have a shutter. Not using shutter in raster systems may alter the shape of the moving objects on the screen. On the other hand, the video from such a camera looks shockingly \"live\" when displayed on a CRT display in its native format.\n",
"In the first case, the widescreen pin allows to indicate the current signal format, which allows widescreen TVs to adjust the image width, and widescreen-capable standard TVs to compress the scan lines of the 576i image vertically to a letterbox shape portion of the picture tube. In the second case, the widescreen SCART signal is never active and the signal source performs the adaptations itself so that the image has always a standard format as a result. Some sources assume that the TV is always capable of widescreen functionality and hence never perform the adaptations. Some sources will not even issue the widescreen signal or maintain it at the same level all the time. Other sources might offer the option of truncating the sides, but not of letterboxing, which requires significantly more processing. Notably, the circuitry of the early widescreen MAC standard decoders (e.g. the \"Visiopass\") could not letterbox. The limitations apply mostly to satellite TVs, while DVD players can always at least letterbox and often \"zoom\".\n",
"Photographs of a TV screen taken with a digital camera often exhibit moiré patterns. Since both the TV screen and the digital camera use a scanning technique to produce or to capture pictures with horizontal scan lines, the conflicting sets of lines cause the moiré patterns. To avoid the effect, the digital camera can be aimed at an angle of 30 degrees to the TV screen.\n"
] |
why can some animals go weeks without eating, but humans need food on a daily basis?
|
Animals that don't eat as often tend to eat much more at each meal. For example, wolves eat only a couple of times a week, if that, but during each meal session they eat somewhere around 15% of their body weight in food. If humans ate like that, they would eat ~20-30 pounds of meat in a single meal.
|
[
"Since the beginning of mankind, food was important simply for the purpose of nourishment. As primates walked the Earth, they solely consumed food for a source of energy as they had to hunt and forage because food was not easily on hand. By early humans fending for themselves, they had figured out that they needed a high energy diet to keep going on a daily basis to survive.\n",
"They eat primarily leaves, but also shoots, fruits, nuts, berries, bark, some native flowers, and even some small vertebrates. In addition, when they cannot find food, they have been known to eat the algae that grow on their fur for nutrients. They have large stomachs, with multiple chambers, which help to ferment the large amount of plant matter they eat. Food can take up to a month to digest due to their slow metabolism. Depending on when in the excretion cycle a sloth is weighed, urine and feces may account for up to 30% of the animal’s body weight, which averages about 6 kg (13 lb). They get their water from juicy plants.\n",
"It is common for animals (even those like hummingbirds that have high energy needs) to forage for food until satiated, and then spend most of their time doing nothing, or at least nothing in particular. They seek to \"satisfice\" their needs rather than obtaining an optimal diet or habitat. Even diurnal animals, which have a limited amount of daylight in which to accomplish their tasks, follow this pattern. Social activity comes in a distant third to eating and resting for foraging animals. When more time must be spent foraging, animals are more likely to sacrifice time spent on aggressive behavior than time spent resting. Extremely efficient predators have more free time and thus often appear more lazy than relatively inept predators that have little free time. Beetles likewise seem to forage lazily due to a lack of foraging competitors. On the other hand, some animals, such as pigeons and rats, seem to prefer to respond for food rather than eat equally available \"free food\" in some conditions.\n",
"The diet consists primarily of small mammals, but they have been known to eat some smaller bird species as well as lizards and frogs. Due to the extremely slow metabolism of this species, it feeds much less often than ground dwelling species and meals may be several months apart.\n",
"Animals that are commonly fed live food include bearded dragon and other lizards, various types of snake, turtles, and carnivorous fish, though other animals, such as skunks (which are sometimes kept as pets), being omnivorous, can also eat some live food, though it is unknown how common this is in practice.\n",
"Animals often consume more food during periods of high energy demand (e.g. lactation or cold exposure in endotherms), this is facilitated by an increase in digestive organ size and capacity, which is similar to the phenotype produced by poor quality diets. During lactation, common degus (\"Octodon degus\") increase the mass of their liver, small intestine, large intestine and cecum by 15–35%. Increases in food intake do not cause changes in the activity of digestive enzymes because nutrient concentrations in the intestinal lumen are determined by food quality and remain unaffected. Intermittent feeding also represents a temporal increase in food intake and can induce dramatic changes in the size of the gut; the Burmese python (\"Python molurus bivittatus\") can triple the size of its small intestine just a few days after feeding.\n",
"Eating (also known as consuming) is the ingestion of food, typically to provide a heterotrophic organism with energy and to allow for growth. Animals and other heterotrophs must eat in order to survive — carnivores eat other animals, herbivores eat plants, omnivores consume a mixture of both plant and animal matter, and detritivores eat detritus. Fungi digest organic matter outside their bodies as opposed to animals that digest their food inside their bodies. For humans, eating is an activity of daily living. Some individuals may limit their amount of nutritional intake. This may be a result of a lifestyle choice, due to hunger or famine, as part of a diet or as religious fasting.\n"
] |
which medieval combat weapon was the most exclusive to use?
|
You needed a strong, fast warhorse to use a lance. So that was a prestigious weapon of the nobility. Long swords used a lot of metal and would have been expensive. Spears and clubs were the most simple weapons to construct and would have been available to the common foot soldier. The clergy (yeah, they fought in those days) frequently used maces because of a religious stigma against killing with a sword. I guess it was OK to bludgeon someone to death.
|
[
"It is a vexed issue as to what extent specialized arms and armour were used in mêlée tournaments. A further question that might be raised is to what extent the military equipment of knights and their horses in the 12th and 13th centuries was devised to meet the perils and demands of tournaments, rather than warfare. It is, however, clear from the sources that the weapons used in tournaments were initially the same as those used in war. It is not by any means certain that swords were blunted for most of the history of the tournament. This must have changed by the mid 13th century, at least in jousting encounters. There is a passing reference to a special spear for use in jousting in the \"Prose Lancelot\" (c. 1220). In the 1252 jousting at Walden, the lances used had \"sokets\", curved ring-like punches instead of points. The \"Statute of Arms\" of Edward I of England of 1292 says that blunted knives and swords should be used in tournaments, which rather hints that their use had not been general until then.\n",
"The gameplay is based on that of \"\", with similar controls in regards to melee and archery. Like its predecessors, \"With Fire and Sword\" is an action role-playing game. This installment allows the player to fight for one of five factions in an effort to control Eastern Europe, however only three have a proper storyline. The game is set in a later, more modern period than earlier titles with access to pistols, grenades, and other equipment of the post-medieval era.\n",
"The use of weapon combinations in each hand has been mentioned for close combat in western Europe during the Byzantine, Medieval, and Renaissance era. The use of a parrying dagger such as a main gauche along with a rapier is common in historical European martial arts. \n",
"Armour of the medieval era was not completely proof against arrows until the specialised armour of the Italian city-state mercenary companies. Archery was thought not to be effective against plate armour in the Battle of Neville's Cross (1346), the siege of Bergerac (1345), and the Battle of Poitiers (1356); such armour became available to European knights and men at arms of fairly modest means by the late 14th century, though never to all soldiers in any army.\n",
"During the Middle Ages military forces used combined arms as a method of winning battles and furthering a war leader or king's long term goals. Some historians claim that during the Middle Ages there was no strategic or tactical art to military combat. Kelly DeVries uses the Merriam-Webster definition of combat \"as a general military engagement\". In the pursuit of a leader's goals and self-interest tactical and strategic thinking was used along with taking advantage of the terrain and weather in choosing when and where to give battle. The simplest example is the combination of different specialties such as archers, infantry, cavalry (knights or shock mounted troops), and even peasant militia. At times, each force fought on its own and won or lost depending on the opposing military competence. During the Middle Ages leaders utilized a combination of these skilled and unskilled forces to win battles. An army that has multiple skills available can engage a larger force that incorporates mainly one or two types of troops. \n",
"Medieval and early Renaissance wrestling treatises present both sport and combat techniques together as one art. The distinction is made more frequently by modern practitioners than is present in historical sources, but in a select few examples the terms for sportive grappling or \"geselliges ringen\" and earnest unarmed combat or \"kampfringen\" (where \"kampf\" is the Early Modern German term for \"war\" or \"battle\") were used to describe specific techniques which were only suitable for one scenario or the other.\n",
"Historical Medieval Battles (HMB) or Buhurt (from Old French \"béhourd\": \"wallop\") is a modern full contact fighting sport with steel blunt weapons characteristic for the Middle Ages. Armor and weapons have to follow regulations on historical authenticity and safety published on official Battle of the Nations page.\n"
] |
If most romantic languages descend from Latin, what are the roots of Latin?
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I think you'll get a better answer from /r/linguistics, frankly, but the short answer is that it comes from the Italic branch of a (reconstructed) language called Proto-Indo-European. There's a "family tree" [here](_URL_0_).
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[
"A large percentage of the lexicon of Romance languages, themselves descended from Vulgar Latin, consists of loanwords (later learned or scholarly borrowings) from Latin. These words can be distinguished by lack of typical sound changes and other transformations found in descended words, or by meanings taken directly from Classical or Ecclesiastical Latin that did not evolve or change over time as expected; in addition, there are also semi-learned terms which were adapted partially to the Romance language's character. Latin borrowings can be known by several names in Romance languages: in Spanish, for example, they are usually referred to as \"cultismos\", and in Italian as \"latinismi\".\n",
"Romance languages have borrowed heavily, though mostly from other Romance languages. However, some, such as Spanish, Portuguese, Romanian, and French, have borrowed heavily from other language groups. Vulgar Latin borrowed first from indigenous languages of the Roman empire, and during the Germanic folk movements, from Germanic languages, especially Gothic; for Eastern Romance languages, during Bulgarian Empires, from Slavic languages, especially Bulgarian. Notable examples are *\"blancus\" \"white\", replacing native \"albus\" (but Romansh \"alv\", Dalmatian \"jualb\", Romanian \"alb\"); *\"guerra\" \"war\", replacing native \"bellum\"; and the words for the cardinal directions, where cognates of English \"north\", \"south\", \"east\" and \"west\" replaced the native words \"septentriō\", \"merīdiēs\" (also \"noon; midday nap\"; cf. Romanian \"meriză\"), \"oriens\", and \"occidens\". (See History of French – The Franks.) Some Celtic words were incorporated into the core vocabulary, partly for words with no Latin equivalent (\"betulla\" \"birch\", \"camisia\" \"shirt\", \"cerevisia\" \"beer\"), but in some cases replacing Latin vocabulary (\"gladius\" \"sword\", replacing \"ensis\"; \"cambiāre\" \"to exchange\", replacing \"mūtāre\" except in Romanian and Portuguese; \"carrus\" \"cart\", replacing \"currus\"; \"pettia\" \"piece\", largely displacing \"pars\" (later resurrected) and eliminating \"frustum\"). Many Greek loans also entered the lexicon, e.g. \"spatha\" \"sword\" (Greek: \"spáthē\", replacing \"gladius\" which shifted to \"iris\", cf. French \"épée\", Spanish \"espada\", Italian \"spada \"and Romanian \"spată\"); \"cara\" \"face\" (Greek: κάρα \"kára\", partly replacing \"faciēs\"); \"colpe\" \"blow\" (Greek: κόλαφος \"kólaphos\", replacing \"ictus\", cf. Spanish \"golpe\", French \"coup\"); \"cata\" \"each\" (Greek: \"katá\", replacing \"quisque\"); common suffixes *\"-ijāre/-izāre\" (Greek: \"-izein\", French \"oyer/-iser\", Spanish \"-ear/-izar\", Italian \"-eggiare/-izzare\", etc.), \"-ista\" (Greek: \"-istes\").\n",
"Latin had an impact far beyond the classical world. It continued to be the pre-eminent language for serious writings in Europe long after the fall of the Roman empire. The modern Romance languages – such as French, Spanish, and Italian – all derive from Latin. Latin is still seen as a foundational aspect of European culture.\n",
"By the end of the 10th century, the languages spoken in northern Spain had developed far from their Latin origins, and can assuredly be called Romance. Latin texts were no longer understood, as can be seen from the glosses used in manuscripts of Castile to explain Latin terms. \n",
"In spite of the multiple influences of pre-Roman languages and later invasions, the phonology, morphology, lexicon, and syntax of all Romance languages are predominantly derived from Vulgar Latin. As a result, the group shares a number of linguistic features that set it apart from other Indo-European branches.\n",
"\"Latinus\" (from \"Latium\", modern-day Lazio, Italy), that is, Latin (and Classical Latin), was spoken in Rome 75 BC to AD 3rd century when it developed into Late Latin (Latin: Latinitas serior) in the 3rd to 7th centuries. Vulgar Latin (Latin: Sermo vulgaris) was spoken in the 6th to 9th centuries. The Romance languages such as Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Romanian, etc., all evolved from Vulgar Latin and not from Classical Latin. Contemporary Romance speakers of the Iberian Peninsula, of the time of Moslem Spain, saw their vernacular spoken language as Latin. This happened because Classical Latin was seen as an educated speech, not as a different language. As Francisco Marcos-Marín (2015) has pointed out, following archaeological studies mainly by Juan Zozaya, Berber invaders could not have learnt to speak Arabic so soon. They used a continuum between Berber and Latin varieties. Latin was the cultural language of the Roman provinces of Africa before Arabic and continued in use (at least for some registers) until the 11th century. The interaction of these Afro-Romance varieties and Ibero-Romance has yet to be studied. Those African speakers also referred to their language as Latine.\n",
"Latin as a language did not disappear. Vulgar Latin combined with neighboring Germanic and Celtic languages, giving rise to modern Romance languages such as Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Romanian, and a large number of minor languages and dialects. Today, more than 900 million people are native speakers of Romance languages worldwide. In addition, many Romance languages are used as lingua francas by non-native speakers.\n"
] |
How territorial are pets about their food?
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There's absolutely no way to say without trying it, because it varies from pet to pet. Some won't mind at all, and others, even if they're big softies away from the food dish, will try to kill like the damned. If you want to find out, try it when they're both in chill moods and in a place that is equally theirs.
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[
"Behavioural ecologists have argued that food distribution determines whether a species is territorial or not, however, this may be too narrow a perspective. Several other type of resource may be defended including partners, potential mates, offspring, nests or lairs, display areas or leks. Territoriality emerges where there is a focused resource that provides enough for the individual or group, within a boundary that is small enough to be defended without the expenditure of excessive effort. Territoriality is often most strong towards conspecifics, as shown in the case of redlip blenny. This is because the conspecifics share exactly the same set of resources.\n",
"Territoriality is only shown by a minority of species. More commonly, an individual or a group of animals has an area that it habitually uses but does not necessarily defend; this is called the home range. The home ranges of different groups of animals often overlap, or in the overlap areas, the groups tend to avoid each other rather than seeking to expel each other. Within the home range there may be a \"core area\" that no other individual group uses, but, again, this is as a result of avoidance.\n",
"Food related territoriality is least likely with insectivorous birds, where the food supply is plentiful but unpredictably distributed. Swifts rarely defend an area larger than the nest. Conversely, other insectivorous birds that occupy more constrained territories, such as the ground-nesting blacksmith lapwing may be very territorial, especially in the breeding season during which they not only threaten or attack many kinds of intruders, but have stereotyped display behaviour to deter conspecifics sharing neighbouring nesting spots.\n",
"Fish territory, or in another word, defended areas are generally ruled by a single individual or by breeding pairs. The guarded resource may include food, shelter, sexual partner or offspring. While protecting their regions, fish often display aggressive behavior against their intruders. The territory owner strikes at competing fish directly ending in a bite, or a bump. Such aggressive behavior is seen in large juveniles, females and other fish of the same kind from the same area. To better understand this topic, consider the male three-spine stickleback, Gasterosteus aculeatus, as an example. Theo Bakker's paper claims the three-spine stickleback male fish is polygynous—meaning they prefer two or more female mates in a territory. Thus, males are highly aggressive so they have access to females in a particular territory, which also leads to intrasexual selection among males. Intrasexual selection is selection within the same sex. For instance, some male animals compete against one another, physically, for access to females for their kind. So, characters like big tail, sharp teeth or similar weaponry that can be used against other males of the same species as means of mating with females is a selective advantage. \n",
"Territories may be held by an individual, a mated or unmated pair, or a group. Territoriality is not always a fixed behavioural characteristic of a species. For example, red foxes (\"Vulpes vulpes\") either establish stable home ranges within particular areas or are itinerant with no fixed abode. Territories may vary with time (season), for example, European robins defend territories as pairs during the breeding season but as individuals during the winter. Resource availability may cause changes in territoriality, for example, some nectarivores defend territories only during the mornings when plants are richest in nectar. In species that do not form pair bonds, male and female territories are often independent, i.e. males defend territories only against other males and females only against other females. In this case, if the species is polygynous, one male territory probably contains several female territories, while in some polyandrous species such as the northern jacana, this situation is reversed.\n",
"As mentioned above, chimpanzees work together with closely related kin to protect their territory. Defending territory from rivals (known as territoriality) is a learnt adaptive behavior performed by several ecological species. The advantage of being territorial varies depending on the species of interest, but the underlying principle is always to increase overall fitness. Many species will display territoriality in order to acquire food, compete for mates, or have the safest lair. Bird song is an example of learned territorial defense. Studies show that birds with high-quality songs will use them as a stimulus to deter predators from their territorial range. Higher quality songs have been proven to act as the best defense mechanism in a variety of bird species, such as the red-winged blackbird (\"Agelaius phoeniceus\"). Therefore, correct learning of the birdsong early in life is necessary for territory defense in birds. \n",
"In ethology, territory is the sociographical area that an animal of a particular species consistently defends against conspecifics (or, occasionally, animals of other species). Animals that defend territories in this way are referred to as territorial.\n"
] |
how is it that vets can treat multiple types of animals with similar training as doctors who only have humans to deal with?
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There are some veterinarians who do specialize. They specialize both when it comes to what sort of animals they treat and what sort of problems they treat. There are horse-doctors and Animal dentists for example.
Most of them however are more general practitioners.
This is possible because the difference between a cat and a dog is not really all that big for example and a lot of general medical knowledge can easily be applied to lots of different animals. Being able to care for two different species does not take twice the general medical knowledge as being able to care for a single one.
The other factor is that we allow for a much greater room for error when it comes to animal care. If a pet could not be saved because a veterinarian did not know about some extremely obscure bit of knowledge about some rare animal malady that is considered slightly more acceptable than when it would happen to a human patient.
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[
"Most vets work in clinical settings, treating animals directly. These vets may be involved in a general practice, treating animals of all types; may be specialized in a specific group of animals such as companion animals, livestock, laboratory animals, zoo animals or horses; or may specialize in a narrow medical discipline such as surgery, dermatology, laboratory animal medicine, or internal medicine.\n",
"Most veterinary physicians work in clinical settings, treating animals directly. These veterinarians may be involved in a general practice, treating animals of all types; they may be specialized in a specific group of animals such as companion animals, livestock, zoo animals or equines; or may specialize in a narrow medical discipline such as surgery, dermatology or internal medicine . As with other healthcare professionals, veterinarians face ethical decisions about the care of their patients. Current debates within the profession include the ethics of certain procedures believed to be purely cosmetic or unnecessary for behavioral issues, such as declawing of cats, docking of tails, cropping of ears and debarking on dogs.\n",
"Veterinarians treat disease, disorder or injury in animals, which includes diagnosis, treatment and aftercare. The scope of practice, specialty and experience of the individual veterinarian will dictate exactly what interventions they perform, but most will perform surgery (of differing complexity).\n",
"Pets for Vets developed a program focusing on addressing these issues by bringing together animals needing to be rescued and veterans needing a companion for a better quality of life. Not every veteran qualifies for a psychiatric service dog, however everyone who wants one can benefit from a companion or pet animal.\n",
"Many of the technologies used in human medicine are also used in the veterinary field, although often in slightly different ways. Veterinarians use a variety of technologies for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes to better understand and improve the health of their animal patients. Recent trends in veterinary technology have moved towards the integration of hand-held devices and consumer based technology to monitor pets and interact with veterinarians.\n",
"As with healthcare professionals, vets face ethical decisions about the care of their patients. Current debates within the profession include the ethics of purely cosmetic procedures on animals, such as declawing of cats, docking of tails, cropping of ears and debarking on dogs.\n",
"Other professionals are also permitted to perform some animal treatment, through exemptions in the law, and these include manipulation techniques such as physiotherapy, chiropractic and osteopathy. Other alternative medicine therapies, such as homeopathy, acupuncture, phytotherapy and aromatherapy may only be performed by a licensed veterinary surgeon.\n"
] |
This may sound daft but, when Comets go though space they appear to have a tail, but space is a vacuum so what would be causing the tail is there is no resistance?
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The sun. The tail of a comet doesn't indicate where it is going but rather where it is relative to the sun
Edit: _URL_0_
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[
"In the outer Solar System, comets remain frozen and are extremely difficult or impossible to detect from Earth due to their small size. Statistical detections of inactive comet nuclei in the Kuiper belt have been reported from the Hubble Space Telescope observations, but these detections have been questioned, and have not yet been independently confirmed. As a comet approaches the inner Solar System, solar radiation causes the volatile materials within the comet to vaporize and stream out of the nucleus, carrying dust away with them. The streams of dust and gas thus released form a huge, extremely tenuous atmosphere around the comet called the \"coma\", and the force exerted on the coma by the Sun's radiation pressure and solar wind cause an enormous \"tail\" to form, which points away from the Sun.\n",
"The streams of dust and gas each form their own distinct tail, pointing in slightly different directions. The tail of dust is left behind in the comet's orbit in such a manner that it often forms a curved tail called the type II or dust tail. At the same time, the ion or type I tail, made of gases, always points directly away from the Sun because this gas is more strongly affected by the solar wind than is dust, following magnetic field lines rather than an orbital trajectory. On occasions—such as when the Earth passes through a comet's orbital plane, the antitail, pointing in the opposite direction to the ion and dust tails, may be seen.\n",
"The main-belt comets are unique in that they have flat (within the plane of the planets' orbits), approximately circular (small eccentricity), asteroid-like orbits, and not the elongated, often tilted orbits characteristic of all other comets. Because (118401) LINEAR can generate a coma (produced by vapour boiled off the comet), it must be an icy asteroid. When a typical comet approaches the Sun, its ice heats up and sublimates (changes directly from ice to gas), venting gas and dust into space, creating a tail and giving the object a fuzzy appearance. Far from the Sun, sublimation stops, and the remaining ice stays frozen until the comet's next pass close to the Sun. In contrast, objects in the asteroid belt have essentially circular orbits and are expected to be mostly baked dry of ice by their confinement to the inner Solar System (see extinct comet).\n",
"The streams of dust and gas each form their own distinct tail, pointing in slightly different directions. The tail of dust is left behind in the comet's orbit in such a manner that it often forms a curved tail called the antitail, only when it seems that it is directed towards the Sun. At the same time, the ion tail, made of gases, always points along the streamlines of the solar wind as it is strongly affected by the magnetic field of the plasma of the solar wind. The ion tail follows the magnetic field lines rather than an orbital trajectory. Parallax viewing from the Earth may sometimes mean the tails appear to point in opposite directions.\n",
"In the outer Solar System, comets remain frozen and inactive and are extremely difficult or impossible to detect from Earth due to their small size. Statistical detections of inactive comet nuclei in the Kuiper belt have been reported from observations by the Hubble Space Telescope but these detections have been questioned. As a comet approaches the inner Solar System, solar radiation causes the volatile materials within the comet to vaporize and stream out of the nucleus, carrying dust away with them.\n",
"Comets sometimes may disappear because of orbital derangement from an ellipse to a parabola or a hyperbola. Sir Isaac Newton showed that a body controlled by the Sun moves in a conic section—that is, an ellipse, a parabola or a hyperbola. Because the latter two are open curves, a comet which pursued such a path would go off into space never to reappear. A derangement of orbit from closed to open curve has doubtless happened often.\n",
"The streams of dust and gas thus released form a huge and extremely thin atmosphere around the comet called the \"coma\". The force exerted on the coma by the Sun's radiation pressure and solar wind cause an enormous \"tail\" to form pointing away from the Sun.\n"
] |
[Mores, Customs & Folkways] Do historians use literature to study areas that are well documented or is literature only used if there are no other sources?
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Hi, history is more interdisciplinary than the question seems to imply - but it's also a big question.
Cultural history may involve study of fictional literature; for example, a student could examine how Shakespeare's portrayal of the Plantagenets in his history plays related to propaganda reinforcing Tudor / Elizabethan legitimacy. There, literature is a central part of historical study.
In other instances, it may be a way of locating supplementary details not recorded or with minor coverage elsewhere, particularly in the area of social history, customs and everyday life. It is certainly more useful for older history, particularly medieval and early modern, where there is not such a glut of evidence as there is in, for example, the second half of the twentieth century, but in most cases it isn't a binary either/or. And it must always be borne in mind that literature is fictional or mythical, and that there may not be ways to check whether a social habit, for example, was widespread, or fictional. A historian might cite an example from a well-known novel to liven up a book, if it is a good and relevant example.
But it would not be good practice at all to cite, say, a historical novel about the Second World War when writing a factually-based assessment of military planning: there are countless better secondary sources, never mind primary ones, and there may be artistic licence used.
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[
"A study of cultural history could include fictional sources such as novels or plays. In a broader sense primary sources also include artifacts like photographs, newsreels, coins, paintings or buildings created at the time. Historians may also take archaeological artifacts and oral reports and interviews into consideration. Written sources may be divided into three types.\n",
"Literature, history, and science are well represented, with strong holdings in first editions of nineteenth- and twentieth-century English authors, books related to travel and exploration, and social history. Also noteworthy are collections in radical literature and Anarchist newspapers, natural history, fine press and typography, and the history of publishing. The library also holds 162 cubic feet of unpublished film and television scripts.\n",
"World literature Collection contains approximately 60 thousand documents. Destination collection: providing information and documentary of researchers the field of literature. The collection includes books about literature in general, documents about the evolution of literatures and languages of the world countries.\n",
"Reardon state that she still believes that historians are interested in literary and nontraditional sources because these sources allow the reader to understand many different aspect of society. For instance, women and children's studies are able to be researched through nontraditional sources, such as schoolbooks, song, poetry, etc. Nontraditional sources are able to fill in the blanks between the home-front and the battlefield. She thinks they are both wartime literature and post-wartime literature are important. Wartime literature allows historians to determine what the understanding of the war was. Post-wartime literature is important because it allows historians to see how the understanding has changed. What was remembered, what was lost, and what was changed that may have no foundation in reality. The question that comes from comparing those sources is why they changed. Additionally, literature allows historians to know the underlining emotions that the author felt and sales enable historians to see if the public felt the same way. Literature demonstrates the political and social strains during that time period. Reardon believes that sources that combined nonfiction and fiction are good tools to develop a strong historical methodologies. Historians need to do the research in order to determine if author could have known the information at the time or it became knowledge after the fact. Reardon explains the difference between Civil War novel and the Civil War memoirs. With the novel, the author enters the project with no desire to keep within nonfiction; however, with memoirs authors begin with the intention to stay true, yet once history becomes either dark or boring they add fictional elements. Reardon uses the Battle of Gettysburg to demonstrate how popular memory of the Civil War changes. Now, the Battle of Gettysburg is seen as a unifying symbol and the end of the Civil War; however, that was not always how it was seen. After the Civil War, Gettysburg was primarily targeted to inspire pride in the Union Army and the North. Many Southerners did not make the journey to Gettysburg because there was not much incentive to attend. It was not until the late 1880s that the Battle of Gettysburg began to be expressed in dramatic unifying moment in United States' history. Finally, Reardon examines the novel \"The Killer Angels\" by Michael Shaara. Reardon argues that the novel is useful creates a different perspective of actors in the Civil War which allows people to being to study historiography. Additionally, a fictional novel can promote the public to begin to read non-fiction work on the Battle of Gettysburg. However, Reardon cautions that readers believe that the characters are real and if they are not, it can turn them off from reading.\n",
"Repositories of literature have been targeted throughout history (e.g., the Library of Alexandria), burning of the liturgical and historical books of the St. Thomas Christians by the archbishop of Goa Aleixo de Menezes, including recently, such as the Burning of Jaffna library and the destruction of Iraqi libraries by ISIS during the fall of Mosul.\n",
"Literature in all its forms can be seen as written records, whether the literature itself be factual or fictional, it is still quite possible to decipher facts through things like characters' actions and words or the authors' style of writing and the intent behind the words. The plot is for more than just entertainment purposes; within it lies information about economics, psychology, science, religions, politics, cultures, and social depth. Studying and analyzing literature becomes very important in terms of learning about human history. Literature provides insights about how society has evolved and about the societal norms during each of the different periods all throughout history. For instance, postmodern authors argue that history and fiction both constitute systems of signification by which we make sense of the past. It is asserted that both of these are \"discourses, human constructs, signifying systems, and both derive their major claim to truth from that identity.\" Literature provides views of life, which is crucial in obtaining truth and in understanding human life throughout history and its periods. Specifically, it explores the possibilities of living in terms of certain values under given social and historical circumstances.\n",
"Collecting proverbs in languages with a literate heritage is usually done by looking for examples in the available literature. There are published collections in many languages with long written traditions, Greek, Latin, Russian, French, German, Greek, Chinese, etc. In addition, there are published collections from languages that do not have a long written tradition, such as Temne, Oromo, Bambara, Bassa.\n"
] |
if bathroom hygiene is so important why don't we get sick after performing oral sex?
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It's more a matter of frequency. If you consider all the times in a day you touch a person (shake hands, etc.) or touch something they touch (doorknobs, etc.), it ads up to a lot of exposure.
If you sucked that many dicks, every day, from that many random people, you would probably get sick a lot.
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[
"Women may consider personal hygiene before practicing oral sex important, as poor hygiene can lead to bad odors, accumulation of sweat and micro-residue (such as lint, urine or menstrual blood), which the giving partner may find unpleasant. Some women remove or trim pubic hair, which may enhance their oral sex experience.\n",
"BULLET::::- Getting sucked (receiving oral sex): According to \"How to Have Sex,\" oral sex probably has no risk for the receiver, but there are still hygiene protocols such as washing, not coming in the person's mouth, etc. that someone in this position should follow to protect the health of his partner. Additionally, it is only risk free from the perspective of CMV/AIDS, as there are plenty of other pathogens that can be transmitted through oral sex.\n",
"Generally, patients who are able to are encouraged to walk to the toilet or use a bedside commode as opposed to a urinal. The prolonged use of a urinal has been shown to lead to constipation or trouble urinating.\n",
"Anal hygiene is the practice that a person performs on the anal area of themselves after defecation. The anus and buttocks may be either washed with liquids or wiped with toilet paper or adding gel wipe to toilet tissue as an alternative to wet wipes or other solid materials in order to remove remnants of feces.\n",
"Oral sex is not necessarily an effective method of preventing sexually transmitted infections (STIs), although some forms of STIs are believed to be less commonly spread in this way, and oral sex has been recommended as a form of safe sex. In the United States, no barrier methods for use during oral sex have been evaluated as effective by the Food and Drug Administration. However, a barrier protection like a condom for fellatio or dental dam for cunnilingus can offer some protection from contact when practicing oral sex.\n",
"Simple behavioral changes, such as hand washing with soap, can significantly reduce the rate of infant mortality from respiratory and diarrheal diseases. According to UNICEF, hand washing with soap before eating and after using the toilet can save more lives of children than any single vaccine or medical intervention, by cutting deaths from diarrhea and acute respiratory infections.\n",
"Having hygienic means for anal cleansing available at the toilet or site of defecation is important for overall public health. The absence of proper materials in households can, in some circumstances, be correlated to the number of diarrhea episodes per household. The history of anal hygiene, from ancient Rome and Greece to Japan and China, involves sponges and sticks as well as water and toilet paper.\n"
] |
how did people get enough heat to smelt metals before the industrial age?
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Coal fire forges are able to reach temperatures of about 1900 degrees C which is more than enough to melt most ‘primitive’ metals such as iron, bronze, copper and steel.
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[
"In the Old World, humans learned to smelt metals in prehistoric times, more than 8000 years ago. The discovery and use of the \"useful\" metals — copper and bronze at first, then iron a few millennia later — had an enormous impact on human society. The impact was so pervasive that scholars traditionally divide ancient history into Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age.\n",
"In general, prehistoric extraction of metals, particularly copper, involved two fundamental stages: first, the smelting of copper ore at temperatures exceeding 700 °C is needed to separate the gangue from the copper; second, melting the copper, which requires temperatures exceeding its melting point of 1080 °C. Given the available technology at the time, accomplishing these extreme temperatures posed a significant challenge. Early smelters developed ways to effectively increase smelting temperatures by feeding the fire with forced flows of oxygen.\n",
"Innovation of the technique of smelting ore ended the Stone Age and began the Bronze Age. The first most significant metal manufactured was bronze, an alloy of copper and tin, each of which was smelted separately. The transition from the Stone Age to the Bronze Age was a period during which modern people could smelt copper, but did not yet manufacture bronze, a time known as the Copper Age, or more technically the Chalcolithic, \"copper-stone\" age. The Chalcolithic by convention is the initial period of the Bronze Age. The Bronze Age was followed by the Iron Age.\n",
"At some unknown point the connection between heat and the liberation of metals from rock became clear, and rocks rich in copper, tin, and lead came into demand. These ores were mined wherever they were recognized. Remnants of such ancient mines have been found all over Southwestern Asia. Metalworking was being carried out by the South Asian inhabitants of Mehrgarh between 7000–3300 BCE. The end of the beginning of metalworking occurs sometime around 6000 BCE when copper smelting became common in Southwestern Asia.\n",
"As the industrial revolution gathered pace, steam engine power became available to overcome these limitations, and new seams were developed at greater depths, and in some cases abandoned mines were re-opened. Moreover copper began to supersede tin as the dominant mineral for exploitation. Because the process of smelting copper required large quantities of coal — in the proportion of 18 to 1 — the copper ore was transported by sea to South Wales, where Swansea was dominant.\n",
"While 18th century metal mines had worked on the principle of adult men digging the ore and women and children picking and cobbing the ore ready for smelting, in the new large-scale mines of the early 19th century working practices changed. The strenuous underground work was still carried out by male workers, as was breaking large rocks with heavy hammers ('ragging'). In copper mines, very young girls, and sick and injured older women, carried out the simple work of picking. Girls in their late teens forced the broken ore through a broad mesh to sort the ore ('riddling'), and used hammers to break the large chunks of ore left by the riddling process into smaller chunks. Girls in their mid-teens cobbed the resulting chunks, separating the valuable ore from waste rock. Grown women would carry out the heavy manual labour of breaking rocks with hammers ('spalling'), of crushing sorted ore to small grains ready for smelting ('bucking') and of transporting ore between various pieces of apparatus. An experienced bal maiden working as a spaller would produce approximately one ton (2240 lb; 1016 kg) of broken ore per day, depending on the type of stone. In the tin mines, in which ore could be crushed far more finely than copper before smelting, cobbing and bucking did not take place. Instead, the chunks of spalled ore were mechanically stamped to fine grains, and washed into a series of collecting pits to separate the coarse 'rough' from the fine 'slimes'. The resulting rough and slimes were separated out on large wooden frames ('buddling' and 'framing' respectively), to extract the tin ore from the surrounding dust and grit.\n",
"Use of coal in iron smelting started somewhat before the Industrial Revolution, based on innovations by Sir Clement Clerke and others from 1678, using coal reverberatory furnaces known as cupolas. These were operated by the flames playing on the ore and charcoal or coke mixture, reducing the oxide to metal. This has the advantage that impurities (such as sulphur ash) in the coal do not migrate into the metal. This technology was applied to lead from 1678 and to copper from 1687. It was also applied to iron foundry work in the 1690s, but in this case the reverberatory furnace was known as an air furnace. (The foundry cupola is a different, and later, innovation.)\n"
] |
How did scientists measure the radius of atoms and other stuffs?
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The most accurate measurements are spectroscopic measurements, in which the energy between states of e.g. atoms is measured. These measurement happen typically with lasers, the frequencies of which can be very well controlled. This is the domain of atomic physics, which is mainly quantum mechanics dealing with discrete energy levels and interaction of matter with photons.
First, remember that the energy states of electrons orbiting a nucleus are quantised.
In a spectroscopic measurement, the frequency of a laser is scanned along a certain range while it passes through a sample, e.g. a gas of atoms. Most of the time, the light will not interact with the sample. Only when the frequency (and thus the energy of the photons that make up the light) is equal to the energy difference of two internal states of the atoms, some of the light can be scattered. In this way, the energy levels of atoms are measured very precisely.
Finally, one can calculate from theory what the electron orbits and the corresponding energies should be. These calculations depend however on some constants, such as the Bohr radius, which describes the distance between the nucleus and the electron in a hydrogen atom. By comparing these calculations to the results of the measurements, these constants are retrieved. (The Bohr radius is now known with a relative uncertainty of 0.2 parts per billion.) These constants can then be used in the theory to calculate the sizes of different atoms.
TL;DR: Experiments measure the spacing between energy levels, theory relate these energy differences to (among other things) the sizes of electron orbits. Both lasers and quantum mechanics are very accurate.
|
[
"The Van der Waals radius, \"r\", of an atom is the radius of an imaginary hard sphere which can be used to model the atom for many purposes. It is named after Johannes Diderik van der Waals, winner of the 1910 Nobel Prize in Physics, as he was the first to recognise that atoms were not simply points and to demonstrate the physical consequences of their size through the van der Waals equation of state.\n",
"The van der Waals radius, \"r\", of an atom is the radius of an imaginary hard sphere representing the distance of closest approach for another atom. It is named after Johannes Diderik van der Waals, winner of the 1910 Nobel Prize in Physics, as he was the first to recognise that atoms were not simply points and to demonstrate the physical consequences of their size through the van der Waals equation of state.\n",
"The \"atomic radius\" of a chemical element is a measure of the size of its atoms, usually the mean or typical distance from the center of the nucleus to the boundary of the surrounding shells of electrons. Since the boundary is not a well-defined physical entity, there are various non-equivalent definitions of atomic radius. Three widely used definitions of atomic radius are: Van der Waals radius, ionic radius, and covalent radius.\n",
"The atomic radius of a chemical element is the distance from the centre of the nucleus to the outermost shell of the electron. Since the boundary is not a well-defined physical entity, there are various non-equivalent definitions of atomic radius. Depending on the definition, the term may apply only to isolated atoms, or also to atoms in condensed matter, covalently bound in molecules, or in ionized and excited states; and its value may be obtained through experimental measurements, or computed from theoretical models. Under some definitions, the value of the radius may depend on the atom's state and context.\n",
"The problem of defining a radius for the atomic nucleus is similar to that of defining a radius for the entire atom; neither atoms nor their nuclei have definite boundaries. However, the nucleus can be modeled as a sphere of positive charge for the interpretation of electron scattering experiments: because there is no definite boundary to the nucleus, the electrons \"see\" a range of cross-sections, for which a mean can be taken. The qualification of \"rms\" (for \"root mean square\") arises because it is the nuclear cross-section, proportional to the square of the radius, which is determining for electron scattering.\n",
"In 1952, Robert Corey and Linus Pauling described accurate scale models of molecules which they had built at Caltech. In their models, they envisioned the surface of the molecule as being determined by the van der Waals radius of each atom of the molecule, and crafted atoms as hardwood spheres of diameter proportional to each atom's van der Waals radius, in the scale 1 inch = 1 Å. To allow bonds between atoms a portion of each sphere was cut away to create a pair of matching flat faces, with the cuts dimensioned so that the distance between sphere centers was proportional to the lengths of standard types of chemical bonds. A connector was designed—a metal bushing that threaded into each sphere at the center of each flat face. The two spheres were then firmly held together by a metal rod inserted into the pair of opposing bushing (with fastening by screws). The models also had special features to allow representation of hydrogen bonds.\n",
"Depending on the definition, the term may apply only to isolated atoms, or also to atoms in condensed matter, covalently bonding in molecules, or in ionized and excited states; and its value may be obtained through experimental measurements, or computed from theoretical models. The value of the radius may depend on the atom's state and context.\n"
] |
How is the infrastructure of the internet built?
|
The "internet" is simply a huge network. There are many subnetworks, and subnetworks of those networks, but it all is just a big web of connections.
Some huge telecommunication companies own huge fiber optic cable trunks, and they have an agreement to connect them. The top level ISPs are called Tier 1 ISPs. Tier 1 ISPs are the backbone of the internet, and provide service to huge areas. They then sell space to the lower level ISPs, called Tier 2 ISPs. These are the cable internet providers that you probably buy internet from. Tier 3 ISPs are much smaller and buy from Tier 2 ISPs. They are much cheaper and serve small areas.
Each computer on a network is assigned a certain address, called an IP address. Anybody on your network can access your computer through your unique IP address. Think of it like a home address.
Every single server on the internet has an IP address. Web servers do, game servers do, chat servers do, FTP servers, everything. It gets kind of annoying to memorize the IP addresses of every server you want to connect to, so DNS (domain name system) was invented. DNS servers basically route a domain name (such as _URL_0_) to an IP address of the server that its on (such as 74.125.239.135). If you want to try it out, go ahead and type in 74.125.239.135 into your browser.
The DNS root servers are managed by ICANN, which you may have heard of. Sometimes when you want to buy a domain from Godaddy or another registrar, they charge something like a 20 cent ICANN fee. ICANN is basically a nonprofit organization that manages the DNS for the world. You technically don't HAVE to use ICANN DNS servers. You can host your own DNS server and connect to it, and assign as many domain names as you want, but nobody else will be able to go to those domains unless they are using that DNS server.
|
[
"The infrastructure by which individuals, households, businesses, and communities connect to the Internet refers to the physical mediums that people use to connect to the Internet such as desktop computers, laptops, cell phones, iPods or other MP3 players, Xboxes or PlayStations, electronic book readers, and tablets such as iPads. Other than desktops, most types of Internet capable infrastructure connect through wireless means. In 2009, 56% of Americans said that they had connected to the Internet through wireless means.\n",
"The Internet infrastructure comprises software-driven networked switches, routers, firewalls, servers and storage hardware that switch, route, protect and store all voice, video and text data intelligently across the world.\n",
"Communications infrastructure is the informal and formal channels of communication, political and social networks, or beliefs held by members of particular groups, as well as information technology, software development tools. Still underlying these more conceptual uses is the idea that infrastructure provides organizing structure and support for the system or organization it serves, whether it is a city, a nation, a corporation, or a collection of people with common interests. Examples include IT infrastructure, research infrastructure, terrorist infrastructure, employment infrastructure and tourism infrastructure.\n",
"Chapter 5: Infrastructure for the 21st Century presents the notion of an information infrastructure. Alongside traditional infrastructure such as the road network, telephone lines, water and sewage this chapter states the American advanced economy must have an information infrastructure – high speed internet access, adequate spectrum allotment, cloud network etc. – that can support the increasingly wireless and technology-based economy.\n",
"The Infrastructure is the \"enabler\" of information systems which describes the supporting services, computing platforms, and internal and external interfaces needed to provide technology environments within which information systems run.\n",
"BULLET::::- Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) (which refers to online services that abstract the user from the details of infrastructure like physical computing resources, location, data partitioning, scaling, security, backup etc.)\n",
"Cyber infrastructures which consists of archive collections which are made available through the system of hardware, technologies, software, policies, services and tools. Cyber infrastructures are geared towards the sharing of data supporting peer-to-peer collaborations and a cultural community.\n"
] |
why does english pop up everywhere? like in anime, and foreign music they just say a line in english and then just back to their respective languages.
|
Because it's currently seen as the lingua franca of the western world I'd reckon
|
[
"The foreign language songs are often \"misheard\" into English by the creators and added as subtitles. The words are not translations but soramimis, English words that sound roughly the same as the original lyrics. For example, the animutation title \"French erotic film\" is a soramimi of the original Dutch lyrics \"Weet je wat ik wil\" in an Ome Henk song. The actual translation of the lyrics is \"Do you know what I want?\"\n",
"Due to the game's Japanese setting and focus, in addition to people preferring overseas songs in their original languages, the Western version of the game features Japanese audio with subtitles rather than an English dub. Finding English actors to perform the game's songs would also have lengthened the estimated localization time by a whole year. Its localization was handled by Atlus staff rather than Nintendo's internal localization division Nintendo Treehouse. Atlus was chosen over Nintendo due to fan expectation of the type of localization common to an Atlus-published title, and the wish to make the game appeal to long-term fans of the company's work. This placed the game in contrast with the majority of other Nintendo titles localized for the West, where Nintendo's attitude was described as \"very hands-on\".\n",
"Many video games originally produced in North America, Japan, and PAL countries are dubbed into foreign languages for release in areas such as Europe and Australia, especially for video games that place a heavy emphasis on dialogue. Because characters' mouth movements can be part of the game's code, lip sync is sometimes achieved by re-coding the mouth movements to match the dialogue in the new language. The Source engine automatically generates lip-sync data, making it easier for games to be localized.\n",
"The central focus of the fan translation community is historically of Japanese-exclusive computer and video games being made playable in English for the first time, and sometimes of games recently released in Japan that are import-worthy and are unlikely to be officially localized to English speaking countries. It has since expanded to include other languages as well. Fan translations to English have provided a starting point for translations to many other languages. A fan translation is also started if a certain game released in Japan is not announced for localization within one year from its Japanese release.\n",
"Despite not featuring the original Japanese music, the American release of the game allows for selectable English (Funimation cast) and Japanese voices, while retaining the English-language written dialogue (as adapted from Steven J. Simmons' translation from the original Japanese version's script). However, there are known bugs in the American version of \"Budokai Tenkaichi\" that cause pieces of English and Japanese spoken dialogue to cross over into whichever selection the player is using at times, specifically Super Saiyan 4 Goku lacking an English dub audio clip after defeating Super Saiyan 4 Vegeta and Super Saiyan 1 Future Trunks lacking an English audio clip for his super finishing move, Finish Buster, though other examples may also apply.\n",
"The localization was done by the philosophy of keeping true to the spirit of the original Japanese, making dialogue sound like what a native speaker of English would say instead of strictly adhering the original's exact wording. The localization editor, Ben Bateman, did this by looking at the writing from a wider view, line by line or scene by scene rather than word by word or sentence by sentence, and thinking about how to convey the same ideas in English. Most parts of the game that include a joke in the localization also have a joke in the Japanese version, but a different one; Bateman did however try to make similar types of jokes, with similar contents and ideas. The game's use of Japanese language puns led to problems, as many of them relied on Japanese dialects to function; for these, Bateman replaced them with new puns in English. He was given mostly free rein in what he could change or add, as long as it did not disrupt the plot.\n",
"Adult cartoons such as \"Family Guy\", \"South Park\", and \"The Simpsons\" are shown dubbed in Japanese on the WOWOW TV channel. \"\" was dubbed in Japanese by different actors instead of the same Japanese dubbing-actors from the cartoon because it was handled by a different Japanese dubbing studio, and it was marketed for the Kansai market. In Japanese theaters, foreign-language movies, except those intended for children, are usually shown in their original version with Japanese subtitles. Foreign films usually contain multiple Japanese-dubbing versions, but with several different original Japanese-dubbing voice actors, depending upon which TV station they are aired. NHK, Nippon TV, Fuji TV, TV Asahi, and TBS usually follow this practice, as do software releases on VHS, Laserdisc, DVD and Blu-ray. As for recent foreign films being released, there are now some film theaters in Japan that show both dubbed and subtitled editions.\n"
] |
Border Between Portugal and Spain
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Why specifically these borders and not somewhere else is a question that's beyond me, but Portugal, immediately after its Reconquista, was a County and vassal to the Kingdom of Galicia and later Leon. Afonso I of Portugal became independent mostly with papal support due to his role in driving out the Moors in present day Portugal. Since then borders have shifted and wasn't finalized for a few more hundred years.
The language thing is more clear - Portuguese used to be a lot more like Galician, but in the past thousand years or so they've become more and more different, with Castillan taking hold of the rest of Spain and slowly relegating other Iberian languages like Leonese, Aragonese, Basque, Catalan, and Asturian to secondary status. These languages all have similarities and were a varying degree of difference between Portuguese and Castillan.
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[
"Despite these definitions, the Portugal-Spain border remains an unresolved territorial dispute between the two countries. Portugal does not recognise the border between Caia and Ribeira de Cuncos River deltas, since the beginning of the 1801 occupation of Olivenza by Spain. This territory, though under \"de facto\" Spanish occupation, remains a \"de jure\" part of Portugal, consequently no border is henceforth recognised in this area.\n",
"The Portugal–Spain border is referred to as \"la Raya\" in the Spanish language and \"A Raia\" in the Portuguese language (the stripe). The current demarcation is almost identical to that defined in 1297 by the Treaty of Alcañices. It is one of the oldest borders in the world. The Portugal–Spain border is long, and considered the longest uninterrupted border within the European Union. The border is not defined for between the Caia river and Ribeira de Cuncos, because of the disputed status of Olivenza, which has been disputed between the two countries for two hundred years.\n",
"The Spain-Portugal border, commonly known as \"La Raya\", is 1292 kilometers long. It extends through the provinces of Pontevedra, Ourense, Zamora, Salamanca, Cáceres, Badajoz and Huelva in Spain, and the districts of Viana do Castelo, Braga, Vila Real, Bragança, Guarda, Castelo Branco, Portalegre, Évora, Beja, Faro in Portugal.\n",
"Language contact between Spanish and Portuguese is the result of sustained contact between the two languages in border communities and multilingual trade environments. Such regions include the border regions between Portugal and Spain in the Iberian Peninsula, as well as the ones between Brazil, whose official language is Portuguese, and most of its neighboring countries whose official languages are Spanish. Because \"Portuñol\" is a spontaneous register resulting from the occasional mixing of Spanish and Portuguese, it is highly diverse; there is no one dialect or standard of \"Portuñol\". There does, however, tend to be a stronger presence of Spanish in \"Portuñol\".\n",
"Portugal and Spain signed an agreement demarcating the border from the confluence of Ribeira de Cuncos with the Guadiana, just south of Olivenza, to the estuary of the Guadiana River, on the far South. The border between Portugal and Spain from the confluence of the Caia (river) to the confluence of the Ribeira de Cuncos is not demarcated and remains so nowadays, with the Guadiana River being the de facto border.\n",
"Portugal and Spain signed the Schengen Agreement in June 1991 which came into effect on 26 March 1995, making Portugal and Spain part of the Schengen area and thus the border then became an Open border. \n",
"Portugal–Spain relations describes relations between the governments of the Portuguese Republic and the Kingdom of Spain. The two states make up the vast majority of the Iberian Peninsula and as such, the relationship between the two is sometimes known as Iberian relations.\n"
] |
- why do people want ivory so bad and why is it illegal?
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Before the advent of plastics, ivory was a very durable alternative to wood. It was considered a luxury good because of its relative scarcity. Most countries have made ivory trade illegal because harvesting it requires killing of endangered elephants.
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[
"Ivory has been traded for hundreds of years by people in regions such as Greenland, Alaska, and Siberia. The trade, in more recent times, has led to endangerment of species, resulting in restrictions and bans. Ivory was formerly used to make piano keys and other decorative items because of the white color it presents when processed but the piano industry abandoned ivory as a key covering material in the 1980s.\n",
"Advocates also believe that destroying ivory can influence the supply side of the ivory market by sending a strong, highly visible and well-publicized message that the ivory market is dangerous and futile. Similarly, those who would otherwise consider ivory as an investment opportunity may think twice if the market is so consistently disrupted. French Minister of Ecology Philippe Martin called the destruction of ivory \"indispensable in the fight against trafficking of threatened species\" and said that it sends \"a firm message\".\n",
"Ivory, which is a natural material of several animals, plays a large part in the trade of illegal animal materials and poaching. Ivory is a material used in creating art objects and jewelry where the ivory is carved with designs. China is a consumer of the ivory trade and accounts for a significant amount of ivory sales. In 2012, \"The New York Times\" reported on a large upsurge in ivory poaching, with about 70% of all illegal ivory flowing to China.\n",
"The national and international trade in ivory of threatened species such as African and Asian elephants is illegal. The word \"ivory\" ultimately derives from the ancient Egyptian \"âb, âbu\" (\"elephant\"), through the Latin \"ebor-\" or \"ebur\".\n",
"The destruction of ivory is a technique used by governments and conservation groups to deter the poaching of elephants for their tusks and to suppress the illegal ivory trade. , more than of ivory has been destroyed, typically by burning or crushing, in these high-profile events in 21 countries around the world. Kenya held the first event in 1989, as well as the largest event in 2016, when a total of of ivory were incinerated.\n",
"The poaching of elephants for their ivory, meat and hides has been one of the major threats to their existence. Historically, numerous cultures made ornaments and other works of art from elephant ivory, and its use rivalled that of gold. The ivory trade contributed to the African elephant population decline in the late 20th century. This prompted international bans on ivory imports, starting with the United States in June 1989, and followed by bans in other North American countries, western European countries, and Japan. Around the same time, Kenya destroyed all its ivory stocks. CITES approved an international ban on ivory that went into effect in January 1990. Following the bans, unemployment rose in India and China, where the ivory industry was important economically. By contrast, Japan and Hong Kong, which were also part of the industry, were able to adapt and were not badly affected. Zimbabwe, Botswana, Namibia, Zambia, and Malawi wanted to continue the ivory trade and were allowed to, since their local elephant populations were healthy, but only if their supplies were from elephants that had been culled or died of natural causes.\n",
"Since the ivory ban, some Southern African countries have claimed their elephant populations are stable or increasing, and argued that ivory sales would support their conservation efforts. Other African countries oppose this position, stating that renewed ivory trading puts their own elephant populations under greater threat from poachers reacting to demand. CITES allowed the sale of 49 tonnes of ivory from Zimbabwe, Namibia and Botswana in 1997 to Japan.\n"
] |
what is the difference between a credit card reader and a chip-and-pin machine?
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Chip and pin cards look [like this](_URL_0_), where you insert the chip into [the reader](_URL_1_), and are prompted to enter a PIN number (like an ATM) before you can make a purchase.
Traditional credit card readers just [swipe the magnetic strip](_URL_2_), and you sign the receipt.
**Edit**: Added images.
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[
"POST cards are inserted into an expansion slot, and are available with connectors for the ISA (also supporting EISA), PCI, PCI Express, Mini PCIe (for laptops), Universal Serial Bus, or Low Pin Count bus, or for a parallel port. A typical card for desktop computers has a different bus interface on each edge; a card for laptop computers may have both a miniPCI and a parallel port connector (plus USB to supply power).\n",
"Chip and PIN is one of the two verification methods that EMV enabled cards can employ. Rather than physically signing a receipt for identification purposes, the user just enters a personal identification number (PIN), typically of 4 to 6 digits in length. This number must correspond to the information stored on the chip. Chip and PIN technology makes it much harder for fraudsters to use a found card, so if someone steals a card, they can't make fraudulent purchases unless they know the PIN.\n",
"Chip and PIN systems can cause problems for travellers from countries that do not issue Chip and PIN cards as some retailers may refuse to accept their chipless cards. While most terminals still accept a magnetic strip card, and the major credit card brands require vendors to accept them, some staff may refuse to take the card, under the belief that they are held liable for any fraud if the card cannot verify a PIN. Non-chip-and-PIN cards may also not work in some unattended vending machines at, for example, train stations, or self-service check-out tills at supermarkets.\n",
"The PIN originated with the introduction of the automated teller machine (ATM) in 1967, as an efficient way for banks to dispense cash to their customers. The first ATM system was that of Barclays in London, in 1967; it accepted cheques with machine-readable encoding, rather than cards, and matched the PIN to the cheque. 1972, Lloyds Bank issued the first bank card to feature an information-encoding magnetic strip, using a PIN for security. James Goodfellow, the inventor who patented the first personal identification number, was awarded an OBE in the 2006 Queen's Birthday Honours.\n",
"Motorized readers are built in, for example ATMs. The credit/debit-card is inserted into the card slot, where the first magnetic head is placed. If a magnetic stripe can be recognized, a shutter will be opened and the card will be transported to the second magnetic head by roles. The card is read, thereby the device knows whether the transaction goes over the micro chip or the magnetic stripe. If no micro chip is placed on the card, the transaction goes directly above the magnetic head. If the data gives the order for a transaction over the micro chip, the card is placed on the chip reading contact and is stopped. The chip contacts, are fitted on the chip and now the transaction begins. If the reading of the magnetic stripe respectively by the micro chip is not possible, the card will be declined.\n",
"The notch on the left hand front of the device is slightly shallower on a CardBus device so, by design, a 32-bit device cannot be plugged into earlier equipment supporting only 16-bit devices. Most new slots accept both CardBus and the original 16-bit PC Card devices. CardBus cards can be distinguished from older cards by the presence of a gold band with eight small studs on the top of the card next to the pin sockets.\n",
"A memory card reader is a device, typically having a USB interface, for accessing the data on a memory card such as a CompactFlash (CF), Secure Digital (SD) or MultiMediaCard (MMC). Most card readers also offer write capability, and together with the card, this can function as a pen drive.\n"
] |
Is there any hard data to suggest that an animal that has killed a human (like the bear on the front page) is actually likely to repeat this behavior?
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Yes there is. Especially if they develop a taste for human meat. Carnivores frequently will attack humans if they are sick, weak, or old. We are quite easy to eat.
about lions in the 1800's that preyed on Keyan construction Workers _URL_0_
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[
"BULLET::::- Initially, there were a number of animal deaths from disease, toxic exposure, maternal killings, and park vehicles. The United States Department of Agriculture investigation found no violations of the Animal Welfare Act for the 29 deaths that happened September 1997 – April 1998.\n",
"BULLET::::- Initially, there were a number of animal deaths from disease, toxic exposure, maternal killings, and park vehicles. The United States Department of Agriculture investigation found no violations of the Animal Welfare Act for the 29 deaths that happened September 1997 – April 1998.\n",
"In 1993, 25 schools throughout New England, United States participated in a roadkill study involving 1,923 animal deaths. By category, the fatalities were: 81% mammals, 15% bird, 3% reptiles and amphibians, 1% indiscernible. Extrapolating these data nationwide, Merritt Clifton (editor of \"Animal People Newspaper\") estimated that the following animals are being killed by motor vehicles in the United States annually: 41 million squirrels, 26 million cats, 22 million rats, 19 million opossums, 15 million raccoons, 6 million dogs, and 350,000 deer. This study may not have considered differences in observability between taxa (e.g. dead raccoons are easier to see than dead frogs), and has not been published in peer-reviewed scientific literature.\n",
"A naturalist retained by the Carnegie family reviewed accounts of 80 events in Alaska and Canada where wolves closely approached or attacked people, found 39 cases of aggression by apparently healthy wolves, and 29 cases of fearless behavior by non-aggressive wolves. After examining photographs of Carnegie's body and the area around it, a naturalist concluded that the argument in favour of a bear culprit was weak: many black bears may have been hibernating, an active bear would have concentrated on an ample food supply from the nearby landfill 2 km from the kill site, and none of the camp employees saw bears or bear tracks, either the month before or after the attack occurred. A bruise on Carnegie's right lower leg (measured 4 × 2.5 cm), with what appeared to be bite mark impressions associated with the bruising was said to be consistent with injuries observed in 13 survivors of wolf attacks in Alaska and Canada. In many of these cases, the initial bites were fleeting and occurred in the hands or legs, and left only torn clothing, scratched skin, or minor puncture wounds. A photo, featuring the injured lower back of a six-year-old Alaskan boy attacked by a wolf near Icy Bay showed bite marks ½-3 cm in length; many of which were similar to those found near the nose, eyes, and right arm of Carnegie's body.\n",
"As of 21 June 2006, his kills included 33 sheep, four domestic rabbits, one guinea pig, as well as some hens and goats. Further concern was expressed due to the proximity of the bear's preferred prey to humans.\n",
"Before Carnegie's death, there had been at least one verified case of a fatal wolf attack on a person in North America, namely Canada, where Patricia Wyman died on 18 April 1996. More than 300 occurrences of black bears behaving aggressively toward humans have been documented in the province, including three fatal attacks. The main evidence against a bear attack was that Carnegie's body was surrounded by the tracks of wolves, while no bear tracks were found near his body.\n",
"BULLET::::- an individual can provide evidence showing it was necessary to kill or injure a protected animal or bird in order to protect livestock, crops, vegetables, fruit, growing timber and fisheries.\n"
] |
why is it that the majority of the police officers/military in corrupt states defend the corrupted governments?
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Cops aren't as oppressed as those they help oppressed. Cops break the law a lot more than your average citizen and their position lets them get away with it. As long as they keep those in power they get to keep their jobs and the perks that come along with it.
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[
"Police corruption is a major problem, owing partly to low wage and poor training. The police are generally viewed as the nation's third most corrupt institution, and corruption is widely seen as the main impediment to legitimate crime-fighting. In six years, three police chiefs have been fired for corruption or abuse of power. Many police officers have ties to organized crime, mainly drug traffickers, and many are appointed to senior positions, a power that is exclusively exercised by the president, because of their political connections.\n",
"Police corruption affects society, including political, economic, and sociological. The social aspect is perhaps easiest to define, because even one corrupt officer in a department can generate an overall distrust of the department (the theory). This negative outlook on policing by civilians helps maintain an \"us versus them\" mentality among police, which only serves to further the rift between police officers and civilians.\n",
"Local elites can afford to be oppressive and corrupt, because, with foreign loans and military aid, they can stay in power even without popular support. And they are often so oppressive and corrupt, because it is, in light of the prevailing extreme international inequalities, far more lucrative for them to cater to the interests of foreign governments and firms than to those of their impoverished compatriots.\n",
"Police corruption not only generates distrust among the public, but undermines the criminal justice system as a whole. Judges and prosecutors may develop a negative opinion of officers who come to testify in cases, especially those who have a history of disciplinary action related to corrupt acts. The trustworthiness of officers who work in departments where corruption has been discovered is severely diminished, and even if the testimony they provide in court is an exact recollection of the events in question, a prosecutor or judge may choose to simply ignore these facts because of their association with a seemingly corrupt department. In the case of the Waldo Police Department located in Florida, the entire department was disbanded partly due to allegations of corruption, meaning county law enforcement must take over where the city failed.\n",
"It is believed that corruption among the Indian Police Service is pervasive and goes up to the top brass. Reform has been made difficult with honest officers pressured by powerful local officials and suffer punitive transfers and threats while corrupt officers receive promotions. An example is the transfer of Kiran Bedi for giving a parking ticket to the Prime Ministers car.\n",
"While political issues can easily be worked through, the social effect of police corruption is much harder to overcome. Civilians, especially those who or know someone who has been victimized by certain types of corruption, tend to see police officers as enemy forces. Similarly, police officers view civilians in the same light. Both issues have only been exacerbated by the War on Crime and War on Drugs. The \"us versus them\" mentality is especially prevalent among inner city minorities, where stereotyping and racial targeting seem to be the norm.\n",
"Corrupt activities among the police are typically defined as using a position of power to influence particular decisions, such as nepotism, the giving and taking of bribes, accessing information that is not directly related to an officer's current work or investigation(s), and lower levels of organised crime are also commonly noted in cases of police corruption.\n"
] |
What is the Western Han and Eastern Han in the context of the Han Dynasty?
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They are the same dynasty ruled by the same family. The reason why there is the Western Han and the Eastern Han is because in between the two, a man named Wang Mang usurped power from the Western Han emperor and established the Xin Dynasty. After he was defeated and overthrown, the Han dynasty was reestablished in Luoyang (in the east), rather than in the old capital Chang'an (in the west), hence the name "Eastern Han". In some texts you might come across Former Han and Latter Han, which is the same as Western Han and Eastern Han.
|
[
"Han (, Old Chinese: \"*\") was an ancient Chinese state during the Warring States period of ancient China. It is conventionally romanized by scholars as Hann to distinguish it from the later Han dynasty (漢).\n",
"The Han dynasty (simplified Chinese: 汉朝; traditional Chinese: 漢朝; pinyin: Hàn Cháo; 206 BCE – 220 CE) was the second imperial dynasty of China, preceded by the Qin Dynasty and succeeded by the Three Kingdoms (220–265 CE). Spanning over four centuries, the period of the Han Dynasty is considered a golden age in Chinese history. One of the Han dynasty's greatest emperors, Emperor Wu of Han, established a peace throughout China comparable to the Pax Romana seen in the Mediterranean a hundred years later. To this day, China's majority ethnic group refers to itself as the \"Han people\". The Han Dynasty was established when two peasants succeeded in rising up against Shi Huang's significantly weaker successor-son. The new Han government retained the centralization and bureaucracy of the Qin, but greatly reduced the repression seen before. They expanded their territory into Korea, Vietnam, and Central Asia, creating an even larger empire than the Qin.\n",
"The Han dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE) was a period of Ancient China divided into the Western Han (206 BCE – 9 CE) and Eastern Han (25–220 CE) periods, when the capital cities were located at Chang'an and Luoyang, respectively. It was founded by Emperor Gaozu of Han and briefly interrupted by the regime of Wang Mang (r. 9–23 CE) who usurped the throne from a child Han emperor.\n",
"The Eastern Han (), also known as the Later Han (), formally began on 5 August 25, when Liu Xiu became Emperor Guangwu of Han. During the widespread rebellion against Wang Mang, the state of Goguryeo was free to raid Han's Korean commanderies; Han did not reaffirm its control over the region until AD 30. The Trưng Sisters of Vietnam rebelled against Han in AD 40. Their rebellion was crushed by Han general Ma Yuan (d. AD 49) in a campaign from AD 42–43. Wang Mang renewed hostilities against the Xiongnu, who were estranged from Han until their leader Bi (比), a rival claimant to the throne against his cousin Punu (蒲奴), submitted to Han as a tributary vassal in AD 50. This created two rival Xiongnu states: the Southern Xiongnu led by Bi, an ally of Han, and the Northern Xiongnu led by Punu, an enemy of Han.\n",
"The Han dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD) of ancient China experienced contrasting periods of economic prosperity and decline. It is normally divided into three periods: Western Han (206 BC – 9 AD), the Xin dynasty (9–23 AD), and Eastern Han (25–220 AD). The Xin regime, established by the former regent Wang Mang, formed a brief interregnum between lengthy periods of Han rule. Following the fall of Wang Mang, the Han capital was moved eastward from Chang'an to Luoyang. In consequence, historians have named the succeeding eras Western Han and Eastern Han respectively.\n",
"The Greater Han is a school of thought, \"which holds that all the inhabitants of China belong to one (Chinese) family, and that incidental differences of culture, religion and language are unfortunate aberrations, destined to be subsumed in a 'Greater Han' Chinese whole.\"\n",
"The Han dynasty (; ) was the second imperial dynasty of China (206 BC–220 AD), preceded by the Qin dynasty (221–206 BC) and succeeded by the Three Kingdoms period (220–280 AD). Spanning over four centuries, the Han period is considered a golden age in Chinese history. To this day, China's majority ethnic group refers to themselves as the \"Han Chinese\" and the Chinese script is referred to as \"Han characters\". It was founded by the rebel leader Liu Bang, known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu of Han, and briefly interrupted by the Xin dynasty (9–23 AD) of the former regent Wang Mang. This interregnum separates the Han dynasty into two periods: the Western Han or Former Han (206 BC – 9 AD) and the Eastern Han or Later Han (25–220 AD).\n"
] |
When you rinse out a glass of red wine, why does the water turn gray?
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Probably the pH change, which turns the anthocyanidins from their "native" reddish/purple color (at the low pH of the wine) to a blue color which, when diluted, looks a bit gray. This is also a decent technique for removing red wine stains: use a cleaner with a higher pH. _URL_0_
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[
"As red wine ages, the harsh tannins of its youth gradually give way to a softer mouthfeel. An inky dark color will eventually lose its depth of color and begin to appear orange at the edges, and eventually turn brown. These changes occur due to the complex chemical reactions of the phenolic compounds of the wine. In processes that begin during fermentation and continue after bottling, these compounds bind together and aggregate. Eventually these particles reach a certain size where they are too large to stay suspended in the solution and precipitate out. The presence of visible sediment in a bottle will usually indicate a mature wine. The resulting wine, with this loss of tannins and pigment, will have a paler color and taste softer, less astringent. The sediment, while harmless, can have an unpleasant taste and is often separated from the wine by decanting.\n",
"Glasses for red wine are characterized by their rounder, wider bowl, which increases the rate of oxidation. As oxygen from the air chemically interacts with the wine, flavor and aroma are believed to be subtly altered. This process of oxidation is generally considered more compatible with red wines, whose complex flavours are said to be smoothed out after being exposed to air. Red wine glasses can have particular styles of their own, such as\n",
"Finally some white wines can be victims of \"Rosissement\" (pinking). This phenomenon manifests itself in a light rosé colouration of the wine and takes the appearance of a \"stained\" wine or one that is contaminated by the presence of anthocyanins from red wine. Yet this is not so: the phenomenon is due to the presence of a normally colourless dissolved polyphenol which turns pink due to oxidation. An infusion of PVPP generally eliminates the substrate of oxidation. Some varieties are particularly sensitive to pinking: Sauvignon B, Viognier, Grenache B...\n",
"Red wines sometimes undergo fining, which is designed to clarify the wine and sometimes to correct faults such as excess tannin. Fining agents include egg white and gelatin. Some red wines, particularly those designed for early drinking, are cold stabilized so as to prevent the precipitation of unsightly tartrate crystals in the bottle.\n",
"Because of its shorter maceration, white wine contains very little tannin and therefore little antioxidants that make red wine so interesting medically speaking. However, a team of researchers from Montpellier has developed a white wine enriched with polyphenols.\n",
"When placed in the mouth white wine has a balance different from red wine from which the tannic structure is removed. The balance is no longer based only on alcohol and acidity: this is the factor that explains the difficulty of making a white wine.\n",
"Part of the color of red wine can be due to the copigmentation phenomenon. Copigmentation is only important during the early stages of a wine's age. Anthocyanins begin to polymerize with other wine compounds, such as hydroxycinnamic acids, tannins, glyceraldehyde or proteins, to form more complex structures with covalent C–C bonds.\n"
] |
Why aren't we crushed by the weight of the air over our heads? And why don't we feel the weight of the air lifted off of us when we go into a car or building?
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[Atmospheric pressure](_URL_0_) is the measure of the amount of force the air exerts on you per area. So it _is_ already measuring the weight of air that exerts on some area. If your room is at one atm, it is pressurized. The weight of air is on you.
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[
"The sensation of weight is caused by the force exerted by fluids in the vestibular system, a three-dimensional set of tubes in the inner ear. It is actually the sensation of g-force, regardless of whether this is due to being stationary in the presence of gravity, or, if the person is in motion, the result of any other forces acting on the body such as in the case of acceleration or deceleration of a lift, or centrifugal forces when turning sharply.\n",
"Humans experience their own body weight as a result of this supporting force, which results in a normal force applied to a person by the surface of a supporting object, on which the person is standing or sitting. In the absence of this force, a person would be in free-fall, and would experience weightlessness. It is the transmission of this reaction force through the human body, and the resultant compression and tension of the body's tissues, that results in the sensation of weight.\n",
"While lifting a vehicle to gain ground clearance is helpful to off-roaders, it can also make a vehicle dangerous as, when a vehicle has been lifted, its center of gravity rises, which causes the vehicle to be more likely to tumble in certain situations. Other dangers include loss of visibility of smaller objects and bumper height as compared to other vehicles on the road. In the United States, bumper and frame height laws are effective in most states to ensure that the vehicles on the road are not too much higher than their average car counterparts. Lifting vehicles improperly without taking driveline angles into consideration will wear out suspension components faster and make them more prone to failure.\n",
"The human body is more resistant to sheer overpressure than most buildings, however, the powerful winds produced by this overpressure, as in a hurricane, are capable of throwing human bodies into objects or throwing debris at high velocity, both with lethal results, rendering casualties highly dependent on surroundings. For example, Sumiteru Taniguchi recounts that, while clinging to the tremoring road surface after the Fat Man detonation, he witnessing another child being blown away, the destruction of buildings around him and stones flying through the air. Similarly, Akihiro Takahashi and his classmates were blown by the blast of Little Boy by a distance of about 10 meters, having survived due to not colliding with any walls etc. during his flight through the air. Likewise, Katsuichi Hosoya had a near identical testimony.\n",
"The reason why the object does not fall down when subjected to only downward forces is a simple one. Think about what keeps an object up after it is thrown. Once an object is thrown into the air, there is only the downward force of earth's gravity that acts on the object. That does not mean that once an object is thrown in the air, it will fall instantly. What keeps that object up in the air is its velocity. The first of Newton's laws of motion states that an object's inertia keeps it in motion, and since the object in the air has a velocity, it will tend to keep moving in that direction.\n",
"In cases where an object is not weightless, as in the above examples, a force acts non-uniformly on the object in question. Aero-dynamic lift, drag, and thrust are all non-uniform forces (they are applied at a point or surface, rather than acting on the entire mass of an object), and thus create the phenomenon of weight. This non-uniform force may also be transmitted to an object at the point of contact with a second object, such as the contact between the surface of the Earth and one's feet, or between a parachute harness and one's body.\n",
"BULLET::::- Objects are falling to the floor because the room is aboard a rocket in space, which is accelerating at 9.81 m/s and is far from any source of gravity. The objects are being pulled towards the floor by the same \"inertial force\" that presses the driver of an accelerating car into the back of his seat.\n"
] |
why do some people who's parents are immigrants have an accent while others don't ?
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Accents tend to come more from peers than parents. So someone who grew up in an area where all the friends and neighbors share the same accent, or perhaps went to a private or parochial school where that was the case, will more likely have a similar accent. But when children go to assimilated schools, especially at the younger ages, they're more likely to get that accent than their parents'.
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[
"Children are able to take on accents relatively quickly. Children of immigrant families, for example, generally have a more native-like pronunciation than their parents, but both children and parents may have a noticeable non-native accent. Accents seem to remain relatively malleable until a person's early twenties, after which a person's accent seems to become more entrenched.\n",
"Asian second-generation immigrants, like their Hispanic counterparts, tend to be bilingual. Children of Asian immigrants are likely to lose proficiency in their parents' native language while maintaining an emotional attachment to their family and heritage, which helps them develop their identity. While second generation Asian immigrants strive for the middle class white status, as many of their parents do, they develop a sensitivity to issues of race and ethnicity, which can be a major factor in the process of assimilation.\n",
"With 40% of Hispanic and Latino Americans being immigrants, and with many of the 60% who are U.S.-born being the children or grandchildren of immigrants, bilingualism is the norm in the community at large. At home, at least 69% of all Hispanics over the age of five are bilingual in English and Spanish, whereas up to 22% are monolingual English-speakers, and 9% are monolingual Spanish speakers. Another 0.4% speak a language other than English and Spanish at home.\n",
"Academic research has identified an \"immigrant paradox\" where children of immigrants (or very young immigrants), despite sociocultural limitations, often perform better than their native-born (and native family) counterparts. This is likely due to immigrants wanting to rise to their previous social standing in their country of origin.\n",
"First-generation immigrants often settle in ethnic enclaves, which carry a host of advantages. Residents of these neighborhoods have access to a strong and supportive network of same-ethnicity peers and potential access to culturally sensitive healthcare providers that may allow for increased financial gain and better physical and mental health outcomes. Ethnic enclaves also eliminate the challenges associated with language barriers, with residents often sharing linguistic similarity.\n",
"There is a great deal of diversity in terms of ethnicities and races within the second immigrant generation population. This diversity among immigrants can be seen in language use, as the majority of second-generation immigrants are bilingual, with 2/3 speaking a language other than English in their homes. In addition, differing ethnicity and racial groups have experiences that are unique to their group. Hispanics, Asian Americans, and African Americans are three of the major groups that make up the population of second-generation immigrants in the United States.\n",
"There is also increasing pressure on bilingual immigrants to renounce their mother tongue and to adopt their host country's language. As a result, even though there may be immigrants from a wide variety of nationalities and cultures, the main language spoken in the country does not reflect them.\n"
] |
When did winking become a thing?
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I can tell you the OED's first use of this definition of the word "wink" if that's useful at all.
1541 Thomas Elyot's *Image of Gouernance* (Governance)
"Of a mayster sturdy and fierce, a lyttell wynke to his seruant is a fearefull commaundement."
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[
"Winking is one of the more subtle gestures, usually involving eye contact between those involved. In most cases it is only meant to be known by the sender and their intended receivers, but in some cases can be more widely intended.\n",
"However, winking in the Indian subcontinent often has similar connotations as in the West. It can be used to signal an \"inside\" joke, a sly gesture shared between two people privately, unbeknownst to those around them, as in a social gathering. It can also be a naughty \"come on\" by a girl to a boy or vice versa.\n",
"A wink is a facial expression made by briefly closing one eye. A wink is an informal mode of non-verbal communication usually signaling shared hidden knowledge or intent. However, it is ambiguous by itself and highly dependent upon additional context, without which a wink could become misinterpreted or even nonsensical. For example, in some regions of the world, a wink may be considered rude or offensive. And depending on the relationship of the people involved, a wink could possibly constitute a sexual gesture.\n",
"In China and reportedly to some extent in India, winking may be seen as an offensive or at least an impolite gesture. This is demonstrated in the commotion caused by Sarah Palin in a number of Asian countries during the 2008 vice presidential debate, where she winked several times while debating Joe Biden. When Frederick Spencer Chapman was training Chinese guerillas in Malaya to shoot rifles, he found that a large proportion of them were unable to close only one eye at a time.\n",
"A wink could also be used as a somewhat humorous way to express sympathy, solidarity, and encouragement, especially when the winker is trying to put the receiver at ease in a situation where they might feel nervous or uncomfortable. In such cases a wink has a meaning very similar to that of a \"thumbs up\".\n",
"In some cultures it is often a sexual interest, or flirtatious manner, during momentary eye contact. This is often followed by a smile and usually a smile from the receiver if it is accepted or approved by them, sometimes combined with blushing if they are embarrassed. A smile from the receiver sometimes—but not always—indicates (sexual) interest in the winker. For example, in the Wodaabe tribe in the Niger area, someone who wants to engage in sexual activities can wink at a person. If the person continues to look at them, they will slightly move their lip corner, showing the way to the bush the person is expected to have sex with them in.\n",
"Winking in Western culture can be used as a way of letting someone else know that the winker or some other person is joking or lying (e.g., a parent tells their child a story about a fairy princess, and then winks at the child's older sibling, the sibling thus knows the parent is lying to the younger child). It may also be used to communicate sexual intentions, ranging from flirtation to an explicit invitation. In Australia, however, winking is generally considered improper.\n"
] |
why do we use olive oil instead of frying oil when stirfrying vegetables?
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Properly stir-frying anything requires using really high temperatures.
Most olive oil has a relatively low smoke point (the temperature at which it starts to break down & smoke). Stir-fry oils are generally things that handle temperatures better like corn, peanut, canola & soy.
There's also the bit that olives are not native to Asia, where stirfry recipes are from so the flavor profile of olive oil (which is relatively pronounced compared to many other cooking oils) is a poor match for the types of dishes you'd normally be stir frying.
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[
"Olive oil is produced by grinding olives and extracting the oil by mechanical or chemical means. Green olives usually produce more bitter oil, and overripe olives can produce oil that is rancid, so for good extra virgin olive oil care is taken to make sure the olives are perfectly ripened. The process is generally as follows:\n",
"Some studies have found that deep frying in olive and sunflower oils has been found to be less of a detriment to health and in some cases have positive effects on insulin levels. Oil can be reused a few times after original use after straining out solids. However, excessive use of the same oil can cause it to break down and release compounds into the food that may be carcinogenic, affect liver health, or influence the body's ability to absorb vitamins. Some European countries have set public health standards for the safety of frying oil.\n",
"Traditionally, olive oil was produced by crushing olives in stone or wooden mortars or beam presses. Nowadays, olives are ground to tiny bits, obtaining a paste that is mixed with water and processed by a centrifuge, which extracts the oil from the paste, leaving behind pomace.)\n",
"Olive oil is also a natural and safe lubricant, and can be used to lubricate kitchen machinery (grinders, blenders, cookware, etc.). It can also be used for illumination (oil lamps) or as the base for soaps and detergents. Some cosmetics also use olive oil as their base, and it can be used as a substitute for machine oil. Olive oil has also been used as both solvent and ligand in the synthesis of cadmium selenide quantum dots.\n",
"The taste of the olive oil is influenced by the varietals used to produce the oil and by the moment when the olives are harvested and ground (less ripe olives give more bitter and spicy flavors – riper olives give a sweeter sensation in the oil).\n",
"Olive oil is popular for use in massaging infants and toddlers, but scientific evidence of its efficacy is mixed. One analysis of olive oil versus mineral oil found that, when used for infant massage, olive oil can be considered a safe alternative to sunflower, grapeseed and fractionated coconut oils. This stands true particularly when it is mixed with a lighter oil like sunflower, which \"would have the further effect of reducing the already low levels of free fatty acids present in olive oil\". Another trial stated that olive oil lowered the risk of dermatitis for infants in all gestational stages when compared with emollient cream. However, yet another study on adults found that topical treatment with olive oil \"significantly damages the skin barrier\" when compared to sunflower oil, and that it may make existing atopic dermatitis worse. The researchers concluded that due to the negative outcome in adults, they do not recommend the use of olive oil for the treatment of dry skin and infant massage.\n",
"When extra virgin olive oil is heated above , depending on its free fatty acid content, the unrefined particles within the oil are burned. This leads to deteriorated taste. Also, most consumers do not like the pronounced taste of extra virgin olive oil for deep fried foods. Refined olive oils are suited for deep frying because of the higher smoke point and milder flavour. Extra virgin oils have a smoke point around 165–190 °C (325–375 °F) whereas refined light olive oil has a smoke point up to 240 °C (465 °F).\n"
] |
why european civilizations were so much more advanced in terms of everything compared to african and native american civilizations. and so when white ppl came to america they basically just took over with guns.
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[
"Between 1878 and 1898, European states partitioned and conquered most of Africa. For 400 years, European nations had mainly limited their involvement to trading stations on the African coast. Few dared venture inland from the coast; those that did, like the Portuguese, often met defeats and had to retreat to the coast. Several technological innovations helped to overcome this 400-year pattern. One was the development of repeating rifles, which were easier and quicker to load than muskets. Artillery was being used increasingly. In 1885, Hiram S. Maxim developed the maxim gun, the model of the modern-day machine gun. European states kept these weapons largely among themselves by refusing to sell these weapons to African leaders.\n",
"The introduction of firearms does not tell the whole story of the 19th century due to their mixed impact and use in many regions. Indeed, some historians argue that mere advanced technology was not the single most decisive factor in the outcome of many colonial conquests. More important, was the divided, fragmented nature of many small African polities that enabled them to be defeated separately by their enemies. Such fragmentation is not unique to Africa. Germany for example in 1815, was split into over 30 separate states. Despite these weaknesses, until well into the second part of the century, many native forces held their own until the coming of modern artillery, machine guns and rifles.\n",
"By the early 20th century, colonial campaigns in Africa had become increasingly \"modern\". Colonial powers were forced to commit larger bodies of troops for conquest or to suppress rebellion, as the British had to in the Second Boer War or the Italians did in their conquest of Libya. Some of this was due to the fact that in many —but not all— places the technological gap between European armies and native forces had shrunk considerably, mostly with the proliferation of quick-firing rifles. Most of this change was brought on by the evolution of Africans' tactics and strategy. They had abandoned pitched battles and had instead adopted methods of guerrilla warfare. In this fashion, the Boers (in South Africa), the Herero and Nama (in German South-West Africa), the Moroccans, and the Libyans all enjoyed considerable success against their opponents before their eventual respective defeats.\n",
"Importance of guns. Guns were to have an important effect on African military systems. Rising quantities of guns are associated with increases in the slave trade, as major powers such as Dahomey, Benin and Ashanti stepped up their conquests to feed the insatiable demand for human bodies. Guns were the single most important item traded to Africans in the decades prior to 1800, usually paid for in gold or slaves. Some historians argue that the introduction of firearms had an enormous impact on slave gathering in Africa. Flintlocks, which were more reliable than matchlocks, sparked the first big wave of gun sales, and obsolete smoothbore muskets of this type were being exported to Africa even into the 19th century. The psychological impact of guns in the night and dawn attacks favored by slave raiders was significant, and in slave-catching, flintlocks could also be loaded with shot, wounding and crippling victims rather than killing them outright. The connection between the gun trade and the slave trade is described by the Dutch Director-General at Elmina in 1730:\n",
"By the close of the 19th century, new technologies and superior weaponry had allowed European powers to gain control of most of the African interior. The new rulers introduced a cash economy which required African people to become literate and so created a great demand for schools. At the time, the only possibility open to Africans for a western education was through Christian missionaries. Catholic missionaries followed colonial governments into Africa and built schools, monasteries, and churches.\n",
"Few African states in the late nineteenth century were capable of fielding armies even remotely as large as those routinely assembled for war in Europe, and the same conditions that kept African populations small also militated against deployment of large European armies in Africa. As one British military historian has put it, there were 'no agricultural revolutions here [in Africa] to allow large-scale requisitioning\".\n",
"Central to the success of the Europeans was the use of firearms. However, the advantages afforded by firearms have often been overstated. Prior to the late 19th century, firearms were often cumbersome muzzle-loading, smooth-bore, single shot muskets with flint-lock mechanisms. Such weapons produced a low rate of fire, while suffering from a high rate of failure and were only accurate within . These deficiencies may have initially given the Aborigines an advantage, allowing them to move in close and engage with spears or clubs. Yet by 1850 significant advances in firearms gave the Europeans a distinct advantage, with the six-shot Colt revolver, the Snider single shot breech-loading rifle and later the Martini-Henry rifle, as well as rapid-fire rifles such as the Winchester rifle, becoming available. These weapons, when used on open ground and combined with the superior mobility provided by horses to surround and engage groups of Aborigines, often proved successful. The Europeans also had to adapt their tactics to fight their fast-moving, often hidden enemies. Tactics employed included night-time surprise attacks, and positioning forces to drive the natives off cliffs or force them to retreat into rivers while attacking from both banks.\n"
] |
the united states is over $22 trillion in debt. what does that mean?
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Not a whole lot, actually. Somewhere between 70-80% of that debt is held by American citizens in the form of bonds, including savings bonds. Bonds are heavily used as a stable investment to protect your money from inflation (the rates on the bonds basically keep up with the rate of inflation). And none of the debt is callable, which means that the individuals holding the debt cannot just order to be paid everything due in advance of the payment schedule.
In effect, as long as the GDP grows at about the rate of inflation, the amount of debt that the US has is stable. If inflation shoots up, or if GDP falls heavily, it can get a little bit tricky. But that's why we've got the Federal Reserve to look out for those things well in advance and take action to mitigate it before it becomes a problem.
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[
"The total national debt of the United States in the United States was $18.527 trillion (106% of the GDP) in 2014. The United States has the largest external debt in the world and the 14th largest government debt as a % of GDP in the world.\n",
"The U.S. public debt was $909 billion in 1980, an amount equal to 33% of America's gross domestic product (GDP); by 1990, that number had more than tripled to $3.2 trillion—or 56% of GDP. In 2001 the national debt was $5.7 trillion; however, the debt-to-GDP ratio remained at 1990 levels. Debt levels rose quickly in the following decade, and on January 28, 2010, the U.S. debt ceiling was raised to $14.3 trillion. Based on the 2010 United States federal budget, total national debt will grow to nearly 100% of GDP, versus a level of approximately 80% in early 2009. The White House estimates that the government's tab for servicing the debt will exceed $700 billion a year in 2019, up from $202 billion in 2009.\n",
"U.S. household and non-profit net worth exceeded $100 trillion for the first time in Q1 2018; it has been setting records since Q4 2012. The U.S. federal government or \"national debt\" was $21.1 trillion in May 2018, just over 100% GDP. Using a subset of the national debt called \"debt held by the public\", U.S. debt was approximately 77% GDP in 2017. By this measure, the U.S. ranked 43rd highest among 2017 nations. Debt held by the public rose considerably as a result of the Great Recession and its aftermath. It is expected to continue rising as the country ages towards 100% GDP by 2028.\n",
"For scale, CBO has estimated that the U.S. will add approximately $9.4 trillion to the debt total over the 2018-2027 period, based on laws in place as of January 2017. The $321 billion therefore represents a reduction of about 3.5% of the total debt increase over the decade, while the $150 billion is about 1.6%.\n",
"The national debt rose $238 billion (or about 60% of the new debt ceiling) on August 3, the largest one-day increase in the history of the United States. The US debt surpassed 100 percent of gross domestic product for the first time since World War II. According to the International Monetary Fund, the US joined a group of countries whose public debt exceeds their GDP. The group includes Japan (229 percent), Greece (152 percent), Jamaica (137 percent), Lebanon (134 percent), Italy (120 percent), Ireland (114 percent), and Iceland (103 percent).\n",
"As of June 2019, federal debt held by the public was $16.17 trillion and intragovernmental holdings were $5.86 trillion, for a total national debt of $22.03 trillion. At the end of 2018, debt held by the public was approximately 76.4% of GDP, and approximately 39% of the debt held by the public was owned by foreigners. The United States has the largest external debt in the world. In 2017, the US debt-to-GDP ratio was ranked 43rd highest out of 207 countries. The Congressional Budget Office forecast in April 2018 that debt held by the public will rise to nearly 100% of GDP by 2028, perhaps higher if current policies are extended beyond their scheduled expiration date.\n",
"The US has had public debt since its inception. Debts incurred during the American Revolutionary War and under the Articles of Confederation led to the first yearly report on the amount of the debt ($75,463,476.52 on January 1, 1791). Every president since Harry Truman has added to the national debt. The debt ceiling has been raised 74 times since March 1962, including 18 times under Ronald Reagan, eight times under Bill Clinton, seven times under George W. Bush and three times () under Barack Obama.\n"
] |
what is the bubonic plague, and would it be as fatal today as it was in the middle ages?
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Bubonic plague is a specific kind of disease caused by the bacteria Yersinia pestis. (Pneumonic and septicemic plague are the other kinds, less famous because they didn't destroy Europe.) Yersinia lives in fleas, which live on rodents. As a result, plague was able to spread very quickly in a time when sailors could bring rats across the Mediterranean, and when huge numbers of people lived in crowded, filthy cities where parasites were a normal part of life.
Is it as deadly now? No. Antibiotics have made plague dramatically more survivable, while hygiene in the developed world means you're highly unlikely to get fleas. In fact, when plague was found in squirrels near Los Angeles, the only response was to close a few campgrounds. There are many fine things to worry about, but the Black Death isn't one of them.
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[
"The reference above to bubonic plague seems improbable. Typhoid is far more likely; it was both endemic and epidemic at the period, killing Prince Albert in 1861, but bubonic plague had a heyday from 1348 to about 1700. Cholera is just possible; there were outbreaks in 1832 in Liverpool and reputedly as late as 1860 in London.\n",
"The bubonic plague outbreak existed in three pandemic waves and is known as the Black Death. In the 1300s alone, an estimated 20–30 million people were killed in Europe and approximately 12 million people were killed in China. These deaths were at least 30 percent of the European population at that time. The last major outbreak of the bubonic plague occurred in London from 1665–1666 and is known as The Great Plague.\n",
"Bubonic plague is a variant of the deadly flea-borne disease plague, which is caused by the enterobacteria \"Yersinia pestis\", that devastated human populations beginning in the 14th century. Bubonic plague is primarily spread by fleas that lived on the black rat, an animal that originated in south Asia and spread to Europe by the 6th century. It became common to cities and villages, traveling by ship with explorers. A human would become infected after being bitten by an infected flea. The first sign of an infection of bubonic plague is swelling of the lymph nodes, and the formation of buboes. These buboes would first appear in the groin or armpit area, and would often ooze pus or blood. Eventually infected individuals would become covered with dark splotches caused by bleeding under the skin. The symptoms would be accompanied by a high fever, and within four to seven days of infection, more than half the victims would die. During the 14th and 15th century, humans did not know that a bacterium was the cause of plague, and efforts to slow the spread of disease were futile.\n",
"The bubonic plague was endemic in populations of infected ground rodents in central Asia, and was a known cause of death among migrant and established human populations in that region for centuries. An influx of new people due to political conflicts and global trade led to the distribution of this disease throughout the world.\n",
"The name refers to this pandemic being the third major bubonic plague outbreak to affect European society. The first was the Plague of Justinian, which ravaged the Byzantine Empire and surrounding areas in 541 and 542. The second was the Black Death, which killed at least one third of Europe's population in a series of expanding waves of infection from 1346 to 1353.\n",
"The disease is generally believed to have been bubonic plague, an infection by the bacterium \"Yersinia pestis\", transmitted via a rat vector. Other symptom patterns of the bubonic plague, such as septicemic plague and pneumonic plague were also present.\n",
"The first European epidemic of the bubonic plague dates back to the mid 6th century and is called the Plague of Justinian. The largest plague epidemic was the Black Death in Europe in the 14th century. In medieval times, the large loss of people (due to the bubonic plague) in a town created an economic disaster. Community plague doctors were quite valuable and were given special privileges; for example, plague doctors were freely allowed to perform autopsies, which were otherwise generally forbidden in Medieval Europe, to research a cure for the plague.\n"
] |
[Medicine] Improper alcohol detoxification can kill a person. How then can people rehabilitate alcoholics?
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have them (the addict) continue to consume alcohol as needed to avoid serious withdrawal symptoms.
However, the amount consumed per day is decreased continually over a span of several days, so that their dependance on ethanol is gradually reduced to zero.
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[
"Alcohol detoxification is a process by which a heavy drinker's system is brought back to normal after being habituated to having alcohol in the body continuously for an extended period of substance abuse. Serious alcohol addiction results in a downregulation of GABA neurotransmitter receptors. Precipitous withdrawal from long-term alcohol addiction without medical management can cause severe health problems and can be fatal. Alcohol detox is not a treatment for alcoholism. After detoxification, other treatments must be undergone to deal with the underlying addiction that caused alcohol use.\n",
"Prevention of alcoholism may be attempted by regulating and limiting the sale of alcohol, taxing alcohol to increase its cost, and providing inexpensive treatment. Treatment may take several steps. Due to medical problems that can occur during withdrawal, alcohol detoxification should be carefully controlled. One common method involves the use of benzodiazepine medications, such as diazepam. These can be either given while admitted to a health care institution or occasionally while a person remains in the community with close supervision. Mental illness or other addictions may complicate treatment. After detoxification, support such as group therapy or support groups are used to help keep a person from returning to drinking. One commonly used form of support is the group Alcoholics Anonymous. The medications acamprosate, disulfiram or naltrexone may also be used to help prevent further drinking.\n",
"Alcohol detoxification or 'detox' for alcoholics is an abrupt stop of alcohol drinking coupled with the substitution of drugs, such as benzodiazepines, that have similar effects to prevent alcohol withdrawal. Individuals who are only at risk of mild to moderate withdrawal symptoms can be detoxified as outpatients. Individuals at risk of a severe withdrawal syndrome as well as those who have significant or acute comorbid conditions are generally treated as inpatients. Detoxification does not actually treat alcoholism, and it is necessary to follow up detoxification with an appropriate treatment program for alcohol dependence or abuse to reduce the risk of relapse. Some symptoms of alcohol withdrawal such as depressed mood and anxiety typically take weeks or months to abate while other symptoms persist longer due to persisting neuroadaptations. Alcoholism has serious adverse effects on brain function; on average it takes one year of abstinence to recover from the cognitive deficits incurred by chronic alcohol abuse.\n",
"Alcohol detoxification, or \"detox\", for individuals with alcohol dependence, is the abrupt cessation of alcohol intake, a process often coupled with substitution of cross-tolerant drugs that have effects similar to the effects of alcohol in order to prevent alcohol withdrawal.\n",
"BULLET::::- Alcohol detoxification is the medical treatment for alcohol dependence through the abrupt cessation of alcohol intake, often coupled with substitution of cross-tolerant drugs that have effects similar that of alcohol so as to prevent alcohol withdrawal\n",
"As such, the term \"detoxification\" may be somewhat of a misnomer since the process need not refer exclusively to the removal of toxic substances from the body. Detoxification may or may not be indicated depending upon an individual's age, medical status, and history of alcohol intake. For example, a young man who binge drinks and seeks treatment one week after his last use of alcohol may not require detoxification before beginning treatment for alcoholism.\n",
"After being ingested, the ethanol in alcoholic beverages is first converted to acetaldehyde by the enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase and then to acetic acid by oxidation and egestion process. These reactions also convert nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) to its reduced form NADH in a redox reaction. By causing an imbalance of the NAD/NADH redox system, alcoholic beverages make normal bodily functions more difficult. Consequences of the alcohol induced redox changes in the human body include increased triglyceride production, increased amino acid catabolism, inhibition of the citric acid cycle, lactic acidosis, ketoacidosis, hyperuricemia, disturbance in cortisol and androgen metabolism and increased fibrogenesis. The metabolism of glucose and insulin are also influenced. However, recent studies showed no significant correlation between hangover severity and the concentrations of various hormones, electrolytes, free fatty acids, triglycerides, lactate, ketone bodies, cortisol, and glucose in blood and urine samples.\n"
] |
What is a plausible scientific explanation for "glory clouds" in church services?
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That's dust. Definitely dust, you can tell by the straight line it makes coming from the light.
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[
"The Morning Glory cloud is a rare meteorological phenomenon consisting of a low-level atmospheric solitary wave and associated cloud, occasionally observed in different locations around the world. The wave often occurs as an amplitude-ordered series of waves forming bands of roll clouds.\n",
"A glory is an optical phenomenon, resembling an iconic saint's halo around the shadow of the observer's head, caused by sunlight or (more rarely) moonlight interacting with the tiny water droplets that compose mist or clouds. The glory consists of one or more concentric, successively dimmer rings, each of which is red on the outside and bluish towards the centre. Due to its appearance, the phenomenon is sometimes mistaken for a circular rainbow, but the latter has a much larger diameter and is caused by different physical processes.\n",
"More rarely, cirrus clouds are capable of producing glories, more commonly associated with liquid water-based clouds such as stratus. A glory is a set of concentric, faintly-colored glowing rings that appear around the shadow of the observer, and are best observed from a high viewpoint or from a plane. Cirrus clouds only form glories when the constituent ice crystals are aspherical, and researchers suggest that the ice crystals must be between 0.009 millimeters and 0.015 millimeters in length. \n",
"The Media Cloud is one of the tools used by the Center for Civic Media, and with the capacity for providing data analysis about news coverage from different sources, it has been used in many situations to derive conclusions about the history of news coverage of an event or category, and to generate civic engagement.\n",
"The Morning Glory cloud is not clearly understood because its rarity means it has little significance in terms of rainfall or climate. Regardless of the complexity behind the nature of this atmospheric phenomenon, some conclusions have been made about its causes. Through research, one of the main causes of most Morning Glory occurrences is the mesoscale circulations associated with sea breezes that develop over the peninsula and the gulf. On the large scale, Morning Glories are usually associated with frontal systems crossing central Australia and high pressure in northern Australia. Locals have noted that the Morning Glory is likely to occur when the humidity in the area is high, which provides moisture for the cloud to form, and when strong sea breezes have blown the preceding day.\n",
"Cumulonimbus (from Latin \"cumulus\", \"heaped\" and \"nimbus\", \"rainstorm\") is a dense, towering vertical cloud, forming from water vapor carried by powerful upward air currents. If observed during a storm, these clouds may be referred to as thunderheads. Cumulonimbus can form alone, in clusters, or along cold front squall lines. These clouds are capable of producing lightning and other dangerous severe weather, such as tornadoes and hailstones. Cumulonimbus progress from overdeveloped cumulus congestus clouds and may further develop as part of a supercell. Cumulonimbus is abbreviated Cb.\n",
"Most often, stratocumulus produce no precipitation, and when they do, it is generally only light rain or snow. However, these clouds are often seen at either the front or tail end of worse weather, so they may indicate storms to come, in the form of thunderheads or gusty winds. They are also often seen underneath the cirrostratus and altostratus sheets that often precede a warm front, as these higher clouds decrease the sun's heat and therefore convection, causing any cumulus clouds to spread out into stratocumulus clouds.\n"
] |
how do cough suppressants, decongestants and expectorants work together to help with a cold?
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None of the above help colds. They help the symptoms of a cold. Decongestants, fine. Cough suppressants and expectorants seem illogical if mixed but separately they might help the symptoms.
Many of this type of symptomatic "cure" has ingredients that defy strict logic. Despite this, people buy them.
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[
"When laryngospasm is coincident with a cold or flu, it may be helpful for some sufferers to take acid reflux medication to limit the irritants in the area. If a cough is present, then treat a wet cough; but limit coughing whenever possible, as it is only likely to trigger a spasm. Drink water or tea to keep the area from drying up. Saline drops also help to keep the area moist. Pseudoephederine may also help to clear any mucus that may cause coughing and thereby triggering more spasms.\n",
"Certain cold and flu medications containing decongestants may also contain pseudoephedrine, ephedrine, phenylephrine, naphazoline and oxymetazoline. These may be avoided by the use of decongestants formulated to prevent causing high blood pressure.\n",
"According to a Cochrane review, a single oral dose of nasal decongestant in the common cold is modestly effective for the short-term relief of congestion in adults; however, data on the use of decongestants in children are insufficient. Therefore, decongestants are not recommended for use in children under 12 years of age with the common cold. Oral decongestants are also contraindicated in patients with hypertension, coronary artery disease, and history of bleeding strokes.\n",
"The authors of the American College of Chest Physicians Updates on Cough Guidelines (2006) recommend that, for cough associated with the common cold, first-generation antihistamine-decongestants are more effective than newer, non-sedating antihistamines. First-generation antihistamines include diphenhydramine (Benadryl), carbinoxamine (Clistin), clemastine (Tavist), chlorpheniramine (Chlor-Trimeton), and\n",
"Pseudoephedrine is a stimulant, but it is well known for shrinking swollen nasal mucous membranes, so it is often used as a decongestant. It reduces tissue hyperemia, edema, and nasal congestion commonly associated with colds or allergies. Other beneficial effects may include increasing the drainage of sinus secretions, and opening of obstructed Eustachian tubes. The same vasoconstriction action can also result in hypertension, which is a noted side effect of pseudoephedrine.\n",
"An expectorant (from the Latin \"expectorare\", to expel or banish) works by signaling the body to increase the amount or hydration of secretions, resulting in more yet clearer secretions and as a byproduct lubricating the irritated respiratory tract.\n",
"A decongestant, or nasal decongestant, is a type of pharmaceutical drug that is used to relieve nasal congestion in the upper respiratory tract. The active ingredient in most decongestants is either pseudoephedrine or phenylephrine (the latter of which has disputed effectiveness). Intranasal corticosteroids can also be used as decongestants and antihistamines can be used to alleviate runny nose, nasal itch, and sneezing.\n"
] |
What causes the varied distribution of resources across the Earth?
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It's not a random process. Certain minerals only form under a set of very precise geological conditions. Much like how you need just the right ingredients to make a cake, you need just the right conditions to produce certain types of rock. These conditions include depth below the surface, temperature, pressure, local rock composition, hydrothermal activity, volcanic-tectonic activity. If you happen to get all these factors just right, then a body of ore will form. An understanding of what conditions produce what types of ore is useful to geologists who predict the locations in which to search for ore.
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[
"Resource distribution refers to the distribution of resources, including land, water, minerals, fuel and wealth in general among corresponding geographic entities (states, countries, etc.).Resource distribution refers to the geographic occurrence or spatial arrangement of resources on earth. In other words, where resources are located. Any particular place may be rich in the resources people desire and poor in others. ... As a result, resources are distributed unevenly across the globe.\n",
"The most common use of this concept has not been in examining the unequal distribution of resources among nation states. Such unequal distribution of resources was commonly related to land for agriculture, necessary for population growth. A more recent emphasis has been on differences from the unequal dispersion of technological progress. The distribution of natural resources depends upon many physical factors like land, climate and altitude. The distribution of resources is unequal because these factors differ from place to place on this earth.\n",
"Other studies by Rasmussen and her international colleagues looked at the importance of energy availability, and a 2007 paper showed that global patterns of spatial turnover are driven principally by widespread species rather than restricted ones. This complements other work, and helps to establish a unified model of how terrestrial biodiversity varies both within and between the Earth's major land masses.\n",
"Many species exhibit density-dependent dispersal and habitat selection. For species exhibiting this pattern, dispersal into what would otherwise be sub-optimal habitats can occur when local abundances are high in high quality habitats (see Source-sink dynamics, thus increasing the size of the species geographic range. An initial argument against this hypothesis is that when a species colonizes formerly empty habitats, the average abundance of that species across all occupied habitats drops, negating an O–A relationship. However, all species will occur at low densities in some occupied habitats, while only the abundant species will be able to reach high densities in some of their occupied habitats. Thus it is expected that both common and uncommon species will have similar minimum densities in occupied habitats, but that it is the maximum densities obtained by common species in some habitats that drive the positive relationship between mean densities and AOO. If density-dependent habitat selection were to determine positive O–A relationships, the distribution of a species would follow an Ideal Free Distribution (IFD). Gaston et al. cites Tyler and Hargrove who examined the IFD using simulation models and found several instances (e.g. when resources had a fractal distribution, or when the scale of resource distribution poorly matched the organisms dispersal capabilities) where IFDs poorly described species distributions.\n",
"The Earth's carrying capacity is a central issue in ecological economics. Early economists such as Thomas Malthus pointed out the finite carrying capacity of the earth, which was also central to the MIT study \"Limits to Growth\". Diminishing returns suggest that productivity increases will slow if major technological progress is not made. Food production may become a problem, as erosion, an impending water crisis, and soil salinity (from irrigation) reduce the productivity of agriculture. Ecological economists argue that industrial agriculture, which exacerbates these problems, is not sustainable agriculture, and are generally inclined favorably to organic farming, which also reduces the output of carbon.\n",
"The patterns of distribution of living organisms in the world's biogeographic realms were shaped by the process of plate tectonics, which has redistributed the world's land masses over geological history.\n",
"In economics, land comprises all naturally occurring resources as well as geographic land. Examples include particular geographical locations, mineral deposits, forests, fish stocks, atmospheric quality, geostationary orbits, and portions of the electromagnetic spectrum. Supply of these resources is fixed.\n"
] |
How did Italian-Americans react to the extremely racist Allied anti Axis propaganda films?
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Can we broaden this to include Asian Americans?
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[
"From the onset of the war, and particularly following Pearl Harbor many viewed Italian Americans with suspicion. Groups such as The Los Angeles Council of California Women's Clubs petitioned General DeWitt to place all enemy aliens in concentration camps immediately, and the Young Democratic Club of Los Angeles went a step further, demanding the removal of American-born Italians and Germans—U.S. citizens—from the Pacific Coast. These calls along with substantial political pressure from congress resulted in President Franklin D. Roosevelt issuing Executive Order No. 9066, as well as the Department of Justice classifying unnaturalised Italian Americans as \"enemy aliens\" under the Alien and Sedition Act. Thousands of Italians were arrested, and hundreds of Italians were interned in military camps, some for up to 2 years. As many as 600,000 others were required to carry identity cards identifying them as \"resident alien\". Thousands more on the West Coast were required to move inland, often losing their homes and businesses in the process. A number of Italian-language newspapers were forced to close. Two books, Una Storia Segreta by Lawrence Di Stasi and Uncivil Liberties by Stephen Fox; and a movie, Prisoners Among Us, document these World War II developments.\n",
"Anti-Japanese propaganda in the film included scenes in which the crew is forced to land on Maui Island and is shot at by \"local Japanese,\" and the assertion by the Hickam Field commander that vegetable trucks knocked off the tails of parked P-40 fighters as the attack began. Also, Lt. Rader claims a Japanese blocked the road in front of him, as he hurried to the airfield, and then shot at him with a shotgun. As detailed in Walter Lord's book \"Day of Infamy\", later investigations proved no Japanese-American was involved in any sabotage during the Pearl Harbor attack.\n",
"It was one of the first Italian films of the war to depict the struggle against the Germans, unlike the films made in the early years of the war (when Italy was Germany's ally under Mussolini) that depicted the British, Americans, Greeks, Russians and other allied countries, as well as Ethiopians, communists, and partisans as the antagonists. After the Allied Invasion of Italy in 1943, Italian morale crumbled and they agreed to a separate peace with the allies, causing their former German allies to occupy large parts of Italy, intern Italian soldiers, deport Italian Jews to concentration camps, and treat many of its citizens with disdain for what they saw as a cowardly betrayal by one of their major allies.\n",
"The use of Nazi imagery for the film's Americanized heroes (actually, Argentineans, etc.) occasioned comment. At the time of the film's theatrical release, the filmmakers did not explain their reasons for this choice. Some viewers interpreted it as a satirical takedown of fascism, while others saw a celebration of it.\n",
"As in other Fascist colonial films like \"Il cammino degli eroi\", the native \"rebels\" are portrayed as well-armed with European weapons. The film plays down the overwhelming disparities between the Italian and Tripolitanian forces, omitting for example the offensive use of aircraft (in addition to reconnaissance) and the use of gas warfare by the Italians.\n",
"\"Ossessione\" angered Fascist officials. Upon viewing the film, Vittorio Mussolini is reported to have shouted, \"This is not Italy!\" before walking out of the theater. The film was subsequently banned in the Fascist-controlled parts of Italy. While neorealism exploded after the war, and was incredibly influential at the international level, neorealist films made up only a small percentage of Italian films produced during this period, as postwar Italian moviegoers preferred escapist comedies starring actors such as Totò and Alberto Sordi.\n",
"Much as American propagandists, Japanese film makers extensively used prejudice and xenophobia in films produced after war was formally declared on the Allied nations. In \"Fire on That Flag!\" (1944, あの旗を撃て！) the cowardice of the fleeing American military is juxtaposed with the moral supremacy of the imperial Japanese army during the occupation of the Philippines. Japan's first full-length animated feature film (1945, 桃太郎海の神兵) similarly portrays the Americans and British in Singapore as morally decadent and physically weak \"devils.\" A sub-category of the costume picture is the samurai movie. Themes used within these films include self-sacrifice and honor to the emperor. Japanese films often did not shy away from the use of suffering, often portraying its troops as the underdog. This had the effect of making Japan look as though it was the victim inciting greater sympathy from its audience. The propaganda pieces also often illustrated the Japanese people as pure and virtuous depicting them as superior both racially and morally. The war is portrayed as continuous and is usually not adequately explained.\n"
] |
The ratio of the distance between a planet and its star vs the ratio of the distance between an electron and its nucleus, are the two ratios similar?
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Compared to the radius of the sun, the Earth is 215 times farther away.
Compared to the radius of a proton, the average position of the ground state hydrogen electron is 62,350 times farther away.
Now, there are other planets and stars and other elements, but that gives you a rough picture.
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[
"In practice, this ratio is almost always extremely small. For example, the Schwarzschild radius \"r\" of the Earth is roughly 9 mm ( inch); at the surface of the Earth, the corrections to Newtonian gravity are only one part in a billion. The Schwarzschild radius of the Sun is much larger, roughly 2953 meters, but at its surface, the ratio \"r\"/\"r\" is roughly 4 parts in a million. A white dwarf star is much denser, but even here the ratio at its surface is roughly 250 parts in a million. The ratio only becomes large close to ultra-dense objects such as neutron stars (where the ratio is roughly 50%) and black holes.\n",
"In practice, this ratio is almost always extremely small. For example, the Schwarzschild radius formula_17 of the Earth is roughly 9 mm ( inch); at the surface of the Earth, the corrections to Newtonian gravity are only one part in a billion. The Schwarzschild radius of the Sun is much larger, roughly 2953 meters, but at its surface, the ratio formula_21 is roughly 4 parts in a million. A white dwarf star is much denser, but even here the ratio at its surface is roughly 250 parts in a million. The ratio only becomes large close to ultra-dense objects such as neutron stars (where the ratio is roughly 50%) and black holes.\n",
"The only physical property directly derivable from the observations (besides the orbital period) is the ratio of the radius of the planet to that of the central star, which follows from the amount of occultation of stellar light during a transit. This ratio was measured to be 0.021, giving a planetary radius of 1.11±0.14 times that of Earth, The planet is about 11% larger in radius than Earth (between 4.5% smaller and 26.5% larger), giving a volume about 1.37 times that of Earth (between 0.87 and 2.03 times as large).\n",
"All six known planets in the Kepler-80 system orbit very close to the star, and their distances to the star (the semi major axes) are all smaller than 0.2 AU. For comparison the planet in the Solar System closest to the star, Mercury, has a semi major axis of 0.389 AU, and so the entire known system of Kepler-80 can lie within the orbit of Mercury. This makes Kepler-80 a very compact system and it is one of many STIP's (Systems with Tightly-packed Inner Planets) that have been discovered by the Kepler telescope.\n",
"BULLET::::- The \"semi-major axis\" is the distance from a planet to the half-way point along the longest diameter of its elliptical orbit (see image). This distance is not the same as its apastron, because no planet's orbit has its star at its exact centre.\n",
"BULLET::::2. The angular separation between the planet and its host star is very small. For a planet ∼10 AU from its host and tens of parsec away, the separation would be only a few tenths of an arcsec.\n",
"Viewed from Earth, the \"apparent orbit\" of A and B means that their separation and position angle (PA) are in continuous change throughout their projected orbit. Observed stellar positions in 2019 are separated by 4.92 arcsec through the PA of 337.1°, increasing to 5.49 arcsec through 345.3° in 2020. The closest recent approach was in February 2016, at 4.0 arcsec through the PA of 300°. The observed maximum separation of these stars is about 22 arcsec, while the minimum distance is 1.7 arcsec. The widest separation occurred during February 1976, and the next will be in January 2056.\n"
] |
Considering all dogs have 38 chromosomes, can a very small dog mate with(in some manner) and give birth to a very large dog's pups?
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A family member of mine breeds dogs so I've seen newborn puppies firsthand. There were two simultaneous litters of puppies; one from a toy poodle, and one litter from a standard poodle. What was amazing is that these newborns were practically the same size, just the toy poodle had considerably less (2) than the standard who delivered 13. Humans have been able to alter the appearance and behavior of dogs but we have not so much affected their reproduction.
Thus, the small dog will deliver puppies of the "standard puppy size" which is about 3-4 inches which will then grow into dogs much larger than the bitch.
Edit for clarity: We - > Humans
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[
"All animals have a set of DNA coding for genes present on chromosomes. In humans, most mammals, and some other species, two of the chromosomes, called the X chromosome and Y chromosome, code for sex. In these species, one or more genes are present on their Y chromosome that determine maleness. In this process, an X chromosome and a Y chromosome act to determine the sex of offspring, often due to genes located on the Y chromosome that code for maleness. Offspring have two sex chromosomes: an offspring with two X chromosomes will develop female characteristics, and an offspring with an X and a Y chromosome will develop male characteristics.\n",
"Dogs bear their litters roughly 58 to 68 days after fertilization, with an average of 63 days, although the length of gestation can vary. An average litter consists of about six puppies, though this number may vary widely based on the breed of dog. In general, toy dogs produce from one to four puppies in each litter, while much larger breeds may average as many as twelve.\n",
"The Gunnison's prairie dog, \"C. gunnisoni\", is the only prairie dog species that has 40 chromosomes. The other four species, black-tailed, white-tailed, Utah, and Mexican prairie dogs, have 50 chromosomes.\n",
"The female dog can bear another litter within 8 months of the previous one. Dogs are polygamous in contrast to wolves that are generally monogamous. Therefore, dogs have no pair bonding and the protection of a single mate, but rather have multiple mates in a year. The consequence is that wolves put a lot of energy into producing a few pups in contrast to dogs that maximize the production of pups. This higher pup production rate enables dogs to maintain or even increase their population with a lower pup survival rate than wolves, and allows dogs a greater capacity than wolves to grow their population after a population crash or when entering a new habitat. It is proposed that these differences are an alternative breeding strategy, one adapted to a life of scavenging instead of hunting.\n",
"The CTVT cells have fewer chromosomes than normal dog cells. Dog cells normally have 78 chromosomes, while the cancer cells contain 57–64 chromosomes that are very different in appearance from normal dog chromosomes. All dog chromosomes except X and Y are acrocentric, having a centromere very near to the end of the chromosome, while many of the CTVT chromosomes are metacentric or submetacentric, having a centromere nearer to the middle. There is no evidence that the tumor is caused by a virus or virus-like organism. The infectious agent of canine transmissible venereal tumor is the cancer cell itself and the tumor is clonal in origin. All tumor cells of this type of cancer share extremely similar genetic code, often if not always unrelated to the DNA of their host. Specifically, the LINE-1 element in the tumor cells is in a different location than in normal canine DNA. This demonstrates that the tumors do not arise from separate cancerous transformation in individual animals. Rather, the malignant tumor cells from one dog are transferred to another.\n",
"Other numerical abnormalities discovered include sex chromosome abnormalities. A female with only one X chromosome has Turner syndrome, whereas an additional X chromosome in a male, resulting in 47 total chromosomes, has Klinefelter syndrome. Many other sex chromosome combinations are compatible with live birth including XXX, XYY, and XXXX. The ability for mammals to tolerate aneuploidies in the sex chromosomes arises from the ability to inactivate them, which is required in normal females to compensate for having two copies of the chromosome. Not all genes on the X chromosome are inactivated, which is why there is a phenotypic effect seen in individuals with extra X chromosomes.\n",
"A study in 2004 was able to classify 99% of the dogs under human reproductive control into breed categories based on their DNA sequences. Dogs are grouped into the following eight breed categories of herding, hound, nonsporting, sporting, terrier, toy, working and miscellaneous.\n"
] |
why are vishnu and his avatars blue?
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Blue is considered a divine/pure colour.
I.e. connected to the sky / the sea
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[
"BULLET::::- Blue in Hinduism: Many of the gods are depicted as having blue-coloured skin, particularly those associated with Vishnu, who is said to be the preserver of the world and thus intimately connected to water. Krishna and Ram, Vishnu's avatars, are usually blue. Shiva, the destroyer, is also depicted in light blue tones and is called \"neela kantha\", or blue-throated, for having swallowed poison in an attempt to turn the tide of a battle between the gods and demons in the gods' favour. Blue is used to symbolically represent the fifth, throat, chakra (Vishuddha).\n",
"Explaining the choice of the color blue for the Na'vi, Cameron said \"I just like blue. It's a good color ... plus, there's a connection to the Hindu deities, which I like conceptually.\" Commentators agreed that the blue skin of the Na'vi, described in a \"New Yorker\" article as \"Vishnu-blue\", \"instantly and metaphorically\" relates the film's protagonist to such avatars of Vishnu as Rama and Krishna. An article in the \"San Francisco Examiner\" described an 18th-century Indian painting of Vishnu and his consort Laksmi riding the great mythical bird Garuda as \"\"Avatar\" prequel\" due to its resemblance with the film's scene in which the hero's blue-skinned avatar flies a gigantic raptor. Asra Q. Nomani of \"The Daily Beast\" likened the hero and his Na'vi mate Neytiri to images of Shiva and Durga.\n",
"It is believed that Vishnu assumed various colours during various eras according to the nature of the living beings and their behaviour. During Krita Yuga, people were well-behaved (\"satvaguna\") and Vishnu was white (called \"svetavarna\") in colour. During Tretayuga, he assumed the colour of Pavalam (emerald) and hence came to be known as Pavalavannar or Pralavannar (in Sanskrit). In Dvapara Yuga, he assumed green colour (\"pachai\" in Tamil). In the current Kali Yuga, he assumed blue tint called \"syamalavarna\" and it is believed that people will not be influenced by the form Vishnu appears. Vishnu is believed to have appeared for twin Aswini gods as Pavalavannar and hence retains the name in modern times.\n",
"Krishna is represented in the Indian traditions in many ways, but with some common features. His iconography typically depicts him with black, dark, or blue skin, like Vishnu. However, ancient and medieval reliefs and stone-based arts depict him in the natural color of the material out of which he is formed, both in India and in southeast Asia. In some texts, his skin is poetically described as the color of Jambul (\"Jamun\", a purple-colored fruit).\n",
"Red admirals have color vision in the 440–590 nm range of the visible spectrum which includes indigo, blue, green, and yellow. They have compound eyes with a transparent, crystalline structure called a rhabdom which is similar in function to a human retina. These butterflies do not have the specific lateral filtering pigments coating their rhabdom found in some other nymphalid butterflies that likely evolved later. A consequence of this lack of pigment is that the red admiral cannot differentiate between colors in the 590–640 nm range, which includes orange and red. In species such as the monarch butterfly that express these lateral filtering pigments, higher wavelengths of light are altered, so they can excite the sensory photopigments. This physiological difference between butterfly species provides insight into the evolutionary adaptation of color vision.\n",
"Kuttichathans except Vishnumaya are often portrayed in dark colors sometimes with horns and tail. Unlike his brothers, Vishnumaya is considered to be a virtuous Chathan and is often depicted in white color. Vishumaya means \"resemblance of Lord Vishnu\". He got his name because of his similarity with Lord Vishnu in his appearance.\n",
"Neminatha is believed in the Jain tradition to be Krishna's cousin and has the same dark-bluish colored skin. Painting depicting his life stories generally identify him as dark colored. His iconographic identifier is a conch carved or stamped below his statues. Sometimes, as with Vishnu's iconography, a chakra is also shown near him, as in the 6th-century sculpture found at the archaeological site near Padhavali (Madhya Pradesh). Artworks showing Neminatha sometimes include Ambika yakshi, but her color varies from golden to greenish to dark-blue, by region.\n"
] |
How long can a plant survive in space?
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Depends on the environment. Plants can grow in microgravity with an artificial atmosphere, but if you're just talking about throwing a naked plant into space, the extreme temperatures would start rupturing cells immediately (areas in the sun would be very hot, and areas in shade would be well below freezing). Between these two extreme temperatures and the very low pressure, which would also accelerate the rate at which volatiles boiled off, the plant would start to die as soon as it was exposed to this type of environment. How long is likely a function of the species and plant size.
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[
"In 1982, the crew of the Soviet Salyut 7 space station grew some Arabidopsis, thus becoming the first plants to flower and produce seeds in space. They had a life span of 40 days. \"Arabidopsis thaliana\" seeds were taken to the Moon on the Chang'e 4 lander in 2019, as part of a student experiment. \n",
"The plausibility that life was imported to Earth from elsewhere was tested by subjecting plant seeds to 1.5 years of exposure to solar UV, solar and galactic cosmic radiation, temperature fluctuations, and space vacuum outside the International Space Station. Of the 2100 exposed wild-type \"Arabidopsis thaliana\" and \"Nicotiana tabacum\" (tobacco) seeds, 23% produced viable plants after being returned to Earth. Germination was delayed in seeds shielded from solar light, yet full survival was attained, which indicates that longer space travel would be possible for seeds embedded in an opaque matrix. The team conclude that a naked, seed-like entity could have survived exposure to solar UV radiation during a hypothetical transfer from Mars to Earth, and even if seeds do not survive, components (e.g., their DNA) might survive transfer over cosmic distances.\n",
"Early mission results from the first sample show evidence that some clumps of microorganism can survive for at least one year in space. This may support the idea that clumps greater than 0.5 millimeters of microorganisms could be one way for life to spread from planet to planet. It was also noted that glycine's decomposition was less than expected, while hydantoin's recovery was much lower than glycine.\n",
"It has been a subject of study that plants may be grown in outer space typically in a weightless but pressurized controlled environment in specific space gardens. In the context of human spaceflight, they can be consumed as food and/or provide a refreshing atmosphere. Plants can metabolize carbon dioxide in the air to produce valuable oxygen, and can help control cabin humidity. Growing plants in space may provide a psychological benefit to human spaceflight crews.\n",
"Despite the harsh environment, several life forms have been found that can withstand extreme space conditions for extended periods. Species of lichen carried on the ESA BIOPAN facility survived exposure for ten days in 2007. Seeds of \"Arabidopsis thaliana\" and \"Nicotiana tabacum\" germinated after being exposed to space for 1.5 years. A strain of \"bacillus subtilis\" has survived 559 days when exposed to low-Earth orbit or a simulated martian environment. The lithopanspermia hypothesis suggests that rocks ejected into outer space from life-harboring planets may successfully transport life forms to another habitable world. A conjecture is that just such a scenario occurred early in the history of the Solar System, with potentially microorganism-bearing rocks being exchanged between Venus, Earth, and Mars.\n",
"In the future, all plant life on Earth is becoming extinct. As many specimens as possible have been preserved in a series of enormous, greenhouse-like geodesic domes, attached to a large spaceship named \"Valley Forge\", forming part of a fleet of American Airlines space freighters, currently just outside the orbit of Saturn. \n",
"BULLET::::- In March 2019, scientists reported that life-forms from Earth survived 18 months living in outer space outside the International Space Station (ISS), as part of the BIOMEX studies related to the EXPOSE-R2 mission, suggesting that life could survive, theoretically, on the planet Mars.\n"
] |
Why were brass knuckles made of brass?
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I can't speak to the historical aspect but from an industrial aspect brass is pretty inexpensive and is usually cast in a mold. Forged steel would be much more labor intensive. Cast iron would be subject to rusting. Brass is a good tradeoff of strength, cost, and corrosion resistance.
|
[
"Brass knuckles, also sometimes called knuckles, knucks, brass knucks, knucklebusters, knuckledusters, an English punch or a classic, are weapons used in hand-to-hand combat. Brass knuckles are pieces of metal shaped to fit around the knuckles. Despite their name, they are often made from other metals, plastics or carbon fibers. Designed to preserve and concentrate a punch's force by directing it toward a harder and smaller contact area, they result in increased tissue disruption, including an increased likelihood of fracturing the victim's bones on impact. The extended and rounded palm grip also spreads across the attacker's palm the counter-force that would otherwise be absorbed primarily by the attacker's fingers, reducing the likelihood of damage to the attacker's fingers.\n",
"The manufacture of brass was known to the Romans by about 30 BC. They made brass by heating powdered calamine (zinc silicate or carbonate), charcoal and copper together in a crucible. The resulting calamine brass was then either cast or hammered into shape for use in weaponry. Some coins struck by Romans in the Christian era are made of what is probably calamine brass.\n",
"Brass is used for decoration for its bright gold-like appearance; for applications where low friction is required such as locks, gears, bearings, doorknobs, ammunition casings and valves; for plumbing and electrical applications; and extensively in brass musical instruments such as horns and bells where a combination of high workability (historically with hand tools) and durability is desired. It is also used in zippers. Brass is often used in situations in which it is important that sparks not be struck, such as in fittings and tools used near flammable or explosive materials.\n",
"Brass is an alloy that was used relatively rarely in ancient times. Phrygia is the only region with a recorded regular use of brass from antique. Previously it was thought that Romans were the first to make brass coinage. Specimens contemporary with Julius Caesar and Augustus are known. Research conducted in 1970s revealed that brass was used half a century earlier than previously thought. Phrygia and Bithynia are known sources for Pontic brass coinage. Pontic brass coins were struck during the reign of Mithridates VI, and he can be regarded as the first ruler to make use of brass. Modern analyzes have revealed that some of his bronze coins are in fact made from brass.\n",
"Next to the brass instruments, the most notable use of brass in music is in various percussion instruments, most notably cymbals, gongs, and orchestral (tubular) bells (large \"church\" bells are normally made of bronze). Small handbells and \"jingle bell\" are also commonly made of brass.\n",
"Although forms of brass have been in use since prehistory, its true nature as a copper-zinc alloy was not understood until the post-medieval period because the zinc vapor which reacted with copper to make brass was not recognised as a metal. The King James Bible makes many references to \"brass\" to translate \"nechosheth\" (bronze or copper) from Hebrew to archaic English. The Shakespearean English use of the word 'brass' can mean any bronze alloy, or copper, an even less precise definition than the modern one. The earliest brasses may have been natural alloys made by smelting zinc-rich copper ores. By the Roman period brass was being deliberately produced from metallic copper and zinc minerals using the cementation process, the product of which was calamine brass, and variations on this method continued until the mid-19th century. It was eventually replaced by speltering, the direct alloying of copper and zinc metal which was introduced to Europe in the 16th century.\n",
"The earliest existing brass is that of Bishop Ysowilpe at Verden, in Germany, which dates from 1231 and is on the model of an incised stone, as if by an artist accustomed to work in that material. In England the oldest example is at Stoke D'Abernon church, in Surrey, to the memory of Sir John D'Abernon, who died in 1277. Numerous brasses are to be found in Belgium, and some in France and the Netherlands. Apart from their artistic attractiveness, these ornamental brasses are of the utmost value in faithfully depicting the costumes of the period, ecclesiastical, civil or military; they furnish also appropriate inscriptions in beautiful lettering (cf. Brass Gallery).\n"
] |
why did ants ( and other insects maybe idk) get an exoskeleton rather than a normal skeleton?
|
Because a hard outer shell doubles as protection from predators, as well as anchor points for muscles.
Endoskeletons evolved to provide otherwise soft-bodied animals leverage to generate more power in their appendages without sacrificing as much flexibility as an exoskeleton.
|
[
"Like other insects, ants have an exoskeleton, an external covering that provides a protective casing around the body and a point of attachment for muscles, in contrast to the internal skeletons of humans and other vertebrates. Insects do not have lungs; oxygen and other gases, such as carbon dioxide, pass through their exoskeleton via tiny valves called spiracles. Insects also lack closed blood vessels; instead, they have a long, thin, perforated tube along the top of the body (called the \"dorsal aorta\") that functions like a heart, and pumps haemolymph toward the head, thus driving the circulation of the internal fluids. The nervous system consists of a ventral nerve cord that runs the length of the body, with several ganglia and branches along the way reaching into the extremities of the appendages.\n",
"Due to the highly specialized mandibles, scientists believe that the ants exhibited habits no longer seen in extant ants. The highly movable head suggests that mobility was an important factor for them (probably for feeding behavior), and the rugose projections may have played a major role in nest excavation because the mandibles would have prevented such activity. \"Zigrasimecia\" most likely interacted with the extinct ant genus \"Gerontoformica\" through conflict and probably shared some of their ecological niches. The mandibles of these ants were probably used for mechanical interactions with food, and they may also have served as traps for potential arthropod prey such as mites and small flies. \"Zigrasimecia\" was possibly a generalist predator.\n",
"\"Sphecomyrma\" ants can be distinguished from other ants by their extremely primitive body structure, small, narrow wasp-like mandibles, short scapes (the basal segment of the antenna) and the exceptionally long funiculus, which is four times longer than the scape. The suture (a pattern of shallow grooves on the head) is well developed and the trochantellus (the proximal end of the femur) is absent. The node (a segment between the mesosoma, the middle part of the body, and gaster) of the petiole is noticeably dome-shaped and is separated from the propodeum, the first abdominal segment, and parts of the metasoma, the posterior part of the body, by several constrictions. The cuticle (outer exoskeleton of the body) is not sculptured and is covered with either scattered or spare setae, which are different types of bristle or hair-like structures. The body structure shows that \"Sphecomyrma\" ants were medium-sized formicids. Workers are known to have stingers.\n",
"\"Acromyrmex\" and \"Atta\" ants have much in common anatomically; however, the two can be identified by their external differences. \"Atta\" ants have three pairs of spines and a smooth exoskeleton on the upper surface of the thorax, while \"Acromyrmex\" ants have four pairs and a rough exoskeleton.\n",
"The mandibles of \"O. bauri\" are an exaggerated form of the sturdy and long mandibles found in many ant species. Additionally, the muscles found in the mandibles of \"O. bauri\" are found in other ants, although those found in \"O. bauri\" are large and look very similar to those found in cicadas.\n",
"The exoskeleton of all velvet ants is unusually tough (to the point that some entomologists have reported difficulty piercing them with steel pins when attempting to mount them for display in cabinets). This characteristic allows them to successfully invade the nests of their prey and also helps them retain moisture. Mutillids exhibit extreme sexual dimorphism. Like some related families in the Vespoidea, males have wings, but females are wingless. The males and females are so distinct in their morphology that entomologists often find it very hard to determine whether a given male and female belong to the same species, unless they are captured while mating. In some species, the male carries the smaller female aloft while mating, which is also seen in the related family Thynnidae.\n",
"Insects, like all arthropods, have no interior skeleton; instead, they have an exoskeleton, a hard outer layer made mostly of chitin which protects and supports the body. The insect body is divided into three parts: the head, thorax, and abdomen. The head is specialized for sensory input and food intake; the thorax, which is the anchor point for the legs and wings (if present), is specialized for locomotion; and the abdomen for digestion, respiration, excretion, and reproduction. Although the general function of the three body regions is the same across all insect species, there are major differences in basic structure, with wings, legs, antennae, and mouthparts being highly variable from group to group.\n"
] |
do people who talk languages other than english think in those languages?
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Do you think in English?
Seriously, when you think of a dog running across a field, do you imagine those words "a dog running across a field"? Or do you imagine an actual dog running across an actual field?
The only times that we actually think in words, is when we are thinking of a language. I could think "My name is Thomas" in those words, I could also think "Je m'appelle Thomas", or I could think in the abstract sense that Thomas and myself are one in the same.
It's similar to "how do deaf people think?"
|
[
"English is on the school program latest in 7th class, and it sounds somehow familiar so that everyone believes he knows English at once. Anyhow, most people can communicate a bit in English. It is being said: If you don't know how to speak English, just take a hot potato in your mouth and speak a funny Luxembourgish, and they will understand you.\n",
"English contains a number of sounds and sound distinctions not present in some other languages. Speakers of languages without these sounds may have problems both with hearing and with pronouncing them. For example:\n",
"Neither can anyone learn English, one can only learn a series of Englishes. Rossetti made his own language. I hadn't in 1910 made a language, I don't mean a language to use, but even a language to think in.\n",
"Also, anyone can become an English speaker simply by having this base translated into their native tongue (a more tractable problem than translating the whole of English). Once they know this subset then they know enough English to understand other statements like the giraffe one, and thus grow their knowledge to the whole language through English sentences (which can be reused by everyone, regardless of their first language). This is analogous to the bootstrapping and compatibility of a COLA.\n",
"BULLET::::5. Those who learnt English as a native language (sometimes as a sole native language, but usually alongside other languages) and use it as their dominant language (many people, mostly children born after 1965 to highly educated parents).\n",
"BULLET::::- 25.7% of people only speak English at home, with 71.2% of people speaking a non-English language at home. The top responses for non-English languages spoken at home were Arabic (12.9%), Cantonese (10.3%), Mandarin (8.7%), Vietnamese (7.1%) and Urdu (2.6%).\n",
"Language teaching practice often assumes that most of the difficulties that learners face in the study of English are a consequence of the degree to which their native language differs from English (a contrastive analysis approach). A native speaker of Chinese, for example, may face many more difficulties than a native speaker of German, because German is more closely related to English than Chinese. This may be true for anyone of any mother tongue (also called first language, normally abbreviated L1) setting out to learn any other language (called a target language, second language or L2). See also second language acquisition (SLA) for mixed evidence from linguistic research.\n"
] |
How is corruption measured?
|
Transparency International publishes what they call a "Corruption Perception Index" made up from polls. They ask people how often in the past year (or whatever timeframe) they paid a bribe, and how much, and in what situation.
It is true that the data is not entirely reliable because of the very nature of the thing but they openly acknowledge this.
[From their Website:](_URL_0_)
> WHY IS THE CPI BASED ON PERCEPTIONS?
> Corruption generally comprises illegal activities, which are deliberately hidden and only come to light through scandals, investigations or prosecutions. There is no meaningful way to assess absolute levels of corruption in countries or territories on the basis of hard empirical data. Possible attempts to do so, such as by comparing bribes reported, the number of prosecutions brought or studying court cases directly linked to corruption, cannot be taken as definitive indicators of corruption levels. Instead, they show how effective prosecutors, the courts or the media are in investigating and exposing corruption. Capturing perceptions of corruption of those in a position to offer assessments of public sector corruption is the most reliable method of comparing relative corruption levels across countries.
|
[
"BULLET::::- Lack of measurement of corruption. For example, using regular surveys of households and businesses in order to quantify the degree of perception of corruption in different parts of a nation or in different government institutions may increase awareness of corruption and create pressure to combat it. This will also enable an evaluation of the officials who are fighting corruption and the methods used.\n",
"Measuring corruption accurately is difficult if not impossible due to the illicit nature of the transaction and imprecise definitions of corruption. Few reliable measures of the magnitude of corruption exists and among those, there is a high level of heterogeneity. One of the most common ways to estimate corruption is through perception surveys. They have the advantage of good coverage, however, they do not measure corruption precisely. While \"corruption\" indices first appeared in 1995 with the Corruption Perceptions Index CPI, all of these metrics address different proxies for corruption, such as public perceptions of the extent of the problem. However, over time the refinement of methods and validation checks against objective indicators has meant that, while not perfect, many of these indicators are getting better at consistently and validly measuring the scale of corruption.\n",
"It is not possible to measure the level of corruption in a country. Surveys of police officers, citizens and businesses can be used to provide estimates on levels of corruption. These are often inaccurate, as respondents involved in corruption are reluctant to provide any information implicating themselves in criminal activity. Despite this limitation, information collected from International Crime Victim Surveys and surveys conducted by the Global Corruption Enumerated Barometer can be used to estimate the level of police corruption.\n",
"The Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI) is an index published annually by Transparency International since 1995 which ranks countries \"by their perceived levels of public sector corruption, as determined by expert assessments and opinion surveys.\" The CPI generally defines corruption as \"the misuse of public power for private benefit\".\n",
"Public corruption includes corruption of the political process and of government agencies such as the police as well as corruption in processes of allocating public funds for contracts, grants, and hiring. Recent research by the World Bank suggests that who makes policy decisions (elected officials or bureaucrats) can be critical in determining the level of corruption because of the incentives different policy-makers face.\n",
"The Corruption Perceptions Index is only an indicator of corruption in the \"public\" sector of the economy, and not of corruption in the private sector, even although the private sector is much larger than the public sector. This index cannot show whether the total amount of corruption globally is increasing, constant, or decreasing. A more comprehensive measure is the Global Corruption Barometer.\n",
"The Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI) ranks countries and territories based on how corrupt their public sector is perceived to be. It is a composite index – a combination of polls – drawing on corruption-related data collected by a variety of reputable institutions. The CPI reflects the views of observers from around the world.\n"
] |
what happens to the food company when someone who is allergic to a secret ingredient consumes their food? will it be revealed? why has it not ever happened?
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I think due to FDA regulations all ingredients must be listed, so the secrets are usually formulas and combinations. But the individual ingredients that people may be allergic to are listed.
|
[
"Allergic reactions are hyperactive responses of the immune system to generally innocuous substances, such as proteins in the foods we eat. Why some proteins trigger allergic reactions while others do is not entirely clear, although in part thought to be due to resistance to digestion. Because of this, intact or largely intact proteins reach the small intestine, which has a large presence of white blood cells involved in immune reactions. The heat of cooking can help make protein molecules less allergenic.\n",
"The mainstay of treatment for food allergy is total avoidance of the foods identified as allergens. An allergen can enter the body by consuming a food containing the allergen, and can also be ingested by touching any surfaces that may have come into contact with the allergen, then touching the eyes or nose. For people who are extremely sensitive, avoidance includes avoiding touching or inhaling the problematic food. Total avoidance is complicated because the declaration of the presence of trace amounts of allergens in foods is not mandatory (see regulation of labelling).\n",
"To avoid an allergic reaction, a strict diet can be followed. It is difficult to determine the amount of allergenic food required to elicit a reaction, so complete avoidance should be attempted. In some cases, hypersensitive reactions can be triggered by exposures to allergens through skin contact, inhalation, kissing, participation in sports, blood transfusions, cosmetics, and alcohol.\n",
"Allergic reactions are hyperactive responses of the immune system to generally innocuous substances, such as proteins in the foods we eat. Why some proteins trigger allergic reactions while others do not is not entirely clear, although in part thought to be due to resistance to digestion. Because of this, intact or largely intact proteins reach the small intestine, which has a large presence of white blood cells involved in immune reactions. The heat of cooking structurally degrades protein molecules, potentially making them less allergenic. The pathophysiology of allergic responses can be divided into two phases. The first is an acute response that occurs immediately after exposure to an allergen. This phase can either subside or progress into a \"late-phase reaction\" which can substantially prolong the symptoms of a response, and result in more tissue damage.\n",
"In the United States, 90% of allergic responses to foods are caused by cow's milk, eggs, wheat, shellfish, peanuts, tree nuts, fish, and soy beans. The declaration of the presence of trace amounts of allergens in foods is not mandatory in any country, with the exception of Brazil.\n",
"The FDA recommends understanding the ingredient label and says \"There is no list of ingredients that can be guaranteed not to cause allergic reactions, so consumers who are prone to allergies should pay careful attention to what they use on their skin\", further warning that \"[t]here is no basis in fact or scientific legitimacy to the notion that products containing natural ingredients are good for the skin\". Food preservatives are commonly used to preserve the safety and efficacy in these products. Alternative remedies may increase the prevalence of eczema. Bhuchar recommends that \"ingestible substances including most homeopathic, Ayurvedic, and traditional Chinese medicine herbal formulations that are not US FDA regulated should be viewed with caution as they may cause severe adverse effects\" such as arsenic poisoning and liver failure.\"\n",
"Allergic reactions are hyperactive responses of the immune system to generally innocuous substances, such as proteins in the foods we eat. Some proteins trigger allergic reactions while others do not. One theory is resistance to digestion, the thinking being that when largely intact proteins reach the small intestine the white blood cells involved in immune reactions will be activated. The heat of cooking structurally degrades protein molecules, potentially making them less allergenic. Allergic responses can be divided into two phases: an acute response that occurs immediately after exposure to an allergen, which can then either subside or progress into a \"late-phase reaction,\" prolonging the symptoms of a response and resulting in more tissue damage.\n"
] |
if it is illegal to melt down pennies, how is it legal to press them?
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Are you talking about how it's legal for the US Mint to press them? Because they're authorized by law to do so.
If you're asking about those novelty machines that strech out a penny, it's because defacing the currency for non-fraudulent purposes isn't illegal.
|
[
"In anticipation of the business of melting down U.S. pennies and U.S. nickels for profit, the U.S. Mint, which is a part of the US Department of the Treasury, implemented new regulations on December 14, 2006, which criminalize the melting of pennies and nickels and place limits on export of the coins. Violators can be punished with a fine of up to $10,000 USD and/or imprisoned for a maximum of five years.\n",
"Meanwhile, in an attempt to avoid losing large quantities of circulating nickels to melting, the United States Mint introduced new interim rules on December 14, 2006, that criminalized the melting and export of pennies (which as of 2013 cost 1.83 cents to produce) and nickels. Violators of these rules can be punished with a fine of up to $10,000, five years imprisonment, or both. The rules were finalized on April 17, 2007. The melt value of a nickel for some time was more than five cents, including nearing over one-and-a-half times its face value in May 2007. Since then, the supply and demand of the coin's composition metals have stabilized. A nickel's melt value fell below its face value from late 2008 through mid-2010, and more recently again from late mid-2012 through the present. In February 2014, it was reported that the Mint was conducting experiments to use copper-plated zinc (the same composition used for the United States 1 cent coin) for the nickel.\n",
"Under Section 10 of the Coinage Act (1971) \"No person shall, except under the authority of a licence granted by the Treasury, melt down or break up any metal coin which is for the time being current in the United Kingdom or which, having been current there, has at any time after 16th May 1969 ceased to be so.\". As the process of creating elongated coins does not require them to be melted nor broken up, however, Section 10 does not apply and coin elongation is legal within the UK with penny press machines.\n",
"On April 17, 2007, a Department of the Treasury regulation went into effect prohibiting the treatment, melting, or mass export of pennies and nickels. Exceptions were allowed for numismatists, jewelry makers, and normal tourism demands. The reason given was that the price of copper was rising to the point where these coins could be melted for their metal content. In 1969, a similar law regarding silver coinage was repealed. Because their silver content frequently exceeds collector value, silver coins are often sold by multiplying their \"face value\" times a benchmark price that floats relative to the spot silver price per ounce. According to American law, US citizens are allowed to melt foreign coinage (e.g., Canadian pennies) for personal or commercial use.\n",
"In the UK, the Coinage Act of 1971, Section 10 states: \"No person shall, except under the authority of a licence granted by the Treasury, melt down or break up any metal coin which is for the time being current in the United Kingdom or which, having been current there, has at any time after 16th May 1969 ceased to be so.\". As the process of creating elongated coins does not require them to be melted nor broken up, however, Section 10 does not apply and coin elongation is legal within the UK with penny press machines a common sight at tourist attractions across the nation.\n",
"When minting coins, especially low denomination coins, there is a risk that the value of metal within a coin is greater than the face value. This leads to the possibility of smelters taking coins and melting them down for the scrap value of the metal. Pre-1992 British pennies were made of 97% copper; but as of 2008, based on the price of copper, the value of a penny from this period is 1.5 new-pence. Modern British pennies are now made of copper-plated steel. For similar reasons, American pennies (cents) were once made of copper alloys, but since 1982 have been made of copper-plated zinc.\n",
"As more counterfeiters began production and caused minters to have to debase their coins to remain in business, the value of copper began to fall. Several laws were passed during this time period, including the prohibiting of debased coins from being considered legal tender. The State of New York prohibited the circulation of copper coins entirely. The State of New Jersey in 1787 declared it would no longer accept any legal tender of other states for any debts. This furthered the decline in copper prices, forcing many minters to shut down, leaving only counterfeiters who produced extremely low quality coins.\n"
] |
why the american corn taste different from middle eastern corn or asian one?
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They differ in species, soil composition, environment, exposure to the sun. These all could effect the taste.
|
[
"BULLET::::- Maize: Maize (\"Indian\" corn), is native to Mesoamerica and Peru, The varieties used in Europe and most of the world are from Central America. The corn grown in Peru is so sweet and unique in the world cause the characteristics it has and has very large grains and is not popular outside of Latin America.\n",
"Sweet corn occurs as a spontaneous mutation in field corn and was grown by several Native American tribes. The Iroquois gave the first recorded sweet corn (called 'Papoon') to European settlers in 1779. It soon became a popular food in the southern and central regions of the United States.\n",
"Choclo, also referred to as Peruvian corn or Cuzco corn (after the capital city of the Inca empire), is a large-kernel variety of field corn from the Andes. It is consumed in parts of Central America and South America, especially in Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and Colombia. As field corn, it is not generally regarded in industrialized societies as desirable for human food without commercial pre-processing. When compared to sweet corn, the kernels are larger and chewier and have a starchy, hefty texture, rather than a sweet taste. The taste and appearance are somewhat similar to hominy.\n",
"Corn played an important role in the heritage of Helotes. The local Native Americans planted corn, actually maize, in the fertile valleys of the area, and feed corn was a major crop grown in the 19th and early 20th centuries. The town name is derived from the Spanish word \"elote\", which can mean \"ear of maize\", \"corncob\", or simply \"corn\", but exactly how the town came to be called Helotes is still a subject of debate.\n",
"Blue corn (also known as Hopi maize, Yoeme Blue, Tarahumara Maiz Azul, and Rio Grande Blue) is several closely related varieties of flint corn grown in Mexico, the Southwestern United States, and the Southeastern United States. It is one of the main types of corn used for the traditional Southern and Central Mexican food known as tlacoyo.\n",
"Corn was eaten by Native American tribes before European settlers arrived in the Americas, and was a prominent source of sustenance for the Gallimore tribe, which occupied areas of the Midwest as far East as what is now Ohio. The Maya ate corn as a staple food crop and ate it off the cob, either roasting or boiling it. Aboriginal Canadians in southern parts of Canada also eat corn.\n",
"European settlers learned recipes and processes for corn dishes from Native Americans, and soon devised their own cornmeal-based variations of European breads made from grains available on that continent. The corn fritter probably was invented in the Southern United States, whose traditional cuisine contains a lot of deep fried foods, none more famous perhaps than Southern fried chicken.\n"
] |
what's the difference between tense, mood, and case?
|
Tense is the time of the action, past, future, happening right now. The tenses give a sense of when an action was completed, or if we expect the action to continue into the foreseeable future. It puts the verbs into a context of when.
Mood adds or removes a certain certainty or uncertainty or more commonly, obligation. We use modal verbs to add a stronger sense of obligation (must, have to) or soften a statement to suggestion (should). We don't really moods in English because we use these modal verbs, if you study Italian then you'll see mood a lot use with different verbs - "essere", to be, changes to "sia", for example, the actual verb "to be" changes the mood of the sentence, in English we add "should" and leave the next verb alone "he should leave".
Cases you'll see a lot in German, which is when the pronoun changes depending on who is doing what to whom. We have them in English too, but not to a greater degree as in German. For example, you don't say "I'll give the bucket to he", you say "I'll give the bucket to him". The possessive is "his bucket" - the cases that we have in English mean that you must change "he" to "him" and "he" to "his" depending on who is doing what to what/with what object. He is 'owning' his bucket".
This is my understanding of it, at least, having taught English for 10 years and studied Italian, German and French.
|
[
"The term \"tense\", then, particularly in less formal contexts, is sometimes used to denote any combination of tense proper, aspect, and mood. As regards English, there are many verb forms and constructions which combine time reference with continuous and/or perfect aspect, and with indicative, subjunctive or conditional mood. Particularly in some English language teaching materials, some or all of these forms can be referred to simply as tenses (see below).\n",
"Tense–aspect–mood (commonly abbreviated ') or tense–modality–aspect (abbreviated as ') is a group of grammatical categories that covers the expression of tense (location in time), aspect (fabric of time – a single block of time, continuous flow of time, or repetitive occurrence), and mood or modality (degree of necessity, obligation, probability, ability). Some authors extend this term as tense–aspect–mood–evidentiality ( in short). In some languages, evidentiality (whether evidence exists for the statement, and if so what kind) and mirativity (surprise) may also be included.\n",
"The tense may be said to be a sort of mixture of present and past. It always implies a strong connection with the present and is used chiefly in conversations, letters, newspapers and TV and radio reports.\n",
"Tenses generally express time relative to the moment of speaking. In some contexts, however, their meaning may be relativized to a point in the past or future which is established in the discourse (the moment being spoken about). This is called \"relative\" (as opposed to \"absolute\") tense. Some languages have different verb forms or constructions which manifest relative tense, such as pluperfect (\"past-in-the-past\") and \"future-in-the-past\".\n",
"In grammar, tense is a category that expresses time reference with reference to the moment of speaking. Tenses are usually manifested by the use of specific forms of verbs, particularly in their conjugation patterns. \n",
"Although originally McTaggart defined tenses as relational qualities, i.e. qualities that events possess by standing in a certain relations to something outside of time, something that does not change its position in time, then today it is popularly believed that he treated tenses as monadic properties. As R. D. Ingthorsson notes, this is probably because later philosophers have independently inferred that this is how McTaggart must have understood tense merely because tenses are normally expressed in ordinary English by non-relational singular predicates \"is past\", \"is present\" and \"is future\".\n",
"Mood is distinct from grammatical tense or grammatical aspect, although the same word patterns are used for expressing more than one of these meanings at the same time in many languages, including English and most other modern Indo-European languages. (See tense–aspect–mood for a discussion of this.)\n"
] |
if peanuts aren't actually nuts why do people with a nut allergy die from them?
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Because peanut allergies are different from nut allergies. I'm allergic to peanuts but not nuts.
|
[
"Peanuts are legumes, not true nuts, but they share with true nuts the risk of causing allergic reactions, even in minute amounts. Pure peanut and nut-derived oils are not usually allergenic (as they do not typically contain the proteinaceous part of the plant), but avoiding them may be safer, as serious peanut and nut allergy is widespread, oil purity cannot be guaranteed, and other hypoallergenic oils are easily substituted.\n",
"Some studies show that regular consumption of peanuts is associated with a lower specific risk of mortality from certain diseases. However, the study designs do not allow cause and effect to be inferred. According to the US Food and Drug Administration, \"Scientific evidence suggests but does not prove that eating 1.5 ounces per day of most nuts (such as peanuts) as part of a diet low in saturated fat and cholesterol may reduce the risk of heart disease.\"\n",
"Because they are relatively inexpensive, peanuts are typically a major ingredient in mixed nuts, although they are viewed as less fancy than other nuts; often \"deluxe mixed nuts\" are advertised as containing no peanuts. \"Alrifai\", a brand in the Middle East, Identifies the expensive nuts as kernels. In 2006, a batch of \"deluxe\" mixed nuts was recalled because peanuts had crept into the mix. The move was not to save face: peanuts are the ingredient of mixed nuts most commonly associated with life-threatening food allergies.\n",
"Some people (0.6% of the United States population) report that they experience allergic reactions to peanut exposure; symptoms are specifically severe for this nut, and can range from watery eyes to anaphylactic shock, which is generally fatal if untreated. Eating a small amount of peanut can cause a reaction. Because of their widespread use in prepared and packaged foods, the avoidance of peanuts can be difficult. The reading of ingredients and warnings on product packaging is necessary to avoid this allergen. Foods that are processed in facilities which also handle peanuts on the same equipment as other foods are required to carry such warnings on their labels. Avoiding cross contamination with peanuts and peanut products, (along with other severe allergens like shellfish) is a promoted and common practice which chefs and restaurants worldwide are becoming aware of.\n",
"Peanuts are considered bad luck. An ambiguous, long-standing superstition against eating peanuts at the race track has dominated Indianapolis dating back to at least the 1940s. Legend says, though unconfirmed, that a crashed car was found with peanut shells in the cockpit. As of 2009, however, peanuts are sold at trackside concessions, and the myth has lost a lot of its following.\n",
"As Bamba is made with peanuts, people allergic to peanuts may be severely affected by it. However early peanut consumption is associated with less prevalence of peanut allergy. In fact, a 2008 study concluded that, due to the extensive consumption of Bamba by infants in Israel, peanut allergy is rare. A control group of Jewish children in the UK had ten times higher rates of allergy; the difference is not accounted for by differences in atopy, social class, genetic background, or peanut allergenicity.\n",
"Some school districts in the United States and elsewhere have banned peanuts. However, the efficacy of the bans in reducing allergic reactions is uncertain. A recent study in Canada has shown that there is no difference in the percentage of accidental exposures occurring in schools prohibiting peanuts than in schools allowing them.\n"
] |
why does my cat retain the ability to bound at 30 mph and jump vertically 5ft if he sleeps all day?
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I assume your cat, like almost every cat, likes to jump up on things and tends to go bat-shit crazy in the middle of the night and run around like a maniac sometimes. This is its exercise.
Compare that to a reasonably fit human that works out regularly - not a gym nut or anything but just a guy who works out like twice a week to stay healthy and fit. He'll probably work out for what, a couple of hours? And that won't be nonstop, it'll be in sets with frequent breaks. So in reality he spends less than 30 minutes actually exercising, and he does that twice a week. So less than an hour per week exercising and he's perfectly fine.
TL:DR You only need to exercise a little to maintain your muscles.
|
[
"During a fall from a high place, a cat can reflexively twist its body and right itself using its acute sense of balance and its flexibility. This is known as the cat's \"righting reflex\". The minimum height required for this to occur in most cats (safely) would be around .\n",
"In addition to the righting reflex, cats have other features that reduce damage from a fall. Their small size, light bone structure, and thick fur decrease their terminal velocity. While falling, a cat spreads out its body to increase drag. An average-sized cat with its limbs extended achieves a terminal velocity of about , while an average-sized man reaches a terminal velocity of about . A 2003 study of feline high-rise syndrome found that cats 'orient [their] limbs horizontally after achieving maximum velocity so that the impact is more evenly distributed throughout the body'.\n",
"BULLET::::- Fearful posture – The cat is lying on its belly or crouching directly on top of its paws. Its entire body may be shaking and very near the ground when standing up. Breathing is also fast, with its legs bent near the surface, and its tail curled and very close to its body when standing on all fours.\n",
"The character is only capable of carrying five items (including the required red extinguisher/oxygen tank and mask) before their weight begins to affect his actions. While carrying five or six items, he is incapable of running or kicking but he will still walk at his normal speed. If he carries seven or more items not only can he not run or kick, his walking speed is drastically reduced.\n",
"He has to survive on tiny scraps of food and bits of water. At one point he has to try and jump to reach a hanging spar of wood away—a leap whose distance seems over away to him. A cat goes after him when he is about tall. He is forced to engage in a victorious battle with a black widow spider that towers over him.\n",
"The righting reflex is the attempt of cats to land on their feet at the completion of a jump or a fall. They can do this more easily than other animals due to their flexible spine, floating collar bone, and loose skin. Cats also use vision and their vestibular apparatus to help tell which way to turn. They then can stretch themselves out and relax their muscles. The righting reflex does not always result in the cat landing on its feet\n",
"BULLET::::- Anxious/ovulating posture – The cat is lying on its belly. The back of the body is more visibly lower than the front part when the cat is standing or moving. Its breathing may be fast, and its legs are tucked under its body. The tail is close to the body and may be curled forward (or close to the body when standing), with the tip of the tail moving up and down (or side to side).\n"
] |
why don't we just use two or more different antibiotics, with different ingredients to kill off 100% of bacteria
|
We do. Antibiotic cocktails are quite common when resistance is suspected. But as /u/sablemint notes, any survivors - and there are likely to be some - then develop resistance more quickly.
|
[
"Antibiotics such as tetracyclines, rifampin, and the aminoglycosides streptomycin and gentamicin are effective against \"Brucella\" bacteria. However, the use of more than one antibiotic is needed for several weeks, because the bacteria incubate within cells.\n",
"Bacterial infections may be treated with antibiotics, which are classified as bacteriocidal if they kill bacteria, or bacteriostatic if they just prevent bacterial growth. There are many types of antibiotics and each class inhibits a process that is different in the pathogen from that found in the host. An example of how antibiotics produce selective toxicity are chloramphenicol and puromycin, which inhibit the bacterial ribosome, but not the structurally different eukaryotic ribosome. Antibiotics are used both in treating human disease and in intensive farming to promote animal growth, where they may be contributing to the rapid development of antibiotic resistance in bacterial populations. Infections can be prevented by antiseptic measures such as sterilising the skin prior to piercing it with the needle of a syringe, and by proper care of indwelling catheters. Surgical and dental instruments are also sterilised to prevent contamination by bacteria. Disinfectants such as bleach are used to kill bacteria or other pathogens on surfaces to prevent contamination and further reduce the risk of infection.\n",
"Bacterial infections may be treated with antibiotics, which are classified as bacteriocidal if they kill bacteria or bacteriostatic if they just prevent bacterial growth. There are many types of antibiotics and each class inhibits a process that is different in the pathogen from that found in the host. For example, the antibiotics chloramphenicol and tetracyclin inhibit the bacterial ribosome but not the structurally different eukaryotic ribosome, so they exhibit selective toxicity. Antibiotics are used both in treating human disease and in intensive farming to promote animal growth. Both uses may be contributing to the rapid development of antibiotic resistance in bacterial populations. Phage therapy can also be used to treat certain bacterial infections.\n",
"The overuse of antibiotics can create antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Antibiotic-resistant bacteria can spontaneously arise when selective pressure to survive results in changes to the DNA sequence of a bacterium allowing that bacterium to survive antibiotic treatments. Because some of the same antibiotics are used to treat fish that are used to treat human disease, pathogenic bacteria causing human disease can also become resistant to antibiotics as a result of treatment of fish with antibiotics. For this reason, the overuse of antibiotics in treatment of fish aquaculture (among other agricultural uses) could create public health issues.\n",
"Despite the wide variety of known antibiotics, less than 1% of antimicrobial agents have medical or commercial value. For example, whereas penicillin has a high therapeutic index as it does not generally affect human cells, this is not so for many antibiotics. Other antibiotics simply lack advantage over those already in use, or have no other practical applications.\n",
"Antibiotics are used in aquaculture to treat diseases caused by bacteria. Sometimes the antibiotics are used to treat diseases, but more commonly antibiotics are used to prevent diseases by treating the water or fish before disease occurs. While this prophylactic method of preventing disease is profitable because it prevents loss and allows fish to grow more quickly, there are several downsides. \n",
"Antibiotics are used in aquaculture to treat diseases caused by bacteria. Sometimes the antibiotics are used to treat diseases, but more commonly antibiotics are used to prevent diseases by treating the water or fish before disease occurs. While this prophylactic method of preventing disease is profitable because it prevents loss and allows fish to grow more quickly, there are several downsides.\n"
] |
how do different sound waves of the same wavelengths carry a different timbre?
|
There is a big difference between 'wavelength' and 'pitch'.
All sounds are made up of many pure sine waves overlaped on top of eachother. A pure sine wave is what you here when you strike a tuning fork.
Pitch means a note, like C# or D. Each note corresponds to a specific wavelength. But again, the sounds you hear in every day life are made of many of these wavelengths mixed together.
Something you perceive as a note with a specific pitch is a mixture dominated by a specific wavelength. But, there is still a whole mix of other wavelengths on top of that. That extra mixture is what makes a C# on a piano sound different than the same C# on a flute.
A sound without a specific pitch, like a crashing wave, has a pretty much even mixture of all wavelengths. This is also know as 'white noise' as analogous to white light.
To carry the analogy further, light you see is a mixture of wavelengths of color. All images are a mixture of wavelengths in different positions just like all sounds are mixtures of wavelengths at different times. This is why a red truck looks different than a red apple; even though they have the same dominate 'tone'.
If you are interested in explinations which are math intensive and outside the scope of eli5, check out [Fourier Transforms](_URL_0_)
tl;dr "two sound waves of the same length" cant carry different sounds, you need a mixture of many different wavelengths.
|
[
"Aside from pitch and loudness, another quality that distinguishes sound stimuli is timbre. Timbre allows us to hear the difference between two instruments that are playing at the same frequency and loudness, for example. When two simple tones are put together they create a complex tone. The simple tones of an instrument are called harmonics or overtones. Timbre is created by putting the harmonics together with the fundamental frequency (a sound's basic pitch). When a complex sound is heard, it causes different parts in the basilar membrane to become simultaneously stimulated and flex. In this way, different timbres can be distinguished.\n",
"Timbre is the tone quality or tone character of a sound, independent of pitch. This helps us distinguish between musical instruments playing the same notes. When hearing multiple sounds, the timbre of each sound will be unchanging (regardless of pitch), and thus we can differentiate between sounds from different sources over time.\n",
"In simple terms, timbre is what makes a particular musical sound have a different sound from another. For instance, it is the difference in sound between a guitar and a piano playing the same note at the same volume. Both instruments can sound equally tuned in relation to each other as they play the same note, and while playing at the same amplitude level each instrument will still sound distinctively with its own unique tone color. Experienced musicians are able to distinguish between different instruments of the same type based on their varied timbres, even if those instruments are playing notes at the same fundamental pitch and loudness.\n",
"The Acoustical Society of America (ASA) Acoustical Terminology definition 12.09 of timbre describes it as \"that attribute of auditory sensation which enables a listener to judge that two nonidentical sounds, similarly presented and having the same loudness and pitch, are dissimilar\", adding, \"Timbre depends primarily upon the frequency spectrum, although it also depends upon the sound pressure and the temporal characteristics of the sound\" .\n",
"A source of sound can have many different frequencies mixed. A Musical tone's timbre is characterized by its harmonic spectrum. Sound in our environment that we refer to as \"noise\" includes many different frequencies. When a sound signal contains a mixture of all audible frequencies, distributed equally over the audio spectrum, it is called white noise.\n",
"In music, timbre ( , also known as tone color or tone quality from psychoacoustics) is the perceived sound quality of a musical note, sound or tone. Timbre distinguishes different types of sound production, such as choir voices and musical instruments, such as string instruments, wind instruments, and percussion instruments. It also enables listeners to distinguish different instruments in the same category (e.g., an oboe and a clarinet, both woodwind instruments). \n",
"Timbre is perceived as the quality of different sounds (e.g. the thud of a fallen rock, the whir of a drill, the tone of a musical instrument or the quality of a voice) and represents the pre-conscious allocation of a sonic identity to a sound (e.g. “it’s an oboe!\"). This identity is based on information gained from frequency transients, noisiness, unsteadiness, perceived pitch and the spread and intensity of overtones in the sound over an extended time frame. The way a sound changes over time (see figure 4) provides most of the information for timbre identification. Even though a small section of the wave form from each instrument looks very similar (see the expanded sections indicated by the orange arrows in figure 4), differences in changes over time between the clarinet and the piano are evident in both loudness and harmonic content. Less noticeable are the different noises heard, such as air hisses for the clarinet and hammer strikes for the piano.\n"
] |
Were torches used in medieval times as much as movies make us believe and what were they made out off?
|
Were torches used as often as we see in movies?
No. Movies generally seem to show torches as the most common light source for medieval people, when in fact rushlights (reeds soaked in animal fat), tallow candles and simple oil lamps seem to have been much more common.
What were torches made of?
Usually a wooden handle (possibly with some metal fittings), some kind of fibre to act as a wick and oil or fat to serve as fuel (apparently some of them used other forms of fuel, like sulphur and pitch, which seems even less practical). The fibre is soaked in the fuel and either wrapped around the handle or stuffed inside, depending on the design.
How functional were they?
Based on modern reconstructions, not very. They are heavier and more difficult to carry than other forms of lighting, they can't be conveniently put down on a flat surface as most alternatives can and the light they produce is very flickery and difficult to see by. The only benefit seems to be that they are fairly easy to make and less prone to being blown out than a rushlight, which is the other simple-to-manufacture medieval light source.
|
[
"Lit torches (burning sticks) were likely the earliest form of incendiary device. They were followed by incendiary arrows, which were used throughout the ancient and medieval periods. The simplest flaming arrows had oil- or resin-soaked tows tied just below the arrowhead and were effective against wooden structures. Both the Assyrians and the Judeans used fire arrows at the siege of Lachish in 701 BC. More sophisticated devices were developed by the Romans which had iron boxes and tubes which were filled with incendiary substances and attached to arrows or spears. These arrows needed to be shot from loose bows, since swift flight extinguished the flame; spears could be launched by hand or throwing machine.\n",
"Torch construction has varied through history depending on the torch's purpose. Torches were usually constructed of a wooden stave with one end wrapped in a material which was soaked in a flammable substance. In ancient Rome some torches were made of sulfur mixed with lime. This meant that the fire would not diminish after being plunged into water. Modern procession torches are made from coarse hessian rolled into a tube and soaked in wax. A wooden handle is usually used, and a cardboard collar is attached to deflect any wax droplets. They are an easy, safe and relatively cheap way to hold a flame aloft in a parade or to provide illumination in any after-dark celebration.\n",
"The flamethrower was a well known device by the 11th century when it was joked that Confucian scholars knew it better than the classics. Both gunpowder and the fierce fire oil were produced under the Arsenals Administration of the Song dynasty. In the early 12th century AD, Kang Yuzhi recorded his memories of military commanders testing out fierce oil fire on a small lakelet. They would spray it about on the opposite bank that represented the enemy camp. The flames would ignite into a sheet of flame, destroying the wooden fortifications, and even killing the water plants, fishes and turtles.In 1126 AD, Li Gang used flamethrowers in an attempt to prevent the Jurchens from crossing the Yellow River. Illustrations and descriptions of mobile flamethrowers on four-wheel push carts were documented in the \"Wujing Zongyao\", written in 1044 AD (its illustration redrawn in 1601 as well).\n",
"Prior to the introduction of gunpowder, fire arrows used mineral oil and sulphur as incendiaries. They were most commonly used by defenders to burn enemy siege engines such as ladders and rams. They were also used create fires in defending cities.\n",
"From the Iron Age forward, until the invention of the friction match (ca. 1830), the use of flint and steel was a common method of firelighting. Percussion fire-starting was prevalent in Europe during ancient times, the Middle Ages and the Viking Age.\n",
"A fire was often used as a weapon when dealing with wooden fortifications. The Byzantine Empire used Greek fire, which contained additives that made it hard to extinguish. Combined with a primitive flamethrower, it proved an effective offensive and defensive weapon.\n",
"Shot and gunpowder for military purposes were made by skilled military tradesmen, who were later called \"firemakers\", who were also required to make fireworks for celebrations of victory or peace. During the Renaissance two European schools of pyrotechnic thought emerged, one in Italy and the other at Nürnberg, Germany. The Italian school of pyrotechnics emphasized elaborate fireworks, the German school stressed scientific advancement. Both schools added significantly to the further development of pyrotechnics and, by the mid-17th century, fireworks were used for entertainment on an unprecedented scale in Europe—being popular even at resorts and public gardens. At the same time some military men were disguising gray in their beards by dusting them with gunpowder, the antiquary John Aubrey noted in his memoranda.\n"
] |
why do monotonous noises (like the sound of an alarm clock) begin to sound like it has two different pitches after hearing it for a while?
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i think that it may be because of our natural tendency to turn repetitive sounds into melodies. So a repetitive sound gets given different pitches by our brains. Its called the speech to song illusion.
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[
"In electronic devices, it shows up as a low-frequency phenomenon, as the higher frequencies are overshadowed by white noise from other sources. In oscillators, however, the low-frequency noise can be mixed up to frequencies close to the carrier, which results in oscillator phase noise.\n",
"Many types of noise exist in cells. First, there is intrinsic noise and extrinsic, or synaptic, noise. Within each category there are two further divisions of noise – voltage noise or temporal noise. Intrinsic voltage noise is due to random changes in the membrane potential of a cell, and intrinsic temporal noise is caused by variations in spike generation timing. The following sections give explanations about the causes of synaptic noise.\n",
"The illusory continuity of tones is the auditory illusion caused when a tone is interrupted for a short time (approximately 50ms or less), during which a narrow band of noise is played. The noise does, however, have to be of a sufficiently high level to effectively mask the gap. Whether the tone is of constant, rising or decreasing pitch, the ear perceives the tone as continuous if the 50ms (or less) discontinuity is masked by noise. Because the human ear is very sensitive to sudden changes, however, it is necessary for the success of the illusion that the amplitude of the tone in the region of the discontinuity not decrease or increase too abruptly.\n",
"Another cause of noise is due to the exocytosis of neurotransmitters from the synaptic terminals that provide input to a given neuron. This occurrence happens in the background while a cell is at resting membrane potential. Since it is happening in the background, the release is not due to a signal, but is random. This unpredictability adds to the synaptic noise level.\n",
"When continuous white noise (with a frequency content below about 2000 Hz) is presented by headphones to the left and right ear of a listener, and given a particular interaural phase relationship between the left and right ear signals, a sensation of pitch (psychophysics) may be observed. Thus, stimulation of either ear alone gives rise to the sensation of white noise only, but stimulation of both ears together produces pitch. Therefore, as a special case of dichotic listening, such a pitch is called dichotic pitch or binaural pitch. Generally, a dichotic pitch is perceived somewhere in the head amidst the noisy sound filling the binaural space. To be more specific, the dichotic pitch is characterized by three perceptual properties: pitch value, timbre, and in-head position (lateralization). Experiments on dichotic pitch were motivated in the context of the study of pitch in general, and of the binaural system in particular, relevant for sound localization and separation of competing sound sources (see cocktail party effect). In the past, various configurations of dichotic pitch were studied and several auditory models were developed. The great challenge for psychophysical and physiological acoustics is to predict both the pitch value and pitch-image position in one model. For more information, references, audio demos etc. see more.\n",
"In signal processing, phase noise is the frequency-domain representation of random fluctuations in the phase of a waveform, corresponding to time-domain deviations from perfect periodicity (\"jitter\"). Generally speaking, radio-frequency engineers speak of the phase noise of an oscillator, whereas digital-system engineers work with the jitter of a clock.\n",
"Neuronal noise or neural noise refers to the random intrinsic electrical fluctuations within neuronal networks. These fluctuations are not associated with encoding a response to internal or external stimuli and can be from one to two orders of magnitude. Most noise commonly occurs below a voltage-threshold that is needed for an action potential to occur, but sometimes it can be present in the form of an action potential; for example, stochastic oscillations in pacemaker neurons in suprachiasmatic nucleus are partially responsible for the organization of circadian rhythms.\n"
] |
how come many fish were able to survive the great k–pg extinction, but pretty much no sea reptiles (mosasaurs, plesiosaurs, etc) were able to?
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It takes a LOT of food and a very balanced ecosystem to keep a giant alpha predator alive. If the food diminishes or the ecosystem shifts, alpha predators die out pretty easily.
|
[
"A wide range of species perished in the K–Pg extinction, the best-known being the non-avian dinosaurs. It also destroyed a plethora of other terrestrial organisms, including some mammals, pterosaurs, birds, lizards, insects, and plants. In the oceans, the K–Pg extinction killed off plesiosaurs and the giant marine lizards (Mosasauridae) and devastated fish, sharks, mollusks (especially ammonites, which became extinct), and many species of plankton. It is estimated that 75% or more of all species on Earth vanished. Yet the extinction also provided evolutionary opportunities: in its wake, many groups underwent remarkable adaptive radiation—sudden and prolific divergence into new forms and species within the disrupted and emptied ecological niches. Mammals in particular diversified in the Paleogene, evolving new forms such as horses, whales, bats, and primates. Birds, fish, and perhaps lizards also radiated.\n",
"BULLET::::- The most specialized and the largest animals are at higher risk in mass extinctions; this may explain why the unspecialized \"L. curvatus\" survived while the larger and more specialized \"L. maccaigi\" perished along with all the other large Permian herbivores and carnivores. Although \"Lystrosaurus\" generally looks adapted to feed on plants similar to \"Dicroidium\", which dominated the Early Triassic, the larger size of \"L. maccaigi\" may have forced it to rely on the larger members of the \"Glossopteris\" flora, which did not survive the end-Permian extinction.\n",
"Following the Permian-Triassic extinction event (also colloquially known as The Great Dying), the decline and disappearance of eugeneodonts and giant nautiloids left an environmental niche empty that many marine reptiles began to fill. \"Guizhouichthyosaurus\" was one of the largest marine vertebrates of the time, whose only predators composed of large macro-predatory Ichthyosaurs (that of which preferred to hunt smaller ichthyosaurs). The rise of the shelled cephalopods (ammonites that survived the Permian-Triassic extinction event, along with the appearance of belemnites) gave ichthyosaurs an abundant food supply with little competition. \"Guizhouichthyosaurus\" and other ichthyosaurs began to adapt to hunting these cephalopods through larger eyes, and thick bodies, to handle the pressures of diving deep to hunt for their prey.\n",
"Habitat destruction, damming of upland rivers, pollution, and in some cases overfishing for food or the pet trade have driven some Cypriniformes to the brink of extinction or even beyond. In particular, Cyprinidae of southwestern North America have been severely affected; a considerable number went entirely extinct after settlement by Europeans. For example, in 1900 the thicktail chub (\"Gila crassicauda\") was the most common freshwater fish found in California; 70 years later, not a single living individual existed.\n",
"BULLET::::- Sheehan and Fastovsky found terrestrial vertebrates to be the primary victims of the end Cretaceous extinction event, with 88% of their biodiversity lost. Freshwater vertebrates only lost 10% of their biodiversity across the boundary and the researchers found this divide in habitat preference to be the single greatest source of variation in survivorship rates among the taxa they studied. They observed that the better survival rates among aquatic tetrapods as opposed to terrestrial ones was consistent with the idea of an extensive period of darkness following an asteroid impact. This is due to aquatic ecosystems being less dependent on primary productivity than terrestrial ones because many aquatic tetrapods would be able to subsist on detritus and scavenged remains until photosynthesis resumed.\n",
"Though they survived the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, many squamate species are now endangered due to habitat loss, hunting and poaching, illegal wildlife trading, alien species being introduced to their habitats (which puts native creatures at risk through competition, disease, and predation), and other anthropogenic causes. Because of this, some squamate species have recently become extinct, with Africa having the most extinct species. However, breeding programs and wildlife parks are trying to save many endangered reptiles from extinction. Zoos, private hobbyists and breeders help educate people about the importance of snakes and lizards.\n",
"There is evidence that supports both of the claims that the extinction of \"P. goliah\" may have been due to climate shifts during the Pleistocene or to human hunting. \"P. goliah\", depending heavily on free-standing water, was more vulnerable to drought. This can explain why the red kangaroo survived the increasing aridity and \"Procoptodon goliah\" did not. However, there is also evidence that suggests that humans could have a significant influence in the extinction of \"P. goliah\". \"P. goliah's\" need for a constant free-standing source of water, plus its height and its common habitat in open shrub lands, made the \"P. goliah\" more noticeable to the human hunters, thus making it vulnerable to humans who were also water-bound like the \"Procoptodon\".\n"
] |
how do bank errors leaving customers with extra money happen?
|
I have this saying: "As long as humans are involved, there will be human error."
Simple as that - someone at the bank done goofed. You are right - banks *do* have incredibly strict controls to prevent errors, but as long as human beings are punching keys and inputting information, there's going to be human error on occasion.
I remember one time a customer called in to say that he noticed he had an extra $50,000 in his account, wondered where it came from. Did some digging around through our systems, and figured it out. A third party had walked into a branch to make a deposit into his friend's account, didn't have the account number handy so the teller looked it up by the account holder's name. Even though it was a fairly uncommon name, our bank had *two* customers with the same name. Guess where the money went?
It was an easy enough fix, and it did not cause any problems with the other customer, but it is still clearly a bank error. Very, very rare (I've seen it maybe twice), but it does happen.
Another more common error I see is "check encoding errors", where someone is manually typing in the information from the checks and types in some digits wrong - such as transposing two numbers, and the money ends up in the wrong account. I see that a few times a year.
Basically, as long as human beings are part of the process of handling the transactions, there will be errors. The error rate is extremely low, but our bank processes several billion individual transactions each day, so a few creep into the system here and there.
> Also- if you did withdraw and use the money completely, how is this against the law?
Well, no, you can't keep it. In the terms and account agreements that you agree to when you open your account, there are disclaimers about bank errors. Pretty much every bank, credit union or financial institution will have a disclaimer about the bank's ability to make corrections, and that you would be responsible for returning any misapplied funds.
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[
"However, the problem is exacerbated by some of the banks themselves for failing to implement any controls which prevent companies or fraudsters taking monies from business and consumer accounts. The problem of cancelled and obsolete direct debits being wrongfully revived or re-implemented is estimated to cost UK consumers £385 million in 2010. For those customers who find out, it takes them on average four months to notice. Although no specific figures were collected it appears a substantial number of people lose considerable amounts of money annually because the obsolete direct debit is neither noticed nor recovered.\n",
"When a bank suffers a sudden rush of withdrawals by depositors, this is called a \"bank run\". Since banks lend out most of the cash they receive in deposits (see fractional-reserve banking), it is difficult for them to quickly pay back all deposits if these are suddenly demanded, so a run renders the bank insolvent, causing customers to lose their deposits, to the extent that they are not covered by deposit insurance. An event in which bank runs are widespread is called a \"systemic banking crisis\" or \"banking panic\".\n",
"Banks are allowed (and usually encouraged) to lend or invest most of the money deposited with them instead of safe-keeping the full amounts (see fractional-reserve banking). If many of a bank's borrowers fail to repay their loans when due, the bank's creditors, including its depositors, risk loss. Because they rely on customer deposits that can be withdrawn on little or no notice, banks in financial trouble are prone to bank runs, where depositors seek to withdraw funds quickly ahead of a possible bank insolvency. Because banking institution failures have the potential to trigger a broad spectrum of harmful events, including economic recessions, policy makers maintain deposit insurance schemes to protect depositors and to give them comfort that their funds are not at risk.\n",
"During the course of every day, each bank executes a large number of transactions, such as payroll, retail and business purchases, credit card payments, etc. Some involve cash (or its equivalent) coming into the bank and others of cash going out. Banks do not have a reliable way of predicting what or how much those transactions will be. At the end of each day banks must reconcile their positions. The bank that finds itself with a surplus of cash would miss out earning interest on the cash, even if it's for only one night. Other banks may find that they had more money going out than coming in, and the bank must borrow cash to cover the shortfall. To meet its liquidity obligations, the bank with the shortfall would borrow from a bank with a surplus in the interbank lending market. Depending on the bank's assessment of the type of shortfall and costs, the bank may take out an overnight loan, the interest rate of which is based on the cash rate, which is set by the Reserve Bank (RBA) every month (currently 1.25%); or else take out a \"short duration loan\", known as \"prime bank paper\", for a term of between one and six months and whose interest rate is called the \"bank bill swap rate\" (BBSW), which is set by the commercial banks.\n",
"When cashier’s checks took weeks to clear the banks, they were often forged in fraud schemes. The recipient of the check would deposit it in their account and withdraw funds under next-day availability, assuming it was legitimate. The bank might not be informed the check was fraudulent until, perhaps, weeks after the customer had withdrawn funds made available by the fraudulent deposit, by which time the customer would be legally liable for the cash already withdrawn.\n",
"This said, not all errors are to the detriment of customers; there have been cases of machines giving out money without debiting the account, or giving out higher value notes as a result of incorrect denomination of banknote being loaded in the money cassettes. The result of receiving too much money may be influenced by the card holder agreement in place between the customer and the bank.\n",
"To prevent these problems, many banks will require people turning in coins to have an account, and will debit the customer's account in the event of a shorted roll. Some banks also have machines to count coins.\n"
] |
why does light/sound propogate as a wave? why not a straight line?
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They both do propagate in a straight line just as a wave in the water does. A sound wave or water wave is a varying pressure, not space. And luckily google gave me the answer [from Reddit](_URL_0_) on what varies in a photon:
> The wave is not the path that the photon takes. The wave is a representation of the electromagnetic field associated with that photon.
|
[
"This two-dimensionality, compared with the apparent four-dimensionality of light, is because light travels in rays (0D at a point in time, 1D over time), while by Huygens–Fresnel principle, a sound wave front can be modeled as spherical waves (2D at a point in time, 3D over time): light moves in a single direction (2D of information), while sound simply expands in every direction. However, light travelling in non-vacuous media may scatter in a similar fashion, and the irreversibility or information lost in the scattering is discernible in the apparent loss of a system dimension.\n",
"Sound propagates in the channel by refraction of sound, which makes sound travel near the depth of slowest speed. If a sound wave propagates away from this horizontal channel, the part of the wave furthest from the channel axis travels faster, so the wave turns back toward the channel axis. As a result, the sound waves trace a path that oscillates across the SOFAR channel axis. This principle is similar to long distance transmission of light in an optical fibre.\n",
"BULLET::::- Sound wave diffraction is the bending of sound waves, as the sound travels around edges of geometric objects. This produces the effect of being able to hear even when the source is blocked by a solid object. The sound waves bend appreciably around the solid object.\n",
"Diffraction can occur with any kind of wave. Ocean waves diffract around jetties and other obstacles. Sound waves can diffract around objects, which is why one can still hear someone calling even when hiding behind a tree.\n",
"The wave theory predicted that light waves could interfere with each other like sound waves (as noted around 1800 by Thomas Young). Young showed by means of a diffraction experiment that light behaved as waves. He also proposed that different colours were caused by different wavelengths of light, and explained colour vision in terms of three-coloured receptors in the eye. Another supporter of the wave theory was Leonhard Euler. He argued in \"Nova theoria lucis et colorum\" (1746) that diffraction could more easily be explained by a wave theory. In 1816 André-Marie Ampère gave Augustin-Jean Fresnel an idea that the polarization of light can be explained by the wave theory if light were a transverse wave.\n",
"In the case of sound waves travelling near the Earth's surface, the waves are diffracted or bent as they traverse by a geometric edge, such as a wall or building. This phenomenon leads to a very important practical effect: that we can hear \"around corners\". Because of the frequencies involved considerable amount of the sound energy (on the order of ten percent) actually travels into this would be sound \"shadow zone\". Visible light exhibits a similar effect, but, due to its much shorter wavelength, only a minute amount of light energy travels around a corner.\n",
"In physics, mathematics, and related fields, a wave is a disturbance of a field in which a physical attribute oscillates repeatedly at each point or propagates from each point to neighboring points, or seems to move through space.\n"
] |
are there gradual forms of depression or is it purely binary?
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As someone who is very depressed, it's gradual. Never binary. You have good days, you have bad days.
|
[
"A half century ago, diagnosed depression was either endogenous (melancholic), considered a biological condition, or reactive (neurotic), a reaction to stressful events. Debate has persisted for most of the 20th century over whether a unitary or binary model of depression is a truer reflection of the syndrome; in the former, there is a continuum of depression ranked only by severity and the result of a \"psychobiological final common pathway\", whereas the latter conceptualizes a distinction between biological and reactive depressive syndromes. The publishing of DSM-III saw the unitarian model gain a more universal acceptance.\n",
"The hopelessness theory of depression proposes that depression is caused by two variables: attribution of negative events to stable and global causes, and other cognitive factors like low self-esteem (Krith, 2014). CSB attributes occurrence of events to stable aspects of the individual that are not controllable. CSB attributions seem likely to cause helplessness, since individuals believe they are powerless to control the characteristics that lead to negative events. On the other hand, BSB has an indeterminate effect under hopelessness theory, since BSB attributes events to behaviors that can be controlled to produce better outcomes. These theories of attributional style and stress and coping have similar predictions to Janoff-Bulman’s BSB/CSB distinction. Depression occurs when individuals feel that they cannot control the future. The CSB/BSB distinction also corresponds to Dweck’s distinction between ability and effort attributions. Effort attributions are when individuals assign success or failure to the hard work and other controllable factors, while ability attributions assign outcomes to internal, stable characteristics, like intelligence. Dweck noted that individuals that believe outcomes are uncontrollable are more likely to be debilitated by setbacks, procrastinate or avoid stressors, and show greater stress responses. In short, theorists believe that the type of cause to which events are attributed is a central factor of effectiveness of blame.\n",
"Evolutionary approaches to depression are attempts by evolutionary psychologists to use the theory of evolution to shed light on the problem of mood disorders. Depression is generally thought of as dysfunction, but it is much more common than schizophrenia or autism, and its prevalence does not increase with age the way dementia and other organic dysfunction commonly does. Some researchers have surmised that the disorder may have evolutionary roots, in the same way that others suggest evolutionary contributions to schizophrenia, sickle cell anemia and other disorders. Psychology and psychiatry have not generally embraced evolutionary explanations for behaviors, and the proposed explanations for the evolution of depression remain controversial.\n",
"Endogenous depression \"(melancholia)\" is an atypical sub-class of the mood disorder, major depressive disorder (clinical depression). It could be caused by genetic and biological factors. Endogenous depression occurs due to the presence of an internal (cognitive, biological) stressor instead of an external (social, environmental) stressor. Endogenous depression includes patients with treatment-resistant, non-psychotic, major depressive disorder, characterized by abnormal behavior of the endogenous opioid system but not the monoaminergic system. Symptoms vary in severity, type, and frequency and can be attributed to cognitive, social, biological, or environmental factors that result in persistent feelings of sadness and distress. Since symptoms are due to a biological phenomenon, prevalence rates tend to be higher in older adults. Due to this fact, biological-focused treatment plans are often used in therapy to ensure the best prognosis.\n",
"As such, depression is seen to represent an adaptive, risk-averse response to the threat of exclusion from social relationships that would have had a critical impact on the survival and reproductive success of our ancestors. Multiple lines of evidence on the mechanisms and phenomenology of depression suggest that mild to moderate (or \"normative\") depressed states preserve an individual's inclusion in key social contexts via three intersecting features: a cognitive sensitivity to social risks and situations (e.g., \"depressive realism\"); it inhibits confident and competitive behaviours that are likely to put the individual at further risk of conflict or exclusion (as indicated by symptoms such as low self-esteem and social withdrawal); and it results in signalling behaviours directed toward significant others to elicit more of their support (e.g., the so-called \"cry for help\"). According to this view, the severe cases of depression captured by clinical diagnoses reflect the maladaptive, dysregulation of this mechanism, which may partly be due to the uncertainty and competitiveness of the modern, globalised world.\n",
"Major depression can strike at virtually any time of life as a function of genetic and developmental pre-disposition in interaction with adverse life-events. Although common in the elderly, over the course of the last century, the average age for a first episode has fallen to ~30 years. However, depressive states (with subtly different characteristics) are now frequently identified in adolescents and even children. The differential diagnosis (and management) of depression in young populations requires considerable care and experience; for example, apparent depression in teenagers may later transpire to represent a prodromal phase of schizophrenia.\n",
"The negative life events that lead to depression are often classified as dependent or independent, with dependent events being those an individual has some control over and independent events being those which are mostly due to unavoidable chance.\n"
] |
why is it that it's possible to shake a cup with a bunch of dice in it to the point that they can all stack on top of each other?
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It's not just being shaken randomly. If you'll note, the predominant motion is a circular swinging. What they're doing is forcing the dice to the edge of the cup and getting them to swirl around. If done right, that forces the dice to assume a vertical stack inside the cup. It takes practice of course, but it's no more magic than any physical trick like that.
|
[
"Each round, each player rolls a \"hand\" of dice under their cup and looks at their hand while keeping it concealed from the other players. The first player begins bidding, announcing any face value and the minimum number of dice that the player believes are showing that value, under all of the cups in the game. Ones are often wild, always counting as the face of the current bid.\n",
"One commonly suggested way to fight tilt is to disregard the outcomes of pots, particularly those that are statistically uncommon. So-called “bad beats,” when one puts a lot of chips in the pot with the best hand and still loses, deserve little thought; they are the product of variance, not bad strategy. This mindset calls for the player to understand poker is a game of decisions and correct play in making the right bets over a long period of time.\n",
"Dice stacking is a performance art, akin to juggling or sleight-of-hand, in which the performer scoops dice off a flat surface with a dice cup and then sets the cup down while moving it in a pattern that stacks the dice into a vertical column via centripetal force and inertia. Various dice arrangements, colors of dice, scooping patterns and props allow for many degrees of complexity and difficulty. Dice stacking is usually performed with canceled casino dice, as their square edges and heavy weight give them an advantage when being stacked.\n",
"Another approach is to \"set\" the dice in a particular orientation, and then throw them in such a manner that they do not tumble randomly. The theory is that given exactly the same throw from exactly the same starting configuration, the dice will tumble in the same way and therefore show the same or similar values every time.\n",
"The cups and balls is a performance of magic with innumerable adaptations. A typical cups and balls routine includes many of the most fundamental effects of magic: the balls can vanish, appear, transpose, reappear and transform. Basic skills, such as misdirection, manual dexterity, sleight of hand, and audience management are also essential to most cups and balls routines. As a result, mastery of the cups and balls is considered by many as the litmus test of a good magician. Magician John Mulholland wrote that Harry Houdini had expressed the opinion that no one could be considered an accomplished magician until he had mastered the cups and balls. Professor Hoffman called the cups and balls \"the groundwork of all legerdemain\".\n",
"Forceful throws will usually spiral somewhat on the way to the target when thrown at long distance, since most cards are not perfectly flat. With a given deck, the bend of the cards are usually similar enough to each other that this spiral is easily predictable, and a practiced magician can hit very small targets even at many yards away. It is also possible to throw a card very flat at lower speeds to get the card to land in or on top of something.\n",
"The classic poker dice game is played with 5 dice and two or more players. Each player has a total of 3 rolls and the ability to hold dice in between rolls. After the three rolls the best hand wins. Neither a \"flush\" nor a \"straight flush\" is a possible hand, due to the lack of suits on the dice.\n"
] |
how come putin has the same power in russia now as a prime minister as he had as a president?
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Vladimir Putin *is* the President of Russia. Has been since 2012. Before that he was Prime Minister. Before *that*, he was President.
It is fairly accepted that he was still running things when he was Prime Minister, though and that the president at the time (Dmitry Medvedev) was merely his puppet.
|
[
"In his first speech after being endorsed, Medvedev announced that, as president, he would appoint Vladimir Putin to the post of prime minister to head the Russian government. Although constitutionally barred from a third consecutive presidential term, such a role would allow Putin to continue as an influential figure in Russian politics. Putin pledged that he would accept the position of prime minister should Medvedev be elected president. Although Putin had pledged not to change the distribution of authority between the president and prime minister, many analysts expected a shift in the center of power from the presidency to the prime minister post when Putin assumed the latter under a Medvedev presidency. Election posters portrayed the pair side-by-side with the slogan \"Together We Win\" (\"\"). Medvedev vowed to work closely with Putin once elected.\n",
"Putin was barred from a third term by the Constitution. First Deputy Prime Minister Dmitry Medvedev was elected his successor. In a power-switching operation on 8 May 2008, only a day after handing the presidency to Medvedev, Putin was appointed Prime Minister of Russia, maintaining his political dominance.\n",
"Putin was barred from a third consecutive term by the Constitution. First Deputy Prime Minister Dmitry Medvedev was elected his successor. In a power-switching operation on 8 May 2008, only a day after handing the presidency to Medvedev, Putin was appointed Prime Minister of Russia, maintaining his political dominance.\n",
"On February 1, 2009, an analytical piece in \"The International Herald Tribune\" said: \"Putin is still considered Russia's paramount leader, but by taking the title of prime minister, he may have deprived himself of a fall-guy-in-waiting. That role traditionally has gone to Russia's prime ministers; Yeltsin repeatedly dismissed his during the 1998 default. So far, Putin has instead made a scapegoat of the United States, saying it was at the heart of Russia's crisis, rather than Moscow's over-reliance on the export of natural resources.\"\n",
"In his first speech since he was endorsed, Medvedev announced that, as president, he would appoint Vladimir Putin to the post of prime minister to head the Russian government. Although constitutionally barred from a third consecutive presidential term, such a role would allow Putin to continue as an influential figure in Russian politics Putin pledged that he would accept the position of prime minister should Medvedev be elected president. Election posters portrayed the pair side-by-side with the slogan \"Together we will win\" (\"\").\n",
"Although the Russian constitution clearly apportions the majority of power to the President, speculation arose over the question of whether it was Medvedev or Prime Minister Vladimir Putin who actually wielded the most power. According to \"The Daily Telegraph\", \"Kremlin-watchers\" note that Medvedev uses the more formal form of 'you' (Вы, 'vy') when addressing Putin, while Putin addresses Medvedev with the less formal 'ty' (ты).\n",
"Putin was barred from a third term by the Constitution. First Deputy Prime Minister Dmitry Medvedev was elected his successor. On 8 May 2008, only a day after handing the presidency to Medvedev, Putin was appointed Prime Minister of Russia, maintaining his political dominance.\n"
] |
What was the military organization, equipment, and tactics of Carthage like during the Punic Wars?
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In large part, the Carthaginian armies during the first Punic War were largely composed of mercenary troops from a variety of different areas under the control of Carthage (think North Africa, Spain and southern Gaul).
During this period, the command was generally along the lines of the Romans - upper class members who could afford the armour and weapons with ~~the King~~ senior general (Roman = consul) in overall command. ~~This changed in the 2nd and subsequent wars when a more professional command structure was instituted (ala Hannibal)~~
In the 2nd Punic War, the makeup of the forces lent more heavily on a formal African contingent made up primarily of heavy infantry spearman - think Greek Phalanx based and you won't be too far off the mark - with Phoenician/Spanish swordsman and then irregulars based around Gaulish troops.
Cavalry were where the Carthaginians had it over the Romans as their javelin equipped Nubians were considered the best in the world at the time.
The general tactics were for the Numidians to ride up to the Roman lines and conduct fast skirmishes to break up the Roman ranks. These were then followed up by the heavy cavalry (mainly Libyan/Phoenician) who drove into the Roman infantry. Into this hole was then marched the heavy spear equipped infantry supported by sword wielding heavy infantry and the lesser equipped lighter Gaulish irregulars.
Elephants also formed a basis for "shock troops" and would generally be used on the flanks and/or on the front with infantry in support.
There is a good book on Scribd that goes into much more detail on the make up of forces during the Punic Wars. You can find it [here](_URL_0_).
|
[
"Carthage's military battled the Greeks over control of the island of Sicily. These encounters influenced the development of the Carthaginians' weapons and tactics, causing Carthage to adopt the Greek-style hoplite soldier fighting in the phalanx formation. However, the Carthaginian war machine faced its biggest challenge in the military of the Roman Republic during the Punic Wars. While Carthage was finally defeated by Rome in 146 BC, its military achieved notable success under the command of Hamilcar Barca and his son Hannibal.\n",
"The military of Carthage was one of the largest military forces in the ancient world. Although Carthage's navy was always its main military force, the army acquired a key role in the spread of Carthaginian power over the native peoples of northern Africa and southern Iberian Peninsula from the 6th century BC and the 3rd century BC. Carthage's military also allowed it to expand into Sardinia and the Balearic Islands. This expansion transformed the military from a body of citizen-soldiers into a multinational force composed primarily of foreign mercenary units.\n",
"Carthage was a Phoenician colony on the coast of Tunisia. Carthaginian culture came into contact with the Greeks through Punic colonies in Sicily and through their widespread Mediterranean trade network. While the Carthaginians retained their Punic culture and language, they did adopt some Hellenistic ways, one of the most prominent of which was their military practices. In 550 BC, Mago I of Carthage began a series of military reforms which included copying the army of Timoleon, Tyrant of Syracuse. The core of Carthage's military was the Greek-style phalanx formed by citizen hoplite spearmen who had been conscripted into service, though their armies also included large numbers of mercenaries. After their defeat in the First Punic War, Carthage hired a Spartan mercenary captain, Xanthippus of Carthage, to reform their military forces. Xanthippus reformed the Carthaginian military along Macedonian army lines.\n",
"BULLET::::- For much of its history, Carthage was in a constant state of struggle with the Greeks on Sicily and the Roman Republic, which led to a series of armed conflicts known as the Sicilian Wars and Punic Wars. They also had to deal with the volatile Berbers, the indigenous inhabitants of the entire area where Carthage was built. In 146 BC, after the third and final Punic War, Carthage was destroyed and then occupied by Roman forces. Nearly all of the other Phoenician city-states and former Carthaginian dependencies fell into Roman hands from then on.\n",
"For much of its history, Carthage was on hostile terms with the Greeks in Sicily and with the Roman Republic; tensions led to a series of armed conflicts known as the Sicilian Wars (–265 BC) and the Punic Wars (264–146 BC) respectively. The city also had to deal with potentially hostile Berbers, the indigenous inhabitants of the area where Carthage was built. In 146 BC, after the third and final Punic War, Roman forces destroyed Carthage then redesigned and occupied the site of the city. Nearly all of the other Phoenician city-states and former Carthaginian dependencies subsequently fell into Roman hands.\n",
"Carthage created its hegemony in part to resist Greek encroachments in the Phoenician sphere of influence. The Phoenicians initially (750–650 BC) did not resist the Greeks, but after the Greeks had reached Iberia sometime later than 638 BC, Carthage emerged as the leader of the Phoenician resistance. During the 6th century BC, mostly under the leadership of the Magonid dynasty, Carthage established an empire which would commercially dominate the western Mediterranean.\n",
"During the mid-3rd century BC, Carthage was a large city located on the coast of modern Tunisia. Founded by the Phoenicians in the mid-9th century BC, it was a powerful thalassocratic city-state with a vast commercial network. Of the great city-states in the western Mediterranean, only Rome rivaled it in power, wealth, and population. While Carthage's navy was the largest in the ancient world at the time, it did not maintain a large, permanent, standing army. Instead, Carthage relied mostly on mercenaries, especially the indigenous Numidians, to fight its wars. These mercenaries were primarily led by officers who were Carthaginian citizens. The Carthaginians were famed for their abilities as sailors, and many Carthaginians from the lower classes served in their navy, which provided them with a stable income and career.\n"
] |
what are you supposed to do when an emergency vehicle passes you on the opposite side of the road?
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If there is a physical obstruction in the median (for example trees, bushes, dirt etc.) then you do not need to do anything but if it is just yellow lines or there is a big enough opening for them to cross onto your side of the road then you should pull over until they pass.
This is so that if for example traffic is heavy on the other side of the road they can cross over to your side or if the street entrance they have to go into would normally be blocked on their side of the road to get where they need to go.
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[
"Depending on local laws, vehicles on the road may be required to yield the right of way to emergency responders who are using their warning devices. For example, in Utah, when an emergency vehicle is on the road while using its warning devices, all cars are required to pull over to the side of the road, stop, and wait for the vehicle to pass before resuming normal driving, unless doing so would cause an accident or if stopped at a red light/stop sign. Even in areas where no such laws exist, many motorists may allow the vehicle to pass as a matter of courtesy.\n",
"In Canada, move over laws require motorists, upon noticing an incoming emergency vehicle (coming from any direction) with sirens or flashing lights operating, to move to the shoulder and stop, until the vehicle has passed the vicinity. This gives emergency vehicles a clear roadway for responding to emergencies, encouraging the fast response of emergency vehicles.\n",
" right-of-way and shall immediately drive to a position parallel to, and as close as possible to, the right-hand edge or curb of the highway clear of any intersection and shall, if necessary to permit the safe passage of the emergency vehicle, stop and remain in such position until the authorized emergency vehicle has passed, unless otherwise directed by a police officer and\n",
"Similar alerting devices are also typically equipped on other emergency vehicles such as fire trucks and ambulances, although police departments often use blue lights to signal drivers to pull over. In all cases, such signals and the laws requiring that other vehicles pull to the shoulder allow the emergency vehicles to pass other traffic safely and efficiently when responding to emergency situations. In the case of a traffic stop, the officer pulls the patrol vehicle behind the subject vehicle as it stops instead of proceeding past as he or she would during other emergency responses.\n",
"In Scotland, where most drivers are accustomed to single-track roads, it is customary for drivers to acknowledge each other with a wave, or flash of headlights at night. Generally in Scotland, if the passing place is to the right-hand side of a vehicle, the driver would never pull in to the passing place to let the other driver pass. Instead the driver would stop just short of the passing place on the road, to leave space for the oncoming vehicle to manoeuvre into the passing place which would be on their left. At night, if a driver were to see an oncoming vehicle in the distance and was reasonably close to a passing place, the driver would flash the headlights which would signal the other car to proceed forward while either the other vehicle reversed back to a passing place, or waited beside a passing place for the other car to arrive. In the United States, it is customary to move the right hand to the top of the steering wheel, palm down, and raise four fingers.\n",
"The Autopilot can detect a potential front or side collision with another vehicle, bicycle or pedestrian within a distance of , if one is found it sounds a warning. Autopilot has automatic emergency braking that detects objects that may hit the car and applies the brakes. The car may also automatically swerve out of the way to prevent fast moving collisions. Autopilot also can automatically adjust the high/low beam headlights as the nighttime lighting changes or if a car is detected in the high beams.\n",
"As a general rule, drivers are expected to avoid a collision with another vehicle and pedestrians, regardless of whether or not the applicable rules of the road allow them to be where they happen to be.\n"
] |
what is a generator in electricity?
|
It's like an *electron pump* that pushes electrons away from one end and toward the other end. This creates a *voltage* (electric pressure) which is then used to power the flow of electricity through wires and other things.
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[
"In electricity generation, a generator is a device that converts motive power (mechanical energy) into electrical power for use in an external circuit. Sources of mechanical energy include steam turbines, gas turbines, water turbines, internal combustion engines, wind turbines and even hand cranks. The first electromagnetic generator, the Faraday disk, was invented in 1831 by British scientist Michael Faraday. Generators provide nearly all of the power for electric power grids.\n",
"An electric generator is a device that converts mechanical energy to electrical energy. A generator forces electrons to flow through an external electrical circuit. It is somewhat analogous to a water pump, which creates a flow of water but does not create the water inside. The source of mechanical energy, the , may be a reciprocating or turbine steam engine, water falling through a turbine or waterwheel, an internal combustion engine, a wind turbine, a hand crank, compressed air or any other source of mechanical energy.\n",
"An electric generator is a machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. An electric generator works based on the principle that whenever conductor cuts the magnetic field, an emf is induced which will cause the current to flow if conductor circuit is closed. Take the working of simple loop Generator as an example.\n",
"An engine-generator or portable generator is the combination of an electrical generator and an engine (prime mover) mounted together to form a single piece of equipment. This combination is also called an \"engine-generator set\" or a \"gen-set\". In many contexts, the engine is taken for granted and the combined unit is simply called a \"generator\".\n",
"Engine-generators are used to provide electrical power in areas where utility (central station) electricity is unavailable, or where electricity is only needed temporarily. Small generators are sometimes used to provide electricity to power tools at construction sites. \n",
"A vibration powered generator is a type of electric generator that converts the kinetic energy from vibration into electrical energy. The vibration may be from sound pressure waves or other ambient sources.\n",
"Hydroelectric power is the generation of electric power from the movement of water. A hydroelectric facility requires a dependable flow of water and a reasonable height for the water to fall, called the head. In a typical installation, water is fed from a reservoir through a pipe into a turbine. The water flowing through the turbine causes a electrical generator to rotate, converting the motion into electrical energy.\n"
] |
why are media companies so obsessive about pirating movies or music online, when just a few years ago people would record movies off of tv or music from the radio and it wasn't a big deal?
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They were making a big deal about it then, that's why they would put in warnings and videos about piracy, but they had to crackdown harder on internet privacy because the ease of it caused piracy numbers to skyrocket creating a bigger problem
|
[
"Rather than destroying film studios, videotape sales became increasingly important to their revenue. The press discussed the VCR \"and the viewing habits it has engendered — the Saturday night trip down to the tape rental store to pick out for a couple of bucks the movie you want to see when you want to see it\". Film studios opened new divisions to produce prerecorded tapes, and by 1985 their sales were about the same as box office revenue; the Associated Press reported that \"because of the VCR, even a bad movie can make money\". Although the VCR received blame for a 25% decline in the summer 1985 box office compared to 1984's, and closing movie theaters, by 1987 it was credited with causing a record-high box office, as videotapes' popularity encouraged consumers' interest in films and watching them in theaters. Cable movie channels worried about VCRs affecting subscriptions, but began to offer more films for owners who wanted to build a home library, even encouraging time shifting by broadcasting the movies during the night so VCRs could record them while their owners slept.\n",
"During the 1980s, audiences began increasingly watching films on their home [[VCR]]s. In the early part of that decade, the [[film studio]]s tried legal action to ban home ownership of VCRs as a violation of [[copyright]], which proved unsuccessful. Eventually, the sale and rental of films on [[home video]] became a significant \"second venue\" for exhibition of films, and an additional source of revenue for the film industries.\n",
"A fall in the cost of consumer video recording technology in the early 1980s meant that amateurs were now free to make their own films at home. In \"Convergence Culture\", Henry Jenkins examines how a fall in the cost of video recording technology led to the rise of amateur films, particularly fan film. Fan films mentioned by Jenkins include \"Kid Wars\", \"The Jedi Who Loved Me\", and \"Boba Fett: Bounty Trail\". While discussing the Star Wars prequels filmmaker George Lucas once referenced mass amateurization by stating \"Some of the special effects that we redid for \"Star Wars\" were done on a Macintosh, on a laptop, in a couple of hours... I could have very easily shot the Young Indy TV series on Hi-8...So you can get a Hi-8 camera for a few thousand bucks, more for the software and the computer for less than $10,000 you have a movie studio.\"\n",
"At the end of the 1990s, some small companies began selling copies of movies, without the violent, indecent or foul language parts, to appeal to the family audience. By 2003, Hollywood reacted against these unauthorized modifications, as it considered them to be a destruction of the filmmakers work, and a violation of the controls an author has over his or her works. Famous directors and producers, such as Steven Spielberg, have publicly criticized this practice in magazines.\n",
"Around the start of the millennium, many first time camera recordings originated from Malaysia, recognizable by the burn-in Malay subtitles. VCDs often appeared 2 to 3 days before the theatrical release. In some cases, they were even available online 3 months before release. Robert Krulwich sees two possibilities as the main reason for such early availability of these illicit recordings. Someone in Hollywood shows movies a couple of days before they show them in America, or some people get prints sent to them from people in the Californian movie business.\n",
"During the 1970s, bands such as Pink Floyd created a lucrative market for the mass production of unofficial recordings with large followings of fans willing to purchase them. In addition, the huge crowds that turned up to these concerts made the effective policing of the audience for the presence of recording equipment virtually impossible. Vast numbers of recordings were issued for profit by bootleg labels.\n",
"In 1989 Sony purchased Columbia Pictures and became owner of its own Hollywood studio. By 1995 more than half of Hollywood's American revenue came from home video compared to less than a quarter from movie theaters. \"Forbes\" wrote in 2001 that the VCR was no longer \"arguably believed to be the death knell of the movie business. Instead it became arguably its savior\" because consumers much preferred buying or renting films to recording their own onto blank tapes.\n"
] |
Were there any devout Christians among the Nazis who participated in the Holocaust? How did they come to terms with the things they had done? How did they justify their actions in front of the altar of God?
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Not sure if this would be considered devout. Josef Tizo was a Catholic priest and also one of the leaders of the Slovaks Peoples Party a Clerical-Fascist party that was installed in power during WW2. It was also founded by another Catholic priest Andrej Hlinka, for which their paramilitary, the Hlinka Guard was named.
The party ruled from 1939-1945, pretty much the duration of the war. And its record is not pretty. The party not only acquiesced to every single Nazi request, but participated enthusiastically. This included the "Final Solution", the party actively used the state to find and deport Slovakia's Jews to the Polish death and concentration camps in 1942. This was on top of variations of the Nuremburg Laws (The Jewish Code as known locally) that had been enacted in 1941.
The leadership of the Catholic church was supportive initially, an apostolic blessing from Pope Pius XII was given to President Tiso after his ascension. They were not so pleased as the antisemitic nature of the clerical-fascist regime took hold. In general, Tiso was supported by large numbers of ordinary Catholic priests and deplored by the bishops and the Vatican itself. Though there are lots of exceptions, such as Bishop Jan Vojtaššák, who thoroughly supported Tiso and the persecution of the Jews.
While opposed by the Church, the Vatican made no effort to excommunicate or restrict Tiso (or his prime minister, also a Catholic priest).
After the war, Tiso would be tracked down and arrested by the American occupying forces and handed over to a judicial tribunal in Czechoslovakia the Americans had organized. This was prior to the takeover by the Communists. Tiso was condemned to death and executed in 1947 for his crimes against Slovakia's citizens, including Jews.
In 1995, the Catholic Church did a good job of offending Jews when Pope John Paul II proposed beautifying previously mentioned Tiso supporter Bishop Jan Vojtaššák for his opposition to the Communist state. Despite that Jan Vojtaššák had not found a persecution of Jews he could not support.
Some Sources:
Dr. Pavol Mest’an, Slovak historian, director of Museum of Jewish Culture of Bratislava
The Vatican, the Catholic Church, the Catholics and the Persecution of the Jews during World War II: The Case of Slovakia in Jews and non-Jews in Eastern Europe by Yeshajahu Jelinek, University of Minnesota, 1974 (at the time, he jumped back to Israel's Hebrew University after his stint in Minnesota)
There is another book specifically on Slovakian Jews was contributed to by Yeshajahu Jelinek, The Tragedy of the Jews of Slovakia: 1938-1945 Slovakia and the Final Solution of the Jewish Question, published in 2002 I have yet to read.
|
[
"During the Holocaust, the Roman Catholic Church played a role in the rescue of hundreds of thousands of Jews from being murdered by the Nazis. Members of the Church, through lobbying of Axis officials, provision of false documents, and the hiding of people in monasteries, convents, schools, among families and the institutions of the Vatican itself, saved hundreds of thousands of Jews. The Israeli diplomat and historian Pinchas Lapide estimated the figure at between 700,000 and 860,000, although the figure is contested.\n",
"The Catholic Church resisted the Holocaust by rejecting the racial ideology underpinning the mass exterminations; making public pronouncements against racial persecutions; and by lobbying officials, providing false documents, and hiding people in monasteries, convents, schools, among families and the institutions of the Vatican itself, leading many leading Jews to offer thanks to the Roman Church at the completion of the war. In every country under German occupation, priests played a major part in rescuing Jews. Catholic historian Michael Phayer wrote that \"Rescuers and perpetrators were but a slight minority of Europe's Catholic population.\"\n",
"By the 1940s fewer Christians were willing to oppose Nazi policy publicly, but many secretly helped save the lives of Jews. There are many sections of Israel's Holocaust Remembrance Museum, Yad Vashem, dedicated to honoring these \"Righteous Among the Nations\".\n",
"\"Six Million Crucifixions\" makes the point that even though not all Christians during the Nazi period were actively antisemitic, most were at a minimum passive bystanders during the persecution and extermination of Jews during the Holocaust. As Father John T. Pawlikowski, Director of the Catholic-Jewish Studies Program at Catholic Theological Union in Chicago stated, \"(Christianity) provided a seedbed—at least for acquiesence during the attacks on Jews.\" Wilensky notes that even though many Christians may have disagreed with extermination as a means of solving the so-called \"Jewish Question\", they were passive bystanders precisely because as inheritors of centuries of anti-Jewish teachings they felt the Jews were guilty of a number of crimes and thus deserving of punishment, or that there was indeed a need to act that way in self-defense against what they perceived to be a Jewish threat. As the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops explained, \"Christian anti-Judaism did lay the groundwork for racial, genocidal anti-semitism by stigmatizing not only Judaism but Jews themselves for opprobrium and contempt.\"\n",
"After World War II historians such as David Kertzer accused the Church of encouraging centuries of antisemitism, and they accused Pope Pius XII of not doing enough to stop Nazi atrocities. Prominent members of the Jewish community, including Golda Meir, Albert Einstein, Moshe Sharett and Rabbi Isaac Herzog contradicted the criticisms and spoke highly of Pius' efforts to protect Jews, while others such as rabbi David G. Dalin noted that \"hundreds of thousands\" of Jews were saved by the Church.\n",
"BULLET::::- To learn about the origins of Christian faith by studying Jewish tradition. A starting point is the shocking realization: that the Nazi Holocaust directed against the Jews was facilitated by a centuries-long negative image of Jews and Judaism, promoted by numerous church leaders.\n",
"In late 2002, information surfaced that members of the church had not stopped the practice of baptizing Jewish Holocaust victims despite directives from the church leadership. Criticism once again arose from Jewish groups. The Los Angeles-based Simon Wiesenthal Center is on record as opposing the vicarious baptism of Holocaust victims. Rabbi Marvin Hier of the center stated, \"If these people did not contact the Mormons themselves, the adage should be: Don't call me, I'll call you. With the greatest of respect to them, we do not think they are the exclusive arbitrators of who is saved.\" Recently, church leaders have agreed to meet with leaders of the \"World Gathering of Jewish Holocaust Survivors\".\n"
] |
many american football players have brain diseases in their old age because they have so many concussions during their career. why don't rugby players, who don't wear helmets, have this problem?
|
Because American Football players wear helmets and protective armor, they regularly crash into each other way more violently than rugby players would, leading to the apparently paradoxical effect that football players' "protection" actually make the sport more dangerous.
In a similar case, the introduction of soft, cushy gloves in boxing has lead to significantly more deaths in boxing matches, since boxers were now able to hit their opponent's head with great force without breaking their own hands.
|
[
"Other organizations continued to publish study results that linked repeated concussions and long-term health problems contrary to reports by the MTBI Committee. A 2003 report by the Center for the Study of Retired Athletes at the University of North Carolina, for example, found a connection between numerous concussions and depression among former professional football players. Further, the Center's follow-up study in 2005 associated both brain impairment and Alzheimer's disease with retired NFL players who had histories of concussions.\n",
"The occurrence of concussions in amateur leagues are less common because of the lower impact intensity. However, concussions suffered at amateur levels can at times be more dangerous then those suffered in the AFL because of the inferior resources possessed and in some cases the coaches are not willing to pull a player out of the game, or rest them if they are suffering from a concussion. A study conducted by the Australian Football Injury Prevention Project (AFIPP) in 2002 showed that out of 301 players (who play for amateur clubs in the Melbourne metropolitan area), 14 suffered from a form of head knock, 7 of which resulted in concussion. 18.9% of players participating in the test suffered from concussion, bearing in mind that the sample size is also small.\n",
"The nature of these injuries are complicated and pose significant rehabilitation challenges. These, symptoms at first technically mild, though significant, head injuries were often overlooked during active playing days, and it has become painfully apparent that following release from the NFL the debilitating effects of TBI have continued. The HPN Neurologic Clinical Treatment Trial Studies have shown significant clinical improvement in Retired NFL Players with the symptoms of Post-Concussion Syndrome, TBI/CTE.\n",
"The MTBI Committee began studying the nature of tackle plays resulting in concussive impacts and developing its own biomechanical analysis of the effect of these forces on the brain. It started publishing study results in 2003 that stated there were no long-term negative health consequences associated with concussions sustained by NFL players. A six-year study by the Committee concluded that, \"Players who are concussed and return to the same game have fewer initial signs and symptoms than those removed from play. Return to play does not involve a significant risk of a second injury either in the same game or during the season.\"\n",
"Many concussions that occur during high school football often go untreated and are not monitored. This is a big concern because repeated trauma to the head, especially injuries with concussion like symptoms, puts a young athlete health at serious risk. A 2013 study by Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center found that, despite knowing the risk of serious injury from continuing to play with a concussion, half of high school football players would still play if they had a headache from an injury sustained on the field. Researchers surveyed 120 high school football players. Of those students, 30 reported having suffered a concussion. More than 90 percent recognized the risk of serious injury if they returned to play too quickly, but more than half of those aware of the risks responded they would \"always or sometimes continue to play with a headache sustained from an injury,\" and only 54 percent indicated they would \"always or sometimes report symptoms of a concussion to their coach.\" Another study found that 15.8% of football players who sustain a concussion severe enough to cause loss of consciousness return to play the same day. Due to the fact that only 42% of high schools have access to athletic training services, there has been a large debate regarding the risks that high school football players face.\n",
"A study in 2018 notes that \"Even a mild head injury, commonly called a concussion, makes veterans more likely to get Parkinson's disease later on in life\" with this being \"the same type of injury suffered by many Americans on the sports field or in a motor vehicle crash each year.\" An earlier study, published in 2012, suggests that playing in the NFL triples the risk of Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease.\n",
"Concussions, a type of traumatic brain injury, are a frequent concern for those playing sports, from children and teenagers to professional athletes. Repeated concussions are a known cause of various neurological disorders, most notably chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE), which in professional athletes has led to premature retirement, erratic behavior and even suicide. Because concussions cannot be seen on X-rays or CT scans, attempts to prevent concussions have been difficult.\n"
] |
When history says "Alexander founded a new city," what is being described here?
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Hi, not discouraging responses here, but fyi there was a fairly lengthy thread on this topic last week that would be worth catching up on - see here
* [In ancient times I've heard that historical figures "built cities" like Alexander did at Bucephala in honor of his horse. How did a ruler in Greco times go about establishing a city? What did that at a minimum constitute?](_URL_3_) featuring /u/ikahjalmr
Also
* [Who populated the cities founded by Alexander the Great?](_URL_1_) featuring /u/Daeres
* [How did Alexander the great build alexandria?](_URL_0_) featuring /u/Docimus
Of possible tangential interest
* [How were cities founded by traveling armies in antiquity?](_URL_2_)
* [There's a legend that Hercules himself founded my city (Cádiz, Spain) 3000 years ago. Can anyone direct me to that legend or tell me something about it?](_URL_4_)
|
[
"The exact quote found in \"Guardians of the Lost Library\", \"The city was founded by Alexander the Great in the fourth century B. C. to be the capital of his empire!\" is a bit ambiguous, meaning either that it was Alexander's direct personal intention or that it was about to happen independently of whatever Alexander had intended.\n",
"Alexander became a prominent founder of the wool and hide business in the New Orleans area, he was also noted in his obituary to have been prominent in the city's German community as well as in the city's business and civic life generally.\n",
"Alexander the Great re-founded the city at a new location beyond the Meles River around 340 BC. Alexander had defeated the Persians in several battles and finally the Emperor Darius III himself at Issus in 333 BC. Old Smyrna on a small hill by the sea was large enough only for a few thousand people. Therefore, the slopes of Mount Pagos (Kadifekale) was chosen for the foundation of the new city, for which Alexander is credited, and this act lay the ground for a resurgence in the city's population.\n",
"Alexander the Great, arrived in Drangiana in November 330BC on his way to Kandahar, and found a well-organized province of the Achaemenid empire. Alexander appointed a new satrap, Arsames, and renamed the capital city as Prophthasia, (\"Anticipation\"), because Alexander had here discovered a conspiracy against his life, organized by his companion Philotas.\n",
"Alexander the Great, who arrived in Drangiana in November 330 BC on his way to Kandahar, found a well-organized province of the Achaemenid empire, ruled by a man named Barsaentes, who was satrap of both Drangiana and Arachosia. Alexander appointed a new satrap, Arsames, and renamed the capital; it became known as Prophthasia, 'Anticipation', because Alexander had here discovered a conspiracy against his life, said to be organized by his companion Philotas. After the death of Alexander, his empire fell apart and his generals divided the countries he had conquered.\n",
"When Alexander the Great died on June 10, 323 BC, he left behind a huge empire which comprised many essentially independent territories. Alexander's empire stretched from his homeland of Macedon itself, along with the Greek city-states that his father had subdued, to Bactria and parts of India in the east. It included parts of the present day Balkans, Anatolia, the Levant, Egypt, Babylonia, and most of the former Persia, except for some lands the Achaemenids formerly held in Central Asia.\n",
"Alexander the Great stopped here in the summer of 330 BCE and it became part of the Seleucid Empire after his death. The Parni tribe took the city around 237 BCE and made it one of the first capitals of their Parthian Empire. It was mentioned as the royal city of the Parthians by a number of classical writers including Strabo, Pliny, and Ptolemy, although the Parthians seemed to have used a number of cities as their \"capital\" at different periods.\n"
] |
Do we have any idea what the relationship between Sumer/Mesopotamia and Egypt was?
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According to [this website](_URL_0_) "There is no mention of the Egyptians in the Sumerian archives, or vice-versa, and there is no direct evidence that they had a noticeable influence on one another, except for their propensity to build giant pyramids and ziggurats. Although on a modern map they appear to be quite close, they seemed to have been completely unaware of each other’s existence. Back then, the world was a much larger place."
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[
"The majority of Sumerian deities belonged to a classification called the \"Anunna\" (“[offspring] of An”), whereas seven deities, including Enlil and Inanna, belonged to a group of “underworld judges\" known as the \"Anunnaki\" (“[offspring] of An” + Ki). During the Third Dynasty of Ur, the Sumerian pantheon was said to include sixty times sixty (3600) deities.\n",
"Egyptologists have often tried to connect the conflict between the two gods with political events early in Egypt's history or prehistory. The cases in which the combatants divide the kingdom, and the frequent association of the paired Horus and Set with the union of Upper and Lower Egypt, suggest that the two deities represent some kind of division within the country. Egyptian tradition and archaeological evidence indicate that Egypt was united at the beginning of its history when an Upper Egyptian kingdom, in the south, conquered Lower Egypt in the north. The Upper Egyptian rulers called themselves \"followers of Horus\", and Horus became the tutelary deity of the unified nation and its kings. Yet Horus and Set cannot be easily equated with the two halves of the country. Both deities had several cult centers in each region, and Horus is often associated with Lower Egypt and Set with Upper Egypt. Other events may have also affected the myth. Before even Upper Egypt had a single ruler, two of its major cities were Nekhen, in the far south, and Nagada, many miles to the north. The rulers of Nekhen, where Horus was the patron deity, are generally believed to have unified Upper Egypt, including Nagada, under their sway. Set was associated with Nagada, so it is possible that the divine conflict dimly reflects an enmity between the cities in the distant past. Much later, at the end of the Second Dynasty (c. 2890–2686 BCE), Pharaoh Seth-Peribsen used the Set animal to writing his serekh name in place of the falcon hieroglyph representing Horus. His successor Khasekhemwy used both Horus and Set in the writing of his serekh. This evidence has prompted conjecture that the Second Dynasty saw a clash between the followers of the Horus king and the worshippers of Set led by Seth-Peribsen. Khasekhemwy's use of the two animal symbols would then represent the reconciliation of the two factions, as does the resolution of the myth.\n",
"Following a brief Sumerian revival with the Third Dynasty of Ur or Neo-Sumerian Empire, Mesopotamia broke up into a number of Akkadian states. Assyria had evolved during the 25th century BC, and asserted itself in the north circa 2100 BC in the Old Assyrian Empire and southern Mesopotamia fragmented into a number of kingdoms, the largest being Isin, Larsa and Eshnunna.\n",
"The most important deities in the Sumerian pantheon were known as the Anunnaki, and included deities known as the \"seven gods who decree\": An, Enlil, Enki, Ninhursag, Nanna, Utu and Inanna. After the conquest of Sumer by Sargon of Akkad, many Sumerian deities were syncretized with East Semitic ones. The goddess Inanna, syncretized with the East Semitic Ishtar, became popular, with temples across Mesopotamia.\n",
"The Third Dynasty of Ur was the last Sumerian dynasty which came to preeminent power in Mesopotamia. It began after several centuries of control by Akkadian and Gutian kings. It controlled the cities of Isin, Larsa and Eshnunna and extended as far north as Upper Mesopotamia. The dynasty corresponded to a Sumerian renaissance following the fall of the First Dynasty of Ur.\n",
"After the Ur III dynasty was destroyed by the Elamites in 2004 BC, a fierce rivalry developed between the city-states of Larsa, more under Elamite than Sumerian influence, and Isin, that was more Amorite (as the Western Semitic nomads were called). Archaeologically, the fall of the Ur III dynasty corresponds to the beginning of the Middle Bronze Age. The Semites ended up prevailing in Mesopotamia by the time of Hammurabi of Babylon, who founded the Babylonian Empire, and the language and name of Sumer gradually passed into the realm of antiquarian scholars. Nevertheless, Sumerian influence on Babylonia, and all subsequent cultures in the region, was undeniably great.\n",
"Inanna has posed a problem for many scholars of ancient Sumer due to the fact that her sphere of power contained more distinct and contradictory aspects than that of any other deity. Two major theories regarding her origins have been proposed. The first explanation holds that Inanna is the result of a syncretism between several previously unrelated Sumerian deities with totally different domains. The second explanation holds that Inanna was originally a Semitic deity who entered the Sumerian pantheon after it was already fully structured, and who took on all the roles that had not yet been assigned to other deities.\n"
] |
if i have an electrical circuit, run a current through it, and then suddenly interrupt the circuit, what happens to the electricity still within the circuit?
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Imagine a channel of water. On one end you pump in water, on the other end you suck water away. Imagine that you suddenly stop doing both. The water briefly builds up due to leftover inertia and then it stops moving.
Same thing in a circuit. The electrons are slowly moving through your circuit. If you interrupt it the electrons stop moving. Electricity is the movement of the electrons in one direction, not the electrons themselves.
The brief buildup also has an equivalent in electricity, inductance in electrical circuits is equivalent to inertia in water flows. So if you take a big coil (lots of inductance) and you suddenly interrupt a current flowing through it you get a pretty damn big spark. That's how spark plugs in your car work.
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[
"All lines and all electrical equipment must be protected against prolonged overcurrent. If the cause of the overcurrent is nearby then automatically that current is interrupted immediately. But if the cause of the overcurrent is outside the local area then a backup provision automatically disconnects all affected circuits after a suitable time delay.\n",
"Circuit-breakers placed at different portions of circuit (in series to the path of current it will affect). If more current than expected goes through the circuit-breaker, the circuit breaker \"opens\" the circuit and stops all current.\n",
"Electrical breakdown or dielectric breakdown is when current flows through an electrical insulator when the voltage applied across it exceeds the breakdown voltage. This results in the insulator becoming electrically conductive. Electrical breakdown may be a momentary event (as in an electrostatic discharge), or may lead to a continuous arc if protective devices fail to interrupt the current in a power circuit.\n",
"Circuit breakers and fuses disconnect when current exceeds a predetermined safe level. However they cannot sense other critical faults, such as unbalanced currents—for example, when a transformer winding contacts ground. By themselves, circuit breakers and fuses cannot distinguish between short circuits and high levels of electrical demand.\n",
"Under short-circuit conditions, the calculated or measured maximum prospective short-circuit current may be many times the normal, rated current of the circuit. When electrical contacts open to interrupt a large current, there is a tendency for an arc to form between the opened contacts, which would allow the current to continue. This condition can create conductive ionized gases and molten or vaporized metal, which can cause further continuation of the arc, or creation of additional short circuits, potentially resulting in the explosion of the circuit breaker and the equipment that it is installed in. Therefore, circuit breakers must incorporate various features to divide and extinguish the arc.\n",
"When the switch is closed at the transmission line's starting end, voltage will not appear instantaneously at the other end. This is caused by the transient behavior of inductor and capacitors that are present in the transmission line. The transmission lines may not have physical inductor and capacitor elements but the effects of inductance and capacitance exists in a line. Therefore, when the switch is closed the voltage will build up gradually over the line conductors. This phenomenon is usually called as the voltage wave is travelling from transmission line's sending end to the other end. And similarly the gradual charging of the capacitances happens due to the associated current wave.\n",
"A circuit breaker is an automatically operated electrical switch designed to protect an electrical circuit from damage caused by excess current from an overload or short circuit. Its basic function is to interrupt current flow after a fault is detected. Unlike a fuse, which operates once and then must be replaced, a circuit breaker can be reset (either manually or automatically) to resume normal operation.\n"
] |
When did nations begin to regularly levy taxes?
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Can you winnow this question down more, whether geographically, temporally or both? It's quite broad, considering that taxation was introduced, disappeared, and reintroduced at varying times as well as varying regions throughout history.
Are you talking about taxation in antiquity? Late medieval European feudal taxation? Or specifically state taxation of the early modern period? Taxation in coin, or taxation in kind?
Please be more specific.
|
[
"The history of taxation in the United States begins with the colonial protest against British taxation policy in the 1760s, leading to the American Revolution. The independent nation collected taxes on imports (\"tariffs\"), whiskey, and (for a while) on glass windows. States and localities collected poll taxes on voters and property taxes on land and commercial buildings. In addition, there were state and federal excise taxes. State and federal inheritance taxes began after 1900, while the states (but not the federal government) began collecting sales taxes in the 1930s. The United States imposed income taxes briefly during the Civil War and the 1890s. In 1913, the 16th Amendment was ratified, permanently legalizing an income tax.\n",
"Prior to the formation of the United Kingdom in 1707, taxation had been levied in the countries that joined to become the UK. For example, in England, King John introduced an export tax on wool in 1203 and King Edward I introduced taxes on wine in 1275. Also in England, a Poor Law tax was established in 1572 to help the deserving poor, and then changed from a local tax to a national tax in 1601. In June 1628, England's Parliament passed the Petition of Right which among other measures, prohibited the use of taxes without its agreement. This prevented the Crown from creating arbitrary taxes and imposing them upon subjects without consultation.\n",
"Before 1914, taxes mainly applied to the wealth (wealth, land, inheritance) or incomes from wealth. The tax burden did not exceed 10%. Many propositions, successively from Doumer, Cavaignac and Waldeck-Rousseau, failed, due to the opposition of the right. It was the Great War which gave the opportunity to create a tax on income, in 1917, thanks to Joseph Caillaux, the minister of Finances. At the same time, the four contributions created in 1790 and 1791 were turned into local taxes, and replaced by the income tax as the main national tax.\n",
"In order to help pay for its war effort in the American Civil War, the United States government imposed its first personal income tax, on August 5, 1861, as part of the Revenue Act of 1861. Tax rates were 3% on income exceeding $600 and less than $10,000, and 5% on income exceeding $10,000. This tax was repealed and replaced by another income tax in the Revenue Act of 1862.\n",
"Fourteenth and fifteenth century popes leveled similar taxes for personal uses as well as for wars against the Ottoman Turks and others. Taxes could be imposed either on the universal church, the clergy of a single country, or even on a group of provinces. Whereas the first crusading taxes were paid directly to crusaders, by the middle of the thirteenth century it became customary to pay the tax directly to kings, princes, or nobles who promised to join the crusade; if the crusade never took place, the money was to be returned to the Apostolic Camera. \n",
"Besides taxes on land and taxes on personal property, this period saw the introduction of taxes on trade. In 1202, King John imposed a custom duty of a fifteenth of the value of all goods imported or exported. It appears, however, that these duties were discontinued in 1206.\n",
"This system of taxation was first devised in the Netherlands in 1624 after a public competition to find a new form of tax. Stamp acts have been enforced in many countries, including Australia, Canada, People's Republic of China, Ireland, India, Malaysia, Israel, the United Kingdom, and the United States of America.\n"
] |
What are those curvy distortions in the air above a hot stove?
|
The index of refraction (how much the speed of light changes through a medium) of a gas depends on its temperature. What you are seeing is light going through regions whose temperature is changing (and possibly also a changing composition, e.g. leaky propane above a bbq). You can see it more clearly with [Schlieren imaging](_URL_0_).
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[
"BULLET::::- Forced air stoves have a fan powered either by a battery, an external source of electricity, or a thermoelectric generator. This fan blows high velocity, low volume jets of air into the combustion chamber, which when optimized results in more complete combustion of the fuel.\n",
"Certain stove designs are, in effect, gasifiers working on the updraft principle: The air passes up through the fuel, which can be a column of rice hulls, and is combusted, then reduced to carbon monoxide by the residual char on the surface. The resulting gas is then burnt by heated secondary air coming up a concentric tube. Such a device behaves very much like a gas stove. This arrangement is also known as a Chinese burner.\n",
"BULLET::::- Gasifier stoves force the gases and smoke that result from incomplete combustion of fuels such as biomass back into the cookstove's flame, where the heat of the flame then continues to combust the particles in the smoke until almost complete combustion has occurred, reducing emissions. Typical gasifier stoves are known as Top Lit Updraft (TLUD) stoves because some fuel is lit on top of the stove, forcing combustible products to pass through the flame front before being emitted into the air.\n",
"Most modern air-tight stoves feature a damper at the stove's outlet that can be closed to force the exhaust through an after burner at the top of the stove, a heated chamber in which the combustion process continues. Some air-tight stoves feature a catalytic converter, a platinum grid placed at the stove outlet to burn remaining fuel that has not been combusted, as gases burn at a much lower temperature in the presence of platinum.\n",
"No fan is needed to circulate air within the stove because there is enough air flow through the basket itself to allow pellets to burn with a flame. Wood pellets can be added on top of the hot pellets with a small metal scoop when needed. They may smolder for a few minutes until they ignite. Readjust the air settings for a safe working temperature.\n",
"Fan systems are necessary for clean, economical performance. The flame produced is concentrated and intense in the small area of the burn pot as a combustion blower introduces air into the bottom of the burn pot, while also forcing exhaust gases into the chimney. While some pellet stoves will be hot to the touch (especially on the viewing window), most manufacturers utilize a series of cast-iron or steel heat exchangers that run along the back and top areas of the visible firebox. With a convection blower, room air is circulated through the heat exchangers and directed into the living space. This method allows for a much higher efficiency than the radiant heat of a hand-fed wood or coal stove, and will in most cases cause the top, sides, and back of the stove to be at most warm to the touch. Along with convection air, an exhaust fan forces air from the firebox through special venting specifically made for pellet fuel. This cycle of circulation is an integral part of the combustion system as well, for the concentrated high temperature flame will quickly overheat the firebox. The possible problems associated with overheating are electrical component failure and flames traveling into the auger tube causing a hopper fire. As safeguards, all pellet stoves are equipped with heat sensors, and sometimes vacuum sensors, enabling the controller to shut down if an unsafe condition is detected. For daily maintenance, an ash vacuum is recommended. These are similar to shop vacs, but are designed for the removal of ash materials. These vacuums are available with a pellet stove kit which enables the cleaning of the interior areas of the stove which improves efficiency.\n",
"Unlike wood stoves, which operate exclusively on a principle of chimney draft, a pellet stove must use specially sealed exhaust pipe to prevent exhaust gases escaping into the living space due to the air pressure produced by a combustion blower. Pellet stoves require certified double-walled venting, normally three or four inches in diameter with a stainless steel interior and galvanized exterior. Because pellet stoves have a forced exhaust system, they have the advantage of not always requiring a vertical rise to vent, although a vertical run to induce some draft is recommended to prevent leakage in the case of a power outage. Like a modern gas appliance, pellet stoves can be vented horizontally through an outside wall and terminated below the roof line, making it an excellent choice for structures without an existing chimney. If an existing chimney is available, manufacturers urge use of a correctly sized stainless steel liner the length of the chimney for proper drafting. Modern building techniques have created tightly sealed homes, forcing many pellet stove manufacturers to recommend their stoves be installed with outside air intake to ensure the stoves will run efficiently and prevent potential negative pressure within the home.\n"
] |
what happens during an internet outage?
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There can be a million reasons ... The chain from you to the data center is: PC -- > LAN -- > Router/Modem -- > Landline/cable/fibre to some more central place (plus converters) -- > Another Router/Modem -- > fatter line to data center -- > [more hardware] -- > interconnection with other ISPs -- > repeat until you reach your destination page.
literally anything in that chain can break or in the case of routers be misconfigured.
|
[
"BULLET::::- On October 22, 2012, a major outage occurred, affecting many sites such as Reddit, Foursquare, Pinterest, and others. The cause was a memory leak bug in an operational data collection agent.\n",
"One way natural disasters impact internet connection is by damaging end sub-networks (subnets), making them unreachable. A study on local networks after Hurricane Katrina found that 26% of subnets within the storm coverage were unreachable. At Hurricane Katrina's peak intensity, almost 35% of networks in Mississippi were without power, while around 14% of Louisiana's networks were disrupted. Of those unreachable subnets, 73% were disrupted for four weeks or longer and 57% were at “network edges where important emergency organizations such as hospitals and government agencies are mostly located”. Extensive infrastructure damage and inaccessible areas were two explanations for the long delay in returning service. The company Cisco has revealed a Network Emergency Response Vehicle (NERV), a truck that makes portable communications possible for emergency responders despite traditional networks being disrupted.\n",
"The AS 7007 incident was a major disruption of the Internet on April 25, 1997, that started with a router operated by autonomous system 7007 (MAI Network Services, although sometimes incorrectly attributed to the Florida Internet Exchange) accidentally leaking a substantial part of its entire route table to the Internet, creating a routing black hole.\n",
"Network congestion or Internet bottleneck generally occurs and is felt by users in homes and businesses. This is what is known as the last mile of transmission, which is when there is not enough bandwidth available for individual users to access the content they want. Everyone is attempting to use the bandwidth at the same time creating an Internet traffic jam.\n",
"Before the website's engine was shut down, users could choose from a list of disasters and the entire internet. Users could type in any URL, select a disaster from a drop-down list, and click \"Go!\". The disasters were divided into six categories, each one containing a variety of different options. Most of the disasters have been made available on the desktop application and the \"Netdisaster-Yourself!\" tool.\n",
"Typically referred to as a ping flood. This attack overloads the victim's internet connection with an amount of ICMP data exceeding the connection's capacity, potentially causing a disconnection from the IRC network. For the duration of the attack, the user's internet connection remains hindered. Technically speaking, this is not an IRC flood, as the attack itself doesn't traverse the IRC network at all, but operates entirely independent of anything but the raw internet connection and its IP protocol (of which ICMP is a subset). Even so, the actual IP address to flood (the address of the victim's connection) is frequently obtained by looking at the victim's user information (e.g. through the /whois or /dns command) on the IRC network.\n",
"If a website or add-on causes a tab to crash in Internet Explorer 8, only that tab is affected. The browser itself remains stable and other tabs remain unaffected, thereby minimizing any disruption to the browsing experience. If a tab unexpectedly closes or crashes it is automatically reloaded with the same content as before the crash.\n"
] |
Why do scientists currently refer to Dark Matter as matter? Isn't it possible that the evidence for Dark Matter may actually be an incomplete understanding of gravity or other forces?
|
> Isn't it possible that the evidence for Dark Matter may actually be an incomplete understanding of gravity or other forces?
Yes, it's possible. Actually several scientists have thought of this and proposed alternate theories aimed to refine gravitation. They are [MOND](_URL_0_) and it's relativistic version, [TeVeS](_URL_2_).
They are good at explaining the galaxy rotation problem. However, MOND cannot explain [gravitational lensing](_URL_1_). TeVes can, but it's not completely consistent with the observations. Particularly, the behavior of the Bullet Cluster pointed out by thiosk is *not compatible with any current modified gravity theories* - quoted from [TeVeS](_URL_2_).
So far Dark Matter is the theory that best explains the observations.
ninja edit: accuracy
|
[
"Although the existence of dark matter is generally accepted by the scientific community, some astrophysicists, intrigued by certain observations which do not fit the dark matter theory, argue for various modifications of the standard laws of general relativity, such as modified Newtonian dynamics, tensor–vector–scalar gravity, or entropic gravity. These models attempt to account for all observations without invoking supplemental non-baryonic matter.\n",
"Indirect evidence for dark matter comes from its gravitational influence on other matter, as no dark matter particles have been observed in laboratories. Many particle physics candidates for dark matter have been proposed, and several projects to detect them directly are underway.\n",
"Dark matter can refer to any substance which interacts predominantly via gravity with visible matter (e.g., stars and planets). Hence in principle it need not be composed of a new type of fundamental particle but could, at least in part, be made up of standard baryonic matter, such as protons or neutrons. However, for the reasons outlined below, most scientists think the dark matter is dominated by a non-baryonic component, which is likely composed of a currently unknown fundamental particle (or similar exotic state).\n",
"Dark matter is postulated in order to account for gravitational effects observed in very large-scale structures (the \"flat\" rotation curves of galaxies; the gravitational lensing of light by galaxy clusters; and enhanced clustering of galaxies) that cannot be accounted for by the quantity of observed matter.\n",
"In astrophysics and cosmology, \"dark matter\" is matter of unknown composition that does not emit or reflect enough electromagnetic radiation to be observed directly, but whose presence can be inferred from gravitational effects on visible matter. Observational evidence of the early universe and the Big Bang theory require that this matter have energy and mass, but is not composed ordinary baryons (protons and neutrons). The commonly accepted view is that most of the dark matter is non-baryonic in nature. As such, it is composed of particles as yet unobserved in the laboratory. Perhaps they are supersymmetric particles, which are not Standard Model particles, but relics formed at very high energies in the early phase of the universe and still floating about.\n",
"Dark matter is one of the significant unsolved problems in modern science. There is considerable evidence from astronomy and cosmology that a significant fraction of the mass of the Universe, and of galaxies is made up of non-luminous material. The nature of dark matter is currently unknown. However a popular hypothesis is that it consists of Weakly Interacting Massive Particles (WIMPs), particles with a large mass, but which only interact with ordinary matter through the weak nuclear force, so the majority that pass through the Earth do not hit a single atom. The aim of dark matter search experiments such as EURECA is to test this hypothesis by searching for WIMP dark matter interactions. WIMPs are predicted to exist by supersymmetry theory, which predicts a wide range of scattering cross-sections down to 10pb, corresponding to an interaction rate of ~1 event per year in a 1 tonne detector. Existing experiments such as CRESST and EDELWEISS have already ruled out higher interaction rates, but EURECA will search down to this lower limit.\n",
"Although dark matter can't be seen directly, its gravitational interactions with familiar matter leave unmistakable evidence for its existence. The universe we see today simply wouldn't look the way it does without dark matter. Approximately five times more abundant than ordinary matter, the nature of dark matter remains one of the biggest mysteries in physics today. In addition to solving the strong CP problem, the axion could provide an answer to the question \"what is dark matter made of?\" The axion is a neutral particle that is extraordinarily weakly interacting and could be produced in the right amount to constitute dark matter. If the dark matter accounting for the bulk of all matter in our universe is axions, ADMX is one of only few experiments able to detect it.\n"
] |
What is an inertial frame of reference?
|
It's a reference frame that's not accelerating. If you're just floating in space, you're in an inertial frame of reference. If you're on an accelerating spaceship, you're not, so you feel like there's something pulling you towards the engines when it's really just the engines accelerating towards you.
|
[
"An inertial reference frame (or inertial frame in short) is a frame in which all the physical laws hold. For instance, in a rotating reference frame, Newton's laws have to be modified because there is an extra Coriolis force (such frame is an example of non-inertial frame). Here, \"rotating\" means \"rotating with respect to some inertial frame\". Therefore, although it is true that a reference frame can always be chosen to be any physical system for convenience, any system has to be eventually described by an inertial frame, directly or indirectly. Finally, one may ask how an inertial frame can be found, and the answer lies in the Newton's laws, at least in Newtonian mechanics: the first law guarantees the existence of an inertial frame while the second and third law are used to examine whether a given reference frame is an inertial one or not.\n",
"An inertial frame of reference in classical physics and special relativity possesses the property that in this frame of reference a body with zero net force acting upon it does not accelerate; that is, such a body is at rest or moving at a constant speed in a straight line. An inertial frame of reference can be defined in analytical terms as a frame of reference that describes time and space homogeneously, isotropically, and in a time-independent manner. Conceptually, the physics of a system in an inertial frame have no causes external to the system. An inertial frame of reference may also be called an inertial reference frame, inertial frame, Galilean reference frame, or inertial space.\n",
"An inertial frame is a frame of reference within which an object interacting with no forces (an idealized situation) appears either at rest or moving uniformly in a straight line. This is the fundamental definition of an inertial frame. These are characterized by the requirement that all forces entering the observer's physical laws originate from identifiable sources caused by fields, such as electro-static field (caused by static electrical charges), electro-magnetic field (caused by moving charges), gravitational field (caused by mass), and so forth.\n",
"A non-inertial reference frame is a frame of reference that is undergoing acceleration with respect to an inertial frame. An accelerometer at rest in a non-inertial frame will, in general, detect a non-zero acceleration. In a curved spacetime all frames are non-inertial. The laws of motion in non-inertial frames do not take the simple form they do in inertial frames, and the laws vary from frame to frame depending on the acceleration. To explain the motion of bodies entirely within the viewpoint of non-inertial reference frames, fictitious forces (also called inertial forces, pseudo-forces and d'Alembert forces) must be introduced to account for the observed motion, such as the Coriolis force or the centrifugal force, as derived from the acceleration of the non-inertial frame.\n",
"There are two types of observational reference frame: inertial and non-inertial. An inertial frame of reference is defined as one in which all laws of physics take on their simplest form. In special relativity these frames are related by Lorentz transformations, which are parametrized by rapidity. In Newtonian mechanics, a more restricted definition requires only that Newton's first law holds true; that is, a Newtonian inertial frame is one in which a free particle travels in a straight line at constant speed, or is at rest. These frames are related by Galilean transformations. These relativistic and Newtonian transformations are expressed in spaces of general dimension in terms of representations of the Poincaré group and of the Galilean group.\n",
"An \"inertial frame\" has an inertial reference vector to a fixed point in the spacetime continuum. For example, suppose I place an object on a horizontal line and extend the line upwards. The line originates at an point x at the center of vertical symmetry in the plane perpendicular to the horizontal plane (and the line continues downwards to the bottom of the vertical line) at x = -X where x is the horizontal line velocity on my line.\n",
"A proper reference frame in the theory of relativity is a particular form of accelerated reference frame, that is, a reference frame in which an accelerated observer can be considered as being at rest. It can describe phenomena in curved spacetime, as well as in \"flat\" Minkowski spacetime in which the spacetime curvature caused by the energy-momentum tensor can be disregarded. Since this article considers only flat spacetime—and uses the definition that special relativity is the theory of flat spacetime while general relativity is a theory of gravitation in terms of curved spacetime—it is consequently concerned with accelerated frames in special relativity. (For the representation of accelerations in inertial frames, see the article Acceleration (special relativity), where concepts such as three-acceleration, four-acceleration, proper acceleration, hyperbolic motion etc. are defined and related to each other.)\n"
] |
Looking at maps of Yugoslavia, its clear that large parts of Serbia, Croatia and Bosnia had ethnic majorities from one of the other nations. Did this cause problems before the 90's? Were there any attempts to change the internal borders?
|
The only real evidence I can find of any internal attempts to change borders prior to the late 80s/ early 90s was the Nazi and Fascist Italy attempting to "persuade" Croatia to become independent, to push for more autonomy so to speak.
When Yugoslavia as a whole was invaded by Axis powers in 1941, Croatia was given independence from Yugoslavia by the Nazis, who then encouraged the Croatians to participate in the killing of Serbs within its borders (these killings seem to be more motivated by religious rivalries as opposed to nationalist or ethnic motives).
It was throughout this war that the Chetniks (Royalists determined to see the re-establishment of a monarchy) and the Partisans (communists) fought for control of Yugoslavia from the Axis powers (led by Nazi Germany). During this war, Josip Broz Tito distinguished himself when he led the Partisans to victory over both the Axis powers and the Chetniks. He had a dedicated following, dedicated enough that when the war came to an end, it was decided that the exiled monarch (King Peter II, the last King of Yugoslavia) would stay in exile.
Tito also received aid from the Soviets during this war, and the Soviets also helped him set up the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in 1945. I'm harping on about Tito here because of the defining role he played in keeping Yugoslavia together during his reign as President.
Tito modeled his secret police on the Soviet KGB, they acted in a manner similar to the KGB, often extrajudicially and almost always omnipresent. Tito used his secret police to crack down on any feelings of nationalism, purging any and all growth of nationalism. The suppression of nationalistic feelings and an odd mix of deference and repression is what held Yugoslavia together during Tito's reign.
Tito allowed all ethnic groups to speak their own language. Eg; Croatians could speak Croatian and Serbians could speak Serbian and so on. However, in relation to Albanians, Tito took an incredibly harsh stance, arresting and imprisoning many Albanians for expressing their ethnic identity. According to Matas, almost half of the political prisoners in Yugoslavia were Albanians. This is significant because Matas also asserts that Yugoslavia had more political prisoners outside the USSR than the rest of Europe combined.
I may have gone on a bit long about the role of Tito but that's because he was instrumental in keeping Yugoslavia together. When he died in 1980, the Presidency became decentralised and the country was held together by the ideological force of Communism. It was when communism collapsed in 1989 (with the Fall of the Berlin Wall etc.) that Yugoslavia lost its unifying factor and ethnic tensions began to rise.
Edit: In my studies on this, I haven't found any evidence of attempts to change internal borders during Tito's rule
Resources:
Matas, David (1994). No More: The Battle Against Human Rights Violations. ISBN 1-55002-221-0.
Finlan, Alastair (2004). The Collapse of Yugoslavia 1991–1999. New York, USA: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4728-1027-4.
Corbel, Josef (1951). Tito's Communism. Denver, Colorado: The University of Denver Press.
|
[
"Within Yugoslavia, separating Croatia and Slovenia from the rest of Yugoslavia is an invisible line of previous conquests of the region. Croatia and Slovenia to the northwest were conquered by Catholics or Protestants, and benefited from European history; the Renaissance, French Revolution, Industrial Revolution and are more inclined towards democracy. The remaining Yugoslavian territory was conquered by the Ottoman or Tsarists empires; are Orthodox or Muslims, are less economically advanced and are less inclined toward democracy.\n",
"Yugoslavia was soon partitioned. Some Yugoslav territory was annexed by its Axis neighbors, Hungary, Bulgaria and Italy. The Italians also occupied Montenegro with the intention of setting up a vassal state, and the borders of this territory included most of the Sandžak. The Germans engineered and supported the creation of the \"Ustaše\"-led puppet state, the Independent State of Croatia (, NDH), which roughly comprised most of the pre-war Banovina Croatia, along with rest of present-day Bosnia and Herzegovina and some adjacent territory. The Italians, Hungarians and Bulgarians occupied other parts of Yugoslavian territory.\n",
"The establishment of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in 1929, however, brought the redrawing of administrative regions into banates that purposely avoided all historical and ethnic lines, removing any trace of a Bosnian entity. Serbo-Croat tensions over the structuring of the Yugoslav state continued, with the concept of a separate Bosnian division receiving little or no consideration. The famous Cvetković-Maček agreement that created the Croatian banate in 1939 encouraged what was essentially a partition of Bosnia between Croatia and Serbia. However, outside political circumstances forced Yugoslav politicians to shift their attention to the rising threat posed by Adolf Hitler's Nazi Germany. Following a period that saw attempts at appeasement, the joining of the Tripartite Pact, and a coup d'état, Yugoslavia was finally invaded by Germany on 6 April 1941.\n",
"In the 1970s the leadership of the separate territories within Yugoslavia protected only territorial interests at the expense of other territories. In Croatia, there was almost a split within the territory between Serbs and Croats so any political decision would kindle unrest, and tensions could cross the territories adjacent; Bosnia and Herzegovina. Within Bosnia there was no group who had a majority; Muslim, Serb, Croat, and Yugoslav were all there so the leadership could not advance here either. Political organizations were not able to deal successfully with such diverse nationalism. Within the territories the leadership could not compromise. To do so would create a winner in one ethnic group and a loser in another, raising the possibility of a serious conflict. This strengthened the political stance promoting ethnic identities. This caused intense and divided political leadership within Yugoslavia.\n",
"From 1945, Yugoslavia was governed as a federal socialist state comprising six newly created republics – Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro and Macedonia. The current border between Serbia and Croatia was defined in 1945 by a Yugoslav federal government commission which assigned areas with a Serb majority to the Socialist Republic of Serbia and those with a Croat majority to the Socialist Republic of Croatia. Nevertheless, a sizable Serb minority remained within the latter.\n",
"The establishment of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in 1929, however, brought the redrawing of administrative regions into banates or \"banovinas\" that purposely avoided all historical and ethnic lines, removing any trace of a Bosnian entity. Serbo-Croat tensions over the structuring of the Yugoslav state continued, with the concept of a separate Bosnian division receiving little or no consideration.\n",
"Amid rising ethnic tensions between Croats and Serbs in the 1930s, an autonomous state within Yugoslavia, called the Banovina of Croatia was peacefully negotiated in the Yugoslav parliament in the Cvetković–Maček Agreement of 1939. Croatia was united into a single territorial unit and was provided territories of parts of present-day Vojvodina, and both Posavina and southern parts of present-day Bosnia and Herzegovina.\n"
] |
Tesseract 4th dimension
|
The square doesn't have to be within the other cube. When you see a tesseract drawn... What you're looking at is a 2 dimensional representation of a 3 dimensional representation of a 4 dimensional shape. If you were to build one out of matchsticks and view it front on at the correct angle, you'd start to get the illusion of two cubes occupying the same space (that's the reason for one cube being smaller for fake perspective).
But as I said it doesn't have to be inside. If you draw a square, and draw a smaller square within it, then connect the corners... You end up with a 2d representation of a cube. At the same time... The second smaller square does not have to be within the bounds of the first square... It can be offset for a different perspective.
|
[
"A tesseract is an example of a four-dimensional object. Whereas outside mathematics the use of the term \"dimension\" is as in: \"A tesseract \"has four dimensions\"\", mathematicians usually express this as: \"The tesseract \"has dimension 4\"\", or: \"The dimension of the tesseract \"is\" 4\".\n",
"The term 'tesseract' is used for the three-dimensional net of the four-dimensional hypercube rather than the hypercube itself. It is a metaphor for the characters' inability to understand the causes behind the events which shape their lives: they can only visualize the superficial world they inhabit.\n",
"In geometry, the tesseract is the four-dimensional analogue of the cube; the tesseract is to the cube as the cube is to the square. Just as the surface of the cube consists of six square faces, the hypersurface of the tesseract consists of eight cubical cells. The tesseract is one of the six convex regular 4-polytopes.\n",
"The tesseract (four-dimensional hypercube) has eight cubes as its facets, and just as the cube can be unfolded into a hexomino, the tesseract can be unfolded into an octacube. One unfolding, in particular, mimics the well-known unfolding of a cube into a Latin cross: it consists of four cubes stacked one on top of each other, with another four cubes attached to the exposed square faces of the second-from-top cube of the stack, to form a three-dimensional double cross shape. Salvador Dalí used this shape in his 1954 painting \"Crucifixion (Corpus Hypercubus)\" and it is described in Robert A. Heinlein's 1940 short story \"And He Built a Crooked House\". In honor of Dalí, this octacube has been called the \"Dalí cross\". It can tile space.\n",
"The tesseract is also called an eight-cell, C, (regular) octachoron, octahedroid, cubic prism, and tetracube. It is the four-dimensional hypercube, or 4-cube as a part of the dimensional family of hypercubes or measure polytopes. Coxeter labels it the formula_1 polytope.\n",
"Hinton's advocacy of the tesseract as a means to perceive higher dimensions spawned a long lineage of science fiction, fantasy, and spiritual works that similarly refer to the tesseract as a way to understand—or even access—higher dimensions, including Charles Leadbeater's \"Clairvoyance\" (1899), Claude Bragdon's \"A Primer of Higher Space\" (1913), Algernon Blackwood's \"Victim of Higher Space\" (1914), H. P. Lovecraft's \"The Shadow Out of Time\" (1935), Robert Heinlein's \"—And He Built a Crooked House—\" (1941), Madeleine L'Engle's \"A Wrinkle in Time\" (1962), and Christopher Nolan's film \"Interstellar\" (2014).\n",
"In geometry, the cantitruncated tesseract or great rhombated tesseract is a uniform 4-polytope (or uniform 4-dimensional polytope) that is bounded by 56 cells: 8 truncated cuboctahedra, 16 truncated tetrahedra, and 32 triangular prisms.\n"
] |
why do instruments sound different if sound is just vibrating air?
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It all has to do with what they call timbre.
Different instruments may be capable of playing the same note or pitch, but they all do it differently. Not only is the pitch (or frequency of the note) being sounded, but also other frequencies get sounded, too. These might be overtones, or multiples of the intended frequency, or other non-multiple frequencies. Which additional frequencies are sounded, and their relative strengths compared to the pitch frequency, color the overall sound. That is the instrument’s timbre.
The timbre is a function of many properties of the instrument. An instrument that creates sound through cavity resonance, like a clarinet, will excite different frequencies than an instrument that creates sound through vibrating a string, like an electric guitar. And then different models of the same instrument can excite different frequencies through the use of different materials, or different playing skills, or slight changes in design, etc.
Hope this helps!
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[
"Pitched musical instruments are often based on an acoustic resonator such as a string or a column of air, which oscillates at numerous modes simultaneously. At the frequencies of each vibrating mode, waves travel in both directions along the string or air column, reinforcing and canceling each other to form standing waves. Interaction with the surrounding air causes audible sound waves, which travel away from the instrument. Because of the typical spacing of the resonances, these frequencies are mostly limited to integer multiples, or harmonics, of the lowest frequency, and such multiples form the harmonic series (see harmonic series (mathematics)).\n",
"Musical instruments like bells and xylophones, called Idiophones, are played such that their relatively stiff, non-trivial mass is excited to vibration by means of a blow. This contrasts with violins, flutes, or drums, where the vibrating medium is a light, supple string, column of air, or membrane. The overtones of the inharmonic series produced by such instruments may differ greatly from that of the rest of the orchestra, and the consonance or dissonance of the harmonic intervals as well .\n",
"Any vibrating thing produces vibrations at a number of frequencies above the fundamental pitch. These are called overtones. When the overtones are integer multiples (e.g., 2×, 3× ... 6× ... ) of the fundamental frequency (called harmonics), then - neglecting damping - the oscillation is periodic—i.e., it vibrates exactly the same way over and over. Humans seem to enjoy the sound of periodic oscillations. For this reason, many musical instruments, including pianos, are designed to produce nearly periodic oscillations, that is, to have overtones as close as possible to the harmonics of the fundamental tone.\n",
"Many pitched acoustic instruments are designed to have partials that are close to being whole-number ratios with very low inharmonicity; therefore, in music theory, and in instrument design, it is convenient, although not strictly accurate, to speak of the partials in those instruments' sounds as \"harmonics\", even though they may have some degree of inharmonicity. The piano, one of the most important instruments of western tradition, contains a certain degree of inharmonicity among the frequencies generated by each string. Other pitched instruments, especially certain percussion instruments, such as marimba, vibraphone, tubular bells, timpani, and singing bowls contain mostly inharmonic partials, yet may give the ear a good sense of pitch because of a few strong partials that resemble harmonics. Unpitched, or indefinite-pitched instruments, such as cymbals and tam-tams make sounds (produce spectra) that are rich in inharmonic partials and may give no impression of implying any particular pitch.\n",
"Acoustic instruments can be split into six groups: string instruments, wind instruments, percussion, other instruments, ensemble instruments, and unclassified instruments. String instruments have a tightly stretched string, that, when set in motion creates energy at (almost) harmonically related frequencies. Wind instruments are in the shape of a pipe and energy is supplied as an air stream into the pipe. Percussion instruments make sound when they are struck, as with a hand or a stick.\n",
"For example, some percussion instruments (such as the marimba and timpani) produce an obvious fundamental pitch and can therefore play melody and serve harmonic functions in music. Other instruments (such as crash cymbals and snare drums) produce sounds with such complex overtones and a wide range of prominent frequencies that no pitch is discernible.\n",
"Most acoustic instruments emit complex tones containing many individual partials (component simple tones or sinusoidal waves), but the untrained human ear typically does not perceive those partials as separate phenomena. Rather, a musical note is perceived as one sound, the quality or timbre of that sound being a result of the relative strengths of the individual partials. Many acoustic oscillators, such as the human voice or a bowed violin string, produce complex tones that are more or less periodic, and thus are composed of partials that are near matches to integer multiples of the fundamental frequency and therefore resemble the ideal harmonics and are called \"harmonic partials\" or simply \"harmonics\" for convenience (although it's not strictly accurate to call a partial a harmonic, the first being real and the second being ideal).\n"
] |
there are people who claim that drinking beer gives them a "happy-go-lucky" drunk, but drinking whiskey or liquor makes them a "mean" drunk. what could cause this?
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It's mostly due to accelerated drunkenness. 1 shot of 80 proof liquor is roughly equivalent to 1 beer. So taking a shot is like drinking a whole beer in a matter of seconds. Even if you sip liquor, most people will end up drinking it faster if you are out with the boyz. So people that claim that a certain liquor makes them act a certain way probably just got drunk faster than they expected.
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[
"There is a lack of medical consensus about whether moderate consumption of beer, wine, or distilled spirits has a stronger association with heart disease. Studies suggest that each is effective, with none having a clear advantage. Most researchers now believe that the most important ingredient is the alcohol itself.\n",
"However, the most striking feature of \"Beer Bad\" is the twin moral: Beer and casual sex are bad. In a BBC interview, Petrie states: \"Well, very young people get unlimited access to alcohol and become horrible! We all do it — or most of us do it — and live to regret it, and we wanted to explore that.\"\n",
"In January 2009, Gluck made a series of contentions on the nature of beer drinkers in the \"Word of Mouth\" pages of \"The Guardian\", in an article asserting the rising numbers of wine drinkers in Britain, stating that \"beer is only drunk by losers and sadsacks, unsexy people who care nothing for their minds or their bodies,\" and, \"are also terrible lovers, awful husbands, and untidy flatmates\". The statements drew prompt responses from beer writers Roger Protz and Melissa Cole, with Gluck challenged by Cole to appear at a beer and food pairing event.\n",
"Alcohol is the main active ingredient of wine, beer and distilled spirits. Drinking small quantities of alcohol (less than one drink in women and two in men per day) is associated with a decreased risk of heart disease, stroke, diabetes mellitus, and early death. Drinking more than this amount, however, increases the risk of heart disease, high blood pressure, atrial fibrillation, and stroke. The risk is greater in younger people due to binge drinking, which may result in violence or accidents. About 3.3 million deaths (5.9% of all global deaths) are believed to be due to alcohol each year. Alcoholism reduces a person's life expectancy by around ten years and alcohol use is the third leading cause of early death in the United States. Even moderate alcohol consumption increases cancer risk in individuals. No professional medical association recommends that people who are non-drinkers should start drinking wine. Another long-term effect of alcohol usage, when also used with tobacco products, is alcohol acting as a solvent, which allows harmful chemicals in tobacco to get inside the cells that line the digestive tract. Alcohol slows these cells' healing ability to repair the damage to their DNA caused by the harmful chemicals in tobacco. Alcohol contributes to cancer through this process.\n",
"Evidence showed that there was a high amount of alcohol consumption by young people usually in the weekend and public holiday as they might drink when hanging with friends or having a party (Arensman et al., 2016). Young people who drank at an earlier age might also make them drink regularly and more in the future (Departments of Public Health, 2001). \n",
"It is also common for offenders to use drinking as a coping mechanism, not necessarily for social or enjoyment reasons, when they are antisocial in nature and have a father with a history of alcoholism. Offenders who begin drinking at an earlier age for thrills and \"fun\" are more likely to be antisocial later in their lives. The majority of the sample, 72%, came from what is considered more \"normal\" circumstances. This group was older when they began drinking, came from families without a history of alcoholism, were relatively well-behaved as children, were not as physically and emotionally affected by alcohol when compared with the rest of the study, and had the less emotional complications, such as anxiety and depression. The smaller portion of the sample, 28%, comes from what is generally considered less than desirable circumstances, or \"not normal\". They tended to start drinking heavily earlier in life and \"exhibited more premorbid risk factors, had a more severe substance abuse and psychosocial impairment.\"\n",
"Alcohol is a depressant, which in low doses causes euphoria, reduces anxiety, and improves sociability. In higher doses, it causes drunkenness, stupor, unconsciousness, or death. Long-term use can lead to alcohol abuse, cancer, physical dependence, and alcoholism. Alcohol is one of the most widely used recreational drugs in the world, with about 33% of people being current drinkers. , women on average drink 0.7 drinks and males 1.7 drinks a day. In 2015, among Americans, 86% of adults had consumed alcohol at some point, 70% had drunk it in the last year, and 56% in the last month. Alcoholic drinks are typically divided into three classes—beers, wines, and spirits—and typically their alcohol content is between 3% and 50%.\n"
] |
If the population of rome was so large in its early history, why is there so little written down?
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Why are you equating size of settlement with presence of surviving written literature? The two are in no way correlated. We have a plethora of sources from democratic Athens, including tragedy, comedy, history, and philosophy, and that city was absolutely tiny compared to Rome as far as population. We have only scraps from her contemporary equals in population--Corinth, Miletus, Syracuse, for instance.
Meanwhile, Carthage was one of the biggest cities in the Mediterranean in the Hellenistic period and barely a word of written literature survives from there. Throw in Gadir (Cadiz) as well. Or Tyre, or Sidon. The list of what survives today has more to do with subject matter, tastes, and the accident of preservation.
There were plenty of texts being written in the early Roman period. Livy drew upon the now-lost works of Quintius Fabius Pictor (3rd century) and Lucius Calpurnius Piso Frugi. Ennius and Naevius both wrote epic poems on Roman subjects, only fragments of which survive. Plautus and Terrence are well-preserved examples of early Roman comedy, but they were just two of many poets who were producing for the stage at the time.
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[
"The size of the population of Rome at the time also needs to be considered. In its early days, Rome was still a city-state of only regional significance, and its territory did not stretch beyond 50 km (30 mi) from the city. Cornell notes that the estimates of the population of Rome in the late 6th century BC, based on the size of its territory range between 25,000 and 50,000, and thinks that the more likely figure is 25,000-40,000. The seminal work by Fraccaro gives a pool of military manpower of 9,000 men of military age (aged between 17 and 47), which would require a minimum population of 30,000.\n",
"Archaeological evidence shows that in the 5th century BC, there was an economic downturn. That would have precluded considerable population growth. The territory of Rome had increased by 75% by the early 4th century, but the bulk of the increase was caused by the recent conquest of the city of Veii and her territory, and its population did not have Roman citizenship, a requirement to serve in the Roman army. Such considerations make it unlikely that the size of the population of Roman citizens would have been large enough to provide a military pool of 24,000 or more soldiers at the time of the Battle of the Allia.\n",
"The population of the city of Rome peaked at possibly more than one million people from the late 1st century to the 3rd century CE and thereafter declined by 400 CE to 700,000-800,000, between 400,000 and 500,000 in 452, and thereafter to a population estimated at only 100,000 in 500 CE, declining still further thereafter in the Middle Ages. Due to its \"decreasing population, smaller army, and more land to feed its population,\" Rome did not need many of its watermills, storehouses, bakeries, and port and transportation facilities. Writing in the early 6th century, Cassiodorus noted the large decrease in the population and the number of watermills. \"The vast numbers of the Roman people in old time are evidenced by the extensive Provinces from which their food supply was drawn ...and the enormous multitude of mills, which could only have been made for use, not for ornament.\"\n",
"At one point it is estimated that the Roman Empire had a population of 56.8 million people and an estimated one million or more in Rome alone (a population that was not matched in size in Europe until London in the 19th century). With such a large population increase, coupled with an enhancement of exuberant lifestyles and a high standard of living for the urbanized communities of the Roman world, resource consumption became exponentially extensive.\n",
"Until recently the population of Ephesus in Roman times was estimated to number up to 225,000 people by Broughton. More recent scholarship regards these estimates as unrealistic. Such a large estimate would require population densities seen in only a few ancient cities, or extensive settlement outside the city walls. This would have been impossible at Ephesus because of the mountain ranges, coastline and quarries which surrounded the city.\n",
"The population of the city of Rome declined precipitously during the 5th, the last century of the Western Roman Empire, and 6th centuries AD. It is unknown when the Cura Annonae ended. It may have persisted into the 6th century.\n",
"Rome went from a population of 800,000 in the beginning of the period to a population of 30,000 by the end of the period, the most precipitous drop coming with the breaking of the aqueducts during the Gothic War. A similar though less marked decline in urban population occurred later in Constantinople, which was gaining population until the outbreak of plague in 541. In Europe there was also a general decline in urban populations. As a whole, the period of late antiquity was accompanied by an overall population decline in almost all Europe, and a reversion to more of a subsistence economy. Long-distance markets disappeared, and there was a reversion to a greater degree of local production and consumption, rather than webs of commerce and specialized production.\n"
] |
why isn't the data on a black box saved 'in the cloud'?
|
Some of the newer devices can upload data, but it's a recent development that hasn't yet spread to every airline in every territory.
It's a lot of data to push, if you don't have a good connection. Many planes just don't have that sort of bandwidth.
|
[
"For Backblaze B2 Cloud Storage, data is stored in Backblaze Storage Pods and Vaults using Reed-Solomon erasure coding. Encryption is handled entirely by the user and client software used to manage the stored data, making it immune to government subpoena or data breach and protecting the data during transfer and ultimate storage in Backblaze's data centers.\n",
"Useful data may become dark data after it becomes irrelevant, as it is not processed fast enough. This is called \"perishable insights\" in \"live flowing data\". For example, if the geolocation of a customer is known to a business, the business can make offer based on the location, however if this data is not processed immediately, it may be irrelevant in the future. According to IBM, about 60 percent of data loses its value immediately. Not analysing data immediately and letting it go 'dark' can lead to significant losses for an organisation in terms of not identifying fraud, for example, fast enough and then only addressing the issue when it is too late.\n",
"BULLET::::- Cloud storage is a rich resource for both hackers and national security agencies. Because the cloud holds data from many different users and organizations, hackers see it as a very valuable target.\n",
"As a result, data from Cloudflare customers was leaked out and went to any other Cloudflare customers that happened to be in the server's memory on that particular moment. Some of this data was cached by search engines.\n",
"Cloud storage has become pervasive as many new web and mobile applications choose it as a common way to store binary data. As the storage back-end to many popular applications like Smugmug and Dropbox, AWS S3 has grown to massive scale, citing over 2-trillion objects stored in April 2013. Two months later, Microsoft claimed that they stored even more objects in Azure at 8.5 trillion. By April 2014, Azure claimed over 20-trillion objects stored. Windows Azure Storage manages Blobs (user files), Tables (structured storage), and Queues (message delivery) and counts them all as objects.\n",
"Cloud computing poses privacy concerns because the service provider can access the data that is on the cloud at any time. It could accidentally or deliberately alter or even delete information. This becomes a major concern as these service providers employ administrators, which can leave room for potential unwanted disclosure of information on the cloud.\n",
"All Folio Cloud data is saved in data centers in Europe, where European standards for security, reliability and data protection apply. Cloud data is kept permanently synchronized in two mirrored data centers in Austria so that a fail over is possible at any time. A backup of data is constantly maintained in a third data center. Further data center locations are being integrated in Germany and Switzerland and in future users will be able to decide at which data center location their data is stored.\n"
] |
if there are over 7 billion people in the world & only a limited number of features on the face (eyes, nose, chin, etc.)that can determine how a person looks, why is it that almost everyone looks different?
|
There may be a limited number of features on human face, but there is a near infinite number of tiny changes you can make to them.
Subtle changes in size, shape, and position of each of the individual features all add up to give everyone their own unique look.
Recognizing faces is immensely important for non-verbal human communication, as well as being able to identify friends and family, and therefore the human brain evolved to be very, very good at facial recognition.
|
[
"Judgments made by others are greatly influenced by facial appearance from multiple cues. There is a wealth of information that people gather simply from a person's face in the blink of an eye, such as gender, emotion, physical attractiveness, competence, threat level and trustworthiness. One of the most highly developed skills that humans have is facial perception. The face is one of the greatest representations of a person. A person's face allows others to gain information about that person, which is helpful when it comes to social interaction. The fusiform face area of the human brain plays a large role in face perception and recognition; however it does not provide useful information for processing emotion recognition, emotional tone, shared attention, impulsive activation of person knowledge and trait implications based on facial appearance.\n",
"Faces contain secondary sex characteristics that make male and female faces readily distinguishable, including the shape of the forehead, nose, lips, cheeks, chin, and jawline; the features in the upper third of the face seem to be the most important, but subtle changes in the lips can have a strong effect.\n",
"Chernoff faces, invented by Herman Chernoff in 1973, display multivariate data in the shape of a human face. The individual parts, such as eyes, ears, mouth and nose represent values of the variables by their shape, size, placement and orientation. The idea behind using faces is that humans easily recognize faces and notice small changes without difficulty. Chernoff faces handle each variable differently. Because the features of the faces vary in perceived importance, the way in which variables are mapped to the features should be carefully chosen (e.g. eye size and eyebrow-slant have been found to carry significant weight).\n",
"For humans, the front of the head (the face) is the main distinguishing feature between different people due to its easily discernible features, such as eye and hair colors, shapes of the sensory organs, and the wrinkles. Humans easily differentiate between faces because of the brain's predisposition toward facial recognition. When observing a relatively unfamiliar species, all faces seem nearly identical. Human infants are biologically programmed to recognize subtle differences in anthropomorphic facial features.\n",
"The proportions and expressions of the human face are important to identify origin, emotional tendencies, health qualities, and some social information. From birth, faces are important in the individual's social interaction. Face perceptions are very complex as the recognition of facial expressions involves extensive and diverse areas in the brain. Sometimes, damaged parts of the brain can cause specific impairments in understanding faces or prosopagnosia.\n",
"The face is the feature which best distinguishes a person. Specialized regions of the human brain, such as the fusiform face area (FFA), enable facial recognition; when these are damaged, it may be impossible to recognize faces even of intimate family members. The pattern of specific organs, such as the eyes, or of parts of them, is used in biometric identification to uniquely identify individuals.\n",
"Although society tries to train people not to judge others based on their physical traits, as social perceivers, we cannot help but be influenced by others' hair, skin color, height, weight, style of clothes, pitch in voice, etc., when making a first impression. People have the tendency to judge others by associating certain facial features with specific personality types. For example, studies indicate that people are perceived as stronger, more assertive, and competent if they have small eyes, low eyebrows, an angular chin, wrinkled skin, and a small forehead. People tend to associate baby-faced people with impotence and harmlessness.\n"
] |
when big movie producers send out movies to be reviewed by critics, shouldn't it be easy to catch who uploaded the dvdscr?
|
It's a decent idea.
Amazon tried to do something simillar for their e-book sale, they thought of placing 1-2 random spelling mistakes in each one, to see who uploaded something at a torrent tracker. But eventually they abandoned the plan.
I'm not answering your question though :(
|
[
"By clicking on the name of critics closest to your film tastes, you get a list of the movies they've seen that you haven't; in order from their highest rated films, down to the lowest rated. This method allows critics to not only use recommendations for what movies to go see, also what movies to avoid seeing.\n",
"A number of websites allow Internet users to submit movie reviews and aggregate them into an average. Community-driven review sites have allowed the common movie goer to express their opinion on films. Many of these sites allow users to rate films on a 0 to 10 scale, while some rely on the star rating system of 1–5, 0–5 or 0–4 stars. The votes are then culled into an overall rating and ranking for any particular film. Some of these community driven review sites include Reviewer, Movie Attractions, Flixster, FilmCrave, Flickchart and Everyone's a Critic. Rotten Tomatoes and Metacritic aggregate both scores from accredited critics and those submitted by users.\n",
"All movies shown in theatres were first viewed by the Malawi Censorship Board. Content considered unsuitable – particularly nudity or political content – was edited. Mail was also monitored by the Censorship Board. Some overseas mail was opened, read, and sometimes edited. Videotapes had to be sent to the Censorship Board to be viewed by censors. Once edited, the movie was given a sticker stating that it was now suitable for viewing, and sent back to the owner. Telephone calls were monitored and disconnected if the conversation was politically critical. Items to be sold in bookstores were also edited. Pages, or parts of pages, were cut out or blacked out of magazines such as \"Newsweek\" and \"Time\".\n",
"Each movie information page at Movie Tome included cast, crew, synopsis, notes, quotes, goofs, links, and a forum for discussion of the movie. There was also the ability to rate a movie from 1 to 10, the average vote being displayed on the left side of the guide, as well a link to reviews for the movie. Titles were added by users, and an individual user could request data manager status for titles he/she was interested in preserving from error or vandalism. The majority of titles on the site were of recent vintage, however, with a wide smattering of pre-2000 titles, largely American.\n",
"Film critics working for newspapers, magazines, broadcast media, and online publications, mainly review new releases, although also review older films. An important task for these reviews is to inform readers on whether or not they would want to see the film. A film review will typically explain the premise of the film before discussing its merits. The verdict is often summarised with a form of rating. Numerous rating systems exist, such as 5- or 4-star scales, academic-style grades and pictograms (such as in the \"San Francisco Chronicle\").\n",
"\"The Movies Online\" was the online portal for those who wished to release their movies to other gamers. As well as its own section on the general Lionhead forums, TMO allowed players to upload their own movies to the Internet for others to review and criticize. Reviews allowed users to rate movies from 1 to 5 stars, as well as leave a comment. When uploading a movie, the player could place the movie into one of five different categories: Romance, Action, Comedy, Horror, and Sci-Fi. This translated into Virtual Credits (VCs), a form of virtual currency that was used to buy new props, costumes, and sets, and to advertise online movies.\n",
"In the course of the years simultaneous release approaches have gained both praise, with Mark Cuban claiming movies should simultaneously be made available on all media allowing viewers to choose whether to see it at home or at the theater, and disapproval, with director M. Night Shyamalan claiming it could potentially destroy the \"magic\" of moviegoing.\n"
] |
why are fruits that can be grown on the east coast so much more expensive to purchase than produce in california?
|
/u/friend1949 explained why the shipping costs don't add significantly to the price, but that doesn't explain why the east coast produce is *more* expensive.
Part of the answer is that the farms on the east coast are smaller, and don't have the economies of scale. But also locally grown produce is *perceived* as being better, thus allowing stores to charge more. It *is* better in many cases, but the perception is what's important and that applies across the board. Two well known examples of being better are fresh picked strawberries and tomatoes. (I think it was Garrison Keillor who described the pink, flavorless, mass-produced tomatoes as "strip mined.")
Apples, which you mentioned, are more interesting because they have names attached to their varieties, some of which are well-known trademarks, valuable as such. Most of the Oregon apples that I see on the east coast are Red Delicious - consistent, predictable, with a long shelf life, and a slightly sweet but bland flavor. Kids are very happy with them, but all it took was one trip to a Pennsylvania apple orchard during apple season to show me how boring they are.
Compare that to Honeycrisp, a more recent variety that's both patented and trademarked by the University of Minnesota. (According to Wikipedia, the patent has expired in the US, and the trademark may be at risk.) It's usually sweeter than the better known varieties, has a bit more flavor, and decent shelf life. For whatever reason, their marketing has been successful and it commands a premium (often a dollar per pound more in the stores I frequent compared to other north east varieties).
I also tried some Sweet Tango apples this year. This is a newer variety, also from U. Minn, and descended from the Honeycrisp. But, in spite of having much smaller supplies, it was cheaper than the Honeycrisp. Why? Because it's not as well known. Maybe someday it will be.
|
[
"Compared to other states, California has a large agriculture industry (including fruit, vegetables, dairy, and wine production), but at less than 2% of the GDP, it makes a relatively minor direct contribution to the state's overall economy. The total economic contribution is likely more than double this value (see below). Airborne exports of perishable fruits and vegetables amounted to approximately $579 million in 2007. By way of comparison, California exported more agricultural products by air that year than 23 other states did by all modes of transport. California agriculture is dependent on undocumented labor.\n",
"Even today, California is well known for the abundance and many varieties of fruit trees that are cultivated throughout the state. The only fruits indigenous to the region, however, consisted of wild berries or grew on small bushes. Spanish missionaries brought fruit seeds over from Europe, many of which had been introduced to the Old World from Asia following earlier expeditions to the continent; orange, grape, apple, peach, pear, and fig seeds were among the most prolific of the imports.\n",
"California is a large contributor to the agriculture business in the United States, growing much of the nation's fruit and vegetables. Settlers coming west over the Sierra Nevadas brought with them their own seeds and saplings in covered wagons, especially to areas north of Sacramento. Very few of these young apple trees would have been of cider making provenance, however their introduction was crucial to intensifying agricultural production in what would become the western United States, contributing to the variety of citrus fruit, grapes, figs, and olives that Spanish settlers had begun in Southern California in the 1700s. New varieties of apples better adapted to the cool and rainy climate slowly were developed, most notably by breeders like Albert Etter and Luther Burbank. During World War II, California often produced the bulk of apples for consumption by troops using just one cultivar: Gravenstein, brought to California by Russian settlers in the 19th century. much of the production was centered around Sonoma and the trees were cut down to make way for vineyards in the subsequent decades.\n",
"In 1998, the U.S. state of California had the second-highest amount of specialty and gourmet foods of all U.S. states. This has been attributed as possible due a diverse variety of unique fruits and vegetables that can be grown in Southern California. Another possibility for the high quantity and diversity of specialty foods in California is that food innovations often occur in the state, as has occurred in other sectors such as health food and organic produce.\n",
"The Californian avocado industry produces approximately 95% of the avocados grown in the United States, and approximately 10% of total global production. From this production, nearly all fruit is consumed within the U.S., very little is exported out of the country. Pest importance has risen significantly over recent years, as production struggles to keep up with rising demand. Costs from integrated pest management may soon outweigh the returns from small scale orchards.\n",
"Over recent decades, fresh fruit also emerged as regional export item, when the Copiapó and Huasco valleys joined Chile’s fruit-growing boom. They enjoy a comparative advantage because, thanks to the sunny climate, fruit ripens earlier than in the rest of the country and reaches northern hemisphere markets first.\n",
"Produce plays an important role in California cuisine. California encompasses many diverse climates and therefore is able to grow many types of produce. Additionally, California's Central Valley contains some of the most fertile soil in the world. California is the number one U.S. producer of many common fruits and vegetables, including broccoli, spinach, tomatoes and avocados, amongst others. A health-conscious culture also contributes to the popularity of fresh produce. Fruit festivals, such as the National Orange Show Festival in San Bernardino County, are common throughout the state.\n"
] |
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